The Valley Gate of Ephraim, The Old gate The House of the Governor The Upper City The Tower Meah e Sheep gat the Kidron The Tower Hananeel The Fish gate The Temple The East gate The Horse gate The City of David The Water gate rley of The Valley gate Hinno o m Siloam The Dung gate The Fountain gate The Mount of Olives JERUSALEM in the time of the Kings and Nehemiah The Encyclopædia britannica 10PITI The University of Michigan Libraries 1817 TES SCIENTIA VERITA THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION 07 9) 9 99 19 9) 9) 99 FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ) 9) edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. ten 1777–1784. eighteen 1788–1797. twenty 1801-1810. twenty 1815-1817. twenty 1823-1824. twenty-one 1830-1842. twenty-two 1853–1860. twenty-five 1875—1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. رو 99 ELEVENTH 99 THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XV ITALY to KYSHTYM NEW YORK THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY 1911 GLRF Storago tilbrony fotenido 5 IES lois V.is Copyright, in the Unlted States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. ani 1 : Lib. Sei trf to stg 5.82 Transfer to Reference 6.19-91: . INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. 1 A. A. M. A. B. D. A. C. S. { { { Kauffmann, Angelica. A. D. A. E. S. A. F. P. Au A. G. A. Go.* { Konisperdollinck. A. G. D. ARTHUR ANTHONY MACDONELL, M.A., PA.D. Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. Keeper of the Indian Institute. Fellow of Balliol College: Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Kalidasa. A Vedic Grammar; A History of Sanskrit Literature; Vedic Mythology; &c. REV. ANDREW B. DAVIDSON, D.D. See the biographical article: DAVIDSON, A. B. Job (in part). ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. Keats (in part). See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. See the biographical article: Dobson, H. AUSTIN. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. { Kinorhyncha. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- Jewel, John. 1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892; Arnold prizeman, 1898. hor of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate; Juvenile Offenders (in part). Secrets of ihe Prison House; &c. REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.S.(Canada), F.R.Hist.S. Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. Joly de Lotbinière. Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada. Rev. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D. Kassites, See the biographical article: Sayce, A. H. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. (Karun; Kerman; General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. Khorasan; Kishm. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. Jewelry, Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c. AGNES MARY CLERKE. See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. ALFRED OGLE MASKELL, F.S.A. Superintendent of the Picture Galleries, Indian and Colonia! Exhibition, 1887. Ivory. Cantor Lecturer, 1906. Founder and first editor of the Downside Review. Author of Ivories; &c. PT. 01.,2.321. sr Jabiru; Jacamar; Jaçana; 5.Do it is the Jackdaw; Jay; Kakapo; ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. CHE! Bet reistimet? See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. 3,33,en Kestrel; Killdeer; King- Bird; Kingfisher; Kinglet; ALEXANDER TAYLOR INNES, M.A., LL.D. "site :') | Kite; Kiwi; Knot. V122 Scotch advocate. Author of John Knox; Law of Creeds in Scotland; Studies in Knox, John. s. Scottish History; &c. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. A. H. S. A. H.-S. A. H. Sm. A. M. C. { Kepler. A. MI. A. N. A. T. I. { 05 گریز V vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES { Jonson, Ben. { A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, Jacobitos. 1900. A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., D.Litt. See the biographical article: WARD, A. W. B. F. S. B.-P. MAJOR BADEN F. S. BADEN-POWELL, F.R.A.S., F.R.MET.S. Inventor of man-lifting kites. Formerly President of Aeronautical Society. Author Kite-flying (in part). of Ballooning as a Sport; War in Practice; &c. B. W. B. REV. BENJAMIN WISNER BACON, A.M., D.D., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale University. Formerly James, Epistle of; Director of American School of Archaeology, Jerusalem. Author of The Fourth Jude, The General Epistle of. Gospel in Research and Debate; The Founding of the Church; &c. C. D. G. REV. CHRISTIAN DAVID GINSBURG, LL.D. See the biographical article: GINSBURG, C. D. C. EI. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Kashgar (in part); Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Khazars (in part); Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for Khiva (in part). German East Africa, 1900-1904. C. E. D. B. C. E. D. BLACK. Formerly Clerk for Geographical Records, India Office, London. C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member John XXI.; Jullus II. of the American Historical Association. { Kabbalah (in part). { Kashgar (in part). { {Job (in part). C. H. T.* C. J. J. C. J. L. C. L. K. { C. Mi, C. M. W. { C. R. B. CRAWFORD HOWELL Tox. See the biographical article: Toy, CRAWFORD HOWELL. CHARLES JASPER JOLY, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (1864-1906). Royal Astronomer of Ireland, and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the Uni- versity of Dublin, 1897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Secretary of the Kaleidoscope. Royal Irish Academy. SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.). Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's College, London.” Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894. Kabir. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., F.S.A. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor Kempe. of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni. | Karageorge; potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of. St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902- | Karajich. 1903 SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896-1902. Jerusalem (in part). Served under General Gordon in the Sudan, 1874-1875. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography: { Jordanus. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908, Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. CASPAR STANLEY CLARK. Kashi (in part). Assistant in Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. CECIL WEATHERLY. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Knighthood: Orders of. SIR CHARLES William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836–1907). Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Jerusalem (in part); Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General Jordan (in parl); of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti tó Kharloum; Life of Kūrdistan (in part). Lord Clive; &c. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Cxford. Jebeil; Jordan (in part); Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 Karamania; and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905: Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Kharput; Konia. Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 18 DAVID HANNAY. Junius; Kanaris; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Keith, Viscount; Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. Keppel, Viscount. EDWARD BRECK, M.A., Ph.D. Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times. Kite-flying (in part). Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia ; &c. C. S. C. C. We. C. W. W. D. G. A. D. H. BB. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vü E. Br. { E. F. S. E. G. E. Gr. E. He. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Jordanes (in part). Fellow and Tutor of Merton College Craven Scholar, 1895. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of Japan: Art (in port) Council , Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects; Joint-editor Korin, Ogata; of Bell's Cathedral " Series. Kyosai, Sho-Fu. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. Jacobsen, Jens Peter; See the biographical article: Gosse, EDMUND. Kalewala; Kyd, Thomas. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. Ithaca. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. Kenya; Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical Society, London. Kilimanjaro. SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, BART., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). &c. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian lyrcae; at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. Kashubes. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des {Kavadh. Alterthums; Geschichte des alten Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme. EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Joints: Diseases and Injuries; Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery in the Universities of Cambridge, Kidney Diseases (in part). Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. Rev. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. ) E. H. B. Geography: { Italy: Geography (in part). E. H. M. Ed. M. E. 0. E. Tn. Author of the English Black Monks ojos? Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. { Jesuits (in part). F. By. F. C. C. F. G. M. B. {Kent, Kingdom ol. F. G. P. F. L. L. F. LI. G. F. R. C. Fr. Sy. CAPTAIN FRANK BRINKLEY, R.A. Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Tokyo. Correspondent of The Times in Japan. Editor of the Japan Mail. Formerly Professor of Mathematics at Japan. Imperial Engineering College, Tokyo. Author of Japan; &c. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Jacobite Church. Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myih, Magic and Morals; &c. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Joints: Anatomy. Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. LADY LUGARD. Kano; See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. Katagum. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology. Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial Karnak. German Archaeological Institute. FRANK R. CANA. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. FRIEDRICH SCHWALLY. Professor of Semitic Philology in the University of Giessen. FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., Ph.D. Formerly Teaching Fellow of Nebraska State University, and Scholar and Fellow Jefferson, Thomas. of Harvard University. Member of American Historical Association. BARON FRIEDRICH VON HÜGEL. Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic Society. Author s John: The Apostle; of The Mystical Element of Religion; &c. John, Gospel of She FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. Jade; Jargoon; President of the Geologists' Association, 1887–1889. Jasper; Kaolin. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.LITT. Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903: la charge of the Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President Kashmir. of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages of India; &c. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. Jacoba. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, aod Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- tion of Literature. Rev. George Foot MOORE. Jehovah. See the biographical article: MOORR, GEORGE FOOT. 1 {Kharga . {Koran (in part). { F. S. P.. 1 F. v. E. F. W. R. G. A. Gr. G. E. G. F. MO. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES G. G. Co. { G. H. Bo. G. R. G. Mi. G. Sa. { Joinville. G. S. L. G. S. R. G. W. T. H. A. W. { A. Ch. H. CI. GEORGE GORDON COULTON, M.A. Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Knighthood and Chivalry. Medieval Studies; Chaucer and his England; From St Francis to Dante. &c. Rev. George HERBERT Box, M.A. John the Baptist; Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors'. School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology. University of Oxford, 1908-1 Joseph (New Testament); 1909. Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah; &c. Jubilee, Year of (in part) GUSTAV KRÜGER. Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author of Das Papsttum;{ Justin Martyr. &c. Rev. GEORGE MILLIGAN, D.D. s James (New Testament); Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism in the University of Glasgow. Author of The Theology of the Epistle to the Hebrews; Lectures from the Greek Papyri; &c. Judas Iscariot. George SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, G. E. B. GEORGE SOMES LAYARD. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author of Charles Keene; Shirley Brooks; &c. Keene, Charles S. SIR GEORCE Scott ROBERTSON, K.C.S.I., D.C.L., M.P: Formerly British Agent in Gilgit. Author of The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush; Kafiristan. Chitral: the Story of a Minor Siege. M.P. Central Division, Bradford. Jāḥiz; Rev. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Jarir Ibn Atiyya ul-Khatfi; Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Jauhari; Jawāliqi; Jurjāni, Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Khalil Ibn Ahmad; Khansã; Kindi; Kumait Ibn Zaid. Hugh ALEXANDER WEBSTER. Formerly Librarian of University of Edinburgh. Editor of the Scottish Geographical { Java (in part). Magazine. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 11th edition Joan of Arc (in part). of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the roth edition. Sir Hugh CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author Johor. of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary of the Malay Language. HORACE CARTER Hovey, A.M., D.D. Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological Society of America, National Geographic Society and Société de Spéléologie (France). Jacobs Cavern. Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky; &c. SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAWLINSON, BART. Kürdistan (in part). See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. Januarius, St; Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana and Acla sanctorum. Kilian, St. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Reader in Scandinavian, Jutes. Cambridge University. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. Hugh MUNRO Ross. Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering Kelvin, Lord (in part). Supplement. Author of British Railways. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. James: the Pretendor; Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici King's Evil. Popes; The Last Stuart Queen. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS Davis, M.A. John, King of England; Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, { John of Hexham. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. H. WICKHAM STEED. Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, Italy: History (F.). 1897-1902 SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. Kublai Khan, See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. Jacob ben Asher; Jellinek; Jews: Dispersion to Modern Israel ABRAHAMS, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge Times; Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short Joel; History of Jewish Literature; Jewish_Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Johanan Ben Zaccia; Josippon; Kalisch, Marcus; Krochmal. H. C. H. H. C. R. H. De. H. M. C. H. M. R. H. M. V. H. W. C. D. A. W. S. H. Ý. 1. A. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix I. L. B. J. A. H. J. A. R. J. A. S. {Italy : History (C.). {Justinian I. J. Br. J. Bt. J. B. A. J. F.-K. J. G. C. A. J. G. Sc. 1 J. An. { J. H. A. H. ISABELLA L. BISHOP. See the biographical article: BISHOP, ISABELLA. Korea (in part). JOHN ALLEN Howe. Joints (Geology); Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of Jurassic; Keuper; The Geology of Building Stones. Kimeridgian. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. Dean of Westminster Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University. Author Jesus Christ. of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; &c. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. See the biographical article, SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON., Right Hon. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., D.LITT. See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES. JAMES BARTLETT. Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior Joinery. Engineers. JOSEPH BEAVINGTON ATKINSON.. Formerly art-critic of the Saturday Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern Kaulbach. Capitals of Europe; Schools of Modern Ari in Germany. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.Hist.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University.. Fellow of the British Academy: Juan Manuel, Don. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College; Kastamuni. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. Karen; Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; The Upper Burma Gazetteer. Karen-Ni; Keng Tūng. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of John, King of Saxony. Das Rheinland unter die französische Herrschaft. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. Jews: Greek Domination. Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. Josephus. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. S Janus; Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Julian (in part). JOAN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). Author of Feudal England; Studios in Peerage and Fomily History; Peerage and Knight-Service. Pedigree. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. Italy: History (D.); Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of the European Josephine; Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. Junot. JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D. Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding Jew, The Wandering. Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. Rev. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. Chancellor of Llandáff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in. Divinity and Ketteler, Baron von. Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of Historical New Testament; &c. JOHN NEVILLE KEYNES, M.A., D.Sc. Registrary of the University of Cambridge. University Lecturer in Moral Science. Secretary to the Local Examinations and Lectures Syndicate. Formerly Fellow Jevons, William Stanley. of Pembroke College. Author of Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic; &c. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, Juvenal (in part). Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. 'Editor of the Classical Quarterly. Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum; &c. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, Ph.D., D.D. Canon Residentiary, P.E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in Kerbela; the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby- Kerkuk; tonia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Khorsabad. Euphrates. JOHN ROSE BRADFORD, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. Physician to University College Hospital.' Professor of Materia Medica and { Kidney Diseases (in part). Therapeutics, University College, London. Secretary of the Royal Society. Formerly Member of Senate University of London. J. H. F. J. H. R. J. HI. R. J. Ja. 了 ​J. J. L.* J. Mt. {John, Epistles of. J. N. K. J. P. P. J. P. Pe. J. R. B. ) x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. T. Be. J. T. S.* J. V.* { J. W. He. K. 1 K. S. Kalmuok; Kaluga; Kamchatka; Kara-Kum; SOHN THOMAS BEALBY. Kars; Kazañ; Kerch; Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical {Khingan; Khiva; Khokand; Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. Khotan; Kiev; Kronstadt; Kuban; Kuen-Lun; Kursk; Kutais. JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. Joan of Arc (in part). Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. JULES VIARD. Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author Jacquerie, The. of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois; &c. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at Kossuth. Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire; &c. BARON DAIROKU KIKUCHI, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. President of the Imperial University of Kyoto. President of Imperial Academy of Japan. Emeritus Professor, Imperial University, Tokio. Author of Japanese Japan: The Claim of Japan. Education; &c. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Jew's Harp; Kettledrum; Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; &c. COUNT Lützow, LITT.D. (Oxon.), D.PH. (Prague), F.R.G.S. Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Jerome of Prague. Author of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904); The Life and Times of John Hus; &c. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.INST.C.E. (1839-1907). Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author of Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- Jetty. struction; &c. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar, Editor of the Minera- Jarosite. logical Magazine. Rev. LEWIS CAMPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: CAMPBELL, LEWIS. Jowett. Louis DUCHESNE. See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. Julius I. LUIGI VILLARI. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department), : Formerly Newspaper Corre- spondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phila: Italy: History (E. and G.). delphia, 1907; Boston, U.S.A., 1997-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; Fire and Sword in the Caucasus; &c. L. L. F. V.-H. L. J. S. L. C. L. D. { John. XIX.; L. V.* M. LORD MACAULAY. See the biographical article: MACAULAY, BARON. M. Br. M. F. ) {Johnson, Samuel { { Koliker. { { M. M. Bh. M. O. B. C. MARGARET BRYANT. Keats (in part). SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. See the biographical article: Foster, SIR M. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE. Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. Author Jeejeebhoy. of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; &c. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- Justin II. ham University, 1905–1908. LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. Joinville (Family); Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute Joyeuse; of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Juge, Bofille de. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. Jacob of Edessa; Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's Jacob of Sěrūgh; College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. Joshua the Stylite. JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIş. Member of Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Société de l'Histoire de John XXII. France and the Société de l'Ecole de Chartes. Author of La France et le grand schisme d'Occident; &c. M. P. N. M. N. V. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES i xi 0. H. 0. J. R. H. P. A. P. A. A. { P. A. K. P. Gf 1 P. G. T. {Knot . P. La. P. L. G. P. Vi. { Jurisprudence, Comparative. OTTO HÉHNER, F.I.C., F.C.S. Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts. Vice-President Jams and Jellies. of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Author of works on butter analysis; Alcohol Tables; &c. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. Java (in part); Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Așsistant Secretary of the British Association. Korea (in part). PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDÉRY. Professor of the History of Dogma, École pratique des Hautes Études, Sorbonne, Joachim of Floris; Paris. Author of Les Idées morales chez les hétérodoxes latines au début du XIII John XXII. siècle. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc.JURIS. New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History | Jhering. of the English Constitution. Kalmuck; Kaluga; Kamchatka; Kara-Kum; PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. Kazañ; Kerch; Khingan; See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. Khokand; Kiev; Kronstadt; Kubañ; Kuen-Lun; Kursk; Kutais. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University d. Reader in Comparative Philology, Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo-1 K. logical Society. `Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. PETER GUTHRIE TAIT. See the biographical article: Tait, PETER GUTHRIE. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly Japan: Geology. of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative. Geology. PHILIP LYTTELTON GELL, M.A. Sometime Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. Secretary to the Clarendon Press, Khazars (in part). Oxford, 1884–1897. Fellow of King's College, London. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAOL ROBERT ANCHEL. Archivist to the Département de l'Eure. Kersaint. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. See the biographical article: ADAMSON, ROBERT. Kant (in part). ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. Joppa; St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- tion Fund. Kerak. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De- Kuwet. limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897–1898; Angio-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c. REV. RICHARD FREDERICK LITTLEDALE, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. (1833-1890). Author of Religious Communities of Women in the Early Church; Catholic Ritual { Jesuits (in part). in the Church of England; Why Ritualists do not become Roman Catholics. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. Krazewski. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT, (Oxon.). Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford and Fellow of Merton Jeremy, Epistle of; College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity Jubilees, Book of; College, Dublin. Author and Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Assumption Judith, The Book of. of Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs; &c. REGINALD INNES Pocock, F.Z.S. King-Crab. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. Jeffreys, 1st Baron; Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's; Keith: Family. Gazelle, London. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum, and Jenghiz Khan; Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Litera- Julien. ture of China; &c. RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 7 Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874–1882. Author of ) Jerboa; Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Kangaroo (in port).) Deer of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa: &c. R. A.* R. Ad, 7: R. A. S. M. R. A. W. R. F. L. R. G. R. H. C. 1 R. I. P. R. J. M. R. K. D. R. L.* xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. N. B. R. Po. R. P. S. R. S. C. S. A. C. St. c. S. N. T. As. Ivan I.-VI.; Jellachich; John III. : Sobieski; ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Juel, Jens; Juel, Neils; Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, Kármán; Kemeny, Baron; 1613-1725; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1409 Kisfaludy; Kollontaj; to 1790; &c. Koniecpolski; Kosciuszko; Kurakin, Prince. .1 RENÉ POUPARDIN, D. Ès L. Secretary of the École des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale , Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens; Recueil John, Duke of Burgundy. des chartes de Saint-Germain; &c. R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, Jacobean Style. London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville Italy: History (A.). and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. Jacob; Jeboiakim; Jehoram; Jehoshaphat; Jebu; Jephthah; STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. Jerahmeel; Jeroboam; Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College; Jews: Old Testament History; Cambridge. Editor for Pa Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and Jezebel; Joab; Joash; Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- scriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Joseph: Old Testament; Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine ; &c. Joshua; Josiah; Judah; Judges, Book of; Kabbalah (in part); Kenites; Kings, Books of. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. Jansen; See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. Jansenism. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., D.C.L. See the biographical article: NewCOMB, SIMON. Jupiter: Satellites. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.). Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ (Italy: Geography and Statistics; Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of History (B.); the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Ivrea. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec., Royal Kavirondo. Anthropological Institute. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. Julius III. THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: HODGKIN, T. Jordanes (in part). SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892– Kabul; Kalat; Kandahar;. 1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- Kashmir; Khyber Pass; Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. | Kunar; Kushk. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. Rev. Thomas KELLY CHEYNE, D.D. Jeremiah; Joel (in part); 1" See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K Jonah. THEODOR NÖLDEKE, PH.D. See the biographical article: NÖLDEKE, THEODOR. Koran (in part). THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London, Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Johnson, Samuel. Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson. Joint-author of Bookman History of English Literature; &c. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. Jute. THOMAS WILLIAM Rhys DAVIDS, LL.D., Ph.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Jains; Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Jätaka; Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Kanishka. Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. WILLIAM ANDERSON, F.R.C.S. Formerly Chairman of Council of the Japan Society: Author of The Pictorial Arts Japan: Ari (in part). of Japan; Japanese Wood Engravings; Catalogue of Chinese and Japanese Pictures in the British Museum; &c. T. A. I, {Juvenile Offenders (in part). T. A. J. 1 T. F. C. T. H. T. H. H.* T. K. {Julian (in pari). T. K. C. Th. . T. Se. T. Wo. { T. W. R. D. W. An. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii W. A. B. C. W. A. P. W. B.* W. Ba. Jonah, Rabbi; Kimhi. { W. Be. W. F. C. Jury. W. F. D. W.G. W. G. S. { Jackson, Andrew. W. H. Be, Rev. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern). Jenatsch, Georg; Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Jungfrau; Jura. Nature and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Jacobins; Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, King; Kriemhild; Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. Krüdener, Baroness von. WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of Kashi (in part). English Stoneware and Earthenware; &c. WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D. Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary, Buda-Pest. SIR WALTER BESANT. Jefferies. See the biographical article: BESANT, SIR WALTER. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading, 23rd ed. WILLIAM FREDERICK DENNING, F.R.A.S. Gold Medal, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society, 1877–1878. Corresponding Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society of Canada; &c. Author of Jupiter. Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings; The Great Meteoric Shower; &c. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D C.L. Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer Kelvin, Lord. of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; &c. WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER. See the biographical article: SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM. WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT (Cantab.). Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, LondonJapheth. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Posl-Exilic Prophels; &c. WILLIAM HENRY DINES, F.R.S. Director of Upper Air Investigation for the English Meteorological Office. SIR WILLIAM H. FLOWER, LL.D Kangaroo (in part). See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., Ph.D. | Knights of the Golden Circle; Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary History { Ku Klux Klan. of Reconstruction; &c. SIR WILLIAM LEE-WARNER, M.A., K.C.S.I. Member of Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret Department of the India Office Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie; Jung Bahadur, Sir. Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman; &c. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: Rossetti, DANTE G. SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D C.L. See the biographical article, RAMSAY, Sir W. M. Jupiter (in part). WILLIAM PRICE JAMES. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. High Bailiff, Cardiff County Court. Author of Kipling, Rudyard. Romanlıc Professions; &c. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITA, LL.D. (part); See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, į Juno; Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City State of the Greeks and Romans; Jupiter (in part). The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lic.THEOL. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D Juvenal (in part). See the biographical article. SELLAR, W. Y. W. H. Di. {Kit-flying (in part). W. H. F. W. L. F. W. L.-W. W. M. R. {Kneller . W. M. Ra. W. P. J. W. R. S. { Jubileen Peat of (in pari). W. W. F.* W. W. R.* { Jerusalem, Synod of. W. Y. S. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Ivy. Jamaica. Janissaries. Jaundice. Ju-Jutsu. Jumping. Juniper. Jurisprudence. Kafirs. 1 Kansas. Kent. Kentucky. Kerry. Ketones. Kildare. Kilkenny. Know Nothing Party. | f .ܐ ܕܠ ܂ 1 .. f . ܬ ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XV ITALY (Italia), the name applied both in ancient and in the river Varus or Var, a few miles west of Nice, and this river modern times to the great peninsula that projects from the mass continued in modern times to be generally recognized as the of central Europe far to the south into the Mediterranean Sea, boundary between France and Italy. But in 1860 the annexation where the island of Sicily may be considered as a continuation of Nice and the adjoining territory to France brought the of the continental promontory. The portion of the Mediterranean political frontier farther east, to a point between Mentone and commonly termed the Tyrrhenian Sea forms its limit on the W. Ventimiglia which constitutes no natural limit. and S., and the Adriatic on the E.; while to the N., where it Towards the north-east, the point where the Julian Alps joins the main continent of Europe, it is separated from the approach close to the seashore (just at the sources of the little adjacent regions by the mighty barrier of the Alps, which sweeps stream known in ancient times as the Timavus) would seem to round in a vast semicircle from the head of the Adriatic to the constitute the best natural limit. But by Augustus the frontier shores of Nice and Monaco. was carried farther east so as to include Tergeste (Trieste), and Topography. -The land thus circumscribed extends between the little river Formio (Risano) was in the first instance chosen the parallels of 46° 40' and 36° 38' N., and between 6° 30' and as the limit, but this was subsequently transferred to the river 18° 30' E. Its greatest length in a straight line along the main Arsia (the Arsa), which flows into the Gulf of Quarnero, so as land is from N.W. to S.E., in which direction it measures 708 m. to include almost all Istria; and the circumstance that the in a direct line from the frontier near Courmayeur to Cape Sta coast of Istria was throughout the middle ages held by the Maria di Leuca, south of Otranto, but the great mountain republic of Venice tended to perpetuate this arrangement, so peninsula of Calabria extends about two degrees farther south that Istria was gererally regarded as belonging to Italy, though to Cape Spartivento in lat. 37° 55'. Its breadth is, owing to its certainly not forming any natural portion of that country. configuration, very irregular. The northern portion, measured Present Italian aspirations are similarly directed. from the Alps at the Monte Viso to the mouth of the Po, has a The only other part of the northern frontier of Italy where the breadth of about 270 m., while the maximum breadth, from the boundary is not clearly marked by nature is Tirol or the valley Rocca Chiardonnet near Susa to a peak in the valley of the of the Adige. Here the main chain of the Alps (as marked by Isonzo, is 354 m. But the peninsula of Italy, which forms the the watershed) recedes so far to the north that it has never largest portion of the country, nowhere exceeds 150 m. in breadth, constituted the frontier. In ancient times the upper valleys of while it does not generally measure more than 100 m, across. Its the Adige and its tributaries were inhabited by Raetian tribes southern extremity, Calabria, forms a complete peninsula, being and included in the province of Raetia; and the line of demarca- united to the mass of Lucania or the Basilicata by an isthmus tion between that province and Italy was purely arbitrary, only 35 m. in width, while that between the gulfs of Sta Eufemia as it remains to this day. Tridentum or Trent was in the time and Squillace, which connects the two portions of the province, of Pliny included in the tenth region of Italy or Venetia, but he does not exceed 20 m. The area of the kingdom of Italy, exclusive tells us that the inhabitants were a Raetian tribe. At the present of the large islands, is computed at 91,277 sq. m. Though day the frontier between Austria and the kingdom of Italy the Alps form throughout the northern boundary of crosses the Adige about 30 m. below Trent-that city and its Italy, the exact limits at the extremities of the Alpine territory, which previous to the treaty of Lunéville in 1801 was chain are not clearly marked. Ancient geographers governed by sovereign archbishops, subject only to the German appear to have generally regarded the remarkable headland emperors, being now included in the Austrian empire. which descends from the Maritime Alps to the sea between Nice While the Alps thus constitute the northern boundary of Italy, and Monaco as the limit of Italy in that direction, and in a its configuration and internal geography are determined almost purely geographical point of view it is probably the best point entirely by the great chain of the Apennines, which branches off that could be selected. But Augustus, who was the first to give from the Maritime Alps between Nice and Genoa, and, after to Italy a definite political organization, carried the frontier to stretching in an unbroken line from the Gulf of Genoa to the * On the derivation see below, History, section A, ad, init. Adriatic, turns more to the south, and is continued throughout Bouad- aries. 2a 2 (TOPOGRAPHY ITALY Central and Southern Italy, of which it forms as it were the back- farther has its outlet into the lake between Baveno and Pallanza. bone, until it ends in the southernmost extremity of Calabria at The Lago Maggiore is also the receptacle of the waters of the Lago Cape Spartivento. The great spur or promontory projecting di Lugano on the east and the Lago d'Orta on the west. The next great affluent of the Po, the Adda, forms the outflow of towards the east to Brindisi and Otranto has no direct con- the Lake of Como, and has also its sources in the Alps, above Bormio, nexion with the central chain. whence it flows through the broad and fertile valley of the Valtellina One chief result of the manner in which the Apennines traverse for more than 65 m. till it enters the lake near Colico. The Adda in Italy from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic is the marked this part of its course has a direction almost due east to west; but at the point where it reaches the lake, the Liro descends the valley division between Northern Italy, including the region north of the of S. Giacomo, which runs nearly north and south from the pass of Apennines and extending thence to the foot of the Alps, and the the Splügen, thus affording one of the most direct lines of communica- central and more southerly portions of the peninsula. No such tion across the Alps. The Adda Rows out of the lake at its south- line of separation exists farther south, and the terms Central and plain of above 70 m. till it enters the Po between Piacenza and eastern extremity at Lecco, and has thence a course through the Southern Italy, though in general use among geographers and Cremona. It flows by Lodi and Pizzighettone, and receives the convenient for descriptive purposes, do not correspond to any waters of the Brembo, descending from the Val Brembana, and the natural divisions. Serio from the Val Seriana above Bergamo. The Oglio, a more considerable stream than either of the last two, rises in the Monte 1. Northern Italy.-By far the larger portion of Northern Italy is Tonale above Edolo, and descends through the Val Camonica to occupied by the basin of the Po, which comprises the whole of the Lovere, where it expands into a large lake, called Iseo from the broad plain extending from the foot of the Apennines to that of the town of that name on its southern shore. Issuing thence at its south- Alps, together with the valleys and slopes on both sides of it. From west extremity, the Oglio has a long and winding course through the its source in Monte Viso to its outflow into the Adriatic-a distance plain before it finally reaches the Po a few miles above Borgoforte. of more than 220 m. in a direct line-the Po receives all the waters In this lower part it receives the smaller streams of the Mella, which that flow from the Apennines northwards, and all those that descend flows by Brescia, and the Chiese, which proceeds from the small from the Alps towards the south, Mincio (the outlet of the Lake of Lago d'Idro, between the Lago d'Iseo and that of Garda. Garda) inclusive. The next river to the E. is the Adige, which, The last of the great tributaries of the Po is the Mincio, which after pursuing a parallel course with the Po for a considerable flows from the Lago di Garda, and has a course of about 40 m. from distance, enters the Adriatic by a separate mouth. Farther to the Peschiera, where it issues from the lake at its south-eastern angle, N. and N.E. the various rivers of Venetia fall directly into the Gulf till it joins the Po. About 12 m. above the confluence it passes under of Venice. the walls of Mantua, and expands into a broad lake-like reach so as There is no other instance in Europe of a basin of similar extent entirely to encircle that city. Notwithstanding its extent, the equally clearly characterized—the perfectly level character of the Lago di Garda is not fed by the snows of the high Alps, nor is the plain being as striking as the boldness with which the lower slopes stream which enters it at its northern extremity (at Riva) commonly of the mountain ranges begin to rise on each side of it. This is most known as the Mincio, though forming the main source of that river, clearly marked on the side of the Apennines, where the great Aemilian but is termed the Sarca; it rises at the foot of Monte Tonale. Way, which has been the high road from the time of the Romans The Adige, formed by the junction of two streams--the Etsch to our own, preserves an unbroken straight line from Rimini to or Adige proper and the Eisak, both of which belong to Tirol rather Piacenza, a distance of more than 150 m., during which the underfalls than to Italy-descends as far as Verona, where it enters the great of the mountains continually approach it on the left, without once plain, with a course from north to south nearly parallel to the rivers crossing the line of road. last described, and would seem likely to discharge its waters into The geography of Northern Italy will be best described by following those of the Po, but below Legnagó it turns castward and runs the course of the Po. That river has its origin as a mountain torrent parallel to the Po for about 40 m., entering the Adriatic by an descending from two little dark lakes on the north fank of Monte Viso, independent mouth about 8 m. from the northern outlet of the greater at a height of more than 6000 ft. above the sea; and after a course of stream. The waters of the two rivers have, however, been made to less than 20 m. it enters the plain at Saluzzo, between which and communicate by artificial cuts and canals in more than one place. Turin, a distance of only 30 m., it receives three considerable tribu- The Po itsell, which is here a very large stream, with an average taries--the Chisone on its left bank, bringing down the waters from width of 400 to 600 yds., continues to flow with an undivided mass the valley of Fenestrelle, and the Varaita and Maira on the south, of waters as far as Sta Maria di Ariano, where it parts into two arms, contributing those of two valleys of the Alps immediately south known as the Po di Maestra and Po di Goro, and these again are of that of the Po itself. A few miles below Valenza it is joined by the subdivided into several other branches, forming a delta above 20 m. Tanaro, a large stream, which brings with it the united waters of in width from north to south. The point of bifurcation, at present the Stura, the Bormida and several minor rivers. about 25 m. from the sea, was formerly much farther inland, more More important are the rivers that descend from the main chain than 10 m. west of Ferrara, where a small arm of the river, still called of the Graian and Pennine Alps and join the Po on its left bank. the Po di Ferrara, branches from the main stream. Previous to the Of these the Dora (called for distinction's sake Dora Riparia), which year 1154 this channel was the main stream, and the two sma!! unites with the greater river just below Turin, has its source in the branches into which it subdivides, called the Po di Volano and Po di Mont Genèvre, and flows past Susa at the foot of the Mont Cenis. Primaro, were in early times the two main outlets of the river. The Next comes the Stura, which rises in the glaciers of the Roche Melon; southernmost of these, the Po di Primaro, enters the Adriatic about then the Orca, flowing through the Val di Locana; and then the 12 m. north of Ravenna, so that if these two arms be included, the Dora Baltea, one of the greatest of all the Alpine tributaries of the delta of the Po extends about 36 m. from south to north. The whole Po, which has its source in the glaciers of Mont Blanc, above Cour- course of the river, including its windings, is estimated at about 450 m. mayeur, and thence descends through the Val d'Aosta for about 70 m. Besides the delta of the Po and the large marshy tracts which it till it enters the plain at Ivrea, and, after flowing about 20 m. more, forms, there exist on both sides of it extensive lagoons of salt water, joins the Po a few miles below Chivasso. This great valley-one of generally separated from the Adriatic by narrow strips of sand or the most considérable on the southern side of the Alps--has attracted embankments, partly natural and partly artificial, but having special attention, in ancient as well as modern times, from its leading openings which admit the influx and efflux of the sea-water, and to two of the most frequented passes across the great mountain chain serve as ports for communication with the mainland. The best -the Great and the Little St Bernard-the former diverging at Aosta, known and the most extensive of these lagoons is that in which and crossing the main ridges to the north into the valley of the Rhone, Venice is situated, which extends from Torcello in the north to the other following a more westerly direction into Savoy. Below Chioggia and Brondolo in the south, a distance of above 40 m.; but Aosta also the Dora Baltea receives several considerable tributaries, they were formerly much more extensive, and afforded a continuous which descend from the glaciers between Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa. means of internal navigation, by what were called “the Seven Seas" About 25 m. below its confluence with the Dora, the Po receives the (Septem Maria), from Ravenna to Altinuin, a few miles north of Sesia, also a large river, which has its source above Alagna at the Torcello. That city, like Ravenna, originally stood in the midst of southern foot of Monte Rosa, and after flowing by Varallo and a lagoon; and the coast east of it to near Monfalcone, where it Vercelli falls into the Po about 14 m. below the latter city. About meets the mountains, is occupied by similar expanses of water, 30 m. east of this confluence-in the course of which the Po makes which are, however, becoming gradually converted into dry land. å great bend south to Valenza, and then returns again to the north- The tract adjoining this long line of lagoons is, like the basin of the ward-it is joined by the Ticino, a large and rapid river, which Po, a broad expanse of perfectly level alluvial plain, extending from brings with it the outflow of Lago Maggiore and all the waters that the Adige eastwards to the Carnic Alps, where they approach close flow into it. Of these the Ticino itself has its source about 10 m. to the Adriatic between Aquileia and Trieste, and northwards to the above Airolo at the foot of the St Gotthard, and after flowing above foot of the great chain, which here sweeps round in a semicircle from 36 m. through the Val Leventina to Bellinzona (where it is joined the neighbourhood of Vicenza to that of Aquileia. The space thus by the Moëså bringing down the waters of the Val Misocco) enters the included was known in ancient times as Venetia, a name applied in the lake through a marshy plain at Magadino, about 10 m. distant. On middle ages to the well-known city; the eastern portion of it became the west side of the lake the Toccia or Tosa descends from the pass known in the middle ages as the Frioul or Friuli. of the Gries nearly due south to Domodossola, where it receives the Returning to the south of the Po, the tributaries of that river on waters of the Doveria from the Simplon, and a few miles lower down its right bank below the Tanaro are very inferior in volume and those of the Val d'Anzasca from the foot of Monte Rosa, and 12 m.'importance to those from the north. Flowing from the Ligurian TOPOGRAPHY) ITALY 3 Apennines, which never attain the limit of perpetual snow, they | The line of the highest summits and of the watershed ranges is generally dwindle in summer into insignificant streams.. Beginning about 30 to 40 m. from the Adriatic, while about double that distance from the Tanaro, the principal of them are-(1) the Scrivia, a small separates it from the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west. In this part of but rapid stream flowing from the Apennines at the back of Genoa; the range almost all the highest points of the Apennines are found. (?) the Trebbia, a much larger river, though of the same torrent-like Beginning from the group called the Alpi della Luna near the sources character, which rises near Torriglia within 20 m. of Genoa, flows of the Tiber, which attain 4435 ft., they are continued by the Monte by Bobbio, and joins the Po a few miles above Piacenza; (3) the Nerone (5010 ft.), Monte Catria (5590), and Monte Maggio to the Nure, a few miles east of the preceding; (4) the Taro, a more con- Monte Pennino near Nocera (5169 ft.), and thence to the Monte siderable stream; (5) the Parma, flowing by the city of the same della Sibilla, at the source of the Nar or Nera, which attains 7663 ft. name; (6) the Enza; (7) the Secchia, which flows by Modena; Proceeding thence southwards, we find in succession the Monte (8) the Panaro, a few miles to the east of that city; (9) the Reno, Vettore (8128 ft.), the Pizzo di Sevo (7945 ft.), and the two great which flows by Bologna, but instead of holding its course till it dis- mountain masses of the Monte Corno, commonly called the Gran charges its waters into the Po, as it did in Roman times, is turned Sasso d'Italia, the most lofty of all the Apennines, attaining to a aside by an artificial channel into the Po di Primaro. The other height of 9560 ft., and the Monte della Maiella, its highest summit small streams east of this-of which the most considerable are the measuring 9170 ft. Farther south no very lofty summits are found Solaro, the Santerno, flowing by Imola, the Lamone by Faenza, the till we come to the group of Monti del Matese, in Samnium (6660 ſt.), Montone by Forlì, all in Roman times tributaries of the Po-have which according to the division here adopted belongs to Southern their outſet in like manner into the Po di Primaro, or by artificial Italy. Besides the lofty central masses enumerated there are two mouths into the Adriatic between Ravenna and Rimini. . The river other lofty peaks, outliers from the main range, and separated from Marecchia, which enters the sea immediately north of Rimini, may it by valleys of considerable extent. These are the Monte Terminillo, be considered as the natural limit of Northern Italy. It was adopted near Leonessa (7278 ft.), and the Monte Velino near the Lake Fucino, by Augustus as the boundary of Gallia Cispadana; the far-famed rising to 8192 ft., both of which are covered with snow from November Rubicon was a trifting stream a few miles farther north, now called till May. But the Apennines of Central Italy, instead of presenting, Fiumicino. The Savio is the only other stream of any importance like the Alps and the northern Apennines, a definite central ridge, which has always flowed directly into the Adriatic from this side of with transverse valleys leading down from it on both sides, in reality the Tuscan Apennines. constitute a mountain mass of very considerable breadth, composed The narrow strip of coast-land between the Maritime Alps, the of a number of minor ranges and groups of mountains, which pre- Apennines and the sea-called in ancient times Liguria, and now serve a generally parallel direction, and are separated by upland known as the Riviera of Genoa-is throughout its extent, from Nice valleys, some of them of considerable extent as well as considerable to Genoa on the one side, and from Genoa to Spezia on the other, elevation above the sea. Such is the basin of Lake Fucino, situated almost wholly mountainous. It is occupied by the branches and in the centre of the mass, almost exactly midway between the two offshoots of the mountain ranges which separate it from the great seas, at an elevation of 2180 ft. above them; while the upper valley plain to the north, and send down their lateral ridges close to the of the Aterno, in which Aquila is situated, is 2380 ft. above the sea. water's edge, leaving only in places a few square miles of level plains Still more elevated is the valley of the Gizio (a tributary of the at the mouths of the rivers and openings of the valleys. The district Aterno), of which Sulmona is the chief town. This communicates is by no means devoid of fertility, the steep slopes facing the south with the upper valley of the Sangro by a level plain called the Piano enjoying so fine a climate as to render them very favourable for the di Cinque Miglia, at an elevation of 4298 ft., regarded as the most growth of fruit trees, especially the olive, which is cultivated in wintry spot in Italy. Nor do the highest summits form a continuous terraces to a considerable height up the face of the mountains, while ridge of great altitude for any considerable distance; they are rather the openings of the valleys are generally occupied by towns or villages, a series of groups separated by tracts of very inferior elevation some of which have become favourite winter resorts. forming natural passes across the range, and broken in some places From the proximity of the mountains to the sea none of the rivers (as is the case in almost all limestone countries) by the waters from in this part of Italy has a long course, and they are generally mere the upland valleys turning suddenly at right angles, and breaking mountain torrents, rapid and swollen in winter and spring, and almost through the mountain ranges which bound them. Thus the Gran dry in summer. The largest and most important are those which Sasso and the Maiella are separated by the deep valley of the Aterno, descend from the Maritime Alps between Nice and Albenga. The while the Tronto breaks through the range between Monte Vettore most considerable of them are--the Roja, which rises in the Col di and the Pizzo di Sevo. This constitution of the great mass of the Tenda and descends to Ventimiglia; the Taggia, between San central Apennines has in all ages exercised an important influence Remo and Oneglia; and the Centa, which enters the sea at Albenga. upon the character of this portion of Italy, which may be considered The Lavagna, which enters the sea at Chiavari, is the only stream as divided by nature into two great regions, a cold and barren upland of any importance between Genoa and the Gulf of Spezia. But country, bordered on both sides by rich and fertile tracts, enjoying immediately east of that inlet (a remarkable instance of a deep land- a warm but temperate climate. locked gulf with no river flowing into it) the Magra, which descends The district west of the Apennines, a region of great beauty and from Pontremoli down the valley known as the Lunigiana, is a large fertility, though inferior in productiveness to Northern Italy, coincides stream, and brings with it the waters of another considerable stream, in a general way with the countries familiar to all students of ancient the Vara: The Magra (Macra), in ancient times the boundary history as Etruria and Latium. Until the union of Italy they were between Liguria and Etruria, may be considered as constituting on comprised in Tuscany and the southern Papal States. The northern this side the limit of Northern Italy. part of Tuscany is indeed occupied to a considerable extent by the The Apennines (q.0.), as has been already mentioned, here traverse underfalls and offshoots of the Apennines, which, besides the slopes the whole breadth of Italy, cutting off the peninsula properly so and spurs of the main range that constitutes its northern frontier termed from the broader mass of Northern Italy by a continuous towards the plain of the Po, throw off several outlying ranges or barrier of considerable breadth, though of far inferior elevation to groups. Of these the most remarkable is the group between the that of the Alps. The Ligurian Apennines may be considered as valleys of the Serchio and the Magra, commonly known as the taking their rise in the neighbourhood of Savona, where a pass of mountains of Carrara, from the celebrated marble quarries in the very, moderate elevation connects them with the Maritime Alps, vicinity of that city. Two of the summits of this group, the Pizzo of which they are in fact only a continuation. From the neighbour d'Uccello and the Pania della Croce, attain 6155 and 6100 ft. Another hood of Savona to that of Genoa they do not rise to more than 3000 lateral range, the Prato Magno, which branches off from the central to 4000 ft., and are traversed by passes of less than 2000 ft. As they chain at the Monte Falterona, and separates the upper valley of extend towards the east they increase in elevation; the Monte Bue the Arno from its second basin, rises to 5188 ſt.; while a similar rises to 5915 ft., while the Monte Cimone, a little farther east, attains branch, called the Alpe di Catenaja, of inferior elevation, divides 7103 ft. This is the highest point in the northern Apennines, and the upper course of the Arno from that of the Tiber. belongs to a group of summits of nearly equal altitude; the range The rest of this tract is for the most part a hilly, broken country, which is continued thence between Tuscany and what are now of moderate elevation, but Monte Amiata, near Radicofani, an isolated known as the Emilian provinces presents a continuous ridge from mass of volcanic origin, attains a height of 5650 ft. South of this the the mountains at the head of the Val di Mugello (due north of country between the frontier of Tuscany and the Tiber is in great part Florence) to the point where they are traversed by the celebrated of volcanic origin, forming hills with distinct crater-shaped basins, Furlo Pass. The highest point in this part of the range is the Monte in several instances occupied by small lakes (the Lake of Bolsena, Falterona, above the sources of the Arno, which attains 5410 ft. Lake of Vico and Lake of Bracciano). . This volcanic tract extends Throughout this tract the Apennines are generally covered with across the Campagna of Rome, till it rises again in the lofty group extensive forests of chestnut, oak and beech; while their upper slopes of the Alban hills, the highest summit of which, the Monte Cavo, afford admirable pasturage. Few towns of any importance are found is 3160 ft. above the sea. In this part the Apennines are separated either on their northern or southern declivity, and the former from the sea, distant about 30 m. by the undulating volcanic plain of region especially, though occupying a tract of from 30 to 40 m. in the Roman Campagna, from which the mountains rise in a wall-like width, between the crest of the Apennines and the plain of the Po, is barrier, of which the highest point, the Monte Gennaro, attains one of the least known and at the same time least interesting portions 4165 ft. South of Palestrina again, the main mass of the Apennines of Italy. throws off another lateral mass, known in ancient times as the Volscian 2. Central Italy. -The geography of Central Italy is almost wholly mountains (now called the Monti Lepini), separated from the central determined by the Apennines, which traverse it in a direction ranges by the broad valley of the Sacco, a tributary of the Liri (Liris) from about north-north-east to south-south-west, almost precisely or Garigliano, and forming a large and rugged mountain mass, nearly parallel to that of the coast of the Adriatic from Rimini to Pescara. 5000 ft. in height, which descends to the sea at Terracina, and 4 (TOPOGRAPHY ITALY or 4 spur" of between that point and the mouth of the Liri throws out several which projects in a bold spur-like promontory into the Adriatic, rugged mountain headlands, which may be considered as constituting forming the only break in the otherwise uniform coast-line of Italy the natural boundary between Latium and Campania, and con- on that sea, though separated from the great body of the Apennines sequently the natural limit of Central Italy. Besides these offshoots by a considerable interval of low country, may be considered as of the Apennines there are in this part of Central Italy several merely an outlier from the central mass. detached mountains, rising almost like islands on the seashore, From the neighbourhood of Potenza, the main ridge of the of which the two most remarkable are the Monte Argentaro on the Apennines is continued by the Monti della Maddalena in a direction coast of Tuscany near Orbetello (2087 ft.) and the Monte Circello nearly due south, so that it approaches within a short distance of the (1771 ft.) at the angle of the Pontine Marshes, by the whole breadth Gulf of Policastro, whence it is carried on as far as the Monte Pollino, of which it is separated from the Volscian Apennines. the last of the lofty summits of the Apennine chain, which exceeds The two valleys of the Arno and the Tiber (ital. Tevere) may 7000 ſt. in height. The range is, however, continued through the be considered as furnishing the key to the geography of all this portion province now called Calabria, to the southern extremity or “toe" of of Italy west of the Apennines. The Arno, which has its source in Italy, but presents in this part a very much altered character, the the Monte Falterona, one of the most elevated summits of the main broken limestone range which is the true continuation of the chain chain of the Tuscan Apennines, flows nearly south till in the neigh- as far as the neighbourhood of Nicastro and Catanzaro, and keeps bourhood of Arezzo it turns abruptly north-west, and pursues that close to the west coast, being flanked on the east by a great mass of course as far as Pontassieve, where it again makes a sudden bend granitic mountains, rising to about 6000 ft., and covered with vast to the west, and pursues a westerly course thence to the sea, passing forests, from which it derives the name of La Sila. A similar mass, through Florence and Pisa. Its principal tributary is the Sieve, separated from the preceding by a low neck of Tertiary hills, fills which joins it at Pontassieve, bringing down the waters of the Val di up the whole of the peninsular extremity of Italy from Squillace Mugello. The Elsa and the Era, which join it on its left bank, to Reggio. Its highest point is called Aspromonte (6420 ſt.). descending from the hills near Siena and Volterra, are inconsiderable While the rugged and mountainous district of Calabria, extending streams; and the Serchio, which flows from the territory of Lucca nearly due south for a distance of more than 150 m., thus derives its and the Alpi Apuani, and formerly joined the Arno a few miles from character and configuration almost wholly from the range of the its mouth, now enters the sea by a separate channel. The most Apennines, the long spur-like promontory which projects towards considerable rivers of Tuscany south of the Arno are the Cecina, the east to Brindisi and Otranto is merely a continuation of the low which flows through the plain below Volterra, and the Ombrone, tract of Apulia, with a dry calcareous soii of Tertiary origin. The which rises in the hills near Siena, and enters the sea about 12 m. Monte Volture, which rises in the neighbourhood of Melfi and Venosa below Grosseto. to 4357 ſt., is of volcanic origin, and in great measure detached from The Tiber, a much more important river than the Arno, and the the adjoining mass of the Apennines. Eastward from this the ranges largest in Italy with the exception of the Po, rises in the Apennines, of low bare hills called the Murgie of Gravina and Altamura gradually about 20 mn. east of the source of the Arno, and flows nearly south by sink into the still more moderate level of those which constitute Borgo S. Sepolcro and Città di Castello, then between Perugia and the peninsular tract between Brindisi and Taranto as far as the Todi to Orte, just below which it receives the Nera. The Nera, Cape of Sta Maria di Leuca, the south-east extremity of Italy. This which rises in the lofty group of the Monte della Sibilla, is a consider- projecting tract, which may be termed the wheel able stream, and brings with it the waters of the Velino (with its Southern Italy, in conjunction with the great promontory of Calabria, tributaries the Turano and the Salto), which joins it a few miles below forms the deep Gulf of Taranto, about 70 m. in width, and somewhat its celebrated waterfall at Terni. The Teverone or Anio, which enters greater depth, which receives a number of streams from the central the Tiber a few miles above Rome, is an inferior stream to the Nera, mass of the Apennines. but brings down a considerable body of water from the mountains None of the rivers of Southern Italy is of any great importance. above Subiaco. It is a singular fact in the geography of Central The Liri (Liris) or Garigliano, which has its source in the central Italy that the valleys of the Tiber and Arno are in some measure Apennines above Sora, not far from Lake Fucino, and enters the connected by that of the Chiana, a level and marshy tract, the waters Gulf of Gaeta about 10 m. east of the city of that name, brings down from which flow partly into the Arno and partly into the Tiber. a considerable body of water; as does also the Volturno, which rises The eastern declivity of the central Apennines towards the in the mountains between Castel di Sangro and Agnone, flows past Adriatic is far less interesting and varied than the western. The Isernia, Venafro and Capua, and enters the sea about 15 m. from the central range here approaches much nearer to the sea, and hence, mouth of the Garigliano. About 16 m. above Capua it receives the with few exceptions, the rivers that low from it have short Calore, which ws by Benevento. Silarus or Sele enters the Gulf courses and are of comparatively little importance. They may be of Salerno a few miles below the ruins of Paestum. Below this the enumerated, proceeding from Rimini southwards:. (1) the Foglia; watershed of the Apennines is too near to the sea on that side to (2) the Metauro, of historical celebrity, and affording access to one allow the formation of any large streams. Hence the rivers that flow of the most frequented passes of the Apennines; (3) the Esino; (4) in the opposite direction into the Adriatic and the Gulf of Taranto the Potenza; (5) the Chienti; (6) the Aso; (7) the Tronto; (8) have much longer courses, though all partake of the character of the Vomano; (9) the Aterno; (10) the Sangro; (11) the Trigno, mountain torrents, rushing down with great violence in winter and which forms the boundary of the southernmost province of the after storms, but dwindling in the summer into scanty streams, Abruzzi, and may therefore be taken as the limit of Central Italy. which hold a winding and sluggish course through the great plains of The whole of this portion of Central Italy is a hilly country, much | Apulia. Proceeding south from the Trigno, already mentioned as broken and cut up by the torrents from the mountains, but fertile, constituting the limit of Central Italy, there are (1) the Biſerno and especially in fruit-trees, olives and vines; and it has been, both in (2) the Fortore, both rising in the mountains of Samnium, and flow- ancient and modern times, a populous district, containing many ing into the Adriatic west of Monte Gargano; (3) the Cervaro, south small towns though no great cities. Its chief disadvantage is the of the great promontory; and (4) the Ofanto, the Aufidus of Horace, absence of ports, the coast preserving an almost unbroken straight whose description of it is characteristic of almost all the rivers of line, with the single exception of Ancona, the only port worthy of the Southern Italy, of which it may be taken as the typical representative. name on the eastern coast of Central Italy. It rises about 15 m. west of Conza, and only about 25 m. from the 3. Southern Italy:-The great centr mass of the Apennines, which Gulf of Salerno, so that it is frequently (though erroneously) has held its course throughout Central Italy, with a general direc: as traversing the whole range of the Apennines. In its lower course it tion from north-west to south-east, may be considered as continued flows near Canosa and traverses the celebrated battlefield of Cannae. in the same direction for about 100 m. farther, from the basin-shaped (5) The Bradano, which rises near Venosa, almost at the foot of group of the Monti del Matese (which rises to 6660 ft.) to the neigh- Monte Volture, flows towards the south-east into the Gulf of Taranto, bourhood of Potenza, in the heart of the province of Basilicata, as do the Basento, the Agri and the Sinni, all of which descend from corresponding nearly to the ancient Lucania. The whole of the the central chain of the Apennines south of Potenza. The Crati, district known in ancient times as Samnium (a part of which retaiņs which flows from Cosenza northwards, and then turns abruptly the name of Sannio, though officially designated the province of eastward to enter the same gulf, is the only stream worthy of notice Campobasso) is occupied by an irregular mass of mountains, of much in the rugged peninsula of Calabria; while the arid limestone hills infcrior height to those of Central Italy, and broken up into a number projecting eastwards to Capo di Leuca do not give rise to anything of groups, intersected by rivers, which have for the most part a very more than a mere streamlet, from the mouth of the Ofanto to the This mountainous tract, which has an average south-eastern extremity of Italy. breadth of from 50 to 60 m., is bounded west by the plain of Cam- The only important lakes are those on or near the north frontier, pania, now called the Terra di Lavoro, and east by the much broader formed by the expansion of the tributaries of the Po. They have and more extensive tract of Apulia or Puglia, composed partly of been already noticed in connexion with the rivers by which Lakes. level plains, but for the most part of undulating downs, contrasting they are formed, but may be again enumerated in order of sirongly with the mountain ranges of th Apennines, which rise succession. They are, proceeding from west to east, (1) the Lago abruptly above them. The central mass of the mountains, however, d'Orta, (2) the Lago Maggiore, (3) the Lago di Lugano, (4) the Lago throws out two outlying ranges, the one to the west, which separates di Como, (5) the Lago d'Iseo, (6) the Lago d'Idro, and (7) the Lago di the Bay of Naples from that of Salerno, and culminates in the Monte Garda. Of these the last named is considerably the largest, covering S. Angelo above Castellammare (4720 ft.), while the detached volcanic an arca of 143 sq. m. It is 321 m. long by to broad; while the Lago cone of Vesuvius (nearly 4000 ft.) is isolated from the ncighbouring Maggiore, notwithstanding its name, though considerably exceeding mountains by an intervening strip of plain. On the east side in like it in length (37 m.), falls materially below it in superficial extent. manner the Monte Gargano (3465 ft.), a detached limestone mass They are all of great depth--the Lago Maggiore having an extreme tortuous course. 4 100% сч 5 38° VIA SALARIA Grenzo NOMENTANA F VIA Anio TIBURTINA Acqua 18° G Scale, 1:500,000 Miles 2 Railways....Roads. Aqueducts.. Bagni of Tivoli Marcia Anio Castel- madama V.Adriana 1 Mte. Pagliaro S.Vittorino Corcoll Gallicano nel Lazio 46" 1 E 46 LBienne Neuchâtel Neuchatel A Biel Estavayer Fribourg Burgdorf 8° Berne Lucerne B LWalen S Schwyz Cards WL.Lucernerinththal 10° C LIECHTENSTEIN Imst Vaduz Bludenz Fulpmes WITZERLAND Meiringen Thun Brienz Hanz L.Thur Brienz Interlaken Grindelwald Andermatt Thusis S.Gotthard Spigen Frutigen Zweisimmen Mürren Villeneuve Beneva Ber Maurice Rhone Martigny O Brie Simplon Rhone Tesa Domodossolay Pennine Alps Pallanza Baycho Morron Pan Varallo Bellinzon Locarnoy Sund ortas Matter St.Bernard Lith Bernard S.Remy Courmayeur Aosta Res Chatillon pordBarted Verres Sesia Arona Mosso Biella Modane raja Cenic KIDS Donnas Paradiso Cantella Locanonte Stura Cuorgne Lanzad Orco P Ivrea Roche Melon Voltano (Chivasso Bussoleno Seto Calende VMiso Magading Jugano Maggiore BRIANZA Borgomanero Gallarate Busto Arsizio Coire Roster Finsterming St.Moritz Davos Flatz Engadine Rhaetian ips Chiavenna O Sondrio Zernez Mals Getztheter A Esch Stelvio Bormioter Mee Tonale Tirane P altelland dol Clusone Mta Adamello SoBreno Camer Ogito Lidro o Gorgonzola Chiari Brescia Riva Garda Kaltern Franzens feste Meran Botzen Fleims Pass 12° D Hate Iquern Venediger Gr Glockner TRA St.Leonhard Marmolatá That Cadorische Alps Dolom Trent (Trienth Borgo V Suga Torrebelvicino Sale Caprino Valdagno Rivoli Bardolino MagentaLOMBARDY Astago Asiero · Petre Lienz That Mauterndorfo Ober 14 Mur Thal ramsweg Neumarkt Weisskirchen HUNGARY Drauburg Op. Ordu That Sachsenburg Unt. DrauThaler Hermagor Carnic Alps Gart Thal Pieve di Cadore Belluno Tezze vittorio Thiene N Marostica Asolo Bassano Cittadella of Brenta Castelfranco Veneto Zuglio Tolmezzo Tagliamento A Pordenone Wito Oderzo Motta Conegliano bevise Pifave Altino Murano Burano Villafranca Lonigo Euganean agua Venice Isonzo Khorodnitz Wolfsburg Klagenfurt Drave Karaw Veldes an Alps \Draut, wanken Save Udine Cividale del Frium Laibach Görz Portogr Concordia Aquileia Monfalcone Isonzo Stein CopLaibach E 16° Casale Marcigliana Buffalotta Tre.S.Giovanni C.Oleofe La Giustiniana Grottarossa CASSIA TRIONFAL Mte Mario ANTEMNAE Borghese FT.MTE MARIO FT.BRASCHI VATICANE FVALCANUTA ET.AURELIA FT.ROJAN Mte. Verde EFT.PORTUENSE VIA PORTUENSIS Zirknitz Gottschee G.of Trieste Trieste Capodistria St.Peter Pirano Mitterburg G.of Delnice Fiume Lang Colico Como Bellagio Carchabbia 68 Como Varese rba Lecco Parfe overe Varese Erb Vizzola O Saronno Monga Bergamo Sarnice Iseo Idro Iseo Schio Q Legnano Tregnago W Vicenza Mestre Novara a bbiategra Milan Vercelli Treviglie Melegnano Crema Soncino Castiglione delle Stivero Peschiera Verona 5.Bonifacio Aband Custoza Bagni 40 Sollerino Trino tala ora Ripari Avigliana 0 Racconigi Po Tana Fenestrelle Glavende Rivoli EDMONT Pinerolo Vinovo Carignano Asti Torre Pettice uson Cavouro Barge Saluzzo Busca Mte Viso Varaita Prazzo Maira Carmagnola Tanaro Alessandria Bra Savigliang Maddalena Cuneostura Borge d S. Dalmazzo Fossano Mendoy Limone C.dicTenda Alta equi Bormolareoncos Ampolizirbo Cebissol Savonajo Garessio Alassio Vado Albenga Gulf of Genoa Brusasco Gasale Turin Chieri To po 9gevang Lodi Pavia Casalpuster Garlasco Volta Goito Verona Colognaoua o Veneta Hills Battaglia Gulf of Rismo) Fiume Esta Asala Cannet Legnago Montagnana Cavarzer Mantua مdig Monferrato Borgoforte Rovigo Chioggia Brondolo Adige Venice Parenzo I stra Rovigno WOstiglia Voghera Piacenza Can Danc Mouths of 6Tortona the Po Sezze rabbia Guastalla Pola O Novi Ligur Bobbio ure Oyada O Reno lodi Pedis Quarnero Unie M Paolo S.Sebastiano T.OSTIENSE FT ARDEATINA Magliana equacetosa o Vallerano Malpasso LABICANA TU CASILINA FT APRIA Cecchignola Acqua Felice di Mezzavia Monte Porzio Catone /FT. TIBURTINA FT.PRENESTIRA VIA PRAENESTINA Passerano Osteria dell'Osa Mte.Falcone Finocchio VIA ANA VCATINA Colonna Zagarolo Monte Compatri Marino A Castel Gandolfo Albano b Rocca di Papa APta.Faette Palazzolo Hills Mte.Ceraso La Cava Doganella Frascati. Grottaferrata b an Rocca Priora Castel di Leva Falcognana Fratocchie Mte Cavo L. Trigoria Castel Lariano M.Migliore Alband 2 Castel Romano Palazzo Morgano Spalomba O Nemt Arietia Mte.Peschio ariano L.Nemi O Zolforata Capocotta Cerqueto Genzano Civita Lavinia S.Procula O Prattica di Mare Capdell' Osteriaccia L.Giulianello Velletri Environs of ROME ปี F 3 42° della Rivie Varazze di Ponen Onegliag Porto Maurizio Taggia San Remo Mentone Ventimiglia Monaco Bordighera Var Nice Antibes Addard Tengooo Stradella o Oftone erolanuova Pizzignettone Cremona d'Arda Boz Sabbioneta O Casalmaggiore Borgo S.Donnino. Mte. Bue efn Torriglia Recao Chiavart Lavagna Rapallo F Tadapa Gonzaga Mirandola O Correggi Parma Reggio nell'Emilia Borgotaro M Sestri Levante Lard Genoa Rivier Riviera C.Corse C. Bianod G. of St. Florent Ile Rousse Pte.Revellata G.of Galeria Pte. Scandola Calvi G.of Porto Evisa C.Rosso CORSICA Carges (to France) Asinara C.Falcone C.Argentiera G.of Sagone C.Fend Ajaccio G. of Ajaccio C.Muro O St.Florent Murato Mt.Podro Go Spezia di a Cisa Pontremoli of Spe Leric Levante arzana Tara Enz Concordi Badia Po Ferrara Panaro pinale Unlodenal Cento Sassuolo Castelfranco Secchia Vignola Bologna S Payullo Canute.Cimone Chiostelnuovo diGarfagnana Massa Bagnidig Pietrasanta Camajore Viareggio Serchio Arno Pisa Leghorno Marittima Rosignano Gorgona Rogliano Luri C. Sagro Bastia L.Biguglia Golo o Piedicroce Moita Mte-cinto Corte Mte.Rotondo Vezzani bigwone Soceia Gravone Bocognano Meria Tolla Zicayoo Faravo G.of Valing9A Sartene C.Zivia Tavignano Ghisonaccia Travo Solenzara Favone Sta Lucia Porto Porto Vecchio Pte.Chiappa ecchie C.Fendo Pte.Capicciolo Bonifacio Strait of Bonifacia C.Testa Maddalena LaMaddalena Caprera G. of Cugnana Golfo degli Aras C.Figari Tempio Pausania G.of Terranoua Coghinas Mti Terranova Limbara Pta. Caprara Gulf of Asinara Porto Torres Sassari C.Caccia Alghero Bonorva C.Marrargiu Bosa Macomer Cuglier C.Mann C.S.Marco G.of Oristano C.Frasca Guspini Dzieri Mti d'Ala Vada Beno Kulang Po di Goro Comacchio Argenta Valle dei Mezzano Solare mold Santernodenza la Futa グ ​Pescia Montecatini Lucca Pistola Stew O Prato Lamone Lugo Montone Modigrane Reno Ravenna Savio onli Cervia Forlimpopoli Be Cesena Bertinorg Rocca SCasciand Mte Florence Fiesole Falterona Bucca Fucecchio Pontedera Empoli Ponta sieve Stia Vllombro Miniato ignano sa S.Gimignano. Volterrad Cecina Saline Figline o Certaldo rato agno Arn Montevarchi g Poggibonat Golle Siena fiosarsing Fiumicino (Rubicon) S Angelo Umbrian in Vaulo Rimini MARINO Pesaro Foglia Urbino Urbania Mte. Nerone Cagli diCastalle Scheggie Lucignano Cortona Gubbio Arezzo Spolcro Apenni Fing Cecina TU S CARNEY Lignite Gornate San Vincenzo. Massa Capraia Capraia Marittima Asciand Montepulciano Montalcino Pienza Quirico Chiusi Merse Follonica Gavorrano Populonia Piombino Portoferraio Rio Mte A Capanne ME C. Coda Cavallo Nieddu Posada Mte.Alvo Posada C.Comino Pta. Nera Elba Pianosa B Marina Castiglione dolla Pescaia Maremma Ombrone Talamone Mte.Argentar Giglio Giannutri Montecristo one Radicofani Mte.Amiata Grosseto Albegna Pitigliano Orbetello L. Bolseng Montefiascone Toscanella Fano Fossom brone Furlo Pass ergola Crite, Metauro Sinigaglia Esino Jesi Osimo Catria Recanati Cingol Ancona Numana Toreto Potenza 6Fabriano Macerata Matelica Severino Tolentino Perugiama Camerino Fermo Assisi Me Pennino Spello S Bevagna Foligno UMBRIA S Aso Montalto Veglia Lago Quarnerolo Cherso Castel Porziario Selve Ulbo Premuda Melada Nona Zara Benkovac Knin Valland Pasman Lunga Incoronata D R IATI C Chivitanova Tenna Porto S.Giorgio Pedaso OR patransone Ascoli Piceno Vettor o Teramo Pzo di Sevo Mte. Corno ds.Benedetto del Tronto Tronto Giulianova Tordino Vomano Castellammare Adriatico, Citta S.Angelo Q Gualdo Tadino L.Trasimene Chiusi Citta della Pieve Phalia Acquapendente Sovana Orvieto Todi Bolsena 6 Norcia Spoleto S.Gemini Terni Bagnorea Amelia Narni Viterbo Orte Gallese Sabi Turand Mte Terminillo Verinon Rieti PoggioMirteto Falls Leonessa Aquila Salto Mte. Velino Celano Albeo Sulmona MterGennaro Avezzano Mite.Amaro Palepa Frascati Subiaco Palestrina aid Corneto Tarqui Mart Vico Civita Castellana Ronciglione Sutti Mignone Tolfa Civita Vecchia C.Linaro Bracciano Nept Bracciano Monterotondo Palos, Campagnαμα τίνοι Romeno Fiumicino Tiber Marino Alban Ostia Ardea Hills Velletri Porto d'Anzio Cor Nettuno Atrio Penne Gran Sasso d'Italia O UZ Aterno Popolo -Pescina Fucino Sacco Anagni Ferentino Alatri Veroti oArt Segui O Scanno Scanito Sora Sangro O Francavilla al Mare Pescara Chieti Ortona ds.Vita Sangro Lanciano M Agnone sola delli di Sangro Frosinone Arpino Atina Lepini Sex Pontin Marshes Mte.Circello Vonaft Piperno Pontecorvo Aquino oFondi Liris Itrio Gaet Terracina Ponza Is. Zannone Palmarold Ponza Mte.S. Croce Sess Vasto Q Pta.della Penna Trigno Guelionest O Larino Trivento S Termoli Biferno Isernia Campobasso Mon Bojano del Matese Mte Miletto Woltur Teano Calvi Capuay Caserta Gulf of Gaeta Liris (Garigliano) Mondragono Volturno Ventotene SARDINIA TYRRHENIAN Bultci Nuoro Orosei Dorgal G. of Orosei Ursulet C.Mte. Santo Taloro Sorgono Monti del C. Bellavista Tortoli Gennargenty Oristano Lacon Landsei Ales Terralba Jerzu Nurri C.Sferra.Cavallo Maddas C.Palmeri Ballao Campida C.Pecor Flumini Maggiore Iglesias Carloforte S.Pietro S.Antioco S.Antioco Sixerri Portoscuso Santali Samassi Humendosa Cavoli I. Cagliari Gulf of Mte.Massico ragorie Cis Pauceris Bto.Boite G.of Palma C. Teulada Volturno Castelvolturno Arnone Codi Pantano Decimomannu C.S.Lorenzo Muravera Cagliari C.Ferrato Quarto Sant'Elena C. Spartivento Grazzanise Serpentara. C. Carbonara Capua Sta Maria Capua Vetere Marcianise o o Casal di Principe Os.Cipriano Teverola Trentola Lusciano Aversa Casagiove Forio Aite. Epomeo Testaccio O Frasso Mte.Taburno S.Agata de Gott Montesarchio Cervinara Caserta Maddaloni M.Decoro Arienzo Cancello Pantano Gricignano dall'Acerra Caivano Monti Avella Cicciano Fratta Giugliano Afragola Acerra Camposano Marigliano Cisterna Nola Villarica Mugnano Marzano Casoria Marano Pomigliano Saviano O di Nola O Piano d'Ardo Secondiglianor Lauro di Quarto S. Gennaro Palma L.Licola Fields Camaldoli Ponticelli Gli Soccavo S.Sebastiano CUMAE Astroni O L. Averno A Mte. L.Agnang Barra Solfatara S.Giovann a Teduccio L.Patria Patrio Qualiano Zaccaria OMugnano Phlegrean Mte. Naples S.Anastasia C. Posilipo Nisida Nulf of Pozzuol C. Miseno Avella Baiano SEA Aegadian Is. Levanzo Marittimo D Carin G. of Castellammare Castellammar C.S.Vito Mte Ustica Monrealeo Piedimonte no Telese Caiazzo Oversa Acerray Naples L.Fusaro T.Gavets Ischia Fortors u! ( Sebenico Sinj B 0 Kupres Visoko Basna a Ivančici 44 Zupanjac Serajevo Konjica Mostaro Herzegova ric Cetina Spalato Soltas Brazza Lissa 11 m Lesing Curzola Lagosta as Metković Sabbioncello Busi Pianosa Tremiti Is. Lesina Pelagosa Peschici Seracaprios. Varanorganico Cajola Vica Vieste Rodi Mte, Gargano S.Severo Totte Maggiore Ducera Foggia Ceruaro oTroia S.Bartolomed in Galdo Benevento Bai O S Torre di Porticello Gargano Prom. Monte Sant'Angelo Manfredonia Gulf of Manfredonia Salpi Trinitapoli Ordona Barletta Trani Cetignola Canna Ofanto Boying Ariano di Rugin Lacedonia rigento Bisaccia S.Angelo Odei Lonhar Nusco Conza Nola Avellino Vesuvius Annunziata Cayag Eboli Procida Bay of Naples de dumare Amalfi Salerno Gulf of Salerno Sele Molfe 000Giovinazzo Meleda, E A Canosandria Bisceglie. Terlizzi Bari Ofanto Corato o/ Ruvo U Murgi Bitonto Altamura e Melfi Venos Rapolla Volture Acerenza Muto Acerno olucano Avigliano oTricarico agento PicoPotenza O Graving Bradago Mola di Bari Conversano Gioia Monopoli Putignano renta Nevesinje 3 Ragusa Torre d'Egnazia oFasano del Colle Eranen O Matera Castellaneta Mbe. Alburno BASILICATA, } Capaccio Mto Giol Agropol C.Licosa Stella Pollica Pisciotta Pta. Palinuro Teggiano o Mte. Marsico Nuovo O Padula Ovallo Ceruati fetarent Sta Pisticct Sauro MontemurO Massafra C.S.Vito Bradano Basento Cavone Agri Sinni starsi, Moliterno Rotondella Policoro Lagonegro O Chiaromontoriolo Lauria Rotonda Lorano Ostuni Carovigno Ο O Castelnuovo to de Normannt Brindisi Francavilla Mare O Fontana Piccolo Oria Taranto Manduria Maruggio Copertino o Nardoo Gulf of Gallipoli Amendolara Mormanhoo Monte Pollino Trebisacce Castrovillario Camerota Policastro Gulf of Policastro Lipari Islands, Filiqudi Salina Alicudio Bagheria C.Zaffermo Termini Cefalù Trapani Giuliano Alcamo Marineo Favignana Stagnone C.Boeo O Calatanini Salemio Marsala C.Feto Mazzara del Vally C. Granitola 6 36% 7 Pta Caruso acco LFusaro Torre Gaveta Casamicciola Mte.S Nicola Panza OS.Angelo Baiac Mare Morto Porto d'Ischia Vivaa Ischia Miseno Procida Procida Ischia Bay of ano S. Pancraz Environs of NAPLES Scale, 1:720,000 English Miles 013345 Railways Roads 10 Anacapri o Mte. Solaro & Portic Somma Mte. Somma Ottajano Vesuvius Resina HERCULANEUM Torre del Greco Boscoreale Boscotrecase Torre Annunziata S.Giuseppe Striano Valentino S.Marzano Scafati POMPEII Naples Castellammare C.Sorrento C.Massa di Stabia Vico EquenseBonea Quindici Episcopia Sarno Pagani SarnoAngrio Corbara Nocera Campinola o Gragnano Rimonte Sorrento Mte S. Angelo Mera Agerola SAgnello Massalubrense on Mte.S.Costanzo Capo O Capri Capri Tores S.Agata Li Galli Nerano Pta.Campanella Positano Minori Ravelbo Maiori Atrani Amalfi Conca Marini Praiano Gulf of Salerno Pantelleria A 8° B 10° C Partinico Corleone Castelvetrano o Mezzojuso Lercara Friddi Prizzi Menti Castelterminio Sciacca C.S.Marco C. Bianco Ribera Platani Montallegro fagona Porto Empedocleg Girgent Vulcano C.Calaug C.d'Orlando S.Agata Caronia Castelbuono Madonie Sto, Stefano O Mistretta Capizzi Ne Gangi Bronte conforte Mussomeli O Caltanisetta aNicosia O Patti Stromboli Panaria Lipari C.Milazzo Milazzo Scalea Diamantee Verbicaro Belvedere San Marittimo Marco Cetraro Fuscaldo Paola S. Lucida Taranto C.Trionto Cassano all'Iunio Crati Plam of Sibari Coriglianoo Rossano Bisignano o Cosenza Rogliamo Flumefreddo Amantea Savuto Nicastro a G. of S. Eufemia Tropea C.Vaticand Pizzo Pta.Fiumenica Cariati Longobuceo Botte Donato Pta. dell'Alice Strongoli O S.Giovanni Neto Sta Severina Cotrone Catanzaro Crocchio Maida Squillace C. Colonne C.Cimiti C.Rizzuto Gasperina G. of Squillace Monteleone Nicotero Mileto G. of Gioia Gioia Tauro Palmi(6 Pta.del Faro v.S.Giovanni Messina Montalbano Brodici Randazzo Linguaglossa Scilla Fabrizia Cittanova Badolato Pta.Stilo Gioiosa Ionica oOppido Gerace Mentaltall Ardore Bianco Reggio di Calabria Bova C.Bruzzano Brancaleone Torre Mozza C. Spartivento S. Lazzaro Melito Strait of Messina Agira Centuripe Acireale Paterno Cataldo Castrogiovanni Eavara Palma di Montechiaro Aidone 4 Etna Aderno Giarre Catania Gulf of Catania Canicatti Piazza Armerina Rayanusa o Mineo Lentin C.S. Croce Caltagironeo Grammichele Augusta Vizzini Butera Niscemi Palazzolo o Acroule Licata Saiso Terranova Zomiso Vittoria c.Scaramia Flofidia Ragusa Modica Pozzallo Noto Avola Spaccaforno Pachino MEDITERRANEAN Linosa Lampedusa SEA Syracuse C.Murro di Porco C. Passero ITALY (Modern) Scale, 1:3,700,000 English Miles Gozo (British) Malta (British) Valletta Citta Vecchia 05 TO 20 40 12° D Longitude East 14 of Greenwich E Squinzano C.Sapone Lecce S.Cesario Soleto O Marcano Otranto Galatina Alezio Ugento 6 36° 60 80 100 7 Boundaries of Provinces. Boundaries of Compartments Capitals of Compartments- Railways. Canals. 16° O Fortifications.. Glaciers. F Emery Walker sc. C.S. Maria Leuca 5 37 38° 420 TOPOGRAPHY) ITALY 5 depth of 1198 ft., while that of Como attains to 1365 ft. Of a wholly hood of Civita Vecchia, and attain at their culminating point an different character is the Lago di Varese, between the Lago Maggiore elevation of 3454 ft.; and the mountains of Radicofani and Monte and that of Lugano, which is a mere shallow expanse of water; Amiata, the latter of which is 5688 ft. high. The lakes of Bolsena surrounded by hills of very moderate elevation. Two other small (Vulsiniensis), of Bracciano (Sabatinus), of Vico (Ciminus), of lakes in the same neighbourhood, as well as those of Erba and Albano (Albanus), of Nemi (Nemorensis), and other smaller lakes Pusiano, between Como and Lecco, are of a similar character. belong to this district; while between its south-west extremity and The lakes of Central Italy, which are comparatively of trifling Monte Circello the Pontine Marshes form a broad strip of alluvial dimensions, belong to a wholly different class. The most important soil infested by malaria. of these, the Lacus Fucinus of the ancients, now called the Lago di 3. The volcanic region of the Terra di Lavoro is separated by the Celano, situated almost exactly in the centre of the peninsula, .Volscian mountains from the Roman district. It may be also divided occupies a basin of considerable extent, surrounded by mountains into three groups. Of Roccamonfina, at the N.N.W. end of the and without any natural outlet, at an elevation of more than 2000 ft. Campanian Plain, the highest cone, called Montagna di Santa Croce, Its waters have been in great part carried off by an artificial channel, is 3291 ft. The Phlegraean Fields embrace all the country round and more than half its surface laid bare. Next in size is the Lago Baiaé and Pozzuoli and the adjoining islands. Monte Barbaro Trasimeno, a broad expanse of shallow waters, about 30 m. in circum- (Gaurus), north-east of the site of Cumae, Monte San Nicola ference, surrounded by low hills. The neighbouring lake of Chiusi Epomeus), 2589 ft. in Ischia, and Camaldoli, 1488 ft., west of is of similar character, but much smaller dimensions. All the other Naples, are the highest cones. The lakes Averno (Avernus), Lucrino lakes of Central Italy, which are scattered through the volcanic (Lucrinus), Fusaro (Palus Acherusia), and Agnano are within this districts west of the Apennines, are of an entirely different formation, group, which has shown activity in historical times. A stream of and occupy deep. cup-shaped hollows, which have undoubtedly at lava issued in 1198 from the crater of the Solfatara, which still con- one time formed the craters of extinct volcanoes. Such is the Lago di tinues to exhale steam and noxious gases; the Lava dell' Arso came Bolsena, near the city of the same name, which is an extensive sheet out of the N.E. flank of Monte Epomeo in 1302; and Monte of water, as well as the much smaller Lago di Vico (the Ciminian lake Nuovo, north-west of Pozzuoli (455 ſt.), was thrown up in three days of ancient writers) and the Lago di Bracciano, nearer Rome, while in September 1538. Since its first historical eruption in A.D. 79, to the south of Rome the well known lakes of Albano and Nemi Vesuvius or Somina, which forms the third group, has been in con- have a similar origin. stant activity. The Punta del Nasone, the highest point of Somma, The only lake properly so called in southern Italy is the Lago del is 3714 ft. high, while the Punta del Palo, the highest point of the Matese, in the heart of the mountain group of the same name, of brim of the crater of Vesuvius, varies materially with successive small extent. The so-called lå kes on the coast of the Adriatic north eruptions from 3856 to 4275 ft. and south of the promontory of Gargano are brackish lagoons 4. The Apulian volcanic formation consists of the great mass of communicating with the sea. Monte Volture, which rises at the west end of the plains of Apulia, The three great islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica are closely on the frontier of Basilicata, and is surrounded by the Apennines on connected with Italy, both by geographical position and community | its south-west and north-west sides. Its highest peak, the Pizzuto Islands. of language, but they are considered at length in separate di Melfi, attains an elevation of 4365 ft. Within the widest crater articles. Of the smaller islands that lie near the coasts there are the two small lakes of Monticchio and San Michele. In of Italy, the most considerable is that of Elba, off the west coast of connexion with the volcanic districts we may mention Le Mofete, central Italy, about 50 m. S. of Leghorn, and separated from the the pools of Ampsanctus, in a wooded valley S.E. of Frigento, in mainland at Piombino by a strait of only about 6 m. in width. the province of Avellino, Campania (Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 563-571). North of this, and about midway between Corsica and Tuscany, is The largest is not more than 160 ft. in circumference, and 7 ft. deep. the small island of Capraia, steep and rocky, and only 4 million and recent deposits. It is a great depression=the continuation of The whole of the great plain of Lombardy is covered by Pleistocene but with a secure port; Gorgona, about 25 m. farther north, is still smaller, and is a mere rock, inhabited by a few fishermen. South the Adriatic Sea--filled up by deposits brought down by the rivers of Elba are the equally insignificant islets of Pianosa and Monte- from the mountains. The depression was probably formed during cristo, while the more considerable island of Giglio lies much nearer the later stages of the growth of the Alps. the mainland, immediately opposite the mountain promontory of Climate and Vegetation.—The geographical position of Italy, Monte Argentaro, itself almost an island. The islands farther south extending from about 46° to 38° N., renders it one of the hottest in the Tyrrhenian Sea are of an entirely different character. Of countries in Europe. But the effect of its southern latitude is these Ischia and Procida, close to the northern headland of the Bay tempered by its peninsular character, bounded as it is on both sides of Naples, are of volcanic origin, as is the case also with the more by seas of considerable extent, as well as by the great range of distant group of the Ponza Islands. These are three in number- the Alps with its snows and glaciers to the north. There are thus Ponza, Palmarola and Zannone; while Ventotene (also of volcanic irregular variations of climate. Great differences also exist with formation) is about midway between Ponza and Ischia. The island regard to climate between northern and southern Italy, due in great of Capri, on the other hand, opposite the southern promontory of the part to other circumstances as well as to differences of latitude. Bay of Naples, is a precipitous limestone rock. The Aeolian or Lipari Thus the great plain of northern Italy is chilled by the cold winds Islands, a remarkable volcanic group, belong rather to Sicily than to from the Alps, while the damp warm winds from the Mediterranean Italy, though Stromboli, the most casterly of them, is about equi- are to a great extent intercepted by the Ligurian Apennines. Hence distant from Sicily and from the mainland. this part of the country has a cold winter climate, so that while the The Italian coast of the Adriatic presents a great contrast to its mean summer temperature of Milan is higher than that of Sassari, and opposite shores, for while the coast of Dalmatia is bordered by a equal to that of Naples, and the extremes reached at Milan and succession of islands, great and small, the long and uniform coast-line Bologna are a good deal higher than those of Naples, the mean winter of Italy from Otranto to Rimini presents not a single adjacent island; temperature of Turin is actually lower than ihat of Copenhagen. and the small outlying group of the Tremiti Islands (north of the The lowest recorded winter temperature at Turin is 50 Fahr. Monte Gargano and about 15 m. from the mainland) alone breaks Throughout the region north of the Apennines no plants will thrive the monotony of this part of the Adriatic. which cannot stand occasional severe frosts in winter, so that not only Geology.--The geology of Italy is mainly dependent upon that of oranges and lemons but even the olive tree cannot be grown, except the Apennines (9.v.). "On each side of that great chain are found in specially favoured situations. But the strip of coast between the extensive Tertiary deposits, sometimes, as in Tuscany, the district Apennines and the sea, known as the Riviera of Genoa, is not only of Monferrat, &c., forming a broken, hilly country, at others spreading extremely favourable to the growth of olives, but produces oranges into broad plains or undulating downs, such as the Tavoliere of and lemons in abundance, while even the aloe, the cactus and the Puglia, and the tract that forms the spur of Italy from Bari to palm flourish in many places. Otranto. Central Italy also presents striking differences of climate and Besides these, and leaving out of account the islands, the Italian temperature according to the greater or less proximity to the moun- peninsula presents four distinct volcanic districts. In three of them tains. Thus the greater part of Tuscany, and the provinces thence the volcanoes are entirely extinct, while the fourth is still in great to Rome, enjoy a mild winter climate, and are well adapted to the activity growth of mulberries and olives as well as vines, but it is not till after 1. The Euganean hills form a small group extending for about passing Terracina, in proceeding along the western coast towards 10 m. from the neighbourhood of Padua to Este, and separated from the south, that the vegetation of southern Italy develops in its full the lower offshoots of the Alps by a portion of the wide plain of luxuriance. Even in the central parts of Tuscany, however, the Padua. Monte Venda, their highest peak, is 1890 ft. high. climate is very much affected by the neighbouring mountains, 2. The Roman district, the largest of the four, extends from the and the increasing elevation of the Apennines as they proceed south hills of Albano the frontier of Tuscany, and from the lower slopes produces a corresponding effect upon the temperature. But it is of the Apennines to the Tyrrhenian Sea. It may be divided into when we reach the central range of the Apennines that we find three groups: the Monti Albani, the second highest of which the coldest districts of Italy. In all the upland valleys of the Monte Cavo (3115 ft.), is the ancient Mons Albanus, on the summit Abruzzi snow begins to fall early in November, and heavy storms of which stood the temple of Jupiter Latialis, where the assemblies occur often as late as May; whole communities are shut out for of the cities forming the Latin confederation were held; the Monti months from any intercourse with their neighbours, and some Cimini, which extend from the valley of the Tiber to the neighbour- villages are so long buried in snow that regular passages are made between the different houses for the sake of communication among · The actually highest point is the Maschio delle Faete (3137 ft.). the inhabitants. The district from the south-east of Lake Fucino (See ALBANUS MONS.) to the Piano di Cinque Miglia, enclosing the upper basin of the Sangro 6 [POPULATION ITALY and the small lake of Scanno, is the coldest and most bleak part of fish there are many varieties, the tunny, the sardine and the anchovy Italy south of the Alps. Heavy falls of snow in June are not un- being commercially the most important. Some of the other edible common, and only for a short time towards the end of July are the fish, such as the palombo, are not found in northern waters. Small nights totally exempt from light frosts. Yet less than 40 m. E. of this cuttlefish are in common use as an article of diet. Tortoiseshell, district, and even more to the north, the olive, the fig-tree and the an important article of commerce, is derived from the Thalassochelys orange thrive luxuriantly on the shores of the Adriatic from Ortona caretta, a sea turtle. Of freshwater fish the trout of the mountain to Vasto. In the same way, whilst in the plains and hills round streams and the eels of the coast lagoons may be mentioned. The Naples snow is rarely seen, and never remains long, and the ther- tarantula spider and the scorpion are found in the south of Italy. mometer seldom descends to the freezing-point, 20 m. E. from it in the The aquarium of the zoological station at Naples contains the fertile valley of Avellino, of no great elevation, but encircled by high finest collection in the world of marine animals, showing the wonderful mountains, light frosts are not uncommon as late as June; and 18 m. variety of the different species of fish, molluscs, crustacea, &c., found farther east, in the elevated region of San Angelo dei Lombardi and in the Mediterranean. (E. H. B.; T. As.) Bisaccia, the inhabitants are always warmly clad, and vines grow Population. The following table indicates the areas of the several with difficulty and only in sheltered places. Still farther south-east, provinces (sixty-nine in number), and the population of each accord. Potenza has almost the coldest climate in Italy, and certainly the ing to the censuses of the 31st of December -1881 and the 9th of lowest summer temperatures. But nowhere are these contrasts February 1901. (The larger divisions or compartments in which the so striking as in Calabria. The shores, especially on the Tyrrhenian provinces are grouped are not officially recognized.) Sea, present almost a continued grove of olive, orange, lemon and citron trees, which attain a size unknown in the north of Italy. The sugar-cane flourishes, the cotton-plant ripens to perfection, date. Population Area in trees are seen in the gardens, the rocks are clothed with the prickly, Provinces and Compartments. pear or Indian fig, the enclosures of the fields are formed by aloes and sq. m. 1881. 1901. sometimes pomegranates, the liquorice-root grows wild, and the mastic, the myrtle and many varieties of oleander and cistus form Alessandria 1950 729,710 825,745 the underwood of the natural forests of arbutus and evergreen oak, Cuneo 2882 635,400 670,504 If we turn inland but 5 or 6 m. from the shore, and often even less, Novara. 2553 675,926 763,830 the scene changes. High districts covered with oaks and chestnuts Turin 3955 1,029,214 1,147,414 succeed to this almost tropical vegetation; a little higher up and we reach the elevated regions of the Pollino and the Šila, covered Piedmont 11,340 3,070,250 3,407,493 with firs and pines, and affording rich pastures even in the midst of summer, when heavy dews and light frosts succeed each other in July Genoa 1582 760,122 931,156 and August, and snow begins to appear at the end of September or Porto Maurizio 455 132,251 144,604 early in October. Along the shores of the Adriatic, which are ex- posed to the north-east winds, blowing coldly from over the Albanian Liguria 2037 892,373 1,075,760 mountains, delicate plants do not thrive so well in general as under the same latitude along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Bergamo 1098 390,775 467,549 Southern Italy indeed has in general a very different climate Brescia 1845 471,568 541,765 from the northern portion of the kingdom; and, though large tracts Como 1091 515,050 594,304 are still occupied by rugged mountains of sufficient elevation to retain Cremona 695 302,097 329,471 the snow for a considerable part of the year, the districts adjoining Mantua. 912 295,728 315,448 the sea enjoy a climate similar to that of Greece and the southern Milan 1223 1,114,991 1,450,214 provinces of Spain. Unfortunately several of these fertile tracts Pavia 1290 469,831 504,382 suffer severely from malaria (q.v.), and especially the great plain Sondrio 1232 120,534 130,966 adjoining the Gulf of Tarentum, which in the early ages of history was surrounded by a girdle of Greek cities--some of which Lombardy 9386 3,680,574 4,334,099 attained to almost unexainpled prosperity-has for centuries past been given up to almost complete desolation. Belluno 1293 174,140 214,803 It is remarkable that, of the vegetable productions of Italy, many Padua 823 397,762 444,360 which are at the present day among the first to attract the attention Rovigo 685 217,700 222,057 of the visitor are of comparatively late introduction, and were un- Treviso. 960 375,704 416,945 known in ancient times. The olive indeed in all ages clothed the Udine 2541 501,745 614,720 hills of a large part of the country; but the orange and lemon, are Venice 934 356,708 399,823 a late importation from the East, while the cactus or Indian fig and Verona. 1188 394,065 427,018 the aloe, both of them so conspicuous on the shores of southern Italy, Vicenza 1052 396,349 453,621 as well as of the Riviera of Genoa, are of Mexican origin, and conse- quently could not have been introduced earlier than the 16th century. Venetia 9476 2,814,173 3,193,347 The same remarkapplies to the maize or Indian corn. Many botanists are even of opinion that the sweet chestnut, which now constitutes Bologna 1448 464,879 529,619 so large a part of the forests that clothe the sides both of the Alps and Ferrara IOI2 230,807 270,558 the Apennines, and in some districts supplies the chief food of the Forlì 725 251,110 283,996 inhabitants, is not originally of Italian growth; it is certain that Modena 987 279,254 323,598 it had not attained in ancient times to anything like the extension Parma 267,306 303,694 and importance which it now possesses. The eucalyptus is of quite Piacenza 954 226,758 250,491 modern introduction; it has been extensively planted in malarious Ravenna 715 218,359 234,656 districts. The characteristic cypress, ilex and stone-pine, however, Reggio (Emilia) 876 244,959 281,085 are native trees, the last-named Nourishing especially near the coast. The proportion of evergreens is large, and has a marked effect on the Emilia 7967 2,183,432 2,477,697 landscape in winter. Fauna.—The chamois, bouquetin and marmot are found only in Arezzo 1273 238,744 275,588 the Alps, not at all in the Apennines. In the latter the bear was found Florence 2265 790,776 945,324 in Roman times, and there are said to be still a few remaining. Grosseto 1738 114,295 137.795 Wolves are more numerous, though only in the mountainous Leghorn 133 121,612 121,137 districts; the flocks are protected against them by large white sheep- Lucca 558 284,484 329,986 dogs, who have some wolf blood in them. Wild boars are also found Massa and Carrara 687 169,469 202,749 in mountainous and forest districts. Foxes are common in the Pisa 1179 283,563 319,854 neighbourhood of Rome. The sea mammals include the common Siena 1471 205,926 233,874 dolphin (Delphinus delphis). The birds are similar to those of central Europe; in the mountains vultures, eagles, buzzards, kites, falcons Tuscany 9304 2,208,869 2,566,307 and hawks are found. Partridges, woodcock, snipe, &c., are among the game birds; but all kinds of small birds are also shot for food, Ancona. 762 267,338 308,346 and their number is thus kept down, while many members of the Ascoli Piceno 796 209,185 251,829 migratory species are caught by traps in the foothills on the south Macerata 1087 239,713 269.505 side of the Alps, especially near the Lake of Como, on their passage. Pesaro and Urbino I118 223,043 259,083 Large numbers of quails are shot in the spring. Among reptiles, the various kinds of lizard are noticeable. There are several varieties Marches 3763 939,279 1,088,763 of snakes, of which three species (all vipers) are poisonous. Of sea- 1 On the influence of malaria on the population of Early Italy see Perugia-Umbria . 3748 572,060 675,352 W. H. S. Jones in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, ii. 97 sqq. (Liverpool, 1909). Rome-Lazio 4663 903,472 1,142,526 1250 POPULATION) ITALY 7 sq. m. 2568 1221 948 The average density increased from 257.21 per sq. m. in 1881 to Area in Population. Provinces and Compartments. 293.28 in 1901. In Venetia, Emilia, the Marches, Umbria and 1881. 1901. Tuscany the proportion of concentrated population is only from 40 to 55%; in Piedmont, Liguria and Lombardy the proportion Aquila degli Abruzzi (Abruzzo rises to from 70 to 76%; in southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia it Ulteriore II.) 2484 353,027 436,367 attains a maximum of from 76 to 93%. Campobasso (Molise). 1691 365;434 389,976 The population of towns over 100,000 is given in the following Chieti (Abruzzo Citeriore) 1138 343,948 387,604 table according to the estimates for 1906. The population of the Teramo (Abruzzo Ulteriore I.) 1067 254,806 312,188 town itself is distinguished from that of its commune, which often includes a considerable portion of the surrounding country. Abruzzi and Molise 6380 1.317,215 1,526,135 Town. Commune. Bologna 105,153 160,423 Avellino (Principato Ulteriore) 1172 392,619 421,766 Catania 135,548 159,210 Benevento 818 238,425 265,460 Florence 201,183 226,559 Caserta (Terra di Lavoro) 2033 714,131 805,345 Genoa 255,294 267,248 Naples 350 1,001,245 1,141,788 Messina 108,514 165,007 Salerno (Principato Citeriore) 1916 550,157 585,132 Milan 560,613 Naples 491,614 585,289 Campania 6289 2,896,577 3,219.491 Palermo 264,036 323,747 Rome 403,282 516,580 Bari delle Puglie(Terra di Bari) 2065 679,499 837,683 Turin 277,121 361,720 Foggia (Capitanata) 2688 356,267 421,115 Venice 146,940 169,563 Lecce (Terra di Otranto) 2623 553,298 705,382 The population of the different parts of Italy differs in charac- Apulia 7376 1,589,064 1,964,180 ter and dialect; and there is little community of sentiment between them. The modes of life and standards of comfort and Potenza (Basilicata) 3845 524,504 491,558 morality in north Italy and in Calabria are widely different; the Catanzaro (Calabria Ulteriore former being far in front of the latter. Much, however, is effected II.) 2030 433,975 498,791 towards unification, by compulsory military service, it being the Cosenza (Calabria Citeriore) : 451,185 503,329 principle that no man shall serve within the military district to Reggio di Calabria (Calabria which he belongs. In almost all parts the idea of personal Ulteriore I.). 372,723 437,209 loyalty (e.g. between master and servant) retains an almost Calabria 5819 1,257,883 1,439,329 feudal strength. The inhabitants of the north-the Pied- montese, Lombards and Genoese especially-have suffered less Caltanisetta 1263 266,379 329,449 than those of the rest of the peninsula from foreign domination Catania 1917 563,457 703,598 Girgenti and from the admixture of inferior racial elements, and the cold 1 172 312,487 380,666 Messina 1246 460,924 550,895 winter climate prevents the heat of summer from being enervat- Palermo 1948 699,151 796,151 ing. They, and also the inhabitants of central Italy, are more Syracuse 1442 341,526 433,796 industrious than the inhabitants of the southern provinces, Trapani 283,977 373,569 who have by no means recovered from centuries of misgovern- Sicily 9936 2,927,901 3,568,124 ment and oppression, and are naturally more hot-blooded and excitable, but less stable, capable of organization or trust- Cagliari 5204 420,635 486,767 worthy. The southerners are apathetic except when roused, Sassari 261,367 309,026 and socialist doctrines find their chief adherents in the north. Sardinia 9294 682,002 The Sicilians and Sardinians have something of Spanish dignity, 795.793 but the former are one of the most mixed and the latter probably Kingdom of Italy 110,623 28,459,628 32,965.504 one of the purest races of the Italian kingdom. Physical character- The number of foreigners in Italy in 1901 was 61,606, of whom istics differ widely; but as a whole the Italian is somewhat short 37,762 were domiciled within the kingdom. of stature, with dark or black hair and eyes, often good looking. The population given in the foregoing table is the resident or Both sexes reach maturity early. Mortality is decreasing, but lega!” population, which is also given for the individual towns. if we may judge from the physical conditions of the recruits the This is 490,251 higher than the actual population, 32,475:253, physique of the nation shows little or no improvement. Much of ascertained by the census of the roth of February 1901; the differ- ence is due to temporary absences from their residences of certain this lack of progress is attributed to the heavy manual (especially individuals on military service, &c., who probably were counted twice, agricultural) work undertaken by women and children. The and also to the fact that 469,020 individuals were returned as absent women especially age rapidly, largely owing to this cause (E. from Italy, while only 61,606. foreigners were in Italy at the date of Nathan, Venť anni di vita italiana attraverso all'annuario, the census. The kingdom is divided into 69 provinces, 284, regions, of which 197 are classed as circondarii and 8 as districts (the latter 169 sqq.). belonging to the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of Memetia): considerably, being highest in the centre and south (Umbria, the Births, Marriages, Deaths.-Birth and marriage rates vary 1806 administrative divisions (mandamenti) and 8262 communes. These were the figures at the date of the census. In 1906 there were Marches, Apulia, Abruzzi and Molise, and Calabria) and lowest in the 1805 mandamenti and 8290 communes, and 4 boroughs in Sardinia, north (Piedmont, Liguria and Venetia), and in Sardinia. The not connected with communes. The mandamenti or administrative death-rate is highest in Apulia, in the Abruzzi and Molise, and in divisions no longer correspond to the judicial divisions (mandamenti Sardinia, and lowest in the north, especially in Venetia and Piedmont. giudiziarii) which in November 1891 were reduced from 1806 to Taking the statistics for the whole kingdom, the annual marriage- 1535 by a law which provided that judicial reform should not modify rate for the years 1876–1880 was 7453 per 1000; in 1881–1885 it rose existing administrative and electoral divisions. The principal elective to 8.06; in 1886-1890 it was 7677; in 1891-1895 it was 7:41, and in local administrative bodies are the provincial and the communal 1896-1900 it had gone down to 7.14 (a figure largely produced by councils. The franchise is somewhat wider than the parliamentary. the abnormally low rate of 6.88 in 1898), and in 1902 was 7.23. Both bodies are elected for six years, one-half being renewed every Divorce is forbidden by the Roman Catholic Church, and only 839 three years. The provincial council elects a provincial commission judicial separations were obtained from the courts in 1902, more and the communal council a municipal council from among its own than half of the demands made having been abandoned. Of the members; these smaller bodies carry on the business of the larger whole population in 1901, 57.5% were unmarried, 36.0% married, while they are not sitting. The syndic of each commune is elected and 6.5% widowers or widows. The illegitimate births show a by ballot by the communal council from among its own members. decrease, having been 6.95' per 100 births in 1872 and 5.72 in 1902, The actual (not the resident or“ legal ") population of Italy since with a rise, however, in the intermediate period as high as 7-76 in 1770 is approximately given in the following table (the first census 1883. The birth-rate shows a corresponding decrease from 38.10 of the kingdom as a whole was taken in 1871):- per 1000 in 1881 to 33.29 in 1902. The male births have since 1872 1770 14,689,317 1861 25,016,801 been about 3% (3•14 in 1872-1875 and 2.72 in 1896–1900) in excess 1800 17,237,421 1871 26,801,154 of the female births, which is rather more than compensated for by 1825 19,726,977 1881 28,459,628 the greater male mortality, the excess being 2.64 in 1872–1875 and 1848. 23.617,153 1901 32,475,253 having increased to 4.08 in 1896-1900. · (The calculations are made 4090 66 . . 8 (AGRICULTURE ITALY ( in both cases on the total of births and deaths of both sexes.) The these about three-fourths would be adults; in the meantime, how result is that, while in 1871 there was an excess of 143,370 males ever, the population increases so fast that even in 1905 there was a over females in the total population, in 1881 the excess was only net increase in Sicily of 20,000 souls; so that in three years 220,000 71,138, and in 1901 there were 169,684 more females than males. workers were replaced by 320,000 infants. The death-rate (excluding still-born children) was, in 1872, 30-78 The phenomenon of emigration in Sicily cannot altogether be per 1000, and has since steadily decreased-less rapidly between explained by low wages, which have risen, though prices have done 1886–1890 than during other years; in 1902. it was only 22.15 and the same. It has been defined as apparently a kind of collective in 1899 was as low as 21.89. The excess of births over deaths shows madness." considerable variations-owing to a very low birth-rate, it was only 3.12 per 1000 in 1880, but has averaged 11.05 per 1000 from 1896 to Agriculture.--Accurate statistics with regard to the area 1900, reaching 11.98 in 1899 and 11:14 in 1902. For the four years occupied in different forms of cultivation are difficult to obtain, 1899-1902 24.66 % died under the age of one year, 9:41 between one both on account of their varied and piecemeal character and and two years. The average expectation of life at birth for the same from the lack of a complete cadastral survey. A complete period was 52 years and 11 months, 62 years and 2 months at the age of three years, 52 years at the age of fifteen, 44 years at the age survey was ordered by the law of the ist of March 1886, but of twenty-four, 30 years at the age of forty; while the average many years must elapse before its completion. The law, however, period of life, which was 35 years 3 months per individual in 1882, enabled provinces most heavily burdened by land tax to ac- was 43 years per individual in 1901. This shows a considerable celerate their portion of the survey, and to profit by the reassess- improvement, largely, but not entirely, in the diminution of infant ment of the tax on the new basis. An idea of the effects of the mortality; the expectation of life at birth in 1882, it is true, was only 33 years and 6 months, and at three years of age 56 years survey may be gathered from the fact that the assessments in the I month; but the increase, both in the expectation of life and in its four provinces of Mantua, Ancona, Cremona and Milan, which average duration, goes all through the different ages. Occupations. In the census of 1901 the population over nine years increase of 91%. Of the total area of Italy, 70,793,000 acres, formerly amounted to a total of £1,454,696, are now £2,788,080, an of age (both male and female) was divided as follows as regards the main professions: 71% are classed as productive.” The unproductive area comprises 16% of the total area (this includes 4% occupied by Total. Males. Females. lagoons or marshes, and 1.75% of the total area susceptible of Agricultural (including hunt- bonificazione or improvement by drainage. Between 1882 and ing and fishing) 9,666,467 | 6,466,165 / 3,200,302 1902 over £4,000,000 was spent on this by the government). The Industrial 4,505,736 3,017,393 1,488,343 uncultivated area is 13%. This includes 3.50% of the total Commerce and transport susceptible of cultivation. (public and private services) | 1,003,888 885,070 118,818 Domestic service, &c. 574,855 171,875 402,980 The cultivated area may be divided into five agrarian regions or Professional classes, admini- zones, named after the variety of tree culture which flourishes in stration, &c. 1,304,347 855,217 them. (1) Proceeding from south to north, the first zone is that of 449,130 Defence the agrumi (oranges, lemons and similar ſruits). It comprises a 204,012 204,012 Religion 129,893 89,329 40,564 great part of Sicily. In Sardinia it extends along the southern and western coasts. It predominates along the Ligurian Riviera from Emigration.—The movement of emigration may be divided into Bordighera to Spezia, and on the Adriatic, near San Benedetto del two currents, temporary and permanent--the former going chiefly Tronto and Gargano, and, crossing the Italian shore of the lonian towards neighbouring European countries and to North Africa, and Sea, prevails in some regions of Calabria, and terminates around the consisting of manual labourers, the latter towards trans-oceanic gulſs of Salerno, Sorrento and Naples. (2) The region of olives countries, principally Brazil, Argentina and the United States. comprises the internal Sicilian valleys and part of the mountain These emigrants remain abroad for several years, even when they slopes; in Sardinia, the valleys near the coast on the S.E., S.W. and do not definitively establish themselves there. They are composed N.W.; on the mainland it extends from Liguria and from the principally of peasants, unskilled workmen and other manual southern extremities of the Romagna to Cape Santa Maria di Leuca labourers. There was a tendency towards increased emigration in Apulia, and to Cape Spartivento in Calabria. Some districts of during the last quarter of the 19th century. The principal causes the olive region are near the lakes of upper Italy and in Venetia, are the growth of population, and the over-supply of and low rates and the territories of Verona, Vicenza, Treviso and Friuli. (3) The of remuneration for manual labour in various Italian provinces. vine region begins on the sunny slopes of the Alpine spurs and in Emigration has, however, recently assumed such proportions as to those Alpine valleys open towards the south, extending over the lead to scarcity of labour and rise of wages in Italy itseiſ. Italians plains of Lombardy and Emilia. In Sardinia it covers the mountain form about half of the total emigrants to America. slopes to a considerable height, and in Sicily covers the sides of the Madonie range, reaching a level above 3000 ft. on the southern slope Temporary Emigration. Permanent Emigration. of Etna. The Calabrian Alps, the less rocky sides of the Apulian Murgie and the whole length of the Apennines are covered at different heights, according to their situation. The hills of Tuscany, Total No. of Total No. of 100,000 of Emigrants. 100,000 of and of Monferrato in Piedmont, produce the most celebrated Italian Population. Emigrants. Population. vintages. (4) The region of chestnuts extends from the valleys to the high plateaus of the Alps, along the northern slopes of the 1881 94,225 333 41,607 147 Apennines in Liguria, Modena, Tuscany, Romagna, Umbria, the 1891 118,111 389 175,520 Marches and along the southern Apennines to the Calabrian and 1901 281,668 865 251,577 Sicilian ranges, as well as to the mountains of Sardinia. (5) The wooded region covers the Alps and Apennines above the chestnut The increased figures may, to a minor extent, be due to better level. The woods consist chiedy of pine and hazel upon the Apennines, registration, in consequence of the law of 1901. and upon the Calabrian, Sicilian and Sardinian mountains of oak, From the next table will be seen the direction of emigration in the ilex, hornbeam and similar trees. years specified: Between these regions of tree culture lie zones of different her- baceous culture, cereals, vegetables 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. and textile plants. The style of cultivation varies according to the Europe 181,047 244,298 236,066 215,943 209,942 266,982 nature of the ground, terraces sup- N. Africa 5,417 9,499 11,771 9,452 14,709 11,910 ported by stone walls being inuch U.S. and Canada 89,400 124,636 196,723 200,383 173.537 322,627 used in inountainous districts. Cereal Mexico (Central America) 2,069 997 766 1,311 1,828 2,044 cultivation occupies the foremost South America 152,543 85,097 78,699 74,209 I11,943 place in area and quantity though Asia and Oceania 691 1,272 1,086 2,168 2,966 2,715 it has been on the decline since 1903, still representing, however, an Total 352,792 533,245 531,509 507,956 477,191 718,221 advance on previous years. Wheat is the most important crop and The figures for 1905 show that the total of 718,221 emigrants was is widely distributed. In 1905 12,734,491 acres, or about 18% made up, as regards numbers, mainly by individuals from Venetia, of the total area, produced 151,696,571 bushels of wheat, a yield Sicily, Campania, Piedmont, Calabria and the Abruzzi; while the of only 12 bushels per acre. The importation has, however, percentage was highest in Calabria (4:44), the Abruzzi, Venetia, enormously increased since 1882--from 164,600 to 1,126,368 tons; Basilicata, the Marches, Sicily (2·86), Campania, Piedmont (2.02). while the extent of land devoted to corn cultivation has slightly Tuscany gives 1.20, Latium 1.14 %, Apulia only 1.02, while Sardiniadecreased. Next in importance to wheat comes maize, occupying with 0.34 % occupies an exceptional position. The figure for Sicily, about 7% of the total area of the country, and cultivated almost which was 106,000 in 1905, reached 127,000 in 1906 (3.5 %), and of I everywhere as an alternative crop. The production of maize in 1905 Year. Per every Per every 578 772 74,168 AGRICULTURE) ITALY 9 corn- since 1904. The area reached about 96,250,000 bushels, a slight increase on the average. , production of wine in the vintage of 1907, which was extraordinarily The production of maize is, however, insufficient, and 208,719 tons abundant all over the country, was estimated at 1232 million gallons were imported in 1902-about double the amount imported in 1882. (56 million hectolitres), the average for 1901-1903 being some 352 Rice is cultivated in low-lying, moist lands, where spring and million gallons less; of this the probable home consumption was summer temperatures are high. The Po valley and the valleys of estimated at rather over half, while a considerable amount remained Emilia and the Romagna are best adapted for rice, but the area is over from 1906. The exportation in 1902 only reached about 45 diminishing on account of the competition of foreign rice and of the million gallons (and even that is double the average), while an equally impoverishment of the soil by too intense cultivation. The area is abundant vintage in France and Spain rendered the exportation of about 0.5% of the total of Italy. The area under rye is about 0.5% the balance of 1907 impossible, and fiscal regulations rendered the of the total, of which about two-thirds lie in the Alpine and about distillation of the superfluous amount difficult. The quality, too, one-third in the Apennine zone. The barley zone is geographically owing to bad weather at the time of vintage, was not good; Italian extensive but embraces not more than 1% of the total area, of which wine, indeed, never is sufficiently good to compete with the best wines half is situated in Sardinia and Sicily. Oats, cultivated in the Roman of other countries, especially ance (though there is more opening and Tuscan maremma and in Apulia, are used almost exclusively for for Italian wines of the Bordeaux and Burgundy type); nor will horses and cattle. The area of oats cultivation is 1.5% of the total many kinds of it stand keeping, partly owing to their natural qualities area. The other cereals, millet and panico sorgo (Panicum italicum), and partly to the insufficient care devoted to their preparation. have lost much of their importance in consequence of the introduc- There has been some improvement, however, while some of the tion of maize and rice. Millet, however, is still cultivated in the north heavier white wines, noticeably the Marsala of Sicily, have excellent of Italy, and is used as bread for agricultural labourers, and as keeping qualities. The area cultivated as vineyards has increased forage when mixed with buckwheat (Sorghum şaccaralum). The enormously, from about 4,940,000 acres to 9,880,000 acres, or about manufacture of macaroni and similar foodstuff is a characteristic | 14% of the total area of the country. Over-production seems thus Italian industry. It is extensively distributed, but especially to be a considerable danger, and improvement of quality is rather flourishes in the Neapolitan provinces. The exportation of to be sought after. This has been encouraged by government prizes flour pastes " sank, however, from 7100 tons to 350 between 1882 and 1902 Next to cereals and the vine the most important object ci cultiva- The cultivation of green forage is extensive and is divided into the tion is the olive. In Sicily and the provinces of Reggio, Catanzaro, categories of temporary and perennial. The temporary includes Cosenza and Lecce this tree flourishes without shelter; as far north vetches, pulse, lupine, clover and triſolium; and the perennial, as Rome, Aquila and Teramo it requires only the slightest protection; meadow-trefoil, lupinella, sulla (Hedysarum coronarium), lucerne in the rest of the peninsula it runs the risk of damage by frost every and darnel. The natural grass meadows are cxtensive, and hay is ten years or so The proportion of ground under olives is from 20 to grown all over the country, but especially in the Po valley. Pasture 36% at Porto Maurizio, and in Reggio, Lecce, Bari, Chieti and occupies about 30% of the total area of the country, of which Leghorn it averages from 10 to 19%. Throughout Piedmont, Alpine pastures occupy. 1.25%. Seed-bearing vegetables are Lombardy, Venetia and the greater part of Emilia, the tree is of comparatively scarce. The principal are: white beans, largely little importance. In the olive there is great variety of kinds, and consumed by the working classes; lentils, much less cultivated than the methods of cultivation differ greatly in different districts; in beans; and green peas, largely consumed in Italy, and exported as Bari, Chieti and Lecce, for instance, there are regular woods of a spring vegetable. Chick-pease are extensively cultivated in the nothing but olive-trces, while in middle Italy there are olive-orchards southern provinces. Horse beans are grown, especially in the south with the interspaces occupied by crops of various kinds. The and in the larger islands; lupines are also grown for fodder. Tuscan oils from Lucca, Calci and Buti are considered the best in Among tuberous vegetables the potato comes first. the world; those of Bari, Umbria and western Liguria rank next. occupied is about 0.7% of the whole of the country. Turnips are The wood of the olive is also used for the manufacture of small grown principally in the central provinces as an alternative crop to articles. The olive-growing area occupies about 3.5% of the total wheat. They yield as much as 12 tons per acre. Beetroot (Beta area of the country, and the crop in 1905 produced about 75,000,000 vulgaris) is used as fodder, and yields about 10 tons per acre. Sugar gallons of oil. The falling off of the crop, especially in 1899, was due beet is extensively grown to supply the sugar factories. In 1898–1899 to bad seasons and to insccts, notably the Cycloconium oleoginum, there were only four sugar factories, with an output of 5972 tons; and the Dacus oleae, or oil-fly, which have ravaged the olive-yards, in 1905 there were thirty-three, with an output of 93,916 tons. and it is noticeable that lately good and bad seasons seem to alter- Market gardening is carried on both near towns and villages, nate; between 1900 and 1905 the crops were alternately one half of, where products find ready, sale, and along the great railways, on and equal to, that of the latter year. With the development of account of transport facilities. Rome is an exception to the former agricultural knowledge, notable improvements have been effected rule and imports garden produce largely from the neighbourhood of in the manufacture of oil. The steam mills give the best results. Naples and from Sardinia. The export trade, however, is decreasing considerably, while the Among the chief industrial plants is tobacco, which grows wherever home consumption is increasing. In 1901, 1985 imperial tuns of oil suitable soil exists. Since tobacco is a government monopoly, its were shipped from Gallipoli for abroad--two-thirds to the United cultivation is subject to official concessions and prescriptions. Kingdom, one-third to Russia-and 666 to Italian ports; while in Experiments hitherto made show that the cultivation of Oriental 1904 the figures were reversed, 1633 tuns going to Italian ports, tobacco may profitably be extended in Italy. The yield for 1901 and only. 945 tuns to foreign ports. The other principal port of was 5528 tons, but a large increase took place subsequently, eleven shipping is Gioia Tauro, 30 m. N.N.E. of Reggio Calabria. A certain million new plants having been added in southern Italy in 1905. amount of linseed-oil is made in Lombardy, Sicily, Apulia and The chief" textile plants are hemp, flax and cotton. Hemp is Calabria; colza in Piedmont,., Lombardy, Venetia and Emilia; largely cultivated in the provinces of Turin, Ferrara, Bologna, Forli, and castor-oil in Venetia and Sicily. . The product is principally used Ascoli Piceno and Caserta. Bologna hemp is specially valued. for industrial purposes, and partly in the preparation of food, but Flax covers about 160,000 acres, with a product, in fibre, amounting the amount is decreasing. to about 20,000 tons. Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum), which at The cultivation of oranges, lemons and their congeners (collec- the beginning of the 19th century, at the time of the Continental tively designated in Italian by the term agrumi) is of comparatively blockade, and again during the American War of Secession, was modern date, the introduction of the Citrus Bigaradia being probably largely cultivated, is now grown only in parts of Sicily and in a few due to the Arabs. Sicily is the chief centre of cultivation-the area southern provinces. Sumach, liquorice and madder are also grown occupied by lemon and orange orchards in the province of Palermo in the south. alone having increased from 11,525 acres in 1854 to 54,340 in 1874: The vine is cultivated throughout the length and breadth of Italy, Reggio Calàbria, Catanzaro, Cosenza, Lecce, Salerno, Naples and but while in some of the districts of the south and centre it occupies Caserta are the continental provinces which come next after Sicily. from 10 to 20% of the cultivated area, in some of the northern In Sardinia the cultivation is extensive, but receives little attention. provinces, such as Sondrio, Belluno, Grosseto, &c., the average is Both crude and concentrated lime-juice is exported, and essential only about 1 or 2%. The methods of cultivation are varied; but oils are extracted from the rind of the agrumi, more particularly from the planting of the vines by themselves in long rows of insignificant that of the lemon and the bergamot. În northern and central Italy, bushes is the exception. in Lombardy, Emilia, Romagna, Tuscany, except in the province of Brescia, the agrumi are almost non-existent. the Marches, Umbria and the southern provinces, they are trained The trees are planted on irrigated soil and the fruit gathered between to trees which are either left in their natural state or subjected to November and August. Considerable trade is done in agro di limone pruning and pollarding. In Campania the vines are allowed to climb or lemon extract, which forms the basis of citric acid. Extraction is freely to the tops of the poplars. In the rest of Italy the clm and extensively carried on in the provinces of Messina and Palermo. the maple are the trees mainly employed as supports. Artificial Among other fruit trees, apple-trees have special importance. props of several kinds-wires, cane work, trellis work, &c.—are also Almonds are widely cultivated in Sicily, Sardinia and the southern in use in many districts in the neighbourhood of Rome canes are provinces; walnut trecs throughout the peninsula, their wood being almost exclusively employed), and in some the plant is permitted more important than their fruit; hazel nuts, figs, prickly pears (used to trail along the ground. The vintage takes place, according to in the south and the islands for hedges, their fruit being a minor locality and climate, from the beginning of September to the beginning consideration), peaches, pears, locust beans and pistachio nuts are of November. The vine has been attacked by the Oidium Tuckeri, among the other fruits. The mulberry-tree (Morus alba), whose the Pkylloxera vastatrix and the Peronospora viticola, which in leaves serve as food for silkworms, is cultivated in every region, rapid succession wrought great havoc in Italian vineyards. American considerable progress having been made in its cultivation and in the vines, are, however, immune and have been largely adopted. The rearing of silkworms since 1850. Silkworm-rearing establishments IO (AGRICULTURE ITALY o of importance now exist in the Marches, Umbria, in the Abruzzi, | plain of Tuscany in the winter. With the exception of a few sub- Tuscany, Piedmont and Venetia. The chief silk-producing provinces Alpine districts near Bergamo and Brescia, the great Lombard plain are Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont. During the period 1900-1904 is decidedly unpastoral. The Bergamo sheep is the largest breed in the average annual production of silk cocoons was 53,500 tons, and the country; that of Cadore and Belluno approaches it in size. In of silk 5200 tons. the Venetian districts the farmers often have small stationary flocks. The great variety in physical and social conditions throughout Throughout the Roman province, and Umbria, Apulia, the Abruzzi, the peninsula gives corresponding variety to the methods of agricul- Basilicata and Calabria, is found in its full development a remarkable ture. In the rotation of crops there is an amazing diversity-shifts of system of pastoral migration with the change of seasons which has two years, three years, four years, six years, and in many cases been in existence from the most ancient times, and has attracted whatever order strikes the fancy of the farmer. The fields of Tuscany attention as much by its picturesqueness as by its industrial import- for the most part bear wheat one year and maize the next, in per- ance (see APULIA). Merino sheep have been acclimatized in the petual interchanges, relieved to some extent by green crops. A Abruzzi, Capitanata and Basilicata. The number of sheep, however, similar method prevails in the Abruzzi, and in the provinces of is on the decrease. Similarly, the number of goats, which are reared Salerno, Benevento and Avellino. In Lombardy a six-year shift only in hilly regions, is decreasing, especially on account of the exist. is common: either wheat, clover, maize, rice, rice, rice (the lasting forest laws, as they are the chief enemies of young plantations. year manured with lupines) or maize, wheat followed by clover, Horse-breeding is on the increase. The state helps to improve the clover, clover ploughed in, and rice, rice and rice manured with breeds by placing choice stallions at the disposal of private breeders lupines. The Emilian region is one where regular rotations are best at a low tariff. The exportation is, however, unimportant, while the observed—a common shift being grain, maize, clover, beans and importation is largely on the increase, 46,463 horses having been vetches, &c., grain, which has the disadvantage of the grain crops imported in 1902. Cattle-breeding varies with the different regions. succeeding each other. In the province of Naples, Caserta, &c., In upper Italy cattle are principally reared in pens and stalls; in the method of fallows is widely adopted, the ground often being left central Italy cattle are allowed to run half wild, the stall system being in this state for fifteen or twenty years; and in some parts of Sicily little practised; in the south and in the islands cattle are kept in the there is a regular interchange of fallow and crop year by year. The open air, few shelters being provided. The erection of shelters, following scheme indicates a common Sicilian method of a type wl.ich however, is encouraged by the state. Swine are extensively reared in has many varieties: fallow, grain, grain, pasture, pasture-other many provinces. Fowls are kept on all farms and, though methods two divisions of the area following the same order, but beginning are still antiquated, trade in fowls and eggs is rapidly increasing, i respectively with the two years of grain and the two of pasture. In 1905 Italy exported 32,786 and imported 17,766 head of catile; Woods and forests play an important part, especially in regard exported 33,574 and imported 6551 sheep; exported 95,995 and to the consistency of the soil and to the character of the water, imported 1604 swine. The former show a very large decrease Woods courses. The chestnut is of great value for its wood and and the latter a large increase on the export figures for 1882. The its fruit, an article of popular consumption. Good timberexport of agricultural products shows a large increase. and forests. is furnished by the oak and beech, and pine and fir forests The north of Italy has long been known for its great dairy districts. of the Alps and Apennines. Notwithstanding the efforts Parmesan cheese, otherwise called Lodigiano (from Lodi) or grana, of the government to unify and co-ordinate the forest laws previously was presented to King Louis XII. as early as 1509. Parmesan is not existing in the various states, deforestation has continued in many confined to the province from which it derives its name; it is manu. regions. This has been due to speculation, to the unrestricted factured in all that part of Emilia in the neighbourhood of the Po, pasturage of goats, to the rights which many communes have over and in the provinces of Brescia, Bergamo, Pavia, Novara and the forests, and to some extent to excessive taxation, which led the Alessandria. 'Gorgonzola, which takes its name from a town in the proprietors to cut and sell the trees and then abandon the ground province, has become general throughout the whole of Lombardy, to the Treasury. The results are-a lack of water-supply and of in the eastern parts of the "ancient provinces," and in the province of water-power, the streams becoming mere torrents for a short period Cuneo. The cheese known as the cacio-cavallo is produced in regions and perfectly dry for the rest of the year; lack of a sufficient supply extending from 37° to 43° N. lat. Gruyère, extensively manufactured of timber; the denudation of the soil on the hills, and, where the in Switzerland and France, is also produced in Italy in the Alpine valleys below have insufficient drainage, the formation of swamps. regions and in Sicily. With the exception of Parmesan, Gorgonzola, If the available water-power of Italy, already very considerable, La Fontina and Gruyère, most of the Italian cheese is consumed in be harnessed, converted into electric power (which is already being the locality of its production. Co-operative dairy farms are done in some districts), and further increased by reafforestation, the numerous in north Italy, and though only about half as many as effect upon the industries of Italy will be incalculable, and the in 1889 (114 in 1902) are better organized. Modern methods have importation of coal will be very materially diminished. The area of been introduced. forest is about 14:3% of the total, and of the chestnut-woods 1.5 The drainage of marshes and marshy lands has considerably more; and its products in 1886 were valued at £3,520,000 (not extended. A law passed on the 22nd of March 1900 gave a Drainage, including chestnuts). A quantity of it is really brushwood, used for special impulse to this form of enterprise by fixing the ratio the manufacture of charcoal and for fuel, coal being little used of expenditure incumbent respectively upon the State, except for manufacturing purposes. Forest nurseries have also been the provinces, the communes, and the owners or other private founded. individuals directly interested. According to an approximate calculation the number of head of The Italian Federation of Agrarian Unions has greatly contributed Live live stock in Italy in 1890 was 16,620,000, thus divided :-- to agricultural progress. Government travelling teachers Agrarian stock. horses, 720,000; asses, 1,000,000; mules, 300,000; of agriculture, and fixed schools of viticulture, also do good cattle, 5,000,000; sheep, 6,000,000; goats, 1,800,000; work. Some unions annually purchase large quantities swine, 1,800,000. of merchandise for their members, especially chemical The breed of cattle most widely distributed is that known as the The importation of machinery amounted to Podolian, usually with white or grey coat and enormous horns. Of 5000 tons in 1901. the numerous sub-varieties, the finest is said to be that of the Val Income from land has diminished on the whole. The chief di Chiana, where the animals are stall-fed all the year round; next diminution has taken place in the south in regard to oranges and is ranked the so-called Valle Tiberina type. Wilder varieties roam lemons, cereals and (for some provinces) vines. Since 1895, however, in vast herds over the Tuscan and Roman maremmas, and the corre. the heavy import corn duty has caused a slight rise in the income sponding districts in Apulia and other regions. In the Alpine from corn lands. The principal reasons for the general decrease are districts there is a stock distinct from the Podolian, generally called the fall in prices through foreign competition and the closing of certain razsa montanina. These animals are much smaller in stature and markets, the diseases of plants and the increased outlay required more regular in form than the Podolians; they are mainly kept for to combat them, and the growth of State and local taxation. One dairy purposes. Another stock, with no close allies nearer than the of the great evils of Italian agricultural taxation is its lack &c. . econo mics. of elas- south of France, is found in the plain of Racconigi and Carmagnola; ticity and of adaptation to local conditions. Taxes are not sufficiently the mouse-coloured Swiss breed occurs in the neighbourhood of proportioned to what the land may reasonably he expected to Milan; the Tirolese breed stretches south to Padua and Modena; produce, nor sufficient allowance made for the exceptional conditions and a red-coated breed named of Reggio or Friuli is familiar both in of a southern climate, in which a few hours' bad weather may destroy what were the duchies of Parma and Modena, and in the provinces a whole crop. The Italian agriculturist has come to look (and often of Udine and Treviso. In Sicily the so-called Modica race is of note; in vain) for action on a large scale from the state, for irrigation, and in Sardinia there is a distinct stock which seldom exceeds the drainage of uncultivated low-lying land, which may be made fertile, weight of 700 tb. Buffaloes are kept in several districts, more river regulation, &c.; while to the small proprietor the state often particularly of southern Italy. appears only as a hard and inconsiderate tax-gatherer. Enormous flocks are possessed by professional sheep-farmers, The relations between owners and tillers of the soil are still who pasture them in the mountains in the summer, and bring them regulated by the ancient forms of agrarian contract, which have down to the plains in the winter. At Saluzzo in Piedmont there is remained almost untouched by social and political changes. The a stock with hanging ears, arched face and tall stature, kept for its possibility of reforming these contracts in some parts of the kingdom dairy qualities; and in the Biellese the merino breed is maintained has been studied, in the hope of bringing them into closer harmony by some of the larger proprietors. In the upper valleys of the Alps with the needs of rational cultivation and the exigencies of social there are many local varieties, one of which at Ossola is like the justice. Scottish blackface. Liguria is not much adapted for sheep-farming Peasant proprietorship is most common in Lombardy and Pied- on a large scale; but a number of small flocks come down to the mont, but it is also found elsewhere. Large farms are found in certain manures. over MINES AND FISHERIES) II ITALY contracts of the more open districts; but in Italy generally, and especially in | is often paid in kind, and is equivalent to half the produce of good Sardinia, the land is very much subdivided. The following forms of land and one-third of the produce of bad land. "Improvement contract are most usual in the several regions: In Piedmont the are granted for uncultivated bush districts, where one mezzadria (métayage), the terzieria, the colonia parziaria, the boaria, fourth of the produce goes to the landlord, and for plantations of the schiavenza and the affitto, or lease, are most usual. Under fig-trees, olive-trees and vines, half of the produce of which belongs mezzadria the contract generally lasts three years. Products are to the landlord, who at the end of ten years reimburses the tenant usually divided in equal proportions between the owner and the for a part of the improvements effected. Other forms of contract tiller. The owner pays the taxes, defrays the cost of preparing the are the piccola mezzadria, or sub-letting by tenants to under-tenants, ground, and provides the necessary implements. Stock usually on the half-and-half system; enfiteusi, or perpetual leases at low belongs to the owner, and, even if kept on the half-and-half system, rents-a form which has almost died out; and mezzadria (in the is usually bought by him. The peasant, or mezzadto, provides provinces of Caserta and Benevento). labour. Under terzieria the owner furnishes stock, implements and In Sicily leasehold prevails under special conditions. In pure seed, and the tiller retains only one-third of the principal products. leasehold the landlord demands at least six months' rent as guarantee, In the colonia parziaria the peasant executes all the agricultural and the forfeiture of any fortuitous advantages. Under the gabella work, in return for which he is housed rent-free, and receives one lease the contract lasts twenty-nine years, the lessee being obliged sixth of the corn, one-third of the maize and has a small money wage. to make improvements, but being sometimes exempted from rent This contract is usually renewed from year to year. The boaria during the first years. Inquilinaggio is a form of lease by which the is widely diffused in its two forms of cascina fatta and paghe. In the landlord, and sometimes the tenant, makes over to tenant or sub- former case a peasant family undertakes all the necessary work in tenant the sowing of corn. There are various categories of inquili- return for payment in money or kind, which varies according to the naggio, according as rent is paid in money or in kind. Under mezzadria crop; in the latter the money wages and the payment in kind are or melateria the landlord divides the produce with the farmer in fixed beforehand. Schiavenza, either simple or with a share in the various proportions. The farmer provides all labour. Latifondi crops, is a form of contract similar to the boaria, but applied princi- | farms are very numerous in Sicily. The landlord lets his land to two pally to large holdings. The wages are lower than under the boaria. or more persons jointly, who undertake to restore it to him in good In the affitio, or lease, the proprietor furnishes seed and the imple condition with one-third of it“ interrozzito," that is, fallow, so as to be ments. Rent varies according to the quality of the soil. cultivated the following year according to triennial rotation. These In Lombardy, besides the mezzadrin, the lease is common, but the lessees are usually speculators, who divide and sub-let the estate. terzieria is rare. The lessee, or farmer, tills the soil at his own risk; .The sub-tenants in their turn let a part of their land to peasants usually he provides live stock, implements and capital, and has no in mezzadria, thus creating a system disastrous both for agriculture right to compensation for ordinary improvements, nor for extra- and the peasants. At harvest-time the produce is placed in the ordinary improvements effected without the, landlord's consent. barns of the lessor, who first deducts 25% as premium, then 16% He is obliged to give a guarantee for the fulfilment of his engage- for battiteria (the difference between corn before and after winnowing), ments. In some places he pays an annual tribute in grapes, corn and then deducts a proportion for rent and subsidies, so that the portion other produce. In some of the Lombard mezzadria contracts taxes retained by the actual tiller of the soil is extremely meagre. In bad are paid by the cultivator. years the tiller, morcover, gives up seed corn before beginning harvest. In Venetia it is more common than elsewhere in Italy for owners In Sardinia landlord-farming and leasehold prevail. In the few to till their own soil. The prevalent forms of contract are the cases of mezzadria the Tuscan system is followed. mezzadria and the lease. In Liguria, also, mezzadria and lease are Mines. The number of mines increased from 589 in 1881 to the chief forms of contract. 1580 in 1902. The output in 1881 was worth about £2,800,000, but In Emilia both mezzadria and lease tenure are widely diffused in by 1895 had decreased to £1,800,000, chiefly on account of the fall the provinces of Ferrara, Reggio and Parma; but other special in the price of sulphur. It afterwards rose, and was worth more than forms of contract exist, known as the famiglio da spesa, boaria, €3,640,000 in 1899, falling again to £3,118,600 in 1902 owing to severe braccianti obbligati and braccianti disobbligati. In the famiglio da American competition in sulphur (see Sicily); The chief minerals spesa the tiller receives a small wage and a proportion of certain are sulphur, in the production of which Italy holds one of the first products. The boaria is of two kinds. If the tiller receives as much places, iron, zinc, lead; these, and, to a smaller extent, copper of an as 45 lire per month, supplemented by other wages in kind, it is said inferior quality, manganese and antimony, are successfully mined. to be boaria a sulario; if the principal part of his remuneration is in The bulk of the sulphur mines are in Sicily, while the majority of the kind, his contract is called boaria a spesa. lead and zinc mines are in Sardinia; much of the lead smelting is In the Marches, Umbria and Tuscany, mezzadrin prevails in its done at Pertusola, near Genoa, the company formed for this purpose purest form. Profits and losses, both in regard to produce and stock, having acquired many of the Sardinien mines. Iron is mainly mined are equally divided. In some places, however, the landlord takes in Elba. Quicksilver and tin are found (the latter in small quantities) two-thirds of the olives and the whole of the grapes and the mulberry in Tuscany. Boracic acid is chiefly found near Volterra, where there leaves.. Leasehold exists in the province of Grosseto alone. In is also a little rock salt, but the main supply is obtained by evapora- Latium leasehold and farming by landlords prevail, but cases of tion. The output of stone from quarries is greatly diminished (from mezzadria and of "improvement farms.".exist. In the agro Romano, 12,500,000 tons, worth £1,920,000, in 1890, to 8,000,000 tons, worth or zone immediately around Rome, land is as a rule left for pasturage, £1,400,000, in 1899), a circumstance probably attributable to the It needs, therefore, merely supervision by guardians and mounted slackening of building enterprise in many cities, and to the decrease overseers, or butteri, who are housed and receive wages. Large in the demand for stone for railway, maritime and river embankment landlords are usually represented by ministri, or factors, who direct works. The value of the output had, however, by 1902 risen to agricultural operations and manage the estates, but the estate is £1,600,000, representing a tonnage of about 10,000,000. There is often let to a middleman, or mercante di campagna. Wherever corn good travertine below Tivoli and elsewhere in Italy; the finest is cultivated, leasehold predominates. Much of the work is done by granite is found at Baveno. Lava is much used for paving-stones companies of peasants, who come down from the mountainous in the neighbourhood of volcanic districts, where pozzolana (for districts when required, permanent residence not being possible cement) and pumice stone are also important. Much of Italy contains owing to the malaria. Near Velletri and Frosinone " improvement Pliocene clay, which is good for potiery and brickmaking. Mineral farms prevail. A piece of uncultivated land is made over to a springs are very numerous, and of great variety., peasant for from 20 to 29 years. Vines and olives are usually Fisheries.-The number of boats and smacks engaged in the planted, the landlord paying the taxes and receiving one-third of the fisheries has considerably increased. In 1881 the total number was produce. At the end of the contract the landlord either cultivates 15,914, with a tonnage of 49,103. In 1902 there were 23,098 boats, his land himself or leases it, repaying to the improver part of the manned by 101,720 men, and the total catch was valued at just over expenditure incurred by him. This repayment sometimes consists half a million sterling--according to the government figures, which of half the estimated value of the standing, crops. are certainly below the truth. The value has, however, undoubtedly In the Abruzzi and in Apulia leasehold is predominant. Usually diminished, though the number of boats and crews increases. Most Icases last from three to six years. In the provinces of Foggia and of the fishing boats, properly so called, start from the Adriatic coast, Lecce long leases (up to twenty-nine years) are granted, but in them the coral boats from the western Mediterranean coast, and the sponge it is explicitly declared that they do not imply enfiteusi (perpetual boats from the western Mediterranean and Sicilian coasts. Fishing leasehold), nor any other form of contract equivalent to co-pro- and trawling are carried on chiefly off the Italian (especially Ligurian, prietorship. Mezzadria is rarely resorted to. On some small hold- Austrian and Tunisian coasts; coral is found principally near ings, however, it exists with contracts lasting from two to six years. Sardinia and Sicily, and sponges almost exclusively off Sicily and Special contracts, known as colonie immovibili and colonie temporanee Tunisia in the neighbourhood of Sfax. For şponge fishing no are applied to the latifondi or huge estates, the owners of which receive accurate statistics are available before 1896; in that year 75 tons of half the produce, except that of the vines, olive-trees and woods, sponges were secured, but there has been considerable diminution which he leases separately. Improvement contracts" also exist. since, only 31 tons being obtained in 1902. A considerable proportion They consist of long leases, under which the landlord shares the was obtained by foreign boats. The island of Lampedusa may be costs of improvements and builds farm-houses; also leases of orange considered its centre. Coral fishing, which fell off between 1889 and and lemon gardens, two-thirds of the produce of which go to the 1892 on account of the temporary closing of the Sciacca coral reefs landlord, while the farmer contributes half the cost of farming has greatly decreased since 1884, when the fisheries produced 643 besides the labour. Leasehold, varying from four to six years for tons, whereas in 1902 they only produced 225 tons. The value of arable land and from six to eighteen years for forest-land, prevails the product has, however, proportionately increased, so that the sum also in Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. The estaglio, or rent, realized was little less, while less than half the number of men 11 60 I 2 (MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES ITALY cal indus. tries. was employed. Sardinian coral commands from £3 to 44 per kilo. as distinguished from those above mentioned, have kept pace with gramme (2-204 Ib), and is much more valuable than the Sicilianthe general development of Italian activity. The principal product coral. The Sciacca recís were again closed for three winters by a is quinine, the manufacture of which has acquired great importance, decree of 1904. The fishing is largely carried on by boats from owing to its use as a specific against malaria. Milan and Genoa are Torre del Greco, in the Gulf of Naples, where the best coral beds are the principal centres, and also the government military, pharma, now exhausted. In 1879 4000 men were employed; in 1902 only ceutical factory at Turin. Other industries of a semi-chemical just over 1000. In 1902 there were 48 tunny fisheries, employing character are candle-, soaps, glue-, and perfume-making, and the 3006 men, aud 5116 tons of fish worth £80,000 were caught. The preparation of india-rubber. The last named has succeeded, by main fisheries are in Sardinia, Sicily and Elba. Anchovy and means of the large establishments at Milan in supplying not only the sardine fishing (the products of which are reckoned among the whole Italian market but an export trade. general total) are also of considerable importance, especially along The match-making industry is subject to special fiscal conditions. the Ligurian and Tuscan coasts. The lagoon fisheries are also of In 1902-1903 there were 219 match factories scattered throughout great importance, more especially those of Comacchio, the lagoon Italy, but especially in Piedmont, Lombardy and Venetia. The of Orbetello and the Mare Piccolo at Taranto &c The deep-sca number has been reduced to less than half since 1897 by the sup. fishing boats in 1902 numbered 1368, with a total tonnage of 16,149; pression of smaller factories, while the production has increased 100 of these were coral-fishing boats and 111 sponge-fishing boats. from 47,690 millions to 59,741 millions. Industrial Progress.—The industrial progress of Italy has been The beetroot-sugar industry has attained considerable proportions great since 1880. Many articles formerly imported are now in Umbria, the Marches, Lazio, Venetia and Picdmont since 1890. In 1898–1899, 5972 tons were produced, while in 1905 the figure made at home, and some Italian manufactures have begun to had risen to 93.916. The rise of the industry has been favoured compete in foreign markets. Italy has only unimportant lignite by protective tariffs and by a system of excise which allows a con- and anthracite mines, but water power is abundant and has been siderable premium to manufacturers. largely applied to industry, especially in generating electricity. legislation governing distilleries. In 1871 only 20 hectolitres were Alcohol has undergone various oscillations, according to the The electric power required for the tramways and the illumina- produced, but in 1881 the output was 318,000 hectolitres, the tion of Rome is entirely supplied by turbines situated at Tivoli, maximum hitherto attained. Since then special laws have hampered and this is the case elsewhere, and the harnessing of this water development, some provinces, as for instance Sardinia, being allowed power is capable of very considerable extension. A sign of to manufacture for their own .consumption but not for export. In industrial development is to be found in the growing number of duty. The average production is about 180,000 hectolitres per parts the industry is subjected to an almost prohibitive excise- manufacturing companies, both Italian and foreign. annum. The greatest quantity is produced in Lombardy, Piedmont, The chief development has taken place in mechanical industries, Venetia and Tuscany. The quantity of beer is about the same, though it has also been marked in metallurgy: Sulphur mining the greater part of the beer drunk being imported from Germany, supplies large industries of sulphur-refining and grinding, while the production of artificial mineral waters has somewhat Mechani- in spite of American competition. Very little pig iron decreased. There is a considerable trade (not very large for export, made, most of the iron ore being exported, and iron however) in natural mineral waters, which are often excellent. manufactured consists of old iron resmelted. For steel- Paper-making is highly developed in the provinces of Novara, making foreign pig iron is chiefly used. The manufacture of steel Caserta, Milan, Vicenza, Turin, Como, Lucca, Ancona, Genoa, rails, carried on first at Terni and afterwards at Savona, began in Brescia, Cunco, Macerata and Salerno. The hand-made paper of Italy in 1886. Tin has been manufactured since 1892. Lead, Fabriano is especially good. antimony, mercury and copper are also produced. The total salt Furniture-making in different styles is carried on all over Italy, production in 1902 was 458,497 tons, of which 248,215 were produced especially as a result of the establishment of industrial schools. in the government salt factories and the rest in the free salt-works Each region produces a special type, Venetia turning out imitations of Sicily. Great progress has been made in the manufacture of of 16th-and i7th-century styles, Tuscany the 15th-century or cinque- machinery; locomotives, railway carriages, electric tram-cars, &c., cento style, and the Neapolitan provinces the Pompeian style. and machinery of all kinds, are now largely made in Italy itsell, Furniture and cabinet-making in grcat factories are carried on especially in the north and in the neighbourhood of Naples. At particularly in Lombardy and Piedmont. Bent-wood factories have Turin the manufacture of motor-cars has attained great importance becn established in Venetia and Liguria. and the F.I.A.T. (Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino) factory cm- A characteristic Italian industry is that of straw.plaiting for ploys 2000 workmen, while eight others employ ?780 amongst them. hat-making, which is carried on principally in Tuscany, in the The textile industries, some of which are of ancient date, are among district of Fermo, in the Alpine villages of the province of Vicenza, those that have most rapidly developed. Handiooms and small spin- and in some communes of the province of Messina. The plaiting Textiles. ning establishments have, in the silk industry, given place is done by country women, while the hats are made up in factories. to large establishments with steam looms. The production Both plaits and hats are largely exported. of raw silk at least tripled itself between 1875 and 1900, and the value Tobacco is entirely a government monopoly; the total amount of the silks woven in Italy, estimated in 1890 to be £2,200,000, is now, manufactured in 1902–1903 was 16,599 tons-a fairly constant figure. on account of the development of the export trade, calculated to be The finest glass is made in Tuscany and Venetia; Venetian glass almost £4,000,000. Lombardy (especially Como, Milanand Bergamo), is often coloured and of artistic form. Piedmont and Venetia are the chief silk-producing regions. There In the various ceramic arts Italy was once unrivalled, but the are several public assay offices in italy for silk; the first in the world ancient tradition for a long time lost its primeval impuise. The was established in Turin in 1750. The cotton industry has also works at Vinovo, which had fame in the 18th century, Artistic rapidly developed. Home products not only, supply the Italian came to an untimely end in 1820; those of Castelli (in indus. market in increasing degree, but find their way into foreign markets. the Abruzzi), which have been revived, were supplanted tries. While importation of raw cotton increases importations of cotton by Charles III.'s establishment at Capodimonte, 1750, thread and of cotton stuffs have rapidly decreased. The value of which after producing articles of surprising execution was closed the annual produce of the various branches of the cotton industry, before the end of the century. The first place now belongs to the which in 1885 was calculated to be £7,200,000, was in 1900, not- Della Doccia works at Florence. Founded in 1735 by the marquis withstanding the fall in prices, about £12,000,000. The industry Carlo Ginori, they maintained a reputation of the very highest kind is chiefly developed in Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria; to some down to about 1860; but since then they have not kept pace with extent also in Campania, Venetia and Tuscany, and to a less extent their younger rivals in other lands. They still, however, are com- in Lazio (Rome), Apulia, Emilia, the Marches, Umbria, the Abruzzi mercially successful. Other cities where the ceramic industries keep and Sicily. A government weaving school was established in Naples their ground are Pesaro, Gubbio, Faenza (whose name long ago in 1906. As in the case of cotton, Italian woollen fabrics are con- became the distinctive term for the finer kind of potter's work in quering the home market in increasing degree. The industry centres France, faience), Savona and Albissola, Turin, Niondovi, Cuneo, chielly in Piedmont (province of Novara), Venetia (province of Castellamonte, Milan, Brescia, Sassuolo, Imola, Rimini, Perugia, Vicenza), Tuscany (Florence), Lombardy (Brescia)," Campania Castelli, &c. In all these the older styles, by which these places (Caserta). Genoa, Umbria, the Marches and Rome. To some extent became famous in the 16th-18th centuries, have been revived. It the industry also exists in Emilia, Calabria, Basilicata, the Abruzzi, is estimated that the total production of the finer wares amounts Sardinia and Sicily. It has, however, a comparatively small export on the average to £400,000 per annum. The ruder branches of the trade. art-the making of tiles and common wares-are pretty generally The other textile industries (fiax, jute, &c.) have made notable diffused. progress. The jute industry is concentrated in few large factories, The jeweller's art received large encouragement in a country which from 1887 onwards have more than supplied the home market, which had so many independent courts; but nowhere has it attained and have begun considerably to export. a fulier development than at Rome. A vast variety of trinkets-in Chemical industries show an output worth £2,640,000 in 1902 as coral, glass, lava, &c.---is exported from Italy, or carried away by against {1.040,000 in 1893. The chief products are sulphuric acid; the annual host of tourists. The copying of the paintings of the old Chemicals. sulphate of copper, employed chiefly as a preventive of masters is becoming an art industry of no small mercantile import, certain maladies of the vine; carbonate of lead, hyper-ance in some of the larger cities. phosphates and chemical manures; calcium carbide; explosive The production of mosaics is an industry still carried on with powder; dynamite and other explosives. Pharmaceutical industries, much success in Italy, which indeed ranks exceedingly high in the WORKING CLASSES] ITALY 13 Cowmen, department. The great works of the Vatican are especially famous , irregular workmen have even lower wages, with a daily distribution (more than 17,000 distinct tints are employed in their productions), of bread, salt and oil. In Campania and Calabria the curatoli and and there are many other establishments in Rome. The Florentine massari earn, in money and kind, about £12 a year; mosaics are perhaps better known abroad; they are composed of shepherds and muleteers about £10; irregular workmen are paid larger pieces than the Roman. Those of the Venetian artists are from 8 d. to is. 8d. per day, but only find employment, on an remarkable for the boldness of their colouring. There is a tendency average, 230 days in the year. The condition of Sicilian labourers towards the fostering of feminine home industries-lace-making, is also miserable. The huge extent of the latifondi, or large estates, linen-weaving, &c. often results in their being left in the hands of speculators, who Condition of the Working Classes. The condition of the are often compelled, at the end of a scanty year, to hand over their exploit both workmen and farmers with such usury that the latter numerous agricultural labourers (who constitute one-third of the crops to the usurers before harvest. In Sardinia wage-earners are population) is, except in some regions, hard, and in places paid 10d. a day, with free shelter and an allotment for private absolutely miserable. Much light was thrown upon their position and boys from 6d. to 10d. a day. Woodcutters and vine-waterers, cultivation. Irregular adult workmen earn between jod. and is. 3d., by the agricultural inquiry (inchiesta agraria) completed in 1884. however, sometimes earn as much as 3s. a day, The large numbers of emigrants, who are drawn chiefly from the The peasants somewhat rarely use animal food-this is most largely rural classes, furnish another proof of poverty. The terms of used in Sardinia and least in Sicily-bread and polenta or macaroni agrarian contracts and leases (except in districts 'where mezzadria and vegetables being the staple diet. Wine is the prevailing drink, prevails in its essential form), are in many regions disadvantageous The condition of the workmen employed in manufactures has to the labourers, who suffer from the obligation to provide improved during recent years. Wages are higher, the cost of the guarantees for payment of rent, for repayment of seed corn and prime necessaries of life is, as a rule, lower, though taxation on for the division of products. some of them is still enormous; so that the remuneration of It was only at the close of the 19th century that the true cause work has improved. Taking into account the variations in wages of malaria--the conveyance of the infection by the bite of the and in the price of wheat, it may be calculated that the number Malaria. Anopheles claviger-was discovered. This mosquito does of hours of work requisite to earn a sum equal to the price of not as a rule enter the large towns; but low-lying coast a cwt. of wheat fell from 183 in 1871 to 73 in 1894. In districts and ill-drained plains are especially subject to it. Much has been done in keeping out the insects by fine wire netting placed 1898 it was 105, on account of the rise in the price of wheat, and on the windows and the doors of houses, especially in the railway since then up till 1902 it oscillated between 105 and 95. men's cottages. In 1902 the state took up the sale of quinine at a Wages have risen from 22.6 centimes per hour (on an average) low price, manufacturing it at the central military pharmaceutical to 26:3 centimes, but not in all industries. In the mining and laboratory at Turin. Statistics show the difference produced by wooilen industries they have fallen, but have increased in mechanical, this measure. chemical, silk and cotton industries. Wages vary greatly in different parts of Italy, according to the cost of the necessaries of life, the Pounds of Financial Year. Deaths by degree of development of working-class needs and the state of quinine sold. Malaria. working-class organization, which in some places has succeeded in increasing the rates of pay. Women are, as a rule, paid less than 1901-1902 13,358 men, and though their wages have also increased, the rise has been 1902-1903 4,932 9,908 slighter than in the case of men. In some trades, for instance the 1903-1904 15,915 8,513 silk trade, women earn little more than rod. a day, and, for some 1904-1905 30,956 8,501 classes of work, as little as 7d. and 4}d. The general improvement 1905-1906 41,166 7,838 in sanitation has led to a corresponding improvement in the condi- 1906–1907 45,591 4,875 tion of the working classes, though much still remains to be done, especially in the south. On the other hand, it is generally the case The profit made by the state, which is entirely devoted to a that even in the most unpromising inn the bedding is clean. special fund for means against malaria, amounted in these The number of industrial strikes has risen from year to year, five years to £41,759. It has been established that two 3-grain although, on account of the large number of persons involved in pastilles a day are a sufficient prophylactic;. and the proprietors some of them, the rise in the number of strikers has not Strikes. of malarious estates and contractors for public works in malarious always corresponded to the number of strikes. During districts are bound by law to provide sufficient quinine for their the years 1900 and 1901 strikes were increasingly numerous, chiefly workmen, death for want of this precaution coming under the pro- on account of the growth of Socialist and working-class organizations. visions of the workmen's compensation act. Much has also been, The greatest proportion of strikes takes place in northern Italy, though much remains to be, done in the way of bonificamento, i.e. especially Lombardy and Piedmont, where manufacturing industries proper drainage and improvement of the (generally fertile) low-lying are most developed. Textile, building and mining industries show and hitherto malarious plains. the highest percentage of strikes, since they give employment to In Venetia the lives of the small proprietors and of the salaried large numbers of men concentrated in single localities. Agricultural peasants are often extremely miserable. There and in Lombardy the strikes, though less frequent than those in manufacturing industries, disease known as pellagra is most widely diffused. The disease is have special importance in Italy. They are most common in the due to poisoning by micro-organisms produced by deteriorated maize, north and centre, a circumstance which shows them to be promoted and can be combated by care in ripening, drying and storing the less by the more backward and more ignorant peasants than by the maize. The most recent statistics show the disease to be diminish- better-educated labourers of Lombardy and Emilia, among whom ing: Whereas in 1881 there were 104,067 (16.29 per 1000) peasants Socialist organizations are widespread. Since 1901 there have been, afflicted by the disease, in 1899 there were only 72,603 (10:30 per more than once, general strikes at Milan and elsewhere, and one in 1000) peasants, with a maximum of 39,882 (34:32 per 1000) peasants the autumn of 1905 caused great inconvenience throughout the in Venetia, and 19,557 (12.90 per 1000) peasants in Lombardy. The country, and led to no effective result. decrease of the disease is a direct result of the efforts made to combat Although in some industrial centres the working-class movement it, in the form of special hospitals or pellagrosari, economic kitchens, has assumed an importance equal to that of other countries, there rural bakeries and maize-drying establishments. A bill for the is no general working-class organization comparable to the English better prevention of pellagra was introduced in the spring of 1902. trade unions. Mutual benefit and co-operative societies serve the The deaths from it dropped in that year to 2376, from 3054 in the purpose of working-class defence or offence against the employers. previous year and 3788 in 1900. În 1893, after many vicissitudes, the Italian Socialist Labour Party In Liguria, on account of the comparative rarity of large estates, was founded, and has now become the Italian Socialist Party, in agricultural labourers are in a better condition. Men earn between which the majority of Italian workmen enrol themselves. Printers Is. 3d. and 25. Id. a day, and women from 5d. to 8d. In Emilia and hat-makers, however, possess trade societies. In 1899 an agita- the day labourers, known as disobbligati, carn, on the contrary, low tion began for the organization of " Chambers of Labour," intended wages, out of which they have to provide for shelter and to lay by to look after the technical education of workmen and to form com- something against unemployment, Their condition is miserable. missions of arbitration in case of strikes. They act also as employ- In Tuscany, however, the prevalence of mezzadria, properly so ment bureaux, and are often centres of political propaganda. At called, has raised the labourers' position. Yet in some Tuscan present such “chambers” exist in many Italian cities, while "leagues provinces, as, for instance, that of Grosseto, where malaria ragęs, of improvement," or of “resistance," are rapidly spreading in the labourers are organized in gangs under “corporals," who undertake country districts. In many cases the action of these organizations has harvest work. They are poverty-stricken, and easily fall victims proved, at least temporarily, advantageous to the working classes. to fever. In the Abruzzi and in Apulia both regular and irregular Labour legislation is backward in Italy, on account of the late workmen are engaged by the year. The curatori or curatoli (factors) development of manufacturing industry and of working-class receive £40 a year, with a slight interest in the profits; the stocks organization. On the 17th of April 1898 a species of Employers' men hardly earn in money and kind £13; the muleteers and under- Liability Act compelled employers of more than five workmen in workmen get between £5 to £8, plus firewood, bread and oil; certain industries to insure their employees against accidents. 14 (COMMUNICATIONS ITALY 1 31 On the 17th of July 1898 a national fund for the insurance of workmen flourishes most in the districts in which the mezzadria system has against illness and old age was founded by law on the principle of been prevalent. optional registration. In addition to an initial endowment by the Railways. The first railway in Italy, a line 16 m. long from Naples state, part of the annual income of the fund is furnished in various to Castellammare, was opened in 1840. By 1881 there were some forms by the state (principally by making over a proportion of the 5500 m. open, in 1891 some 8000 m., while in 1901 the total length profits of the Post Office Savings Bank), and part by the premiums was 9317 m. In July 1905 all the principal lines, which had been of the workmen. The minimum annual premium is six lire for an constructed by the state, but had been since 1885 let out to three annuity of one lira per day at the age of sixty, and insurance against companies (Mediterranean, Adriatic, Sicilian), were taken over by sickness. The low level of wages in many trades and the jealousies the state; their length amounted in 1901 to 6147 m., and in 1907 of the “ Chambers of Labour " and other working-class organizations to 8422 m. The minor lines (many of them narrow gauge) remain in impede rapid development. the hands of private companies. The total length, including the À law came into operation in February 1908, according to which Sardinian railways, was 10,368 m.in 1907. The state, in taking over a weekly day of rest (with few exceptions) was established on Sunday the railways, did not exercise sufficient care to see that the lines and in every case in which it was possible, and otherwise upon some other the rolling stock were kept up to a proper state of efficiency and day of the week. adequacy for the work they had to periorm; while the step itself The French institution of Prudhommes was introduced into Italy was taken somewhat hastily. The result was that for the first two in 1893, under the name of Collegi di Probiviri. The institution has years of state administration the service was distinctly bad, and the not attained great vogue. Most of the colleges deal with matters lack of goods trucks at the ports was especially felt. A capital affecting textile and mechanical industries. Each " college is expenditure of £4,000,000 annually was decided on to bring the lines founded by royal decree, and consists of a president, with not fewer up to the necessary state of efficiency to be able to cope with the than ten and not more than twenty members. A conciliation rapidly increasing traffic. It was estimated in 1906 that this would bureau and a jury are elected to deal with disputes concerning wages, have to be maintained for a period of ten years, with a further total hours of work, labour contracts, &c., and have power to settle the expenditure of £14,000,000 on new lines. disputes, without appeal, whenever the amounts involved do not Comparing the state of things in 1901 with that of 1881, for the exceed £8. whole country, we find the passenger and goods traffic almost Provident institutions have considerably developed in Italy doubled (except the cattle traffic), the capital expenditure almost under the forms of savings banks, assurance companies increased, and the gross receipts per mile slightly lower. doubled, the working expenses per mile almost imperceptibly Provideat The and mutual benefit societies. Besides the Post Office personnel had increased from 70,568 to 108,690. The construction institu Savings Bank and the ordinary savings banks, many of numerous unremunerative lines, tloos. the free granting of con- co-operative credit societies and ordinary credit banks cessions to government and other employees (and also of cheap tickets on special occasions for congresses, &c., in various towns, receive deposits of savings. without strict inquiry into the qualifications of the claimants) will The greatest number of savings banks exists in Lombardy; account for the failure to realize a higher profit. The fares (in slow Piedmont and Venetia come next. Campania holds the first place in trains, with the addition of 10% for expenses) are: Ist class, 1-85d.; the south, most of the savings of that region being deposited in the 2nd, 1:3d.; 3rd, 0.725d. per mile. There are, however, considerable provident institutions of Naples. In Liguria and Sardinia the habit reductions for distances over 93 m., on a scale increasing in propor- of thrift is less developed. Assurance societies in Italy are subject tion to the distance. to the general dispositions of the commercial code regarding com- The taking over of the main lines by the state has of course mercial companies. Mutual benefit societies have increased rapidly, produced a considerable change in the financial situation of the both because their advantages have been appreciated, and because, railways. The state incurred in this connexion a liability of some until recently, the state had taken no steps directly to insure work- £20,000,000, of which about £16,000,000 represented the rolling men against illness. The present Italian mutual benefit societies stock. The state has considerably improved the engines and passenger resemble the ancient beneficent corporations, of which in some carriages. The capital value of the whole of the lines, rolling stock, respects they may be considered a continuation. The societies &c., for 1908-1909, was calculated approximately at £244,161,400, require government recognition if they wish to enjoy legal rights. and the profits át £5,295,019, or 2:2%. The state (law of the 15th of 1896) imposed this condition in Milan is the most important railway centre in the country, and order to determine exactly the aims of the societies, and, while | is followed by Turin, Genoa, Verona, Bologna, Rome, Naples. Lom- allowing them to give help to their sick, old or feeble members, or bardy and Piedmont are much better provided with railways in aid the families of deceased members, to forbid them to pay old-age proportion to their arca than any other parts of Italy; next come pensions, lest they assumed burdens beyond their financial strength. Venetia, Emilia and the immediate environs of Naples. Nevertheless, the majority of societies have not sought recognition, The northern frontier is crossed by the railway from Turin to being suspicious of fiscal state intervention, Ventimiglia by the Col di Tenda, the Mont Cenis line from Turin to Modane (the tunnel is 7 m. in length), the Simplon line (tunnel Co-operation, for the various purposes of credit, distribution, 11 m. in length) from Domodossola to Brigue, the St Gotthard from production and labour, has attained great development in Italy. Milan to Chiasso (the tunnel is entirely in Swiss territory), the Credit co-operation is represented by a special type Brenner from Verona to Trent, the line from Udine to Tarvis and Co-opera. of association known as People's Banks (Banche international lines the most important are those from Milan to Turin the line from Venice to Triest by the Adriatic coast. Besides these Popolari). They are not, as a rule, supported by (via Vercelli and via Alessandria), to Genoa via Tortona, to Bologna workmen or peasants, but rather by small tradespeople, manu- via Parma and Modena, to Verona, and the shorter lines to the facturers and farmers. They perform a useful function in district of the lakes of Lombardy; from Turin to Genoa via Savona protecting their clients from the cruel usury which prevails, the Riviera, and along the south-west coast of Italy, via Sarzana and via Alessandria; from Genoa to Savona and Ventimiglia along especially in the south. A recent form of co-operative credit, (whence a line runs to Parma) to Pisa (whence lines run to Pistoia banks are the Casse Rurali or rural banks, on the Raffeisen and Florence) and Rome; from Verona to Modena, and to Venice system, which lend money to peasants and small proprietors via Padua; from Bologna to Padua, to Rimini (and thence along the north-east coast via Ancona, Castellammare Adriatico and out of capital obtained on credit or by gift. : These loans are Foggia to Brindisi and Otranto), and to Florence and Rome; from made on personal security, but the members of the bank.do Rome to Ancona, to Castellammare Adriatico and to Naples; from not contribute any quota of the capital, though their liability Naples to Foggia, via Metaponto (with a junction for Reggio di is unlimited in case of loss. They are especially widespread in Calabria); to Brindisi and to Reggio di Calabria. (For the Sicilian Lombardy and Venetia. and Sardinian lines, see Sicily and SARDINIA.) The speed of the trains is not high, nor are the runs without stoppage long as a rule. Distributive co-operation is confined almost entirely to Piedmont, One of the fastest runs is from Rome to Orte, 52.40 m. in 69 min., Liguria, Lombardy, Venetia, Emilia and Tưscany, and is practically or 45.40 m. per hour, but this is a double line with little traffic. unknown in Basilicata, the Abruzzi and Sardinia. The low speed reduces the potentiality of the lines. The insufficiency Co-operative dairies are numerous. They have, however, much of rolling stock, and especially of goods wagons, is mainly caused decreased in number since 1889. More numerous are the agricultural by delays in “handling" traffic consequent on this or other causes, and viticultural co-operative societies, which have largely increased in among which may be mentioned the great length of the single lines number. They are to be found mainly in the fertile plains of north south of Rome. It is thus a matter of difficulty to provide trucks Italy, where they enjoy considerable success, removing the cause of for a sudden emergency, e.g. the vintage season; and in 1905–1907 labour troubles and strikes, and providing for cultivation on a complaints were many, while the seaports were continually short of sufficiently large scale. The richest, however, of the co-operative trucks. This led to deficiencies in the supply of coai to the manu- societies, though few in number, are those for the production of facturing centres, and to some diversion elsewhere of shipping. electricity, for textile industries and for ceramic and glass manu- Steam and Electric Tramways.—Tramways with mechanical factures. traction have developed rapidly. Between 1875, when the first line Co-operation in general is most widely diffused, in proportion to was opened, and 1901, the length of the lines grew to 1890 m. of population, in central Italy; less so in northern Italy, and much steam and 270 m. of electric tramways. These lines exist principally less so in the south and the islands. It thus appears that co-operation in Lombardy (especially in the province of Milan), in Piedmont, tion, FOREIGN TRADING] ITALY 15 43,418 9,991 especially in the province of Turin, and in other regions of northern Among the steamers the increase has chiefly taken place in vessels and central Italy. In the south they are rare, on account partly of of more than 1000 tons displacement, but the number of large sailing the mountainous character of the country, and partly of the scarcity vessels has also increased. The most important Italian ports are of traffic. All the important towns of Italy are provided with internal (in order): Genoa, Naples, Palermo, Leghorn, Messina, Venice, electric tramways, mostly with overhead wires. Catania. Carriage-roads have been greatly extended in modern times, Foreign Trade.- Italian trade with foreign countries (imports and although their ratio to area varies in different localities. In north exports) during the quinquennium 1872-1876 averaged £94,000,000 Italy there are 1480 yds. of road per sq. m.; in central Italy 993; a year; in the quinquennium 1893-1897 it fell to £88,960,000 a year. in southern Italy 405;, in Sardinia 596, and in Sicily only 244. In 1898, however, the total rose to £104,680,000, but the increase They are as a rule well kept up in north and central Italy, less so in was principally due to the extra importation of corn in that year. the south, where, especially in Calabria, many villages are inac- In 1899 it was nearly £120,000,000. Since 1899 there has been a cessible by road and have only footpaths leading to them. By the steady increase both in imports and exports. Thus:- act of 1903 the state contributes half and the province a quarter of the cost of roads connecting communes with the nearest railway Trade with Foreign Countries in £1000 stations or landing places. (exclusive of Precious Metals). T Inland Navigation.-Navigable canals had in 1886 a total length of Year. about 655 m.; they are principally situated in Piedmont, Lombardy Excess of and Venetia, and are thus practically confined to the Po basin. Totals. L.Imports. Exports. Imports over Canals lead from Milan to the Ticino, Adda and Po. The Po is itself Exports. navigable from Turin downwards, but through its delta it is so sandy that canals are preferred, the Po di Volano and the Po di Primaro on 1871 81,966 38,548 -4,870 the right, and the Canale Bianco on the left. The total length of 1881 96,208 49,587 46,621 2,966 navigable rivers is 967 m. 1891 80,135 45,063 35,072 Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones.—The number of post offices 1900 121,538 68,009 53.529 14,480 (including colletiorie, or collecting offices, which are rapidly being 1904 140,437 76,549 63,888 12,661 eliminated) increased from 2200 in 1862 to 4823 in 1881, 6700 in 1891 "No account has here been taken of fluctuations of exchange. and 8817 in 1904. In spite of a large increase in the number of letters and post cards (i.e. nearly 10 per inhabitant per annum in The great extension of Italian coast-line is thought by some to be 1904, as against 5.65 in 1888) the average is considerably below not really a source of strength to the Italian mercantile marine, as that of most other European countries. The number of state tele- few of the ports have a large enough hinterland to provide them with graph offices was 4603, of other offices (railway and tramway stations, traffic, and in this hinterland (except in the basin of the Po) there are which accept private telegrams for transmission) 1930. The no canals or navigable rivers. Another source of weakness is the fact telephone system is considerably developed; in 1904; 92 urban and that Italy is a country of transit and the Italian mercantile marine 66 inter - urban systems existed. They were installed by private has to enter into competition with the ships of other countries, which companies, but have been taken over by the state. International call there in passing. A third difficulty is the comparatively small communication between Rome and Paris, and Italy and Switzerland tonnage and volume of Italian exports relatively to the imports, also exists. The parcel post and money order services have largely the former in 1907 being about one-fourth of the latter, and greatly increased since 1887--1888, the number of parcels having almost out of proportion to the relative value; while a fourth is the lack doubled (those for abroad are more than trebled), while the number of facilities for handling goods, especially in the smaller ports. of money orders issued is trebled and their value doubled (about The total imports for the first six months of 1907 amounted to £40,000,000). The value of the foreign orders paid in Italy increased £57,840,000, an increase of £7,520,000 as compared with the corre- from £1,280,000 to £2,356,000 owing to the increase of emigration sponding period of 1906. The exports for the corresponding period and of the savings sent home by emigrants. amounted to £35,840,000, a diminution of £1,520,000 as compared At the end of 1907 Italy was among the few countries that had not with the corresponding period of 1906. The diminution was due to a adopted the reduction of postage sanctioned at the Postal Union smaller exportation of raw silk and oil. The countries with which this congress, held in Rome in 1906, by which the rates became 2}d. for trade is mainly carried on are: (imports) United Kingdom, Germany, the first oz., and itd. per oz. afterwards. The internal rate is 150. United States, France, Russia and India; (exports) Switzerland, (1}d.) per oz.; post-cards toc. (id.), reply 150. On the other hand, United States, Germany, France, United Kingdom and Argentina. letters within the postal district are only sc. (td.) per oz. Printed The most important imports are minerals, including coal and matter is 2c. (fd.) per 50 grammes (1} oz.). The regulations provide metals (both in pig and wrought); silks, raw, spun and woven; that if there is a greater weight of correspondence (including book- stone, potter's earths, earthenware and glass; corn, flour and packets) than 17 ib for any individual by any one delivery, notice farinaceous products; cotton, raw, spun and woven; and live stock. shall be given him that it is lying at the post office, he being then The principal exports are silk and cotton tissues, live stock, wines, obliged to arrange for fetching it. Letters insured for a fixed sum spirits and oils; corn, flour, macaroni and similar products; and are not delivered under any circumstances. minerals, chiefly sulphur. Before the tariff reform of 1887 manu- Money order cards are very convenient and cheap (up to 10 lire factured articles, alimentary products and raw materials for manu- [8s.] for 100. [1d.]), as they need not be enclosed in a letter, while a facture held the principal places in the imports. In the exports, short private message can be written on them. Owing to the com- alimentary products came first, while raw materials for manufacture paratively small amount of letters, it is found possible to have a and manufactured articles were of little account. The transforma- travelling post office on all principal trains (while almost every train tion of Italy from a purely agricultural into a largely industrial has a travelling sorter, for whom a compartment is reserved) without country is shown by the circumstance that trade in raw stuffs, semi- a late fee being exacted in either case. In the principal towns letters manufactured and manufactured materials, now preponderates over may be posted in special boxes at the head office just before the that in alimentary products and wholly-manufactured articles, both departure of any given mail train, and are conveyed direct to the the importation of raw materials and the exportation of manufactured travelling post office. Another convenient arrangement is the articles having increased. The balance of Italian trade has under- provision of letter-boxes on electric tramcars in some cities. gone frequent fluctuations. The large predominance of imports Mercantile Marine.-Between the years 1881 and 1905 the number over exports after 1884 was a result of the falling off of the export of ships entered and cleared at Italian ports decreased slightly trade in live stock, olive oil and wine, on account.of the closing of (219,398 in 1881 and 208,737 in 1905), while their aggregate tonnage the French market, while the importation of corn from Russia and increased (32,070,704 in 1881 and 80,782,039 in 1905). In the move- the Balkan States increased considerably. In 1894 the excess of ment of shipping, trade with foreign countries prevails (especially as imports over exports fell to £2,720,000, but by 1898 it had grown regards arrivals) over trade between Italian ports. Most of the to 48,391,000, in consequence chiefly of the increased importation of merchandise and passengers bound for and hailing from foreign ports coal, raw cotton and cotton thread, pig and cast iron, old iron, sail under foreign flags. Similarly, foreign vessels prevail over grease and oil-seeds for use in Italian industries. In 1899 the excess Italian vessels in regard to goods embarked. European countries of imports over exports fell to £3,006,000; but since then it has never absorb the greater part of Italian sea-borne trade, whereas most of been less than £12,000,000. the passenger traffic goes to North and South America. The substi- Education.--Public instruction in Italy is regulated by the tution of steamships for sailing vessels has brought about a diminy state, which maintains public schools of every grade, and tion in the number of vessels belonging to the Italian mercantile marine, whether employed in the coasting trade, the fisheries or in requires that other public schools shall conform to the rules of traffic on the high seas. Thus:- the state schools. No private person may open a school without state authorization. Schools may be classed thus: Total Steamships. Sailing Vessels. 1. Elementary, of two grades, of the lower of which there Year. No. of Number. Tonnage Number. Tonnage must legally be at least one for boys and one for girls in each Ships. (Net). (Net). commune; while the upper grade elementary school is required in communes having normal and secondary schools or over 1881 7815 176 93,698 7,639 895,359 4000 inhabitants. In both the instruction is free They are 1905 5596 513 462,259 5,083 570,355 maintained by the communes, sometimes with state help. 16 [EDUCATION ITALY 101 1061 121 3781 The age limit is six to nine years for the lower grade, and up greatest increase has taken place in technical education, where it has to twelve for the higher grade, attendance being obligatory at been much more rapid than in classical education. There are three the latter also where it exists. 2. Secondary instruction (i.) and Bari, and eleven secondary commercial schools; and technical higher commercial schools, with academic rank, at Venice, Genoa classical in the ginnasi and licei, the latter leading to the and commercial schools for women at Florence and Milan. The universities; (ii.) technical. 3. Higher education-universities, number of agricultural schools has also grown, although the total higher institutes and special schools. is relatively small.when compared with population. The attendance of the secondary and higher educatory methods, in the normal by the following table: - at the various classes of secondary schools in 1882 and 1902 is shown schools and licei the state provides for the payment of the staff and for scientific material, and often largely supports the ginnasi 1882. No. of 1902. and technical schools, which should by law be supported by the Schools. communes. The universities are maintained by the state and Ginnasi- by their own ancient resources; while the higher special schools Government 13,875 24,081 192 are maintained conjointly by the state, the province, the com- On an equal footing with govern- mune and (sometimes) the local chamber of commerce. ment schools 6,417 7,208 76 Not on such a footing : 22,609 The number of persons unable to read and write has gradually 24,8501 442 decreased, both absolutely and in proportion to the number of Total 42,811 56,139 710 inhabitants. The census of 1871 gave 73% of illiterates, that of 1881,67%, and that of 1901, 56%, i.e. 51.8 for males and 60-8 Technical schools Government 7,510 30,411 188 for females. In Piedmont there were 17.7% of illiterates above On an equal footing 8,653 12,055 six years (the lowest) and in Calabria 78.7% (the highest), Not on such a footing 8,670 3,623) the figures for the whole country being 48.5. As might be expected, progress has been most rapid wherever education, at Total 24,833 46,089 395 the moment of national unification, was most widely diffused. Licei- For instance, the number of bridegrooms unable to write their Government 6,623 10,983 námes in 1872 was in the province of Turin 26%, and in the On an equal footing 1,167 1,955 33 Calabrian province of Cosenza 90%; in 1899 the percentage in Not on such a footing 4,600 4,962 187 the province of Turin had fallen to 5%, while in that of Cosenza Total 12,390 17.900 341 it was still 76%. Infant asylums (where the first rudiments of instruction are imparted to children between two and a half and Technical institutes Government six years of age) and elementary schools have increased in 5,555 9,654 54 On an equal footing 1,684 number. There has been a corresponding increase in the number 1,898 18 Not on such a footing. 619 7 of scholars. Thus: Total Infant Asylums Daily Elementary Schools 7,858 11,930 79 (Public and Private). (Public and Private). Nautical institutes- Year. Number of Number of Number of Number of Government 758 1,878 18 Asylums. Scholars. Schoolrooms. Scholars. On an equal footing 69 Not on such a footing 13 1 1885-86 2083 240,365 53,628 2,252,898 Total 816 1890-91 2296 278,204 57,077 2,418,692 1,945 1901-02 3314 355,594 61,777 2,733,349 The teachers in 1901-1902 numbered 65,739 (exclusive of 576 The schools which do not obtain equality with government schools are either some of those conducted by religious orders, or else those non-teaching directors and 322 teachers of special subjects) or in which a sufficient standard is not reached. The total number of about 41.5 scholars per teacher. such schools was, in 1896, 742 with 33,813 pupils. The rate of increase in the public state-supported schools has been The pupils of the secondary schools reach a maximum of 6.60 per much greater than in the private schools. School buildings have 1000 in Liguria and 5:92 in Latium, and a minimum of 2.30 in the been improved and the qualifications of teachers raised. Neverthe- Abruzzi, 2.27 in Calabria and 1.65 in Basilicata. less, many schools are still defective, both from a hygienic and a For the boarding schools, or convitti, there are only incomplete teaching point of view; while the economic position of the ele reports except for the institutions directly dependent on the ministry mentary teachers, who in Italy depend upon the communal admini- of public instruction, which are comparatively few. The rest are strations and not upon the state, is still in many parts of the country largely directed by religious institutions. In 1895-1896 there were extremely low. 919 convitti for boys, with 59,066 pupils, of which 40, with 3814 The law of 1877 rendering education compulsory for children pupils , were dependent on the ministry (in 1901–1902 there were 43 of between six and nine years of age has been the principal cause of the these with 4036 pupils); and 1456 for girls, with 49,367 pupils, of which spread of elementary education. The law is, however, imperfectly only 8, with about 600 pupils, were dependent on the ministry. enforced for financial reasons. In 1901–1902 only 65% out of the The scuole normali or training schools (117 in number, of which 75 whole number of children between six and nine years of age were were government institutions) for teachers had 1329 male students in registered in the lower standards of the elementary and private 1901–1902, showing hardly any increase, while the female students schools. The evening schools have to some extent helped to spread increased from 8005 in 1882-1883 to 22,316 in 1895-1896, but education. Their number and that of their scholars have, however, decreased to 19,044 in 1901–1902, owing to the admission of women decreased since the withdrawal of state subsidies. In 1871-1872 to telegraph and telephone work. The female secondary schools in there were 375,947 scholars at the evening schools and 154,585 at 1881-1882 numbered 77, of which 7 were government institutions, the holiday schools, while in 1900-1901 these numbers had fallen with 3569 pupils; in 1901–1902 there were 233 schools (9 govern- to 94,5!o and 35,460 respectively. These are, however, the only mental) with 9347 pupils. institutions in which a decrease is shown, and by the law of 1906 The total attendance of students in the various faculties at the 5000 of these institutions are to be provided in the communes where different universities and higher institutes is as follows: the proportion of illiterates is highest. In 1895 they numbered 4245, with 138,181 scholars. Regimental schools impart elementary 1882. 1902. education to illiterate soldiers. Whereas the levy of 1894 showed Law 40% of the recruits to be completely illiterate, only 27% were 8,385 illiterate when the levy was discharged in 1897. Private institutions Philosophy and letters 419 1,703 Medicine and surgery and working-class associations have striven to improve the intel- 4,428 9,055 lectual conditions of the working classes. Popular universities have Professional diploma, pharmacy 3,290 Mathematics and natural science lately attained considerable development. The number of institutes 1,364 3.500 devoted to secondary education remained almost unchanged between Engineering 982 1,293 1880-1881 and 1895-1896. In some places the number has even been Agriculture 128 diminished by the suppression of private educational institutes. 145 507 Commerce 167 But the number of scholars has considerably increased, and shows a ratio superior to the general increase of the population. The Total 13,065 27.900 38 291 20 11896. 4,801 798 LIBRARIES AND CHARITIES) ITALY 17 Thus a large all-round increase in secondary and higher education institutions (exclusive of public pawnshops, or Monti di Pietd, and is shown-satisfactory in many respects, but showing that more other institutions which combine operations of credit with charity) young men devote themselves to the learned professions (especially was approximately 22,000, with an aggregate patrimony of nearly to the law) than the economic condition of the country will justiſy: £89,000,000. The revenue was about $3,600,000; after deduction of There are 21 universities-Bologna, Cagliari, Camerino, Catania, taxes, interest on debts, expenses of management, &c., £2,080,000. Ferrara, Genoa, Macerata, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Palermo, adding to this £1,240,000 of communal and provincial subsidies, Parma, Pavia, Perugia, Pisa, Rome, Sassari, Siena, Turin, Urbino, the product of the labour of inmates, temporary subscriptions, &c., of which Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia and Urbino are not state the net revenue available for charity was, during 1880, £3,860,000. institutions; university courses are also given at Aquila, Bari and of this sum £260,000 was spent for religious purposes. Between Catanzaro. Of these the most frequented in 1904-1905 were: Naples 1881 and 1905 the bequests to existing institutions and sums left for (4745). Turin (3451), Rome (26:30), Bologna (1711), Pavia (1559), the endowment of new institutions amounted to about £16,604.600. Padua (1364), Genoa (1276), and the least frequented, Cagliari (254), Charitable institutions take, as a rule, the two forms of outdoor Siena (235) and Sassari (200). The professors are ordinary and and indoor relief and attendance. The indoor institutions are the extraordinary, and free professors (liberi docenti), corresponding to more important in regard to endowment, and consist of hospitals the German Privatdozenien, are also allowed to be attached to the for the infirm (a number of these are situated at the seaside); of universities. hospitals for chronic and incurable diseases; of orphan asylums; The institutions which co-operate with the universities are the of poorhouses and shelters for beggars; of infant asylums or in- special schools for engineers at Turin, Naples, Rome and Bologna stitutes for the first cducation of children under six years of age; (and others attached to some of the universitics), the higher technical of lunatic asylums; of homes for the deaf and dumb; and of institute at Milan, the higher veterinary schools of Milan, Naples institutes for the blind. The outdoor charitable institutions include and Turin, the institute for higher studies at Florence (Istituto di those which distribute help in money or food; those which supply studi superiori, pratici e di perfezionamento), the literary and scientific medicine and medical help; those which aid mothers unable to rear academy of Milan, the higher institutes for the training of female their own children; those which subsidize orphans and foundlings; teachers at Florence and Rome, the Institute of Social Studies at those which subsidize educational institutes; and those which supply Florence, the higher commercial schools at Venice, Bari and Genoa, marriage portions. Between 1881 and 1898 the chief increases took the commercial university founded by L. Bocconi at Milan in 1902, place in the endowments of hospitals; orphan asylums; inſant the higher naval school at Genoa, the higher schools of agriculture asylums; poorhouses; almshouses; voluntary, workhouses; and at Milan and Portici, the experimental institute at Perugia, the institutes for the blind. The least creditably administered of these school of forestry at Vallambrosa, the industrial museum at Turin. The special secondary institutions, distinct from those already 53.77% died; while during the years 1893-1896 (no later statistics are the asylums for abandoned infants; in 1887, of a total of 23,913. reckoned under the universities and allied schools, include an Oriental institute at Naples with 243 pupils: 34 schools of agriculture under one year for the whole of Italy in 1893-1896 was only 16.66% are available) of 117,970 51.72% died. The average mortality with (1904-1905) 1925 students; 2 schools of mining (at Caltanisetta Italian charity legislation was reformed by the laws of 1862 and and Iglesias, with (1904-1905) 83 students; 308 industrial and commercial schools with (1903-1904) 46,411 students; 174 schools 1890, which attempted to provide efficacious protection for endow- ments, and to ensure the application of the income to the purposes of design and moulding with (1898) 12,556 students; 13 government for which it was intended. The law considers as “ charitable in- fine art institutes (1904-1905) with 2778 students and 13 non- stitutions" (opere pie) all poorhouses, almshouses and institutes government with 1662 students; 5 government institutes of music with 1026 students, and 51 non-government with 4109 pupils (1904- or seek to improve their moral and economic condition; and also the which partly or wholly give help to able-bodied or infirm paupers, ayu5). Almost all of these show a considerablc incrcase. Congregazioni di carità (municipal charity boards existing in every Libraries are numerous in Italy, those even of small cities commune, and composed of members elected by the municipal being often rich in manuscripts and valuable works. Statistics council), which administer funds destined for the poor in general. All collected in 1893-1894 and 1896 revealed the existence of 1831 trative junta, existing in every province, and empowered to control the charitable institutions were under the protection of provincial adminis- libraries, either private (but open to the public) or completely management of charitable endowments. The supreme control was public. The public libraries have been enormously increased vested in the minister of the Interior. The law of 1890 also empowers since 1870 by the incorporation of the treasures of suppressed every citizen to appeal to the tribunals on behalf of the poor, for monastic institutions. The richest in manuscripts is that of the whose benefit a given charitable institution may have been intended. A more recent law provides for the formation of a central body, Vatican, especially since the purchase of the Barberini Library in with provincial commissions under it. Its effect, however, has been 1902; it now contains over 34,000 MSS. The Vatican archives comparatively small. are also of great importance. Most large towns contain im- Public pawnshops or Monti di pietd numbered *555 in 1896, portant state or communal archives, in which a considerable with a net patrimony of £2,879,625. In that year their income, amount of research is being done by local investigators; the £300,232. The amount lent on security was £4,153,229. including revenue from capital, was £416,385, and their expenditure various societies for local history (Società di Storia Patria) do The Monti frumentarii or co-operative corn deposits, which lend very good work and issue valuable publications; the treasures sced corn to farmers, and are repaid after harvest with interest in which the archives contain are by no means exhausted. Libraries kind, numbered 1615 in 1894, and possessed a patrimony of £240,000. and archives are under the superintendence of the Ministry of In addition to the regular charitable institutions, the communal and provincial authorities exercise charity, the former (in 1899) to the Public Instruction. A separate department of this ministry extent of £1,827,166 and the latter to the extent of £919,832 per under a director-general has the charge of antiquities and fine Part of these sums is given to hospitals, and part spent arts, making archaeological excavations and supervising those directly by the communal and provincial authorities. Of the sum undertaken by private persons (permission to foreigners, even spent by the communes, about goes for the sanitary service (doctors, midwives, vaccination), } for the maintenance of foundlings, to foreign schools, to excavate in Italy is rarely granted), and to for the support of the sick in hospitals, and for sheltering maintaining the numerous state museums and picture galleries. the aged and needy. Of the sum spent by the provincial authorities, The exportation of works of art and antiquities from Italy without over half goes to lunatic asylums and over a quarter to the mainten- leave of the ministry is forbidden (though it has in the past ance of foundling hospitals. been sometimes evaded). An inventory of those subjects, the Religion.-The great majority of Italians–97.12%-are exportation of which can in no case be permitted, has been Roman Catholics. Besides the ordinary Latin rite, several prepared; and the ministry has at its disposal a fund of £200,000 others are recognized. The Armenians of Venice maintain their for the purchase of important works of art of all kinds. traditional characteristics. The Albanians of the southern Charilies.--In Italy there is no legal right in the poor to be provinces still employ the Greek rite and the Greek language supported by the parish or commune, nor any obligation on the in their public worship, and their priests, like those of the Greek commune to relieve the poor-except in the case of forsaken Church, are allowed to marry. Certain peculiarities introduced children and the sick poor. Public charity is exercised through by St Ambrose distinguish ihe ritual of Milan from that of the the permanent charitable foundations (opere pie), which are, general church. Up to 1871 the island of Sicily was, according however, very unequally distributed in the different provinces to the bull of Urban II., ecclesiastically dependent on the king, The districts of Italy which show between 1883 and 1903 the and exempt from the canonical power of the pope. greatest increase of new institutions, or of gifts to old ones, are Though the territorial authority of the papal see was practically Lombardy, Piedmont, Liguria, while Sardinia, Calabria and abolished in 1870, the fact that Rome is the seai of the admini- Basilicata stand lowest, Latium standing comparatively low. strative centre of the vast organization of the church is not The patrimony of Italian charitable institutions is considerable without significance to the nation. In the same city in which and is constantly increasing. In 1880 the number of charitable I the administrative functions of the body politic are centralized annum. XV It 18 [RELIGION ITALY there still exists the court of the spiritual potentate which in Twelve archbishops and sixty-one bishops are independent of all 1879 consisted of 1821 persons. Protestants number some metropolitan supervision, and hold directly of the Holy See. The 65,000, of whom half are Italian and half foreign. Of the former Catania, Cosenza, Ferrara, Gaeta, Lucca, Perugia, Rossano, Spoleto, archbishops are those of Amalfi, Aquila, Camerino and Treia, 22,500 are Waldensians. The number of Jews was returned and Udine, and the bishops those of Acireale, Acquapendente, Alatri, as 36,000, but is certainly higher. There are, besides, in Italy Amelia, Anagni, Ancona-Umana, Aquino-Sora-Pontecorvo, Arezzo, some 2500 members of the Greek Orthodox Church. There Ascoli, Assisi, Aversa, Bagnorea, Borgo San Donnino, Cava-Sarno, Città di Castello, Città della Pieve, Cività Castellana-Orte-Gallese, were in 1901 20,707 parishes in Italy, 68,444 secular clergy and Corneto-Civita Vecchia, Cortona, Fabriano-Matelica, Fano,Ferentino 48,043 regulars (monks, lay brothers and nuns). The size of Foggia, Foligno, Gravina-Montepeloso, Gubbio, Jesi, Luni-Sarzana parishes varies from province to province, Sicily having larger and Bragnato, S. Marco-Bisignano, Marsi (Pescina), Melfi-Rapolla parishes in virtue of the old Sicilian church laws, and Naples, fiascone, Montepulciano, Nardo, Narni, Nocera in Umbria, Norcia, Mileto, Molfetta-Terlizzi-Giovennazzo, Monopoli, Montalcino, Monte- and some parts of central Italy, having the smallest. The Orvieto, Osimo-Cingoli, Parma, Penne-Atri, Piacenza, Poggio Italian parishes had in 1901 a total gross revenue, including Mirteto, Recanati-Loreto, Rieti, Segni, Sutri-Nepi, Teramo, Terni, assignments from the public worship endowment fund, of Terracina-Piperno-Sezze, Tivoli, Todi, Trivento, Troia, Valva- £1,280,000 or an average of £63 per parish; 51% of this gross Sulmona, Veroli, Viterbo-Toscanella. Excluding the diocese of Rome and suburbicarian sees, each see has an average area of sum consists of revenue from glebe lands. The kingdom is divided into 264 sees and ten abbeys, or prelatures in Venetia and Lombardy, and the smallest in the provinces of 430 sq. m. and a population of 121,285 souls. The largest sees exist nullius dioceseos. The dioceses are as follows:- A. 6 suburbicarian sees-Ostia and Velletri, Porto and Sta Rufina, and Ascoli.° The Italian sees (exclusive of Rome and of the suburbi- Naples, Leghorn, Forli, Ancona, Pesaro, Urbino, Caserta, Avellino Albano, Frascati, Palestrina, Sabina-all held by cardinal bishops. carian sees) have a total annual revenue of £206,000 equal to an B. 74 sees immediately subject to the Holy See, of which 12 are average of £800 per see. The richest is that of Girgenti, with £6304, archiepiscopal and 61 episcopal. and the poorest that of Porto Maurizio, with only £246. In each C. 37. ecclesiastical provinces, each under a metropolitan, com- diocese is a seminary or diocesan school. posed of 148 suffragan dioceses. Their position is indicated in the In 1855 an act was passed in the Sardinian states for the dis- following table: establishment of all houses of the religious orders r.ot engaged in Metropolitans. Suffragans. preaching, teaching or the care of the sick, of all chapters Acerenza-Matera Anglona-Tursi, Tricarico, Venosa. of collegiate churches not having a cure of souls or existing Religious Bari Founda- Conversano, Ruvo-Bitonto, in towns of less than 20,000 inhabitants, and of all private Benevento tioas. S. Agata de' Goti, Alife, Ariano, Ascoli benefices for which no service was paid by the holders. Satriano Cerignola, Avellino, Bojano, The property and money thus obtained were used to form an ecclesi- Bovino, Larino, Lucera; $. Severo, astical fund (Cassa Ecclesiastica) distinct from the finances of the Telese (Cerreto), Termoli. state. This act resulted in the suppression of 274 monasteries with Bologna Faenza, Imola. 3733 friars, of 61 nunneries with 1756 nuns and of 2722 chapters and Brindisi and Ostuni No suffragan. benefices. In 1860 and 1861 the royal commissioners (even before Cagliari Galtelli-Nuoro, Iglesias, Ogliastra. the constitution of the new kingdom of Italy had been formally Capua Caiazzo, Calvi-Teano, Caserta, Isernia- declared) issued decrees by which there were abolished-(1) in Venafro, Sessa. Umbria, 197 monasteries and 102 convents with 1809 male and Chieti and Vasto . No suffragan. 2393 female associates, and 836 chapters or benefices; (2) in the Conza and Campagna S. Angelo de' Lombardi-Bisaccia, Lace- Marches, 292 monasteries and 127 convents with 2950 male and donia, Muro Lucano. 2728 female associates; (3) in the Neapolitan provinces, 747 monas- Fermo Macerata-Tolentino, Montalto, Ripatran- teries and 275 convents with 8787 male and 7493 female associates. sone, S. Severino. There were thus disestablished in seven or eight years 2075 houses Florence . Borgo Ş. Sepolcro, Colle di Val d'Elsa, of the regular clergy occupied by 31,649 persons; and the confiscated Fiesole, S. Miniato, Modigliana, Pistoia- property yielded a revenue of £398,298. And at the same time there Prato. had been suppressed 11,889 chapters and benefices of the secular Genoa Albenga, Bobbio, Chiavari, Savona-Noli, clergy, which yielded an annual income of £199,149. The value of Tortona, Ventimiglia. the capital thus potentially freed was estimated at £12,000,000; Lanciano and Ortona No suffragan. though hitherto the ecclesiastical possessions in Lombardy, Emilia, Manfredonia and Viesti No suffragan. Tuscany and Sicily had been untouched. As yet the Cassa Ecclesi- Messina Lipari, Nicosia, Patti. astica had no right to dispose of the property thus entrusted to it; Milan Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Crema, but in 1862 an act was passed by which it transferred all its real Cremona, Lodi, Mantua, Pavia. property to the national domain, and was credited with a corre- Modena Carpi, Guastalla, Massa-Carrara, Reggio. sponding amount by the exchequer. The property could now be Monreale Caltanisetta, Girgenti. disposed of like the other property of the domain; and except in Naples . Acerra, Ischia, Nola, Pozzuoli. Sicily, where the system of emphyteusis was adopted, the church Oristano Ales-Terralba. lands began to be sold by auction. To encourage the poorer classes Otranto Gallipoli, Lecce, Ugento. of the people to become landholders, it was decided that the lots Palermo Cefalù, Mazzara, Trapani. offered for sale should be small, and that the purchaser should be Pisa Leghorn, Pescia, Pontremoli, Volterra. allowed to pay by five or ten yearly instalments. By a new act in Ravenna Bertinoro, Cervia, Cesena, Comacchio, | 1866 the process of secularization was extended to the whole kingdom. Forli, Rimini, Sarsina. All the members of the suppressed communities received full exercise Reggio Calabria 3. Bova, Cassano, Catanzaro, Cotrone, of all the ordinary political and civil rights of laymen; and annuities Gerace, Nicastro, Oppido, Nicotera- were granted to all those who had taken permanent religious vows Tropea, Squillace. prior to the 18th of January 1864. To priests and choristers, for Salerno • Acerno, Capaccio-Vallo, Diano, Marsico: example, of the proprietary or endowed orders were assigned £24 per Nuovo and Potenza, Nocera dei annum if they were upwards of sixty years of age, £16 if upwards of Pagani, Nusco, Policastro. 40, and £14, 8s. if younger. The Cassa Ecclesiastica was abolished, Sassari • Alghero, Ampurias and Tempio, Bisarhio, and in its stead was instituted a Fondo pel Culto, or public worship Bosa. fund. From the general confiscation were exempted the buildings S. Severino . Cariati. Siena actually used for public worship, as episcopal residences or seminaries, 3 Chiusi-Pienza, Grosseto, Massa Marittima, &c., or which had been appropriated to the use of schools, poorhouses, Sovana-Pitigliano. hospitals, &c.; as well as the buildings, appurtenances, and movable Syracuse Caltagirone, Noto, Piazza-Armerina. property of the abbeys of Monte Casino, Della Cava dei Tirreni, San Sorrento Castellammare. Martino della Scala, Monreale, Certosa near Pavia, and other estab- Taranto Castellaneta, Oria. lishments of the same kind of importance as architectural or historical Trani-Nazareth-Barletta, monuments. An annuity equal to the ascertained revenue of the Bisceglie Andria. suppressed institutions was placed to the credit of the fund in the Turin Acqui, Alba, Aosta, Asti, Cuneo, Fossano, government 5% .consols. A fourth of this sum was to be handed Ivrea, Mondovi,Pinerolo, Saluzzo, Susa. to the communes to be employed on works of beneficence or education Urbino S. Angelo in Vado-Urbania, Cagli-Pergola, as soon as a surplus was obtained from that part of the annuity Fossombrone, Montefeltro, Pesaro, assigned for the payment of monastic pensions; and in Sicily, Sinigaglia. 209 communes entered on their privileges as soon as the patrimony Venice (patriarch) Adria, Belluno-Feltre, Ceneda (Vittorio), was liquidated. Another act in 1867 decreed the suppression of Chioggia, Concordia-Portogruaro, certain foundations which had escaped the action of previous Padua, Treviso, Verona, Vicenza. measures, put an extraordinary tax of 30% on the whole of the Vercelli Alessandria della Paglia, Biella, Casale, 1 patrimony of the church, and granted the government the right of Monferrato, Novara, Vigevano. issuing 5% bonds sufficient to bring into the treasury £16,000,000, : . . . . CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT) ITALY 19 which were to be accepted at their nominal value as purchase money | the elective chamber is the more important.' The senate consists has relieved the state exchequer of the cost of public worship; has of princes of the blood who have attained their majority, and gradually furnished to the poorer parish priests an addition to of an unlimited number of senators above forty years of age, their stipends, raising them to £32 per annum, with the prospect who are qualified under any one of twenty-one specified cate- of further raising them to £40; and has contributed to the outlay | gories-by having either held high office, or attained celebrity incurred by the communes for religious purposes. The monastic buildings required for public purposes have been made over to the in science, literature, &c. In 1908 there were 318 senators communal and provincial authorities, while the same authorities exclusive of five members of the royal family. Nomination is have been entrusted with the administration of the ecclesiastical by the king for life. Besides its legislative functions, the senate revenues previously set apart for charity and education, and objects is the highest court of justice in the case of political offences or of art and historical interest have been consigned to public libraries the impeachment of ministers. The deputies to the lower house and museums. By these laws the reception of novices was for- bidden in the existing conventual establishments the extinction of are 508 in number, i.e. one to every 64,893 of the population, which had been decreed, and all new foundations were forbidden, and all the constituencies, are single-member constituencies. except those engaged in instruction and the care of the sick. The party system is not really strong. The suffrage is extended But the laws have not been rigorously enforced of late ycars; and to all citizens over twenty-one years of age who can read and the ecclesiastical possessions seized by the state were thrown on the market simultaneously, and so realized very low prices, being often write and have either attained a certain standard of elementary bought up by wealthy religious institutions. The large number education or are qualified by paying a rent which varies from of these institutions was increased when these bodies were expelled £6 in communes of 2500 inhabitants to £16 in communes of from France. 150,000 inhabitants, or, if peasant farmers, 16s. of rent; or On the 30th of June 1903 the patrimony of the endowment fund amounted to £17.339,040, of which only £264,289 were represented by being sharers in the profits of farms on which not less than by buildings still occupied by monks or nuns. The rest was made up £3, 4s. of direct (including provincial) taxation is paid; or by of capital and interest. The liabilities of the fund (capitalized) paying not less than £16 in direct (including provincial) taxation. amounted to £10,668,105, of which monastic pensions represented a Others, e.g. members of the professional classes, are qualified rapidly diminishing sum of £2,564,930. The chief items of annual expenditure drawn from the fund are, the supplementary stipends to vote by their position. The number of electors (2,541,327) to priests and the pensions to members of suppressed religious houses. at the general election in 1904 was 29% of the male population The number of persons in receipt of monastic pensions on the 30th over twenty-one years of age, and 7.6% of the total population- of June 1899 was 13,255; but while this item of expenditure will exclusive of those temporarily disfranchised on account of disappear by the deaths of those entitled to pensions, the supple: military service; and of these 62.7% voted. No candidate mentary stipends and contributions are gradually increasing. The following table shows the course of the two main categories of the can be returned unless he obtains more than half the votes given fund from 1876 to 1902-1903 and more than one-sixth of the total number on the register; otherwise a second ballot must be 1876. 1885-1886. 1898–1899. 1902-1903. held. Nor can he be returned under Monastic pensions, liquidation of re- the age of thirty, and he must be ligious property and provision of qualified as an elector. All salaried shelter for nuns £749,172 £491,339 £220,479 £165,144 government officials (except minis- Supplementary stipends to bishops and ters, under-secretaries of state and parochial clergy, assignments to Sar- dinian clergy and expenditure for cdu- other high functionaries, and officers cation and charitable purposes 142,912 128,521 210,020 347.940 in the army or navy), and ecclesiastics, are disqualified for election. Senators Roman Charitable and Religious Fund.---The law of the 19th of , and deputies receive no salary, but have free passes on June 1873 contained special provisions, in conformity with the character of Rome as the seat of the papacy, and with the situation railways throughout Italy and on certain lines of steamers. created by the Law of Guarantees. According to the census of 1871 Parliaments are quinquennial, but the king may dissolve the there were in the city and province of Rome 474 monastic establish: Chamber of Deputics at any time, being bound, however, to ments (311 for monks, 163 for nuns), occupied by 4326 monks and convoke a new chamber within four months. The executive 3825 nuns, and possessing a gross revenue of 4.780,891 lire. Of these, 126 monasteries and 90 convents were situated in the city, 51 must call parliament together annually. Each of the chambers monasteries and 22 convents in the suburbicariates." The law of, has the right of introducing new bills, as has also the government; 1873 created a special charitable and religious fund of the city, while | but all money bills must originate in the Chamber of Deputics. it left untouched 23 monasteries and 49 convents which had either | The consent of both chambers and the assent of the king is the character of private institutions or were supported by foreign necessary to their being passed. Ministers may attend the funds. New parishes were created, old parishes were improved, the debates of either house but can only vote in that of which they property of the suppressed religious corporations was assigned to charitable and educational institutions and to hospitals, while are members. The sittings of both houses are public, and an property having no special application was used to form a charitable absolute majority of the members must be present to make and religious fund. On the 30th of June 1903. the balance sheet of a sitting valid. The ministers are eleven in number and have this fund showed a credit amounting to £1.796,120 and a debit of £460,819. Expenditure for the year 1902-1903 was £889,858 and salaries of about £1000 each; the presidency of the council of revenue £818,674. ministers (created in 1889) may be held by itself or (as is usual) in conjunction with any other portfolio. The ministries are: Constitution and Government.--The Vatican palace itself interior (under whom are the prefects of the several provinces), (with St Peter's), the Lateran palace, and the papal villa foreign affairs, treasury (separated from finance in 1889), finance, at Castel Gandolfo have secured to them the privilege of public works, justice and ecclesiastical affairs, war, marine, extraterritoriality by the law of 1871. The small republic of public instruction, commerce, industry and agriculture, posts San Marino is the only other enclave in Italian territory. and telegraphs (separated from public works in 1889). Each Italy is a constitutional monarchy, in which the executive minister is aided by an under-secretary of state at a salary of power belongs exclusively to the sovereign, while the legislative £500. There is a council of state with advisory functions, which power is shared by him with the parliament. He holds can also decide certain questions of administration, especially supreme command by land and sea, appoints ministers and applications from local authorities and conflicts between officials, promulgates the laws, coins money, bestows honours, ministries, and a court of accounts, which has the right of has the right of pardoning, and summons and dissolves the examining all details of state expenditure. In every country parliament. Treaties with foreign powers, however, must have the bureaucracy is abused, with more or less reason, for un- the consent of parliament. The sovereign is irresponsible, the progressiveness, timidity and “red-tape," and Italy is no ministers, the signature of one of whom is required to give exception to the rule. The officials are not well paid, and are validity to royal decrees, being responsible. Parliament consists certainly numerous; while the manifold checks and counter- of two chambers, the senate and the Chamber of Deputies, checks have by no means always been sufficient to prevent which are nominally on an equal footing, though practically dishonesty. . 9) 20 ITALY 1 (ARMY Titles of Honour.—The former existence of so many separate | 1000), and on the 31st of December 1898 rose again to 75,470 sovereignties and " fountains of honour" gave rise to a great many (2:38 per 1000), of whom 7038, less than one-tenth, were women. hereditary titles of nobility. Besides many hundreds of princes, The lowness of the figures regarding women is to be noticed dukes, marquesses, counts, barons and viscounts, there are a large throughout. On the 31st of December 1903 it had decreased to number of persons of " patrician rank, persons with a right to the 65,819, of which 6044 were women. Of these, 31,219 were in lock. designation nobile or signori, and certain hereditary, knights or ups, 25,145 in penal establishments, 1837 minors in government, cavalieri. In the "Golden Book of the Capitol " (Libro d'Oro del and 4547 in private reformatories, and 3071 (males) were inmates Campidoglio) are inscribed 321 patrician families, and of these 28 of forced residences. have the title of prince and 8 that of duke, while the others are Crime.-Statistics of offences, including contravvenzioni or breaches marquesses, counts or simply patricians. For the Italian orders of of by-laws and regulations, exhibit a considerable increase per 100,000 knighthood see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY: Orders of Knighthood. inhabitants since 1887, and only a slight diminution on the figures of The king's uncle is duke of Aosta, his son is prince of Piedmont and 1897. The figure was 1783.45 per 100,000 in 1887, 2164:46 in 1892, his cousin is duke of Genoa. 2546.49 in 1897, 2497:90 in 1902. The increase is partly covered by Justice.-The judiciary system of Italy is mainly framed on the contravvenzioni, but almost every class of penal offence shows a rise French model. 'Italy has courts of cassation at Rome, Naples, except homicide, and even in that the diminution is slow, 5418 in Palermo, Turin, Florence, 20 appeal court districts, 162 tribunal 1880, 3966 in 1887. 4408 in 1892, 4005 in 1897, 3202 in 1902; and districts and 1535 mandamenti, each with its own magistracy Italy remains, owing to the frequent use of the knife, the European (pretura)In 13 of the principal towns there are also pretori who have country in which it is most frequent. Libels, insults, &c., resistance exclusively penal jurisdiction. For minor civil cases involving sums to public authority, offences against good customs, thefts and frauds, up to 100 lire (£4), giudici conciliatori have also jurisdiction, while have increased; assaults are nearly stationary. There is also an they may act as arbitrators up to any amount by request. The increase in juvenile delinquency. From 1890 to 190o the actual Roman court of cassation is the highest, and in both penal and civil number rose by one-third (from 30,108 to 43,684), the proportion to matters has a rigħt to decide questions of law and disputes between the rest of those sentenced from one-fifth to one-fourth; while in the lower judicial authorities, and is the only one which has juris. 1905. the actual number rose to 67,944, being a considerable pro. diction in penal cases, while sharing with the others the right to portionate rise also. In Naples, the Camorra and in Sicily, the Mafia revise civil cases. are secret societies whose power of resistance to authority is still The prelori have penal jurisdiction concerning all misdemeanours not inconsiderable. (contravvenzioni) or offences (delitti) punishable by imprisonment not Procedure, both civil and criminal, is somewhat slow, and the pre- exceeding three months or by fine not exceeding 1000 lire (£40). liminary proceedings before the juge d'instruction occupy much time; The penal tribunals have jurisdiction in cases involving imprison and recent murder trials, by the large number of witnesses called ment up to ten years, or a fine exceeding £40, while the assize courts, including experts) and the lengthy speeches of counsel, have been with a jury, deal with offences involving imprisonment for life or dragged out to an unconscionable length. In this, as in the intera over ten years, and have exclusive jurisdiction (except that the vention of the presiding judge, the French system has been adopted; senate is on occasion a high court of justice) over all political offences and it is said (e.g. by Nathan, Vent' anni di vita italiana, p: 241) Appeal may be made from the sentences of the pretori to the tribunals, that the efforts of the juge d'instruction are, as a rule, in fact, though and from the tribunals to the courts of appeal; from the assize not in law, largely directed to prove that the accused is guilty. In courts there is no appeal except on a point of form, which appeal goes 1902 of 884,612 persons accused of penal offences, 13:12% were ac- to the court of cassation at Rome. This court has the supreme quitted during the period of the instruction, 30-31 by the courts, power in all questions of legality of a sentence, jurisdiction or 46.32 condemned and the rest acquitted in some other way. This competency: shows that charges, often involving preliminary imprisonment, are The penal code was unified and reformed in 1890. A reform of late brought against an excessive proportion of persons who either are years is the condanna condizionale, equivalent to the English being not or cannot be proved to be guilty; The courts of appeal and bound over to appear for judgment if called upon," applied in cassation, too, often have more than they can do; in the year 1907 94,489 cases in 1907. In civil matters there is appeal from the the court of cassation at Rome decided 948 appeals on points of giudice conciliatore to the pretore (who has jurisdiction up to a sum law in civil cases, while no fewer than 460 remained to be decided. of 1500 lire = £60). from the pretore to the civil tribunal, from the As in most civilized countries, the number of suicides in Italy has civil tribunal to the court of appeal, and from the court of appeal to increased from year to year. the court of cassation. The Italian suicide rate of 63.6 per 1,000,000 is, however, lower The judges of all kinds are very poorly paid. Even the first than those of Denmark, Switzerland, Germany and France, while president of the Rome court of cassation only receives £600 a year. it approximates to that of England. The Italian rate is highest in The statistics of civil proceedings vary considerably from province the more enlightened and industrial north, and lowest in the south. to province. Lombardy, with 25 lawsuits per 1000 inhabitants, Emilia gives a maximum rate of 10:48 per 100,000, while that of holds the lowest place; Emilia comes next with 31 per 1000; Liguria and Lazio is little lower. The minimum of 1.27 is found in Tuscany has 39; Venetia, 42; Calabria, 144; Rome, 146; Apulia, the Basilicata, though Calabria gives only 2.13. About 20% of the 153; and Sardinia, 360 per 1000. The high average in Sardinia is total are women, and there is an increase of nearly 3% since 1882 chiefly due to cases within the competence of the conciliation offices in the proportion of suicides under twenty years of age. The number of penal proceedings, especially those within the com- petence of praetors, has also increased, chiefly on account of the Army.--The Italian army grew out of the old Piedmontese frequency of minor contraventions of the law referred to in the army with which in the main the unification of Italy was brought section Crime, The ratio of criminal proceedings to population is, about. This unification meant for the army the absorption as a rule, much higher in the south than in the north. A royal decrée, dated February 1891, established three classes of differences in physical and moral aptitudes, political opinions of contingents from all parts of Italy and presenting serious prisons: judiciary prisons, for persons awaiting examination or persons sentenced to arrest, detention or seclusion for less than six and education. Moreover the strategic geography of the country months; peniten aries of various kinds (ergastoli, case di reclusione, required the greater part of the army to be stationed permanently detenzione or custodia), for criminals condemned to long terms of within reach of the north-eastern and north-western frontiers. imprisonment; and reformatories, for criminals under age and vagabonds. Capital punishment was abolished in 1877, penal These conditions made a territorial system of recruiting or organ- servitude for life being substituted. This generally involves solitary ization, as understood in Germany, practically impossible. To confinement of the most rigorous nature, and, as little is done to secure fairly uniform efficiency in the various corps, and also as a occupy the mind, the criminal not infrequently becomes insane. means of unifying Italy, Piedmontese, Umbrians and Neapolitans Certain types of dangerous individuals are relegated after serving a sentence in the ordinary convict prisons, and by administrative, not are mixed in the same corps and sleep in the same barrack by judicial process, to special penal colonies known as domicilii coatti room. But on leaving the colours the men disperse to their forced residences. These establishments are, however, un homes, and thus a regiment has, on mobilization, to draw satisfactory, being mostly situated on small islands, where it is often largely on the nearest reservists, irrespective of the corps to difficult to find work for the coatli, who are free by day, being only which they belong. The remedy for this condition of affairs confined at night. They receive a small and hardly sufficient, allowance for food of 50 centesimi a day, which they are at liberty to is sought in a most elaborate and artificial system of transferring supplement by work if they can find it or care to do it. officers and men from one unit to another at stated intervals in Notwithstanding the construction of new prisons and the trans. peace-time, but this is no more than a palliative, and there are formation of old ones, the number of cells for solitary confinement is still insufficient for a complete application of the penal system other difficulties of almost equal importance to be surmounted. established by the code of 1890, and the moral effect of the associa. Thus in Italy the universal service system, though probably tion of the prisoners is not good, though the system of solitary coni- the best organization both for the army and the nation, works finement as practised in Italy is little better. The total number of with a maximum of friction. Army Reform," therefore, has prisoners, including minors and inhabitants of enforced residences, been very much in the forefront of late years, owing to the which from 76,066 (2.84 per 1000 inhabitants) on the 31st of Decem- ber 1871 rose to a maximum of 80,792 on the 31st of December 1879 estrangement of Austria (which power can mobilize much more (2.87 per 1000), decreased to a minimum of 60,621 in 1896 (1-94. per rapidly), but financial difficulties have bitherto stood in the way or 66 NAVY) ITALY 21 1 of any radical and far-reaching reforms, and even the proposals | gap above mentioned. The new terms of service for the other of the Commission of 1907, referred to below, have only been categories have been already stated. In consequence, in 1908, of 490.000 liable, some 110,000 actually joined for full training and partially accepted. 24.000 of the new and category for short training, which contrasts The law of 1875 therefore still regulates the principles of military very forcibly with the feeble embodiments of 1906 and 1907. These service in Italy, though an important modification was made in changes threw a considerable strain on the finances, but the im- 1907-1908. By this law, every man liable and accepted for service minence of the danger caused their acceptance. served for eight or nine years on the Active Army and its Reserve The peace strength under the new scheme is nominally 300,000, (of which three to five were spent with the colours), four or five in but actually (average throughout the year) about 240,000. The the Mobile Militia, and the rest of the service period of nineteen years in the Territorial Militra. Under present regulations the army is organized in 12 army corps (each of 2 divisions), 6 of term of liability is divided into nine years in the Active Army and which are quartered on the plain of Lombardy and Venetia and Reserve (three or two years with the colours) four in the Mobile on the frontiers, and 2 more in northern Central Italy. Their Militra and six in the Terrilorial Militia. But these figures do not headquarters are: I. Turin, II. Alessandria, III. Milan, IV. represent the actual service of every able-bodied Italian. Like almost all Universal Service" countries, Italy only drafts a small pro- Genoa, V. Verona, VI. Bologna, VII. Ancona, VIII. Florence, portion of the available recruits into the army. IX. Rome, X. Naples, XI. Bari, XII. Palermo, Sardinian division The following table shows the operation of the law of 1875, with Cagliari. In addition there are 22 Alpini " battalions and the figures of 1871 for comparison :- 15 mountain batteries stationed on the Alpine frontiers. 30th Sept. 30th June. The war strength was estimated in 1901 as, Active Army (incl. Reserve) 750,000, Mobile Mililia 320,000, Territorial Militia 1871. 1881. 1891 1901. 2,300,000 (more than half of the last-named untrained). These figures are, with a fractional increase in the Regular Army, Officers 14,070 22,482 36,739 36,718 Men 521,969 1,833,554 2,821,367 3.330,202 applicable to-day. When the 1907 scheme takes full effect, ActingArmy & Reserve 536,039 731,149 843,160 734,401 however, the Active Army and the Mobile Militia will each be Mobile Militia 294.714 445.315 320,170 augmented by about one-third. In 1915 the field army should, Territorial Militia 823,970 | 1,553,784 2,275,631| including officers and permanent cadres, be about 1,012,000 * Including officers on special service or in the reserve. strong. The Mobile Militia will not, however, at that date have felt the effects of the scheme, and the Territorial Militia (setting Thus, on the 30th of September 1871, the various categories of the drain of emigration against the increased population) will the army included only 3% of the population, but on the 30th of June 1898 they included 10%. But in 1901 the strength of the probably remain at about the same figure as in 1901. active army and reserve shows a marked_diminution, which The army consists of 96 three-battalion regiments of infantry of became accentuated in the year following. The table below in- the line and 12 of bersaglieri (riflemen), each of the latter having dicates that up to 1907 the army, though always below its a cyclist company (Bersaglieri cyclist battalions are being (1909) nominal strength, never absorbed more than a quarter of the provisionally formed); 26 regiments of cavalry, of which 10 are available contingent. lancers, each of 6 squadrons; 24 regiments of artillery, each of 8 batteries;? I 'regiment of horse artillery, of 6 batteries; I of mountain artillery of 12 batteries, and 3 independent mountain 1902. 1903. 1904. 1906. batteries. The armament of the iníantry is the Männlicher-Carcano magazine rifle of 1891. The field and horse artillery was in 1909 Liable 441,171 453,640 469,860 475.737 in process of rearmament with a Krupp quick-firer. The garrison Physically unfit . 91,176 98,065 artillery consists of 3 coast and 3 fortress regiments, with a total of 119,070 122,559 72 companies. There are 4 regiments (11 battalions) of engineers. Struck off 12,270 13,189 13,130 18,222 Failed to appear The carabinieri or gendarmerie, some 26,500 in number, are part of 33,634 34,711 39,219 40,226 Put back for re-examina- the standing army; they are recruited from selected volunteers from tion 108,835! 108,618 the army. In 1902 the special corps in Eritrea numbered about 107,173) 122,205 4700 of all ranks, including ncarly 4000 natives. Assigned to Territorial Ordinary and extraordinary military expenditure for the financial Militia and excused year 1898–1899 amounted to nearly £10,000,000, an increase of peace service. 92,952 96,916 94,136 £4,000,000 as compared with 1871. The Italian Chamber decided 87,032 that from the 1st of July 1901 until the 30th of June 1907 Italian Assigned to active army 102,204 military expenditure proper should not exceed the maximum of 102,141 97,132 87,493 Joined active army 88,666 86,448 81,581 66,836 £9.560,000 per annum fixed by the Army Bill of May 1897, and that military pensions should not exceed £1,440,000. Italian military expenditure was thus until 1907 £11,000,000 per annum. The serious condition of recruiting was quickly noticed, and the the ordinary and extraordinary expenditure was £10,000,000. tabulation of each year's results was followed by a new draft law, The demands of the Commission were only partly complied with, but no solution was achieved until a special commission assembled. but a large special grant was voted amounting to at least £1,000,000 The inquiries made by this body revealed an unsatisfactory con. per annum for the next seven years. The amount spent is slight dition in the national defences, traceable in the main to financial compared with the military expenditure of other countries. exigencies, and as regards recruiting a new law was brought into The Alpine frontier is fortified strongly, although the condition force in 1907-1908. of the works was in many cases considered unsatisfactory by the One specially difficult point concerned the effectives of the peace- 1907 Commission. The fortresses in the basin of the Po chiefly strength army. Hitherto the actual time of training had been less belong to the era of divided Italy and are now out of datę; the than the nominal. The recruits due to join in November were not chief coast fortresses are Vado, Genoa, Spezia, Monte Argentaro, incorporated till the following March, and thus in the winter months Gaeta, Straits of Messina, Taranto, Maddalena. Rome is protected Italy was defenceless. The army is always maintained at a low by a circle of forts from a coup de main from the sea, the coast, only peace effective (about one-quarter of war establishment) and even 12 m. off, being fat and deserted. this was reduced, by the absence of the recruits, until there were often only 15 rank and file with a company, whose war strength Navy.--For purposes of naval organization the Italian coast is is about 230. Even in the summer and autumn a large proportion divided into three maritime departments, with headquarters at of the army consisted of men with but a few months' service--a Spezia, Naples and Venice; and into two comandi militari, with highly dangerous state of things considering the peculiar mobiliza- headquarters at Taranto and at the island of Maddalena. tion conditions of the country. Further—and this case no legislation The personnel of the navy consists of the following corps: (1) can cover-the contingent, and (what is more serious) the reserves, are being steadily weakened by emigration. The increase in the General staff; (2) naval engineers, chiefly employed in building numbers rejected as unfit is accounted for by the fact that if only a and repairing war vessels; (3) sanitary corps; (4) commissariat small proportion of the contingent can be taken for service, the medical standard of acceptance is high. corps, for supplies and account-keeping; (5) crews. The new recruiting scheme of 1907 re-established three categories The matériel of the Italian navy has been completely trans- of recruits,' the 2nd category corresponding practically to the formed, especially in virtue of the bill of the 31st of March 1875. German Ersalz-Reserve. The men classed in it have to train for Old types of vessels have been sold or demolished, and replaced six months, and they are called up in the late summer to bridge the by newer types. The 2nd category of the i875 law had practically ceased to * This may be reduced, in consequence of the adoption of the new exist. Q.F. gun, i to 6. In 1908 22 ITALY (FINANCE 2 4964马马​叶​一 ​Não :::: I ) In March 1907 the Italian navy contained, excluding ships of no duced more than £3,200,000 a year. From 1885–1886 onwards, fighting value outlay on public works, military and colonial expenditure, and especially the commercial and financial crises, contributed to pro- Effective. Completing. Projected. duce annual deficits; but owing to drastic reforms introduced in 1894–1895 and to careful management the year 1898–1899 marked Modern battleships 4 a return of surpluses (nearly £1,306,400). Old battleships The revenue in the Italian financial year 1905-1906 (July 1, 1905 Armoured cruisers to June 30, 1906) was £102,486,108, and the expenditure 199,945,253, Protected cruisers 14 or, subtracting the partite di giro, £99,684,121 and 297,143,266, Torpedo gunboats 13 leaving a surplus of £2,540,855.2. The surplus was made up by Destroyers. 13 contributions from every branch of the effective revenue, except the Modern torpedo boats 34 contributions and repayments from local authorities." The rail- Submarines ways showed an increase of £351,685; registration transfer and succession, £295,560; direct taxation, £42,136 (mainly from income The four modern ships—the “ Vittorio Emanuele " class, laid tax, which more than made up for the remission of the house tax in down in 1897—have a tonnage of 12,625, two 12-in. and twelve 8-in. the districts of Calabria visited by the earthquake of 1906), customs guns, an I.H.P. of 19,000, and a designed speed of 22 knots, being and excise,, £1,036, 742; government monopolies, £291,027; posts, intended to avoid any battleship and to carry enough guns to £41,310; telegraphs, £23,364, telephones, £65,771. Of the surplus destroy any cruiser. £1,000,000 was allocated to the improvement of posts, telegraphs and The personnel on active service consisted of 1799 officers and telephones; £1,000,000 to public works (£720,000 for hårbour im. 25,000 men, the former being doubled and the latter trebled since provement and £280,000 for internal navigation), £200,000 to the 1882. navy (£132,000 for a second dry dock at Taranto and [68,000 for Naval expenditure has enormously increased since 1871, the total coal purchase); and £200,000 as a nucleus of a fund for the purchase for 1871 having been about £900,000, and the total for 1905-1906 of valuable works of art which are in danger of exportation. over £5,100,000. Violent fluctuations have, however, taken place The state therefore draws its principal revenues from the imposts, from year to year, according to the state of Italian finances. To the taxes and the monopolies. According to the Italian tributary permit the steady execution of a normal programme of shipbuilding, 1 system, “imposts," properly so called are those upon land, Taxation. the Italian Chamber, in May, 1901, adopted a resolution limiting buildings and personal estate. The impost upon land is naval expenditure, inclusive of naval pensions and of premiums. on based upon the cadastral survey independently of the vicissitudes of mercantile shipbuilding, to the sum of £4,840,000 for the following harvests. In 1869 the main quota to the impost was increased by six years, i.e. from 1st July 1901 until 30th June 1907. This sum one-tenth, in addition to the extra two-tenths previously imposed consists of £4,240,000 of naval expenditure proper, £220,000 for in 1866. Subsequently, it was decided to repeal these additional naval pensions and £380,000 for premiums upon mercantile ship- tenths, the first being abolished in 1886 and the rest in 1887. On building. During the financial year ending on the 30th of June 1901 account of the inequalities still existing in the cadastral survey, in these figures were slightly exceeded. spite of the law of 1886 (see Agriculture, above), great differences are Finance.-The volume of the Italian budget has considerably not so heavily burdened by the government quota as by the additional found in the land tax assessments in various parts of Italy. Land is increased as regards both income and expenditure. The income centimes imposed by the provincial and comniunal authorities of £60,741,418 in 1881 rose in 1899-1900 to £69,917,126; while on an average Italian landowners pay nearly 25% of their revenues the expenditure increased from £58,705,929 in 1881 to £69,708,706 from land in government and local land tax. The buildings impost in 1899-1900, an increase of £9,175,708 in income and £11,002,777 revenue." has been assessed since 1866 upon the basis of 12.50% of taxable Taxable revenue corresponds to two-thirds of actual in expenditure, while there has been a still further increase since, income from factories and to three-fourths of actual income from a the figures for 1905-1906 showing (excluding items which figure houses; it is ascertained by the agents of the financial administra- on both sides of the account) an increase of £8,766,995 in income tion. In 1869, however, a third additional tenth was added to the and £5,434,560 in expenditure over 1899–1900. These figures the land tax, they have not been abolished. At present the main previously existing additional two-tenths, and, unlike the tenths of include not only the categories of "income and expenditure quota with the additional three-tenths amounts to 16.25% of tax- proper, but also those known as movement of capital,” “railable income. The imposts on incomes from personal estate (ricchezza way constructions "and" partite di giro," which do not constitute mobile) were introduced in 1866, it applies to incomes derived from real income and expenditure.? Considering only income and investments, industry or personal enterprise, but not to landed revenues. It is proportional, and is collected by deduction from expenditure proper, the approximate totals are:-- salaries and pensions paid to servants of the state, where it is assessed on three-eighths of the income, and from interest on consolidated Financial Year. Revenue. Expenditure. Surpluses or stock, where it is assessed on the whole amount; and by register in Deficits. the cases of private individuals, who pay on three-fourths of their income, professional men, capitalists or manufacturers, who pay on 1882 £52,064,800 £51,904,800 £+ 160,000 one-half or nine-twentieths of their income. From 1871 to 1894 it 1885-1886 56,364,000 57,304,400 940,400 was assessed at 13.20% of taxable income, this quota being formed 1890-1891 61,600,000 64,601,600 -3,00 1,600 of 12% main quota and 1.20% as an additional tenth. In 1894 the 1895-1896 65,344,000 67,962,800 -2,618,800 quota, including the additional tenth, was raised to the uniform level 1898-1899 66,352,800 65,046,400 +1,306,400 of 20%. One-tenth of the tax is paid to the communes as compensa. 1899-1900 66,860,800 65,323,600 +1.537,200 tion for revenucs made over to the state. 1900-1901 68,829,200 66,094,400 +2,734,800 Taxes proper are divided into (a) taxes on business transactions 1905-1906 77,684,100 75,143,300 +2,540,900 and (6) taxes on articles of consumption. The former apply prin- cipally to successions, stamps, registrations, mortgages, &c.; the The financial year 1862 closed with a deficit of more than latter to distilleries, breweries, explosives, native sugar and matches, £16,000,000, which increased in 1866 to £28,840,000 on account of though the customs revenue and octrois upon articles of general the preparations for the war against Austria. Excepting the in-consumption, such as corn, wine, spirits, meat, four, petroleum, creases of deficit in 1868 and 1870, the annual deficits tended thence-butter, tea, coffee and sugar, may be considered as belonging to this forward to decrease, until in 1875 equilibrium between expenditure class. The monopolies are those of salt, tobacco and the lottery. and revenue was attained, and was maintained until 1881. Ad- Since 1880, while income from the salt and lotto monopolies has vantage was taken of the equilibrium to abolish certain imposts, remained almost stationary, and that from land tax and octroi has amongst them the grist tax, which prior to its gradual repeal pro- diminished, revenue derived from all other sources has notably 1" Movement of capital” consists, as regards income,” of the and the customs, the yield from which has been nearly doubled. increased, especially that from the income tax on personal estate, proceeds of the sale of buildings, Church or Crown lands, old prisons, barracks, &c., or of moneys derived from sale of consolidated stock. It will be seen that the revenue is swolleni by a large number of Thus “income ” really signifies diminution of patrimony or increase taxes which can only be justified by necessity; the reduction and, of debt. In regard to expenditure,” still more, the readjustment of taxation (which now largely falls on movement of capital refers to extinction of debt by amortization or otherwise, to pur- in presenting the estimates for 1907-1908 proposed to set aside a articles of primary necessity) is urgently needed. The government chases of buildings or to advances made by the state. Thus “ ex- sum of nearly £800,000 every year for this express purpose. It penditure" really represents a patrimonial improvement, a creation must be remembered that the sums realized by the octroi go in the of credit or a decrease of indebtedness. The items referring to * railway construction” represent, on the one hand, repayments the octroi is collected directly by the government, which pays over a main to the various communes. It is only in Rome and Naples that made to the exchequer by the communes and provinces of money certain proportion to the respective communes. disbursed on their account by the State Treasury; and, on the The external taxation is not only strongly protectionist, but is other, the cost of new railways incurred by the Treasury. The items of the partite di giro" are inscribed both on the credit and 2 Financial operations (mainly in connexion with railway purchase) debit sides of the budget, and have merely a figurative value. figure on each side of the account for about £22,000,000. 66 66 FINANCE) ITALY 23 1 paper circula Lire. 940,000,000 1886 1.478.535,247 1,121,601,079 1896 341.949.237 400,000,000 97 110,000,000 " 1905 441,304.780 applied to goods which cannot be made in Italy: hardly anything The debt per head of population was, in 1905, 14, 1os. 3d., and comes in duty free, even such articles as second-hand furniture paying the interest 135. 5d. duty, unless within six months of the date at which the importer In July, 1906 the 5 % gross (4 % net), and 4% net rente were has declared domicile in Italy. The application, too, is somewhat successfully converted into 37 % stock (to be reduced to 31 % after rigorous, e.g. the tax on electric light is applied to foreign ships five years), to a total amount of £324,017,393, The demands for generating their own electricity while lying in Italian ports. reimbursement at par represented a sum of only £187,588 and the The annual consumption per inhabitant of certain kinds of food market value of the stock was hardly affected; while the saving and drink has considerably increased, e.g. grain from 270 lb per head to the Treasury was to be £800,000 per annum for the first five years in 1884–1885 to 321 lb in 1901-1902 (maize remains almost stationary and about double the amount afterwards. at 158 lb); wine from 73 to 125 litres per head; oil from 12 to 13 lb Currency.—The lira (plural lire) of 100 centesimi (centimes) is equal per head (sugar is almost stationary at 71 lb per head, and coffee in value to the French franc. The total coinage (exclusive of Eritrean at about i lb); salt from 14 to 16 lb per head. Tobacco slightly currency) from the 1st of January 1862 to the end of 1907 was diminished in weight at a little over 1 lb per head, while the gross 1,104,667,116 lire (exclusive of recoinage), divided as follows: gold, receipts are considerably increased-by over 24 millions sterling 427,516,970 lire; silver, 570,097,025 lire; nickel, 23,417,000 lire; since 1884-1885–showing that the quality consumed is much better. bronze, 83,636,121 lire. The forced paper currency, instituted in The annual expenditure on tobacco was 55. per inhabitant' in 1902– 1866, was abolished in 1881, in which year were dissolved the Union 1903, and is increasing. of Banks of Issue created in 1874 to furnish to the state treasury a The annual surpluses are largely accounted for by the heavy milliard of lire in notes, guaranteed collectively by the banks. Part taxation on almost everything imported into the country, and by of the Union notes were redeemed, part replaced by 10 lire and 5 lire the monopolies on tobacco and on salt; and are as a rule spent, and state notes, payable at sight in metallic legal tender by certain state well spent, in other ways. Thus, that of 1907-1908 was devoted banks. Nevertheless the law of 1881 did not succeed in maintaining mainly to raising the salaries of government officials and university the value of the state notes at a par with the metallic currency, and professors; even then the maximum for both (in the former class, from 1885 onwards there reappeared a gold premium, which during for an under-secretary of state) was only £500 per annum. The case 1899 and 1900 remained at about 7%, but subsequently fell to about is frequent, too, in which a project is sanctioned by law, but is then 3% and has since 1902 practically disappeared. The not carried into execution, or only partly so, owing to the lack of tion to the debit of the state and the paper currency issued by the funds. Additional stamp duties and taxes were imposed in 1909 to authorized state banks is shown below: meet the expenditure necessitated by the disastrous earthquake at the end of 1908. Direct Liability of State. Notes issued Aggregate Date. by State Paper The in which the taxes press on the poor may be shown by the State Notes. Bons de Caisse.1 Banks. Currency number of small proprietors sold up owing to inability to pay the Lire. Lire. Lire. land and other taxes. In 1882 the number of landed proprietors was 31st December 1881 14:52% of the population, in 1902 only 12.66, with an actual 735.579,197 1,675.579,197 446,665.535 1,031,869,712 diminution of some 30,000. Had the percentage of 1882 been kept 1891 1,463.550.316 up there would have been in 1902 600,000 more proprietors than 1,069.233.376 1,579.233.376 1899 42,138,152 451,431.780 1,180,110.330 there were. 1,673.680,262 Between 1884 and 1902 no fewer than 220,616 sales. 1,874.184 1,406,474,800 1,848,657.764 were effected for failure to pay taxes, while, from 1886 to 1902, 79,208 expropriations were effected for other debts not due to the 1 These ceased to have legal currency at the end of 1901; they were notes of 1 and 2 lire. state. In 1884 there were 20.422 sales, of which 35.28 % were for debts of 4s. or less, and 51.95 for debts between 4s. and £2; in 1902 regulated by the laws of the zoth of April 1874 on paper currency and Banks.-Until 1893 the juridical status of the Banks of Issue was there were 4857 sales, but only 11.01% for debts under 4s. (the of the 7th of April 1881 on the abolition of forced currency. At that treasury having given up proceeding in cases where the property is time four limited companies were authorized to issue bank notes, a tiny piece of ground, sometimes hardly capable of cultivation), namely, the National Bank, the National Bank of Tuscany, the and 55.69% for debts between 4s. and £2. The expropriations deal Roman Bank and the Tuscan Credit Bank; and two banking as a rule with properties of higher value; of these there were 3217 corporations, the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily. In 1893 in 1886, 5993 in 1892 (a period of agricultural depression), 3910 in the Roman Bank was put into liquidation, and the other three 1902. About 22% of them are for debts under £40, about 49% limited companies were fused, so as to create the Bank of Italy, the from £40 to £200, about 26% from £200 to $2000. privilege of issuing bank notes being thenceforward confined to the or the expenditure a large amount is absorbed by interest on debt. Bank of Italy, the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily. The gold Debt has continually increased with the development of the state. reserve in the possession of the Banca d'Italia on September 30th The sum paid in interest on debt amounted to £17.640,000 1907.amounted to £32,240,984, and the silver reserve to £4,767,861; Expe odl- in 1871. £19.440,000 in 1881, £25,600,000 in 1891-1892 the foreign treasury bonds, &c. amounted to £3,324,074, making and £27.560,000 in 1899-1900; but had been reduced to the total reserve £40,332,919; 'while the circulation amounted to £23.100,409 by the 30th of June 1906. The public debt at that date 254,612,234. The figures were on the 31st of December 1906: was composed as follows: Part 1.-Funded Debt. Paper Circulation. Reserve. Grand Livre Amount. Consolidated 5 % £316,141,802 Banca d'Italia £47,504,352 £36,979,235 3 % 6,404,335 Banca di Napoli 13,893,152 9.756,284 41% net 28,872,511 Banca di Sicilia 2,813,692 2,060,481 4 % 7,875,592 31% 37,689,880 Total £64,211,196 £48,796,000 Total £396,984,120 This is considerably in excess of the circulation, £40,404,000, fixed Debts to be transferred to the Grand Livre 60,868 by royal decree of 1900; but the issue of additional notes was Perpetual annuity to the Holy See 2,580,000 allowed. provided they were entirely covered by a metallic reserve, Perpetual debts (Modena, Sicily, Naples) 2,591,807 whereas up to the fixed limit a 40 % reserve only was necessary. These notes are of 50, 100, 500 and 1000 lire; while the state issues Total £402,216,795 notes for 5, 10 and 25 lire, the currency of these at the end of October 1906 being £17,546,967; with a total guarantee of £15,636,000 held Part 11.-Unfunded Debt. against them. They were in January 1908 equal in value to the Debts separately inscribed in the Grand Livre 10,042,027 metallic currency of gold and silver. Various railway obligations, redeemable, &c. 56,375,351 The price of Italian consolidated 5% (gross, 4% net, allowing for Sicilian indemnities the 20% income tax) stock, which is the security most largely 195,348 Capital value of annual payment to South negotiated abroad, and used in settling differences between large Austrian Company financial institutions, has steadily risen during recent years. After 37,102,908 Long date Treasury warrants, law of July 7, 1901 1,416,200 being depressed between 1885 and 1894, the prices in Italy and abroad Railway certificates (3.65% net), Art. 6 of law, reached, in 1899, on the Rome Stock Exchange, the average of June 25, 1905, No. 261 100.83 and of 94.8 on the Paris Bourse. By the end of 1901 the price 14,220,000 of Italian stock on the Paris Bourse had, however, risen to par or Total £119,351,834 thereabouts. The average price of Italian 4% in 1905 was 105:29; Part I. : 2402,216,795 since the conversion to 3% net (to be further reduced to 31 in five more years), the price has been about 103.5. Rates of exchange, or, Grand Total . £521,568,629 in other words the gold premium, favoured Italy during the years immediately following the abolition of the forced currency in 1881. ' For example, wheat, the price of which was in 1902 26 lire per In 1885, however, rates tended to rise, and though they fell in 1886 cwt., pays a tax of 7 lire; şugar pays four times its wholesale value they subsequently increased to such an extent as to reach 110% in tax; coffee twice its wholesale value. at the end of August 1894. For the next four years they continued ture. 1 19 11 1) . I 1 24 ITALY (FINANCE 1 Ciedit Baoks. low, but rose again in 1898 and 1899; In 1900 the maximum rate previously came within the jurisdiction of the provincial deputations, was 107.32, and the minimum 105.40, but in 1901 rates fell consider- the provincial administrative juntas discharge magisterial functions ably, and were at par in 1902-1909. in administrative affairs, and deal with appeals presented by private There are in Italy six clearing houses, namely, the ancient one at persons against acts of the communal and provincial administrations. Leghorn, and those of Genoa, Milan, Rome, Florence and Turin, The juntas are in this respect organs of the administrative juris- founded since 1882. prudence created in Italy by the law of the ist of May 1890, in order The number of ordinary banks, which diminished between 1889 to provide juridical protection for those rights and interests outside and 1894, increased in the following years, and was 158 in 1898. At the competence of the ordinary tribunals. The provincial council the same time the capital employed in banking decreased by nearly only meets once a year in ordinary session. one-half, namely, from about £12,360,000 in 1880 to about £6,520,000 The former qualifications for electorship in local government in 1898. This decrease was due to the liquidation of a number of elections have been modified, and it is now sufficient to pay five lire large and small banks, amongst others the Bank of Genoa, the annually in direct taxes, five lire of certain communal taxes, or a General Bank, and the Società di Credito Mobiliare Italiano of Rome, certa renta (which varies according to the population of a com- and the Genoa Discount Bank-establishments which alone repre- mune), instead of being obliged to pay, as previously, at least five sented £4,840,000 of paid-up capital. Ordinary credit operations lire annually of direct taxes to the state. In consequence of this are also carried on by the co-operative credit societies, of which change the number of local electors increased by more than one- there are some 700. third between 1887-1889; it decreased, however, as a result of an Certain banks make a special business of lending money to owners extraordinary revision of the registers in 1894. The period for of land or buildings (credito fondiario). Loans are repayable by which both communal and provincial councils are elected is six Agrarian instalments, and are guaranteed by first mortgages not years, one-half being renewed every three years. greater in amount than half the value of the hypothecated The ratio of local electors to population is in Piedmont 79%, but property. The banks may buy up mortgages and advance in Sicily less than 45%. The ratio of voters to qualified electors money, on current account on the security of land or tends to increase; it is highest in Campania, Basilicata and in buildings. The development of the large cities has induced these the south generally; the lowest percentages are given by Emilia banks to turn their attention rather to building enterprise than to and Liguria. mortgages on rural property. The value of their land certificates Local finance is regulated by the communal and provincial law of or cartelle fondiarie (representing capital in circulation) rose from May 1898, which instituted provincial administrative juntas, em- $10,420,000 in 1881 to £15,560,000 in 1886, and to £30,720,000 powered to examine and sanction the acts of the com- Local in 1891, but fell to £29,320,000 in 1896, to £27,360,000 in 1898, munal financial administrations. The sanction of the finance. and to £24.360,000 in 1907; the amount of money lent increased provincial administrative junta is necessary for sales or from £10,440,000 in 1881 to £15,600,000 in 1886, and £30,800,000 in purchases of property, alterations of rates (although in case of 1891, but fell to £29,320,000 in 1896, to £27,360,000 in 1899, and increase the junta can only act upon request of ratepayers paying an to £21.720,000 in 1907. The diminution was due to the law of the aggregate of one-twentieth of the local direct taxation), and ex- Joth of April 1893 upon the banks of issue, by which they were penditure affecting the communal budget for more than five years. obliged to liquidate the loan and mortgage business they had pre- The provincial administrative junta is, moreover, empowered to viously carried on. order“ obligatory”. expenditure, such as the upkeep of roads, Various laws have been passed to facilitate agrarian credit. The sanitary works, lighting, police (i.e. the so-called “ guardie di pubblica law of the 23rd of January, 1887, (still in force) extended the disa sicurezza,” the " carabinieri” being really a military force; only the positions of the Civil Code with regard to privileges," "! and largest towns maintain a municipal police force), charities, education, established special “privileges ", in regard to harvested produce, &c., in case such expenditure is neglected by the communal authorities. produce stored in barns and farm buildings, and in regard to agricul- The cost of fire brigades, infant asylums, evening and holiday schools, iural implements. Loans on mortgage may also be granted to land is classed as "optional " expenditure. Communal revenues are owners and agricultural unions, with a view to the introduction of drawn from the proceeds of communal property, interest upon agricultural improvements. These loans are regulated by special capital, taxes and local dues. The most important of the local dues disposition, and are guaranteed by a share of the increased value is the gate tax, or dazio di consumo, which may be either a surtax of the land after the improvements have been carried out. Agrarian upon commodities (such as alcoholic drinks or meat), having already credit banks may, with the permission of the government, issue paid customs duty at the frontier, in which case the local surtax may cartelle agrarie, or agrarian bonds, repayable by instalments and not exceed 50% of the frontier duty, or an exclusively communal bearing interest. duty limited to 10% on flour, bread and farinaceous products, and Internal Administration.-It was not till 1865 that the adminis- to 20 % upon other commodities. The taxes thus vary considerably trative unity of Italy was realized. Up to that year some of the in different towns. regions of the kingdom, such as Tuscany, continued to have a kind In addition, the communes have a right to levy a surtax not ex- of autonomy,,. but by the laws of the 20th of March the whole ceeding 50% of the quota levied by the state upon lands and country was divided into 69. provinces and 8545 communes. The buildings; a family tax, or fuocatico, upon the total incomes of extent to which communal'independence had been maintained in families, which, for fiscal purposes, are divided into various cate- Italy through all the centuries of its political disintegration was gories; a tax based upon the rent-value of houses, and other taxes strongly in its favour. The syndic (sindaco) or chief magistrate of upon cattle, horses, dogs, carriages and servants; also on licences for the commune was appointed by the king for three years, and he was shopkeepers, hotel and restaurant keepers, &c.; on the slaughter of assisted by a municipal junta." animals, stamp duties, one-half of the tax on bicycles, &c. Occa- Local government was modified by the law of the 10th of February sional sources of interest are found in the sale of communal property, 1889 and by posterior enactments. The syndics (or mayors) are now the realization of communal credits, and the contraction of debt. elected by a secret ballot of the communal council, though they are The provincial administrations are entrusted with the manage- still government officials. In the provincial administrations the ment of the affairs of the provinces in general, as distinguished from functions of the prefects have been curtailed. Each province has a those of the communes. Their expenditure is likewise classed as prefect, responsible to and appointed by the Ministry of the Interior, 'obligatory" and " optional.". The former category comprises the while each of the regions (called variously circondarit and distretti) maintenance of provincial roads, bridges and watercourse embank. has its sub-prefect. Whereas the prefect was formerly ex-officio ments; secondary education, whenever this is not provided for by president of the provincial deputation or executive committee of the private institutions or by the state (elementary education being provincial council, his duties under the present law are reduced to maintained by the communes), and the maintenance of foundlings mere participation in the management of provincial affairs, the and pauper lunatics. Optional " expenditure includes the cost of president of the provincial deputation being chosen among and services of general public interest, though not strictly indispensable. elected by the members of the deputation. The most important Provincial revenues are drawn from provincial property, school taxes, change introduced by the new law has been the creation in every tolls and surtaxes on land and buildings. The provincial surtaxes province of a provincial administrative junta entrusted with the may not exceed 50% of the quotas levied by the state. In 1897 the supervision of communal administrations, a function previously total provincial revenue was £3,732,253, of which £3,460,000 was discharged by the provincial deputation. Each provincial adminis- obtained from the surtax upon lands and buildings. Expenditure trative junta is composed, in part, of government nominees, and in amounted to £3,768,888, of which the principal items were £760,000 larger part of elective elements, elected by the provincial council for for roads and bridges, £520,000 for lunatic asylums, £240,000 for four years, balf of whom require to be elected every two years. The foundling hospitals, £320,000 for interest on debt and 200,000 for acts of communal administration requiring the sanction of the police. Like communal revenue, provincial revenue has considerably provincial administrative junta are chiefly financial. Both com- increased since 1880, principally on account of the increase in the munal councils and prefects may appeal to the government against land and building surtax. the decision of the provincial administrative juntas, the government The Italian local authorities, communes and provinces alike, being guided by the opinion of the Council of State. Besides possess- have considerably increased their indebtedness since 1882. The ing competence in regard to local government elections, which ratio of communal and provincial debt per inhabitant has grown 1" Privileges assure to creditors priority of claim in case of ? At the beginning of 1902 the Italian parliament sanctioned a bill foreclosure for debt or mortgage. Prior to the law of the 23rd of providing for the abolition of municipal duties on bread and farin. January 1887 harvested produce and agricultural implements were aceous products within three years of the promulgation of the bill on legally exempt írom "privilege." Ist July 1902. 1 ETHNOGRAPHY| ITALY 25 60 or from 30-79 lire (£1,45. 7}d.) to 43.70 lire (£1,145. 11d.), an increase due | Tyrrhenian Sea. It thus still comprised only the two provinces in great part to the need for improved buildings, hygienic reforms and education, but also attributable in part to the manner in which subsequently known as Lucania and Bruttium (see references s.v. the finances of many communes are administered. The total was in “ Italia "in R.S. Conway's Italic Dialects, p. 5). The name seems . 1900, £49,496,193 for the communes and 46,908,022 for the provinces. to be a Graecized form of an Italic Vitelia, from the stem villo-, The former total is more than double and the latter more than treble “calf” (Lat. vitulus, Gr. irados), and perhaps to have meant the sum in 1873, while there is an increase of 62% in the former and 26% in the latter over the totals for 1882. calf-land,” “grazing-land."; but the origin is more certain See Annuario statistico italiano (not, however, issued regularly each than the meaning; the calf may be one of the many animals year) for general statistics; and other official publications; W. connected with Italian tribes (see HIRPINI, SAMNITES). Deecke, Italy; a Popular Account of the Country, its Peopie and its Institutions (translated by H. A. Nesbitt, London, 1904); B. King the northern region as far as the Alps, we must first distinguish Taking the term Italy to comprise the whole peninsula with and T. Okey, Italy to-day (London, 1901); E. Nathan, Veni' Anni di vita italiana attraverso all' Annuario (Rome, 1906); G. Strafforello, the tribe or tribes which spoke Indo-European languages from Geografia dell'Italia (Turin, 1890-1902). · (T. As.) those who did not. To the latter category it is now possible to refer with certainty only the Etruscans (for the chronology and HISTORY limits of their occupation of Italian soil see ETRURIA: section The difficulty of Italian history lies in the fact that until Language). Of all the other tribes that inhabited Italy down modern times the Italians have had no political unity, no inde- to the classical period, of whose speech there is any record pendence, no organized existence as a nation. Split up into (whether explicit or in the form of names and glosses), it is numerous and mutually hostile communities, they never, through impossible to maintain that any one does not belong to the the fourteen centuries which have elapsed since the end of the Indo-European group. Putting aside the Etruscan, and also old Western empire, shook off the yoke of foreigners completely; the different Greek dialects of the Greek colonies, like Cumae, they never until lately learned to merge their local and conflicting Neapolis, Tarentum, and proceeding from the south to the interests in the common good of undivided Italy. Their history north, the different languages or dialects, of whose separate is therefore not the history of a single people, centralizing and existence at some time between, say, 600 and 200 B.C., we can absorbing its constituent elements by a process of continued be sure, may be enumerated as follows: (1) Sicel, (2) South evolution, but of a group of cognate populations, exemplifying Oscan and Oscan, (3) Messapian, (4) North Oscan, (5) Volscian, divers types of constitutional developments. (6) East Italic or“ Sabellic,”. (7) Latinian, (8) Sabine, (9) Iguvine The early history of Italy will be found under Rome and allied Umbrian,” (10) Gallic, (11) Ligurian and (12) Venetic. headings. The following account is therefore mainly concerned Between several of these dialects it is probable that closer with the periods succeeding A.D. 476, when Romulus Augustulus affinities exist. (1) It is probable, though not very clearly was deposed by Odoacer. Prefixed to this are two sections demonstrated, that Venetic, East Italic and Messapian are dealing respectively with (A) the ethnographical and philological connected together and with the ancient dialects spoken in divisions of ancient Italy, and (B) the unification of the country Illyria (q.v.), so that these might be provisionally entitled the under Augustus, the growth of the road system and so forth. Adriatic group, to which the language spoken by the Eteocretes The subsequent history is divided into five periods: (C) From of the city of Praesos in Crete down to the 4th century B.C. 476 to 1796; (D) From 1796 to 1814; (E) From 1815 to 1870; was perhaps akin. (2) Too little is known of the Sicel language (F) From 1870 to 1902; (G) From 1902 to 1910. to make clear more than its Indo-European character. But A. ANCIENT LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES it must be reckoned among the languages of Italy because of the well-supported tradition of the early existence of the Sicels in The ethnography of ancient Italy is a very complicated and Latium (see SICULI). Their possible place in the earlier stratum difficult subject, and notwithstanding the researches of modern of Indo-European population is discussed under SABINI. How scholars is still involved in some obscurity. The great beauty far also the language or languages spoken in Bruttium and at and fertility of the country, as well as the charm of its climate, certain points of Lucania, such as Anxia, differed from the undoubtedly attracted, even in early ages, successive swarms of Oscan of Samnium and Campania there is not enough evidence invaders from the north, who sometimes drove out the previous to show (see BRUTTII). (3) It is doubtful whether there are any occupants of the most favoured districts, at others reduced them actual inscriptions which can be referred with certainty to the to a state of serfdom, or settled down in the midst of them, until language of the Ligures, but some other evidence seems to link the two races gradually coalesced, Ancient writers are agreed them with the -CO- peoples, whose early distribution is discussed as to the composite character of the population of Italy, and the under Volsci and LIGURIA. (4) It is difficult to point to any diversity of races that were found within the limits of the definite evidence by which we may determine the dates of the peninsula. But unfortunately the traditions they have trans- earliest appearance of Gallic tribes in the north of Italy, No mitted to us are often various and conflicting, while the only safe satisfactory collection has been made of the Celtic inscriptions of test of the affinities of nations, derived from the comparison of Cisalpine Gaul, though many are scattered about in different their languages, is to a great extent inapplicable, from the fact museums. For our present purpose it is important to note that that the idioms that prevailed in Italy in and before the 5th the archaeological stratification in deposits like those of Bologna century B.C. are preserved, if at all, only in a few scanty and shows that the Gallic period supervened upon the Etruscan. fragmentary inscriptions, though from that date onwards we Until a scientific collection of the local and personal names of have now a very fair record of many of them (see, e.g. LATIN this district has been made, and until the archaeological evidence LANGUAGE, OscA LINGUA, IGUVIUM, VOLSCI, ETRURIA: section is clearly interpreted, it is impossible to go beyond the region Language, and below). These materials, imperfect as they are, of conjecture as to the tribe or tribes occupying the valley of when combined with the notices derived from ancient writers and the Po before the two invasions. It is clear, however, that the the evidence of archaeological excavations, may be considered Celtic and Etruscan elements together occupied the greater as having furnished some results of reasonable certainty. part of the district between the Apennines and the Alps It must be observed that the name Italians" was at one down to its Romanization, which took place gradually in the time confined to the Oenotrians; indeed, according to Antiochus course of the 2nd century B.C. Their linguistic neighbours of Syracuse (apud Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. ii. 1), the name of Italy were Ligurian in the south and south-west, and the Veneti was first still more limited, being applied only to the southern on the east. portion of the Bruttium peninsula (now known as Calabria). We know from the Roman historians that à large force of But in the time of that historian, as well as of Thucydides, the Gauls came as far south as Rome in the year 390 B.C., and that names of Oenotria and Italia, which appear to have been at that some part of this horde settled in what was henceforward known period regarded as synonymous, had been extended to include as the Ager Gallicus, the easternmost strip of coast in what was the shore of the Tarentine Gulf as far as Metapontum and later known as Umbria, including the towns of Caesēna, Ravenna from thence across to the gulfs of Laus and Posidonia on the I and Ariminum. A bilingual inscription (Gallic and Latin) of 26 (UNDER AUGUSTUS ITALY 1 1 the 2nd century B.C. was found as far south as Tuder, the modern Todi (Italic Dialects, ii. 528; Stokes, Bezzenberger's Beiträge, B. CONSOLIDATION OF ITALY 11, p. 113). We have seen that the name of Italy was originally applied (5) Turning now to the languages wbich constitute the Italic only to the southernmost part of the peninsula, and was only group in the narrower sense, (a) Oscan; (b) the dialect of Velitrae, gradually extended so as to comprise the central regions, such commonly called Volscian; (c) Latinian (i.e. Latin and its as Latium and Campania, which were designated by writers as nearest congeners; like Faliscan); and (d) Umbrian (or, as it late as Thucydides and Aristotle as in Opicia. The progress of may more safely be called, Iguvine), two principles of classifica- this change cannot be followed in detail, but there can be little tion offer themselves, of which the first is purely linguistic, the doubt that the extension of the Roman arms, and the gradual second linguistic and topographical. Writers on the ethnology union of the nations of the peninsula under one dominant power, of Italy have been hitherto content with the first, namely, the would contribute to the introduction, or rather would make the broad distinction between the dialects which preserved the Indo- necessity felt, for the use of one general appellation. At first, European velars (especially the breathed plosive q) as velars or indeed, the term was apparently confined to the regions of the back-palatals (gutturals), with or without the addition of a central and southern districts, exclusive of Cisalpine Gaul and W-sound, and the dialects which converted the velars wholly the whole tract north of the Apennines, and this continued to into labials, for example, Latinian quis contrasted with Oscan, be the official or definite signification of the name down to the Volscian and Umbrian pis (see further LATIN LANGUAGE). end of the republic. But the natural limits of Italy are so clearly This distinction, however, takes us but a little way towards marked that the name came to be generally employed as a geo- an historical grouping of the tribes, since the only Latinian graphical term at a much earlier period. Thus we already find dialects of which, besides Latin, we have inscriptions are Faliscan Polybius repeatedly applying it in this wider signification to the and Marsian (see FALISCI, MARSI); although the place-names | whole country, as far as the foot of the Alps; and it is evident of the Aequi (q.v.) suggest that they belong to the same group from many passages in the Latin writers that this was the familiar in this respect. Except, therefore, for a very small and appar- use of the term in the days of Cicero and Caesar. The official ently isolated area in the north of Latium and south of Etruria, distinction was, however, still retained. Cisalpine Gaul, includ- all the tribes of Italy, though their idioms differed in certain ing the whole of northern Italy, still constituted a “province,” particulars, are left undiscriminated. This presents a strong an appellation never applied to Italy itself. As such it was contrast to the evidence of tradition, which asserts very strongly assigned to Julius Caesar, together with Transalpine Gaul, (1) the identity of the Sabines and Samnites; (2) the conquest and it was not till he crossed the Rubicon that he entered Italy of an earlier population by this tribe; and which affords (3) in the strict sense of the term. clear evidence of the identity of the Sabines with the ruling Augustus was the first who gave a definite administrative class, i.e. the patricians, at Rome itself (see SABINI; and Rome. organization to Italy as a whole, and at the same time gave Early History and Ethnology). official sanction to that wider acceptation of the name which Some clue to this enigma may perhaps be found in the second had already established itself in familiar usage, and which has principle of classification proposed by the present writer at the continued to prevail ever since. Congresso Internationale di Scienze Storiche at Rome (Alli del The division of Italy into eleven regions, instituted by Augustus Congresso, ii) in 1903. It was on that occasion pointed out that the for administrative purposes, which continued in official use till ethnica or tribal and oppidan names of communities belonging the reign of Constantine, was based mainly on the territorial to the Sabine stock were marked by the use of the suffix -NO- divisions previously existing, and preserved with few exceptions as in Sabini; and that there was some linguistic evidence that the ancient limits. this stratum of population overcame an earlier population, which The first region comprised Latium (in the more extended sense used, generally, ethnica in -CO-or-TI- (as in Marruci, Ardeates, of the term, as including the land of the Volsci, Hernici and transformed later into Marrucini, Ardeatini). Aurunci), together with Campania and the district of the The validity of this distinction and its results are discussed Picentini. It thus extended from the mouth of the Tiber to under SABINI and Volsci, but it is well to state here its chief that of the Silarus (see Latium). consequences. The second region included Apulia and Calabria (the name 1. Latin will be counted the language of the earlier plebeian by which the Romans usually designated the district known to stratum of the population of Rome and Latium, probably once the Greeks as Messapia or lapygia), together with the land of the spread over a large area of the peninsula, and akin in some Hirpini, which had usually been considered as a part of Samnium. degree to the language or languages spoken in north Italy The third region contained Lucania and Bruttium; it was before either the Etruscan or the Gallic invasions began. bounded on the west coast by the Silarus, on the east by the 2. It would follow, on the other hand, that what is called Bradanus. Oscan represented the language of the invading Sabines (more The fourth region comprised all the Samnites (except the correctly Safines), whose racial afhnities would seem to be Hirpini), together with the Sabines and the cognate tribes of of a distinctly more northern cast, and to mark them, like the the Frentani, Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, Vestini and Aequiculi. Dorians or Achaeans in Greece, as an early wave of the invaders It was separated from Apulia on the south by the river Tifernus, who more than once in later history have vitally influenced the and from Picenum on the north by the Matrinus. fortunes of the tempting southern land into which they forced The fifth region was composed solely of Picenum, extending along the coast of the Adriatic from the mouth of the Matrinus 3. What is called Volscian, known only from the important to.that of the Aesis, beyond Ancona. inscription of the town of Velitrae, and what is called Umbrian, The sixth region was formed by Umbria, in the more extended known from the famous Iguvine Tables with a few other records, sense of the term, as including the Ager Gallicus, along the coast would be regarded as Safine dialects, spoken by Safine com- of the Adriatic from the Aesis to the Ariminus, and separated munities who had become more or less isolated in the midst from Etruria on the west by the Tiber. of the earlier and possibly partly Etruscanized populations, the The seventh region consisted of Etruria, which preserved result being that as early as the 4th century B.C. their language its ancient limits, extending from the Tiber to the Tyrrhenian had suffered corruptions which it escaped both in the Samnite Sea, and separated from Liguria on the north by the river mountains and in the independent and self-contained community Macra. of Rome. The eighth region, termed Gallia Cispadana, comprised the For fuller details the reader must be referred to the separate southern portion of Cisalpine Gaul, and was bounded on the north articles already mentioned, and to IguviuM, PICENUM, Osca LINGUA, (as its name implied) by the river Padus or Po, from above MARSI, AEQUI, Siculi and Liguria. Such archacological evidence as can be connected with the linguistic data will there be discussed. Placentia to its mouth. It was separated from Etruria and (R. S. C.) Umbria by the main chain of the Apennines; and the river their way. 18 G ITALY (Ancient) E 16° F 20 30 40 50 60 70 Scale, I 3,700,000 English Miles 5 10 20 30 40 50 Roman Miles 05 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Celeia Principal Roads. A 8° 1 Aventicam GERMANIA emanus SUPERIO Penneloci Rhodanys Octodurum In Alpe o Poe GALL In Alpe Graia A.Praetoria A N Duri Eporedia major Verbanus SPA Vercellae, Industria Bodincomagus Novaria .Brigantium Segusio Duria minor Padus August Taurinorum Valentia B 10° C R Rhenus Curia E Ceresius Comum D L Aenu 12° D Clavenna Addua E Tridentum Ausugum Bellunym Feltria Bergomum AN Modicia Argentealo Pons Aureoli Mediolanum Laus Pompeia Acertae Ticinum Pady Hast grus Alba V.AUGULIA Iria Clastidium.g Dertona Libaffia Trebia Vesulus M. Eburodunum EGN Stura Caburrum Pollentia Pompeia Pedo Augusta Bagiennorum Aquae Statiellac U R POSIUM Genua Savo Vada Sabatia Segesta AUGUSTA R A Placentia Nura Veleia Hadi Portus Veneris Palmaria 1. Sebinus Brixia Siemio.o Cremona Benacus Beneventum Bedriacum Forum Novum Parma C Incie Luna Verona Mantua Vicetia N Agyontum Dravus f lium Carnicum Licus F R 14° Norcia Virunum Ivenna Forum Iuli Emona Neviodunum Nauportus Aquileia Acclum Concordia apiergium Tarvisium X Tergeste Minum Anariuno Patavium Aponifons thesis Hostilia Atester Parentłum. Brundulum Parma Brixellum L Regium Lepidum Scultenna utina A Badus Bononia SPAD AN A Renus Forum Cornetti Faventia POPILIA Forum Livil Forum Popli Volana Ostium Spineticum Ostium Ravenna M Pola Polaticum Prom. .ވ R. E Sinus Flanaticus ersatica unct A L 1 Other Roads... Boundaries of the Regions of Augustus I-XI N 46° ALPES MARITIMAE Forum Iufil 3 ૪ 42° 4 40° Album Ingaunum Portus Mauritii Album Intimilium Portus. Herculis Monoecl enelum Antipolis Lero 1. Gorditanum Pr. CORSICA Nur Carbia Bosa Photanus Pistoriae Luca Pisae Arnus F. Arhus Florentia Portus Pisanus Urgo 1. Capraria Sassina Faesulae VIA CASSIA Umbro riminys Tiber Arretium Rubicon F ena Ariminum Risques Pisaurum Forum Sempronii Cortona Fanum Fortunae Metaurus Cales Ostra Sena Gallica Miso Aesis Aesis Ancona ACunerus M. Numana Potentia Sentinum Cupra M Auximum guvium Montana Cingulum Ricina Septempeda Urbs Traumenus Nuceria Campellaria Camerinum ent Perusia sisium Salvia Falerio Rirmum Picenum 2. H Cupra Maritima Volaterrae Vada Sena Julia AD Populonium Ilva I (Aethalia) Vetulonium Rusellae LPrelius Volsinii Clanis F CASSIA Clusium Mevania Tuder Hispellum Fulginiae Asculum Truentum Trebae Saturma Veteri 4 Planasia) Mariana Oglasa Umbro F. Albinia F. Argentarius M. Igilium Carsulae PLAMINIA Nursia SALARIA Spoletium VINC Castrum Novum Interamnium Volsini Interamna LVolsiniensis AECIL Hadria Cosa Tuscana Peremtum Volci Ameria Curetus M. Horta Narnia interocrium criculum Fescennia Reate Dianium (Artemisia) Aleria Forum Cassii Bler Tarquinit Sutriumo ForumClodit Centum Cellae LSabatinus Castrum Novum Neper Forul Trebula apena Saracte Mut Cyfres Eretum Aternus Aternum MIA CLAUDIA VALERIA Teate MARRUCINI Sagrus Ortona Anxanum Histonium Pyrgi Caere Alsium o Fregenae Roma Praepeste Fretum Erucinum Tibula Vintolae Laguido Gallicum Oibl Gaodris Portus Luguidonus Fanum Carisi Viniolae Cornus Garulis SA Tharros Neapolis Metalla DINI A Forum Traiani Othoca Valentia Biora Usells Aquae Neapolitanae Saeprus & Sulci Carales Sarcapos Portus Augusti Ostia Laurentum T Y R E R Fiscellus M Pinna Amiremum Aufinum Aveia Peltuinum AEQUI Alba Woy Interpromium Corfinium um VALERIA opucensPARLIGNI Carsioll omentum varia Eucinus Tibur Aricia Velitrae Lavinium Arde Tres Tabernac Satricumo Antium Astura Tripont Sumo Marruvium Anagnia MARSI S Aletrium Veryfac Ferentinum Brusing Norba Privernum Fabrateria Forum Atpinum & RENT Trebula Sagrus Aufidena OM Aesemia Fregellac Aquinum Bovianum Ovetus LOKAUS Buca Jarinum Geruntum Borianum Und Casinum Venafrum fernus M Appi Pundi ateramna Lucu Feroniaes Circeil Circeius M. Lirenas Formiae Jeanumh Tarracina Amyclanus Sinus Minturnae Caietaed Sinue sa Hilae Volturnus rebulao les Voltumum Calai Saepinum esla igure Bacbiani Frento F R A Pantanum L. aranus A AL M T. އ Teanum Garganus M. Merinum Sipontum Gargani Pr. Arpi Lucerta Accac Cerbalus Aquilo Wibinam Acquum udine Caudium Beneventum Tuticum Capua Volturnus F. Clarius Mo Acerrae Liternum Atella Pontiae lae. Pandateria Pithecussae Cumae Bala Misenum Epomeus M. Aenaria l Salapina Palus annae Herdoniae Ausculum Pons Aufidi Venusia Pinum ecruntia Suessula Accianum Aquitania Nola Compsa Ampsanctusfidus Voltur M. Neapolis esuvius M. Sarpus Nuceria Puteoli Prochyta Herculane Stabia Salernum Currentum Cumanus Sinus Pompel R H E N Capreae Sirenusae lae. Eburum Silarus F. Paestum & Paestanus Sinus Sile Calor A T C U M Barduli Turenum Canusium Natiolum II Rubl Butunti Barium Caella Azetium Pertum Goatla A Bradamus Uria GA Brundisium Valetium Manduria Voice Potentia Forum Popili Anxia A N Alburnus Atina olegianum Velia Oenotrides 1. Palinuri Prom. Buxentum Pyxus P. Laus Sinus ABR Casuentus Acalandp Grumentum Tarentum Metapontum Heraclea Neretum Sinus Siris Siris erulum Mur Inter Thurii -44° 3 420 ON 4 Lupia Hydruntum Castrum Anxa Aletium Minervae Callipolis Uzentuma Véretum Tarentinus Leuca lapygium.Pr. 1ONTUM 5 42° со Lacus Sabatinus CASSI Alsletinus E AqAlsietina Nora Tegula 12°30′ VIA Cremera CORNELIA Fregenae Antennae O TIBERIN Tiberis AB Eretum Nomentum Crustumerium o Fidenae VIA NOMENT Roma Portus: Augusti VIA PORTUENSIS Tiberis E Ostia VIA OSTIENSIS VIA LAURENTI Laurentum Aqua Albulae Aquae TIBURTINA Anto Virgo COLLATINA Tibur Collatia Gabil VIA PRAENESTINA VIA Aq VIA LABICAN Alexandrina Regillu Aq Marcia 49.Tepula lulia Ferentin Bovillae Lavinium YAURENTINA L.Albanus Alba M. Lucretilis VarialALER Bolae? M.Algi Labici Tusculum Corbio Caba? V T Jovis Laticrie Albanus BL.Nemorensis Longe Aricia Coriol? Lanuvium Ardea 410 30 A ANCIENT LATIUM Scale, 1:824,000 English Miles 5 IO 15 Roman Miles 15 B12 30 Antium audia Anio N Pedum? Velitae Nova Casioli Sublaqueum Praeneste HERNIC Trerus Fortinum Carventum Cora Signia Lepinus M. Volscorum Montes Tres Tabernae Norba Pomptine Marshes Tripontium Satricum o 42° Maritima U M Consentla Crimisa Prom. MARE Sabatus F. Terina Sinus Terinaeus H Seolacium Strongyle Crotona Hacinium Prom. Latymnius M, Sinus Scylleticus Vstica Aeoliae (Liparaeae) lae. Taurianum Pr. Vibo Valentia Phoenicusd pidyme Nicotera Ericusa Lipara Hiera Mylac Pelorum Pr Messanao Siculum Cocynthum Prom. Caulon Locri Panhormus Himera C Tyndaris Soluntum Cephaloedium Halacsa Thermae Haluntium Mytistratus Capitium Centuripae Symaethus OHenna Naxos Tauromenium Aetna M. o Hadranum o Aetna Hybla Major o Catina Fretum Regium Zephyrium Prom. Herculeum Prom. Aegates lae. Phorbantia's o Eryx Drepanum Ang Aegusa Lilybacum Segesta Motya Cossyra Mazara Selinus Hypsas iinuntiac Heraclea Minoa Agrigentum Himera Phintia Gela Camarina Acrac Апарках Megara Hyblaea Thapsus Syracusae Melita Pachynum Pr. Setia 41 30 Forum Appii 12° D. Longitude East 14 of Greenwich E 16° F C 13° 36° 18° . Emery Walker sc. 6 38° LO 5 2 1 1 GOTHIC AND LOMBARD KINGDOMS) ITALY 27 Ariminus was substituted for the far-famed Rubicon as its limit | the Via Aemilia running through Bononia as far as Placentia, on the Adriatic. in an almost absolutely straight line between the plain of the The ninth region comprised Liguria, extending along the sea- Po and the foot of the Apennines. In the same year a road was coast from the Varus to the Macra, and inland as far as the river constructed over the Apennines from Bononia to Arretium, but Padus, which constituted its northern boundary from its source it is difficult to suppose that it was not until later that the Via in Mount Vesulus to its confluence with the Trebia just above Cassia was made, giving a direct communication between Placentia. Arretium and Rome. The Via Clodia was an alternative route The tenth region included Venetia from the Padus and Adriatic to the Cassia for the first portion out of Rome, a branch having to the Alps, to which was annexed the neighbouring peninsula been built at the same time from Florentia to Lucca and Luna. of Istria, and to the west the territory of the Cenomani, a Gaulish Along the west coast the Via Aurelia ran up to Pisa and was tribe, extending from the Athesis to the Addua, which had continued by another Via Aemilia to Genoa. Thence the Via previously been regarded as a part of Gallia Cisalpina. Postumia led to Dertona, Placentia and Cremona, while the Via The eleventh region, known as Gallia Transpadana, included Aemilia and the Via Julia Augusta continued along the coast into all the rest of Cisalpine Gaul from the Padus on the south and Gallia Narbonensis. the Addua on the east to the foot of the Alps. The road system of Cisalpine Gaul was mainly conditioned The arrangements thus established by Augustus continued by the rivers which had to be crossed, and the Alpine passes almost unchanged till the time of Constantine, and formed the which had to be approached. basis of all subsequent administrative divisions until the fall Cremona, on the north bank of the Po, was an important of the Western empire. meeting point of roads and Hostilia (Ostiglia) another; so also The mainstay of the Roman military control of Italy first, was Patavium, farther east, and Altinum and Aquileia farther and of the whole empire afterwards, was the splendid system of east still. Roads, indeed, were almost as plentiful as railways roads: As the supremacy of Rome extended itself at the present day in the basin of the Po. Roads. over Italy, the Roman road system grew step by step, As to the roads leading out of Italy, from Aquileia roads each fresh conquest being marked by the pushing forward of diverged northward into Raetia, eastward to Noricum and roads through the heart of the newly-won territory, and the Pannonia, and southwards to the Istrian and Dalmatian coasts. establishment of fortresses in connexion with them. It was in Farther west came the roads over the higher Alpine passes- Italy that the military value of a network of roads was first the Brenner from Verona, the Septimer and the Splügen from appreciated by the Romans, and the lesson stood them in good Clavenna (Chiavenna), the Great and the Little St Bernard from stead in the provinces. And it was for military reasons that Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), and the Mont Genèvre from Augusta from mere cart-tracks they were developed into permanent Taurinorum (Turin). highways (T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, Westward two short but important roads led on each side of i. 129). From Rome itself roads radiated in all directions. the Tiber to the great harbour at its mouth; while the coast Communications with the south-east were mainly provided of Latium was supplied with a coast road by Septimius Severus, by the Via Appia (the" queen of Roman roads," as Statius called To the south-west the roads were short and of little importance. it) and the Via Latina, which met close to Casilinum, at the On ancient Italian geography in general see articles in Paulya crossing of the Volturnus, 3 m.N.W. of Capua, the second city in Wissowa, Realencyclopädie (1899. sqq.). Corpus inscriptionum Italy in the 3rd century B.C., and the centre of the road system (Turin, 1890–1892); H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde (Berlin, 1883- Latinarum (Berlin, 1862 sqq.); G. Strafforello, Geografia dell' Italia of Campania. Here the Via Appia turned eastward towards 1902); also references in articles Rome, LATIUM, &c. (T. As.) Beneventum, while the Via Popilia continued in a south-easterly direction through the Campanian plain and thence southwards C. FROM 476 to 1796 through the mountains of Lucania and Bruttii as far as Rhegium. The year 476 opened a new age for the Italian people. Odoacer, Coast roads of minor importance as means of through com- a chief of the Herulians, deposed Romulus, the last Augustus munication also existed on both sides of the “ toe ” of the boot. of the West, and placed the peninsula beneath the titular sway Other roads ran south from Capua to Cumae, Puteoli (the most of the Byzantine emperors. At Pavia the barbarian conquerors important harbour of Campania), and Neapolis, which could of Italy proclaimed him king, and he received from Zeno the also be reached by a coast road from Minturnae on the Via Appia. dignity of Roman patrician. Thus began that system of mixed From Beneventum, another important road centre, the Via government, Teutonic and Roman, which, in the absence of a Appia itself ran south-east through the mountains past Venusia national monarch, impressed the institutions of new Italy from to Tarentum on the south-west coast of the “heel," and thence the earliest date with dualism. The same revolution vested across Calabria to Brundusium, while Trajan's cortection of it, supreme authority in a non-resident and inefficient autocrat, following an older mule-track, ran north-east through the moun- whose title gave him the right to interfere in Italian affairs, but tains and then through the lower ground of Apulia, reaching the who lacked the power and will to rule the people for his own or coast at Barium. Both inet at Brundusium, the principal port their advantage. Odoacer inaugurated that long series of foreign for the East. From Aequum Tuticum, on the Via Traiana, rulers-Greeks, Franks, Germans, Spaniards and Austrians-- the Via Herculia ran to the south-east, crossing the older Via who have successively contributed to the misgovernment of Appia, then south to Potentia and so on to join the Via Popilia Italy from distant seats of empire. in the centre of Lucania. 1. Gothic and Lombard Kingdons. In 488 Theodoric, king of The only highroad of importance which left Rome and ran the East Goths, received commission from the Greek emperor, east wards, the Via Valeria, was not completed as far as the Zeno, to undertake the affairs of Italy. He defeated Odoacer, Adriatic before the time of Claudius; but on the north and north- drove him to Ravenna, besieged him there, and in 493 completed west started the main highways which communicated with central the conquest of the country by murdering the Herulian chief and northern Italy, and with all that part of the Roman empire with his own hand. Theodoric respected the Roman institutions which was accessible by land. The Via Salaria, a very ancient which he found in Italy, held the Eternal City sacred, and governed road, with its branch, the Via Caecilia, ran north-eastwards to by ministers chosen from the Roman population. He settled the Adriatic coast and so also did the Via Flaminia, which reached at Ravenna, which had been the capital of Italy since the days the coast at Fanum Fortunae, and thence followed it to Ariminum. of Honorius, and which still testifies by its monuments to the The road along the east coast from Fanum Fortunae down to Gothic chieftain's Romanizing policy. Those who believe that Barium, which connected the terminations of the Via Salaria the Italians would have gained strength by unification in a single and Via Valeria, and of other roads farther south crossing from monarchy must regret that this Gothic kingdom lacked the Campania, had no special name in ancient times, as far as we elements of stability. The Goths, except in the valley of the know. The Via Flaminia was the earliest and most important Po, resembled an army of occupation rather than a people road to the north; and it was soon extended in 187 B.C.) by numerous enough to blend with the Italic stock. Though their 28 (FRANKISH EMPERORS ITALY The rule was favourable to the Romans, they were Arians; and and barbarous cupidity. The Italians were reduced to the religious differences, combined with the pride and jealousies last extremity when Gregory the Great (590-604), having of a nation accustomed to imperial honours, rendered the in- strengthened his position by diplomatic relations with the habitants of Italy, eager to throw off their yoke. When, there- duchy of Spoleto, and brought about the conversion of the fore, Justinian undertook the reconquest of Italy, his generals, Lombards to orthodoxy, raised the cause of the remaining Belisarius and Narses, were supported by the south. The struggle Roman population throughout Italy. The fruit of his policy, of the Greeks and the Goths was carried on for fourteen years, which made of Rome a counterpoise against the effete empire between 539 and 553, when Teias, the last Gothic king, was of the Greeks upon the one hand and against the pressure of the finally defeated in a bloody battle near Vesuvius. At its close feudal kingdom on the other, was seen in the succeeding century, the provinces of Italy were placed beneath Greek dukes, controlled When Leo the Isaurian published his decrees against the worship by a governor-general, entitled exarch, who ruled in the Byzantine of images in 726, Gregory II. allied himself with Liudprand, emperor's name at Ravenna. the Lombard king, threw off allegiance to Byzantium, and This new settlement lasted but a few years. Narses had established the autonomy of Rome. This pope initiated the employed Lombard auxiliaries in his campaigns against the dangerous policy of playing one hostile force off against another Goths; and when he was recalled by an insulting with a view to securing independence. He used the Lombards Lombards. message from the empress in 565, he is said to have in his struggle with the Greeks, leaving to his successors the invited this fiercest and rudest of the Teutonic clans duty of checking these unnatural allies. This was accomplished to seize the spoils of Italy. Be this as it may, the Lombards, by calling the Franks in against the Lombards. Liudprand their ranks swelled by the Gepidae, whom they had lately pressed hard, not only upon the Greek dominions of the exarchate, conquered, and by the wrecks of other barbarian tribes, passed but also upon Rome. His successors, Rachis and Aistolf, southward under their king Alboin in 568. The Herulian attempted to follow the same game of conquest. But the popes, invaders had been but a band of adventurers; the Goths were Gregory III., Zachary and Stephen II., determining at any an army; the Lombards, far more formidable, were a nation cost to espouse the national cause and to aggrandize their own in movement. Pavia offered stubborn resistance; but after office, continued to rely upon the Franks. Pippin twice crossed a three years' siege it was taken, and Alboin made it the capital the Alps, and forced Aistolf to relinquish his acquisitions, of his new kingdom. including Ravenna, Pentapolis, the coast towns of Romagna In order to understand the future history of Italy, it is necessary and some cities in the duchy of Spoleto. These he handed to form a clear conception of the method pursued by the Lombards over to the pope of Rome. This donation of Pippin in 756 in their conquest. Penetrating the peninsula, and advancing confirmed the papal see in the protectorate of the Italic party, like a glacier or half-liquid stream of mud, they occupied the and conferred upon it sovereign rights. The virtual outcome valley of the Po, and moved slowly downward through the centre of the contest carried on by Rome since the year 726 with of the country. Numerous as they were compared with their Byzantium and Pavia was to place the popes in the position Gothic predecessors, they had not strength or multitude enough held by the Greek exarch, and to confirm the limitation of the to occupy the whole peninsula. Venice, which since the days Lombard kingdom. We must, however, be cautious to remember of Attila had offered an asylum to Roman refugees from the that the south of Italy was comparatively unaffected. The northern cities, was left untouched. So was Genoa with its dukes of the Greek empire and the Lombard dukes of Benevento, Riviera. Ravenna, entrenched within her lagoons, remained together with a few autonomous commercial cities, still divided * a 'Greek city. Rome, protected by invincible prestige, escaped. Italy below the Campagna of Rome (see LOMBARDS). The sea-coast cities of the south, and the islands, Sicily, Sardinia II. Frankish Emperors.-The Franko-Papal alliance, which and Corsica, preserved their independence. Thus the Lombards conferred a crown on Pippin and sovereign rights upon the see neither occupied the extremities nor subjugated the brain-centre of Rome, held within itself that ideal of mutually Charles of the country. The strength of Alboin's kingdom was in the supporting, papacy and empire which exercised so north; his capital, Pavia. As his people pressed southward, powerful an influence in medieval history. When they omitted to possess themselves of the coasts; and what Charles the Great (Charlemagne) deposed his father-in- lingi&os. was worse for the future of these conquerors, the original impetus law Desiderius, the last Lombard king, in 774, and of the invasion was checked by the untimely murder of Alboin when he received the circlet of the empire from Leo III. at Rome in 573. After this event, the semi-independent chiefs of the in 800, he did but complete and ratify the compact offered to Lombard tribe, who borrowed the title of dukes from their his grandfather, Charles Martel, by Gregory III. The relations Roman predecessors, seem to have been contented with con- between the new emperor and the pope were ill defined; and solidating their power in the districts each had occupied. The this proved the source of infinite disasters to Italy and Europe duchies of Spoleto in the centre, and of Benevento in the south, in the sequel. But for the moment each seemed necessary to inserted wedge-like into the middle of the peninsula, and enclos- the other; and that sufficed. Charles took possession of the ing independent Rome, were but loosely united to the kingdom kingdom of Italy, as limited by Pippin's settlement. The pope at Pavia. Italy was broken up into districts, each offering was confirmed in his rectorship of the cities ceded by Aistolf, points for attack from without, and fostering the seeds of internal with the further understanding, tacit rather than expressed, revolution. Three separate capitals must be discriminated that, even as he had wrung these provinces for the Italic people Pavia, the seat of the new Lombard kingdom; Ravenna, the from both Greeks and Lombards, so in the future he might garrison city of the Byzantine emperor; and Rome, the rallying claim the protectorate of such portions of Italy, external to the point of the old nation, where the successor of St Peter was kingdom, as he should be able to acquire. This, at any rate, already beginning to assume that national protectorate which seems to be the meaning of that obscure re-settlement of the proved so influential in the future. peninsula which Charles effected. The kingdom of Italy, trans. It is not necessary to write the history of the Lombard kingdom mitted on his death by Charles the Great, and afterwards con- in detail. Suffice it to say that the rule of the Lombards proved firmed to his grandson Lothar by the peace of Verdun in 843, at first far more oppressive to the native population, and was stretched from the Alps to Terracina. The duchy of Benevento less intelligent of their old customs, than that of the Goths had remained tributary, but independent. The cities of Gaeta and been. Wherever the Lombards had the upper hand, they placed Naples, Sicily and the so-called Theme of Lombardy in South the country under military rule, resembling in its general Apulia and Calabria, still recognized the Byzantine emperor. character what we now know as the feudal system. Though Venice stood aloof, professing a nominal allegiance to the East. there is reason to suppose that the Roman laws were still ad- The parcels into which the Lombards had divided the peninsula ministered within the cities, yet the Lombard code was that of remained thus virtually unaltered, except for the new authority the kingdom; and the Lombards being Arians, they added the acquired by the see of Rome. oppression of religious intolerance to that of martial despotism Internally Charles left the affairs of the Italian kingdom 1 the Great and the Caro- 1 1 7 } 1 1 GERMAN EMPERORS) ITALY 29 Fraakish and Itallaa much as he found them, except that he appears to have and built themselves fortresses on points of vantage in the pursued the policy of breaking up the larger fiefs of the Lombards, neighbourhood. Thus the titular king of Italy found himself substituting counts for their dukes, and adding to the privileges simultaneously at war with those great vassals who had chosen of the bishops. We may reckon these measures among the him from their own class, with the turbulent factions of the earliest advantages extended to the cities, which still contained Roman aristocracy, with unruly bishops in the growing cities the bulk of the old Roman population, and which were destined and with the multitude of minor counts and barons who occupied to intervene with decisive effect two centuries later in Italian the open lands, and who changed sides according to the interests history. It should also here be noticed that the changes intro- of the moment. The last king of the quasi-Italian succession, duced into the holding of the fiefs, whether by altering their Berengar II., marquis of Ivrea (951-961), made a vigorous effort boundaries or substituting Frankish for Lombard vassals, to restore the authority of the regno; and had he succeeded, it were chief among the causes why the feudal system took no is not impossible that now at the last moment Italy might have permanent hold in Italy. Feudalism was not at any time a become an independent nation. But this attempt al unification national institution. The hierarchy of dukes and marquises was reckoned to Berengar for a crime. He only won the hatred and counts consisted of foreign soldiers imposed on the indigenous of all classes, and was represented by the obscure annalists of inhabitants; and the rapid succession of conquerors, Lombards, that period as an oppressor of the church and a remorseless Franks and Germans following each other at no long interval, tyrant. In Italy, divided between feudal nobles and almost and each endeavouring to weaken the remaining strength of his hereditary ecclesiastics, of foreign blood and alien sympathies, predecessor, prevented this alien hierarchy from acquiring there was no national feeling. Berengar stood alone against a fixity by permanence of tenure. Among the many miseries multitude, unanimous in their intolerance of discipline. His inflicted upon Italy by the frequent changes of her northern predecessor in the kingdom, Lothar, had left a young and rulers, this at least may be reckoned a blessing. beautiful widow, Adelheid. Berengar imprisoned her upon the The Italians acknowledged eight kings of the house of Charles Lake of Como, and threatened her with a forced marriage to his the Great, ending in Charles the Fat, who was deposed in 888. son Adalbert. She escaped to the castle of Canossa, where the After them followed ten sovereigns, some of whom great count of Tuscany espoused her cause, and appealed in have been misnamed Italians by writers too eager her behalf to Otto the Saxon. The king of Germany descended to catch at any resemblance of national glory for a into Italy, and took Adelheid in marriage. After this episode kings. people passive in the hands of foreign masters. The Berengar was more discredited and impotent than ever. In the truth is that no period in Italian history was less really glorious extremity of his fortunes he had recourse himself to Otto, making than that which came to a close in 961 by Berengar II.'s cession a formal cession of the Italian kingdom, in his own name and of his rights to Otto the Great. It was a period marked in the that of his son Adalbert, to the Saxon as his overlord. By this first place by the conquests of the Saracens, who began to occupy slender tie the crown of Italy was joined to that of Germany; Sicily early in the gth century, overran Calabria and Apulia, took and the formal right of the elected king of Germany to be con- Bari and threatened Rome. In the second place it was marked sidered king of Italy and emperor may be held to have accrued by a restoration of the Greeks to power. In 890 they established from this epoch. themselves again at Bari, and ruled the Theme of Lombardy by III. The German Emperors.--Berengar gained nothing by means of an officer entitled Catapan. In the third place it was his act of obedience to Otto. The great Italian nobles, in their marked by a decline of good government in Rome. Early in the turn, appealed to Germany. Otto entered Lombardy Saxon Ioth century the papacy fell into the hands of a noble family, in 961, deposed Berengar, assumed the crown in San and Fran. known eventually as the counts of Tusculum, who almost Ambrogio at Milan, and in 962 was proclaimed coolaa succeeded in rendering the office hereditary, and in uniting the emperor by John XII. at Rome. Henceforward emperors. civil and ecclesiastical functions of the city under a single member Italy changed masters according as one or other of the German of their house. It is not necessary to relate the scandals of families assumed supremacy beyond the Alps. It is one of the Marozia's and Theodora's female reign, the infamies of John XII. strongest instances furnished by history of the fascination or the intrigues which tended to convert Rome into a duchy. exercised by an idea that the Italians themselves should have The most important fact for the historian of Italy to notice is grown to glory in this dependence of their nation upon Caesars that during this time the popes abandoned, not only their high who had nothing but a name in common with the Roman duties as chiefs of Christendom, but also their protectorate of Imperator of the past. Italian liberties. A fourth humiliating episode in this period The first thing we have to notice in this revolution which was the invasion of the Magyar barbarians, who overran the placed Otto the Great upon the imperial throne is that the north of Italy, and reduced its fairest provinces to the condition Italian kingdom, founded by the Lombards, recognized by of a wilderness. Anarchy and misery are indeed the main the Franks and recently claimed by eminent Italian feudatories, features of that long space of time which elapsed between the virtually ceased to exist. It was merged in the German kingdom; death of Charles the Great and the descent of Otto. Through and, since for the German princes Germany was of necessity the almost impenetrable darkness and confusion we only discern their first care, Italy from this time forward began to be left this much, that Italy was powerless to constitute herself a more and more to herself. The central authority of Pavia had nation. always been weak; the regno had proved insufficient to combine | The discords which followed on the break-up of the Carolingian the nation. But now even that shadow of union disappeared, power, and the weakness of the so-called Italian emperors, who and the Italians were abandoned to the slowly working influences were unable to control the feudatories (marquises of Ivrea and which tended to divide them into separate states. The most Tuscany, dukes of Friuli and Spoleto), from whose ranks they brilliant period of their chequered history, the period which sprang, exposed Italy to ever-increasing misrule. The country includes the rise of communes, the exchange of municipal by this time had become thickly covered over with castles, the liberty for despotism and the gradual discrimination of the five seats of greater or lesser nobles, all of whom were eager to detach great powers (Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papacy and the themselves from strict allegiance to the “Regno." The cities, kingdom of Naples), now begins. Among the centrifugal forces exposed to pillage by Huns in the north and Saracens in the which determined the future of the Italian race must be reckoned, south, and ravaged on the coast by Norse pirates, asserted their first and foremost, the new spirit of municipal independence. right to enclose themselves with walls, and taught their burghers We have seen how the cities enclosed themselves with walls, the use of arms. Within the circuit of their ramparts, the bishops and how the bishops defined their authority against that of already began to exercise authority in rivalry with the counts, the counts. Otto encouraged this revolution by placing the to whom since the days of Theodoric, had been entrusted the enclosures of the chief burghs beyond the jurisdiction of the government of the Italian burghs. Agreeably to feudal customs, counts. Within those precincts the bishops and the citizens were these nobles, as they grew in power, retired from the town, I independent of all feudal masters but the emperor. He further « 30 (GERMAN EMPERORS ITALY broke the power of the great vassals by redivisions of their feuds, still needed nearly a century of struggle to render the burghers and by the creation of new marches which he assigned to his independent of lordship, with a fully organized commune, German followers. In this way, owing to the dislocation of the self-governed in its several assemblies. While making these ancient aristocracy, to the enlarged jurisdiction of a power so reservations, it is at the same time right to observe that certain democratic as the episcopate, and to the increased privileges of Italian communities were more advanced upon the path of the burghs, feudalism received a powerful check in Italy. The independence than others. This is specially the case with the Italian people, that people which gave to the world the commerce maritime ports. Not to mention Venice, which has not yet and the arts of Florence, was not indeed as yet apparent. But the entered the Italian community, and remains a Greek free city, conditions under which it could arise, casting from itself all Genoa and Pisa were rapidly rising into ill-defined autonomy. foreign and feudal trammels, recognizing its true past in ancient | Their command of fleets gave them incontestable advantages, Rome, and reconstructing a civility out of the ruins of those as when, for instance, Otto II. employed the Pisans in 980 against glorious memories, were now at last granted. The nobles from the Greeks in Lower Italy, and the Pisans and Genoese together this time forward retired into the country and the mountains, attacked the Saracens of Sardinia in 1017. Still, speaking fortified themselves in strong places outside the cities, and gave generally, the age of independence for the burghs had only their best attention to fostering the rural population. Within begun when Heribert from Milan undertook the earliest the cities and upon the open lands the Italians, in this and organization of a force that was to become paramount in peace the next century, doubled, trebled and quadrupled their and war. numbers. A race was formed strong enough to keep the Next to Milan, and from the point of view of general politics empire itself in check, strong enough, except for its own even more than Milan, Rome now claims attention. The internecine contests, to have formed a nation equal to its destinies of Italy depended upon the character which Rome. happier neighbours. the see of St Peter should assume. Even the liberties The recent scandals of the papacy induced Otto to deprive of her republics in the north hung on the issue of a contest which the Romans of their right to elect popes. But when he died in the 11th and 12th centuries shook Europe to its farthest in 973, his son Otto II. (married to Theophano of the imperial boundaries. So fatally were the internal affairs of that magnifi- Byzantine house) and his grandson, Otto III., who descended cent but unhappy country bound up with concerns which into Italy in 996, found that the affairs of Rome and of the brought the forces of the civilized world into play. Her ancient southern provinces were more than even their imperial powers prestige, her geographical position and the intellectual primacy could cope with. The faction of the counts of Tusculum raised of her most noble children rendered Italy the battleground of its head from time to time in the Eternal City, and Rome still principles that set all Christendom in motion, and by the clash claimed to be a commonwealth. Otto III.'s untimely death in of which she found herself for ever afterwards divided. During 1002 introduced new discords. Rome fell once more into the the reign of Conrad II., the party of the counts of Tusculum hands of her nobles. The Lombards chose Ardoin, marquis of revived in Rome; and Crescentius, claiming the title of consul Ivrea, for king, and Pavia supported his claims against those of in the imperial city, sought once more to control the election Henry of Bavaria, wlio had been elected in Germany. Milan of the popes. When Henry III., the son of Conrad, entered sided with Henry; and this is perhaps the first eminent instance Italy in 1046, he found three popes in Rome. These he abolished, of cities being reckoned powerful allies in the Italian disputes of and, taking the appointment into his own hands, gave German sovereigns. It is also the first instance of that bitter feud bishops to the see. The policy thus initiated upon the precedent between the two great capitals of Lombardy, a feud rooted in laid down by Otto the Great was a remedy for pressing evils. ancient antipathies between the Roman population of Medio- It saved Rome from becoming a duchy in the hands of the lanum and the Lombard garrison of Alboin's successors, which Tusculum house. But it neither raised the prestige of the papacy, proved so disastrous to the national cause. Ardoin retired to nor could it satisfy the Italians, who rightly regarded the Roman a monastery, where he died in 1015. Henry nearly destroyed see as theirs. These German popes were short-lived and in- Pavia, was crowned in Rome and died in 1024. After this event efficient. Their appointment, according to notions which defined Heribert, the archbishop of Milan, invited Conrad, the Franconian themselves within the church at this epoch, was simoniacal; king of Germany, into Italy, and crowned him with the iron and during the long minority of Henry IV., who succeeded crown of the kingdom. his father in 1056, the terrible Tuscan monk, Hildebrand of The intervention of this man, Heribert, compels us to turn a Soana, forged weapons which he used with deadly effect against closer glance upon the cities of North Italy. It is here, at the the presumption of the empire. The condition of the church Heribert present epoch and for the next two centuries, that the seemed desperate, unless it could be purged of crying scandals- pith and nerve of the Italian nation must be sought; of the subjection of the papacy to the great Roman nobles, Lombard and among the burghs of Lombardy, Milan, the eldest of its subordination to the German emperor and of its internal burghs. daughter of ancient Rome, assumes the lead. In demoralization. It was Hildebrand's policy throughout three Milan we hear for the first time the word Comune. In Milan papacíes, during which he controlled the counsels of the Vatican, the citizens first form themselves into a Parlamento. In Milan and before he himself assumed the tiara, to prepare the mind the archbishop organizes the hitherto voiceless, defenceless of Italy and Europe for a mighty change. His programme population into a community capable of expressing its needs, included these three points: (1) the celibacy of the clergy; and an army ready to maintain its rights. To Heribert is (2) the abolition of ecclesiastical appointments made by the attributed the invention of the Carroccio, which played so secular authority; (3) the vesting of the papal election in singular and important a part in the warfare of Italian cities. the hands of the Roman clergy and people, presided over by the A huge car drawn by oxen, bearing the standard of the burgh, curia of cardinals. How Hildebrand paved the way for these and carrying an altar with the host, this carroccio, like the ark reforms during the pontificates of Nicholas II. and Alexander II., of the Israelites, formed a rallying point in battle, and reminded how he succeeded in raising the papal office from the depths of the armed artisans that they had a city and a church to fight for. degradation and subjection to illimitable sway over the minds That Heribert's device proved effectual in raising the spirit of of men in Europe, and how his warfare with the empire estab- his burghers, and consolidating them into a formidable band of lished on a solid basis the still doubtful independence of the warriors, is shown by the fact that it was speedily adopted in Italian burghs, renewing the long neglected protectorate of the all the free cities. It must not, however, be supposed that at Italian race, and bequeathing to his successors a national policy this epoch the liberties of the burghs were fully developed. The which had been forgotten by the popes since his great pre- mass of the people remained unrepresented in the government; decessor Gregory II., forms a chapter in European history which and even if the consuls existed in the days of Heribert, they must now be interrupted. We have to follow the fortunes of were but humble legal officers, transacting business for their unexpected allies, upon whom in no small measure his success constituents in the courts of the bishop and his viscount. It I depended, 1 1 and the 1 1 1 AGE OF THE COMMUNES] ITALY 31 Norman of the Two In order to maintain some thread of continuity through the following year at Worms, where Gregory was deposed and ex- perplexed and tangled vicissitudes of the Italian race, it has been communicated. The pope followed with a counter excommunica- necessary to disregard those provinces which did not tion, far more formidable, releasing the king's subjects from conquest immediately contribute to the formation of its history. their oaths of allegiance. War was thus declared between the For this reason we have left the whole of the south up two chiefs of western Christendom, that war of investitures to the present point unnoticed. Sicily in the hands of which out-lasted the lives of both Gregory and Henry, and was Sicilies. the Mussulmans, the Theme of Lombardy abandoned to not terminated till the year 1122. The dramatic episodes of this the weak suzerainty of the Greek catapans, the Lombard duchy struggle are too well known to be enlarged upon. In his single- of Benevento slowly falling to pieces and the maritime republics handed duel with the strength of Germany, Gregory received of Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi extending their influence by com- material assistance from the Countess Matilda of Tuscany. She merce in the Mediterranean, were in effect detached from the was the last heiress of the great house of Canossa, whose fiefs Italian regno, beyond the jurisidiction of Rome, included in no stretched from Mantua across Lombardy, passed the Apennines, parcel of Italy proper. But now the moment had arrived when included the Tuscan plains, and embraced a portion of the duchy this vast group of provinces, forming the future kingdom of the of Spoleto. It was in her castle of Canossa that Henry IV. per- Two Sicilies, was about to enter definitely and decisively within formed his three days' penance in the winter of 1077; and there the bounds of the Italian community. Some Norman adventurers, she made the cession of her vast domains to the church. That on pilgrimage to St Michael's shrine on Monte Gargano, lent cession, renewed after the death of Gregory to his successors, their swords in 1017 to the Lombard cities of Apulia against the conferred upon the popes indefinite rights, of which they after- Greeks. Twelve years later we find the Normans settled at wards availed themselves in the consolidation of their temporal Aversa under their Count Rainulf. From this station as a centre power. Matilda died in the year 1115. Gregory had passed the little band of adventurers, playing the Greeks off against the before her from the scene of his contest, an exile at Salerno, Lombards, and the Lombards against the Greeks, spread their whither Robert Guiscard carried him in 1084 from the anarchy of power in all directions, until they made themselves the most con- rebellious Rome. With unbroken spirit, though the objects of siderable force in southern Italy William of Hauteville was his life were unattained, though Italy and Europe had been proclaimed count of Apulia. His half-brother, Robert Wiskard thrown into confusion, and the issue of the conflict was still or Guiscard, after defeating the papal troops at Civitella in 1053, doubtful, Gregory expired in 1085 with these words on his lips:“I received from Leo IX. the investiture of all present and future loved justice, I hated iniquity, therefore in banishment I die.” conquests in Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, which he agreed to hold The greatest of the popes thus breathed his last; but the new as fiefs of the Holy See. Nicholas II. ratified this grant, and con- spirit he had communicated to the papacy was not destined to firmed the title of count. Having consolidated their possessions expire with him. Gregory's immediate successors, Victor III., on the mainland, the Normans, under Robert Guiscard's brother, Urban II. and Paschal II., carried on his struggle with Henry the great Count Roger, undertook the conquest of Sicily in 1060. IV. and his imperial antipopes, encouraging the emperor's son After a prolonged struggle of thirty years, they wrested the to rebel against him, and stirring up Europe for the first crusade. whole island from the Saracens; and Roger, dying in 1101, When Henry IV. died, his own son's prisoner, in 1106, Henry bequeathed to his son Roger a kingdom in Calabria and Sicily V. crossed the Alps, entered Rome, wrung the imperial coronation second to none in Europe for wealth and magnificence. This, from Paschal II. and compelled the pope to grant his claims while the elder branch of the Hauteville family still held the title on the investitures. Scarcely had he returned to Germany when and domains of the Apulian duchy; but in 1127, upon the death the Lateran disavowed all that the pope had done, on the score of his cousin Duke William, Roger united the whole of the future that it had been extorted by force. France sided with the realm. In 1130 he assumed the style of king of Sicily, inscribing church. Germany rejected the bull of investiture. A new upon his sword the famous hexameter- descent into Italy, a new seizure of Rome, proved of no avail. "Appulus et Calaber Siculus mihi servit et Afer." The emperor's real weakness was in Germany, where his subjects This Norman conquest of the two Sicilies forms the most openly expressed their discontent. He at last abandoned the romantic episode in medieval Italian history. By the con- contest which had distracted Europe. By the concordat of solidation of Apulia, Calabria and Sicily into a powerful kingdom, Worms, 1122, the emperor surrendered the right of investiture by checking the growth of the maritime republics and by by ring and staff, and granted the right of election to the clergy. recognizing the over-lordship of the papal see, the house of The popes were henceforth to be chosen by the cardinals, the Hauteville influenced the destinies of Italy with more effect than bishops by the chapters subject to the pope's approval. On any of the princes who had previously dealt with any portion of the other hand the pope ceded to the emperor the right of the peninsula. Their kingdom, though Naples was from time to investiture by the sceptre. But the main issue of the struggle time separated from Sicily, never quite lost the cohesion they was not in these details of ecclesiastical government; principles had given it; and all the disturbances of equilibrium in Italy had been at stake far deeper and more widely reaching. The were due in after days to papal manipulation of the rights respective relations of pope and emperor, ill-defined in the acquired by Robert Guiscard's act of homage. The southern compact between Charles the Great and Leo III., were brought regno, in the hands of the popes, proved an insurmountable in question, and the two chief potentates of Christendom, no obstacle to the unification of Italy, led to French interference in longer tacitly concordant, stood against each other in irreconcil- Italian affairs, introduced the Spaniard and maintained in those able rivalry. Upon this point, though the battle seemed to be rich southern provinces the reality of feudal sovereignty long a drawn one, the popes were really victors. They remained after this alien element had been eliminated from the rest of independent of the emperor, but the emperor had still to seek Italy (see NORMANS; SICILY: History). the crown at their hands. The pretensions of Otto the Great For the sake of clearness, we have anticipated the course of and Henry III. to make popes were gone for ever (see PAPACY; events by nearly a century. We must now return to the date of INVESTITURE). Hildebrand's elevation to the papácy in 1073, when IV. Age of the Communes. The final gainers, however, by the War of lavesti he chose the memorable name of Gregory VII. In war of investitures were the Italians. In the first place, from the next year after his election Hildebrand convened this time forward, owing to the election of popes by a council, and passed measures enforcing the celibacy the Roman curia, the Holy See remained in the hands of the clergy. In 1075 he caused the investiture of ecclesiastical of Italians; and this, though it was by no means an dignitaries by secular potentates of any degree to be condemned. unmixed good, was a great glory to the nation. In the These two reforms, striking at the most cherished privileges and next place, the antagonism of the popes to the emperors,' which most deeply-rooted self-indulgences of the aristocratic caste in became hereditary in the Holy College, forced the former to Europe, inflamed the bitterest hostility. Henry IV., king of assume the protectorate of the national cause. But by far the Germany, but not crowned emperor, convened a diet in the greatest profit the Italians reaped was the emancipation of their tures. Rise of free cities. 32 (AGE OF THE COMMUNES ITALY burghs. During the forty-seven years' war, when pope and in reality imitations of the Lombard civic system. The patrician emperor were respectively bidding for their alliance, and offering stood for the consuls. The senate, composed of nobles, repre- concessions to secure their support, the communes grew in sented the credenza and the gran consiglio. The pope was self-reliance, strength and liberty. As the bishops had helped unable to check this revolution, which is now chiefly interesting to free them from subservience to their feudal masters, so the as further proof of the insurgence of the Latin as against the war of investitures relieved them of dependence on their bishops. feudal elements in Italy at this period (see RoME: History). The age of real autonomy, signalized by the supremacy of consuls Though the communes gained so much by the war of investi- in the cities, had arrived. tures, the division of the country between the pope's and In the republics, as we begin to know.them after the war of emperor's parties was no small price to pay for inde- Munici- investitures, government was carried on by officers called consuls, pendence. It inflicted upon Italy the ineradicable pal wars. varying in number according to custom and according to the curse of party-warfare, setting city against city, house division of the town into districts. These magistrates, as we against house, and rendering concordant action for a national have already seen, were originally appointed to control and end impossible. No sooner had the compromise of the investitures protect the humbler classes. But, in proportion as the people been concluded than it was manifest that the burghers of the gained more power in the field the consuls rose into importance, new enfranchised communes were resolved to turn their arms superseded the bishops and began to represent the city in trans- against each other. We seek in vain an obvious motive for each actions with its neighbours. Popes and emperors who needed separate quarrel. All we know for certain is that, at this epoch, the assistance of a city, had to seek it from the consuls, and thus Rome attempts to ruin Tivoli, and Venice Pisa; Milan fights these officers gradually converted an obscure and indefinite with Cremona, Cremona with Crema, Pavia with Verona, authority into what resembles the presidency of a common- Verona with Padua, Piacenza with Parma, Modena and Reggio wealth. They were supported by a deliberative assembly, with Bologna, Bologna and Faenza with Ravenna and Imola, called credenza, chosen from the more distinguished citizens. Florence and Pisa with Lucca and Siena, and so on through the In addition to this privy council, we find a gran consiglio, consist- whole list of cities. The nearer the neighbours, the more rancor- ing of the burghers who had established the right to interfere ous and internecine is the strife; and, as in all cases where immediately in public affairs, and a still larger assembly called animosity is deadly and no grave local causes of dispute are parlamento, which included the whole adult population. Though apparent, we are bound to conclude that some deeply-seated the institutions of the communes varied in different localities, permanent uneasiness goaded these fast growing communities this is the type to which they all approximated. It will be into rivalry. Italy was, in fact, too small for her children. As perceived that the type was rather oligarchical than strictly the towns expanded, they perceived that they must mutually democratic. Between the parlamento and the consuls with their exclude each other. They fought for bare existence, for primacy privy council, or credenza, was interposed the gran consiglio of in commerce, for the command of seaports, for the keys of privileged burghers. These formed the aristocracy of the town, mountain passes, for rivers, roads and all the avenues of wealth who by their wealth and birth held its affairs within their custody. and plenty. The pope's cause and the emperor's cause were of There is good reason to believe that, when the term popolo comparatively little moment to Italian burghers; and the names occurs, it refers to this body and not to the whole mass of the of Guelph and Ghibelline, which before long began to be heard in population. The comune included the entire city--bishop, every street, on every market-place, had no meaning for them. consuls, oligarchy, councils, handicraftsmen, proletariate. The These watchwords are said to have arisen in Germany during popolo was the governing or upper class. It was almost inevitable the disputed succession of the empire between 1135 and 1152, in the transition from feudalism to democracy that this inter- when the Welfs of Bavaria opposed the Swabian princes of mediate ground should be traversed; and the peculiar Italian Waiblingen origin. But in Italy, although they were severally phrases, primo popolo, secondo popolo, terzo popolo, and so forth, identified with the papal and imperial parties, they really served indicate successive changes, whereby the oligarchy passed from as symbols for jealousies which altered in complexion from time one stage to another in its progress toward absorption in to time and place to place, expressing more than antagonistic democracy or tyranny. political principles, and involving differences vital enough to Under their consuls the Italian burghs rose to a great height split the social fabric to its foundation. of prosperity and spler:dour. Pisa built her Duomo. Milan Under the imperial rule of Lothar the Saxon (1125-1137) and undertook the irrigation works which enriched the soil of Conrad the Swabian (1138–1152), these civil wars increased Lombardy for ever. Massive walls, substantial edifices, com- in violence owing to the absence of authority. Neither Swabian modious seaports, good roads, were the benefits conferred by this Lothar nor Conrad was strong at home; the former emperors. new government on Italy. It is also to be noticed that the had no influence in Italy, and the latter never entered people now began to be conscious of their past. They recognized | Italy at all. But when Conrad died, the electors chose his the fact that their blood was Latin as distinguished from Teutonic, nephew Frederick, surnamed Barbarossa, who united the rival and that they must look to ancient Rome for those memories honours of Welf and Waiblingen, to succeed him; and it was which constitute a people's nationality. At this epoch the study soon obvious that the empire had a master powerful Frederick of Roman law received a new impulse, and this is the real meaning of brain and firm of will. Frederick immediately Barbarossa of the legend that Pisa, glorious through her consuls, brought determined to reassert the imperial rights in his and the the pandects in a single codex from Amalfi. The very name southern provinces, and to check the warfare of the Lombard cities. consul, no less than the Romanizing character of the best archi- burghs. When he first crossed the Alps in 1954, tecture of the time, points to the same revival of antiquity. Lombardy was, roughly speaking, divided between two parties, The rise of the Lombard communes produced a sympathetic the one headed by Pavia professing loyalty to the empire, revolution in Rome, which deserves to be mentioned in this place. the other headed by Milan ready to oppose its claims. The A monk, named Arnold of Brescia, animated with the municipal animosities of the last quarter of a century gave Republic in Rome. spirit of the Milanese, stirred up the Romans to shake substance to these factions; yet neither the imperial nor the off the temporal sway of their bishop. He attempted, anti-imperial party had any real community of interest with in fact, upon a grand scale what was being slowly and quietly Frederick. He came to supersede self-government by consuls, effected in the northern cities. Rome, ever mindful of her to deprive the cities of the privilege of making war on their own unique past, listened to Arnold's preaching. A senate was account and to extort his regalian rights of forage, food and established, and the republic was proclaimed. The title of lodging for his armies. It was only the habit of interurban patrician was revived and offered to Conrad, king of Italy, but jealousy which prevented the communes from at once combining not crowned emperor. Conrad refused it, and the Romans to resist demands which threatened their liberty of action, and conferred it upon one of their own nobles. Though these institu-would leave them passive at the pleasure of a foreign master. tions borrowed high-sounding titles from antiquity, they were | The diet was opened at Roncaglia near Piacenza, where Frederick 1 1 AGE OF THE COMMUNES) ITALY 33 listened to the complaints of Como and Lodi against Milan, of church. When Frederick once more crossed the Alps in 1166, be Pavia against Tortona and of the marquis of Montferrat against advanced on Rome, and besieged Alexander in the Coliseum. But Asti and Chieri. The plaintiffs in each case were imperialists; the affairs of Lombardy left him no leisure to persecute a and Frederick's first action was to redress their supposed griev- recalcitrant pontiff. In April 1167 a new league was formed ances. He laid waste Chieri, Asti and Tortona, then took the between Cremona, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua and Ferrara. Lombard crown at Pavia, and, reserving Milan for a future day, In December of the same year this league allied itself with the passed southward to Rome. Outside the gates of Rome he was elder Veronese league, and received the addition of Milan, Lodi, met by a deputation from the senate he had come to supersede, Piacenza, Parma, Modena and Bologna. The famous league who addressed him in words memorable for expressing the of Lombard cities, styled Concordia in its acts of settlement, was republican spirit of new Italy face to face with autocratic now established. Novara, Vercelli, Asti and Tortona swelled its feudalism:“ Thou wast a stranger, I have made thee a citizen ”; ranks; only Pavia and Montferrat remained imperialist Lombard it is Rome who speaks: “ Thou camest as an alien from beyond between the Alps and Apennines. Frederick fled for League. the Alps, I have conferred on thee the principality.” Moved his life by the Mont Cenis, and in 1168 the town of only to scorn and indignation by the rhetoric of these presump- Alessandria was erected to keep Pavia and the marquisate in check. tuous enthusiasts, Frederick marched into the Leoninė city, and in the emperor's absence, Ravenna, Rimini, Imola and Forli took the imperial crown from the hands of Adrian IV. In return joined the league, which now called itself the “Society of Venice, for this compliance, the emperor delivered over to the pope his Lombardy, the March, Romagna and Alessandria." For the troublesome rival Arnold of Brescia, who was burned alive by fifth time, in 1174, Frederick entered his rebellious dominions. Nicholas Breakspear, the only English successor of St Peter. The fortress town of Alessandria stopped his progress with those The gates of Rome itself were shut-against Frederick; and even mud walls contemptuously named “ of straw," while the forces on this first occasion his good understanding with Adrian began of the league assembled at Modena and obliged him to raise the to suffer. The points of dispute between them related mainly siege. In the spring of 1176 Frederick threatened Milan. His to Matilda's bequest, and to the kingdom of Sicily, which the army found itself a little to the north of the town near the pope had rendered independent of the empire by renewing its village of Legnano, when the troops of the city, assisted only by investiture in the name of the Holy See. In truth, the papacy a few allies from Piacenza, Verona, Brescia, Novara and Vercelli, and the empire had become irreconcilable. Each claimed met and overwhelmed it. The victory was complete. Frederick illimitable authority, and neither was content to abide within escaped alone to Pavia, whence he opened negotiations with such limits as would have secured a mutual tolerance. Having Alexander. In consequence of these transactions, he was obtained his coronation, Frederick withdrew to Germany, while suffered to betake himself unharmed to Venice. Here, as upon Milan prepared herself against the storm which threatened. neutral ground, the emperor met the pope, and a truce for six In the ensuing struggle with the empire, that great city rose to years was concluded with the Lombard burghs. Looking back the altitude of patriotic heroism. By their sufferings no less from the vantage-ground of history upon the issue of this long than by their deeds of daring, her citizens showed themselves to struggle, we are struck with the small results which satisfied be sublime, devoted and disinterested, winning the purest the Lombard communes. They had humbled and utterly laurels which give lustre to Italian story. Almost in Frederick's defeated their foreign lord. . They had proved their strength presence, they rebuilt Tortona, punished Pavia, Lodi, Cremona in combination. Yet neither the acts by which their league was and the marquis of Montferrat. Then they fortified the Adda ratified nor the terms negotiated for them by their patron and Ticino, and waited for the emperor's next descent. He Alexander evince the smallest desire of what we now understand came in 1158 with a large army, overran Lombardy, raised his as national independence. The name of Italy is never mentioned. imperial allies, and sat down before the walls of Milan. Famine The supremacy of the emperor is not called in question. The forced the burghers to partial obedience, and Frederick held a conception of a permanent confederation, bound together in victorious diet at Roncaglia. Here the jurists of Bologna offensive and defensive alliance for common objects, has not appeared, armed with their new lore of Roman law, and ex- occurred to these hard fighters and stubborn asserters of their pounded Justinian's code in the interests of the German empire. civic privileges. All they claim is municipal autonomy; the It was now seen how the absolutist doctrines of autocracy right to manage their own affairs within the city walls, to fight developed in Justinian's age at Byzantium would bear fruits in their battles as they choose, and to follow their several ends the development of an imperial idea, which was destined to be unchecked. It is vain to lament that, when they might have the fatal mirage of medieval Italy. Frederick placed judges of now established Italian independence upon a secure basis, they his own appointment, with the title of podestà, in all the Lombard chose local and municipal privileges. Their mutual jealousies, communes; and this stretch of his authority, while it exacer- combined with the prestige of the empire, and possibly with the bated his foes, forced even his friends to join their ranks against selfishness of the pope, who had secured his own position, and him. The war, meanwhile, dragged on. Crema yielded after an was not likely to foster a national spirit that would have heroic siege in 1160, and was abandoned to the cruelty of its threatened the ecclesiastical supremacy, deprived the Italians fierce rival Cremona. Milan was invested in 1161, starved into of the only great opportunity they ever had of forming themselves capitulation after nine months' resistance, and given up to total into a powerful nation. destruction by the Italian imperialists of Frederick's army, When the truce expired in 1183, à permanent peace was so stained and tarnished with the vindictive passions of municipal ratified at Constance. The intervening years had been spent by rivalry was even this, the one great glorious strife of Italian the Lombards, not in consolidating their union, but annals. Having ruined his rebellious city, but not tamed her in attempting to secure special privileges for their spirit, Frederick withdrew across the Alps. But, in the interval several cities. Alessandria della Paglia, glorious by between his second and third visit, a league was formed against her resistance to the emperor in 1174, had even him in north-eastern Lombardy. Verona, Vicenza, Padua, changed her name to Cesarea! The signatories of the peace of Treviso, Venice entered into a compact to defend their liberties; Constance were divided between leaguers and imperialists. and when he came again in 1163 with a brilliant staff of German On the one side we find Vercelli, Novara, Milan, Lodi, Bergamo, knights, the imperial cities refused to join his standards. This Brescia, Mantua, Verona, · Vicenza, Padua, Treviso, Bologna, was the first and ominous sign of a coming change. Faenza, Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza; on the other, Meanwhile the election of Alexander III. to the papacy in Pavia, Genoa, Alba, Cremona, Como, Tortona, Asti, Cesarea. 1159 added a powerful ally to the republican party. Opposed Venice, who had not yet entered the Italian community, is by an anti-pope whom the emperor favoured, Alexander found conspicuous by her absence. According to the terms of this it was his truest policy to rely for support upon the anti-treaty, the communes were confirmed in their right of self-govern- iinperialist communes. They in return gladly accepted a ment by consuls, and their right of warfare. The emperor champion who lent them the prestige and influence of the retained the supreme courts of appeal within the cities, and Peace of Cog staace. 34 (AGE OF THE COMMUNES ITALY War of cities 1 Frederick II. Em his claim for sustenance at their expense when he came into A second great event was the fourth crusade, undertaken in 1198, Italy. which established the naval and commercial supremacy of the The privileges confirmed to the Lombard cities by the peace Italians in the Mediterranean. The Venetians, who contracted of Constance were extended to Tuscany, where Florence, having for the transport of the crusaders, and whose blind doge Dandolo ruined Fiesole, had begun her career of freedom and was first to land in Constantinople, received one-half and one- prosperity. The next great chapter in the history of fourth of the divided Greek empire for their spoils. The Venetian against Italian evolution is the war of the burghs against the ascendancy in the Levant dates from this epoch; for, though the gobles. nobles. The consular cities were everywhere sur- republic had no power to occupy all the domains ceded to it, rounded by castles; and, though the feudal lords had been Candia was taken, together with several small islands and stations weakened by the events of the preceding centuries, they con- on the mainland. The formation of a Latin empire in the East tinued to be formidable enemies. It was, for instance, necessary increased the pope's prestige; while at home it was his policy to to the well-being of the towns that they should possess territory organize Countess Matilda's heritage by the formation of Guelph round their walls, and this had to be wrested from the nobles. leagues, over which he presided. This is the meaning of the three We cannot linger over the details of this warfare. It must leagues, in the March, in the duchy of Spoleto and in Tuscany, suffice to say that, partly by mortgaging their property to rich which now combined the chief cities of the papal territory into burghers, partly by entering the service of the cities as condottieri allies of the holy see. From the Tuscan league Pisa, consistently (mercenary leaders), partly by espousing the cause of one town Ghibelline, stood aloof. Rome itself again at this epoch established against another, and partly by forced submission after the siege a republic, with which Innocent would not or could not interfere, of their strong places, the counts were gradually brought into The thirteen districts in their council nominated four caporioni, connexion of dependence on the communes. These, in their who acted in concert with a senator, appointed, like the podestà turn, forced the nobles to leave their castles, and to reside for of other cities, for supreme judicial functions. Meanwhile the at least a portion of each year within the walls. By these Guelph and Ghibelline factions were beginning to divide Italy measures the counts became citizens, the rural population into minute parcels. Not only did commune range itself against ceased to rank as serfs, and the Italo-Roman population of commune under the two rival flags, but party rose up against the towns absorbed into itself the remnants of Franks, Germans party within the city walls. The introduction of the factions and other foreign stocks. It would be impossible to exaggerate into Florence in 1215, owing to a private quarrel between the the importance of this revolution, which ended by destroying Buondelmonti, Amidei and Donati, is a celebrated instance of the last vestige of feudality, and prepared that common Italian what was happening in every burgh. people which afterwards distinguished itself by the creation of Frederick II. was left without a rival for the imperial throne European culture. But, like all the vicissitudes, of the Italian in 1218 by the death of Otto IV., and on the 22nd of November race, while it was a decided step forward in one direction, it 1220, Honorius III., Innocent's successor, crowned introduced a new source of discord. The associated nobles him in Rome. It was impossible for any section of the proved ill ncighbours to the peaceable citizens. They fortified Italians to mistake the gravity of his access to power. peror, their houses, retained their military habits, defied the consuls, In his single person he combined the prestige of empire and carried on feuds in the streets and squares. The war against with the crowns of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Germany and Bur- the castles became a war against the palaces; and the system gundy; and in 1225, by marriage with Yolande de Brienne, he of government by consuls proved inefficient to control the added that of Jerusalem. There was no prince greater or more clashing elements within the state. This led to the establishment formidable in the habitable globe. The communes, no less than of podestàs, who represented a compromise between two radically the popes, felt that they must prepare themselves for contest to hostile parties in the city, and whose business it was to arbitrate the death with a power which threatened their existence. Already and keep the peace between them. Invariably a foreigner, in 1218, the Guelphs of Lombardy had resuscitated their old elected for a year with power of life and death and control of league, and had been defeated by the Ghibellines in a battle near the armed force, but subject to a strict account at the expiration Ghibello. Italy seemed to lie prostrate before the emperor, who of his office, the podestà might be compared to a dictator invested commanded her for the first time from the south as well as from with limited authority. His title was derived from that of the north. In 1227 Frederick, who had promised to lead a Frederick Barbarossa's judges; but he had no dependence on crusade, was excommunicated by Gregory IX. because he was the empire. The citizens chose him, and voluntarily submitted obliged by illness to defer his undertaking; and thus the spiritual to his rule. The podestà marks an essentially transitional state power declared war upon its rival. The Guelph towns of Lom-' in civic government, and his intervention paved the way for bardy again raised their levies. Frederick enlisted his Saracen despotism. troops at Nocera and Luceria, and appointed the terrible Ezzelino The thirty years which elapsed between Frederick Barbarossa's da Romano his vicar in the Marches of Verona to quell their death in 1190 and the coronation of his grandson Frederick II. insurrection. It was 1236, however, before he was able to take in 1220 form one of the most momentous epochs in the field himself against the Lombards. Having established, Italian history. Barbarossa, perceiving the advantage Ezzelino in Verona, Vicenza and Padua, he defeated the Milanese that would accrue to his house if he could join the and their allies at Cortenuova in 1237, and sent their carroccio as crown of Sicily to that of Germany, and thus deprive the popes of a trophy of his victory to Rome. Gregory IX. feared lest the their allies in Lower Italy, procured the marriage of his son Guelph party would be ruined by this check. He therefore Henry VI. to Constance, daughter of King Roger, and heiress of made alliance with Venice and Genoa, fulminated a new ex- the Hauteville dynasty. When William II., the last monarch of communication against Frederick, and convoked a council at the Norman race, died, Henry VI. claimed that kingdom in his Rome to ratify his ban in 1241. The Genoese undertook to bring wife's right, and was recognized in 1194. Three years afterwards the French bishops to this council. Their fleet was attacked at he died, leaving a son, Frederick, to the care of Constance, who Meloria by the Pisans, and utterly defeated. The French prelates in her turn died in 1198, bequeathing the young prince, already went in silver chains to prison in the Ghibelline capital of Tuscany. crowned king of Germany, to the guardianship of Innocent III. So far Frederick had been successful at all points. In 1243 a new It was bold policy to confide Frederick to his greatest enemy and pope, Innocent IV., was elected, who prosecuted the war with rival; but the pope honourably discharged his duty, until his still bitterer spirit. Forced to fly to France, he there, at Lyons, ward outgrew the years of tutelage, and became a fair mark for in 1245, convened a council, which enforced his condemnation of ecclesiastical hostility. Frederick's long minority was occupied the emperor. Frederick's subjects were freed from their allegiance, by Innocent's pontificate. Among the principal events of that and he was declared dethroned and deprived of all rights. Five reign must be reckoned the foundation of the two orders, Fran- times king and emperor as he was, Frederick, placed under the ciscan and Dominican, who were destined to form a militia for the ban of the church, led henceforth a doomed existence. The holy sce in conflict with the empire and the heretics of Lombardy. I mendicant monks stirred up the populace to acts of fanatical . 1 Jagocent NII. 4 1 AGE OF THE COMMUNES] ITALY 35 Civil Wars liges. enmity. To plot against him, to attempt his life by poison or the senatorship of Rome and the signoria of Lombardy and the sword, was accounted virtuous. His secretary, Piero delle Tuscany. In 1282 he received a more decided check, when Sicily Vigne, was wrongly suspected of conspiring. The crimes of his rose against him in the famous rebellion of the Vespers. vicar Ezzelino, who laid whole provinces waste and murdered men He lost the island, which gave itself to Aragon; and of Guelphs by thousands in his Paduan prisons, increased the horror with thus the kingdom of Sicily was severed from that of and which he was regarded. Parma revolted from him, and he spent Naples, the dynasty in the one being Spanish and Ghibel- months in 1247-1248 vainly trying to reduce this one time Ghibelline, in the other French and Guelph. Mean- faithful city. The only gleam of success which shone on his ill while a new emperor had been elected, the prudent Rudolf of fortune was the revolution which placed Florence in the hands of Habsburg, who abstained from interference with Italy, and the Ghibellines in 1248. Next year Bologna rose against him, who confirmed the territorial pretensions of the popes by solemn defeated his troops and took his son Enzio, king of Sardinia, charter in 1278. Henceforth Emilia, Romagna, the March of prisoner at Fossalta. Hunted to the ground and broken-hearted, Ancona, the patrimony of St Peter and the Campagna of Rome Frederick expired at the end of 1250 in his Apulian castle of held of the Holy See, and not of the empire. The imperial Fiorentino. It is difficult to judge his career with fairness. The chancery, without inquiring closely into the deeds furnished only prince who could, with any probability of success, have by the papal curia, made a deed of gift, which placed the pope established the German rule in Italy, his ruin proved the im- in the position of a temporal sovereign. While Nicholas III. possibility of that long-cherished scheme. The nation had out- thus bettered the position of the church in Italy, the Guelph party grown dependence upon foreigners, and after his death no grew stronger than ever, through the crushing defeat of the Pisans German emperor interfered with anything but miserable failure by the Genoese at Meloria in 1284. Pisa, who had ruined in Italian affairs. Yet from many points of view it might be Amalfi, was now ruined by Genoa. She never held her head regretted that Frederick was not suffered to rule Italy. By birth so high again after this victory, which sent her best and bravest and breeding an Italian, highly gifted and widely cultivated, citizens to die in the Ligurian dungeons. The Mediterranean liberal in his opinions, a patron of literature, a founder of uni- was left to be fought for by Genoa and Venice, while Guelph versities, he anticipated the spirit of the Renaissance. At his Florence grew still more powerful in Tuscany. Not long after court Italian started into being as a language. Hi laws were the battle of Meloria Charles of Anjou died, and was succeeded wise. He was capable of giving to Italy a large and noble culture. by his son Charles II. of Naples, who played no prominent But the commanding greatness of his position proved his ruin. part in Italian affairs. The Guelph party was held together Emperor and king of Sicily, he was the natural enemy of popes, with a less tight hand even in cities so consistent as Florence. who could not tolerate so overwhelming a rival. Here in the year 1300 new factions, subdividing the old Guelphs After Frederick's death, the popes carried on their war for and Ghibellines under the names of Neri and Bianchi, had eighteen years against his descendants. The cause of his son acquired such force that Boniface VIII., a violently Guelph pope, Conrad was sustained in Lower Italy by Manfred, called in Charles of Valois to pacify the republic and undertake Papal war against one of Frederick's many natural children; and, when the charge of Italian affairs. Boniface was a passionate and Conrad died in 1254, Manfred still acted as vicegerent unwise man. After quarrelling with the French king, Philip for the Swabians, who were now represented by a boy le Bel, he fell into the hands of the Colonna family at Anagni, Gonradin. Innocent IV. and Alexander IV. continued and died, either of the violence he there received or of mortifica- to make head against the Ghibelline party. The most tion, in October 1303. dramatic incident in this struggle was the crusade preached After the short papacy of Benedict XI. a Frenchman, Clement against Ezzelino. This tyrant had made himself justly odious; V., was elected, and the seat of the papacy was transferred to and when he was hunted to death in 1259, the triumph was less Avignon. Thus began that Babylonian exile of the Transe for the Guelph cause than for humanity outraged by the popes which placed them in subjection to the French lation iniquities of such a monster. The battle between Guelph and crown and ruined their prestige in Italy. Lasting of the Ghibelline raged with unintermitting fury. While the former seventy years, and joining on to the sixty years of Papacy to faction gained in Lombardy by the massacre of Ezzelino, the the Great Schism, this enfeeblement of the papal Avignon. latter revived in Tuscany after the battle of Montaperti, which authority, coinciding as it did with the practical elimination in 1260 placed Florence at the discretion of the Ghibellines. of the empire from Italian affairs, gave a long period of com- Manfred, now called king of Sicily, headed the Ghibellines, and parative independence to the nation. Nor must it be forgotten there was no strong counterpoise against him. In this necessity that this exile was due to the policy which induced the pontifis, Urban IV. and Clement IV. invited Charles of Anjou to enter in their detestation of Ghibellinism, to rely successively upon Italy and take the Guelph command. They made him senator the houses of Anjou and of Valois. This policy it was which of Rome and vicar of Tuscany, and promised him the investiture justified Dante's fierce epigram-the puttaneggiar coʻregi. of the regno provided he stipulated that it should not be held in The period we have briefly traversed was immortalized by combination with the empire. Charles accepted these terms, Dante in an epic which from one point of view might be called and was welcomed by the Guelph party as their chief throughout the poem of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. From the foregoing bare Italy. He defeated Manfred in a battle at Grandella near narration of events it is impossible to estimate the importance Benevento in 1266. Manfred was killed; and, when Conradin, of these parties, or to understand their bearing on subsequent a lad of sixteen, descended from Germany to make good his Italian history We are therefore forced to pause awhile, and claims to the kingdom, he too was defeated at Tagliacozzo in probe beneath the surface. The civil wars may be regarded as 1267. Less lucky than his uncle, Conradin escaped with his a continuation of the previous municipal struggle, intensified by life, to die upon a scaffold at Naples. His glove was carried to recent hostilities between the burghers and the nobles. The his cousin Constance, wife of Peter of Aragon, the last of the quarrels of the church and empire lend pretexts and furnish great Norman-Swabian family. Enzio died in his prison four war-cries; but the real question at issue is not the supremacy of years later. The popes had been successful; but they had pope or emperor. The conflict is a social one, between civic purchased their bloody victory at a great cost. This first and feudal institutions, between commercial and military invitation to French princes brought with it incalculable evils. interests, between progress and conservatism. Guelph de- Charles of Anjou, supported by. Rome, and recognized as mocracy and industry idealize the pope. The banner of the chief in Tuscany, was by far the most formidable of the Italian church waves above the camp of those who aim at positive potentates. In his turn he now excited the jealousy of the prosperity and republican equality. Ghibelline aristocracy and popes, who began, though cautiously, to cast their weight into immobility idealize the emperor. The prestige of the empire, the Ghibelline scale. Gregory initiated the policy of establish- based upon Roman law and feudal tradition, attracts imaginative ing an equilibrium between the parties, which was carried out patriots and systematic thinkers. The two ideals are counter. by his successor Nicholas III. Charles was forced to resign 1 posed and mutually exclusive. No city calls itself either Guelph Frede rick's succes. sors. 36 (AGE OF THE DESPOTS ITALY ܪ the bour New con stitution or Ghibelline till it has expelled one-half of its inhabitants; | Florence kept the nobility in check, the communes remained as for each party is resolved to constitute the state according to yet free from hereditary masters. Yet generals from time to its own conception, and the affirmation of the one programme time arose, the Conte Ugolino della Gheradesca at Pisa, Uguccione is the negation of the other. The Ghibelline honestly believes della Faggiuola at Lucca, the Conte Guido di Montefeltro at that the Guelphs will reduce society to chaos. The Guelph is Florence, who threatened the liberties of Tuscan cities with persuaded that the Ghibellines will annihilate freedom and military despotism. strangle commerce. The struggle is waged by two sets of men Left to themselves by absentee emperors and exiled popes, the who equally love their city, but who would fain rule it upon Italians pursued their own course of development unchecked. diametrically opposite principles, and who fight to the death After the commencement of the 14th century, the civil wars for its possession. This contradiction enters into the minutest decreased in fury, and at the same time it was perceived that details of life-armorial bearings, clothes, habits at table, their effect had been to confirm tyrants in their grasp upon free symbolize and accentuate the difference. Meanwhile each party cities. Growing up out of the captain of the people or signore of forms its own organization of chiefs, finance-officers and registrars the commune, the tyrant annihilated both parties for his own at home, and sends ambassadors to foreign cities of the same profit and for the peace of the state. He used the dictatorial complexion. A network of party policy embraces and dominates powers with which he was invested to place himself above the the burghs of Italy, bringing the most distant centres into law, resuming in his person the state-machinery which had relation, and by the very division of the country augmenting preceded him. In him, for the first time, the city attained self- the sense of nationality. The Italians learn through their dis- consciousness; the blindly working forces of previous revolutions cords at this epoch that they form one community. The victory were combined in the will of a ruler. The tyrant's general policy in the conflict practically falls to the hitherto unenfranchised was to favour the multitude at the expense of his own caste. plebeians. The elder noble families die out or lose their pre- He won favour by these means, and completed the levelling down ponderance. In some cities, as notably in Florence after the of classes, which had been proceeding ever since the emergence of date 1292, it becomes criminal to be scioperato, or unemployed the communes. in industry. New houses rise into importance; a new commercial In 1309 Robert, grandson of Charles, the first Angevine aristocracy is formed. Burghers of all denominations are enrolled sovereign, succeeded to the throne Naples, and becan the in one or other of the arts or gilds, and these trading companies leader of the Guelphs in Italy. In the next year Henry Declloe furnish the material from which the government or signoria of VII. of Luxembourg crossed the Alps soon after his of civil the city is composed. Plebeian handicrafts assert their right election to the empire, and raised the hopes of the wars. to be represented on an equality with learned professions and Ghibellines. Dante from his mountain solitudes Advent of wealthy corporations. The ancient classes are confounded and passionately called upon him to play the part of a geolsie. obliterated in a population more homogeneous, more adapted Messiah. But it was now impossible for any German for democracy and despotism. to control the “ Garden of the Empire.” Italy had entered on a In addition to the parliament and the councils which have new phase of her existence, and the great poet's De monarchia been already enumerated, we now find a council of the party represented a dream of the past which could not be realized. established within the city. This body tends to Henry established imperial vicars in the Lombard towns, confirm- become a little state within the state, and, by con- ing the tyrants, but gaining nothing for the empire in exchange of the free trolling the victorious majority, disposes of the for the titles he conferred. After receiving the crown in Rome, government as it thinks best. The consuls are merged he died at Buonconvento, a little walled town south of Siena, in ancients or priors, chosen from the arts. A new magistrate, on his backward journey in 1313. The profits of his inroad were the gonfalonier of justice, appears in some of the Guelph cities, reaped by despots, who used the Ghibelline prestige for the with the special duty of keeping the insolence of the nobility consolidation of their own power. It is from this epoch that the in check. Meanwhile the podestà still subsists; but he is no supremacy of the Visconti, hitherto the unsuccessful rivals of longer equal to the task of maintaining an equilibrium of forces. the Guelphic Torriani for the signory of Milan, dates. The He sinks more and more into a judge, loses more and more the Scaligers in Verona and the Carraresi in Padua were strengthened; character of dictator. His ancient place is now occupied by a and in Tuscany Castruccio Castracane, Uguccione's successor new functionary, no longer acting as arbiter, but concentrating at Lucca, became formidable. In 1325 he defeated the Florentines the forces of the triumphant party. The captain of the people, at Alto Pascio, and carried home their carroccio as a trophy of acting as head of the ascendant Guelphs or Ghibellines, under his victory over the Guelphs. Louis of Bavaria, the next takes the responsibility of proscriptions, decides on questions of emperor, made a similar excursion in the year 1327, with even policy, forms alliances, declares war. Like all officers created greater loss of imperial prestige. He deposed Galeazzo Visconti to meet an emergency, the limitations to his power are illo on his downward journey, and offered Milan for a sum of money defined, and he is often little better than an autocrat. to his son Azzo upon his return. Castruccio Castracane was V. Age of the Despots.-Thus the Italians, during the heat of nominated by him duke of Lucca; and this is the first instance the civil wars, were ostensibly divided between partisans of the of a dynastic title conferred upon an Italian adventurer by the empire and partisans of the church. After the death emperor. Castruccio dominated Tuscany, where the Guelph Origin of Tyrangles. of Frederick II. their affairs were managed by Manfred cause, in the weakness of King Robert, languished. But the and by Charles of Anjou, the supreme captains of adventurer's death in 1328 saved the stronghold of republican the parties, under whose orders acted the captains of the institutions, and Florence breathed freely for a while again. Can people in each city. The contest being carried on by warfare, Grande della Scala's death in the next year inflicted on the it followed that these captains in the burghs were chosen on Lombard Ghibellines a loss hardly inferior to that of Castruccio's account of military skill; and, since the nobles were men of on their Tuscan allies. Equally contemptible in its political arms by profession, members of ancient houses took the lead results and void of historical interest was the brief visit of John of again in towns where they had been absorbed into the bourgeoisie. Bohemia, son of Henry VII., whom the Ghibellines next invited In this way, after the downfall of the Ezzelini of Romano, the to assume their leadership. He sold a few privileges, conferred Della Scala dynasty arose in Verona, and the Carraresi in Padua. a few titles, and recrossed the Alps in 1333. It is clear that at The Estensi made themselves lords of Ferrara; the Torriani this time the fury of the civil wars was spent. In spite of repeated headed the Guelphs of Milan. At Ravenna we find the Polenta efforts on the part of the Ghibellines, in spite of King Robert's family, at Rimini the Malatestas, at Parma the Rossi, at Pia- supine incapacity, the imperialists gained no permanent advan- cenza the Scotti, at Faenza the Manfredi. There is not a burgh of tage. The Italians were tired of fighting, and the leaders of both northern Italy but can trace the rise of a dynastic house to the factions looked exclusively to their own interests. Each city vicissitudes of this period. In Tuscany, where the Guelph party which had been the cradle of freedom thankfully accepted & was very strongly organized, and the commercial constitution of I master, to quench the confiagration of party striſe, encourage citles. 1 1 1 AGE OF THE DESPOTS) ITALY 37 io type of des а trade, and make the handicraftsmen comfortable. Even the accepted by a population eager for repose, who had merged old Florentines in 1342 submitted for a few months to the despotism class distinctions in the conflicts of preceding centuries. They of the duke of Athens. They conferred the signory upon him rested in large measure on the favour of the multitude, Change for life; and, had he not mismanaged matters, he might have and pursued a policy of sacrificing to their interests held the city in his grasp. Italy was settling down and turning the nobles. It was natural that these self-made her attention to home comforts, arts and literature. Boccaccio, princes should seek to secure the peace which potism. the contented bourgeois, succeeded to Dante, the fierce aristocrat. they had promised in their cities, by freeing the people from The most marked proof of the change which came over Italy military service and disarming the aristocracy. As their tenure towards the middle of the 14th century is furnished by the of power grew firmer, they advanced dynastic claims, assumed companies of adventure. It was with their own militia that the titles, and took the style of petty sovereigns. Their government burghers won freedom in the war of independence, subdued became paternal; and, though there was no limit to their the nobles, and fought the battles of the parties. But from cruelty when stung by terror, they used the purse rather than the this time forward they laid down their arms, and played the sword, bribery at home and treasonable intrigue abroad in game of warfare by the aid of mercenaries. Ecclesiastical preference to coercive measures or open war. Thus was elabor- overlords, interfering from a distance in Italian politics; ated the type of despot which attained completeness in Gian prosperous republics, with plenty of money to spend but no Galeazzo Visconti and Lorenzo de' Medici. No longer a tyrant leisure or inclination for camp-life; cautious tyrants, glad of of Ezzelino's stamp, he reigned by intelligence and terrorism every pretext to emasculate their subjects, and courting popu- masked beneath a smile. He substituted cunning and corruption larity by exchanging conscription for taxation-all combined for violence. The lesser people tolerated him because he extended to favour the new system. Mercenary troops are said to have the power of their city and made it beautiful with public buildings. been first levied from disbanded Germans, together with Breton The bourgeoisie, protected in their trade, found it convenient and English adventurers, whom the Visconti and Castruccio to support him. The nobles, turned into courtiers, placemen, took into their pay. They soon appeared under their own diplomatists and men of affairs, ended by preferring his autho- captains, who hired them out to the highest bidder, or marched rity to the alternative of democratic institutions. A lethargy them on marauding expeditions up and down the less protected of well-being, broken only by the pinch of taxation for war-costs, districts. The names of some of these earliest captains of or by outbursts of frantic ferocity and lust in the less calculating adventure, Fra Moriale, Count Lando and Duke Werner, who tyrants, descended on the population of cities which had boasted styled himself the “Enemy of God and Mercy," have been of their freedom. Only Florence and Venice, at the close of preserved to us. As the companies grew in size and improved the period upon which we are now entering, maintained their their discipline, it was seen by the Italian nobles that'this kind republican independence. And Venice was ruled by a close of service offered a good career for men of spirit, who had learned oligarchy; Florence was passing from the hands of her oligarchs the use of arms. To leave so powerful and profitable a calling into the power of the Medicean merchants. in the hands of foreigners seemed both dangerous and un Between the year 1305, when Clement V. settled at Avignon, economical. Therefore, after the middle of the century, this and the year 1447, when Nicholas V. re-established the papacy profession fell into the hands of natives. The first Italian who upon a solid basis at Rome, the Italians approximated Discriml. formed an exclusively Italian company was Alberico da Barbiano, more nearly to self-government than at any other a nobleman of Romagna, and founder of the Milanese house epoch of their history. The conditions which have the five of Belgiojoso. In his school the great condottieri Braccio da been described, of despotism, mercenary warfare great powers. Montone and Sforza Attendolo were formed; and henceforth and bourgeois prosperity, determined the character of the battles of Italy were fought by Italian generals command-this epoch, which was also the period when the great achievements ing native troops. This was better in some respects than if the of the Renaissance were prepared. At the end of this century mercenaries had been foreigners. Yet it must not be forgotten and a half, five principal powers divided the peninsula; and that the new companies of adventure, who decided Italian their confederated action during the next forty-five years affairs for the next century, were in no sense patriotic. They (1447–1492) secured for Italy a season of peace and brilliant sold themselves for money, irrespective of the cause which they prosperity. These five powers were the kingdom of Naples, the upheld; and, while changing masters, they had no care for any duchy of Milan, the republic of Florence, the republic of Venice interests but their own. The name condottiero, derived from and the papacy. The subsequent events of Italian history condotta, a paid contract to supply so many fighting men in will be rendered most intelligible if at this point we trace the serviceable order, sufficiently indicates the nature of the business. development of these five constituents of Italian greatness In the hands of able captains, like Francesco Sforza or Piccinino, separately. these mercenary troops became moving despotisms, draining When Robert of Anjou died in 1343, he was succeeded by his the country of its wealth, and always eager to fasten and found grand-daughter Joan, the childless wife of four successive tyrannies upon the provinces they had been summoned to husbands, Andrew of Hungary, Louis of Taranto, defend. Their generals substituted heavy-armed cavalry for James of Aragon and Otto of Brunswick. Charles of the old militia, and introduced systems of campaigning which Durazzo, the last male scion of the Angevine house in reduced the art of war to a game of skill. Battles became Lower Italy, murdered Joan in 1382, and held the kingdom all but bloodless; diplomacy and tactics superseded feats of for five years. Dying in 1387, he transmitted Naples to his son arms and hard blows in pitched fields. In this way the Italians Ladislaus, who had no children, and was followed in 1414 by lost their military vigour, and wars were waged by despots his sister Joan II. She too, though twice married, died without from their cabinets, who pulled the strings of puppet captains issue, having at one time adopted Louis III. of Provence and his in their pay. Nor were the people only enfeebled for resist- brother René, at another Alfonso V. of Aragon, who inherited ance to a real foe; the whole political spirit of the race was the crown of Sicily. After her death in February 1435 the demoralized. The purely selfish bond between condottieri and kingdom was fought for between René of Anjou and Alfonso, their employers, whether princes or republics, involved intrigues surnamed the Magnanimous. René found supporters among the and treachery, checks and counterchecks, secret terror on the Italian princes, especially the Milanese Visconti, who helped one hand and treasonable practice on the other, which ended by him to assert his claims with arms. During the war of succession making statecraft in Italy synonymous with perfidy. which ensued, Alfonso was taken prisoner by the Genoese fleet It must further be noticed that the rise of mercenaries was in August 1435, and was sent a prisoner to Filippo Maria at synchronous with a change in the nature of Italian despotism. Milan. Flere he pleaded his own cause so powerfully, and proved The tyrants, as we have already seen, established themselves so incontestably the advantage which might ensue to the Visconti as captains of the people, vicars of the empire, vicars for the from his alliance, if he held the regno, that he obtained his church, leaders of the Guelph and Ghibelline parties. They were release and recognition as king. From the end of the year 1435 nation of The Two Sicilies. 38 (AGE OF THE DESPOTS ITALY Milaa. 1 Alfonso reigned alone and undisturbed in Lower Italy, combining | own leading families. Meanwhile Gian Galeazzo had left two for the first time since the year 1282 the crowns of Sicily and sons, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria. Giovanni, a monster Naples. The former he held by inheritance, together with that of cruelty and lust, was assassinated by some Milanese nobles in of Aragon. The latter he considered to be his by conquest. 1412; and now Filippo set about rebuilding his father's duchy. Therefore, when he died in 1458, he bequeathed Naples to his Herein he was aided by the troops of Facino Cane, who, dying natural son Ferdinand, while Sicily and Aragon passed together opportunely at this period, left considerable wealth, a well- to his brother John, and so on to Ferdinand the Catholic. The trained band of mercenaries, and a widow, Beatrice di Tenda. twenty-three years of Alfonso's reign were the most prosperous Filippo married and then beheaded Beatrice after a mock trial for and splendid period of South Italian history. He became an adultery, having used her money and her influence in reuniting Italian in taste and sympathy, entering with enthusiasm into several subject cities to the crown of Milan. He subsequently the humanistic ardour of the earlier Renaissance, encouraging spent a long, suspicious, secret and incomprehensible career in men of letters at his court, administering his kingdom on the the attempt to piece together Gian Galeazzo's Lombard state, and principles of an enlightened despotism, and lending his authority to carry out his schemes of Italian conquest. In this endeavour to establish that equilibrium in the peninsula upon which the he met with vigorous opponents. Venice and Florence, strong politicians of his age believed, not without reason, that Italian in the strength of their resentful oligarchies, offered a determined independence might be secured. resistance; nor was Filippo equal in ability to his father. His The last member of the Visconti family of whom we had infernal cunning often defeated its own aims, checkmating him at occasion to speak was Azzo, who bought the city in 1328 from the point of achievement by suggestions of duplicity or terror. Louis of Bavaria. His uncle Lucchino succeeded, but in the course of Filippo's wars with Florence and Venice, the Duchy of was murdered in 1349 by a wife against whose life he greatest generals of this age were formed-Francesco Carmagnola, had been plotting. Lucchino's brother John, arch- who was beheaded between the columns at Venice in 1432; bishop of Milan, now assumed the lordship of the city, and Niccolò Piccinino, who died at Milany in 1444; and Francesco extended the power of the Visconti over Genoa and the whole of Sforza, who survived to seize his master's heritage in 1450. Son north Italy, with the exception of Piedmont, Verona, Mantua, of Attendolo Sforza, this Francesco çeceived the hand of Filippo's Ferrara and Venice. The greatness the family dates from the natural daughter, Bianca, as a reward for past service and a reign of this masterful prelate. He died in 1354, and his heritage pledge of future support. When the Visconti dynasty ended by was divided between three members of his house, Matteo,Bernabò the duke's death in 1447, he pretended to espouse the cause of and Galeazzo. In the next year Matteo, being judged incom- the Milanese republic, which was then rc-established; but he petent to rule, was assassinated by order of his brothers, who played his cards so subtly as to make himself, by the help of made an equal partition of their subject cities--Bernabò Cosimo de' Medici in Florence, duke de facto if not de jure. residing in Milan, Galeazzo in Pavia. Galeazzo was the wealthiest Francesco Sforza was the only condottiero among many aspiring and most magnificent Italian of his epoch. He married his to be tyrants who planted themselves firmly on a throne of first- daughter Violante to our duke of Clarence, and his son Gian rate importance. Once seated in the duchy of Milan, he displayed Galeazzo to a daughter of King John of France. When he died rare qualities as a ruler; for he not only entered into the spirit of in 1378, this son resolved to reunite the domains of the Visconti; the age, which required humanity and culture from a despot, and, with this object in view, he plotted and executed the murder but he also knew how to curb his desire for territory. The con- of his uncle Bernabò. Gian Galeazzo thus became by one stroke ception of confederated Italy found in him a vigorous supporter. the most formidable of Italian despots. Immured in his castle at Thus the limitation of the Milanese duchy under Filippo Maria Pavia, accumulating wealth by systematic taxation and methodical Visconti, and its consolidation under Francesco Sforza, were economy, he organized the mercenary troops who eagerly took equally effectual in preparing the balance of power to which service under so good a paymaster; and, by directing their Italian politics now tended. operations from his cabinet, he threatened the whole of Italy This balance could not have been established without the con- with conquest. The last scions of the Della Scala family still current aid of Florence. After the expulsion of the duke of reigned in Verona, the last Carraresi in Padua; the Estensi were Athens in 1343, and the great plague of 1348, the Florentine powerful in Ferrara, the Gonzaghi in Mantua. Gian Galeazzo, proletariate rose up against the merchant princes. This insure partly by force and partly by intrigue, discredited these minor gence of the artisans, in a republic which had been remodelled despots, pushed his dominion to the very verge of Venice, and, upon economical principles by Giano della Bella’s constitution of having subjected Lombardy to his sway, proceeded to attack I292, reached a climax in 1378, when the Ciompi rebellion placed Tuscany. Pisa and Perugia were threatened with extinction, and the city for a few years in the hands of the Lesser Arts. The Florence dreaded the advance of the Visconti arms, when the revolution was but temporary, and was rather a symptom of plague suddenly cut short his career of treachery and conquest democratic tendencies in the state than the sign of any capacity in the year 1402. Seven years before his death Gian Galeazzo for government on the part of the working classes. The neces- bought the title of duke of Milan and count of Pavia from the sities of war and foreign affairs soon placed Florence in the power emperor Wenceslaus, and there is no doubt that he was aiming at of an oligarchy headed by the great Albizzi family. They fought the sovereignty of Italy. But no sooner was he dead than the the battles of the republic with success against the Visconti, and essential weakness of an artificial state, built up by cunning and widely extended the Florentine domain over the Tuscan cities. perfidious policy, with the aid of bought troops, dignified by no During their season of ascendancy Pisa was enslaved, and dynastic title, and consolidated by no sense of loyalty, became Florence gained the access to the sea. But throughout this apparent. Gian Galeazzo's duchy was a masterpiece of period a powerful opposition was gathering strength. It was led mechanical contrivance, the creation of a scheming intellect and by the Medici, who sided with the common people, and increased lawless will. When the mind which had planned it was with their political importance by the accumulation and wise employ. drawn, it fell to pieces, and the very hands which had been used ment of vast commercial wealth. In 1433 the Albizzi and the to build it helped to scatter its fragments. The Visconti's own Medici came to open strife. Cosimo de' Medici, the chief of the generals, Facino Cane, Pandolfo Malatesta, Jacopo dal Verme, opposition, was exiled to Venice. In the next year he returned, Gabrino Fondulo, Ottobon Terzo, seized upon the tyranny of assumed the presidency of the democratic party, and by a system several Lombard cities. In others the petty tyrants whom the of corruption and popularity-hunting, combined with the Visconti had uprooted reappeared. The Estensi recovered their patronage of arts and letters, established himself as the real but grasp upon Ferrara, and the Gonzaghi upon Mantua._Venice unacknowledged dictator of the commonwealth. Cosimo aban- strengthened herself between the Adriatic and the Alps. Florence doned the policy of his predecessors. Instead of opposing Fran- reassumed her Tuscan hegemony. Other communes which still cesco Sforza in Milan, he lent him his prestige and influence, preserved the shadow of independence, like Perugia and Bologna, foreseeing that the dynastic future of his own family and the began once more to dream of republican freedom under their 1 pacification of Italy might be secured by a balance of power in a BURGUNDY S Inn Innsbruck BAVARIA oChur T 1 R O Το. Brixen To Bamberg SALZBURG To Pambers STYRIA To Salzburg Gör2CARINTHIA To Bern OSchwyz SWITZERLAND Lausanne Rhone Geneva Sitten ア ​13 SAVOY o Bern SWITZERLAND Lausanne Rhone Geneva Mt.Cenis Pass Biella O Lavono Adda A USTRI A TIROL Stelvio Pas Bormio LOMBARDY Lecco(1859) Cavallasca Varesex Como Bergamo 1859 Cainerlata Magenta Novara 18490 C Vercellio Mortara 1859 O Po Tortona oMonza Brescia O Mitan Peschiera VENETIA Treviso Vicenza Verona 1866) 48 Custqzza Padua ranca SolferinoooVillaran 1859 Mantua D´M ´O̟°N T PARMA Correggio Turin Casale Alessandria PE Tanaro E Legnago Guastalla Rovigo Venice Ferrara Po M (1860 Piacenza Parmal Novi Cornigliano Genoa 8. Pier 'Arenap flor. C Chiavari Spezialo Portovenere (1866) Carpi Reggio Modena MODENA LO Pontremoli M 1860) Bologna Fivizzana Lucca Belluno Feltre Aosta Adda Valtellina V BAR Como Bergamo TRENT Trent D O Novara Milan Brescia E ercelli Turip 3 Crema Lodi Verona ชา Astl Pavia Po Alessandria Cremona Vicenza Treviso Mantua Padua Po C Guastalla oTortona N Alba MONTE Bobbio To Mode Genoa O DAUPHINY Saluzzo RANCE PROVENCE LL Tenda G Oneglia Ventimiglia Monaco Nice Piacenza Parma Rovigo Aquilela o Venice I Mirandol Ferrara Po Correggio Carpi Reggio Pontremoli Spezia O Sarzan CORSICA To Genoa O Modena MODENA Massa Luccab Pisa o Bologna CO EMILIA Imolao Faenza Ravenna To Venice) Forti Cesena Forlimpopoll Florence Arno SAN MARINO Rimini Leghorn FLORENCE Urbino (Livorno) Volterra Siena Arezzo Cortona Gubblo Montepulciano Perygia Piombino Ombrone Elba SIENA Pesaro Brixen Freising o Görz CARNIOLA Trieste ISTRIA Fiume HUNGARY FRANCE SAVOY (To France) 1860 ADRIATIC Fano THE Assist UMBRIA Grosseto Orvieto Civitavecchia о Ancona HOARCHES oSpoleto Terni o Nam! Aquila Ascoli o Teramo Pescara So Chieti ABRUZZI SABINA MONY OF S. PETER CAMPANIA Tiber STATES Sulmone Pontecorvo M TERRA OLTSE Termoli To France 1860 Monaco Nice SEA 4 5.Severo Manfredonia 9Campobasso D Foggia o CAPITINATA Cerignola o CORSICA (To France) Caprera Bart Sessa DI Capuao LAVORO Naples Benevento ULTRA Avellino L Melfi Ischia Nocera Potenza Amalfi Salerno O BARI BASILICATA OTRANTO Carleto SARDINIA To Aragon) TYRRHENIAN SEA D Palermo Policastroo I S (To Aragon) ΟΜΙ Comacchio Ravenna Cattolica A Trieste D Pisa o Leghorn (Livorno) Elba P(1860) Arno Florence TUSCANY (1860) Maremma A Grosseto Scansono Forl 2 Rimini Pesaro SAN MARINO Urbino C.diCastello HE HURCH 1860 (1860) Perugia UMBRIA (1860) Orvieto Spoleto O Grotte di Castro Porto S.Stefano Pitigliano Ancona Castelfidardo Loreto Macerata ES tar The Unification of ITALY 1859-1870 Austrian Territory in 1850............ Kingdom of Sardinia (House of Savoy). Dates of Unification. Battlefields....... 品 ​Fortresses of the Quadrilateral underlined G DAL .(1859) .X1862 Verona BOSNIA MATI A RIATIC SEA S BR N Pescara Rome PATRIMONY OF S.PETER STATE Tiber 1848 Palestrina ovellete! Gaeta TERRA MOLISE uPontecorvo DI LAVORO Capua Volturno Caserta, CAPITINATA Benevento E B ALRI Bari SARDINIA TYRRHENIAN Lauria SEA Cosenza Cagliaris ୮ Cotrone A Monteleone Palmi Messina Scilla Reggio Catanzaro O 20 Gerace Naples Castellammare Salerno O Sapri S A Pt2206 Brindist TRANTO o Taranto A Lecce Strante MEDITER Mt. Eryx Trapani Marsala Mazzara R AFRICA 0 Mt.Pellegrino M Palermo ૫૨ = hier OAlcamo XoCalatafimi 01060 Salemi Porto Palo A OCorleone SIC Siacca H Lipari Is Cefalù 1860) NE A Messina Milazzo N ▲ Mt.Etna Catania X Aspromonte 1862 Reggio 1882 Syracuse SEA Malta السلام الله (British) 0 to 20 English Miles 40 60 80 100 Emery Walker sc. MEDITERR ITALY of the RENAISSANCE (1400-1500) Cities of the Lombard League underlined:-Milan Trapani SIC H/E ANE AN 0 Malta Catania Syracuse SEA O IO 20 English Miles. 40 69 80 100 { AGE OF THE DESPOTS) ITALY 39 which Florence should rank on equal terms with Milan and half feudal, proved the temper of the times; while the rise of Naples. dynastic families in the cities of the church, claiming the title The republic of Venice differed essentially from any other of papal vicars, but acting in their own interests, The state in Italy; and her history was so separate that, up to this weakened the authority of the Holy See. The pre- Papacy. point, it would have been needless to interrupt the datory expeditions of Bertrand du Poiet and Robert of Venice. narrative by tracing it. Venice, however, in the 14th Geneva were as ineffective as the descents of the emperors; century took her place at last as an Italian power on an equality and, though the cardinal Albornoz conquered Romagna and the at least with the very greatest. The constitution of the common- March in 1364, the legates who resided in those districts were not wealth had slowly matured itself through a series of revolutions, long able to hold them against their despots. At last Gregory XI. which confirmed and defined a type of singular stability. During returned to Rome; and Urban VI., elected in 1378, put a final the earlier days of the republic the doge had been a prince elected end to the Avignonian exile. Still the Great Schism, which now by the people, and answerable only to the popular assemblies. distracted Western Christendom, so enfeebled the papacy, and In 1032 he was obliged to act in concert with a senate, called kept the Roman pontiffs so engaged in ecclesiastical disputes, pregadi; and in 1172 the grand council, which became the real that they had neither power nor leisure to occupy themselves sovereign of the state, was formed. The several steps whereby seriously with their temporal affairs. The threatening presence the members of the grand council succeeded in eliminating the of the two princely houses of Orsini and Colonna, alike dangerous people from a share in the government, and reducing the doge as friends or foes, rendered Rome an unsafe residence. Even to the position of their ornamental representative, cannot here when the schism was nominally terminated in 1415 by the council. be described. It must suffice to say that these changes cul- of Constance, the next two popes held but a precarious grasp minated in 1297, when an act was passed for closing the grand upon their Italian domains. Martin V. (1417-1431) resided council, or in other words for confining it to a fixed number of principally at Florence. Eugenius IV. (1431-1447) followed his privileged families, in whom the government was henceforth example. And what Martin managed to regain Eugenius lost. vested by hereditary right. This ratification of the oligarchical At the same time, the change which had now come over Italian principle, together with the establishment in 13f1 of the politics, the desire on all sides for a settlement, and the growing Council of Ten, completed that famous constitution which conviction that a federation was necessary, proved advantageous endured till the extinction of the republic in 1797. Meanwhile, to the popes as sovereigns. They gradually entered into the throughout the middle ages, it had been the policy of Venice to spirit of their age, assumed the style of despots and made use of refrain from conquests on the Italian mainland, and to confine the humanistic movement, then at its height, to place themselves her energies to commerce in the East. The first entry of any in a new relation to Italy. The election of Nicholas V. in 1447 moment made by the Venetians into strictly Italian affairs was determined this revolution in the papacy, and opened a period of in 1336, when the republics of Florence and St Mark allied them- temporal splendour, which ended with the establishment of the selves against Mastino della Scala, and the latter took possession popes as sovereigns. Thomas of Sarzana was a distinguished of Treviso. After this, for thirty years, between 1352 and 1381, humanist. Humbly born, he had been tutor in the house of the Venice and Genoa contested the supremacy of the Mediterranean. Albizzi, and afterwards librarian of the Medici at Florence, Pisa's maritime power having been extinguished in the battle where he imbibed the politics together with the culture of the of Meloria (1284), the two surviving republics had no rivals. Renaissance. Soon after assuming the tiara, he found himself. They fought their duel out upon the Bosporus, off Sardinia, without a rival in the church; for the schism ended by Felix V.'s and in the Morea, with various success. From the first great resignation in 1449. Nicholas fixed his residence in Rome, which. encounter, in 1355, Venice retired well-nigh exhausted, and he began to rebuild and to fortify, determining to render the Genoa was so crippled that she placed herself under the protection Eternal City once more a capital worthy of its high place in of the Visconti. The second and decisive battle was fought upon Europe. The Romans were flattered; and, though his reign the Adriatic. The Genoese fleet under Luciano Doria defeated was disturbed by republican conspiracy, Nicholas V. was able the Venetians off Pola in 1379, and sailed without opposition to before his death in 1455 to secure the modern status of the pontiff Chioggia, which was stormed and taken. Thus the Venetians as a splendid patron and a wealthy temporal potentate. found themselves blockaded in their own lagoons. Meanwhile Italy was now for a brief space independent. The humanistic a a fleet was raised for their relief by Carlo Zeno in the Levant, movement had created a common culture, a common language and the admiral Vittore Pisani, who had been imprisoned after and sense of common nationality. The five great the defeat at Pola, was released to lead their forlorn hope from powers, with their satellites-dukes of Savoy and the city side. The Genoese in their turn were now blockaded in Urbino, marquesses of Ferrara and Mantua, republics Italy. Chioggia, and forced by famine to surrender. The losses of men of Bologna, Perugia, Siena-were constituted. All and money which the war of Chioggia, as it was called, entailed, political institutions tended toward despotism. The Medici though they did not immediately depress the spirit of the Genoese became yearly more indispensable to Florence, the Bentivogli republic, signed her naval ruin. During this second struggle more autocratic in Bologna, the Baglioni in Perugia; and even to the death with Genoa, the Venetians had been also at strife Siena was ruled by the Petrucci. But this despotism was of a with the Carraresi of Padua and the Scaligers of Verona. In 1406, mild type. The princes were Italians; they shared the common after the extinction of these princely houses they added Verona, enthusiasms of the nation for art, learning, literature and science; Vicenza and Padua to the territories they claimed on terra firma. they studied how to mask their tyranny with arts agreeable to the Their career of conquest, and their new policy of forming Italian multitude. When Italy had reached this point, Constantinople aliances and entering into the management of Italian affairs was taken by the Turks. On all sides it was felt that the Italian were confirmed by the long dogeship of Francesco Foscari (1423- alliance must be tightened; and one of the last, best acts of 1457), who must rank with Alfonso, Cosimo de' Medici, Francesco Nicholas V.'s pontificate was the appeal in 1453 to the five great Sforza and Nicholas V., as a joint-founder of confederated Italy: powers in federation. As regards their common opposition to When Constantinople fell in 1453, the old ties between Venice and the Turk, this appeal led to nothing; but it marked the growth the Eastern empire were broken, and she now entered on a of a new Italian consciousness. wholly new phase of her history, Ranking as one of the five Between 1453 and 1492 Italy continued to be prosperous and Italian powers, she was also destined to defend Western Christen- tranquil. Nearly all wars during this period were undertaken dom against the encroachments of the Turk in Europe. (See either to check the growing power of Venice or to further the Venice: History.) ambition of the papacy. Having become despots, the popes By their settlement in Avignon, the popes relinquished their sought to establish their relatives in principalities. The word protectorate of Italian liberties, and lost their position as Italian nepotism acquired new significance in the reigns of Sixtus IV. potentates. Rienzi's revolution in Rome (1347-1354), and his and Innocent VIII. Though the country was convulsed by no establishment of a republic upon a fantastic basis, half classical, I great struggle, these forty years witnessed a truly appalling Confede- rated 40 (AGE OF INVASIONS ITALY lavasion of Charles VIII. increase of political crime. To be a prince was tantamount to Gian Galeazzo, the first duke. They were not valid, for the being the mark of secret conspiracy and assassination. Among investiture of the duchy had been granted only to male heirs. the most noteworthy examples of such attempts may be mentioned But they served as a sufficient pretext, and in 1499 Louis entered the revolt of the barons against Ferdinand I. of Naples (1464), and subdued the Milanese. Lodovico escaped to Germany, the murder of Galeazzo Maria Sforza at Milan (1476) and the returned the next year, was betrayed by his Swiss mercenaries plot of the Pazzi to destroy the Medici (1478). After Cosimo and sent to die at Loches in France. In 1500 Louis made the de' Medici's death in 1464, the presidency of the Florentine blunder of calling Ferdinand the Catholic to help him in the republic passed to his son Piero, who left it in 1469 to his sons conquest of Naples.' By a treaty signed at Granada, the French Lorenzo and Giuliano. These youths assumed the style of princes, and Spanish kings were to divide the spoil. The conquest was and it was against their lives that the Pazzi, with the sanction easy; but, when it came to a partition, Ferdinand played his of Sixtus IV., aimed their blow. Giuliano was murdered, Lorenzo ally false. He made himself supreme over the Two Sicilies, escaped, to tighten his grasp upon the city, which now loved which he now reunited under a single crown. Three years later, him and was proud of him. During the following fourteen years unlessoned by this experience, Louis signed the treaty of Blois of his brilliant career he made himself absolute master of (1504), whereby he invited the emperor Maximilian to aid him Florence, and so modified her institutions that the Medici were in the subjugation of Venice. No policy could have been less henceforth necessary to the state. Apprehending the importance far-sighted; for Charles V., joint heir to Austria, Burgundy, of Italian federation, Lorenzo, by his personal tact and prudent Castile and Aragon, the future overwhelming rival of France, leadership of the republic, secured peace and a common intel- was already born. ligence between the five powers. His own family was fortified The stage was now prepared, and all the actors who were by the marriage of his daughter to a son of Innocent VIII., destined to accomplish the ruin of Italy trod it with their armies. which procured his son Giovanni's elevation to the cardinalate, Spain, France, Germany, with their Swiss auxiliaries, had been and involved two Medicean papacies and the future dependence summoned upon various pretexts to partake her provinces. of Florence upon Rome. Then, too late, patriots like Machiavelli perceived the suicidal VI. Age of Invasions.-The year 1492 opened a new age for self-indulgence of the past, which, by substituting mercenary Italy. In this year Lorenzo died, and was succeeded by his son, troops for national militias, left the Italians at the absolute the vain and weak Piero; France passed beneath discretion of their neighbours. Whatever parts the Italians the personal control of the inexperienced Charles themselves played in the succeeding quarter of a century, the VIII.; the fall of Granada freed Spain from her game was in the hands of French, Spanish and German invaders. embarrassments; Columbus discovered America, Meanwhile, no scheme for combination against common foes destroying the commercial supremacy of Venice; last, but not arose in the peninsula. Each petty potentate strove for his own least, Roderigo Borgia assumed the tiara with the famous private advantage in the confusion; and at this epoch the chief title of Alexander VI. In this year the short-lived federation gains accrued to the papacy. Aided by his terrible son, Cesare of the five powers was shaken, and Italy was once more drawn Borgia, Alexander VI. chastised the Roman nobles, subdued into the vortex of European affairs. The events which led to Romagna and the March, threatened Tuscany, and seemed to this disaster may be briefly told. After Galeazzo Maria's be upon the point of creating a Central Italian state in favour assassination, his crown passed to a boy, Gian Galeazzo, who of his progeny, when he died suddenly in 1503. His conguests was in due course married to a grand-daughter of Ferdinand I. reverted to the Holy See. Julius II., his bitterest enemy and of Naples. But the government of Milan remained in the hands powerful successor, continued Alexander's policy, but no longer of this youth's uncle, Lodovico, surnamed Il Moro. Lodovico in the interest of his own relatives. It became the nobler resolved to become duke of Milan. The king of Naples was ambition of Julius to aggrandize the church, and to reassume his natural enemy, and he had cause to suspect that Piero de' the protectorate of the Italian people. With this object, he Medici might abandon his alliance. Feeling himself alone, secured Emilia, carried his victorious arms against Ferrara, with no right to the title he was bent on seizing, he had recourse and curbed the tyranny of the Baglioni in Perugia. Julius II. to Charles VIII. of France, whom he urged to make good his played a perilous game; but the stakes were high, and he fancied claim to the kingdom of Naples. This claim, it may be said in himself strong enough to guide the tempest he evoked. Quarrel- passing, rested on the will of King René of Anjou. After some ling with the Venetians in 1508, he combined the forces of all hesitation, Charles agreed to invade Italy. He crossed the Alps Europe by the league of Cambray against them; and, when he in 1495, passed through Lombardy, entered Tuscany, freed Pisa had succeeded in his first purpose of humbling them even to the from the yoke of Florence, witnessed the expulsion of the Medici, dust, he turned round in 1510, uttered his famous resolve to marched to Naples and was crowned there all this without expel the barbarians from Italy, and pitted the Spaniards striking a blow. Meanwhile Lodovico procured his nephew's against the French. It was with the Swiss that he hoped to death, and raised a league against the French in Lombardy. effect this revolution; but the Swiss, now interfering for the first Charles hurried back from Naples, and narrowly escaped destruc-time as principals in Italian affairs, were incapable of more than tion at Fornovo in the passes of the Apennines. He made good adding to the already maddening distractions of the people. his retreat, however, and returned to France in 1495. Little Formed for mercenary warfare, they proved a perilous instrument remained to him of his light acquisitions; but he had convulsed in the hands of those who used them, and were hardly less injurious Italy by this invasion, destroyed her equilibrium, exposed her to their friends than to their foes. In 1512 the battle of Ravenna military weakness and political disunion, and revealed her wealth between the French troops and the allies of Julius-Spaniards, to greedy and more powerful nations. Venetians and Swiss-was fought. Gaston de Foix bought a' The princes of the house of Aragon, now represented by doubtful victory dearly with his death; and the allies, though Frederick, a son of Ferdinand I., returned to Naples. Florence beaten on the banks of the Ronco, immediately afterwards Louis XII. made herself a republic, adopting a form of constitu- expelled the French from Lombardy. Yet Julius II. had tion analogous to that of Venice. At this crisis she failed, as might have been foreseen. He only exchanged one was ruled by the monk Girolamo Savonarola, who inspired set of foreign masters for another, and taught a new barbarian the people with a thirst for freedom, preached the necessity race how pleasant were the plains of Italy. As a consequence of reformation, and placed himself in direct antagonism to of the battle of Ravenna, the Medici returned in 1512 to Florence. Rome. After a short but eventful career, the influence of which When Leo X. was elected in 1913, Rome and Florence rejoiced; was long effective, he lost his hold upon the citizens. Alexander | but Italy had no repose. Louis XII. had lost the game, and the VI. procured a mock trial, and his enemies burned him upon the Spaniards were triumphant. But new actors appeared upon Piazza in 1498. In this year Louis XII. succeeded Charles VIII. the scene, and the same old struggle was resumed with fiercer upon the throne of France. As duke of Orleans he had certain energy. By the victory of Marignano in 1515 Francis I., having claims to Milan through his grandmother Valentina, daughter of now succeeded to the throne of France, regained the Milanese, SPANISH-AUSTRIAN ASCENDANCY) 41 ITALY Pontifi- cate of and broke the power of the Swiss, who held it for Massimiliano | Italy only too often became the theatre of desolating and dis- Sforza, the titular duke. Leo for a while relied on Francis; for tracting wars. But these wars were fought for the most part the vast power of Charles V., who succeeded to the empire by alien armies; the points at issue were decided beyond the in 1519, as in 1516 he had succeeded to the crowns of Spain Alps; the gains accrued to royal families whose names were and Lower Italy, threatened the whole of Europe. It was unpronounceable by southern tongues. The affairs of Europe Leo's nature, however, to be inconstant. In 1521 he changed during the years when Habsburg and Bourbon fought their sides, allied himself to Charles, and died after hearing that the domestic battles with the blood of noble races may teach grave imperial troops had again expelled the French from Milan. lessons to all thoughtful men of our days, but none bitterer, During the next four years the Franco-Spanish war dragged on none fraught with more insulting recollections, than to the in Lombardy until the decisive battle of Pavia in 525, when Italian people, who were haggled over like dumb driven cattle Francis was taken prisoner, and Italy lay open to the Spanish in the mart of chaffering kings. We cannot wholly acquit the armies. Meanwhile Leo X. had been followed by Adrian VI., Italians of their share of blame. When they might have won and Adrian by Clement VII., of the house of Medici, who had national independence, after their warfare with the Swabian long ruled Florence. In the reign of this pope Francis was emperors, they let the golden opportunity slip. Pampered with released from his prison in Madrid (1526), and Clement hoped commercial prosperity, eaten to the core with inter-urban that he might still be used in the Italian interest as a counterpoise rivalries, they submitted to despots, renounced the use of arms, to Charles. It is impossible in this place to follow the tangled and offered themselves in the hour of need, defenceless and dis- intrigues of that period. The year 1527 was signalized by the united to the shock of puissant nations. That they had created famous sack of Rome. An army of mixed German and Spanish modern civilization for Europe availed them nothing. Italy, troops, pretending to act for the emperor, but which may intellectually first among the peoples, was now politically and rather be regarded as a vast marauding party, entered Italy practically last; and nothing to her historian is more heart- under their leader Frundsberg. After his death, the Constable rending than to watch the gradual extinction of her spirit in this de Bourbon took command of them; they marched slowly age of slavery. down, aided by the marquis of Ferrara, and unopposed by the In 1534 Alessandro Farnese, who owed his elevation to his duke of Urbino, reached Rome, and took it by assault. The sister Giulia, one of Alexander VI.'s mistresses, took the tiara constable was killed in the first onslaught; Clement was im- with the title of Paul III. It was his ambition to prisoned in the castle of St Angelo; Rome was abandoned create a duchy for his family; and with this object he to the rage of 30,000 ruffians. As an immediate result of this gave Parma and Piacenza to his son Pier Luigi. After Paul III. catastrophe, Florence shook off the Medici, and established a much wrangling between the French and Spanish republic. But Clement, having made peace with the emperor, parties, the duchy was confirmed in 1586 to Ottaviano Farnese turned the remnants of the army which had sacked Rome and his son Alessandro, better known as Philip II.'s general, against his native city. After a desperate resistance, Florence the prince of Parma. Alessandro's descendants reigned in Parma fell in 1530. Alessandro de' Medici was placed there with the and Piacenza till the year 1731. Taul III.'s pontificate was title of duke of Cività di Penna; and, on his murder in 1537, further marked by important changes in the church, all of which Cosimo de' Medici, of the younger branch of the ruling house, confirmed the spiritual autocracy of Rome. In 1540 this pope was made duke. Acting as lieutenant for the Spaniards, he approved of Loyola's foundation, and secured the powerful subsequently (1555) subdued Siena, and bequeathed to his militia of the Jesuit order. The Inquisition was established with descendants the grand-duchy of Tuscany. almost unlimited powers in Italy, and the press was placed under VII. Spanish-Austrian Ascendancy. It was high time, after its jurisdiction. Thus free thought received a check, by which the sack of Rome in 1527, that Charles V. should undertake not only ecclesiastical but political tyrants knew how to profit. Italian affairs. The country was exposed to anarchy, Henceforth it was impossible to publish or to utter a word which Settlement of which this had been the last and most disgrace- might offend the despots of church or state; and the Italians of Italy by Spain. ful example. The Turks were threatening western had to amuse their leisure with the polite triflings of academics. Europe, and Luther was inflaming Germany. By In 1545 a council was opened at Trent for the reformation of the treaty of Barcelona in 1529 the pope and emperor made church discipline and the promulgation of orthodox doctrine. terms. By that of Cambray in the same year France relinquished. The decrees of this council defined Roman Catholicism against Italy to Spain. Charles then entered the port of Genoa, and on the Reformation; and, while failing to regenerate morality, the 5th of November met Clement VII. at Bologna. He there they enforced a hypocritical observance of public decency. Italy received the imperial crown, and summoned the Italian princes to outer view put forth blossoms of hectic and hysterical piety, for a settlement of all disputed claims. Francesco Sforza, the though at the core her clergy and her aristocracy were more last and childless heir of the ducal house, was left in Milan till corrupt than ever. his death, which happened in 1535. The republic of Venice was In 1556 Philip II., by the abdication of his father Charles V., respected in her liberties and Lombard territories. The Este became king of Spain. He already wore the crown of the Two family received a confirmation of their duchy of Modena and Sicilies, and ruled the duchy of Milan. In the next Reggio, and were invested in their fief of Ferrara by the pope. year Ferdinand, brother of Charles, was elected em- Reign of Philip II. The marquessate of Mantua was made a duchy; and Florence peror. The French, meanwhile, had not entirely was secured, as we have seen, to the Medici. The great gainer abandoned their claims on Italy. Gian Pietro Caraffa, who by this settlement was the papacy, which held the most sub- was made pope in 1555 with the name of Paul IV., en- stantial Italian province, together with a prestige that raised deavoured to revive the ancient papal policy of leaning upon it far above all rivalry. The rest of Italy, however parcelled, France. He encouraged the duke of Guise to undertake the henceforth became but a dependence upon Spain. Charles V., conquest of Naples, as Charles of Anjou had been summoned by it must be remembered, achieved his conquest and confirmed his predecessors. But such schemes were now obsolete and his authority far less as emperor than as the heir of Castile and anachronistic. They led to a languid lingering Italian campaign, Aragon. A Spanish viceroy in Milan and another in Naples, which was settled far beyond the Alps by Philip's victories over supported by Rome and by the minor princes who followed the the French at St Quentin and Gravelines. The peace of Câteau policy dictated to them from Madrid, were sufficient to preserve Cambresis, signed in 1559, left the Spanish monarch undisputed the whole peninsula in a state of somnolent inglorious servitude. lord of Italy. Of free commonwealths there now survived only From 1530 until 1796, that is, for a period of nearly three Venice, which, together with Spain, achieved for Europe the centuries, the Italians had no history of their own. Their annals victory of Lepanto in 1573; Genoa, which, after the ineffectual are filled with records of dynastic changes and redistributions of Fieschi revolution in 1547, abode beneath the rule of the great territory, consequent upon treaties signed by foreign powers, in Doria family, and held a feeble sway in Corsica; and the two the settlement of quarrels which no wise concerned the people. I insignificant republics of Lucca and San Marino. 42 [SPANISH-AUSTRIAN ASCENDANCY ITALY and The future hope of Italy, however, was growing in a remote Venice rapidly declined throughout the 17th century. The and hitherto neglected corner. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of loss of trade consequent upon the closing of Egypt and the Savoy, represented the oldest and not the least illustrious reigning Levant, together with the discovery of America and Decline house in Europe, and his descendants were destined to achieve the sea-route to the Indies, had dried up her chief of Venice for Italy the independence which no other power or prince source of wealth. Prolonged warfare with the Otto- had given her since the fall of ancient Rome. (See Savoy, mans, who forced her to abandon Candia in 1669, Spain. HOUSE OF.) as they had robbed her of Cyprus in 1570, still further crippled When Emmanuel Philibert succeeded to his father Charles III. her resources. Yet she kept the Adriatic free of pirates, notably in 1553, he was a duke without a duchy. But the princes of by suppressing the sea-robbers called Uscocchi (1601-1617), the house of Savoy were a race of warriors; and what Emmanuel maintained herself in the Ionian Islands, and in 1684 added one Philibert lost as sovereign he regained as captain of adventure more to the series of victorious episodes which render her annals in the service of his cousin Philip II. The treaty of Câteau So romantic. In that year Francesco Morosini, upon whose Cambresis in 1559, and the evacuation of the Piedmontese cities tomb we still may read the title Peloponnesiacus, wrested the held by French and Spanish troops in 1574, restored his state. whole of the Morea from the Turks. But after his death in 1715 By removing the capital from Chambéry to Turin, he completed the republic relaxed her hold upon his conquests. The Venetian the transformation of the dukes of Savoy from Burgundian into nobles abandoned themselves to indolence and vice. Many of Italian sovereigns. They still owned Savoy beyond the Alps, the them fell into the slough of pauperism, and were saved from plains of Bresse, and the maritime province of Nice. starvation by public doles. Though the signory still made a Emmanuel Philibert was succeeded by his son Charles brave show upon occasions of parade, it was clear that the state Emmanuel I., who married Catherine, a daughter of Philip II. was rotten to the core, and sinking into the decrepitude of dotage. He seized the first opportunity of annexing Saluzzo, which had The Spanish monarchy at the same epoch dwindled with been lost to Savoy in the last two reigns, and renewed the apparently less reason. Philip's Austrian successors reduced disastrous policy of his grandfather Charles III, by invading it to the rank of a secondary European power. This decline of Geneva and threatening Provence. Henry IV. of France forced vigour was felt, with the customary effects of discord and bad him in 1601 to relinquish Bresse and his Burgundian possessions. government, in Lower Italy. The revolt of Masaniello in Naples In return he was allowed to keep Saluzzo. All hopes of conquest (1647), followed by rebellions at Palermo and Messina, which on the transalpine side were now quenched; but the keys of placed Sicily for a while in the hands of Louis XIV. (1676– Italy had been given to the dukes of Savoy; and their attention 1678) were symptoms of progressive anarchy. The population, was still further concentrated upon Lombard conquests. Charles ground down by preposterous taxes, ill-used as only the subjects Emmanuel now attempted the acquisition of Montferrat, which of Spaniards, Turks or Bourbons are handled, rose in blind was soon to become vacant by the death of Francesco Gonzaga, exasperation against their oppressors. It is impossible to attach who held it together with Mantua. In order to secure this political importance to these revolutions; nor did they bring territory, he went to war with Philip III. of Spain, and allied the people any appreciable good. The destinies of Italy were himself with Venice and the Grisons to expel the Spaniards from decided in the cabinets and on the battlefields of northern the Valtelline. When the male line of the Gonzaga family expired Europe. A Bourbon at Versailles, a Habsburg at Vienna, or in 1627, Charles, duke of Nevers, claimed Mantua and Montferrat a thick-lipped Lorrainer, with a stroke of his pen, wrote off in right of his wife, the only daughter of the last duke. Charles province against province, regarding not the populations who Emmanuel was now checkmated by France, as he had formerly had bled for him or thrown themselves upon his mercy. been by Spain. The total gains of all his strenuous endeavours This inglorious and passive chapter of Italian history is con- amounted to the acquisition of a few places on the borders of tinued to the date of the French Revolution with the records of Montferrat. three dynastic wars, the war of the Spanish succession, Not only the Gonzagas, but several other ancient ducal the war of the Polish succession, the war of the Austrian families, died out about the date which we have reached. The succession, followed by three European treaties, legitimate line of the Estensi ended in 1597 by the which brought them respectively to diplomatic Extiac- death of Alfonso II., the last duke of Ferrara. He terminations. Italy, handled and rehandled, settled and re- old ducal left his domains to a natural relative, Cesare d'Este, settled, upon each of these occasions, changed masters without who would in earlier days have inherited without caring or knowing what befell the principals in any one of the dispute, for bastardy had been no bar on more than one occasion disputes. Humiliating to human nature in general as are the in the Este pedigree. Urban VIII., however, put in a claim to annals of the 18th-century campaigns in Europe, there is no Ferrara, which, it will be remembered, had been recognized a point of view from which they appear in a light so tragi-comic papal fief in 1530. Cesare d'Este had to content himself with as from that afforded by Italian history. The system of setting Modena and Reggio, where his descendants reigned as dukes nations by the ears with the view of settling the quarrels of a Under the same pontiff, the Holy See absorbed the few reigning houses was reduced to absurdity when the people, duchy of Urbino on the death of Francesco Maria II., the last as in these cases, came to be partitioned and exchanged without representative of Montefeltro and Della Rovere. The popes the assertion or negation of a single principle affecting their were now masters of a fine and compact territory, embracing interests or rousing their emotions. no inconsiderable portion of Countess Matilda's legacy, in In 1700 Charles II. died, and with him ended the Austrian addition to Pippin's donation, and the patrimony of St Peter. family in Spain. Louis XIV. claimed the throne for Philip, Meanwhile Spanish fanaticism, the suppression of the Huguenots duke of Anjou. Charles, archduke of Austria, opposed in France and the Catholic policy of Austria combined to him. The dispute was fought out in Flanders; but Spanish strengthen their authority as pontiffs. Urban's predecessor, Lombardy felt the shock, as usual, of the French and sion, Paul V., advanced so far as to extend his spiritual jurisdiction Austrian dynasties. The French armies were more over Venice, which, up to the date of his election (1605), had than once defeated by Prince Eugene of Savoy, who drove them resisted all encroachments of the Holy See. Venice offered the out of Italy in 1707. Therefore, in the peace of Utrecht (1713), single instance in Italy of a national church. The republic the services of the house of Savoy had to be duly recognized. managed the tithes, and the clergy acknowledged no chief above Victor Amadeus II. received Sicily with the title of king. Mont- their own patriarch. Paul V. now forced the Venetians to ferrat and Alessandria were added to his northern provinces, admit his ecclesiastical supremacy; but they refused to readmit and his state was recognized as independent. Charles of Austria, the Jesuits, who had been expelled in 1606. This, if we do not now emperor, took Milan, Mantua, Naples and Sardinia for his count the proclamation of James I. of England (1604), was the portion of the Italian spoil. Philip founded the Bourbon line earliest instance of the order's banishment from a state where of Spanish kings, renouncing in Italy all that his Habsburg it had proved disloyal to the commonwealth. predecessors had gained. Discontented with this diminution Wars of Succes. sion. tion of families. till 1794. Succes- THE NAPOLEONIC PERIODI ITALY 43 Polish Succes. sion. of the Spanish heritage, Philip V. married Elisabetta Farnese, by the civil power. There was no feeling of nationality, but the heiress to the last duke of Parma, in 1714. He hoped to secure people were prosperous, enjoyed profound peace and were this duchy for his son, Don Carlos; and Elisabetta further brought placidly content with the existing order of things. On the death with her a claim to the grand-duchy of Tuscany, which would of Maria Theresa in 1780, the emperor Joseph II. instituted much soon become vacant by the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici. wider reforms. Feudal privileges were done away with, clerical After this marriage Philip broke the peace of Europe by invading influence diminished and many monasteries and convents sup- Sardinia. The Quadruple Alliance was formed, and the new king pressed, the criminal law rendered more humane and torture of Sicily was punished for his supposed adherence to Philip V. abolished largely as a result of G. Beccaria's famous pamphlet by the forced exchange of Sicily for the island of Sardinia. Dei delitti e delle pene. At the same time Joseph's administration It was thus that in 1720 the house of Savoy assumed the regal was more arbitrary, and local autonomy was to some extent title which it bore until the declaration of the Italian kingdom curtailed. His anti-clerical laws produced some ill-feeling in the last century. Victor Amadeus II.'s reign was of great import among the more devout part of the population. On the whole ance in the history of his state. Though a despot, as all monarchs the Austrian rule in pre-revolutionary days was beneficial and were obliged to be at that date, he reigned with prudence, far from oppressive, and helped Lombardy to recover from the probity and zeal for the welfare of his subjects. He took public ill-effects of the Spanish domination. It did little for the moral education out of the hands of the Jesuits, which, for the future education of the people, but the same criticism applies more or development of manliness in his dominions, was a measure less to all the European governments of the day. The emperor of incalculable value. The duchy of Savoy in his days became Francis I. ruled the grand-duchy of Tuscany by lieutenants until a kingdom, and Sardinia, though it seemed a poor exchange for his death in 1765, when it was given, as an independent state, to Sicily, was a far less perilous possession than the larger and his second son, Peter Leopold. The reign of this duke was long wealthier island would have been. In 1730 Victor Amadeus remembered as a period of internal prosperity, wise legislation abdicated in favour of his son Charles Emmanuel III. Repenting and important public enterprise. Leopold, among other useful of this step, he subsequently attempted to regain Turin, but was works, drained the Val di Chiana, and restored those fertile upland imprisoned in the castle of Rivoli, where he ended his days plains to agriculture. In 1790 he succeeded to the empire, and in 1732. left Tuscany to his son Ferdinand. The kingdom of Sardinia The War of the Polish Succession which now disturbed Europe was administered upon similar principles, but with less of is only important in Italian history because the treaty of Vienna geniality. Charles Emmanuel made his will law, and erased the in 1738 settled the disputed affairs of the duchies remnants of free institutions from his state. At the same time of Parma and Tuscany. The duke Antonio Farnese he wisely followed his father's policy with regard to education and died in 1731; the grand-duke Gian Gastone de' the church. This is perhaps the best that can be said of a king Medici died in 1737. In the duchy of Parma Don who incarnated the stolid absolutism of the period. From this Carlos had already been proclaimed. But he was now transferred date, however, we are able to trace the revival of independent to the Two Sicilies, while Francis of Lorraine, the husband of thought among the Italians. The European ferment of ideas Maria Theresa, took Tuscany and Parma. Milan and Mantua which preceded the French Revolution expressed itself in men remained in the hands of the Austrians. On this occasion like Alfieri, the fierce denouncer of tyrants, Beccaria, the philo- Charles Emmanuel acquired Tortona and Novara. sopher of criminal jurisprudence, Volta, the physicist, and Worse complications ensued for the Italians when the emperor numerous political economists of Tuscany. Moved partly by Charles VI., father of Maria Theresa, died in 1740. The three external influences and partly by a slow internal reawakening, branches of the Bourbon house, ruling in France, the people was preparing for the efforts of the 19th century. Spain and the Sicilies, joined with Prussia, Bavaria The papacy, during this period, had to reconsider the question of and the kingdom of Sardinia to despoil Maria Theresa the Jesuits, who made themselves universally odious, not only in of her heritage. Lombardy was made the seat of war; Italy, but also in France and Spain. In the pontificate of and here the king of Sardinia acted as in some sense the arbiter Clement XIII, they ruled the Vatican, and almost succeeded in of the situation. After war broke out, he changed sides and embroiling the pope with the concerted Bourbon potentátes of supported the Habsburg-Lorraine party. At first, in 1745, the Europe. His successor, Clement XIV. suppressed the order Sardinians were defeated by the French and Spanish troops. altogether by a brief of 1773. (J. A. S.) But Francis of Lorraine, elected emperor in that year, sent an D. ITALY IN THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD, 1796–1814 army to the king's support, which in 1746 obtained a signal victory over the Bourbons at Piacenza. Charles Emmanuel now The campaign of 1796 which led to the awakening of the threatened Genoa. The Austrian soldiers already held the town. Italian people to a new consciousness of unity and strength is But the citizens expelled them, and the republic kept her inde detailed in the article NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. Here we can pendence. In 1748 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which put an attempt only a general survey of the events, political, civic and end to the War of the Austrian Succession, once more redivided social, which heralded the Risorgimento in its first phase. It is Italy. Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were formed into a duchy desirable in the first place to realize the condition of Italy at for Don Philip, brother of Charles III. of the Two Sicilies, and son the time when the irruption of the French and the expulsion of of Philip V. of Spain. Charles III. was confirmed in his kingdom the Austrians opened up a new political vista for that oppressed of the Two Sicilies. The Austrians kept Milan and Tuscany. The and divided people. duchy of Modena was placed under the protection of the French. For many generations Italy had been bandied to and fro So was Genoa, which in 1755, after Paoli's insurrection against between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons The decline of the misgovernment of the republic, ceded her old domain. of French influence at the close of the reign of Louis XIV. Influence Corsica to France. left the Habsburgs and the Spanish Bourbons without From the date of this settlement until 1792, Italy enjoyed a serious rivals. The former possessed the rich duchies period of repose and internal amelioration under her numerous of Milan (including Mantua) and Tuscany; while Forty paternal despots. It became the fashion during these through a marriage alliance with the house of Este forty-four years of peace to encourage the industrial of Modena (the Archduke Ferdinand had married the heiress years population and to experimentalize in economical re- of Modena) its influence over that duchy was supreme. peace. forms. The Austrian government in Lombardy under It also had a few fiefs in Piedmont and in Genoese Maria Theresa was characterized by improved agriculture, regular territory. By marrying her daughter, Maria Amelia, to the administration, order, reformed taxation and increased educa- young duke of Parma, and another daughter, Maria Carolina, tion. A considerable amount of local autonomy was allowed, and to Ferdinand of Naples, Maria Theresa consolidated Habsburg dependence on Vienna was very slight and not irksome. The influence in the north and south of the peninsula. The Spanish nobles and the clergy were rich and influential, but kept in order | Bourbons held Naples and Sicily, as well as the duchy of Parma. Austriaa Succes- sion. of the French Revolu- tion. four 44 (THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD ITALY The Cis- i Bona. 1 Of the nominally independent states the chief were the kingdom | internal anarchy. He summed up his conduct in the letter of of Sardinia, ruled over by the house of Savoy, and comprising the 8th of May 1797 to the French directory, “I cool the hot Piedmont, the isle of Sardinia and nominally Savoy and Nice, heads here and warm the cool ones.” The Transpadane though the two provinces last named had virtually been lost Republic, or, as it was soon called, the Cisalpine to the monarchy since the campaign of 1793. Equally extensive, Republic, began its organized life on the 9th of July Republic . but less important in the political sphere, were the Papal States 1797, with a brilliant festival at Milan. The constitu. and Venetia, the former torpid under the obscurantist rule tion was modelled on that of the French directory, and, lest there of pope and cardinals, the latter enervated by luxury and the should be a majority of clerical or Jacobinical deputies, the policy of unmanly complaisance long pursued by doge and French Republic through its general, Bonaparte, nominated. council. The ancient rival of Venice, Genoa, was likewise far and appointed the first deputies and administrators of the gone in decline. The small states, Lucca and San Marino, new government. In the same month it was joined by the completed the map of Italy. The worst governed part of the Cispadane Republic; and the terms of the treaty of Campo peninsula was the south, where feudalism lay heavily on the Formio (October 17, 1797), while fatal to the political life cultivators and corruption pervaded all ranks. Milan and of Venice, awarded to this now considerable state the Venetian Piedmont were comparatively well governed; but repugnance territories west of the river Adige. A month later, under the to Austrian rule in the former case, and the contagion of French pretence of stilling the civil striſes in the Valtelline, Bonaparte Jacobinical opinions in the latter, brought those populations into absorbed that Swiss district in the Cisalpine Republic, which increasing hostility to the rulers. The democratic propaganda, thus included all the lands between Como and Verona on the which was permeating all the large towns of the peninsula, then north, and Rimini on the south. led to the formation of numerous and powerful clubs and secret Early in the year 1798 the Austrians, in pursuance of the societies; and the throne of Victor Amadeus III., of the house scheme of partition agreed on at Campo Formio, entered Venice of Savoy, soon began to totter under the blows delivered by the and brought to an end its era of independence which French troops at the mountain barriers of his kingdom and under had lasted some 1100 years. Venice with its mainland Eod of the the insidious assaults of the friends of liberty at Turin. Plotting territories east of the Adige, inclusive of Istria and Republic. was riſe at Milan, as also at Bologna, where the memory of old Dalmatia, went to the Habsburgs, while the Venetian liberties predisposed men to cast off clerical rule and led to the isles of the Adriatic (the Ionian Isles) and the Venetian fleet went first rising on behalf of Italian liberty in the year 1794. At to strengthen France for that eastern expedition on which Palermo the Sicilians struggled hard to establish a republic Bonaparte had already set his heart. Venice not only paid the in place of the odious government of an alien dynasty. costs of the war to the two chief belligerents, but her naval The anathemas of the pope, the bravery of Piedmontese resources also helped to launch the young general on his career parte la Italy. and Austrians, and the subsidies of Great Britain of eastern adventure. Her former rival, Genoa, had also been failed to keep the league of Italian princes against compelled, in June 1797, to bow before the young conqueror, France intact. The grand-duke of Tuscany was the first of the and had undergone at his hands a remodelling on the lines already European sovereigns who made peace with, and recognized followed at Milan. The new Genoese republic, French in all the French republic, early in 1795. The first fortnight of but name, was renamed the Ligurian Republic. Napoleon's campaign of 1796 detached Sardinia from alliance Before he set sail for Egypt, the French had taken possession with Austria and England. The enthusiasm of the Italians of Rome. Already masters of the papal fortress of Ancona, for the young Corsican “liberator " greatly helped his progress. they began openly to challenge the pope's authority Two months later Ferdinand of Naples sought for an armistice, at the Eternal City itself. Joseph Bonaparte, then the central duchies were easily overrun, and, early in 1797, French envoy to the Vatican, encouraged democratic tion of Pope Pius VI. was fain to sign terms of peace with Bonaparte manifestations; and one of them, at the close of 1797, Rome. at Tolentino, practically ceding the northern part of his states, led to a scuffle in which a French general, Duphot, was killed. known as the Legations. The surrender of the last Habsburg The French directory at once ordered its general, Berthier, to stronghold, Mantua, on the 2nd of February 1797 left the field march to Rome: the Roman democrats proclaimed a republic clear for the erection of new political institutions. on the 15th of February 1798, and on their invitation Berthier Already the men of Reggio, Modena and Bologna had declared and his troops marched in. The pope, Pius VI., was forthwith for a democratic policy, in which feudalism and clerical rule haled away to Siena and a year later to Valence in the south of should have no place, and in which manhood suffrage, France, where he died. Thus fell the temporal power. The together with other rights promised by Bonaparte “liberators" of Rome thereupon proceeded to plunder the city padane Republic. to the men of Milan in May 1796, should form the basis in a way which brought shame on their cause and disgrace of a new order of things. In taking this step the (perhaps not wholly eserved) on the neral leſt in command, Modenese and Romagnols had the encouragement of Bonaparte, Masséna. despite the orders which the French directory sent to him in a These events brought revolution to the gates of the kingdom contrary sense. The result was the formation of an assembly of Naples, the worst-governed part of Italy, where the boorish at Modena which abolished feudal dues and customs, declared king, Ferdinand IV. (il rè lazzarone, he was termed), Naples. for manhood suffrage and established the Cispadane Republic and his whimsical consort, Maria Carolina, scarcely (October 1796). held in check the discontent of their own subjects. A British The close of Bonaparte's victorious campaign against the feet under Nelson, sent into the Mediterranean in May 1798 Archduke Charles in 1797 enabled him to mature those designs primarily for their defence, checkmated the designs of Bonaparte respecting Venice which are detailed in the article NAPOLEON. in Egypt, and then, returning to Naples, encouraged that court On a far higher level was his conduct towards the Milanese. to adopt a spirited policy. It is now known that the influence While the French directory saw in that province little more of Nelson and of the British ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, than a district which might be plundered and bargained for, and Lady Hamilton precipitated the rupture between Naples Bonaparte, though by no means remiss in the exaction of gold and France. The results were disastrous. The Neapolitan and of artistic treasures, was laying the foundation of a friendly troops at first occupied Rome, but, being badly handled by republic. During his sojourn at the castle of Montebello or their leader, the Austrian general, Mack, they were soon scattered Mombello, near Milan, he commissioned several of the leading in flight; and the Republican troops under General The men of northern Italy to draw up a project of constitution and Championnet, after crushing the stubborn resistance Partheno. list of reforms for that province. Meanwhile he took care to of the lazzaroni, made their way into Naples and paean, curb the excesses of the Italian Jacobins and to encourage proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic (January 23, Republic. . the Moderates, who were favourable to the French connexion 1799). The Neapolitan Democrats chose five of their leading as promising a guarantee against Austrian domination and men to be directors, and tithes and feudal dues and customs French occupa- The Cis- THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD) 45 ITALY Lunéville, were abolished. Much good work was done by the Republicans with his army beyond the river Mincio. Ten days earlier, during their brief tenure of power, but it soon came to an end owing namely on the 4th of June, Masséna had been compelled by to the course of events which favoured a reaction against France. hunger to capitulate at Genoa; but the success at Marengo, The directors of Paris, not content with overrunning and plunder- followed up by that of Macdonald in north Italy, and Moreau ing Switzerland, had outraged German sentiment in many ways. at Hohenlinden (December 2, 1800), brought the emperor Further, at the close of 1798 they virtually compelled the young Francis to sue for peace which was finally concluded king of Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel IV., to abdicate at Turin. at Lunéville on the 9th of February 1801. The Treaty of He retired to the island of Sardinia, while the French despoiled Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics (reconstituted soon Piedmont, thereby adding fuel to the resentment rapidly growing after Marengo) were recognized by Austria on condition that they against them in every part of Europe. were independent of France. The rule of Pius VII. over the The outcome of it all was the War of the Secord Coalition, Papal States was admitted; and Italian affairs were arranged in which Russia, Austria, Great Britain, Naples and some much as they were at Campo Formio: Modena and Tuscany secondary states of Germany took part. The incursion now reverted to French control, their former rulers being promised Suvarov la Italy. of an Austro-Russian army, led by that strange but compensation in Germany. Naples, easily worsted by the French, magnetic being, Suvarov, decided the campaign in under Miollis, left the British alliance, and made peace by the northern Italy. The French, poorly handled by Schérer and treaty of Florence (March 1801), agreeing to withdraw her Sérurier, were everywhere beaten, especially at Magnano (April troops from the Papal States, to cede Piombino and the Presidii 5) and Cassano (April 27). Milan and Turin fell before the (in Tuscany) to France and to close her ports to British ships and allies, and Moreau, who took over the command, had much commerce. King Ferdinand also had to accept a French garrison difficulty in making his way to the Genoese coast-line. There at Taranto, and other points in the south. he awaited the arrival of Macdonald with the army of Naples. Other changes took place in that year, all of them in favour That general, Championnet's successor, had been compelled by of France. By complex and secret bargaining with the court these reverses and by the threatening pressure of Nelson's fleet of Madrid, Bonaparte procured the cession to France Napoleon's to evacuate Naples and central Italy. In many parts the of Louisiana, in North America, and Parma; while reorgaa- peasants and townsfolk, enraged by the licence of the French, the duke of Parma (husband of an infanta of Spain) ization of hung on his flank and rear. The republics set up by the French was promoted by him to the duchy of Tuscany, now Italy. at Naples, Rome and Milan collapsed as soon as the French renamed the kingdom of Etruria. Piedmont was declared to be troops retired; and a reaction in favour of clerical and Austrian a military division at the disposal of France (April 21, 1801); influence set in with great violence. For the events which then and on the 21st of September 1802, Bonaparte, then First Consul occurred at Naples, so compromising to the reputation of Nelson, for life, issued a decree for its definitive incorporation in the see Nelson and NAPLES. Sir William Hamilton was subse- French Republic. About that time, too, Elba fell into the hands quently recalled in a manner closely resembling a disgrace, and of Napoleon. Piedmont was organized in six departments on his place was taken by Paget, who behaved with more dignity the model of those of France, and a number of French veterans and tact. were settled by Napoleon in and near the fortress of Alessandria. Meanwhile Macdonald, after struggling through central Italy, Besides copying the Roman habit of planting military colonies, had defeated an Austrian force at Modena (June 12, 1799), the First Consul imitated the old conquerors of the world by but Suvarov was able by swift movements utterly to overthrow extending and completing the road-system of his outlying him at the Trebbia (June 17-19). The wreck of his force districts, especially at those important passes, the Mont Cenis drifted away helplessly towards Genoa. A month later the and Simplon. He greatly improved the rough track over the ambitious young general, Joubert, who took over Moreau's Simplon Pass, so that, when finished in 1807, it was practicable command and rallied part of Macdonald's following, was utterly for artillery. Milan was the terminus of the road, and the routed by the Austro-Russian army at Novi (August 15) with construction of the Foro Buonaparte and the completion of the the loss of 12,000 men. Joubert perished in the battle. The cathedral added dignity to the Lombard capital. The Corniche growing friction between Austria and Russia led to the transfer- road was improved; and public works in various parts of ence of Suvarov and his Russians to Switzerland, with results Piedmont, and the Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics attested which were to be fatal to the allies in that quarter. But in Italy the foresight and wisdom of the great organizer of industry and the Austrian successes continued. Melas defeated Championnet | quickener of human energies. The universities of Pavia and near Coni on the 4th of November; and a little later the French Bologna were reopened and made great progress in this time of garrisons at Ancona and Coni surrendered. The tricolour, peace and growing prosperity. Somewhat later the Pavia canal which floated triumphantly over all the strongholds of Italy was begun in order to connect Lake Como with the Adriatic early in the year, at its close waved only over Genoa, where for barge-traffic. Masséna prepared for a stubborn defence. Nice and Savoy The personal nature of the tie binding Italy to France was also seemed at the mercy of the invaders. Everywhere the old illustrated by a curious incident of the winter of 1802-1803. order of things was restored. The death of the aged Pope Bonaparte, now First Consul for life, felt strong enough to impose Pius VI. at Valence (August 29, 1799) deprived the French of his will on the Cisalpine Republic and to set at defiance one of whatever advantage they had hoped to gain by dragging him the stipulations of the treaty of Lunéville. On the pretext of into exile; on the 24th of March 1800 the conclave, assembled consolidating that republic, he invited 450 of its leading men to for greater security on the island of San Giorgio at Venice, elected come to Lyons to a consulta. In reality he and his agents had a new pontiff, Pius VII. already provided for the passing of proposals which were agree- Such was the position of affairs when Bonaparte returned able to him. The deputies having been dazzled by fêtes and from Egypt and landed at Fréjus. The contrast presented by reviews, Talleyrand and Marescalchi, ministers of foreign affairs his triumphs, whether real or imaginary, to the reverses at Paris and Milan, plied them with hints as to the course to be Campaigo sustained by the armies of the French directory, was followed by the consulta; and, despite the rage of the more of Marengo. fatal to that body and to popular institutions in France. democratic of their number, everything corresponded to the After the coup d'étal of Brumaire (November 1799) he, wishes of the First Consul. It remained to find a chief. Very as First Consul, began to organize an expedition against the many were in favour of Count Melzi, a Lombard noble, who had Austrians (Russia having now retired from the coalition), in been chief of the executive at Milan; but again Talleyrand and northern Italy. The campaign culminating at Marengo was French agents set to work on behalf of their master, with the the result. By that triumph (due to Desaix and Kellermann result that he was elected president for ten years. He accepted rather than directly to him), Bonaparte consolidated his own that office because, as he frankly informed the deputies, he had position in France and again laid Italy at his feet. The Austrian found no one who "for his services rendered to his country, general, Melas, signed an armistice whereby he was to retire l his authority with the people and his separation from party 46 ITHE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD ITALY has deserved such an office." Melzi was elected vice-president sailed away to Palermo, where it remained for eight years with merely honorary functions. The constitution comprised a under the protection afforded by the British fleet and a consulta charged with executive duties, a legislative body of British army of occupation. On the 15th of February 150 members and a court charged with the maintenance of the 1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples in triumph, his Joseph Bonaparte fundamental laws. These three bodies were to be chosen by troops capturing there two hundred pieces of cannon. in Naples three electoral colleges consisting of (a) landed proprietors, Gaeta, however, held out stoutly against the French. (b) learned men and clerics, (c) merchants and traders, holding Sir Sidney Smith with a British squadron captured Capri their sessions biennially at Milan, Bologna and Brescia re- (February 1806), and the peasants of the Abruzzi and Calabria spectively. In practice the consulta could override the legis- soon began to give trouble. Worst of all was the arrival of a lature; as the consulta was little more than the organ of small British force in Calabria under Sir John Stuart, which the president, the whole constitution may be pronounced as beat off with heavy loss an attack imprudently delivered by autocratic as that of France after the changes brought about General Réynier on level ground near the village of Maida by Bonaparte in August 1802. Finally we must note that the (July 4). The steady volleys of Kempt's light infantry Cisalpine now took the name of the Italian Republic, and that were fatal to the French, who fell back in disorder under by a concordat with the pope, Bonaparte regulated its relations bayonet charge of the victors, with the loss of some 2700 men. to the Holy See in a manner analogous to that adopted in the Calabria now rose in revolt against King Joseph, and the peasants famous French concordat promulgated at Easter 1802 (see dealt out savage reprisals to the French troops. On the 18th CONCORDAT). It remains to add that the Ligurian Republic of July, however, Gaeta surrendered to Masséna, and that and that of Lucca remodelled their constitutions in a way some- marshal, now moving rapidly southwards, extricated Réynier, what similar to that of the Cisalpine. crushed the Bourbon rising in Calabria with great barbarity, Bonaparte's ascendancy did not pass unchallenged. Many of and compelled the British force to re-embark for Sicily. At the Italians retained their enthusiasm for democracy and national Palermo Queen Maria Carolina continued to make vehement independence. In 1803 movements in these directions but futile efforts for the overthrow of King Joseph. Kingdom of Italy. took place at Rimini, Brescia and Bologna; but they It is more important to observe that under Joseph and his were sharply repressed, and most Italians came to ministers or advisers, including the Frenchmen Roederer, acquiesce in the Napoleonic supremacy as inevitable and indeed Dumas, Miot de Melito and the Corsican Saliceti, great progress beneficial. The complete disregard shown by Napoleon for one was made in abolishing feudal laws and customs, in reforming of the chief conditions of the treaty of Lunéville (February the judicial procedure and criminal laws on the model of the 1801)—that stipulating for the independence of the Ligurian Code Napoléon, and in attempting the beginnings of elementary and Cisalpine Republics-became more and more apparent education. More questionable was Joseph's policy in closing every year. Alike in political and commercial affairs they were and confiscating the property of 213 of the richer monasteries for all practical purposes dependencies of France. Finally, of the land. The monks were pensioned off, but though the after the proclamation of the French empire (May 18, 1804) confiscated property helped to fill the empty coffers of the state, Napoleon proposed to place his brother Joseph over the Italian the measure aroused widespread alarm and resentment among state, which now took the title of kingdom of Italy. On Joseph that superstitious people. declining, Napoleon finally decided to accept the crown which The peace of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) enabled Napoleon to press Melzi, Marescalchi, Serbelloni and others begged him to assume. on his projects for securing the command of the Mediterranean, Accordingly, on the 26th of May 1805, in the cathedral at Milan, thenceforth a fundamental axiom of his policy. Consequently, he crowned himself with the iron crown of the old Lombard in the autumn of 1807 he urged on Joseph the adoption of vigorous kings, using the traditional formula, “God gave it me: let him measures for the capture of Sicily. Already, in the negotiations beware who touches it.” On the 7th of June he appointed his with England during the summer of 1806, the emperor had shown step-son, Eugène Beauharnais, to be viceroy. Eugène soon found his sense of the extreme importance of gaining possession of that his chief duty was to enforce the will of Napoleon. The that island, which indeed caused the breakdown of the peace legislature at Milan having ventured to alter some details of proposals then being considered; and now he ordered French taxation, Eugène received the following rule of conduct from his squadrons into the Mediterranean in order to secure Corfu and step-father: “ Your system of government is simple: the Sicily. His plans respecting Corfu succeeded. That island and emperor wills it to be thus." Republicanism was now every- some of the adjacent isles fell into the hands of the French where discouraged. The little republic of Lucca, along with (some of them were captured by British troops in 1809-10); Piombino, was now awarded as a principality by the emperor but Sicily remained unassailable. Capri, however, fell to the to Elisa Bonaparte and her husband, Bacciocchi. French on the 18th of October 1808, shortly after the arrival In June 1805 there came a last and intolerable affront to the at Naples of the new king, Murat. emperors of Austria and Russia, who at that very time were This ambitious marshal, brother-in-law of Napoleon, foiled seeking to put bounds to Napoleon's ambition and to redress in his hope of gaining the crown of Spain, received that of Naples the balance of power. The French emperor, at the supposed in the summer of 1808, Joseph Bonaparte being moved request of the doge of Genoa, declared the Ligurian Republic from Naples to Madrid. This arrangement pleased King of to be an integral part of the French empire. This defiance to neither of the relatives of the emperor; but his will Naples, the sovereigns of Russia and Austria rekindled the flames of now was law on the continent. Joseph left Naples on The third coalition was formed between Great Britain, the 23rd of May 1808; but it was not until the 6th of September Russia and Austria, Naples soon joining its ranks. that Joachim Murat made his entry. A fortnight later his For the chief events of the ensuing campaigns see NAPOLEONIC consort Caroline arrived, and soon showed a vigour and restless- CAMPAIGNS. While Masséna pursued the Austrians into their ness of spirit which frequently clashed with the dictates of her own lands at the close of 1805, Italian forces under Eugène brother, the emperor and the showy, unsteady policy of her and Gouvion St Cyr (q.0.) held their ground against allied forces consort. The Spanish national rising of 1808 and thereafter landed at Naples. After Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) the Peninsular War diverted Napoleon's attention from the Austria made peace by the treaty of Pressburg, ceding to the affairs of south Italy. In June 1809, during his campaign kingdom of Italy her part of Venetia along with the provinces against Austria, Sir John Stuart with an Anglo-Sicilian force of Istria and Dalmatia. Napoleon then turned fiercely against sailed northwards, captured Ischia and threw Murat into great Maria Carolina of Naples upbraiding her with her "perfidy.” alarm; but on the news of the Austrian defeat at Wagram, He sent Joseph Bonaparte and Masséna southwards with a Stuart sailed back again. strong column, compelled the Anglo-Russian forces to evacuate It is now time to turn to the affairs of central Italy. Early in Naples, and occupied the south of the peninsula with little 1808 Napoleon proceeded with plans which he had secretly opposition except at the fortress of Gaeta. The Bourbon court | concerted after the treaty of Tilsit for transferring the infanta " Murat war. THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD) ITALY 47 Ceatral leon's rule. 1 and the of Spain who, after the death of her consort, reigned at Florence which seriously crippled trade at the ports and were not com- on behalf of her young son, Charles Louis, from her kingdom of pensated by the increased facilities for trade with France which Etruria to the little principality of Entre Douro e Napoleon opened up. The drain of men to supply his armies in Minho which he proposed to carve out from the north Italy. Germany, Spain and Russia was also a serious loss. A powerful of Portugal. Etruria reverted to the French empire, Italian corps marched under Eugène Beauharnais to Moscow, but the Spanish princess and her son did not receive the promised and distinguished itself at Malo-Jaroslavitz, as also during the indemnity. Elisa Bonaparte and her husband, Bacciocchi, horrors of the retreat in the closing weeks of 1812. It is said that rulers of Lucca and Piombino, became the heads of the admini- out of 27,000 Italians who entered Russia with Eugène, only 333 stration in Tuscany, Elisa showing decided governing capacity.. saw their country again. That campaign marked the beginning of The last part of the peninsula to undergo the Gallicizing influ- the end for the Napoleonic domination in Italy as else- Collapse ence was the papal dominion. For some time past the relations where. Murat, left in command of the Grand Army at of Napo- between Napoleon and the pope, Pius VII., had been Vilna, abandoned his charge and in the next year made Napoleon severely strained, chiefly because the emperor insisted overtures to the allies who coalesced against Napoleon. Papacy. on controlling the church, both in France and in the For his vacillations at this time and his final fate, see MURAT. kingdom of Italy, in a way inconsistent with the Here it must suffice to say that the uncertainty caused by his traditions of the Vatican, but also because the pontiff refused to policy in 1813–1814 had no small share in embarrassing Napoleon grant the divorce between Jerome Bonaparte and the former and in precipitating the downfall of his power in Italy. Eugène Miss Patterson on which Napoleon early in the year 1806 laid so Beauharnais, viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, showed both much stress. These and other disputes led the emperor, as constancy and courage; but after the battle of Leipzig (October successor of Charlemagne, to treat the pope in a very high- 16-19, 1813) his power crumbled away under the assaults of handed way. “ Your Holiness (he wrote) is sovereign of Rome, the now victorious Austrians. By an arrangement with Bavaria, but I am its emperor "; and he threatened to annul the pre- they were able to march through Tirol and down the valley of the sumed “ donation " of Rome by Charlemagne, unless the pope Adige in force, and overpowered the troops of Eugène whose yielded implicit obedience to hirn in all temporal affairs. He position was fatally compromised by the defection of Murat and further exploited the Charlemagne tradition for the benefit of the dissensions among the Italians. Very many of them, distrust- the continental system, that great engine of commercial war by ing both of these kings, sought to act independently in favour which he hoped to assure the ruin of England. This aim prompted of an Italian republic. Lord William Bentinck with an Anglo- the annexation of Tuscany, and his intervention in the affairs of Sicilian force landed at Leghorn on the 8th of March 1814, and the Papal States. To this the pope assented under pressure issued a proclamation to the Italians bidding them rise against from Napoleon; but the latter soon found other pretexts for Napoleon in the interests of their own freedom. A little later he intervention, and in February 1808 a French column under gained possession of Genoa. Amidst these schisms the defence Miollis occupied Rome, and deposed the papal authorities. of Italy collapsed. On the 16th of April 1814 Eugène, on hearing Against this violence Pius VII. protested in vain. Napoleon of Napoleon's overthrow at Paris, signed an armistice at Mantua sought to push matters to an extreme, and on the end of April by which he was enabled to send away the French troops beyond Aonexa- he adopted the rigorous measure of annexing to the the Alps and entrust himself to the consideration of the allies. tion of the kingdom of Italy the papal provinces of Ancona, The Austrians, under General Bellegarde, entered Milan without Papal Urbino, Macerata and Camerina. This measure, which resistance; and this event precluded the restoration of the old seemed to the pious an act of sacrilege, and to Italian political order. patriots an outrage on the only independent sovereign of the The arrangements made by the allies in accordance with the peninsula, sufficed for the present. The outbreak of war in treaty of Paris (June 12, 1814) and the Final Act of the congress Spain, followed by the rupture with Austria in the spring of 1809, of Vienna (June 9, 1815), imposed on Italy boundaries which, distracted the attention of the emperor. But after the occupation roughly speaking, corresponded to those of the pre-Napoleonic of Vienna the conqueror dated from that capital on the 17th of era. To the kingdom of Sardinia, now reconstituted under May 1809 a decree virtually annexing Rome and the Patri- Victor Emmanuel I., France ceded its old provinces, Savoy and monium Petri to the French empire. Here again he cited the Nice; and the allies, especially Great Britain and Austria, action of Charlemagne, his “august predecessor," who had insisted on the addition to that monarchy of the territories of merely given “ certain domains to the bishops of Rome as fiefs, the former republic of Genoa, in respect of which the king took though Rome did not thereby cease to be part of his empire.” the title of duke of Genoa, in order to strengthen it for the duty In reply the pope prepared a bull of excommunication against of acting as a buffer state between France and the smaller states those who should infringe the prerogatives of the Holy See in of central Italy. Austria recovered the Milanese, and all the this matter. Thereupon the French general, Miollis, who still possessions of the old Venetian Republic on the mainland, occupied Rome, caused the pope to be arrested and carried him including Istria and Dalmatia. The Ionian Islands, formerly away northwards into Tuscany, thence to Savona; finally he was belonging to Venice, were, by a treaty signed at Paris on the taken, at Napoleon's orders, to Fontainebleau. Thus, a second 5th of November 1815, placed under the protection of Great time, fell the temporal power of the papacy. By an imperial Britain. By an instrument signed on the 24th of April 1815, decree of the 17th of February 1810, Rome and the neighbouring the Austrian territories in north Italy were erected into the districts, including Spoleto, became part of the French empire. kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia, which, though an integral part Rome thenceforth figured as its second city, and entered upon of the Austrian empire, was to enjoy a separate administration, a new life under the administration of French officials. The the symbol of its separate individuality being the coronation. Roman territory was divided into two departments-the Tiber of the emperors with the ancient iron crown of Lombardy and Trasimenus; the Code Napoléon was introduced, public works (“ Proclamation de l'empereur d'Autriche, &c.,” April 7, 1815, were set on foot and great advance was made in the material State Papers, ii. 906). Francis IV., son of the archduke sphere. Nevertheless the harshness with which the emperor Ferdinand of Austria and Maria Beatrice, daughter of Ercole treated the Roman clergy and suppressed the monasteries Rinaldo, the last of the Estensi, was reinstated as duke of caused deep resentment to the orthodox. Modena. Parma and Piacenza were assigned to Marie Louise, There is no need to detail the fortunes of the Napoleonic states daughter of the Austrian emperor and wife of Napoleon, on in Italy. One and all they underwent the influences emanating behalf of her son, the little Napoleon, but by subsequent arrange- Character from Paris; and in respect to civil administration, ments (1816-1817) the duchy was to revert at her death to the of Napow law, judicial procedure, education and public works, Bourbons of Parma, then reigning at Lucca. Tuscany was they all experienced great benefils, the results of which restored to the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of Habsburg-Lorraine. never wholly disappeared. On the other hand, they The duchy of Lucca was given to Marie Louise of Bourbon- suffered from the rigorous measures of the continental system, Parma, who, at the death of Marie Louise of Austria, would States. " . leoa's cula. 48 (THE RISORGIMENTO ITALY Italian States. rule in return to Parma, when Lucca would be handed over to Tuscany. | Tuscany and Naples; and Metternich's ambition was to make The pope, Pius VII., who had long been kept under restraint Austrian predominance over Italy still more absolute, by placing by Napoleon at Fontainebleau, returned to Rome in May 1814, an Austrian archduke on the Sardinian throne. and was recognized by the congress of Vienna (not without Victor Emmanuel I., the king of Sardinia, was the only native some demur on the part of Austria) as the sovereign of all the ruler in the peninsula, and the Savoy dynasty was popular with former possessions of the Holy See. Ferdinand IV. of Naples, all classes. But although welcomed with enthusiasm Reaction not long after the death of his consort, Maria Carolina, in Austria, on his return to Turin, he introduced a system of in the returned from Sicily to take possession of his dominions on the reaction which, if less brutal, was no less uncom- mainland. He received them back in their entirety at the hands promising than that of Austrian archdukes or Bourbon of the powers, who recognized his new title of Ferdinand I. of princes. His object was to restore his dominions to the condi. the Two Sicilies. The rash attempt of Murat in the autumn of tions preceding the French occupation. The French system of 1815, which led to his death at Pizzo in Calabria, enabled the taxation was maintained because it brought in ampler revenues; Bourbon dynasty to crush malcontents with all the greater but feudalism, the antiquated legislation and bureaucracy were severity. The reaction, which was dull and heavy in the revived, and all the officers and officials still living who had served dominions of the pope and of Victor Emmanuel, systematically the state before the Revolution, many of them now in their harsh in the Austrian states of the north, and comparatively dotage, were restored to their posts; only nobles were eligible for mild in Parma and Tuscany, excited the greatest loathing in the higher government appointments; all who had served under southern Italy and Sicily, because there it was directed by a the French administration were dismissed or reduced in rank; dynasty which had aroused feelings of hatred mingled with and in the army beardless scions of the aristocracy were placed contempt. over the heads of war-worn veterans who had commanded There were special reasons why Sicily should harbour these regiments in Spain and Russia. The influence of a bigoted feelings against the Bourbons. During eight years (1806-1814) priesthood was re-established, and " every form of intellectual the chief places of the island had been garrisoned by British and moral torment, everything save actual persecution and troops; and the commander of the force which upheld the physical torture that could be inflicted on the 'impure' was tottering rule of Ferdinand at Palermo naturally had great inflicted” (Cesare Balbo's Autobiography). All this soon pro- authority. The British government, which awarded a large voked discontent among the educated classes. In Genoa the annual subsidy to the king and queen at Palermo, claimed to government was particularly unpopular, for the Genoese resented have some control over the administration. Lord William being handed over to their old enemy Piedmont like a flock of Bentinck finally took over large administrative powers, seeing sheep. Nevertheless the king strongly disliked the Austrians, that Ferdinand, owing to his dulness, and Maria Carolina, owing and would willingly have seen them driven from Italy, to her very suspicious intrigues with Napoleon, could never be In Lombardy French rule had ended by making itself un- trusted. The contest between the royal power and that of the popular, and even before the fall of Napoleon a national party, Sicilian estates threatened to bring matters to a deadlock, until called the Italici puri, had begun to advocate the Austrian in 1812, under the impulse of Lord William Bentinck, a con- independence of Lombardy, or even its union with stitution modelled largely on that of England was passed by Sardinia. At first a part of the population were Italy, the estates. After the retirement of the British troops in 1814 content with Austrian rule, which provided an honest the constitution lapsed, and the royal authority became once and efficient administration; but the rigid system of centraliza- more absolute. But the memory of the benefits conferred by tion which, while allowing the semblance of local autonomy, " the English constitution ” remained fresh and green amidst sent every minute question for settlement to Vienna; the the arid waste of repression which followed. It lived on as one severe police methods; the bureaucracy, in which the best of the impalpable but powerful influences which spurred on the appointments were usually conferred on Germans or Slavs Sicilians and the democrats of Naples to the efforts which they wholly dependent on Vienna, proved galling to the people, and put forth in 1821, 1830, 1848 and 1860. in view of the growing disaffection the country was turned This result, accruing from British intervention, was in some into a vast armed camp, In Modena Duke Francis proved respects similar to that exerted by Napoleon on the Italians of a cruel tyrant. In Parma, on the other hand, there was the mainland. The brutalities of Austria's white coats in the very little oppression, the French codes were retained, and north, the unintelligent repression then characteristic of the the council of state was consulted on all legislative mallers. house of Savoy, the petty spite of the duke of Modena, the Lucca too enjoyed good government, and the peasantry were medieval obscurantism of pope and cardinals in the middle of the well cared for and prosperous. In Tuscany the rule of Ferdinand peninsula and the clownish excesses of Ferdinand in the south, and of his minister Fossombroni was mild and benevolent, could not blot out from the minds of the Italians the recollection but enervating and demoralizing. The Papal States were of the benefits derived from the just laws, vigorous administra- ruled by a unique system of theocracy, for not only the head of tion and enlightened aims of the great emperor. The hard but the state but all the more important officials were ecclesiastics, salutary training which they had undergone at his hands had assisted by the Inquisition, the Index and all the paraphernalia taught them that they were the equals of the northern races of medieval church government. The administration Reaction both in the council chamber and on the field of battle. It had was inefficient and corrupt, the censorship uncom- further revealed to them that truth, which once grasped can promising, the police ferocious and oppressive, although never be forgotten, that, despite differences of climate, character quite unable to cope with the prevalent anarchy and brigandage; and speech, they were in all essentials a nation. (J. HL. R.) the antiquated pontifical statutes took the place of the French laws, and every vestige of the vigorous old communal independ- E. THE RISORGIMENTO, 1815-1870 ence was swept away. In Naples King Ferdinand retained As the result of the Vienna treaties, Austria became the real some of the laws and institutions of Murat's régime, and many mistress of Italy. Not only did she govern Lombardy and of the functionaries of the former government entered Naples. Venetia directly, but Austrian princes ruled in Modena, Parma his service; but he revived the Bourbon tradition, and Tuscany; Piacenza, Ferrara and Comacchio had Austrian the odious police system and the censorship; and a degrading garrisons; Prince Metternich, the Austrian chancellor, believed religious bigotry, to which the masses were all too much inclined, that he could always secure the election of an Austrophil pope, became the basis of government and social life. The upper and Ferdinand of Naples, reinstated by an Austrian army, classes were still to a large extent inoculated with French ideas, had bound himself, by a secret article of the treaty of June 12, but the common people were either devoted to the dynasty or 1815, not to introduce methods of government incompatible indifferent. In Sicily, which for centuries had enjoyed a feudal with those adopted in Austria's Italian possessions. Austria constitution modernized and Anglicized under British auspices also concluded offensive and defensive alliances with Sardinia, I in 1812, and where anti-Neapolitan feeling was strong, autonomy ia Rome. THE RISORGIMENTOI ITALY 49 Secret societies. The Car bonari. Revolu- tlon la 1820. Liberalism in Lom- was suppressed, the constitution abolished in 1816, and the nich, too, had an instinctive dislike for him, and proposed to island, as a reward for its fidelity to the dynasty, converted into exclude him from the succession by marrying one of the king's a Neapolitan province governed by Neapolitan bureaucrats. daughters to Francis of Modena, and getting the Salic law To the mass of the people the restoration of the old govern- abolished so that the succession would pass to the duke and ments undoubtedly brought a sense of relief, for the terrible Austria would thus dominate Piedmont. The Liberal movement drain in men and money caused by Napoleon's wars had caused had gained ground in Piedmont as in Naples among the younger much discontent, whereas now there was a prospect of peace and nobles and officers, and the events of Spain and southern Italy rest. But the restored governments in their terror of revolution aroused much excitement. In March 1821, Count Santorre di would not realize that the late régime had wafted a breath of Santarosa and other conspirators informed Charles Albert of a new life over the country and left ineffaceable traces in the way constitutional and anti-Austrian plot, and asked for his help. of improved laws, efficient administration, good roads and the After a momentary hesitation he informed the king; but at sweeping away of old abuses; while the new-born idea of his request no arrests were made, and no precautions were Italian unity, strengthened by a national pride revived on many taken. On the roth of March the garrison of Alessandria a stricken field from Madrid to Moscow, was a force to be mutinied, and its example was followed on the 12th by that reckoned with. The oppression and follies of the restored of Turin, where the Spanish constitution was demanded, and governments made men forget the evils of French rule and the black, red and blue flag of the Carbonari paraded the streets. remember only its good side. The masses were still more or The next day the king abdicated after appointing Charles Albert less indifferent, but among the nobility and the educated middle regent. The latter immediately proclaimed the constitution, classes, cut off from all part in free political life, there but the new king, Charles Felix, who was at Modena at the time, was developed either the spirit of despair at Italy's repudiated the regent's acts and exiled him to Tuscany; and, moral degradation, as expressed in the writings of with ‘his consent, an Austrian army invaded Piedmont and Foscolo and Leopardi, or a passion of hatred and crushed the constitutionalists at Novara. Many of the con- revolt, which found its manifestation, in spite of severe laws, spirators were condemned to death, but all succeeded in escaping. in the development of secret societies. The most important of Charles Felix was most indignant with the ex-regent, but he these were the Carbonari lodges, whose objects were the expulsion resented, as an unwarrantable interference, Austria's attempt of the foreigner and the achievement of constitutional freedom to have him excluded from the succession at the congress of (see CARBONARI). Verona (1822). Charles Albert's somewhat equivocal conduct When Ferdinand returned to Naples in 1815 he found the also roused the hatred of the Liberals, and for a long time the kingdom, and especially the army, honeycombed with Carbonar- esecrato Carignano was regarded, most unjustly, as a traitor ism, to which many noblemen and officers were even by many who were not republicans. affiliated; and although the police instituted prosecu- Carbonarism had been introduced into Lombardy by two Naples, tions and organized the counter-movement of the Romagnols, Count Laderchi and Pietro Maroncelli, but the Calderai, who may be compared to the “Black leader of the movement was Count F. Confalonieri, Hundreds." of modern Russia, the revolutionary spirit continued who was in favour of an Italian federation composed to grow, but it was not at first anti-dynastic. The granting of northern Italy under the house of Savoy, central bardy. of the Spanish constitution of 1820 proved the signal for the Italy under the pope, and the kingdom of Naples. beginning of the Italian liberationist movement; a military There liad been some mild plotting against Austria in Milan, mutiny led by two officers, Silvati and Morelli, and the priest and an attempt was made to co-operate with the Piedmontese Menichini, broke out at Monteforte, to the cry of “God, the movement of 1821; already in 1820 Maroncelli and the poet King, and the Constitution!” The troops sent against them Silvio Pellico had been arrested as Carbonari, and after the commanded by General Guglielmo Pepe, himself a Carbonaro, movement in Piedmont more arrests were made. The mission hesitated to act, and the king, finding that he could not count of Gaetano Castiglia and Marquis Giorgio Pallavicini to Turin, on the army, granted the constitution (July 13, 1820), and where they had interviewed Charles Albert, although without appointed his son Francis regent. The events that followed any definite result--for Confalonieri had warned the prince that are described in the article on the history of Naples (2.0.). Not Lombardy was not ready to rise-was accidentally discovered, only did the constitution, which was modelled on the impossible and Confalonieri was himself arrested. The plot would never Spanish constitution of 1812, prove unworkable, but the powers have been a menace to Austria but for her treatment of the of the Grand Alliance, whose main object was to keep the peace conspirators. Pellico and Maroncelli were immured in the of Europe, felt themselves bound to interfere to prevent the evil Spielberg; Confalonieri and two dozen others were condemned precedent of a successful military revolution. The diplomatic to death, their sentences being, however, commuted to imprison- developments that led to the intervention of Austria are sketched ment in that same terrible fortress. The heroism of the prisoners, elsewhere (see EUROPE: History); in general the result of the and Silvio Pellico's account of his imprisonment (Le mie Prigioni), deliberations of the congresses of Troppau and Laibach was to did much to enlist the sympathy of Europe for the Italian cause. establish, not the general right of intervention claimed in the During the next few years order reigned in Italy, save for a Troppau Protocol, but the special right of Austria to safeguard few unimportant outbreaks in the Papal States; there was, her interests in Italy. The defeat of General Pepe by the however, perpetual discontent and agitation, especially The Papal Austrians at Rieti (March 7, 1821) and the re-establishment in Romagna, where misgovernment was extreme. States. of King Ferdinand's autocratic power under the protection of Under Pius VII. and his minister Cardinal Consalvi Austrian bayonets were the effective assertion of this principle. oppression had not been very severe, and Metternich's proposal The movement in Naples had been purely local, for the to establish a central inquisitorial tribunal for political offences Neapolitan Carbonari had at that time no thought save of throughout Italy had been rejected by the papal government. Naples; it was, moreover, a movement of the middle But on the death of Pius in 1823, his successor Leo XII. (Cardinal Military revolt la and upper classes in which the masses took little Della Genga) proved a ferocious reactionary under whom Piedmont interest. Immediately after the battle of Rieti a barbarous laws were enacted and torture frequently applied. Carbonarist mutiny broke out in Piedmont independ. The societies, such as the Carbonari, the Adelfi and the ently of events in the south. Both King Victor Emmanuel and Bersaglieri d'America, which flourished in Romagna, replied his brother Charles Felix had no sons, and the heir presumptive to these persecutions by assassinating the more brutal officials to the throne was Prince Charles Albert, of the Carignano ans spies. The events of 1820-1821 increased the agitation in branch of the house of Savoy. Charles Albert felt a certain Romagna, and in 1825 large numbers of persons were condemned interest in Liberal ideas and was always surrounded by young to death, imprisonment or exile. The society of the Sanfedisti, nobles of Carbonarist and anti-Austrian tendencies, and was formed of the dregs of the populace, whose object was to murder therefore regarded with suspicion by his royal relatives. Metter- I every Liberal, was openly protected and encouraged. Leo died XV 2 2a 50 (THE RISORGIMENTO ITALY Revolu- tions of 1830. < 26 " in 1829, and the mild, religious Pius VIII. (Cardinal Castiglioni) in having inspired a large number of Italians with that idea at only reigned until 1830, when Gregory XVI. (Cardinal Cappellari) a time when provincial jealousies and the difficulty of communica- vas elected through Austrian influence, and proved another tions maintained separatist feelings. Young Italy spread to zelante. The July revolution in Paris and the declara- all centres of Italian exiles, and by means of literature carried tion of the new king, Louis Philippe, that France, as on an active propaganda in Italy itself, where the party came à Liberal monarchy, would not only not intervene to be called “Ghibellini,” as though reviving the traditions in the internal affairs of other countries, but would of medieval anti-Papalism. Though eventually this activity not permit other powers to do so, aroused great hopes among the of the Giovane Italia supplanted that of the older societies, oppressed peoples, and was the immediate cause of a revolution in practice it met with no better success; the two attempts. in Romagna and the Marches. In February 1831 these provinces to invade Savoy in the hope of seducing the army from its rose, raised the red, white and green tricolor (which henceforth allegiance failed miserably, and only resulted in a series of took the place of the Carbonarist colours as the Italian ilag), barbarous sentences of death and imprisonment which made and shook off the papal yoke with surprising ease. At Parma most Liberals despair of Charles Albert, while they called down too there was an outbreak and a demand for the constitution; much criticism on Mazzini as the organizer of raids in which Marie Louise could not grant it because of her engagements he himself took no part. He was now forced to leave France, with Austria, and, therefore, abandoned her dominions. In but continued his work of agitation from London. The disorders Modena Duke Francis, ambitious of enlarging his territories, in Naples and Sicily in 1837 had no connexion with Mazzini, coquetted with the Carbonari of Paris, and opened indirect but the forlorn hope of the brothers Bandiera, who in 1844 negotiations with Menotti, the revolutionary leader in his state, landed on the Calabrian coast, was the work of the Giovane believing that he might assist him in his plans. Menotti, for Italia. The rebels were captured and shot, but the significance his part, conceived the idea of a united Italian state under the of the attempt lies in the fact that it was the first occasion on duke. A rising was organized for February 1831; but Francis which north Italians (the Bandieras were Venetians and officers got wind of it, and, repenting of his dangerous dallying with in the Austrian navy) had tried to raise the standard of revolt revolution, arrested Menotti and fled to Austrian territory with in the south. his prisoner. In his absence the insurrection took place, and Romagna had continued a prey to anarchy ever since 1831; Biagio Nardi, having been elected dictator, proclaimed that the government organized armed bands called the Centurioni Italy is one; the Italian nation one sole nation." But the (descended from the earlier Sanfedisti), to terrorize the Liberals, French king soon abandoned his principle of non-intervention while the secret societies continued their “propaganda by on which the Italian revolutionists had built their hopes; the deeds.” It is noteworthy that Romagna was the only part of Austrians intervened unhindered; the old governments were Italy where the revolutionary movement was accompanied by re-established in Parma, Modena and Romagna; and Menotti murder. In 1845 several outbreaks occurred, and a band led by and many other patriots were hanged. The Austrians evacuated Pietro Renzi captured Rimini, whence a proclamation drawn up Romagna in July, but another insurrection having broken out by L. C. Farini was issued demanding the reforms advocated by immediately afterwards which the papal troops were unable the powers' memorandum of 1831. But the movement collapsed to quell, they returned. This second intervention gave umbrage without result, and the leaders fled to Tuscany. to France, who by way of a counterpoise sent a force to occupy Side by side with the Mazzinian propaganda in favour of a united Ancona. These two foreign occupations, which were almost Italian republic, which manifested itself in secret societies, plots and insurrections, there was another Liberal movement based as displeasing to the pope as to the Liberals, lasted until 1838. on the education of opinion and on economic development. Liberalism The powers, immediately after the revolt, presented a memor- In Piedmont, in spite of the government's reactionary andum to Gregory recommending certain moderate reforms, methods, a large part of the population were genuinely develop but no attention was paid to it. These various movements attached to the Savoy dynasty, and the idea of a regenera- proved in the first place that the masses were by no means ripe Some writers proclaimed the necessity of building railways, develop- tion of Italy under its auspices began to gain ground. for revolution, and that the idea of unity, although now advocated ing agriculture and encouraging industries, before resorting to by a few revolutionary leaders, was far from being generally revolution; while others, like the Tuscan Gino Capponi, inspired by accepted even by the Liberals; and, secondly, that, in spite of the example of England and France, wished to make the people fit the indifference of the masses, the despotic governments were for freedom by means of improved schools, books and periodicals. Vincenzo Gioberti (9.v.) published in 1843 his famous treatise Del unable to hold their own without the assistance of foreign primato morale e civile degli Italiani, a work, which, in striking con- bayonets. trast to the prevailing pessimism of the day, extolled the past great. On the 27th of April 1831, Charles Albert succeeded Charles ness and achievements of the Italian people and their present virtues. Felix on the throne of Piedmont. Shortly afterwards he received presidency of the pope, on a basis of Catholicism, but without a His political ideal was a federation of all the Italian states under the Mazzini a letter from an unknown person, in which he was constitution. In spite of all its inaccuracies and exaggerations the exhorted with fiery eloquence to place himself at the book served a useful purpose in reviving the self-respect of a de- • Young head of the movement for liberating and uniting spondent people. Another work of a similar kind was Le Speranze Italy." Italy and expelling the foreigner, and told that he d'Italia (1844) by the Piedmontese Count Cesare Balbo (q.v.). Like Gioberti he advocated a federation of Italian states, but he declared was free to choose whether he would be the first of men or the that before this could be achieved Austria must be expelled from last of Italian tyrants." The author was Giuseppe Mazzini, Italy and compensation found for her in the Near East by making then a young man of twenty-six years, who, though in theory a her a Danubian power-a curious forecast that Italy's liberation He extolled Charles Albert republican, was ready to accept the leadership of a prince of would begin with an eastern war. and appealed to his patriotism; he believed that the church was the house of Savoy if he would guide the nation to freedom. necessary and the secret societies harmful; representative govern- The only result of his letter, however, was that he was forbidden ment was undesirable, but he advocated a consultative assembly. to re-enter Sardinian territory. Mazzini, who had learned to Above all Italian character must be reformed and the nation edu- distrust Carbonarism owing to its lack of a guiding principle cated. A third important publication was Massimo d'Azeglio's and its absurd paraphernalia of ritual and mystery, had conceived Degli ultimi casi di Romagna, in which the author, another Pied inontese nobleman, exposed papal misgovernment while condemning the idea of a more serious political association for the emancipa- the secret societies and advocating open resistance and protest. He tion of his country not only from foreign and domestic despotism upheld the papacy in principle, regarded Austria as the great enemy but from national faults of character; and this idea he had of Italian regeneration, and believed that the means of expelling her materialized in the organization of a society called the Giovane were only to be found in Piedmont. Besides the revolutionists and republicans who promoted con- Italia (Young Italy) among the Italian refugees at Marseilles. spiracy and insurrection whenever possible, and the moderates or After the events of 1831 he declared that the liberation of Italy Neo-Guelphs," as Gioberti's followers were called, we could only be achieved through unity, and his great merit lies must mention the Italian exiles who were learning the art of war in foreign countries-in Spain, in Greece, in 1 Among the insurgents of Romagna was Louis Napoleon, after- Poland, in South America-and those other exiles who, in wards emperor of the French. Paris or London, eked out a bare subsistence by teaching Italian or and economic ment. and The Hallag exiles. THE RISORGIMENTOJ ITALY 51 Plus IX. by their pen, and laid the foundations of that love of Italy, which, I bouffe duke of Lucca, who had coquetted with Liberalism in the especially in England, eventually brought the weight of diplomacy necessary-the revolutionists to keep up agitation and make govern 1847 sold his duchy to Leopold II. of Tuscany (the successor of into the scales for Italian freedom. All these forces were equally past, now refused to make any concessions to his subjects, and in ment by bayonets impossible; the moderates to curb the impetu- Ferdinand III. since 1824) to whom it would have reverted in any osity of the revolutionists and to present a scheme of society that case at the death of the duchess of Parma. At the same time was neither reactionary nor anarchical; the volunteers abroad.to Leopold ceded Lunigiana to Parma and Modena in equal parts, gain military experience; and the more peaceful exiles to spread the name of Italy among foreign peoples. All the while a vast amount of an arrangement which provoked the indignation of the in- revolutionary literature was being printed in Switzerland, France habitants of the district (especially of those destined to be ruled and England, and smuggled into Italy; the poet Giusti satirized the by Francis V. of Modena, who had succeeded to Francis IV. Italian princes, the dramatist G. B. Niccolini blasted tyranny in his tragedies, the novelist Guerrazzi re-evoked the memories of the last 1846), and led to disturbances at Fivizzano. In September 1847, struggle for Florentine freedom in L'Assedio di Firenze, and Verdi's Leopold gave way to the popular agitation for a national guard, operas bristled with political double entendres which escaped the censor in spite of Metternich's threats, and allowed greater freedom of but were understood and applauded by the audience. the press; every concession made by the pope was followed by On the death of Pope Gregory XVI. in 1846 Austria hoped to demands for a similar measure in Tuscany. secure the election of another zealot; but the Italian cardinals, Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies had died in 1825, and was who did not want an Austrophil, finished the conclave succeeded by Francis I. At the latter's death in 1830 Ferdinand Election of before the arrival of Cardinal Gaysrück, Austria's II. succeeded, and although at first he gave promise of proving a mouthpiece, and in June elected Giovanni Maria wiser ruler, he soon reverted to the traditional Bourbon methods. Mastai Ferretti as Pius IX. The new pope, who while bishop | An ignorant bigot, he concentrated the whole of the executive of Imole had evinced a certain interest in Liberalism, was into his own hands, was surrounded by priests and monks, and a kindly man, of inferior intelligence, who thought that served by an army of spies. In 1847 there were unimportant all difficulties could be settled with a little good-will, some disturbances in various parts of the kingdom, but there was no reforms and a political amnesty. The amnesty which he anti-dynastic outbreak, the jealousy between Naples and Sicily granted was the beginning of the immense if short-lived popularity largely contributing to the weakness of the movement. On the which he was to enjoy. But he did not move so fast in the path 12th of January, however, a revolution, the first of the many of reform as was expected, and agitation continued throughout throughout Europe that was to make the year 1848 memorable, the papal states. In 1847 some administrative reforms were broke out at Palermo under the leadership of Ruggiero Settimo. enacted, the laity were admitted to certain offices, railways were The Neapolitan army sent to crush the rising was at first un- talked about, and political newspapers permitted. In April successful, and the insurgents demanded the constitution of 1812 Pius created a Consulta, or consultative assembly, and soon or complete independence. Disturbances occurred at Naples afterwards a council of ministers and a municipality for Rome. also, and the king, who could not obtain Austrian help, as the Here he would willingly have stopped, but he soon realized that pope refused to allow Austrian troops to pass through his he had hardly begun. Every fresh reform edict was greeted with dominions, on the advice of his prime minister, the duke of demonstrations of enthusiasm, but the ominous cry “ Viva Pio Serracapriola, granted a constitution, freedom of the press, the Nono solo!" signified dissatisfaction with the whole system of national guard, &c. (January 28). government. A lay ministry was now demanded, a constitution, The news from Naples strengthened the demand for a con- and an Italian federation for war against Austria. Rumours of a stitution in Piedmont. Count Camillo Cavour, then editor of a reactionary plot by Austria and the Jesuits against Pius, induced new and influential paper called Il Risorgimento, had him to create a national guard and to appoint Cardinal Ferretti advocated it strongly, and monster demonstrations as secretary of state. were held every day. The king disliked the idea, but 1848. Events in Rome produced widespread excitement throughout great pressure was brought to bear on him, and Europe. Metternich had declared that the one thing which had finally, on the 4th of March 1848, he granted the charter which not entered into his calculations was a Liberal pope, only that was was destined to be the constitution of the future Italian kingdom. an impossibility; still he was much disturbed by Pius's attitude, It provided for a nominated senate and an elective chamber of and tried to stem the revolutionary tide by frightening the deputies, the king retaining the right of veto; the press censor- princes. Seizing the agitation in Romagna as a pretext, he had ship was abolished, and freedom of meeting, of the press and of the town of Ferrara occupied by Austrian troops, which provoked speech were guaranteed. Balbo was called upon to form the first the indignation not only of the Liberals but also of the pope, for constitutional ministry. Three days later the grand-duke of according to the treaties Austria had the right of occupying the Tuscany promised similar liberties, and a charter, prepared by a citadel alone. There was great resentment throughout Italy, and commission which included Gino Capponi and Bettino Ricasoli, in answer to the pope's request Charles Albert declared that he was promulgated on the 17th. was with him in everything, while from South America Giuseppe In the Austrian provinces the situation seemed calmer, and Garibaldi wrote to offer his services to His Holiness. Charles the government rejected the moderate proposals of Daniele Albert, although maintaining his reactionary policy, had intro- Manin and N. Tommaseo. A demonstration in favour of Pius IX. duced administrative reforms, built railways, reorganized the on the 3rd of January at Milan was dispersed with unnecessary army and developed the resources of the country. He had little severity, and martial law was proclaimed the following month. sympathy with Liberalism and abhorred revolution, but his The revolution which broke out on the 8th of March in Vienna hatred of Austria and his resentment at the galling tutelage to itself and the subsequent flight of Metternich (see AUSTRIA- which she subjected him had gained strength year by year. HUNGARY: History), led to the granting of feeble concessions Religion was still his dominant passion, and when a pope in to Lombardy and Venetia, which were announced in Milan on Liberal guise appeared on the scene and was bullied by Austria, the 18th. But it was too late; and in spite of the exhortations his two strongest feelings-piety and hatred of Austria-ceased of the mayor, Gabrio Casati, and of the republican C. Cattaneo, to be incompatible. In 1847 Lord Minto visited the who believed that a rising against 15,000 Austrian soldiers under tionary Italian courts to try to induce the recalcitrant despots Field-Marshal Radetzky was madness, the famous Five Days' agitation, to mend their ways, so as to avoid revolution nd war, revolution began. It was a popular outburst of pent-up hate, 1847 the latter being England's especial anxiety; this unprepared by leaders, although leaders such as Luciano Manara mission, although not destined to produce much effect, aroused soon arose. Radetzky occupied the citadel and other points of extravagant hopes among the Liberals. Charles Louis, the opera- vantage; but in the night barricades sprang up by the hundred 1 In Rome itself a certain Angelo Brunetti, known as Ciceruacchio, kind of weapon. The desperate struggle lasted until the 22nd, and were manned by citizens of all classes, armed with every a forage merchant of lowly birth and a Carbonaro, exercised great influence over the masses and kept the peace where the authorities when the Austrians, having lost 5000 killed and wounded, were would have failed. forced to evacuate the city. The rest of Lombardy and Venetia Revolo tions of Revolu- 52 (THE RISORGIMENTO ITALY now flew to arms, and the Austrian garrisons, except in the On receiving the order to return, Pepe, after hesitating for some Quadrilateral (Verona, Peschiera, Mantua and Legnano) were time between his oath to the king and his desire to fight for Italy, expelled. In Venice the people, under the leadership of Manin, finally resigned his commission and crossed the Po with a few rose in arms and forced the military and civil governors (Counts thousand men, the rest of his force returning south. The effects Zichy and Palffy) to sign a capitulation on the 22nd of March, of this were soon felt. A force of Tuscan volunteers was attacked after which the republic was proclaimed. At Milan, where there by a superior body of Austrians at Curtatone and Montanaro was a division of opinion between the monarchists under Casati and defeated after a gallant resistance on the 27th of May; and the republicans under Cattaneo, a provisional administration Charles Albert, after wasting precious time round Peschiera, was formed and the question of the form of government postponed which capitulated on the 30th of May, defeated Radetzky at for the moment. The duke of Modena and Charles Louis of Goito. But the withdrawal of the Neapolitans left Durando Parma (Marie Louise was now dead) abandoned their capitals; too weak to intercept Nugent and his 30,000 men; and the in both cities provisional governments were set up which sub- latter, although harassed by the inhabitants of Venetia and sequently proclaimed annexation to Piedmont. In Rome the repulsed at Vicenza, succeeded in joining Radetzky, who was pope gave way to popular clamour, granting one concession after soon further reinforced from Tirol. The whole Austrian army another, and on the 8th of February he publicly called down now turned on Vicenza, which after a brave resistance, sur- God's blessing on Italy—that Italy hated by the Austrians, rendered on the roth of June. All Venetia except the capital whose name it had hitherto been a crime to mention. On the was thus once more occupied by the Austrians. On the 23rd, 10th of March he appointed a new ministry, under Cardinal 24th and 25th of July (first battle of Custozza) the Piedmontese Antonelli, which included several Liberal laymen, such as Marco were defeated and forced to retire on Milan with Radetzky's Minghetti, G. Pasolini, L. C. Farini and Count G. Recchi. On superior force in pursuit. The king was the object of a hostile the with a constitution drawn up by a commission of cardinals, demonstration in Milan, and although he was ready to defend without the knowledge of the ministry, was promulgated, a the city to the last, the town council negotiated a capitulation constitution which attempted the impossible task of reconciling with Radetzky. The mob, egged on by the republicans, attacked the pope's temporal power with free institutions. In the mean the palace where the king was lodged, and he escaped with while preparations for war against Austria were being carried on difficulty, returning to Piedmont with the remnants of his army. with Pius's sanction. On the 6th of August Radetzky re-entered Milan, and three There were now three main political tendencies, viz. the union days later an armistice was concluded between Austria and of north Italy under Charles Albert and an alliance with the Piedmont, the latter agreeing to evacuate Lombardy and pope and Naples, a federation of the different states under their Venetia. The offer of French assistance, made after the pro- present rulers, and a united republic of all Italy. All parties, clamation of the republic in the spring of 1848, had been rejected however, were agreed in favour of war against Austria, for which mainly because France, fearing that the creation of a strong the peoples forced their unwilling rulers to prepare. But the Italian state would be a danger to her, would have demanded only state capable of taking the initiative was Piedmont, and the the cession of Nice and Savoy, which the king refused to king still hesitated. Then came the news of the Five Days of consider. Milan, which produced the wildest excitement in Turin; unless Meanwhile, the republic had been proclaimed in Venice; First war the army were sent to assist the struggling Lombards but on the 7th of July the assembly declared in favour of fusion of Italy at once the dynasty was in jeopardy. Cavour's stirring with Piedmont, and Manin, who had been elected Daniele against articles in the Risorgimento hastened the king's decision, president, resigned his powers to the royal com- Austria. Mania and and on the 23rd of March he declared war (see for the missioners. Soon after Custozza, however, the Venice. military events ITALIAN WARS, 1848–70). But much precious Austrians blockaded the city on the land side. In time had been lost, and even then the army was not ready. Rome the pope's authority weakened day by day, and disorder Charles Albert could dispose of 90,000 men, including some increased. The Austrian attempt to occupy Bologna was re- 30,000 from central Italy, but he took the field with only half pulsed by the citizens, but unfortunately this success was followed his force. He might yet have cut off Radetzky on his retreat, by anarchy and murder, and Farini only with difficulty restored or captured Mantua, which was only held by 300 men. But his a semblance of order. The Mamiani ministry having failed to delays lost him both chances and enabled Radetzky to receive achieve anything, Pius summoned Pellegrino Rossi, a learned reinforcements from Austria. The pope, unable to resist the lawyer who had long been exiled in France, to form a cabinet. popular demand for war, allowed his army to depart (March 23) On the 15th of November he was assassinated, and as no one under the command of General Durando, with instructions to was punished for this crime the insolence of the disorderly act in concert with Charles Albert, and he corresponded with the elements increased, and shots were exchanged with the Swiss grand-duke of Tuscany and the king of Naples with a view to a Guard. The terrified pope fled in disguise to Gaeta (November military alliance. But at the same time, fearing a schism in the 25), and when parliament requested him to return he refused church should he attack Catholic Austria, he forbade his troops even to receive the deputation. This meant a complete rupture; to do more than defend the frontier, and in his Encyclical of the on the 5th of February 1849 a constituent assembly was 29th of April stated that, as head of the church, he could not summoned, and on the 9th it voted the downfall of the temporal declare war, but that he was unable to prevent his subjects from power and proclaimed the republic. Mazzini hurried Proclama. following the example of other Italians. He then requested to Rome to see his dream realized, and was chosen tion of the Charles Albert to take the papal troops under his command, and head of the Triumvirate. On the 18th Pius invited Roman also wrote to the emperor of Austria asking him voluntarily the armed intervention of France, Austria, Naples Republic to relinquish Lombardy and Venetia. Tuscany and Naples had and Spain to restore his authority. In Tuscany the government both joined the Italian league; a Tuscan army started for drifted from the moderates to the extreme democrats; the Lombardy on the 30th of April, and 17,000 Neapolitans com- Ridolfi ministry was succeeded after Custozza by that of Ricasoli, manded by Pepe (who had returned after 28 years of exile) and the latter by that of Capponi. The lower classes provoked went to assist Durando in intercepting the Austrian reinforce- disorders, which were very serious at Leghorn, and were only ments under Nugent. The Piedmontese defeated the enemy quelled by Guerrazzi's energy. Capponi resigned in October at Pastrengo (April 30), but did not profit by the victory. 1848, and Leopold reluctantly consented to a democratic ministry The Neapolitans reached Bologna on the 17th of May, but in led by Guerrazzi and Montanelli , the former a very ambitious the meantime a dispute had broken out at Naples between the and unscrupulous man, the latter honest but fantastic. Follow- king and parliament as to the nature of the royal oath; a cry of ing the Roman example, a constituent assembly was demanded treason was raised by a group of factious youngsters, barricades to vote on union with Rome and eventually with the rest of were erected and street fighting ensued (May 15). On the Italy. The grand-duke, fearing an excommunication from the 17th Ferdinand dissolved parliament and recalled the army. I pope, refused the request, and left Florence for Siena and THE RISORGIMENTO) ITALY 53 11 Garibaldi. and the Roman Charles Albert re- news the war. S. Stefano; on the 8th of February 1849 the republic was pro- loyal to the grand-duke. After Novara the chief question was claimed, and on the 21st, at the pressing request of the pope and how to avoid an Austrian occupation, and owing to the prevailing the king of Naples, Leopold went to Gaeta, confusion the town council of Florence took matters into its Ferdinand did not openly break his constitutional promises own hands and declared the grand-duke reinstated, but on a until Sicily was reconquered. His troops had captured Messina constitutional basis and without foreign help (April 12). Leopold after a bombardment which earned him the sobriquet of " King accepted as regards the constitution, but said nothing about Bomba "; Catania and Syracuse fell soon after, hideous atrocities foreign intervention. Count Serristori, the grand-ducal com- being everywhere committed with his sanction. He now pro- missioner, arrived in Florence on the 4th of May 1849; the rogued parliament, adopted stringent measures against the national guard was disbanded; and on the 25th, the Austrians Liberals, and retired to Gaeta, the haven of refuge for deposed under d'Aspre entered Florence. despots. On the 28th of July Leopold returned to his capital, and while But so long as Piedmont was not completely crushed none of that event was welcomed by a part of the people, the fact that the princes dared to take decisive measures against their subjects; he had come under Austrian protection ended by destroying all in spite of Custozza, Charles Albert still had an army, and Austria, loyalty to the dynasty, and consequently contributed not a with revolutions in Vienna, Hungary and Bohemia on her little to Italian unity. hands, could not intervene. In Piedmont the Pinelli-Revel In Rome the triumvirate decided to defend the republic to ministry, which had continued the negotiations for an alliance the last. The city was quieter and more orderly than it had with Leopold and the pope, resigned as it could not count ever been before, for Mazzini and Ciceruacchio success. on a parliamentary majority, and in December the returned fully opposed all class warfare; and in April the exile Gioberti formed a new ministry. His proposal to reinstate defenders received a priceless addition to their strength in the Leopold and the pope with Piedmontese arms, so as to avoid person of Garibaldi, who, on the outbreak of the revolution in Austrian intervention, was rejected by both potentates, and met 1848, had returned with a few of his followers from his exile with opposition even in Piedmont, which would thereby have in South America, and in April 1849 entered Rome with some forfeited its prestige throughout Italy. Austrian mediation 500 men to fight for the republic. At this time France, as a was now imminent, as the Vienna revolution had been crushed, counterpoise to Austrian intervention in other parts of Italy, and the new emperor, Francis Joseph, refused to consider any decided to restore the pope, regardless of the fact that this settlement other than on the basis of the treaties of 1815. But action would necessitate the crushing of a sister France Charles Albert, who, whatever his faults, had a generous republic. As yet, however, no such intention was nature, was determined that so long as he had an publicly avowed. On the 25th of April General army in being he could not abandon the Lombards Oudinot landed with 8000 men at Civitavecchia, and Republic, and the Venetians, whom he had encouraged in their on the 30th attempted to capture Rome by suprise, but was resistance, without one more effort, though he knew full well completely defeated by Garibaldi, who might have driven the that he was staking all on a desperate chance. On the 12th of French into the sea, had Mazzini allowed him to leave the city. March 1849, he denounced the armistice, and, owing to the The French republican government, in order to gain time for want of confidence in Piedmontese strategy after 1848, gave the reinforcements to arrive, sent Ferdinand de Lesseps to pretend chief command to the Polish General Chrzanowski. His forces to treat with Mazzini, the envoy himself not being a party to amounted to 80,000 men, including a Lombard corps and some this deception. Mazzini refused to allow the French into the Roman, Tuscan and other volunteers. But the discipline and city, but while the negotiations were being dragged on Oudinot's moral of the army were shaken and its organization faulty. force was increased to 35,000 men. At the same time an Austrian General Ramorino, disobeying his instructions, failed to prevent army was marching through the Legations, and Neapolitan and a corps of Austrians under Lieut. Field-Marshal d'Aspre Spanish troops were advancing from the south. The Roman from seizing Mortara, a fault for which he was afterwards court- army (20,000 men) was commanded by General Rosselli, and martialled and shot, and after some preliminary fighting Radetzky included, besides Garibaldi's red-shirted legionaries, volunteers won the decisive battle of Novara (March 23) which broke up from all parts of Italy, mostly very young men, many of them the Piedmontese army. The king, who had sought death in vain wealthy and of noble family. The Neapolitans were ignomini. all day, had to ask terms of Radetzky; the latter demanded ously beaten in May and retired to the frontier; on the ist of Accession a slice of Piedmont and the heir to the throne (Victor June Oudinot declared that he would attack Rome on the 4th, of Victor Emmanuel) as a hostage, without a reservation for but by beginning operations on the 3rd, when no attack was Emmanuel the consent of parliament. Charles Albert, realizing expected, he captured an important position in the Pamphili his own failure and thinking that his son might obtain gardens. better terms, abdicated and departed at once for Portugal, where In spite of this success, however, it was not until the end of he died in a monastery a few months later. Victor Emmanuel the month, and after desperate fighting, that the French pene- went in person to treat with Radetzky on the 24th of March. trated within the walls and the defence ceased (June 29). The The Field-Marshal received him most courteously and offered | Assembly, which had continued in session, was dispersed by the not only to waive the demand for a part of Piedmontese territory, French troops on the 2nd of July, but Mazzini escaped a week but to enlarge the kingdom, on condition that the constitution later. Garibaldi quitted the city, followed by 4000 of his men, should be abolished and the blue Piedmontese flag substituted and attempted to join the defenders of Venice. In spite of the for the tricolor. But the young king was determined to abide fact that he was pursued by the armies of four Powers, he by his father's oath, and had therefore to agree to an Austrian succeeded in reaching San Marino; but his force melted away occupation of the territory between the Po, the Ticino and the and, after hiding in the marshes of Ravenna, he fled across the Sesia, and of half the citadel of Alessandria, until peace should peninsula, assisted by nobles, peasants and priests, to the be concluded, the evacuation of all districts occupied by his Tuscan coast, whence he reached Piedmont and eventually troops outside Piedmont, the dissolution of his corps of Lombard, America, to await a new call to fight for Italy (see GARIBALDI). Polish and Hungarian volunteers and the withdrawal of his After a heroic defence, conducted by Giuseppe Martinengo, ffeet from the Adriatic. Brescia was recaptured in April by the Austrians under Lieut. Novara set Austria free to reinstate the Italian despots. Field-Marshal von Haynau, the atrocities which Reduc- Ferdinand at once re-established autocracy in Naples; though followed earning for Haynau the name of “The tion of the struggle in Sicily did not end until May, when Palermo, Hyena of Brescia.” In May they seized Bologna, • Venke by after a splendid resistance, capitulated. In Tuscany disorder and Ancona in June, restoring order in those towns continued, and although Guerrazzi, who had been appointed by the same methods as at Brescia. Venice alone still held out; dictator, saved the country from complete anarchy, a large part after Novara the Piedmontese commissioners withdrew and of the population, especially among the peasantry, was still . Manin again took charge of the government. The assembly II. Austria, 54 (THE RISORGIMENTO ITALY rule after 1849. were war. voted: “ Venice resists the Austrians at all costs,” and the | The Italian provinces were the most heavily taxed in the citizens and soldiers, strengthened by the arrival of volunteers whole empire, and much of the money thus levied was spent from all parts of Italy, including Pepe, who was given the chief either for the benefit of other provinces or to pay for command of the defenders, showed the most splendid devotion the huge army of occupation and the fortresses in Austriao in their hopeless task. By the end of May the city was blockaded Italy. The promise of a constitution for the empire, by land and sea, and in July the bombardment began. On the made in 1849, was never carried out; the government 24th the city, reduced by famine, capitulated on favourable of Lombardo-Venetia was vested in Field-Marshal Radetzky; terms. Manin, Pepe and a few others were excluded from the and although only very few of the revolutionists amnesty and went into exile. excluded from the amnesty, the carrying of arms or the Thus were despotism and foreign predominance re-established distribution or possession of revolutionary literature was throughout Italy save in Piedmont. Yet the “terrible year punished with death. Long terms of imprisonment and the was by no means all loss. The Italian cause had been crushed, bastinado, the latter even inficted on women, were the penalties but revolution and war had strengthened the feeling of unity, for the least expression of anti-Austrian opinion. for Neapolitans had fought for Venice, Lombards for Rome, The Lombard republicans had been greatly weakened by the Piedmontese for all Italy. Piedmont was shown to possess events of 1848, but Mazzini still believed that a bold act by a few the qualities necessary to constitute the nucleus of a great nation. revolutionists would make the people rise en masse and expel It was now evident that the federal idea was impossible, for none the Austrians. A conspiracy, planned with the object, among of the princes except Victor Emmanuel could be trusted, and others, of kidnapping the emperor while on a visit to Venice and that unity and freedom could not be achieved under a republic, forcing him to make concessions, was postponed in consequence for nothing could be done without the Piedmontese army, which of the coup d'état by which Louis Napoleon became emperor was royalist to the core. All reasonable men were now convinced of the French (1852); but a chance discovery led to a large that the question of the ultimate form of the Italian govern-number of arrests, and the state trials at Mantua, conducted in ment was secondary, and that the national efforts should be the most shamelessly inquisitorial manner, resulted in five death concentrated on the task of expelling the Austrians; the form sentences, including that of the priest Tazzoli, and many of of government could be decided afterwards. Liberals were by no imprisonment for long terms. Even this did not convince means inclined to despair of accomplishing this task; for hatred Mazzini of the hopelessness of such attempts, for he was out of of the foreigners, and of the despots restored by their bayonets, touch with Italian public opinion, and he greatly weakened his had been deepened by the humiliations and cruelties suffered influence by favouring a crack-brained outbreak at Milan on the during the war into a passion common to all Italy. 6th of February 1853, which was easily quelled, numbers of the When the terms of the Austro-Piedmontese armistice were insurgents being executed or imprisoned. Radetzky, not announced in the Chamber at Turin they aroused great indigna- satisfied with this, laid an embargo on the property of many tion, but the king succeeded in convincing the deputies Lombard emigrants who had settled in Piedmont and become Piedmoat that they were inevitable. The peace negotiations naturalized, accusing them of complicity. The Piedmontesc dragged on for several months, involving two changes government rightly regarded this measure as a violation of the of ministry, and D'Azeglio became premier. Through peace treaty of 1850, and Cavour recalled the Piedmontese Anglo-French mediation Piedmont's war indemnity was reduced minister from Vienna, an action which was endorsed by Italian from 230,000,000 to 75,000,000 lire, but the question of the public opinion generally, and won the approval of France and amnesty remained. The king declared hinıself ready to go to England. war again if those compromised in the Lombard revolution were Cavour's ideal for the present was the expulsion of Austria not freely pardoned, and at last Austria agreed to amnesty all from Italy and the expansion of Piedmont into a north Italian save a very few, and in August the peace terms were agreed upon. kingdom; and, although he did not yet think of Italian unity The Chamber, however, refused to ratify them, and it was not as a question of practical policy, he began to foresee it as a until the king's eloquent appeal from Moncalieri to his people's future possibility. But in reorganizing the shattered finances of loyalty, and after a dissolution and the election of a new parlia- the state and preparing it for its greater destinies, he had to ment, that the treaty was ratified (January 9, 1850). The impose heavy taxes, which led to rioting and involved the situation in Piedmont was far from promising, the exchequer minister himself in considerable though temporary unpopularity. was empty, the army disorganized, the country despondent and His ecclesiastical legislation, too, met with bitter opposition suspicious of the king. If Piedmont was to be fitted for the part from the Church. which optimists expected it to play, everything must be built But the question was soon forgotten in the turmoil caused by up anew. Legislation had to be entirely reformed, and the bill the Crimean War. Cavour believed that: by taking part in the for abolishing the special jurisdiction for the clergy (foro ecclesi- war his country would gain for itself a military status astico) and other medieval privileges aroused the bitter opposition and a place in the councils of the great Powers, and of the Vatican as well as of the Piedmontese clericals. This establish claims on Great Britain and France for the same year (1850) Cavour, who had been in parliament realization of its Italian ambitions. One section of public opinion Cavour. for some time and had in his speech of the 7th of March desired to make Piedmont's co-operation subject to definite struck the first note of encouragement after the gloom of Novara, promises by the Powers; but the latter refused to bind them- became minister of agriculture, and in 1851 also assumed the selves, and both Victor Emmanuel and Cavour realized that, portfolio of finance. He ended by dominating the cabinet, but even without such promises, participation would give Piedmont owing to his having negotiated a union of the Right Centre and a claim. There was also the danger that Austria might join the the Left Centre (the Connubio) in the conviction that the country allies first and Piedmont be left isolated; but there were also needed the moderate elements of both parties, he quarrelled with strong arguments on the other side, for while the Radical party D'Azeglio (who, as an uncompromising conservative, failed to saw no obvious reason why Piedmont should fight other people's see the value of such a move) and resigned. But D'Azeglio was battles, and therefore opposed the alliance, there was the risk not equal to the situation, and he, too, resigned in November that Austria might join the alliance together with Piedmont, 1852; whereupon the king appointed Cavour prime minister, which would have constituted a disastrous situation. Da a position which with short intervals he held until his death. Bormida, the minister for foreign affairs, resigned Haly The Austrians in the period from 1849 to 1859, known as the rather than agree to the proposal, and other statesmen decennio della resistenza (decade of resistance), were made to feel were equally opposed to it. But after long negotiations Congress of Paris that they were in a conquered country where they could have the treaty of alliance was signed in January 1855, and no social intercourse with the people; for no self-respecting while Austria remained neutral, a well-equipped Fied- Lombard or Venetian would even speak to an Austrian. Austria, montese force of 15,000 men, under General La Marmora, sailed on the other hand, treated her Italian subjects with great severity. I for the Crimea. Everything turned out as Cavour had hoped. Crimean War. and the 1856. THE RISORGIMENTO) ITALY 55 Unionist move. meat. governº meats after 1849. The Piedmontese troops distinguished themselves in the field, nobility. The revolutionary attempts of Bentivegna in Sicily gaining the sympathies of the French and English; and at the (1856) and of the Mazzinian Carlo Pisacane, who landed at subsequent congress of Paris (1856), where Cavour himself was Sapri in Calabria with a few followers in 1857, failed from lack of Sardinian representative, the Italian question was discussed, popular support, and the leaders were killed. and the intolerable oppression of the Italian peoples by Austria The decline of Mazzini's influence was accompanied by the and the despots ventilated. rise of a new movement in favour of Italian unity under Victor Austria at last began to see that a policy of coercion was Emmanuel, inspired by the Milanese marquis Giorgio New useless and dangerous, and made tentative efforts at conciliation. Pallavicini, who had spent 14 years in the Spielberg, Taxation was somewhat reduced, the censorship was made less and by Manin, living in exile in Paris, both of them severe, political amnesties were granted, humaner officials were ex-republicans who had become monarchists. The appointed and the Congregations (a sort of shadowy consultative propaganda was organized by the Sicilian La Farina by means assembly) were revived. In 1856 the emperor and empress of the Società Nazionale. All who accepted the motto “ Unity, visited their Italian dominions, but were received with icy Independence and Victor Emmanuel" were admitted into coldness; the following year, on the retirement of Radetzky the society. Many of the republicans and Mazzinians joined at the age of ninety-three, the archduke Maximilian, an able, it, but Mazzini himself regarded it with no sympathy. In the cultivated and kind-hearted man, was appointed viceroy. He Austrian provinces and in the duchies it carried all before it, made desperate efforts to conciliate the population, and succeeded and gained many adherents in the Legations, Rome and Naples, with a few of the nobles, who were led to believe in the possi- although in the latter regions the autonomist feeling was still bility of an Italian confederation, including Lombardy and strong even among the Liberals. In Piedmont itself it was at Venetia which would be united to Austria by a personal union first less successful; and Cavour, although he aspired ultimately alone; but the immense majority of all classes rejected these to a united Italy with Rome as the capital, openly professed no advances, and came to regard union with Piedmont with ambition beyond the expulsion of Austria and the formation of a increasing favour. North Italian kingdom. But he gave secret encouragement to Meanwhile Francis V. of Modena, restored to his duchy by the movement, and ended by practically directing its activity Austrian bayonets, continued to govern according to the traditions through La Farina. The king, too, was in close sympathy with the of his house. Charles II. of Parma, after having been society's aims, but for the present it was necessary to hide this Restored reinstated by the Austrians, abdicated in favour of his attitude from the eyes of the Powers, whose sympathy Cavour son Charles III. a drunken libertine and a cruel tyrant could only hope to gain by professing hostility to everything that (May 1849); the latter was assassinated in 1854, and savoured of revolution. Both the king and his minister realized a regency under his widow, Marie Louise, was insti- that Piedmont alone, even with the help of the National Society, tuted during which the government became somewhat more could not expel Austria from Italy without foreign assistance. tolerable, although by no means free from political persecution; Piedmontese finances had been strained to breaking-point to in 1857 the Austrian troops evacuated the duchy. Leopold of organize an army obviously intended for other than merely Tuscany suspended the constitution, and in 1852 formally defensive purposes. Cavour now set himself to the task of abolished it by order from Vienna; he also concluded a treaty of isolating Austria and securing an alliance for her expulsion. semi-subjection with Austria and a Concordat with the pope for A British alliance would have been preferable, but the British granting fresh privileges to the Church. His government, how- government was too much concerned with the preservation of ever, was not characterized by cruelty like those of his brother European peace. The emperor Napoleon, almost alone despots, and Guerrazzi and the other Liberals of 1849, although among Frenchmen, had genuine Italian sympathies. Napoleon tried and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment, were merely But were he to intervene in Italy, the intervention Italy. exiled. Yet the opposition gained recruits among all the ablest would not only have to be successful; it would have and most respectable Tuscans. In Rome, after the restoration of to bring tangible advantages to France. Hence his hesitations the temporal power by the French troops, the pope paid no and vacillations, which Cavour steadily worked to overcome. attention to Louis Napoleon's advice to maintain some form of Suddenly on the 14th of January 1858 Napoleon's life was constitution, to grant a general amnesty, and to secularize the attempted by Felice Orsini (q.o.) a Mazzinian Romagnol, who administration. He promised, indeed, a consultative council of believed that Napoleon was the chief obstacle to the success of state, and granted an amnesty from which no less than 25,000 the revolution in Italy. The attempt failed and its author was persons were excluded; but on his return to Rome (12th April caught and executed, but while it appeared at first to destroy 1850), after he was quite certain that France had given up all Napoleon's Italian sympathies and led to a sharp interchange of idea of imposing constitutional limitations on him, he re-estab- notes between Paris and Turin, the emperor was really impressed lished his government on the old lines of priestly absolutism, and, by the attempt and by Orsini's letter from prison exhorting him devoting himself to religious practices, left political affairs mostly to intervene in Italy. He realized how deep the Italian feeling to the astute cardinal Antonelli, who repressed with great for independence must be, and that a refusal to act now might severity the political agitation which still continued. At Naples result in further attempts on his life, as indeed Orsini's letter a trifling disturbance in September 1849, led to the stated. Consequently negotiations with Cavour were resumed, arrest of a large number of persons connected with the and a meeting with him was arranged to take place at Plom- Unità Italiana, a society. somewhat similar to the bières (20th and 21st of July 1858). There it was agreed that lo Naples Carbonari. The prisoners included Silvio Spaventa, France should supply 200,000 men and Piedmont 100,000 for the Luigi Settembrini, Carlo Poerio and many other cultured and expulsion of the Austrians from Italy, that Piedmont should be worthy citizens. Many condemnations followed, and hundreds of expanded into a kingdom of North Italy, that central Italy should politicals” were immured in hideous dungeons, a state of form a separate kingdom, on the throne of which the emperor things which provoked Gladstone's famous letters to Lord contemplated placing one of his own relatives, and Naples Aberdeen, in which Bourbon rule was branded for all time as another, possibly under Lucien Murat; the pope, while retaining " the negation of God erected into a system of government.” only the “ Patrimony of St Peter" (the Roman province), would But oppressive, corrupt and inefficient as it was, the government be president of the Italian confederation. In exchange for was not confronted by the uncompromising hostility of the French assistance Piedmont would cede Savoy and perhaps whole people; the ignorant priest-ridden masses were either Nice to France; and a marriage between Victor Emmanuel's indifferent or of mildly Bourbon sympathies; the opposition was daughter Clothilde and Jerome Bonaparte, to which Napoleon constituted by the educated middle classes and a part of the attached great importance, although not made a definite 1 The popular cry of “ Viva Verdi !" did not merely express condition, was also discussed. No written agreement, however, enthusiasm for Italy's most eminent musician, but signified, in was signed. initials: “ Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re d'Italia ! " a La Farina's Epistolario, ii. 426. 11. Persecu- tion of Liberals 56 (THE RISORGIMENTO ITALY of Unionist move- meats ia Central On the ist of January 1859, Napoleon astounded the diplo- | Hess met at Villafranca and arranged an armistice until the matic world by remarking to Baron Hübner, the Austrian 15th of August. But the king and Cavour were terribly upset by ambassador, at the New Year's reception at the Tuileries, that this move, which meant peace without Venetia; Cavour he regretted that relations between France and Austria were hurried to the king's headquarters at Monzambano Armistice “not so good as they had been "; and at the opening of the and in excited, almost disrespectful, language implored treaca. Piedmontese parliament on the 10th Victor Emmanuel pro- him not to agree to peace and to continue the war nounced the memorable words that he could not be insensible alone, relying on the Piedmontese army and a general Italian to the cry of pain (il grido di dolore) which reached him from all revolution. But Victor Emmanuel on this occasion proved the parts of Italy. Yet after these warlike declarations and after greater statesman of the two; he understood that, hard as it the signing of a military convention at Turin, the king agreeing was, he must content himself with Lombardy for the present, lest to all the conditions proposed by Napoleon, the latter suddenly all be lost. On the 11th the two emperors met at Villafranca, became pacific again, and adopted the Russian suggestion that where they agreed that Lombardy should be ceded to Piedmont, Halian affairs should be settled by a congress. Austria agreed and Venetia retained by Austria but governed by Liberal methods; on condition that Piedmont should disarm and should not be that the rulers of Tuscany, Parma and Modena, who had been admitted to the congress. Lord Malmesbury urged the Sardinian again deposed, should be restored, the Papal States reformed, government to yield; but Cavour refused to disarm, or to accept the Legations given a separate administration and the pope the principle of a congress, unless Piedmont were admitted to made president of an Italian confederation including Austria it on equal terms with the other Powers. As neither the Sardinian as mistress of Venetia. It was a revival of the old impossible nor the Austrian government seemed disposed to yield, the idea federal idea, which would have left Italy divided and dominated of a congress had to be abandoned. Lord Malmesbury now by Austria and France. Victor Emmanuel regretfully signed proposed that all three Powers should disarm simultaneously the peace preliminaries, adding, however, pour ce qui me concerne and that, as suggested by Austria, the precedent of Laibach (which meant that he made no undertaking with regard to should be followed and all the Italian states invited to plead central Italy), and Cavour resigned office. their cause at the bar of the Great Powers. To this course The Lombard campaign had produced important effects Napoleon consented, to the despair of King Victor Emmanuel throughout the rest of Italy. The Sardinian government had and Cavour, who saw in this a proof that he wished to back out formally invited that of Tuscany to participate in of his engagement and make war impossible. When war seemed the war of liberation, and on the grand-duke rejecting imminent volunteers from all parts of Italy, especially from the proposal, moderates and democrats combined to Lombardy, had come pouring into Piedmont to enrol themselves present an ultimatum to Leopold demanding that he Italy. in the army or in the specially raised volunteer corps (the com- should abdicate in favour of his son, grant a constitu- mand of which was given to Garibaldi), and “ to go to Piedmont " tion and take part in the campaign. On his refusal Florence rose became a test of patriotism throughout the country. Urged by as one man, and he, feeling that he could not rely on his troops, a peremptory message from Napoleon, Cavour saw the necessity abandoned Tuscany on the 27th of April 1859. A provisional of bowing to the will of Europe, of disbanding the volunteers government was formed, led by. Ubaldino Peruzzi, and was and reducing the army to a peace footing. The situation, how- strengthened on the 8th of May by the inclusion of Baron ever, was saved by a false move on the part of Austria. At Bettino Ricasoli, a man of great force of character, who became Vienna the war party was in the ascendant; the convention the real head of the administration, and all through the ensuing for disarmament had been signed, but so far from its being critical, period aimed unswervingly at Italian unity. Victor carried out, the reserves were actually called out on the 12th of Emmanuel, at the request of the people, assumed the protector- April; and on the 23rd, before Cavour's decision was known ate over Tuscany, where he was represented by the Sardinian at Vienna, an Austrian ultimatum reached Turin, summoning minister Boncompagni. On the 23rd of May Prince Napoleon, Piedmont to disarm within three days on pain of invasion. with a French army corps, landed at Leghorn, his avowed object Cavour was filled with joy at the turn affairs had taken, for being to threaten the Austrian flank; and in June these troops, Austria now appeared as the aggressor, On the together with a Tuscan contingent, departed for Lombardy, 29th Francis Joseph declared war, and the next day In the duchy of Modena an insurrection had broken out, and his troops crossed the Ticino, a move which was followed, after Magenta Duke Francis joined the Austrian army in as Napoleon had stated it would be, by a French Lombardy, leaving a regency in charge. But on the 14th of declaration of war. The military events of the Italian war of June the municipality formed a provisional government and 1859 are described under ITALIAN WARS. The actions of proclaimed annexation to Piedmont; L. C. Farini was chosen Montebello (May 20), Palestro (May 31) and Melegnano (June dictator, and 4000 Modenese joined the allies. The duchess- 8) and the battles of Magenta (June 4) and Solferino (June 24) regent of Parma also withdrew to Austrian territory, and on all went against the Austrians. Garibaldi's volunteers raised the 11th of June annexation to Piedmont was proclaimed. the standard of insurrection and held the field in the region of At the same time the Austrians evacuated the Legations and the Italian lakes. After Solferino the allies prepared to besiege Cardinal Milesi, the papal representative, departed. The muni- the Quadrilateral. Then Napoleon suddenly drew back, un- cipality of Bologna formed a Giunta, to which Romagna and willing, for many reasons, to continue the campaign. Firstly, the Marches adhered, and invoked the dictatorship of Victor he doubted whether the allies were strong enough to attack the Emmanuel; at Perugia, too, a provisional government was Quadrilateral, for he saw the defects of his own army's organiza- constituted under F. Guardabassi. But the Marches were tion; secondly, he began to fear intervention by Prussia, whose soon reoccupied by pontifical troops, and Perugia fell, its capture attitude appeared menacing; thirdly, although really anxious being followed by an indiscriminate massacre of men, women to expel the Austrians from Italy, he did not wish to create a and children. In July the marquis D'Azeglio arrived at Bologna too powerful Italian state at the foot of the Alps, which, besides as royal commissioner. constituting a potential danger to France, might threaten the After the meetings at Villafranca Napoleon returned to France. pope's temporal power, and Napoleon believed that he could not The question of the cession of Nice and Savoy had not been stand without the clerical vote; fourthly, the war had been raised; for the emperor had not fulfilled his part of the bargain, declared against the wishes of the great majority of Frenchmen that he would drive the Austrians out of Italy, since Venice was and was even now far from popular. Consequently, to the yet to be freed. At the same time he was resolutely opposed surprise of all Europe, while the allied forces were drawn up to the Piedmontese annexations in central Italy. But here ready for battle, Napoleon, without consulting Victor Emmanuel, Cavour intervened, for he was determined to maintain the sent General Fleury on the 6th of July to Francis Joseph to ask annexations, at all costs. Although he had resigned, he remained for an armistice, which was agreed to. The king was now 1. In reality the emperor was contemplating an Etrurian kingdom informed, and on the 8th Generals Vaillant, Della Rocca and with the prince at its head. Italian war of 1859. THE RISORGIMENTOJ ITALY 57 + in office until Rattazzi could form a new ministry; and while grant a constitution or 'to enter into an alliance with Sardinia. officially recalling the royal commissioners according to the The result was a revolutionary agitation which in Sicily, stirred preliminaries of Villafranca, he privately encouraged them to up by Mazzini's agents, Rosalino Pilo and Francesco remain and organize resistance to the return of the despots, if Crispi, culminated, on the 5th of April 1860, in open weder Naples necessary by force (see Cavour). Farini, who in August was revolt. An invitation had been sent Garibaldi to put Francis ii. elected dictator of Parma as well as Modena, and Ricasoli, who himself at the head of the movement; at first he since, on the withdrawal of the Sardinian commissioner Bon had refused, but reports of the progress of the insurrection compagni, had become supreme in Tuscany, were now the men soon determined him to risk all on a bold stroke, and on the who by their energy and determination achieved the annexation 5th of May he embarked at Quarto, near Genoa, with Bixio, of central Italy to Piedmont, in spite of the strenuous opposition the Hungarian Türr and some 1000 picked followers, on two of the French emperor and the weakness of many Italian Liberals. steamers. The preparations for the expedition, openly made, In August Marco Minghetti succeeded in forming a military were viewed by Cavour with mixed feelings. With its object league and a customs union between Tuscany, Romagna and he sympathized; yet he could not give official sanction to the duchies, and in procuring the adoption of the Piedmontese an armed attack on a friendly power, nor on the other hand codes; and envoys were sent to Paris to mollify Napoleon. could he forbid an 'action enthusiastically approved by public Constituent assemblies met and voted for unity under Victor opinion. He accordingly directed the Sardinian admiral Persano Emmanuel, but the king could not openly accept the proposal only to arrest the expedition should it touch at a Sardinian port; owing to the emperor's opposition, backed by the presence of while in reply to the indignant protests of the continental French armies in Lombardy; at a word from Napoleon there powers he disclaimed all knowledge of the affair. On the 11th might have been an Austrian, and perhaps a Franco-Austrian, Garibaldi landed at Marsala, without opposition, defeated the invasion of central Italy. But to Napoleon's statement that Neapolitan forces at Calatafimi on the 15th, and on the 27th he could not agree to the unification of Italy, as he was bound entered Palermo in triumph, where he proclaimed himself, in by his promises to Austria at Villafranca, Victor Emmanuel King Victor Emmanuel's name, dictator of Sicily By the end replied that he himself, after Magenta and Solferino, was bound of July, after the hard-won victory of Milazzo, the whole island, in honour to link his fate with that of the Italian people; and with the exception of the citadel of Messina and a few unim- General Manfredo Fanti was sent by the Turin government to portant ports, was in his hands. organize the army of the Central League, with Garibaldi under From Cavour's point of view, the situation was now one of him. extreme anxiety. It was certain that, his work in Sicily done, The terms of the treaty of peace signed at Zürich on the 10th Garibaldi would turn his attention to the Neapolitan dominions of November were practically identical with those of the pre- on the mainland; and beyond these lay Umbria and the Marches liminaries of Villafranca. It was soon evident, however, and—Rome. It was all-important that whatever victories Zerty of that the Italian question was far from being settled Garibaldi might win should be won for the Italian kingdom, Zürich. Central Italy refused to be bound by the treaty, and and, above all, that no ill-timed attack on the Papal States offered the dictatorship to Prince Carignano, who, himself unable should provoke an intervention of the powers. La Farina was to accept owing to Napoleon's opposition, suggested Boncompagni, accordingly sent to Palermo to urge the immediate annexation of who was accordingly elected. Napoleon now realized that it Sicily to Piedmont. But Garibaldi, who wished to keep a free would be impossible, without running serious risks, to oppose hand, distrusted Cavour and scorned all counsels of expediency, the movement in favour of unity. He suggested an international refused to agree; Sicily was the necessary base for his projected congress on the question; inspired a pamphlet, Le Pape et le invasion of Naples; it would be time enough to announce its Congrès, which proposed a reduction of the papal territory, and union with Piedmont when Victor Emmanuel had been pro- wrote to the pope advising him to cede Romagna in order to claimed king of United Italy in Rome. Foiled by the dictator's obtain better guarantees for the rest of his dominions. The stubbornness, Cavour had once more to take to underhand proposed congress fell through, and Napoleon thereupon raised methods; and, while continuing futile negotiations with King the question of the cession of Nice and Savoy as the price of Francis, sent his agents into Naples to stir up disaffection and his consent to the union of the central provinces with the Italian create a sentiment in favour of national unity strong enough, in kingdom. In January 1866 the Rattazzi ministry fell, after any event, to force Garibaldi's hand. completing the fusion of Lombardy with Piedmont, and Cavour On the 8th of August, in spite of the protests and threats of was again summoned by the king to the head of affairs. most of the powers, the Garibaldians began to cross the Straits, Cavour well knew the unpopularity that would fall upon him and in a short time 20,000 of them were on the main- by consenting to the cession of Nice, the birthplace of Garibaldi, land. The Bourbonists in Calabria, utterly dis- in Naples. and Savoy, the cradle of the royal house; but he realized the organized, broke before the invincible red-shirts, and necessity of the sacrifice, if central Italy was to be won. The the 40,000 men defending the Salerno-Avellino line made negotiations were long drawn out; for Cavour struggled to save no better resistance, being eventually ordered to fall back Nice and Napoleon was anxious to make conditions, especially on the Volturno. On the 6th of September King Francis, with as regards Tuscany. At last, on the 24th of March, the treaty his family and several of the ministers, sailed for Gaeta, and the was signed whereby the cession was agreed upon, but subject next day Garibaldi entered Naples alone in advance of the army, to the vote of the populations concerned and ratification by the and was enthusiastically welcomed. He proclaimed himself Italian parliament. The king having formally accepted the dictator of the kingdom, with Bertani as secretary of state, but voluntary annexation of the duchies, Tuscany and Romagna, as a proof of his loyalty he consigned the Neapolitan fleet to appointed the prince of Carignano viceroy with Ricasoli as Persano. governor-general (22nd of March), and was immediately after- His rapid success, meanwhile, inspired both the French wards excommunicated by the pope. On the 2nd of April 1860 emperor and the government of Turin with misgivings. There the new Italian parliament, including members from central was a danger that Garibaldi's entourage, composed of Laterveg- Italy, assembled at Turin. Three weeks later the treaty of ex-Mazzinians, might induce him to proclaim a republic Turin ceding Savoy and Nice to France was ratified, though and march on Rome; which would have meant Piodmoat. not without much opposition, and Cavour was fiercely reviled French intervention and the undoing of all: Cavour's for his share in the transaction, especially by Garibaldi, who work. King Victor Emmanuel and Cavour both wrote to even contemplated an expedition to Nice, but was induced to Garibaldi urging him not to spoil all by aiming at too much. desist by the king. But Garibaldi poured scorn on all suggestions of compromise; In May 1859 Ferdinand of Naples was succeeded by his son and Cavour saw that the situation could only be saved by Francis II., who gave no signs of any intention to change his the armed participation of Piedmont in the liberation of father's policy, and, in spite of Napoleon's advice, refused to south Italy. Garibaldi tion of 58 (THE RISORGIMENTO ITALY Gart- baldls volug. teers. > The situation was, indeed, sufficiently critical. The unrest | enjoyed immense influence at the Vatican. The task of suppressing in Naples had spread into Umbria and the Marches, and the brigandage was entrusted to Generals La Marmora and Cialdini; but in spite of extreme severity, justifiable in the circumstances, it papal troops, under General Lamoricière, were preparing to took four or five years completely to suppress the movement. Its suppress it. Had they succeeded, the position of the Pied- vitality, indeed, was largely due to the mistakes made by the montese in Romagna would have been imperilled; had they new administration, conducted as this was by officials ignorant of failed, the road would have been open for Garibaldi to march primitive than in any other part of the peninsula. Politically, its .outhern conditions and out of sympathy with a people far more on Rome. In the circumstances, Cavour decided that Piedmont sole outcome was to prove the impossibility of allowing the continu- must anticipate Garibaldi, occupy Umbria and the Marches ance of an independent Roman state in the heart of Italy. and place Italy between the red-shirts and Rome. His excuse Another of the government's difficulties was the question of what was the pope's refusal to dismiss his foreign levies (September 7). to do with Garibaldi's volunteers. Fanti, the minister of war, had three armies to incorporate in that of Piedmont, viz. thật On the 11th of September a Piedmontese army of 35,000 men of central Italy, that of the Bourbons and that of Garibaldi. crossed the frontier at La Cattolica; on the 18th the pontifical The first caused no difficulty; the rank and file of the army was crushed at Castelfidardo; and when, on the 29th, second were mostly disbanded, but a number of the officers Ancona fell, Umbria and the Marches were in the power of were taken into the Italian army; the third offered a more Piedmont. "On the 15th of October King Victor Emmanuel given equivalent rank in the Italian army, and in this he had the serious problem. Garibaldi demanded that all his officers should be crossed the Neapolitan border at the head of his troops. support of Fanti. Cavour, on the other hand, while anxious to deal It had been a race between Garibaldi and the Piedmontese. generously with the Garibaldians, recognized the impossibility of such "If we do not arrive at the Volturno before Garibaldi reaches a course, which would not only have offended the conservative spirit La Cattolica,” Cavour had said, “ the monarchy is lost, and Italy irregular troops, but would almost certainly have introduced into the of the Piedmontese military caste, which disliked and despised will remain in the prison-house of the Revolution.”i Fortun army an element of indiscipline and disorder. ately for his policy, the red-shirts had encountered a formidable obstacle to their advance in the Neapolitan army entrenched On the 18th of April the question of the volunteers was on the Volturno under the guns of Capua. On the 19th of discussed in one of the most dramatic sittings of the September the Garibaldians began their attack on this position Italian parliament. Garibaldi, elected member for Naples, with their usual impetuous valour; but they were repulsed denounced Cavour in unmeasured terms for his treatment of the again and again, and it was not till the end of October, after volunteers and for the cession of Nice, accusing him of leading a two days' pitched battle, that they succeeded in carrying the the country to civil war. These charges produced a treniendous position. The way was now open for the advance of the Pied- uproar, but Bixio by a splendid appeal for concord succeeded montese, who, save at Isernia, encountered practically no in calming the two adversaries. On the 23rd of April they were resistance. On the 29th Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi met, formally reconciled in the presence of the king, but the scene of and on the 7th of November they entered Naples together the 18th of April hastened Cavour's end. In May the Roman Garibaldi now resigned his authority into the king's hands and, question was discussed in parliament. Cavour had often declared refusing the title and other honours offered to him, retired to his that in the end the capital of Italy inust be Rome, for it alone of island home of Caprera.? all Italian cities had an unquestioned claim to moral supremacy, Gaeta remained still to be taken. The Piedmontese under and his views of a free church in a free state were well known. Cialdini had begun the siege on the 5th of November, but it was He had negotiated secretly with the pope through unofficial not until the ioth of January 1861, when at the agents, and sketched out a scheme of settlement of the Roman Recogni- tion of the instance of Great Britain Napoleon withdrew his question, which foreshadowed in its main fcatures the law of waited squadron, that the blockade could be made complete. papal guarantees. But it was not given him to see this problem kingdom On the 13th of February the fortress surrendered, solved, for his health was broken by the strain of the of Italy. Francis and his family having departed by sea for last few years, during which practically the whole papal territory. The citadel of Messina capitulated on the 22nd, administration of the country was concentrated in his and Civitella del Tronto, the last stronghold of Bourbonism, hạnds. He died after a short illness on the 6th of June 1861, on the 21st of March. On the 18th of February the first Italian at a moment when Italy had the greatest need of his statesman. parliament met at Turin, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed ship. king of Italy The new kingdom was recognized by Great Ricasoli now became prime minister, Cavour having advised Britain within a fortnight, by France three months later, and the king to that effect. The financial situation was far from subsequently by other powers. It included the whole peninsula brilliant, for the expenses of the administration of except Venetia and Rome, and these the government and the Italy were far larger than the total of those of all the Ministry. nation were determined to annex sooner or later. separate states, and everything had to be created or Financial There were, however, other serious problems calling for im- rebuilt. The budget of 1861 showed a deficit of diffi- mediate attention. The country had to be built up and converted 344,000,000 lire, while the service of the debt was from an agglomeration of scattered medieval princi- 110,000,000; deficits were met by new loans issued on unfavour. Problems palities into a unified modern nation. The first question able terms (that of July 1861 for 500,000,000 lire cost the govern- which arose was that of brigandage in the south. Brigand- age had always existed in the Neapolitan kingdom, largely ment 714,833,000), and government stock fell as low as 36. It Brigando owing to the poverty of the people; but the evil was now was now that the period of reckless finance began which, save for aggravated by the mistake of the new government in a lucid interval under Sella, was to last until nearly the end of the dismissing the Bourbon troops, and then calling them out again as recruits. A great many turned brigands rather than serve century. Considering the state of the country and the coming again, and together with the remaining adherents of Bourbon rule and war for Venice, heavy expenditure was inevitable, but good malefactors of all kinds, were made use of by the ex-king and his management might have rendered the situation less dangerous. entourage to harass the Italian administration. Bands of desperadoes Ricasoli, honest and capable as he was, failed to win popularity; were formed, commanded by the most infamous criminals and by his attitude on the Roman question, which became more un. foreigners who came to fight in what they were led to believe was an Italian Vendée, but which was in reality a campaign of butchery compromising after the failure of his attempt at conciliation, and plunder. Villages were sacked and burnt, men, women and and his desire to emancipate Italy from French predominance, children mutilated, tortured or roasted alive, and women outraged: brought down on him the hostility of Napoleon. - He fell in The authors of these deeds when pursued by troops fled into papal March 1862, and was succeeded by Rattazzi, who being more territory; where they were welcomed by the authorities and allowed to refit and raise fresh recruits under the aegis of the Church. The pliable and intriguing managed at first to please every- Rattazzi prime organizers of the movement were King Francis's uncle, the body, including Garibaldi. At this time the extremists Ministry count of Trapani, and Mons. de Mérode, a Belgian ecclesiastic who and even the moderates were full of schemes for liberat- i N. Bianchi, Cavo:ir, p. 118. ing Venice and Rome. Garibaldi had a plan, with which the * He asked for the Neapolitan viceroyalty for life, which the king premier was connected, for attacking Austria by raising a revolt very wisely refused. in the Balkans and Hungary, and later he contemplated a raid Death of Cavour Ricaso17 culties. of the new govern. ment age. THE RISORGIMENTO) ITALY 59 Garibaldi Affair of Asproo monte, 1862. Prusso Italian Alliance of 1866. France, into the Trentino; but the government, seeing the danger of such was sympathetic; he desired to see the Austrians expelled, and an attempt, arrested several Garibaldians at Sarnico (near the Syllabus of Pius IX., which had stirred up the more aggressive Brescia), and in the émeute which followed several persons were elements among the French clergy against his government, had shot. Garibaldi now became an opponent of the ministry, and brought him once more into harmony with the views of Victor in June went to Sicily, where, after taking counsel Emmanuel; but he dared not brave French public opinion by ead Rome. with his former followers, he decided on an immediate another war with Austria, nor did Italy desire an alliance raid on Rome. He summoned his legionaries, and in which would only have been bought at the price of further August crossed over to Calabria with 1000 men. His cessions. There remained Prussia, which, now that the Danish intentions in the main were still loyal, for he desired campaign of 1864 was over, was completing her prepara- to capture Rome for the kingdom; and he did his tions for the final struggle with Austria for the hegemony best to avoid the regulars tardily sent against him. On the of Germany; and Napoleon, who saw in the furthering of 29th of August 1862, however, he encountered a force under Bismarck's plans the surest means of securing his own influence Pallavicini at Aspromonte, and, although Garibaldi ordered his in a divided Europe, willingly lent his aid in negotiating a Prusso- men not to fire, some of the raw Sicilian volunteers discharged a Italian alliance. In the summer of 1865 Bismarck made formal few volleys which were returned by the regulars. Garibaldi proposals to La Marmora; but the pour parlers were interrupted by himself was seriously wounded and taken prisoner. He was shut the conclusion of the convention of Gastein (August 14), to which up in the fortress of Varignano, and after endless discussions as to Austria agreed partly under pressure of the Prusso-Italian entente. whether he should be tried or not, the question was settled by an To Italy the convention seemed like a betrayal; to amnesty. The affair made the ministry so unpopular Napoleon it was a set-back which he tried to retrieve by Mioghetti Ministry. that it was forced to resign. Farini, who succeeded, suggesting to Austria the peaceful cession of Venetia to retired almost at once on account of ill-health, and the Italian kingdom, in order to prevent any danger of Minghetti became premier, with Visconti-Venosta as minister its alliance with Prussia. This proposal broke on the refusal of the for foreign affairs. The financial situation continued to be emperor Francis Joseph to cede Austrian territory except as the seriously embarrassing; deficit was piled on deficit, loan upon result of a struggle; and Napoleon, won over by Bismarck at loan, and the service of the debt rose from 90,000,000 lire in the famous interview at Biarritz, once more took up the idea of 1860 to 220,000,000 in 1864. a Prusso-Italian offensive and defensive alliance. This was Negotiations were resumed with Napoleon for the evacuation actually concluded on the 8th of April 1866. Its terms, dictated of Rome by the French troops; but the emperor, though he saw by a natural suspicion on the part of the Italian government, that the temporal power could not for ever be supported stipulated that it should only become effective in the event of Italy and by French bayonets, desired some guarantee that the Prussia declaring war on Austria within three months. Peace the Roman evacuation should not be followed, at all events was not to be concluded until Italy should have received Venetia, question. immediately, by an Italian occupation, lest Catholic and Prussia an equivalent territory in Germany. opinion should lay the blame for this upon France. Ultimately The outbreak of war was postponed by further diplomatic the two governments concluded a convention on the 15th of complications. On the 12th of June Napoleon, whose policy September 1864, whereby France agreed to withdraw her troops throughout had been obscure and contradictory, signed a secret from Rome so soon as the papal army should be reorganized, treaty with Austria, under which Venice was to be handed over or at the outside within two years, Italy undertaking not to to him, to be given to Italy in the event of her making a separate attack it nor permit others to do so, and to transfer the capital peace. La armora, however, who believed himself bound in from Turin to some other city within six months. The change of honour to Prussia, refused to enter into a separate arrangement. capital would have the appearance of a definite abandonment of On the 16th the Prussians began hostilities, and on the 20th the Roma capitale programme, although in reality it was to be Italy declared war. merely a tappa (stage) on the way. The convention was kept secret, Victor Emmanuel took the supreme command of the Italian Capital but the last clause leaked out and caused the bitterest army, and La Marmora resigned the premiership (which was feeling among the people of Turin, who would have assumed by Ricasoli), to become chicf of the staff. ferred to been resigned to losing the capital provided it were La Marinora had three army corps (130,000 men) Miaistry. Florence, transferred to Rome, but resented the fact that it was under his immediate command, to operate on the 1865. to be established in any other city, and that the con- Mincio, while Cialdini with 80,000 men was to operate on the vention was made without consulting parliament. Demonstra- Po. The Austrian southern army consisting of 95,000 men was tions were held which were repressed with unnecessary violence, commanded by the archduke Albert, with General von John and although the change of capital was not unpopular in the rest of as chief of the staff. On the 23rd of June La Marmora crossed Italy, where the Piemontesismo of the new régime was beginning the Mincio, and on the 24th a battle was fought at Custozza, to arouse jealousy, the secrecy with which the affair was arranged under circumstances highly disadvantageous to the Italians, and the shooting down of the people in Turin raised such a storm which after a stubborn contest ended in a crushing Austrian of disapproval that the king for the first time used his privilege victory. Bad generalship, bad organization and the jealousy of dismissing the ministry. Under La Marmora's ad- between La Marmora and Della Rocca were responsible for this ministration the September convention was ratified, defeat. Custozza might have been afterwards retrieved, for Mlaistry. and the capital was transferred to Florence the follow the Italians had plenty of fresh troops besides Cialdini's army; ing ycar. This affair resulted in an important but nothing was done, as both the king and La Marmora believed political change, for the Piedmontese deputies, hitherto the the situation to be much worse than it actually was. On the bulwarks of moderate conservatism, now shifted to the Left or 3rd of July the Prussians completely defeated the constitutional opposition. Austrians at Königgrätz, and on the 5th Austria König Meanwhile, the Venetian question was becoming more and ceded Venetia to Napoleon, accepting his mediation grätz. more acute. Every Italian felt the presence of the Austrians in in favour of peace. The Italian iron-clad fleet com- the lagoons as a national humiliation, and between manded by the incapable Persano, after wasting much time at Stion. 1859 and 1866 countless plots were hatched for their Taranto and Ancona, made an unsuccessful attack on the expulsion. But, in spite of the sympathy of the king, Dalmatian island of Lisha on the 18th of July, and on the 20th the attempt to raise armed bands in Venetia had no success, and was completely defeated by the Austrian squadron, consisting it became clear that the foreigner could only be driven from the of wooden ships, but commanded by the capable Admiral peninsula by regular war. To wage this alone Italy was still too Tegethoff. weak, and it was necessary to look round for an ally. Napoleon On the 22nd Prussia, without consulting Italy, made an armis- 1 The counterblast of Pius IX. to this convention was the encyclical tice with Austria, whịle Italy obtained an eight days' truce on Quanta Cura of Dec. 8, 1864, followed by the famous Syllabus. condition of evacuating the Trentino, which had almost entirely trans- Ricasoll La Marmora Battle of Venetiaa 60 (THE RISORGIMENTO ITALY Revolt ja 1866. Rattazzi fallen into the hands of Garibaldi and his volunteers. Ricasoli | sides with France against Germany in the struggle between the wished to go on with the war, rather than accept Venetia as a two powers which he saw to be inevitable. At the same time gift from France; but the king and La Marmora saw that Napoleon was making overtures both to Austria and to Italy, peace must be made, as the whole Austrian army of 350,000 overtures which were favourably received. Victor Emmanuel men was now free to fall on Italy. An armistice was accord- was sincerely anxious to assist Napoleon, for in spite of Nice ingly signed at Cormons on the 12th of August, Austria and Savoy and Mentana he felt a chivalrous desire to help the handed Venetia over to General Leboeuf, representing man who had fought for Italy. But with the French at Civita. Venice Napoleon; and on the 3rd of October peace between vecchia (they had left Rome very soon after Mentana) a war for. united to Italy. Austria and Italy was .concluded at Vienna. On the France was not to be thought of, and Napoleon would not promise 19th Leboeuf handed Venetia over to the Venetian more than the literal observance of the September convention. representatives, and at the plebiscite held on the 21st and 22nd, Austria would not join France unless Italy did the same, and 647,246 votes were returned in favour of union with Italy, only she realized that that was impossible unless Napoleon gave way 69 against it. When this result was announced to the king by about Rome. Consequently the negotiations were suspended. a deputation from Venice he said: “ This is the finest day of | A scandal concerning the tobacco monopoly led to Lanza my life; Italy is made, but it is not complete.” Rome was the fall of Menabrea, who was succeeded in December Ministry. still wanting. 1869 by Giovanni Lanza, with Visconti-Venosta at Custozza and Lissa were not Italy's only misfortunes in 1866. the foreign office and Q. Sella as finance minister. The latter There had been considerable discontent in Sicily, where the introduced a sounder financial policy, which was maintained government had made itself unpopular. The priest- until the fall of the Right in 1876. Mazzini, now openly hostile hood and the remnants of the Bourbon party fomented to the monarchy, was seized with a perfect monomania for in- Sicily, an agitation, which in September culminated in an surrections, and promoted various small risings, the only effect attack on Palermo by 3000 armed insurgents, and in of which was to show how completely his influence was gone. similar outbreaks elsewhere. The revolt was put down owing In December 1869 the XXI. oecumenical council began its to the energy of the mayor of Palermo, Marquis A. Di Rudini, sittings in Rome, and on the 18th of July 1870 proclaimed the and the arrival of reinforcements. The Ricasoli cabinet fell infallibility of the pope (see VATICAN COUNCIL). Two days over the law against the religious houses, and was succeeded previously Napoleon had declared war on Prussia, and immedi- by that of Rattazzi, who with the support of the Leftately afterwards he withdrew his troops from Civitavecchia; Ministry. was apparently more fortunate. The French regular but he persuaded Lanza to promise to abide by the September troops were withdrawn from Rome in December 1866; convention, and it was not until after Wörth and Gravelotte but the pontifical forces were largely recruited in France and that he offered to give Italy a free hand to occupy Rome. Then commanded by officers of the imperial army, and service under it was too late; Victor Emmanuel asked Thiers if he could the pope was considered by the French war office as equivalent give his word of honour that with 100,000 Italian troops France to service in France. This was a violation of the letter as well could be saved, but Thiers remained silent. Austria replied as of the spirit of the September convention, and a stronger like Italy: “ It is too late.” On the 9th of August Italy made and more straightforward statesman than Rattazzi would have a declaration of neutrality, and three weeks later Visconti- declared Italy absolved from its provisions. Mazzini now wanted Venosta informed the powers that Italy was about to occupy to promote an insurrection in Roman territory, whereas Garibaldi Rome. On the 3rd of September the news of Sédan reached advocated an invasion from without. He delivered a series Florence, and with the fall of Napoleon's empire the September of violent speeches against the papacy, and made open prepara-convention ceased to have any value. The powers having tions for a raid, which were not interfered with by the govern- engaged to abstain from intervention in Italian affairs, Victor ment; but on the 23rd of September 1867 Rattazzi had him Emmanuel addressed a letter to Pius IX. asking him in the name suddenly arrested and confined to Caprera. In spite of the of religion and peace to accept Italian protection instead of the vigilance of the warships he escaped on the 14th of temporal power, to which the pope replied that he Garibaldi October and landed in Tuscany. Armed bands had would only yield to force. On the with of September already entered papal territory, but achieved nothing General Cadorna at the head of 60,000 men entered Rome. in particular. Their presence, however, was a sufficient papal territory. The garrison of Civitavecchia sur- excuse for Napoleon, under pressure of the clerical party, to rendered to Bixio, but the 10,000 men in Rome, mostly French, send another expedition to Rome (26th of October). Rattazzi, Belgians, Swiss and Bavarians, under Kanzler, were ready to after ordering a body of troops to enter papal territory with no fight. Cardinal Antonelli would have come to terms, but the definite object, now resigned, and was succeeded by pope decided on making a sufficient show of resistance to prove Menabrea Menabrea. Garibaldi joined the bands on the 23rd, that he was yielding to force. On the 20th the Italians began Ministry. but his ill-armed and ill-disciplined force was very the attack, and General Mazé de la Roche's division having inferior to his volunteers of '49, '60 and '66. On the 24th he effected a breach in the Porta Pia, the pope ordered the garrison captured Monte Rotondo, but did not enter Rome as the expected to cease fire and the Italians poured into the Eternal City followed insurrection had not broken out. On the 29th a French force, hy thousands of Roman exiles. By noon the whole city on the under de Failly, arrived, and on the 3rd of November a battle left of the Tiber was occupied and the garrison laid down their took place at Mentana between 4000 or 5000 red- arms; the next day, at the pope's request, the Leonine City shirts and a somewhat superior force of French and on the right bank was also occupied. It had been intended to pontificals. The Garibaldians, mowed down by the leave that part of Rome to the pope, but by the earnest desire new French chassepôl rifles, fought until their last cartridges of the inhabitants it too was included in the Italian kingdom. were exhausted, and retreated the next day towards the Italian At the plebiscite there were 133,681 votes for union and 1507 frontier, leaving 800 prisoners. against it. In July 1872 King Victor Emmanuel made his The affair of Mentana caused considerable excitement through- solemn entry into Rome, which was then declared the capital out Europe, and the Roman question entered on an acute stage. of Italy. Thus, after a struggle of more than half a century, in Napoleon suggested his favourite expedient of a congress, spite of apparently insuperable obstacles, the liberation and but the proposal broke down owing to Great Britain's refusal the unity of Italy were accomplished. to participate; and Rouher, the French premier, declared in BIBLIOGRAPHY.-A vast amount of material on the Risorgimento the Chamber (5th of December 1867) that France could never has been published both in Italy and abroad as well as numerous permit the Italians to occupy Rome. The attitude of France works of a literary and critical nature. The most detailed Italian strengthened that anti-French feeling in Italy which had begun mentoʻlialiano in g vols. (Turin, 1888–1897), based on a diligent study history of the period is Carlo Tivaroni's Storia critica del Risorgi- with Villafranca; and Bismarck was not slow to make use of the original authorities and containing a large amount of informa- of this hostility, with a view to preventing Italy from taking I tion; the author is a Mazzinian, which fact should be taken into attacks Italian occupa- tion of Rome. Battle of Mentana. 1870-1902) ITALY 61 The Law of Guar antees. tion of Rome. account, but he generally quotes the opinions of those who disagree for finance, Giacomelli, had, as a precautionary measure, seized with him as well. Another voluminous but less valuable work is the pontifical treasury; but upon being informed by Cardinal F. Bertolini's Storia d'Italia dal 1814 al 1878, in 2 parts (Milan, 1880- 1881). L. Chiala's Lettere del Conte di Cavour (7 vols., Turin, 1883-) Antonelli that among the funds deposited in the treasury were 1887) and D. Zanichelli's Scritti del Conte di Cavour (Bologna, 1892) 1,000,000 crowns of Peter's Pence offered by the faithful to the are very important, and so are Prince Metternich's Mémoires ( 7 vols., pope in person, the commissioner was authorized by the Italian Paris, 1881). P. Orsi's L'Italia moderna (Milan, 1901) should also be mentioned." N. Bianchi's Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia council of state not only to restore this sum, but also to indemnify (8 vols., Turin, 1865) is an invaluable and thoroughly reliable work. the Holy See for moneys expended for the service of the October See also Zini's Storia d'Italia (4 vols., Milan, 1875); Gualterio's coupon of the pontifical debt, that debt having been taken over Gli ultimi rivolgimenti italiani (4 vols., Florence, 1850) is important by the Italian state. On the 29th of September Cardinal Antonelli for the period from ·1831 to 1847, and so also is L. Farina's Storia further apprised Baron Blanc that he was about to issue draft's d'Italia dal 1815 al 1849 (5 vols., Turin, 1851); W. R. Thayer's Dawn of Italian Independence (Boston, 1893) is gushing and not always for the monthly payment of the 50,000 crowns inscribed in the accurate; C. Cantù's Deli indipendenza italiana cronistoria (Naples, pontifical budget for the maintenance of the pope, the Sacred 1,872-1877), is reactionary, and often unreliahle; V. Bersezio, Il College, the apostolic palaces and the papal guards. The Regno di Vittorio Emanuele II (8. vols., Tun., 1889, &c.), For Italian treasury at once honoured all the papal drafts, and thus English readers Countess E. Martinengo Cesaresco's Liberation of Italy (London, 1895) is to be strongly recommended, and is indeed, contributed a first instalment of the 3,225,000 lire per annum for accuracy, fairness and synthesis, as well as for charm of style, afterwards placed by Article 4 of the Law of Guarantees at the one of the very best books on the subject in any language; Bolton disposal of the Holy See. Payments would have been regularly King's History of Italian Unity (2 vols., London, 1899) is bulkier and less satisfactory, but contains a useful bibliography: A succinct continued had not pressure from the French Clerical party account of the chief events of the period will be found in Sir Spencer coerced the Vatican into refusing any further instalment. Walpole's History of Twenty-Five Years (London, 1904). See also Once in possession of Rome, and guarantor to the Catholic the Cambridge , Modern History, vols. x. and xi. (Cambridge, 1907, &c.), world of the spiritual independence of the pope, the Italian where full bibliographies will be found. (L. V.*) government prepared juridically to regulate its F. HISTORY, 1870-1902? relations to the Holy See. A bill known as the Law of Guarantees was therefore framed and laid before The downfall of the temporal power was hailed throughout parliament. The measure was an amalgam of Cavour's Italy with unbounded enthusiasm. Abroad, Catholic countries scheme for a “free church in a free state," of Ricasoli's Free Italian at first received the tidings with resignation, and Church Bill, rejected by parliament four years previously, occupa- Protestant countries with joy. In France, where the and of the proposals presented to Pius IX. by Count Ponza di Government of National Defence had replaced the San Martino in September 1870. After a debate lasting nearly Empire, Crémieux, as president of the government two months the Law of Guarantees was adopted in secret ballot delegation at Tours, hastened to offer his congratulations to on the 21st of March 1871 by 185 votes against 106. Italy. The occupation of Rome caused no surprise to the French government, which had been forewarned on Ilth It consisted of two parts. The first, containing thirteen articles, September of the Italian intentions. On that occasion Jules recognized (Articles and 2). the person of the pontiff as sacred and intangible, and while providing for free discussion of religious Favre had recognized the September convention to be dead, and, questions, punished insults and outrages against the pope in the while refusing explicitly to denounce it, had admitted that unless same way as insults and outrages against the king. Royal honours Italy went to Rome the city would become a prey to dangerous the same precedence as that accorded to him by other Catholic were attributed to the pope (Article 3), who was further guaranteed agitators. At the same time he made it clear that Italy would sovereigns, and the right to maintain his Noble and Swiss guards. occupy Rome upon her own responsibility. Agreeably surprised Article 4 allotted the pontiff an annuity of 3,225,000 lire (£129,000) by this attitude on the part of France, Visconti-Venosta lost for the maintenance of the Sacred College, the sacred palaces, the no time in conveying officially the thanks of Italy to the French congregations, the Vatican chancery, and the diplomatic service. government. He doubtless foresaw that the language of Favre exempted from all taxation, and the pope was assured perpetual The sacred palaces, museums and libraries were, by Article 5, and Crémieux would not be endorsed by the French Clericals. enjoyment of the Vatican and Lateran buildings and gardens, and of Prussia, while satisfied at the fall of the temporal power, seemed the papal villa at Castel Gandolfo. Articles 6 and 7 forbade access to fear lest Italy might recompense the absence of French opposi- of any Italian official or agent to the above-mentioned palaces or to tion to the occupation of Rome by armed intervention in favour ization from the pope, conclave or council. Article 8 prohibited the any eventual conclave or oecumenical council without special author- of France. Bismarck, moreover, was indignant at the connivance seizure or examination of any ecclesiastical papers, documents, of the Italian government in the Garibaldian expedition to books or registers of purely spiritual character. Article 9 guaranteed Dijon, and was irritated by Visconti-Venosta's plea in the to the pope full freedom for the exercise of his spiritual ministry, and Italian parliament for the integrity of French territory. The doors of the Roman churches and basilicas. Article 10 extended provided for the publication of pontifical announcements on the course of events in France, however, soon calmed German immunity to ecclesiastics employed by the Holy See, and bestowed apprehensions. The advent of Thiers, his attitude towards upon foreign ecclesiastics in Rome the personal rights of Italian the petition of French bishops on behalf of the pope, the recall citizens. By Article 11, diplomatists accredited to the Holy See, of Senard, the French minister at Florence—who had written to and papal diplomatists while in Italy, were placed on the same footing as diplomatists accredited to the Quirinal. Article 12 provided for congratulate Victor Emmanuel on the capture of Rome-and the transmission free of cost in Italy of all papal telegrams and the instructions given to his successor, the comte de Choiseul, correspondence both with bishops and foreign governments, and to absent himself from Italy at the moment of the king's official sanctioned the establishment, at the expense of the Italian state, of a papal telegraph office served by papal officials in communication entry into the new capital (2nd July 1871), together with the with the Italian postal and telegraph system. Article 13 exempted haste displayed in appointing a French ambassador to the Holy all ecclesiastical seminaries, academies, colleges and schools for the See, rapidly cooled the cordiality of Franco-Italian relations, and education of priests in the city of Rome from all interference on reassured Bismarck on the score of any dangerous intimacy the part of the Italian government. between the two governments. This portion of the law, designed to reassure foreign Catholics, met with little opposition; but the second portion, regulating the The friendly attitude of France towards Italy during the relations between state and church in Italy, was sharply criticized period immediately subsequent to the occupation of Rome by deputies who, like Sella, recognized the ideal of a " free church in seemed to cow and to dishearten the Vatican. For a free state " to be an impracticable dream. The second division of a few weeks the relations between the Curia and the the law abolished (Article 14) all restrictions upon the right of Vatican. Italian authorities were marked by a conciliatory relinquished its rights to apostolic legation in Sicily, and to the ap- meeting of members of the clergy. By Article 15 the government spirit. The secretary-general of the Italian foreign pointment of its own nominees to the chief benefices throughout the office, Baron Blanc, who had accompanied General Cadorna kingdom. Bishops were further dispensed from swearing fealty to to Rome, was received almost daily by Cardinal Antonelli, the king, though, except in Rome and suburbs, the choice of bishops was limited to ecclesiastics of Italian nationality. Article 16 papal secretary of state, in order to settle innumerable questions abolished the need for royal exequatur and place for ecclesiastical arising out of the Italian occupation. The royal commissioner | publications, but,subordinated the enjoyment of temporalities by Attitude of the 62 (1870-1903 ITALY bishops and priests to the concession of state exequalır and placet. one-fifth of his civil list, ministers and the higher civil servants Article 17 maintained the independence of the ecclesiastical juris- were required to relinquish a portion of their meagre salaries, diction in spiritual and disciplinary matters, but reserved for the but, in spite of all, Sella had found himself in 1865 compelled state the exclusive right to carry out coercive measures. to propose the most hated of fiscal burdens--a grist tax on On the 12th of July 1871, Articles 268, 269 and 270 of the cereals. This tax (macinato) had long been known in Italy. Italian Penal Code were so modified as to make ecclesiastics Vexatious methods of assessment and collection had made it so liable to imprisonment for periods varying from six months to unpopular that the Italian government in 1859-1860 had thought five years, and to fines from 1000 to 3000 lire, for spoken or it expedient to abolish it throughout the realm. Sella hoped written attacks against the laws of the state, or for the fomenta- by the application of a mechanical meter both to obviate the tion of disorder. An encyclical of Pius IX. to the bishops of the odium attaching to former methods of collection and to avoid the Catholic Church on the 15th of May 1871 rep liated the Law of maintenance of an army of inspectors and tax-gatherers, whose Guarantees, and summoned Catholic princes to co-operate in stipends had formerly eaten up most of the proceeds of the restoring the temporal power. Practically, therefore, the law impost. Before proposing the reintroduction of the tax, Sella has remained a one-sided enactment, by which Italy considers and his friend Ferrara improved and made exhaustive experi- herself bound, and of which she has always observed the spirit, ments with the meter. The result of their efforts was laid before even though the exigencies of self-defence may have led in some parliament in one of the most monumental and most painstaking minor respects to non-observance of the letter. The annuity preambles ever prefixed to a bill. Sella, nevertheless, fell before payable to the pope has, for instance, been made subject to the storm of opposition which his scheme aroused. Scialoja, quinquennial prescription, so that in the event of tardy recogni- who succeeded him, was obliged to adopt a similar proposal, tion of the law the Vatican could at no time claim payment of but parliament again proved refractory. Ferrara, successor of more than five years' annuity with interest. Scialoja, met a like fate; but Count Cambray-Digny, finance For a few months after the occupation of Rome pressing minister in the Menabrea cabinet of 1868–1869, driven to find questions incidental to a new change of capital and to the means to cover a deficit aggravated by the interest on the administration of a new domain distracted public attention from Venetian debt, succeeded, with Sella's help, in forcing a Grist the real condition of Italian affairs. The rise of the Tiber and Tax Bill through parliament, though in a form of which Sella the flooding of Rome in December 1870 (tactfully used by could not entirely approve. When, on the ist of January 1869, Victor Emmanuel as an opportunity for a first visit to the new the new tax came into force, nearly half the flour-mills in Italy capital) illustrated the imperative necessity of reorganizing the ceased work. In many districts the government was obliged drainage of the city and of constructing the Tiber embankment. to open mills on its own account. Inspectors and tax-gatherers In spite of pressure from the French government, which desired did their work under police protection, and in several parts of Italy to maintain Florence as the political and to regard Rome the country riots' had to be suppressed manu militari. At first merely as the moral capital of the realm, the government offices the net revenue from the impost was less than £1,100,000; but and both legislative chambers were transferred in 1871 to the under Sella's firm administration (1869–1873), and in consequence Eternal City. Early in the year the crown prince Humbert with of improvements gradually introduced by him, the net return the Princess Margherita took up their residence in the Quirinal ultimately exceeded £3,200,000. The parliamentary opposition Palace, which, in view of the Vatican refusal to deliver up the to the impost, which the Left denounced as “the tax on hunger," keys, had to be opened by force. Eight monasteries were was largely factitious. Few, except the open partisans of national expropriated to make room for the chief state departments, bankruptcy, doubted its necessity; yet so strong was the current pending the construction of more suitable edifices. The growth of feeling worked up for party purposes by opponents of the of Clerical influence in France engendered a belief that Italy measure, that Sella's achievement in having by its means saved would soon have to defend with the sword her newly-won unity, the financial situation of Italy deserves to rank among the most while the tremendous lesson of the Franco-Prussian War con- noteworthy performances of modern parliamentary statesman- vinced the military authorities of the need for thorough military ship. reform. General Ricotti Magnani, minister of war, therefore Under the stress of the appalling financial conditions framed an Army Reform Bill designed to bring the Italian army represented by chronic deficit, crushing taxation, the heavy as nearly as possible up to the Prussian standard. Sella, minister expenditure necessary for the consolidation of the kingdom, the of finance, notwithstanding the sorry plight of the Italian reform of the army and the interest on the pontifical debt, Sella, exchequer, readily granted the means for the reform. 'We on the inth of December 1871, exposed to parliament the must arm," he said, “since we have overturned the papal financial situation in all its nakedness. He recognized that throne,” and he pointed to France as the quarter from which considerable improvement had already taken place. Revenue attack was most likely to come. from taxation had risen in a decade from £7,000,000 to Though perhaps less desperate than during the previous decade, £20,200,000; profit on state monopolies had increased from the condition of Italian finance was precarious indeed. With £7,000,000 to £9,400,000; exports had grown to exceed imports; taxation screwed up to breaking point on personal and income from the working of telegraphs had tripled itself; rail- Finance, real estate, on all forms of commercial and industrial ways had been extended from 2200 to 6200 kilometres, and the activity, and on salt, flour and other necessaries of life; with a annual travelling public had augmented from 15,000,000 to deficit of £8,500,000 for the current year, and the prospect of a 25,000,000 persons. The serious feature of the situation lay further aggregate deficit of £12,000,000 during the next quin- less in the income than in the “ intangible "expenditure, namely, quennium, Sella's heroic struggle against national bankruptcy the vast sums required for interest on the various forms of public was still far from a successful termination. ' He chiefly had debt and for pensions. Within ten years this category of outlay borne the brunt and won the laurels of the unprecedented fight had increased from £8,000,000 to £28,800,000. During the same against deficit in which Italy had been involved since 1862. period the assumption of the Venetian and Roman debts, losses As finance minister in the Rattazzi cabinet of that year he had on the issue of loans and the accumulation of annual deficits, been confronted with a public debt of nearly £120,000,000, and had caused public indebtedness to rise from £92,000,000 to with an immediate deficit of nearly £18,000,000. In 1864, as £328,000,000, no less than £100,000,000 of the latter sum having minister in the La Marmora cabinet, he had again to face an been sacrificed in premiums and commissions to bankers and excess of expenditure over income amounting to more than underwriters of loans. By economies and new taxes Sella £14,600,000. By the seizure and sale of Church lands, by the had reduced the deficit to less than £2,000,000 in 1871, but for sale of state railways, by “economy to the bone” and on one 1872 he found himself confronted with a total expenditure of supreme occasion by an appeal to taxpayers to advance a year's £8,000,000 in excess of revenue. He therefore proposed to make quota of the land-tax, he had met the most pressing engagements over the treasury service to the state banks, to increase the of that troublous period. The king was persuaded to forgo | forced currency, to raise the stamp and registration duties and " 1870–1902) ITALY 63 Orders BIII. to impose a new tax on textile fabrics. An optional conversion | account a sum of £1,000,000 for railway construction which was of sundry internal loans into consolidated stock at a lower rate of covered by credit, but, on the other hand, took no note of interest was calculated to effect considerable saving. The battle £360,000 expended in the redemption of debt. Practically, over these proposals was long and fierce. But for the tactics of therefore, the Right, of which the Minghetti cabinet was the last Rattazzi, leader of the Left, who, by basing his opposition on representative administration, left Italian finance with a surplus party considerations, impeded the secession of Minghetti and. a of £80,000. Outside the all-important domain of finance, the part of the Right from the ministerial majority, Sella would have attention of Minghetti and his colleagues was principally absorbed been defeated. On the 23rd of March 1872, however, he suc-by strife between church and state, army reform and railway ceeded in carrying his programme, which not only provided for redemption. For some time after the occupation of Rome the the pressing needs of the moment, but laid the foundation of the pope, in order to substantiate the pretence that his spiritual much-needed equilibrium between expenditure and revenue. freedom had been diminished, avoided the creation of cardinals In the spring of 1873 it became evident that the days of the and the nomination of bishops. On the 22nd of December 1873, Lanza-Sella cabinet were numbered. Fear of the advent of a however, he unexpectedly created twelve cardinals, and subse- Radical administration under Rattazzi alone prevented the quently proceeded to nominate a number of bishops. Visconti- Minghettian Right from revolting against the government. The Venosta, who had retained the portfolio for foreign affairs in the Left, conscious of its strength, impatiently awaited the moment Minghetti cabinet, at once drew the attention of the European of accession to power. Sella, the real head of the Lanza cabinet, powers to this proof of the pope's spiritual freedom and of the was worn out by four years' continuous work and disheartened imaginary nature of his “imprisonment” in the Vatican. At by the perfidious misrepresentation in which Italian politicians, the same time he assured them that absolute liberty would be particularly those of the Left, have ever excelled. By sheer force guaranteed to the deliberations of a conclave. In relation to the of will he compelled the Chamber early in 1873 to adopt some Church in Italy, Minghetti's policy was less perspicacious. minor financial reforms, but on the 29th of April found himself He let it be understood that the announcement of the appoint- in a minority on the question of a credit for a proposed statement of bishops and the request for the royal exequatur might be arsenal at Taranto. Pressure from all sides of the House, how- made to the government impersonally by the congregation of ever, induced the ministry to retain office until after the debate bishops and regulars, by a municipal council or by any other on the application to Rome and the Papal States of the Religious corporate body-a concession of which the bishops were quick to Orders Bill (originally passed in 1866)—a measure which, with take advantage, but which so irritated Italian political opinion the help of Ricasoli, was carried at the end of May. While that, in July 1875, the government was compelled to withdraw leaving intact the general houses of the various confraternities the temporalities of ecclesiastics who had neglected to apply for (except that of the Jesuits), the bill abolished the the exequatur, and to evict sundry bishops who had taken posses- Religious corporate personality of religious orders, handed over sion of their palaces without authorization from the state. their schools and hospitals to civil administrators, Parliamentary pressure further obliged Bonghi, minister of placed their churches at the disposal of the secular public instruction, to compel clerical seminaries either to forgo clergy, and provided pensions for nuns and monks, those who the instruction of lay pupils or to conform to the laws of the had families being sent to reside with their relatives, and those state in regard to inspection and examination, an ordinance who by reason of age or bereavement had no home but their which gave rise to conflicts between ecclesiastical and lay monasteries being allowed to end their days in religious houses authorities, and led to the forcible dissolution of the Mantua specially set apart for the purpose. The proceeds of the sale of seminary and to the suppression of the Catholic university in the suppressed convents and monasteries were partly converted Rome. into pensions for monks and nuns, and partly allotted to the More noteworthy than its management of internal affairs municipal charity boards which had undertaken the educational were the efforts of the Minghetti cabinet to strengthen and and charitable functions formerly exercised by the religious consolidate national defence. Appalled by the weak- Military orders. To the pope was made over £16,000 per annum as a ness, or rather the non-existence, of the and naval contribution to the expense of maintaining in Rome represen- Saint-Bon, with his coadjutor Signor Brin, addressed reform. tatives of foreign orders; the Sacred College, however, rejected himself earnestly to the task of recreating the fleet, this endowment, and summoned all the suppressed confraternities which had never recovered from the effects of the disaster of to reconstitute themselves under the ordinary Italian law of Lissa. During his three years of office he laid the foundation association. A few days after the passage of the Religious Orders upon which Brin was afterwards to build up a new Italian navy. Bill, the death of Rattazzi (5th June 1873) removed all probability Simultaneously General Ricotti Magnani matured the army of the immediate advent of the Left. Sella, uncertain of the reform scheme which he had elaborated under the preceding loyalty of the Right, challenged a vote on the immediate dis- administration. His bill, adopted by parliament on the 7th of cussion of further financial reforms, and on the 23rd of June was June 1875, still forms the ground plan of the Italian army. overthrown by a coalition of the Left under Depretis with a It was fortunate for Italy that during the whole period 1869- part of the Right under Minghetti and the Tuscan Centre under 1876 the direction of her foreign policy remained in the experi- Correnti. The administration which thus fell was unquestionably enced hands of Visconti-Venosta, a statesman whose Foreign the most important since the death of Cavour. It had completed trustworthiness, dignity and moderation even political policy national unity, transferred the capital to Rome, overcome the opponents have been compelled to recognize. Diplo- under the Right chief obstacles to financial equilibrium, initiated military reform matic records fail to substantiate the accusations of and laid the foundation of the relations between state and church. lack of initiative and instability of political criterion currently The succeeding Minghetti-Visconti-Venosta cabinet—which brought against him by contemporaries. As foreign minister of held office from the 10th of July 1873 to the 18th of March 1876— a young state which had attained unity in defiance of the most Minghetti. continued in essential points the work of the preceding formidable religious organization in the world and in opposition administration. Minghetti's finance, though less clear to the traditional policy of France, it could but be Visconti- sighted and less resolute than that of Sella, was on the whole Venosta's aim to uphold the dignity of his country while convinc- prudent and beneficial. With the aid of Sella he concluded ing European diplomacy that United Italy was an element of conventions for the redemption of the chief Italian railways from order and progress, and that the spiritual independence of the their French and Austrian proprietors. By dint of expedients he Roman pontiff had suffered no diminution. Prudence, moreover, gradually overcame the chronic deficit, and, owing to the normal counselled avoidance of all action likely to serve the predominant increase of revenue, ended his term of office with the announce- anti-Italian party in France as a pretext for violent intervention ment of a surplus of some £720,000. The question whether this in favour of the pope. On the occasion of the Metrical Congress, surplus was real or only apparent has been much debated, but which met in Paris in 1872, he, however, successfully protested there is no reason to doubt its substantial reality. It left out of | against the recognition of the Vatican delegate, Father Secchi, navy, Admiral 64 ITALY (1870-1902 < Cabinet, as a representative of a “state," and obtained from Count de administrative offices of the state for the consorteria, or close Rémusat, French foreign minister, a formal declaration that the corporation, of its own adherents. For years the men of the presence of Father Secchi on that occasion could not constitute a Left had worked to inoculate the electorate with suspicion of diplomatic precedent. The irritation displayed by Bismarck Conservative methods and with hatred of the imposts which at the Francophil attitude of İtaly towards the end of the they nevertheless knew to be indispensable to sound finance. Franco-German War gave place to a certain show of goodwill In regard to the grist tax especially, the agitators of the Left when the great chancellor found himself in his turn involved had placed their party in a radically false position. Moreover, in a struggle against the Vatican and when the policy of Thiers the redemption of the railways by the state-contracts for which began to strain Franco-Italian relations. Thíers had consistently had been signed by Sella in 1875 on behalf of the Minghetti opposed the emperor Napoleon's pro-Italian policy. In the case cabinet with Rothschild at Basel and with the Austrian govern- of Italy, as in that of Germany, he frankly regretted the constitu- ment at Vienna-had been fiercely opposed by the Left, although tion of powerful homogeneous states upon the borders of France. its members were for the most part convinced of the utility Personal pique accentuated this feeling in regard to Italy. of the operation. When, at the beginning of March 1876, these The refusal of Victor Emmanuel II. to meet Thiers at the opening contracts were submitted to parliament, a group of Tuscan of the Mont Cenis tunnel (a refusal not unconnected with offensive deputies, under Cesare Correnti, joined the opposition, and on language employed at Florence in October 1870 by Thiers during the 18th of March took advantage of a chance motion concerning his European tour, and with his instructions to the French the date of discussion of an interpellation on the grist tax to minister to remain absent from Victor Emmanuel's official place the Minghetti cabinet in a minority. Depretis, ex-pro- entry into Rome) had wounded the amour propre of the French dictator of Sicily, and successor of Rattazzi in the leadership statesman, and had decreased whatever inclination he might of the Left, was entrusted by the king with the formation of a otherwise have felt to oppose the French Clerical agitation for Liberal ministry. Besides the premiership, Depretis assumed the the restoration of the temporal power, and for French interference portfolio of finance; Nicotera, an ex-Garibaldian of First with the Italian Religious Orders Bill. Consequently relations somewhat tarnished reputation, but a man of energetic Depretis between France and Italy became so strained that in 1873 both and conservative temperament, was placed at the the French minister to the Quirinal and the Italian minister to ministry of the interior; public works were entrusted the Republic remained for several months absent from their to Zanardelli, a Radical doctrinaire of considerable juridical posts. At this juncture the emperor of Austria invited Victor. attainments; General Mezzacapo and Signor Brin replaced Emmanuel to visit the Vienna Exhibition, and the Italian General Ricotti Magnani and Admiral Saint-Bon at the war office government received a confidential intimation that acceptance and ministry of marine; while to Mancini and Coppino, pro- of the invitation to Vienna would be followed by a further minent members of the Left, were allotted the portfolios of jus- invitation from Berlin. Perceiving the advantage of a visit tice and public instruction. Great difficulty was experienced in to the imperial and apostolic court after the Italian occupation finding a foreign minister willing to challenge comparison with of Rome and the suppression of the religious orders, and con- Visconti-Venosta. Several diplomatists in active service were vinced of the value of more cordial intercourse with the German approached, but, partly on account of their refusal, and partly empire, Visconti-Venosta and Minghetti advised their sovereign from the desire of the Left. to avoid giving so important a post to accept both the Austrian and the subsequent German invitato a diplomatist bound by ties of friendship or of interest to the tions. The visit to Vienna took place on the 17th to the 22nd Right, the choice fell upon Melegari, Italian minister at Bern. of September, and that to Berlin on the 22nd to the 26th of The new ministers had long since made monarchical professions September 1873, the Italian monarch being accorded in both of faith, but, up to the moment of taking office, were nevertheless capitals a most cordial reception, although the contemporaneous considered to be tinged with an almost revolutionary hue. The publication of La Marmora's famous pamphlet, More Light on king alone appeared to feel no misgiving. His shrewd sense of the Events of 1866, prevented intercourse between the Italian political expediency and his loyalty to constitutional principles ministers and Bismarck from being entirely confidential. Visconti- saved him from the error of obstructing the advent and driving Venosta and Minghetti, moreover, wisely resisted the chancellor's into an anti-dynastic attitude politicians who had succeeded pressure to override the Law of Guarantees and to engage in an in winning popular favour. Indeed, the patriotism and loyalty Italian Kulturkampf. Nevertheless the royal journey contributed of the new ministers were above suspicion. Danger lay rather notably to the establishment of cordial relations between Italy in entrusting men schooled in political conspiracy and in un- and the central powers, relations which were further strengthened scrupulous parliamentary opposition with the government of a by the visit of the emperor Francis Joseph to Victor Emmanuel young state still beset by enemies at home and abroad. As an at Venice in April 1875, and by that of the German emperor opposition party the Left had lived upon the facile credit of to Milan in October of the same year. Meanwhile Thiers had political promises, but had no well-considered programme nor given place to Marshal Macmahon, who effected a decided other discipline nor unity of purpose than that bo of the improvement in Franco-Italian relations by recalling from common eagerness of its leaders for office and their common Civitavecchia the cruiser“Orénoque,” which since 1870 had been hostility to the Right. Neither Depretis, Nicotera, Crispi, stationed in that port at the disposal of the pope in case he Cairoli nor Zanardelli was disposed permanently to recognize should desire to quit Rome. The foreign policy of Visconti- the superiority of any one chief. The dissensions which broke Venosta may be said to have reinforced the international position out among them within a few months of the accession of their of Italy without sacrifice of dignity, and without the vacillation party to power never afterwards disappeared, except at rare and short-sightedness which was to characterize the ensuing moments when it became necessary to unite in preventing the administrations of the Left. return of the Conservatives. Considerations such as these could The fall of the Right on the 18th of March 1876 was an event not be expected to appeal to the nation at large, which hailed destined profoundly and in many respects adversely to affect the advent of the Left as the dawn of an era of unlimited popular the course of Italian history. Except at rare and not auspicious sovereignty, diminished administrative pressure, reduction of intervals, the Right had held office from 1849 to 1876. Its taxation and general prosperity. The programme of Depretis rule was associated in the popular mind with severe administra- corresponded only in part to these expectations. Its chief tion; hostility to the democratic elements represented by points were extension of the franchise, incompatibility of a Garibaldi, Crispi, Depretis and Bertani; ruthless imposition parliamentary mandate with an official position, strict and collection of taxes in order to meet the financial engagements enforcement of the rights of the State in regard to the gramme forced upon Italy by the vicissitudes of her Risorgimento; Church, protection of freedom of conscience, mainten- strong predilection for Piedmontese, Lombards and Tuscans, ance of the military and naval policy inaugurated by the and a steady determination, not always scrupulous in its choice Conservatives, acceptance of the railway redemption contracts, of means, to retain executive power and the most important consolidation of the financial equilibrium, abolition of the forced Pro- of the Left. 1870-1902) 65 ITALY currency, and, eventually, fiscal reform. The long-promised | especially as the attitude of Thiers and the hostility of the abolition of the grist tax was not explicitly mentioned, opposition French Clericals obviated the need for sparing French sus- to the railway redemption contracts was transformed into ceptibilities. Visconti-Venosta and Minghetti, partly from approval, and the vaunted-reduction of taxation replaced by aversion to a Jacobin policy, and partly from a conviction that lip-service to the Conservative deity of financial equilibrium. Bismarck sooner or later would undertake his Gang nach Canossa, The railway redemption contracts were in fact immediately regardless of any tacít engagement he might have assumed voted by parliament, with a clause pledging the government towards Italy, bad wisely declined to be drawn into any infraction to legislate in favour of farming out the railways to private of the Law of Guarantees. It was, however, expected that the companies. chiefs of the Left, upon attaining office, would turn resolutely Nicotera, minister of the interior, began his administration towards Prussia in search of a guarantee against the Clerical of home affairs by a sweeping change in the personnel of the menace embodied in the régime of Marshal Macmahon. On the prefects, sub-prefects and public prosecutors, but found himself contrary, Depretis and Melegari, both of whom were imbued obliged to incur the wrath of his supporters, by prohibiting with French Liberal doctrines, adopted towards the Republic Radical meetings likely to endanger public order, and by enunciat- an attitude so deferential as to arouse suspicion in Vienna and ing administrative principles which would have befitted an Berlin. Depretis recalled Nigra from Paris and replaced him by inveterate Conservative. In regard to the Church, he instructed General Cialdini, whose ardent plea for Italian intervention the preſects strictly to prevent infraction of the law against in favour of France in 1870, and whose comradeship with Marshał religious orders. At the same time the cabinet, as a whole, Macmahon in 1859, would, it was supposed, render him persona brought in a Clerical Abuses Bill, threatening with severe gratissima to the French government. This calculation was punishment priests guilty of disturbing the peace of families, , falsified by events. Incensed by the elevation to the rank of of opposing the laws of the state, or of fomenting disorder. embassies of the Italian legation in Paris and the French legation Depretis, for his part, was compelled to declare impracticable to the Quirinal, and by the introduction of the Italian bill the immediate abolition of the grist tax, and to frame a bill for against clerical abuses, the French Clerical party not only attacked the increase of revenue, acts which caused the secession of some Italy and her representative, General Cialdini, in the Chamber sixty Radicals and Republicans from the ministerial majority; of Deputies, but promoted a monster petition against the Italian and gave the signal for an agitation against the premier similar bill. Even the coup d'étal of the 16th of May 1877 (when to that which he himself had formerly undertaken against the Macmahon dismissed the Jules Simon cabinet for opposing the Right. The first general election under the Left (November Clerical petition) hardly availed to change the attitude of 1876) had yielded the cabinet the overwhelming majority of Depretis. As a precaution against an eventual French attempt 421 Ministerialists against 87 Conservatives, but the very size to restore the temporal power, orders were hurriedly given to of the majority rendered it unmanageable. The Clerical Abuses complete the defences of Rome, but in other respects the Italian Bill provoked further dissensions: Nicotera was severely government maintained its subservient attitude. Yet at that affected by revelations concerning his political past; Zanardelli moment the adoption of a clear line of policy, in accord with refused to sanction the construction of a railway in Calabria the central powers, might have saved Italy from the loss of in which Nicotera was interested; and Depretis saw fit to com- prestige entailed by her bearing in regard to the Russo-Turkish pensate the supporters of his bill for the increase of revenue War and 'the Austrian acquisition of Bosnia, and might have by decorating at one stroke sixty ministerial deputies with the prevented the disappointment subsequently occasioned by the Order of the Crown of Italy. A further derogation from the outcome of the Congress of Berlin. In the hope of inducing ideal of democratic austerity was committed by adding £80,000 the European powers to compensate" Italy for the increase per annum to the king's civil list (14th May 1877) and by burden- of Austrian influence on the Adriatic, Crispi undertook in the ing the state exchequer with royal household pensions amounting autumn of 1877, with the approval of the king, and in spite of to £20,000 a year. The civil list, which the law of the roth of the half-disguised opposition of Depretis, a semi-official mission August 1862 had fixed at £650,000 a year, but which had been to Paris, Berlin, London and Vienna. The mission appears voluntarily reduced by the king to £530,000 in 1864, and to not to have been an unqualified success, though Crispi afterwards £490,000 in 1867, was thus raised to £570,000 a year. Almost affirmed in the Chamber (4th March 1886) that Depretis might in the only respect in which the Left could boast a decided im- 1877 " have harnessed fortune to the Italian chariot." Depretis, provement over the administration of the Right was the energy anxious only to avoid“ a policy of adventure,” let slip whatever displayed by Nicotera in combating brigandage and the mafia opportunity may have presented itself, and neglected even to in Calabria and Sicily. Successes achieved in those provinces deal energetically with the impotent but mischievous Italian failed, however, to save Nicotera from the wrath of the Chamber, agitation for a " rectification” of the Italo-Austrian frontier. and on the 14th of December 1877 a cabinet crisis arose over a He greeted the treaty of San Stefano (3rd March 1878) with question concerning the secrecy of telegraphic correspondence. undisguised relief, and by the mouth of the king, congratulated Depretis thereupon reconstructed his administration, excluding Italy (7th March 1878) on having maintained with the powers Nicotera, Melegari and Zanardelli, placing Crispi at the home friendly and cordial relations“ free from suspicious precautions,” office, entrusting Magliani with finance, and himself assuming and upon having secured for herself " that most precious of the direction of foreign affairs. alliances, the alliance of the future "-a phrase of which the In regard to foreign affairs, the début of the Left as a governing empty rhetoric was to be bitterly demonstrated by the Berlin party was scarcely more satisfactory than its home policy. Congress and the French occupation of Tunisia. Since the war of 1866 the Left had advocated an Italo- The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet (December 1877) Foreign Prussian alliance in opposition to the Francophil placed at the ministry of the interior-a strong hand and sure eye policy of tendencies of the Right. On more than one occasion at a moment when they were about to become im- Crispl. Bismarck had maintained direct relations with the peratively necessary. Crispi was the only man of truly, chiefs of the Left, and had in 1870 worked to prevent a Franco-statesmanlike calibre in the ranks of the Left. Formerly a friend Italian alliance by encouraging the “ party of action " to press and disciple of Mazzini, with whom he had broken on the question for the occupation of Rome. Besides, the Left stood for anti- of the monarchical form of government which Crispi believed clericalism and for the retention by the State of means of coercing indispensable to the unification of Italy, he had afterwards been the Church, in opposition to the men of the Right, who, with one of Garibaldi's most efficient coadjutors and an active member the exception of Sella, favoured Cavour's ideal of “ a free Church of the “party of action.” Passionate, not always scrupulous in in a free State," and the consequent abandonment of state his choice and use of political weapons, intensely patriotic, loyak control over ecclesiastical government. Upon the outbreak of with a loyalty based rather or reason than sentiment, quick- the Prussian Kulturkampf the Left had pressed the Right to witted, prompt in action, determined and pertinacious, be introduce an Italian counterpart to the Prussian May laws, I possessed in eminent degree many qualities lacking in oiber the Left. 66 (1870-1902 ITALY Cairoll. Victor I. and { Liberal chieftains. Hardly had he assumed office when the The Depretis-Crispi cabinet did not long survive the opening unexpected death of Victor Emmanuel II. (9th January of the new reign. Crispi's position was shaken by a morally Deaths of 1878) stirred national feeling to an unprecedented plausible but juridically untenable charge of bigamy, depth, and placed the continuity of monarchical in. while on the 8th of March the election of Cairoli, an Emmanuel stitutions in Italy upon trial before Europe. For thirty opponent of the ministry and head of the extremer section of the years Victor Emmanuel had been the centre point Left, to the presidency of the Chamber, induced Depretis to Plus IX. of national hopes, the token and embodiment of the tender his resignation to the new king. Cairoli succeeded in struggle for national redemption. He had led the country out of forming an administration, in which his friend Count Corti, the despondency which followed the defeat of Novara and the Italian ambassador at Constantinople, accepted the portfolio of abdication of Charles Albert, through all the vicissitudes of foreign affairs, Zanardelli the ministry of the interior, and Seismit national unification to the final triumph at Rome. His dis- Doda the ministry of finance. Though the cabinet had no stable appearance snapped the chief link with the heroic period, and majority, it induced the Chamber to sanction a commercial removed from the helm of state a ruler of large heart, great treaty which had been negotiated with France and a general experience and civil courage, at a moment when elements of autonomous customs tariff. The commercial treaty was, continuity were needed and vital problems of internal reorganiza however,.rejected by the French Chamber in June 1878, a cir. tion had still to be faced. Crispi adopted the measures necessary cumstance necessitating the application of the Italian general to ensure the tranquil accession of King Humbert with a quick tariff, which implied a 10 to 20% increase in the duties on the energy which precluded any Radical or Republican demonstra- principal French exports. A highly imaginative financial exposi- tions. His influence decided the choice of the Roman Pantheon tion by Seismit Doda, who announced a surplus of £2,400,000, as the late monarch's burial-place, in spite of formidable pressure paved the way for a Grist Tax Reduction Bill, which Cairoli had from the Piedmontese, who wished Victor Emmanuel II. to rest taken over from the Depretis programme. The Chamber, with the Sardinian kings at Superga. He also persuaded the though convinced of the danger of this reform, the perils of which new ruler to inaugurate, as King Humbert I., the new dynastical were incisively demonstrated by Sella, voted by an overwhelming epoch of the kings of Italy, instead of continuing as Humbert IV. majority for an immediate reduction of the impost by one- the succession of the kings of Sardinia. Before the commotion fourth, and its complete abolition within four years. Cairoli's caused by the death of Victor Emmanuel had passed away, the premiership was, however, destined to be cut short by an attempt decease of Pius IX. (7th February 1878) placed further demands made upon the king's life in November 1878, during a royal visit upon Crispi's sagacity and promptitude. Like Victor Emmanuel, to Naples, by a miscreant named Passanante. In spite of the Pius IX. had been bound up with the history of the Risorgimento, courage and presence of mind of Cairoli, who received the dagger but, unlike him, had represented and embodied the anti-national, thrust intended for the king, public and parliamentary indigna- reactionary spirit. Ecclesiastically, he had become the instru- tion found expression in a vote which compelled the ministry to ment of the triumph of Jesuit influence, and had in turn set his resign. seal upon the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, the Syllabus Though brief, Cairoli's term of office was momentous in regard and Papal Infallibility. Yet, in spite of all, his jovial disposition to foreign affairs. The treaty of San Stefano had led to the and good-humoured cynicism saved him from unpopularity, and convocation of the Berlin Congress, and though Count Italy and rendered his death an occasion of mourning. Notwithstanding Corti was by no means ignorant of the rumours con- the pontiff's bestowal of the apostolic benediction in articulo cerning secret agreements between Germany, Austria Congress. mortis upon Victor Emmanuel, the attitude of the Vatican had and Russia, and Germany, Austria and Great Britain, remained so inimical as to make it doubtful whether the conclave he scarcely seemed alive to the possible effect of such agreements would be held in Rome. Crispi, whose strong anti-clerical con- upon Italy. Replying on the 9th of April 1878 to interpellations victions did not prevent him from regarding the papacy as pre- by Visconti - Venosta and other deputies on the impending eminently an Italian institution, was determined both to prove Congress of Berlin, he appeared free from apprehension lest to the Catholic world the practical independence of the govern- Italy, isolated, might find herself face to face with a change of ment of the Church and to retain for Rome so potent a centre of the balance of power in the Mediterranean, and declared that universal attraction as the presence of the future pope. The in the event of serious complications Italy would be too much Sacred College having decided to hold the conclave abroad, Crispi sought after rather than too niuch forgotten.” The policy of assured them of absolute freedom if they remained in Rome, or of Italy in the congress, he added, would be to support the interests protection to the frontier should they migrate, but warned of the young Balkan nations. Wrapped in this optimism, Count them that, once cvacuated, the Vatican would be occupied in the Corti proceeded, as first Italian delegate, to Berlin, where he name of the Italian government and be lost to the Church as found himself obliged, on the 28th of May, to join reluctantly in headquarters of the papacy. The cardinals thereupon overruled sanctioning the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. their former decision, and the conclave was held in Rome, the On the 8th of July the revelation of the Anglo-Ottoman treaty new pope, Cardinal Pecci, being elected on the 20th of February for the British occupation of Cyprus took the congress by surprise. 1878 without let or hindrance. The Italian government not only Italy, who had made the integrity of the Ottoman empire a prorogued the Chamber during the conclave to prevent cardinal point of her Eastern policy, felt this change of the unseemly inquiries or demonstrations on the part of Mediterranean status quo the more severely inasmuch as, in deputies, but by means of Mancini, minister of justice, and order not to strain her relations with France, she had turned a Cardinal di Pietro, assured the new pope protection during the deaf ear to Austrian, Russian and German advice to prepare to settlement of his outstanding personal affairs, an assurance of occupy Tunisia in agreement with Great Britain. Count Corti which Leo XIII. on the evening after his election, took full had no suspicion that France had adopted a less disinterested advantage. At the same time the duke of Aosta, commander of attitude towards similar suggestions from Bismarck and Lord the Rome army corps, ordered the troops to render royal honours Salisbury. He therefore returned from the German capital to the pontiff should he officially appear in the capital. King with “clean” but empty hands, a plight which found marked Humbert addressed to the pope a letter of congratulation upon disfavour in Italian eyes, and stimulated anti-Austrian Irre- bis election, and received a courteous reply. The improve- dentism. Ever since Venetia had been ceded by Irredeat. ment thus signalized in the relations between Quirinal and Austria to the emperor Napoleon, and by him to Italy, Vatican was further exempliſed on the 18th of October 1878, after the war of 1866, secret revolutionary com- when the Italian government accepted a papal formula with mittees had been formed in the northern Italian provinces to regard to the granting of the royal exequatur for bishops, prepare for the “ redemption" of Trent and Trieste. For whereby they, upon nomination by the Holy See, recognized twelve years these committees had remained comparatively in- state control over, and made application for, the payment of active, but in 1878 the presence of the ex-Garibaldian Cairoli their temporalities, at the head of the government, and popular dissatisfaction at the the Berlin Leo XIII. ism. 1870-1902) 67 ITALY Tuotsia. 46 spread of Austrian sway on the Adriatic, encouraged them to In no modern country is error or incompetence on the part begin a series of noisy demonstrations. On the evening of the of administrators more swiftly followed by retribution than in signature at Berlin of the clause sanctioning the Austrian occupa- Italy; both at home and abroad she is hemmed in tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an Irredentist riot took place by political and economic conditions which - leave before the Austrian consulate at Venice. The Italian govern- little margin for folly, and still less for “mental and moral ment attached little importance to the occurrence, and believed insufficiency," such as had been displayed by the Left. Nemesis that a diplomatic expression of regret would suffice to allay came in the spring of 1881, in the form of the French invasion Austrian irritation. Austria, indeed, might easily have been of Tunisia. Guiccioli, the biographer of Sella, observes that persuaded to ignore the Irredentist agitation, had not the Italian politicians find it especially hard to resist“ the temptation equivocal attitude of Cairoli and Zanardelli cast doubt upon the of appearing crafty.” The men of the Left believed themselves sincerity of their regret. The former at Pavia (15th October subtle enough to retain the confidence and esteem of all foreign 1878), and the latter at Arco (3rd November), declared publicly powers while coquetting at home with elements which some that Irredentist manifestations could not be prevented under of these powers had reason to regard with suspicion. Italy, existing laws, but gave no hint of introducing any law to sanction in constant danger from France, needed good relations with their prevention. “Repression, not prevention” became the Austria and Germany, but could only attain the goodwill of official formula, the enunciation of which by Cairoli at Pavia the former by firm treatment of the revolutionary Irredentist caused Count Corti and two other ministers to resign. agitation, and of the latter by clear demonstration of Italian The fall of Cairoli, and the formation of a second Depretis will and ability to cope with all anti-monarchical forces. Depretis cabinet in 1878, brought no substantial change in the attitude and Cairoli did neither the one nor the other. Hence, when of the government towards Irredentism, nor was the position opportunity offered firmly to establish Italian predominance in improved by the return of Cairoli to power in the following July. the central Mediterranean by an occupation of Tunisia, they Though aware of Bismarck's hostility towards Italy, of the found themselves deprived of those confidential relations with conclusion of the Austro-German alliance of 1879, and of the the central powers, and even with Great Britain, which might undisguised ill-will of France, Italy not only made no attempt have enabled them to use the opportunity to full advantage. to crush an agitation as mischievous as it was futile, but granted The conduct of Italy in declining the suggestions received from a state funeral to General Avezzana, president of the Irredentist Count Andrássy and General Ignatiev on the eve of the Russo- League. In Bonghi's mordant phrase, the foreign policy of Turkish War-that Italy should seek compensation in Tunisia Italy during this period may be said to have been characterized for the extension of Austrian sway in the Balkans and in by enormous intellectual impotence counterbalanced by equal subsequently rejecting the German suggestion to come to an moral feebleness.” Home affairs were scarcely better managed. arrangement with Great Britain for the occupation of Tunisia as Parliament had degenerated into a congeries of personal groups, compensation for the British occupation of Cyprus, was certainly whose members were eager only to overturn cabinets in order due to fear lest an attempt on Tunisia should lead to a war with to secure power for the leaders and official favours for themselves. France, for which Italy knew herself to be totally unprepared. Depretis, who had succeeded Cairoli in December 1878, fell in This very unpreparedness, however, rendered still less excusable July 1879, after a vote in which Cairoli and Nicotera joined the her treatment of the Irredentist agitation, which brought her Conservative opposition. On 12th July Cairoli formed a new within a hair's-breadth of a conflict with Austria. Although administration, only to resign on 24th November, and to recon- Cairoli, upon learning of the Anglo-Ottoman convention in regard struct his cabinet with the help of Depretis. The administration Cyprus, had advised Count Corti of the possibility that Great of finance was as chaotic as the condition of parliament. The Britain might seek to placate France by conniving at a French £2,400,000 surplus announced by Seismit Doda proved to be a occupation of Tunisia, neither he nor Count Corti had any myth. Nevertheless Magliani, who succeeded Seismit Doda, inkling of the verbal arrangement made between Lord Salisbury had neither the perspicacity nor the courage to resist the abolition and Waddington at the instance of Bismarck, that, when con- of the grist tax. The first vote of the Chamber for the immediate venient, France should occupy Tunisia, an agreement afterwards diminution of the tax, and for its total abolition on ist January confirmed (with a reserve as to the eventual attitude of Italy) 1883, had been opposed by the Senate. A second bill | in despatches exchanged in July and August 1878 between the Finance. was passed by the Chamber on 18th July 1879, pro- Quai d'Orsay and Downing Street. Almost up to the moment viding for the immediate repeal of the grist tax on minor cereals, of the French occupation of Tunisia the Italian government and for its total abolition on ist January 1884. While approving believed that Great Britain, if only out of gratitude for the bearing the repeal in regard to minor cereals, the Senate (24th January of Italy in connexion with the Dulcigno demonstration in the 1880) again rejected the repeal of the tax on grinding wheat as autumn of 1880, would prevent French acquisition of the Regency. prejudicial to national finance. After the general election of Ignorant of the assurance conveyed to France by Lord Granville 1880, however, the Ministerialists, aided by a number of factious that the Gladstone cabinet would respect the engagements of Conservatives, passed a third bill repealing the grist tax on the Beaconsfield-Salisbury administration, Cairoli, in deference wheat (ioth July 1880), the repeal to take effect from the ist of to Italian public opinion, endeavoured to neutralize the activity January 1884 onwards. The Senate, in which the partisans of of the French consul Roustan by the appointment of an equally the ministry had been increased by numerous appointments ad energetic Italian consul, Macciò. The rivalry between these hoc, finally set the seal of its approval upon the measure. Not- two officials in Tunisia contributed not a little to strain Franco- withstanding this prospective loss of revenue, parliament showed Italian relations, but it is doubtful whether France would have great reluctance to vote any new impost, although hardly a year precipitated her action had not General Menabrea, Italian previously it had sanctioned (30th June 1879) Depretis's scheme ambassador in London, urged his government to purchase the for spending during the next eighteen years £43,200,000 in Tunis-Goletta railway from the English company by which it building 5000 kilometres of railway, an expenditure not wholly had been constructed. A French attempt to purchase the line justified by the importance of the ļines, and useful principally was upset in the English courts, and the railway was finally as a source of electoral sops for the constituents of ministerial secured by Italy at a price more than eight times its real value. deputies. The unsatisfactory financial condition of the Florence, This pertinacity engendered a belief in France that Italy was Rome and Naples municipalities necessitated state help, but about to undertake in Tunisia a more aggressive policy than the Chamber nevertheless proceeded with a light heart (23rd nécessary for the protection of her commercial interests. Roustan February 1881) to sanction the issue of a foreign loan for therefore hastened to extort from the bey concessions calculated £26,000,000, with a view to the abolition of the forced currency, to neutralize the advantages which Italy had hoped to secure thus adding to the burdens of the exchequer a load which by the possession of the Tunis-Goletta line, and at the same time three years later again dragged Italy into the gulf of chronic the French government prepared at Toulon an expeditionary deficit. corps for the occupation of the Regency. In the spring of 1881 68 ITALY (1870-1902 Alaace. the Kroumir tribe was reported to have attacked a French force | irritate Italian feeling, but little excuse can be offered for the on the Algerian border, and on the 9th of April Roustan informed failure of the Italian authorities to maintain public order. In the bey of Tunis that France would chastise the assailants. conjunction with the occupation of Tunisia, the effect of these The bey issued futile protests to the powers. On the 26th of disorders was to exhibit Italy as a country powerless to defend April the island of Tabarca was occupied by the French, Bizerta its interests abroad or to keep peace at home. The scandal and was seized on the end of May, and on the 12th of May the bey the pressure of foreign Catholic opinion compelled Depretis to signed the treaty of Bardo accepting the French protectorate. pursue a more energetic policy, and to publish a formal declaration France undertook the maintenance of order in the Regency, of the intangibility of the Law of Guarantees. and assumed the representation of Tunisia in all dealings with Meanwhile a conviction was spreading that the only way of other countries. escape from the dangerous isolation of Italy lay in closer agree- Italian indignation at the French coup de main was the ment with Austria and Germany. Depretis tardily deeper on account of the apparent duplicity of the government recognized the need for such agreement, if only to Growth o! the Triple of the Republic. On the nth of May the French foreign remove the “coldness and invincible diffidence " which, minister, Barthélémy Saint Hilaire, had officially assured the by subsequent confession of Mancini, then characterized Italian ambassador in Paris that France“ had no thought of the attitude of the central powers; but he was opposed to any occupying Tunisia or any part of Tunisian territory, beyond formal alliance, lest it might arouse French resentment, while the some points of the Kroumir country.” This assurance, dictated new Franco-Italian treaty was still unconcluded, and the foreign by Jules Ferry to Barthélémy Saint Hilaire in the presence of loan for the abolition of the forced currency had still to be the Italian ambassador, and by him telegraphed en clair to Rome, floated. He, indeed, was not disposed to concede to public was considered a binding pledge that France would not materially opinion anything beyond an increase of the army, a measure alter the status quo in Tunisia. Documents subsequently published insistently demanded by Garibaldi and the Left. The Right like- have somewhat attenuated the responsibility of Ferry and wise desired to strengthen both army and navy, but advocated Saint Hilaire for this breach of faith, and have shown that the cordial relations with Berlin and Vienna as a guarantee against French forces in Tunisia acted upon secret instructions from French domineering, and as a pledge that Italy would be vouch- General Farre, minister of war in the Ferry cabinet, who pursued safed time to effect her armaments without disturbing financial a policy diametrically opposed to the official declarations made equilibrium. The Right also hoped that closer accord with by the premier and the foreign minister. Even had this circum- Germany and Austria would compel Italy to conform her home stance been known at the time, it could scarcely have mitigated policy more nearly to the principles of order prevailing in the intense resentment of the whole Italian nation at an event those empires. More resolute than Right or Left was the which was considered tantamount not only to the destruction Centre, a small group led by Sidney Sonnino, a young of Italian aspirations to Tunisia, but to the ruin of the interests politician of unusual fibre, which sought in the press and in of the numerous Italian colony and to a constant menace against parliament to spread a conviction that the only sound basis for the security of the Sicilian and south Italian coasts. Italian policy would be close alliance with the central powers and Had the blow thus struck at Italian influence in the Mediter- a friendly understanding with Great Britain in regard to Mediter- ranean induced politicians to sink for a while their personal ranean affairs. The principal Italian public men were divided in differences and to unite in presenting a firm front to foreign opinion on the subject of an alliance. Peruzzi, Lanza and nations, the crisis in regard to Tunisia might not have been Bonghi pleac d for equal friendship with all powers, and wholly unproductive of good. Unfortunately, on this, as on especially with France; Crispi, Minghetti, Cadorna and others, other critical occasions, deputies proved themselves incapable of including Blanc, secretary-general to the foreign office, openly common effort to promote general welfare. While excitement favoured a pro-Austrian policy. Austria and Germany, however, over Tunisia was at its height, but before the situation was scarcely reciprocated these dispositions. The Irredentist agita- irretrievably compromised to the disadvantage of Italy, Cairolition had left profound traces at Berlin as well as at Vienna, and had been compelled to resign by a vote of want of confidence in had given rise to a distrust of Depretis which nothing had yet the Chamber. The only politician capable of dealing adequately occurred to allay. Nor, in view of the comparative weakness of with the situation was Sella, leader of the Right, and to him the Italian armaments, could eagerness to find an ally be deemed crown appealed. The faction leaders of the Left, though divided conclusive proof of the value of Italian friendship. Count di by personal jealousies and mutually incompatible ambitions, Robilant, Italian ambassador at Vienna, warned his government agreed that the worst evil which could befall Italy would be the not to yield too readily to pro-Austrian pressure, lest the dignity return of the Right to power, and conspired to preclude the of Italy be compromised, or her desire for an alliance be granted possibility of a Sella cabinet. An attempt by Depretis to re- on onerous terms. Mancini, foreign minister, who was as anxious compose the Cairoli ministry proved fruitless, and after eleven as Depretis for the conclusion of the Franco-Italian commercial precious days had been lost, King Humbert was obliged, on the treaty, gladly followed this advice, and limited his efforts to the 19th of April 1881, to refuse Cairoli's resignation. The conclusion maintenance of correct diplomatic relations with the central of the treaty of Bardo on the 12th of May, however, compelled powers. Except in regard to the Roman question, the advantages Cairoli to sacrifice himself to popular indignation. Again Sella and disadvantages of an Italian alliance with Austria and was called upon, but again the dog-in-the-manger policy of Germany counterbalanced each other. A rapprochement with Depretis, Cairoli, Nicotera and Baccarini, in conjunction with France and a continuance of the Irredentist movement could not the intolerant attitude of some extreme Conservatives, proved fail to arouse Austro-German hostility; but, on the other hand, fatal to his endeavours. Depretis then succeeded in recomposing to draw near to the central powers would inevitably accentuate the Cairoli cabinet without Cairoli, Mancini being placed at the the diffidence of France. In the one hypothesis, as in the other, foreign office. Except in regard to an increase of the army Italy could count upon the moral support of Great Britain, but estimates, urgently demanded by public opinion, the new could not make of British friendship the keystone of a Continental ministry had practically no programme. Public opinion was policy. Apart from resentment against France on account of further irritated against France by the massacre of some Italian Tunisia there remained the question of the temporal power of the workmen at Marseilles on the occasion of the return of the pope to turn the scale in favour of Austria and Germany. Danger French expedition from Tunisia, and Depretis, in response to of foreign interferencein thcrelations between Italy and the papacy public feeling, found himself obliged to mobilize a part of the had never been so great since the Italian occupation of Rome, as militia for military exercises. In this condition of home and when, in the summer of 1881, the disorders during the transfer of foreign affairs occurred disorders at Rome in connexion with the the remains of Pius IX. had lent an unwonted ring of plausibility transfer of the remains of Pius IX. from St Peter's to the basilica to the papal complaint concerning the “miserable" position of of San Lorenzo. Most of the responsibility lay with the Vatican, the Holy See. Bismarck at that moment had entered upon his which had arranged the procession in the way best calculated to pilgrimage to Canossa," and was anxious to obtain from the 1870-1902) 69 ITALY Vatican the support of German Catholics. What resistance | Berlin that whatever was done at Vienna would be regarded as could Italy have offered had the German chancellor, seconded by having been done in the German capital. Nor did nascent Austria, and assuredly supported by France, called upon Italy to irritation in France prevent the conclusion of the Franco-Italian revise the Law of Guarantees in conformity with Catholic commercial treaty, which was signed at Paris on the 3rd of exigencies, or had he taken the initiative of making papal in- November. dependence the subject of an international conference? Friend- In Italy public opinion as a whole was favourable to the visit, ship and alliance with Catholic Austria and powerful Germany especially as it was not considered an obstacle to the projected could alone lay this spectre. This was the only immediate increase of the army and navy. Doubts, however, soon sprang up advantage Italy could hope to obtain by drawing nearer the as to its effect upon the minds of Austrian statesmen, since on central Powers. the 8th of November the language employed by Kállay and Count The political conditions of Europe favoured the realization Andrássy to the Hungarian delegations on the subject of of Italian desires. Growing rivalry between Austria and Russia Irredentism was scarcely calculated to soothe Italian suscepti- in the Balkans rendered the continuance of the “ League of the bilities.” But on 9th November the European situation was Three Emperors ” a practical impossibility. The Austro- suddenly modified by the formation of the Gambetta cabinet, German alliance of 1879 formally guaranteed the territory of and, in view of the policy of revenge with which Gambetta was the contracting parties, but Austria could not count upon supposed to be identified, it became imperative för Bismarck to effectual help from Germany in case of war, since Russian attack assure himself that Italy would not be enticed into a Francophil upon Austria would certainly have been followed by French attitude by any concession Gambetta might offer. As usual attack upon Germany. As in 1869–1870, it therefore became a when dealing with weaker nations, the German chancellor re- matter of the highest importance for Austria to retain full sorted to intimidation. He not only re-established the Prussian disposal of all her troops by assuring herself against Italian legation to the Vatican, suppressed since 1874, and omitted aggression. The tsar, Alexander III., under the impression of from the imperial message to the Reichstag (17th November the assassination of his father, desired, however, the renewal 1881) all reference to King Humbert's visit to Vienna, but took of the Dreikaiserbund, both as a guarantee of European peace occasion on the 29th of November refer to Italy as a country and as a conservative league against revolutionary parties. tottering on the verge of revolution, and opened in the German The German emperor shared this desire, but Bismarck and the semi-official press a campaign in favour of an international Austrian emperor wished to substitute for the imperial league guarantee for the independence of the papacy. These manquvres some more advantageous combination. Hence a tacit under produced their effect upon Italian public opinion. In the long standing between Bismarck and Austria that the latter should and important debate upon foreign policy in the Italian Chamber profit by Italian resentment against France to draw Italy into of Deputies (6th to 9th December) the fear was repeatedly the orbit of the Austro-German alliance. For the moment expressed lest Bismarck should seek to purchase the support Germany was to hold aloof lest any active initiative on her part of German Catholics by raising the Roman question. Mancini, should displease the Vatican, of whose help Bismarck stood | still unwilling frankly to adhere to the Austro-German alliance, in need. found his policy of “friendship all round "impeded by Gambetta's At the beginning of August 1881 the Austrian press mooted the uncompromising attitude in regard to Tunisia. Bismarck never- idea of a visit from King Humbert to the emperor Francis theless continued his press campaign in favour of the temporal Joseph. Count di Robilant, anxious that Italy should not seem power until, reassured by Gambetta's decision to send Roustan to beg a smile from the central Powers, advised Mancini to receive back to Tunis to complete as minister the anti-Italian programme with caution the suggestions of the Austrian press. Depretis begun as consul, he finally instructed his organs to emphasize took occasion to deny, in a form scarcely courteous, the prob- the common interests of Germany and Italy on the occasion of ability of the visit. Robilant's opposition to a precipitate the opening of the St Gothard tunnel. But the effect of the acceptance of the Austrian hint was founded upon fear lest King German press campaign could not be effaced in a day. At Humbert at Vienna might be pressed to disavow' Irredentist the new year's reception of deputies King Humbert aroused aspirations, and upon a desire to arrange for a visit of the emperor enthusiasm by a significant remark that Italy intended to remain Francis Joseph to Rome in return for King Humbert's visit to “mistress in her own house "; while Mancini addressed to Count Vienna. Seeing the hesitation of the Italian government, the de Launay, Italian ambassador in Berlin, à haughty despatch, Austrian and German semi-official press redoubled their efforts repudiating the supposition that the pope might (as Bismarckian to bring about the visit. By the end of September the idea emissaries had suggested to the Vatican) obtain abroad greater had gained such ground in Italy that the visit was practically spiritual liberty than in Rome, or that closer relations between settled, and on the 7th of October Mancini informed Robilant Italy and Germany, such as were required by the interests and (who was then in Italy) of the fact. Though he considered aspirations of the two countries, could be made in any way such precipitation impolitic, Robilant, finding that confidential contingent upon a modification of Italian freedom of action in information of Italian intentions had already been conveyed regard to home affairs. to the Austrian government, sought an interview with King The sudden fall of Gambetta (26th January 1882) having Humbert, and on the 17th of October started for Vienna to settle removed the fear of immediate European complications, the the conditions of the visit. Depretis, fearing to jeopardize the cabinets of Berlin and Vienna again displayed diffidence towards impending conclusion of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty, Italy. So great was Bismarck's distrust of Italian parliamentary would have preferred the visit to take the form of an act of instability, his doubts of Italian capacity for offensive warfare personal courtesy between sovereigns. The Austrian government, and his fear of the Francophil tendencies of Depretis, that for for its part, desired that the king should be accompanied by many weeks the Italian ambassador at Berlin was unable to Depretis, though not by Mancini, lest the presence of the Italian obtain audience of the chancellor. " But for the Tunisian question foreign minister should lend to the occasion too marked a political | Italy might again have been drawn into the wake of France. character. Mancini, unable to brook exclusion, insisted, how- Mancini tried to impede the organization of French rule in the ever, upon accompanying the king. King Humbert with Regency by refusing to recognize the treaty of Bardo, yet so Queen Margherita reached Vienna on the morning of the 27th careless was Bismarck of Italian susceptibilities that he in- of October, and stayed at the Hofburg until the 31st of October. structed the German consul at Tunis to recognize French decrees. The visit was marked by the greatest cordiality, Count Robilant's Partly under the influence of these circumstances, and partly fears of inopportune pressure with regard to Irredentism in response to persuasion by Baron Blanc, secretary-general proving groundless. Both in Germany and Austria the visit for foreign affairs, Mancini instructed Count di Robilant to open was construed as a preliminary to the adhesion of Italy to the negotiations for an Italo-Austrian alliance-instructions which Austro-German alliance. Count Hatzfeldt, on behalf of the Robilant neglected until questioned by Count Kalnoky on the sub- German Foreign Office, informed the Italian ambassador inject. The first exchange of ideas between the two Governments 1 (1870-1902 70 ITALY Death of proved fruitless, since Kalnoky, somewhat Clerical-minded, revealed the existence of the treaty, thereby irritating France was averse from guaranteeing the integrity of ail Italian and destroying Depretis's secret hope of finding in the triple territory, and Mancini was equally unwilling to guarantee to alliance the advantage of an Austro-German guarantee without Austria permanent possession of Trent and Trieste. Mancini, the disadvantage of French enmity. In Italy the revelation moreover, wished the treaty of alliance to provide for reciprocal of the treaty was hailed with satisfaction except by the Clericals, protection of the chicf interests of the contracting Powers, who were enraged at the blow thus struck at the restoration Italy undertaking to second Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, of the pope's temporal power, and by the Radicals, who feared and Austria and Germany pledging themselves to support both the inevitable breach with republican France and the Italy in Mediterranean questions. Without some such proviso reinforcement of Italian constitutional parties by intimacy Italy would, in Mancini's opinion, be exposed single-handed with strong monarchical states such as Germany and Austria. to French resentment. At the request of Kalnoky, Mancini These very considerations naturally combined to recommend defined his proposal in a memorandum, but the illness of himself the fact to constitutionalists, who saw in it, besides the territorial and Depretis, combined with an untoward discussion in the guarantee, the elimination of the danger of foreign interference Italian press on the failure of the Austrian emperor to return in in the relations between Italy and the Vatican, such as Bismarck Rome King Humbert's visit to Vienna, caused negotiations to had recently threatened and such as France was believed ready drag. The pope, it transpired, had refused to receive the to propose. emperor if he came to Rome on a visit to the Quirinal, and Nevertheless, during its first period (1882-1887) the triple Francis Joseph, though anxious to return King Humbert's alliance failed to ensure cordiality between the contracting visit, was unable to offend the feelings of his Catholic subjects. Powers. Mancini exerted himself in a hundred ways to soothe Meanwhile (11th May 1882) the Italian parliament adopted the French resentment. He not only refused to join Great Britain new Army Bill, involving a special credit of £5,100,000 for the in the Egyptian expedition, but agreed to suspend Italian creation of two new army corps, by which the war footing of the consular jurisdiction in Tunis, and deprecated suspicion of regular army was raised to nearly 850,000 men and the ordinary French designs upon Morocco. His efforts were worse than military estimates to £8,000,000 per annum. Garibaldi, who, futile. France remained cold, while Bismarck and Kalnoky, since the French occupation of Tunis, had ardently worked for distrustful of the Radicalism of Depretis and Mancini, assumed the increase of the army, had thus the satisfaction of seeing his towards their ally an attitude almost hostile. Possibly Germany desire realized before his death at Caprera, on the 2nd and Austria may have been influenced by the secret treaty signed Garibaldi. of June 1882. “In spirit a child, in character a man between Austria, Germany and Russia on the 21st of March of classic mould,” Garibaldi had remained the nation's 1884, and ratified during the meeting of the three emperors at idol, an almost legendary hero whose place none could aspire Skierniewice in September of that year, by which Bismarck, in to fill. Gratitude for his achievements and sorrow for his death return for “honest brokerage " in the Balkans, is understood found expression in universal mourning wherein king and to have obtained from Austria and Russia a promise of bene- peasant cqually joined. Before his death, and almost con- volent neutrality in case Germany should be “forced ”to make temporaneously with the passing of the Army Bill, negotiations war upon a fourth power-France. Guaranteed thus against for the alliance were renewed. Encouraged from Berlin, Kalníky Russian attack, Italy became in the eyes of the central powers agreed to the reciprocal territorial guarantee, but declined a negligible quantity, and was treated accordingly. Though reciprocity in support of special interests. Mancini had therefore kept in the dark as to the Skierniewice arrangement, the Italian to be content with a declaration that the allies would act in gover nent soon discovered from the course of events that the mutually friendly intelligence. Depretis made some opposition, triple alliance had practically lost its object, European peace but finally acquiesced, and the treaty of triple alliance was signed having been assured without Italian co-operation. Meanwhile on the 20th of May 1882, five days after the promulgation of France provided Italy with fresh cause for uneasiness by abating the Franco-Italian commercial treaty in Paris. Though partial her, hostility to Germany. Italy in consequence drew nearer Sigaature revelations have been made, the exact tenor of the to Great Britain, and at the London conference on the Egyptian treaty of triple alliance has never been divulged. financial question sided with Great Britain against Austria and Treaty, It is known to have been concluded for a period of Germany. At the same time negotiations took place with five years, to have pledged the contracting parties Great Britain for an Italian occupation of Massawa, and Mancini, to join in resisting attack upon the territory of any one of them, dreaming of a vast Anglo-Italian enterprise against the Mahdi, and to have specified the military disposition to be adopted by expatiated in the spring of 188; upon the glories of an Anglo- each in case attack should come either from France, or from Italian alliance, an indiscretion which drew upon him a scarcely- Russia, or from both simultaneously. The Italian General veiled démenti from London. Again speaking in the Chamber, Staff is said to have undertaken, in the event of war against Mancini claimed for Italy the principal merit in the conclusion France, to operate with two armies on the north-western frontier of the triple alliance, but declared that the alliance left Italy against the French armée des Alpes, of which the war strength is full liberty of action in regard to interests outside its scope, about 250,000 men. A third Italian army would, if expedient, “especially as there was no possibility of obtaining protection pass into Germany, to operate against either France or Russia. for such interests from those who by the alliance had not under- Austria undertook to guard the Adriatic on land and sea, and taken to protect them.” These words, which revealed the to help Germany by checkmating Russia on land. Germany absence of any stipulation in regard to the protection of Italian would be sufficiently employed in carrying on war against two interests in the Mediterranean, created lively dissatisfaction in fronts. Kalnoky desired that both the terms of the treaty and Italy and corresponding satisfaction in France. They hastened the fact of its conclusion should remain secret, but Bismarck Mancini's downfall (17th June 1885), and prepared the advent and Mancini hastened to hint at its existence, the former in the of count di Robilant, who three months later succeeded Mancini Reichstag on the 12th of June 1882, and the latter in the Italian at the Italian Foreign Office. Robilant, for whom the Skiernie- semi-official press. A revival of Irredentism in connexion with wice pact was no secret, followed a firmly independent policy the execution of an Austrian deserter named Oberdank, who throughout the Bulgarian crisis of 1885-1886, declining to be after escaping into Italy endeavoured to return to Austria with drawn into any action beyond that required by the treaty of explosive bombs in his possession, and the cordial references to Berlin and the protection of Italian interests in the Balkans. France made by Depretis at Stradella (8th October 1882), Italy, indeed, came out of the Eastern crisis with enhanced prevented the French government from suspecting the existence prestige and, with her relations to Austria greatly improved. of the alliance, or from ceasing to strive after a Franco-Italian Towards Prince Bismarck Robilant maintained an attitude understanding. Suspicion was not aroused until March 1883, of dignified independence, and as, in the spring of 1886, the when Mancini, in defending himself against strictures upon his moment for the renewal of the triple alliance drew near, he refusal to co-operate with Great Britain in Egypt, practically profited by the development of the Bulgarian crisis and the of the 1882. 1870-1902) ITALY 71 way con- First re- Dewal of Alliance. Finance. a threatened Franco-Russian understanding to secure from the were only voted by a majority of twenty-three votes after the central powers “something more " than the bare territorial government had undertaken to increase the length of new state- guarantee of the original treaty. This “something more built lines from 1500 to 2500 kilometres. Unfortun- consisted, at least in part, of the arrangement, with the help of ately, the calculation of probable railway revenue on The rail- Austria and Germany, of an Anglo-Italian naval understanding which the conventions had been based proved to be ventions. having special reference to the Eastern question, but providing enormously exaggerated. For many years the 371 % for common action by the British and Italian fleets in the of the gross revenue (less the cost of maintaining the rolling Mediterranean in case of war. A vote of the Italian Chamber on stock, incumbent on the state) scarcely sufficed to pay the the 4th of February 1887, in connexion with the disaster to Italian interest on debts incurred for railway construction and on troops at Dogali, in Abyssinia, brought about the resignation the guaranteed bonds. Gradually the increase of traffic con- of the Depretis-Robilant cabinet. The crisis dragged for three sequent upon the industrial development of Italy decreased months, and before its definitive solution by the formation of a the annual losses of the state, but the position of the government Depretis-Crispi ministry, Robilant succeeded (17th March 1887) in regard to the railways still remained so unsatisfactory as to in renewing the triple alliance on terms more favourable to render the resumption of the whole system by the state on the Italy than those obtained in 1882. Not only did he expiration of the first period of twenty years in 1905 inevitable. secure concessions from Austria and Germany corre- Intimately bound up with the forced currency, the railway the Triple sponding in some degree to the improved state of the conventions and public works was the financial question in Italian army and navy, but, in virtue of the Anglo- general. From 1876, when equilibrium between Italian understanding, assured the practical adhesion of Great expenditure and revenue had first been attained, Britain to the European policy of the central powers, a triumph taxation yielded steady annual surpluses, which in 1881 reached probably greater than any registered by Italian diplomacy the satisfactory level of £2,120,000. The gradual abolition of since the completion of national unity. the grist tax on minor cereals diminished the surplus in 1882 The period between May 1881 and July 1887 occupied, in the to £236,000, and in 1883 to £110,000, while the total repeal of the region of foreign affairs, by the negotiation, conclusion and grist tax on wheat, which took effect on the 'ist of January 1884, renewal of the triple alliance, by the Bulgarian crisis coincided with the opening of a new and disastrous period of loteroal reforms. and by the dawn of an Italian colonial policy, was deficit. True, the repeal of the grist tax was not the marked at home by urgent political and economic only, nor possibly even the principal, cause of the deficit. problems, and by the parliamentary phenomena known as The policy of “fiscal transformation ” inaugurated by the trasformismo. On the 29th of June 1881 the Chamber adopted a Left increased revenue from indirect taxation from £17,000,000 Franchise Reform Bill, which increased the electorate from in 1876 to more than £24,000,000 in 1887, by substituting 600,000 to 2,000,000 by lowering the fiscal qualification from heavy corn duties for the grist tax, and by raising the 40 to 19.80 lire in direct taxation, and by extending the suffrage sugar and petroleum duties to unprecedented levels. But to all persons who had passed through the two lower standards partly from lack of firm financial administration, partly of the elementary schools, and practically to all persons able through the increase of military and naval expenditure (which to read and write. The immediate result of the reform was to in 1887 amounted to £9,000,000 for the army, while special increase the political influence of large cities where the proportion efforts were made to strengthen the navy), and principally of illiterate workmen was lower than in the country districts, through the constant drain of railway construction and public and to exclude from the franchise numbers of peasants and small works, the demands upon the exchequer grew largely to exceed proprietors who, though of more conservative temperament the normal increase of revenue, and necessitated the contraction and of better economic position than the artizan population of of new debts. In their anxiety to remain in office Depretis and the large towns, were often unable to fulfil the scholarship the finance minister, Magliani, never hesitated to mortgage qualification. On the 12th of April 1883 the forced currency was the financial future of their country. No concession could be formally abolished by the resumption of treasury payments denied to deputies, or groups of deputies, whose support was in gold with funds obtained through a loan of £14,500,000 issued indispensable to the life of the cabinet, nor, under such conditions, in London on the sth of May 1882. Owing to the hostility of was it possible to place any effective check upon administrative the French market, the loan was covered with difficulty, and, abuses in which politicians or their electors were interested. though the gold premium fell and commercial exchanges were Railways, roads and harbours which contractors had undertaken temporarily facilitated by the resumption of cash payments, to construct for reasonable amounts were frequently made to it is doubtful whether these advantages made up for the burden of cost thrice the original estimates. Minghetti, in a trenchant £640,000 additional annual interest thrown upon the exchequer. exposure of the parliamentary condition of Italy during this On the 6th of March 1885 parliament finally sanctioned the period, cites a case in which a credit for certain public works conventions by which state railways were farmed out to three was, during a debate in the Chamber, increased by the govern- private companies—the Mediterranean, Adriatic and Sicilian. ment from £6,600,000 to £9,000,000 in order to conciliate local The railways redeemed in 1875-1876 had been worked in the political interests. In the spring of 1887 Genala, minister of interval by the government at a heavy loss. A commission of public works, was taken to task for having sanctioned expenditure inquiry reported in favour of private management. The conven- of £80,000,000 on railway construction while only £40,000,000 tions, concluded for a period of sixty years, but terminable by had been included in the estimates. As most of these credits either party after twenty or forty years, retained for the state were spread over a series of years, succeeding administrations the possession of the lines (except the southern railway, viz. found their financial liberty of action destroyed, and were the line from Bologna to Brindisi belonging to the Società obliged to cover deficit by constant issues of consolidated stock. Meridionale to whom the Adriatic lines were now farmed), but | Thus the deficit of £940,000 for the financial year 1885-1886 sold rolling stock to the companies, arranged various schedules rosc to nearly £2,920,000 in 1887–1888, and in 1888-1889 of state subsidy for lines projected or in course of construction, attained the terrible level of £9,400,000. guaranteed interest on the bonds of the companies and arranged Nevertheless, in spite of many and serious shortcomings, for the division of revenue between the companies, the reserve the long series of Depretis administrations was marked by the fund and the state. National control of the railways was secured adoption of some useful measures. Besides the realization of by a proviso that the directors must be of Italian nationality. the formal programme of the Left, consisting of the repeal of Depretis and his colleague Genala, minister of public works, the grist tax, the abolition of the forced currency, the extension experienced great difficulty in securing parliamentary sanction for of the suffrage and the development of the railway system, the conventions, not so much on account of their defective Depretis laid the foundation for land tax re-assessment by intro- character, as from the opposition of local interests anxious to ducing a new cadastral survey. Unfortunately, the new survey extort new lines from the government. In fact, the conventions was made largely optional, so that provinces which had reason 72 ITALY (1870-1902 Colonial "Trasfor mismo." to hope for a diminution of land tax under a revised assessment | the course of 1884 a Conservative, Signor Biancheri, was elected hastened to complete their survey, while others, in which the to the presidency of the Chamber, and another Conservative, average of the land tax was. below a normal assessment, General Ricotti, appointed to the War Office. Though Depretis, neglected to comply with the provisions of the scheme. An at the end of his life in 1887, showed signs of repenting of the important undertaking, known as the Agricultural Inquiry, confusion thus created, he had established a parliamentary brought to light vast quantities of information valuable for system destined largely to sterilize and vitiate the political life future agrarian legislation. The year 1885 saw the introduction of Italy. and adoption of a measure embodying the principle of employers'. Contemporaneously with the vicissitudes of home and foreign liability for accidents to workmen, a principle subsequently policy under the Left there grew up in Italy a marked tendency extended and more equitably defined in the spring of 1899. towards colonial enterprise. The tendency itself dated An effort to encourage the development of the mercantile marine from 1869, when a congress of the Italian chambers of policy. was made in the same year, and a convention was concluded commerce at. Genoa had urged the Lanza cabinet to with the chief lines of passenger steamers to retain their fastest establish a commercial depot on the Red Sea. On the rith of vessels as auxiliaries to the fleet in case of war. Sanitation and March 1870 an Italian shipper, Signor Rubattino, had bought the public hygiene received a potent impulse from the cholera bay of Assab, with the neighbouring island of Darmakich, from epidemic of 1884, many of the unhealthiest quarters in Naples Beheran, sultan of Raheita, for £1880, the funds being furnished and other cities being demolished and rebuilt, with funds chiefly by the government. The Egyptian government being unwilling furnished by the state. The movement was strongly supported to recognize the sovereignty of Beheran over Assab or his right by King Humbert, whose intrepidity in visiting the most to sell territory to a foreign power, Visconti-Venosta thought it dangerous spots at Busca and Naples while the epidemic was opportune not then to occupy Assab. No further step was taken at its height, reassuring the panic-stricken inhabitants by his until, at the end of 1879, Rubattino prepared to establish a presence, excited the enthusiasm of his people and the admiration commercial station at Assab. The British government made of Europe. inquiry as to his intentions, and on the 19th of April 1880 During the accomplishment of these and other reforms the received a formal undertaking from Cairoli that Assab would condition of parliament underwent profound change. By degrees never be fortified nor be made a military establishment. , Mean- the administrations of the Left had ceased to rely while (January 1880) stores and materials were landed, and Assab solely upon the Liberal sections of the Chamber, and was permanently occupied. Eighteen months later a party of had carried their most important bills with the help Italian sailors and explorers under Lieutenant Biglieri and of the Right. This process of transformation was not exclusively Signor Giulietti were massacred in Egyptian territory. Egypt, the work of Depretis, but had been initiated as early as 1873; however, refused to make thorough inquiry into the massacre, when a portion of the Right under Minghetti had, by joining and was only prevented from occupying Raheita and coming into the Left, overturned the Lanza-Sella cabinet. In 1876 Minghetti conflict with Italy by the good offices of Lord Granville, who himself had fallen a victim to a similar defection of Conservative dissuaded the Egyptian government from enforcing its sove- deputies. The practical annihilation of the old Right in the reignty. On the 20th of September 1881 Beheran formally elections of 1876 opened a new parliamentary era, Reduced in accepted Italian protection, and in the following February an number to less than one hundred, and radically changed in spirit Anglo-Italian convention established the Italian title to Assab and composition, the Right gave way, if not to despair, at least on condition that Italy should formally recognise the suzerainty to a despondency unsuited to an opposition party. Though on of the Porte and of the khedive over the Red Sea coast, and more than one occasion personal rancour against the men of should prevent the transport of arms and munitions of war the Moderate Left prevented the Right from following Sella's through the territory of Assab. This convention was never advice and regaining, by timely coalition with cognate parlia- recognized by the Porte nor by the Egyptian government. A mentary elements, a portion of its former influence, the bulk of month later (10th March 1882) Rubattino made over his establish- the party, with singular inconsistency, drew nearer and nearer ment to the Italian government, and on the 12th of June the to the Liberal cabinets. The process was accelerated by Sella's Chamber adopted a bill constituting Assab an Italian crown illness and death (14th March 1884), an event which cast profound colony. discouragement over the more thoughtful of the Conservatives Within four weeks of the adoption of this bill the bombardment and Moderate Liberals, by whom Sella had been regarded as a of Alexandria by the British fleet. (11th July 1882) opened an supreme political reserve, as a statesman whose experienced era destined profoundly to affect the colonial position of vigour and patriotic sagacity might have been trusted to liſt Italy. The revolt of Arabi Pasha. (September 1881) Egyptian Italy from any depth of folly or misfortune. By a strange had led to the meeting of an ambassadorial conference Question. anomaly the Radical measures brought forward by the Left at Constantinople, promoted by Mancini, Italian diminished instead of increasing the distance between it and the minister for foreign affairs, in the hope of preventing European Conservatives. Numerically insufficient to reject such measures, intervention in Egypt and the permanent establishment of an and lacking the fibre and the cohesion necessary for the pursuance Anglo-French condominium to the detriment of Italian influence. of a far-sighted policy, the Right thought prudent not to employ At the opening of the conference (23rd June 1882) Italy secured its strength in uncompromising opposition, but rather, by sup- the signature of a self-denying protocol whereby all the great porting the government, to endeavour to modify Radical legisla- powers undertook to avoid isolated action; but the rapid develop- tion in a Conservative sense. In every case the calculation provedment of the crisis in Egypt, and the refusal of France to co- fallacious. Radical measures were passed unmodified, and the operate with Great Britain in the restoration of order, necessitated Right was compelled sadly to accept the accomplished fact. vigorous action by the latter alone. In view of the French Thus it was with the abolition of the grist tax, the reform of the refusal, Lord Granville on the 27th of July invited Italy to join suffrage, the railway conventions and many other bills. When, in restoring order in Egypt; but Mancini and Depretis, in in course of time, the extended suffrage increased the Republican spite of the efforts. of Crispi, then in London, declined the and Extreme Radical elements in the Chamber, and the Liberal offer. Financial considerations, lack of proper transports for an Pentarchy" (composed of Crispi, Cairoli, Nicotera, Zanardelli expeditionary corps, fear of displeasing France, dislike of a and Baccarini) assumed an åttitude of bitter hostility to Depretis, policy of adventure,” misplaced deference towards the ambassa- the Right, obeying the impulse of Minghetti, rallied openly dorial conference in Constantinople, and unwillingness to thwart to Depretis, lending him aid without which his prolonged term the current of Italian sentiment in favour of the Egyptian of office would have been impossible. The result was parlia“ nationalists,” were the chief motives of the Italian refusal, mentary chaos, baptized trasformismo. In May 1883 this process which had the effect of somewhat estranging Great Britain and received official recognition by the elimination of the Radicals Italy. Anglo-Italian relations, however, regained their normal Zanardelli and Baccarini from the Depictis cabinet, while in cordiality two years later, and ſound expression in the support The 1870-1902) ITALY 73 Ient by Italy to the British proposal at the London conference on garrison to nearly 20,000 men. The British government, the Egyptian question July 1884). About the same time desirous of preventing an Italo-Abyssinian conflict, which could Mancini was informed by the Italian agent in Cairo that Great but strengthen the position of the Mahdists, despatched My Britain would be well disposed towards an extension of Italian (afterwards Sir) Gerald Portal from Massawa on the 29th of influence on the Red Sea coast. Having sounded Lord Granville, October to mediate with the negus. The mission proved fruitless. Mancini' received encouragement to seize Beilul and Massawa, Portal returned to Massawa on the 25th of December 1887, and in view of the projected restriction of the Egyptian zone of warned the Italians that John was preparing to attack them in military occupation consequent on the Mahdist rising in the the following spring with an army of 100,000 men. On the 28th Sudan. Lord Granville further inquired whether Italy would of March 1888 the negus indeed descended from the Abyssinian co-operate in pacifying the Sudan, and received an affirmative high plateau in the direction of Saati, but finding the Italian posi- reply. Italian action was hastened by news that, in December tion too strong to be carried by assault, temporized and opened 1884, an exploring party under Signor Bianchi, royal com- negotiations for peace. His tactics failed to entice the Italians missioner for Assab, had been massacred in the Aussa (Danakil) from their position, and on the 3rd of April sickness among his country, an event which aroused in Italy a desire to punish the men compelled John to withdraw the Abyssinian army. The negus assassins and to obtain satisfaction for the still unpunished next marched against Menelek, king of Shoa, whose neutrality massacre of Signor Giulietti and his companions.' Partly to Italy had purchased with 5000 Remington rifles and a supply of satisfy public opinion, partly in order to profit by the favourable ammunition, but found him with 80,000 men too strongly en- disposition of the British government, and partly in the hope of trenched to be successfully attacked. Tidings of a new Mahdist remedying the error committed in 1882 by refusal to co-operate incursion into Abyssinian territory reaching the negus induced with Great Britain in Egypt, the Italian government in January him to postpone the settlement of his quarrel with Menelek until 1885 despatched an expedition under Admiral Caimi and Colonel the dervishes had been chastised. Marching towards the Blue Saletta to occupy Massawa and Beilul. The occupation, effected Nile, he joined battle with the Mahdists, but on the roth of on the 5th of February, was accelerated by fear lest Italy might March 1889 was killed, in the hour of victory, near Gallabat. be forestalled by France or Russia, both of which powers were His death gave rise to an Abyssinian war of succession between suspected of desiring to establish themselves firmly on the Red Mangashà, natural son of John, and Menelek, grandson of the Sea and to exercise a protectorate over Abyssinia. News of the Negus Selia-Sellassié. Menelek, by means of Count Antonelli, occupation reached Europe simultaneously with the tidings of the resident in the Shoa country, requested Italy to execute à fall of Khartum, an event which disappointed Italian hopes of diversion in his favour by occupying Asmarà and other points on military co-operation with Great Britain in the Sudan. The the high plateau, Antonelli profited by the situation to obtain resignation of the Gladstone-Granville cabinet further precluded Menelek's signature to a treaty fixing the frontiers of the Italian the projected Italian occupation of Suakin, and the Italians, colony and defining Italo-Abyssinian relations. The treaty, wisely refraining from an independent attempt to succour signed at Uccialli on the end of May 1899, arranged for Kassala, then besieged by the Mahdists, bent their efforts to the regular intercourse between Italy and Abyssinia and Treaty of Uccialll. increase of their zone of occupation around Massawa. The ex- conceded to Italy a portion of the high plateau, with tension of the Italian zone excited the suspicions of John, negus the positions of Halai, Saganeiti and Asmarà. The main point of Abyssinia, whose apprehensions were assiduously fomented of the treaty, however, lay in clause 17:- by Alula, ras of Tigré, and by French and Greek adventurers. “ His Majesty the king of kings of Ethiopia consents to make use Measures, apparently successful, were taken to reassure the negus, of the government of His Majesty the king of Italy for the treatment but shortly afterwards protection inopportunely accorded by of all questions concerning other and powers governments. Italy to enemies of Ras Alula, induced the Abyssinians to enter Upon this clause Italy founded her claim to a protectorate over upon hostilities. In January 1886 Ras Alula raided the village of Abyssinia. In September 1889 the treaty of Uccialli was ratified Wa, to the west of Zula, but towards the end of the year (23rd in Italy by Menelek's lieutenant, the Ras Makonnen. Makonnen November) Wa was occupied by the irregular troops of General further concluded with the Italian premier, Crispi, a convention Gené, who had superseded Colonel Saletta at Massawa. Angered whereby Italy recognized Menelek as emperor of Ethiopia, by this step, Ras Alula took prisoners the members of an Italian Menelck recognized the Italian colony, and arranged for a special exploring party commanded by Count Salimbeni, and held them Italo-Abyssinian currency and for a loan. On the 11th of October as hostages for the evacuation of Wa. General Gené nevertheless Italy communicated article 17 of the treaty of Uccialli to the reinforced Wa and pushed forward a detachment to Saati. 'On European powers, interpreting it as a valid title to an Italian the 25th of January 1887 Ras Alula attacked Saati, but was protectorate over Abyssinia. Russia alone neglected to take note repulsed with loss. On the following day, however, the Abys- of the communication, and persisted in the hostile attitude she sinians succeeded in surprising, near the village of Dogali, an had assumed at the moment of the occupation of Massawa. Italian force of 524 officers and men under Colonel De Cristoforis, Mcanwhile the Italian mint coined thalers bearing the portrait who were convoying provisions to the garrison of Saati. of King Humbert, with an inscription referring to the Italian The Abyssinians, 20,000 strong, speedily overwhelmed protectorate, and on the ist of January 1890 a royal decree con- of Dogall. the small Italian force, which, after exhausting its ferred upon the colony the name of “ Eritrea." ammunition, was destroyed where it stood. One man only In the colony itself General Baldissera, who had replaced escaped. Four hundred and seven men and twenty-three officers General Saletta, delayed the movement against Mangashà were killed outright, and one officer and eighty-one men wounded. desired by Menelek. 'The Italian general would have Dead and wounded alike were horribly mutilated by order of preferred to wait until his intervention was requested Opera Alula. Fearing a new attack, General Gené withdrew his forces by both pretenders to the Abyssinian throne. Pressed Abyssinia. from Saati, Wa and Arafali; but the losses of the Abyssinians by the home government, he, however, instructed a at Saati and Dogali had been so beavy as to dissuade Alula from native ally to occupy the important positions of Keren and further hostilities. Asmarà, and prepared himself to take the offensive against In Italy the disaster of Dogali produced consternation, and Mangashà and Ras Alula. The latter retreated south of the caused the fall of the Depretis-Robilant cabinet. The Chamber, river Mareb, leaving the whole of the cis-Mareb territory, includ- Abyssinia. 'eager for revenge, voted a credit of £200,000, and ing the provinces of Hamasen, Agameh, Seraè and Okulè-Kusai, sanctioned the despatch of reinforcements. Mean- | in Italian hands. General Orero, successor of Baldissera, pushed while Signor Crispi, who, though averse from colonial adventure, offensive action more vigorously, and on the 26th of January desired to vindicate Italian honour, entered the Depretis cabinet 1890 entered Adowa, a city considerably to the south of the as minister of the interior, and obtained from parliament a new Mareb-an imprudent stop which aroused Menelek's suspicions, credit of £800,000. In November 1887 a strong expedition under and had hurriedly to be retraced. Mangashà, seeing further General di San Marzano raised the strength of the Massawa | resistance to be useless, submitted to Menelek, who at the end . Disaster la 74 ITALY 11870–1902 of February ratified at Makallé the additional convention to that it should not be published. On the 15th of June the pope the treaty of Uccialli, but refused to recognize the Italian occupa- addressed to Cardinal Rampolla del Tindaro, secretary of state, tion of the Mareb. The negus, however, conformed to article a letter reiterating in uncompromising terms the papal claim to 17 of the treaty of Uccialli by requesting Italy to represent the temporal power, and at the end of July Cardinal Rampolla Abyssinia at the Brussels anti-slavery conference, an act which reformulated the same claim in a circular to the papal nuncios strengthened Italian illusions as to Menelek's readiness to submit abroad. The dream of conciliation was at an end, but the Tosti to their protectorate. Menelek had previously notified the chief incident had served once more to illustrate the true position of European powers of his coronation at Entotto (14th December the Vatican in regard to Italy. It became clear that neither the 1889), but Germany and Great Britain replied that such notifica influence of the regular clergy, of which the Society of Jesus tion should have been made through the Italian government. is the most powerful embodiment, nor that of foreign clerical Germany, moreover, wounded Menelek's pride by employing parties, which largely control the Peter's Pence fund, would merely the title of “highness.” The negus took advantage of ever permit renunciation of the papal claim to temporal power. the incident to protest against the Italian text of article 17, France, and the French Catholics especially, feared lest concilia- and to contend that the Amharic text contained no equivalent tion should diminish the reliance of the Vatican upon Terms for the word “consent," but merely stipulated that Abyssinia France, and consequently French hold over the of the "might” make use of Italy in her relations with foreign powers. Vatican. The Vatican, for its part, felt its claim to "Roman On the 28th of October 1890 Count Antonelli, negotiator of the temporal power to be too valuable a pecuniary asset Questioa." treaty, was despatched to settle the controversy, but on arriving and too efficacious an instrument of church discipline lightly at Adis Ababa, the new residence of the negus, found agreement to be thrown away. The legend of an “imprisoned pope,' impossible either with regard to the frontier or the protectorate. subject to every whim of his gaolers, had never failed to arouse On the roth of April 1891, Menelek communicated to the powers the pity and loosen the purse-strings of the faithful; dangerous his views with regard to the Italian frontier, and announced innovators and would-be reformers within the church could be his intention of re-establishing the ancient boundaries of Ethiopia compelled to bow before the symbol of the temporal power, and as far as Khartum to the north-west and Victoria Nyanza to the their spirit of submission tested their readiness to forgo south. Meanwhile the marquis de Rudini, who had succeeded the realization of their aims until the head of the church should Crispi as Italian premier, had authorized the abandonment of be restored to his rightful domain. More important than all article 17 even before he had heard of the failure of Antonelli's was the interest of the Roman curia, composed almost exclusively negotiations. Rudini was glad to leave the whole dispute in of Italians, to retain in its own hands the choice of the pontiff abeyance and to make with the local ras, or chieftains, of the and to maintain the predominance of the Italian element and high plateau an arrangement securing for Italy the cis-Mareb the Italian spirit in the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Conciliation provinces of Seraè and Okulè-Kusai under the rule of an allied with Italy would expose the pope and his Italian entourage to native chief named Bath-Agos. Rudini, however, was able suspicion of being unduly subject to Italian political influence to conclude two protocols with Great Britain (March and April of being, in a word, more Italian than Catholic. Such a suspicion 1891) whereby the British government definitely recognized | would inevitably lead to a movement in favour of the inter- Abyssinia as within the Italian sphere of influence in return for nationalization of the curia and of the papacy. In order to an Italian recognition of British rights in the Upper Nile. avoid this danger it was therefore necessary to refuse all con: The period 1887-1890 was marked in Italy by great political promise, and, by perpetual reiteration of a claim incompatible activity. The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet as with Italian territorial unity, to prove to the church ai large minister of the interior (4th April 1887) introduced that the pope and the curia were more Catholic than Italian. into the government an element of vigour which had Such rigidity of principle need not be extended to the affairs Crispi long been lacking. Though sixty-eight years of age, of everyday contact between the Vatican and the Italian Crispi possessed an activity, a rapidity of decision authorities, with regard to which, indeed, a tacit modus vivendi and an energy in execution with which none of his contemporaries was easily attainable. Italy, for her part, could not go back could vie. Within four months the death of Depretis (29th upon the achievements of the Risorgimento by restoring Rome July 1887) opened for Crispi the way to the premiership. Besides or any portion of Italian territory to the pope. She had hoped assuming the presidency of the council of ministers and retaining by conciliation to arrive at an understanding which should have the ministry of the interior, Crispi took over the portfolio of ranged the church among the conservative and not among the foreign affairs which Depretis had held since the resignation of disruptive forces of the country, but she was keenly desirous Count di Robilant. One of the first questions with which he to retain the papacy as a preponderatingly Italian institution, had to deal was that of conciliation between Italy and the and was ready to make whatever formal concessions might have Vatican. At the end of May the pope, in an allocution to the appeared necessary to reassure foreign Catholics concerning the cardinals, had spoken of Italy in terms of unusual cordiality, reality of the pope's spiritual independence. The failure of the and had expressed a wish for peace. A few days later Signor conciliation movement left profound irritation between Vatican Bonghi, one of the framers of the Law of Guarantees, published and Quirinal, an irritation which, on the Vatican side, found in the Nuova Antologia a plea for reconciliation on the basis of expression in vivacious protests and in threats of leaving Rome, an amendment to the Law of Guarantees and recognition by and, on the Italian side, in the deposition of the syndic of the pope of the Italian title to Rome. The chief incident of the Rome for having visited the cardinal-vicar, in the anti-clerical movement towards conciliation consisted, however, in the provisions of the new penal code, and in the inauguration (oth publication of a pamphlet entitled La Conciliazione by Father June 1889) of a monument to Giordano Bruno on the very site Tosti, a close friend and confidant of the pope, extolling the of his martyrdom. advantages of peace between Vatican and Quirinal. Tosti's The internal situation inherited by Crispi from Depretis was pamphlet was known to represent papal ideas, and Tosti himself very unsatisfactory. Extravagant expenditure on railways was persona grata to the Italian government. Recon- and public works, loose administration of finance, the cost of ciliation seemed within sight when suddenly Tosti's colonial enterprise, the growing demands for the army and pamphlet was placed on the Index, ostensibly on navy, the impending tariff war with France, and the over- account of a phrase, “ The whole of Italy entered speculation in building and in industrial ventures, which had Rome by the breach of Porta Pia; the king cannot restore absorbed all the floating capital of the country, had combined Rome to the pope, since Rome belongs to the Italian people.” to produce a state of affairs calling for firm and radical treatment. On the 4th of June 1887 the official Vatican organ, the Osservatore Crispi, burdened by the premiership and by the two most Romano, published a letter written by Tosti to the pope condition important portfolios in the cabinet, was, however, unable to ally retracting the views expressed in the pamphlet. The letter exercise efficient control over all departments of state. Neverthe- had been written at the pope's request, on the understanding less his administration was by no means unfruitful. Zanardelli, First Cabinet, Tost and coacilla- tloa, « 1870-1902) ITALY 75 minister of justice, secured in June 1888 the adoption of a new of the frontier on the 29th of February 1888. The value of penal code; state surveillance was extended to the opere pie, French exports into Italy decreased immediately by one-half, or charitable institutions; municipal franchise was reformed i while Italian exports to France decreased by nearly two-thirds. by granting what was practically manhood suffrage with At the end of 1889 Crispi abolished the differential duties against residential qualification, provision being made for minority French imports and returned to the general Italian tariff, but representation; and the central state 'administration was France declined to follow his lead and maintained her prohibitive reformed by a bill fixing the number and functions of the various dues. Meanwhile the enthusiastic reception accorded to the ministries. The management of finance was scarcely satisfactory, young German emperor on the occasion of his visit to Rome in for though Giolitti, who had succeeded Magliani and Perazzi | October 1888, and the cordiality shown towards King Humbert at the treasury, suppressed the former's illusory“ pension fund," and Crispi at Berlin in May 1889, increased the tension of Franco- he lacked the fibre necessary to deal with the enormous deficit Italian relations; nor was it until after the fall of Prince of nearly £10,000,000 in 1888–1889, the existence of which both Bismarck in March 1890 that Crispi adopted towards the Republic Perazzi and he had recognized. The most successful feature a more friendly attitude by sending an Italian squadron to salute of Crispi's term of office was his strict maintenance of order and President Carnot at Toulon. The chief advantage derived the suppression of Radical and Irredentist agitation So by Italy from Crispi's foreign policy was the increase of con- vigorous was his treatment of Irredentism that he dismissed fidence in her government on the part of her allies and of Great without warning his colleague Seismit Doda, minister of finance, Britain. On the occasion of the incident raised by Goblet with for having failed to protest against Irredentist specches delivered regard to Massawa, Bismarck made it clear to France that, in in his presence at Udine. Firmness such as this secured for him case of complications, Italy would not stand alone; and when the support of all constitutional elements, and after three years' in February 1888 a strong French fleet appeared to menace premiership his position was infinitely stronger than at the the Italian coast, the British Mediterranean squadron demon- outset. · The general election of 1890 gave the cabinet an almost strated its readiness to support Italian naval dispositions. unwieldy majority, comprising four-fifths of the Chamber. A Moreover, under Crispi's hand Italy awoke from the apathy lengthy term of office seemed to be opening out before him when, of former years and gained consciousness of her place in the on the 31st of January 1891, Crispi, speaking in a debate upon world. The conflict with France, the operations in Eritrea, an unimportant bill, angrily rebuked the Right for its noisy the vigorous interpretation of the triple alliance, the questions. interruptions. The rebuke infuriated the Conservative deputies, of Morocco and Bulgaria, were all used by him as means to who, protesting against Crispi's words in the name of the “sacred stimulate national sentiment With the instinct of a true memories” of their pariy, precipitated a division and placed statesman, he felt the pulse of the people, divined their need for the cabinet in a minority The incident, whether due to chance prestige, and their preference for a government heavy-handed or guile, brought about the resignation of Crispi. A few days rather than lax. How great had been Crispi's power was seen later he was succeeded in the premiership by the marquis di by contrast with the policy of the Rudini cabinet which succeeded Rudinis leader of the Right, who formed a coalition cabinet with him in February 1891. Crispi's so-called "megalomania gave Nicotera and a part of the Left. place to retrenchment in home affairs and to a deferential The sudden fall of Crispi wrought a great change in the attitude towards all foreign powers The premiersbip Second character of Italian relations with foreign powers. His policy of Rudini was hailed by the Radical leader, Cavallotti, renewal of had been characterized by extreme cordiality towards as a pledge of the non-renewal of the triple alliance, the Triple Rudiat. Austria and Germany, by a close understanding with against which the Radicals began a vociferous campaign Great Britain in regard to Mediterranean questions, and by an Their tactics, however, produced a contrary effect, for Rudini, apparent animosity towards France, which at one moment accepting proposals from Berlin, renewed the alliance in June seemed likely to lead to war. Shortly before the fall of the 1891 for a period of twelve years. None of Rudini's public Depretis-Robilant cabinet Count Robilant had announced the utterances justify the supposition that he assumed office with the intention of Italy to denounce the commercial treaties with intention of allowing the alliance to lapse on its expiry in May France and Austria, which would lapse cn the 31st of December 1892; indeed, he frankly declared it to form the basis of his 1887, and had intimated his readiness to negotiate new treaties. foreign policy. The attitude of several of his colleagues was more On the 24th of June 1887, in view of a possible rupture of com- equivocal, but though they coquetted with French financiers mercial relations with France, the Depretis-Crispi cabinet in the hope of obtaining the support of the Paris Bourse for introduced a new general tariff. The probability of the conclu- Italian securities, the precipitate renewal of the alliance destroyed sion of a new Franco-Italian treaty was small, both on account all probability of a close understanding with France. The desire of the protectionist spirit of France and of French resentment of Rudini to live on the best possible terms with all powers was at the renewal of the triple alliance, but even such slight proba- further evinced in the course of a visit paid to Monza by M. de bility vanished after a visit paid to Bismarck by Crispi (October Giers in October 1891, when the Russian statesman was apprised 1887) within three months of his appointment to the premiership of the entirely defensive nature of Italian engagements under Crispi entertained no a priori animosity towards France, but was the triple alliance. At the same time he carried to a successful strongly convinced that Italy must emancipate herself from the conclusion negotiations begun by Crispi for the renewal of position of political dependence on her powerful neighbour commercial treaties with Austria and Germany upon terms which had vitiated the foreign policy of the Left. So far was he which to some extent compensated Italy for the reduction of from desiring a rupture with France, that he had subordinated her commerce with France, and concluded with Great Britain acceptance of the portfolio of the interior in the Depretis cabinet conventions for the delimitation of British and Italian spheres to an assurance that the triple alliance contained no provision of influence in north-east Africa. In bome affairs his administra- for offensive warfare. But his ostentatious visit to Friedrichsruh, tion was weak and vacillating, nor did the economies effected and a subsequent speech at Turin, in which, while professing in naval and military expenditure and in other departments sentiments of friendship and esteem for France, he eulogized suffice to strengthen the position of a cabinet which had dis- the personality of Bismarck, aroused against him a hostility appointed the hopes of its supporters. On the 14th of April on the part of the French which he was never afterwards ablc 1892 dissensions between ministers concerning the fir.ancial to allay. France was equally careless of Italian susceptibilities, programme led to a cabinet crisis, and though Rudini succeeded and in April 1888 Goblet made a futile but irritating attempt in reconstructing his administration, he was defeated in the to enforce at Massawa the Ottoman régime of the capitulations Chamber on the sth of May and obliged to resign. King Humbert, in regard to non-Italian residents. In such circumstances the who, from lack of confidence in Rudini, had declined negotiations for the new commercial treaty could but fail, and to allow him to dissolve parliament, entrusted Signor though the old treaty was prolonged by special arrangement Giolitti, a Piedmontese deputy, sometime treasury minister for two months, differential tariffs were put in force on both sides in the Crispi cabinet, with the formation of a ministry of Alliance. Giolitu. 76 (1870-1902 ITALY Baak scandals. the Left, which contrived to obtain six months' supply on took advantage to organize the workmen of the towns and account, and dissolved the Chamber. the peasants of the country into groups known as fasci. The ensuing general election (November 1892), marked by The movement had no well-defined object. Here unprecedented violence and abuse of official pressure upon and there it was based upon a bastard Socialism, Insurrec the electorate, fitly ushered in what proved to be in other places it was made a means of municipal Sicily. the most unfortunate period of Italian history since party warfare under the guidance of the local mafia, the completion of national unity. The influence of and in some districts it was simply popular effervescence against Giolitti was based largely upon the favour of a court clique, the local octrois on bread and flour. As early as January 1893 a and especially of Rattazzi, minister of the royal household. conflict had occurred between the police and the populace, in Early in 1893 a scandal arose in connexion with the manages which several men, women and children were killed, an occurrence ment of state banks, and particularly of the Banca Romana, used by the agitators further to inflame the populace. Instead whose managing director, Tanlongo, had issued £2,500,000 of of maintaining a firm policy, Giolitti allowed the movement duplicate bank-notes. Giolitti scarcely improved matters by to spread until, towards the autumn of 1893, he became alarmed creating Tanlongo a member of the senate, and by denying in and drafted troops into the island, though in numbers insufficient parliament the existence of any mismanagement. The senate, to restore order. At the moment of his fall the movement however, manifested the utmost hostility to Tanlongo, whom assumed the aspect of an insurrection, and during the interval Giolitti, in consequence of an interpellation in the Chamber, between his resignation (24th November) and the formation was compelled to arrest. Arrests of other prominent persons of a new Crispi cabinet (10th December) conflicts between the followed, and on the 3rd of February the Chamber authorized public forces and the rioters were frequent. The return of Crispi the prosecution of De Zerbi, a Neapolitan deputy accused of to power—a return imposed by public opinion as that of the only corruption. On the 20th of February De Zerbi suddenly man capable of dealing with the desperate situation-marked expired. For a time Giolitti successfully opposed inquiry into the turning point of the crisis. Intimately acquainted with the conditions of the state banks, but on the 21st of March was the conditions of his native island, Crispi adopted efficacious compelled to sanction an official investigation by a parliamentary remedies. The fasci were suppressed, Sicily was filled with troops, commission composed of seven members. On the 23rd of the reserves were called out, a state of siege proclaimed, military November the report of the commission was read to the Chamber courts instituted and the whole movement crushed in a few amid intense excitement. It established that all Italian cabinets weeks. The chief agitators were either sentenced to heavy since 1880 had grossly neglected the state banks; that the two terms of imprisonment or were compelled to flee the country, preceding cabinets had been aware of the irregularities committed A simultaneous insurrection at Massa Carrara was crushed by Tanlongo; that Tanlongo had heavily subsidized the press, with similar vigour. Grispi's methods aroused great outcry paying as much as £20,000 for that purpose in 1888 alone; in the Radical press, but the severe sentences of the military that a number of deputies, including several ex-ministers, had courts were in time tempered by the Royal prerogative of received from him loans of a considerable amount, which they amnesty. had apparently made no effort to refund; that Giolitti had But it was not alone in regard to public order that heroic deceived the Chamber with regard to the state banks, and was measures were necessary. The financial situation inspired open tosuspicion of having, after the arrest of Tanlongo, abstracted serious misgivings. While engagements contracted a number of documents from the latter's papers before placing by Depretis in regard to public works had more than the remainder in the hands of the judicial authorities. In spite neutralized the normal increase of revenue from taxa. of the gravity of the charges formulated against many prominent tion, the whole credit of the state had been affected by the men, the report merely deplored ” and “disapproved ” of severe economic and financial crises of the years 1389-1893. their conduct, without proposing penal proceedings. Fear of The state banks, already hampered by maladministration, extending still farther a scandal which had already attained were encumbered by huge quantities of real estate which had buge dimensions, and the desire to avoid any further shock to been taken over as compensation for unredeemed mortgages. national credit, convinced the commissioners of the expediency Baron Sidney Sonnino, minister of finance in the Crispi cabinet, of avoiding a long series of prosecutions. The report, however, found a prospective deficit of £7,080,000, and in spite of economies sealed the fate of the Giolitticabinet, and on the 24th of November was obliged to face an actual deficit of more than £6,000,000. it resigned amid general execration. Drastic •measures were necessary to limit expenditure and to Apart from the lack of scruple manifested by Giolitti in the provide new sources of revenue. Sonnino applied, and sub- bank scandals, he exhibited incompetence in the conduct of sequently amended, the Bank Reform Bill passed by the previous foreign and home affairs. On the 16th and 18th of Administration (August 10, 1893) for the creation of a supreme Aigues- August 1893 a number of Italian workmen were state bank, the Bank of Italy, which was entrusted witb the massacred at Aigues-Mortes. The French authorities, liquidation of the insolvent Banca Romana. The new law under whose eyes the massacre was perpetrated, did forbade the state banks to lend money on real estate, limited nothing to prevent or repress it, and the mayor of Marseilles their powers of discounting bills and securities, and reduced the even refused to admit the wounded Italian workmen to the maximum of their paper currency. In order to diminish the municipal hospital. These occurrences provoked anti-French gold premium, which under Giolitti had risen to 16%, forced demonstrations in many parts of Italy, and revived the chronic currency was given to the existing notes of the banks of Italy, Italian ráncour against France. The Italian foreign minister, Naples and Sicily, while special state notes were issued to meet Brin, began by demanding the punishment of the persons immediate currency needs. Measures were enforced to prevent guilty of the massacre, but hastened to accept as satisfactory the Italian holders of consols from sending their coupons abroad to anodyne measures adopted by the French government. Giolitti be paid in gold, with the result that, whereas in 1893 £3,240,000 removed the prefect of Rome for not having prevented an had been paid abroad in gold for the service of the January expression of popular anger, and presented formal excuses to coupons and only £680,000 in paper in Italy, the same coupon the French consul at Messina for a demonstration against that was paid a year later with only £1,360,000 abroad and £2,540,000 consulate. In the following December the French tribunal at at home. Economies for more than £1,000,000, were immediately Angoulême acquitted all the authors of the massacre. At effected, taxes, calculated to produce £2,440,000, were proposed home Giolitti displayed the same weakness. Riots at Naples to be placed upon land, incomes, salt and corn, while the existing in August 1893 and symptoms of unrest in Sicily found him, income-tax upon consols (fixed at 8% by Cambray-Digny in as usual, unprepared and vacillating. The closing of the French 1868, and raised to 13.20% by Sella in 1870) was increased to market to Sicilian produce, the devastation wrought by the 20% irrespectively of the stockholders' nationality. These phylloxera and the decrease of the sulphur trade had combined proposals met with opposition so fierce as to cause a cabinet to produce in Sicily a discontent of which Socialist agitators I crisis, but Sonnino who resigned office as minister of finance, Financial crisis. Mortes massacre. 1870-1902) ITALY 77 Attacks returned to power as minister of the treasury, promulgated some 1894. The protocol concluded with Great Britain on the rsth of of his proposals by royal decree, and in spite of venement April 1891, already referred to, contained a clause to the effect that, opposition secured their ratification by the Chamber. The tax were Kassala occupied by the Italians, the place should be trans- upon consols, which, in conjunction with the other severe fiscal ferred to the Egyptian government as soon as the latter should measures, was regarded abroad as a pledge that Italy intended be in a position to restore order in the Sudan. Concentrating a at all costs to avoid bankruptcy, caused a rise in Italian stocks. little army of 2600 men, Baratieri surprised and captured Kassala When the Crispi cabinet fell in March 1896 Sonnino had the on the 17th of July 1894, and garrisoned the place with native satisfaction of seeing revenue increased by £3,400,000, expendi- levies under Italian officers. Meanwhile Menelek, jealous of the ture diminished by £2,800,000, the gold premium reduced from extension of Italian influence to a part of northern Somaliland 16 to 5%, consolidated stock at 95 instead of 72, and, notwith- and to the Benadir coast, had, with the support of France and standing the expenditure necessitated by the Abyssinian War, Russia, completed his preparations for asserting his authority as financial equilibrium practically restored. independent ruler of Ethiopia. On the 11th of May 1893 he While engaged in restoring order and in supporting Sonnino's denounced the treaty of Uccialli, but the Giolitti cabinet, absorbed courageous struggle against bankruptcy, Crispi became the by the bank scandals, paid no heed to his action. Possibly an object of fierce attacks from the Radicals, Socialists adroit repetition in favour of Mangasha and against Menelek of on Crispi. and anarchists. On the 16th of June an attempt by the policy formerly followed in favour of Menelek against the an anarchist named Lega was made on Crispi's life; negus John might have consolidated Italian influence in Abyssinia on the 24th of June President Carnot was assassinated by the by preventing the ascendancy of any single chieftain. The anarchist Caserio; and on the 30th of Jurie an Italian journalist Italian government, however, neglected this opening, and was murdered at Leghorn for a newspaper attack upon anarchism Mangashà came to terms with Menelek. Consequently the - a series of outrages which led the government to frame and efforts of Crispi and his envoy, Colonel Piano, to conclude a new parliament to adopt (11th July) a Public Safety Bill for the pre- treaty with Menelek in June 1894 not only proved unsuccessful, vention of anarchist propaganda and crime. At the end of July but formed a prelude to troubles on the Italo-Abyssinian frontier! the trial of the persons implicated in the Banca Romana scandal Bath-Agos, the native chieftain who ruled the Okulé-Kusai and revealed the fact that among the documents abstracted by Giolitti the cis-Mareb provinces on behalf of Italy, intrigued with from the papers of the bank manager, Tanlongo, were several Mangashà, ras of the trans-Mareb province of Tigré, and with bearing upon Crispi's political and private life. On the 11th of Menelek, to raise a revolt against Italian rule on the high December Giolitti laid these and other papers before the Chamber, plateau. In December 1894 the revolt broke out, but Major in the hope of ruining Crispi, but upon examination most of them Toselli with a small force marched rapidly against Bath Agos, were found to be worthless, and the rest of so private a nature as whoin he routed and killed at Halai. General Baratieri, having to be unfit for publication. The effect of the incident was rather reason to suspect the complicity of Mangashà in the revolt, called to increase detestation of Giolitti than to damage Crispi. The upon him to furnish troops for a projected Italo-Abyssinian latter, indeed, prosecuted the former for libel and for abuse of campaign against the Mahdists. Mangashà made no reply, and his position when premier, but after many vicissitudes, including Baratieri crossing the Mareb advanced to Adowa, but four days the flight of Giolitti to Berlin in order to avoid arrest, the later was obliged to return northwards. Mangashà thereupon Chamber refused authorization for the prosecution, and the took the offensive and attempted to occupy the village of Coatit matter dropped. A fresh attempt of the same kind was then in Okulé-Kusai, but was forestalled and defeated by Baratieri on made against Crispi by the Radical leader Cavallotti, who the 13th of January 1895. Hurriedly retreating to Senafé, hard advanced unproven charges of corruption and embezzlement. pressed by the Italians, who shelled Senafé on the evening of the These attacks were, however, unavailing to shake Crispi's 25th of January, Mangashà was obliged to abandon his camp and position, and in the general election of May 1895 his government provisions to Baratieri, who also secured a quantity of corre- obtained a majority of nearly 200 votes. Nevertheless public spondence establishing the complicity of Menelek and Mangashà confidence in the efficacy of the parliamentary system and in the in the revolt of Bath-Agos. honesty of politicians was seriously diminished by these un- The comparatively facile success achieved by Baratieri savoury occurrences, which, in combination with the acquittal of against Mangashà seems to have led him to undervalue his all the defendants in the Banca Romana trial, and the abandon- enemy, and to forget that Menelek, negus and king Coaquest ment of the proceedings against Giolitti, reinforced to an alarm- of Shoa, had an interest in allowing Mangashà to be of Tigre. ing degree the propaganda of the revolutionary parties. crushed, in order that the imperial authority and the The foreign policy of the second Crispi Administration, in superiority of Shoan over Tigrin arms might be the more strikingly which the portfolio of foreign affairs was held by Baron Blanc, asserted. After obtaining the establishment of an apostolic was, as before, marked by a cordial interpretation of prefecture in Eritrea under the charge of Italian Franciscans, Complica, the triple alliance, and by close accord with Great Baratieri expelled from the colony the French Lazarist mission- Britain. In the Armenian question Italy seconded with aries for their alleged complicity in the Bath-Agos insurrection, energy the diplomacy of Austria and Germany, while and in March 1895 undertook the conquest of Tigré. Occupying the Italian fleet joined the British Mediterranean squadron in a Adigrat and Makallè, he reached Adowa on the 1st of April; and demonstration off the Syrian coast. Graver than any foreign thence pushed forward to Axum, the holy city of Abyssinia. These question were the complications in Eritrea. Under the arrange- places were garrisoned, and during the rainy season Baratieri ment concluded in 1891 by Rudini with native chiefs in regard returned to Italy, where he was received with unbounded to the Italo-Abyssinian frontier districts, relations with Abyssinia enthusiasm. Whether he or the Crispi cabinet had any inkling had remained comparatively satisfactory. Towards the Sudan, of the enterprise to which they were committed by the occupa- however, the Mahdists, who had recovered from a defeat inflicted tion of Tigré is more than doubtful. Certainly Baratieri made by an Italian force at Agordat in 1890, resumed operations in no adequate preparations to repel an Abyssinian attempt to December 1893. Colonel Arimondi, commander of the colonial reconquer the province. Early in September both Mangas à forces in the absence of the military governor, General Baratieri, and Menelek showed signs of activity, and on the 20th of Sep- attacked and routed a dervish force 10,000 strong on the 21st of tember Makonnen, ras of Harrar, who up till then had been December. The Italian troops, mostly native levies, numbered regarded as a friend and quasi-ally by Italy, expelled all Italians only 2200 men. The dervish loss was more than 1000 killed, from his territory and marched with 30,000 men to join the while the total Italian casualties amounted to less than 250 negus. On returning to Eritrea, Baratieri mobilized his native General Baratieri, upon returning to the colony, decided to reserves and pushed forward columns under Major Toselli and execute a coup de main against the dervish base at Kassala, both in General Arimondi as far 'south as Amba Alagi. Mangashà fell order to relieve pressure from that quarter and to preclude a com- back before the Italians, who obtained several minor successes; bined Abyssinian and dervişh attack upon the colony at the end of l but on the 6th of December Toselli's column, 2000 strong, which Eritrea. 78 (1870-1902 ITALY through a misunderstanding continued to hold Amba Alagi, was sequent evidence proved to be as unjustifiable as it was unsoldier. almost annihilated by the Abyssinian vanguard of 40,000 men. like. Placed under court-martial for his conduct, Baratieri Toselli and all but three officers and 300 men fell at their posts was acquitted of the charge for having been led to give battle after a desperate resistance. Arimondi, collecting the survivors by other than military considerations, but the sentence “deplored of the Toselli column, retreated to Makallè and Adigrat. At that in such difficult circumstances the command should have Makallè, however, he left a small garrison in the fort, which on been given to a general so inferior to the exigencies of the the 7th of January 1896 was invested by the Abyssinian army. situation." Repeated attempts to capture the fort having failed, Menelek In Italy the news of the defeat of Adowa caused deep dis- and Makonnen opened negotiations with Baratieri for its capitula- couragement and dismay. On the 5th of March the Crispi tion, and on the 21st of January the garrison, under Major cabinet resigned before an outburst of indignation which the Galliano, who had heroically defended the position, were per- Opposition had assiduously fomented, and five days later a new mitted to march out with the honours of war. Meanwhile cabinet was formed by General Ricotti-Magnani, who, however, Baratieri received reinforcements from Italy, but remained made over the premiership to the marquis di Rudini. The latter, undecided as to the best plan of campaign. Thus a month was though leader of the. Right, had long been intriguing with lost, during which the Abyssinian army advanced to Hausen, Cavallotti, leader of the Extreme Left, to overthrow Crispi, but a position slightly south of Adowa. The Italian commander without the disaster of Adowa his plan would scarcely have attempted to treat with Menelek, but his negotiations merely succeeded. The first act of the new cabinet was to confirm enabled the Italian envoy, Major Salsa, to ascertain that the instructions given by its predecessor to General Baldissera (who Abyssinians were nearly 100,000 strong mostly armed with had succeeded General Baratieri on the 2nd of March) to treat rifles and well supplied with artillery. The Italians, including for peace with Menelek if he thought desirable. Baldissera camp-followers, numbered less than 25,000 men, a force too opened negotiations with the negus through Major Salsa, and small for effective action, but too large to be easily provisioned simultaneously reorganized the Italian army. The negotiations at 200 m. from its base, in a roadless, mountainous country, having failed, he marched to relieve the beleaguered garrison almost devoid of water. For a moment Baratieri thought of of Adigrat; but Menelek, discouraged by the heavy losses at retreat, especially as the hope of creating a diversion from Zaila Adowa, broke up his camp and returned southwards towards Harrar had failed in consequence of the British refusal to Shoa. At the same time Baldissera detached Abyssin- jag settle to permit the landing of an Italian force without the consent Colonel Stevani with four native battalions to relieve meat. of France. The defection of a number of native allies (who, Kassala, then hard pressed by the Mahdists. Kassala however, were attacked and defeated by Colonel Stevani on was relieved on the ist of April, and Stevani a few days later the 18th of February) rendered the Italian position still more severely defeated the dervishes at Jebel Mokram and Tucruff precarious; but Baratieri, unable to make up his mind, continued Returning from Kassala Colonel Stevani rejoined Baldissera, io maneuvre in the hope of drawing an Abyssinian attack, who on the 4th of May relieved Adigrat after a well-executed These futile tactics exasperated the home government, which march. By adroit negotiations with Mangashà the Italian on the 22nd of February despatched General Baldissera, with general obtained the release of the Italian prisoners in Tigré, strong reinforcements, to supersede Baratieri. On the 25th of and towards the end of May withdrew his whole force north of February Crispi telegraphed to Baratieri, denouncing his opera- the Mareb. Major Nerazzini was then despatched as special tions as military phthisis," and urging him to decide upon envoy to the negus to arrange terms of peace. On the 26th of some strategic plan. Baratieri, anxious probably to obtain October Nerazzini succeeded in concluding, at Adis Ababa, some success before the arrival of Baldissera, and alarmed by a provisional treaty annulling the treaty of Uccialli; recognizing the rapid diminution of his stores, which precluded further the absolute independence of Ethiopia; postponing for one year immobility, called a council of war (29th of February) and the definitive delimitation of the Italo-Abyssinian boundary, obtained the approval of the divisional commanders for a plan but allowing the Italians meanwhile to hold the strong Mareb- of attack. During the night the army advanced towards Belesa-Muna line; and arranging for the release of the Italian Adowa in three divisions, under Generals Dabormida, Arimondi prisoners after ratification of the treaty in exchange for an and Albertone, each division being between 4000 and 5000 indemnity of which the amount was to be fixed by the Italian strong, and a brigade 5300 strong under General government The treaty having been duly ratified, and an Ellena remaining in reserve. All the divisions, indemnity of £400,000 paid to Menelek, the Shoan prisoners were Adowa. save that of Aibertone, consisted chiefly of Italian released, and Major Nerazzini once more returned to Abyssinia troops. During the march Albertone's native division mistook with instructions to secure, if possible, Menelek's assent to the the road, and found itself obliged to delay in the Arimondi column definitive retention of the Mareb-Belesa-Muna line by Italy. by retracing its steps. Marching rapidly, however, Albertone Before Nerazzini could reach Adis Ababa, Rudini, in order: outdistanced the other columns, but, in consequence of allowing partially to satisfy the demands of his Radical supporters for his men an hour's rest, arrived upon the scene of action when the abandonment of the colony, announced in the Chamber the the Abyssinians, whom it had been hoped to surprise at dawn, intention of Italy to limit her occupation to the triangular zone were ready to receive the attack. Pressed by overwhelming between the points Asmarà, Keren and Massawa, and, possibly, forces, the Italians, after a violent combat, began to give way. to withdraw to Massawa alone. This declaration, of which The Dabormida division, unsupported by Albertone, found Menelek was swiftly apprised by. French agents, rendered it itself likewise engaged in a separate combat against superior impossible to Nerazzini to obtain more than a boundary leaving numbers. Similarly the Arimondi brigade was attacked by to Italy but a small portion of the high plateau and ceding to 30,000 Shoans, and encumbered by the débris of Albertone's Abyssinia the fertile provinces of Seraè and Okulé-Kusai The troops. Baratieri vainly attempted to push forward the reserve, fall of the Rudini cabinet in June 1898, however, enabled but the Italians were already overwhelmed, and the battle-or Signor Ferdinando Martini and Captain Cicco di Cola, who had rather, series of distinct engagements-ended in a general rout. been appointed respectively civil governor of Eritrea and minister The Italian loss is estimated to have been more than 6000, resident at Adis Ababa, to prevent the cession of Seraè and Okulé. of whom 3125 were whites. Between 3000 and 4000 prisoners Kusai, and to secure the assent of Menelek to Italian retention were taken by the Abyssinians, including General Albertone, of the Mareb-Belesa-Muna frontier. Eritrea has now approxi- while Generals Arimondi and Dabormida were killed and General mately the same extent as before the revolt of Bath-Agos, Ellena wounded. The Abyssinians lost more than 5000 killed except in regard (1) to Kassala, which was transferred to the and 8000 wounded. Baratieri, after a futile attempt to direct Anglo-Egyptian authorities on the 25th of December 1897, in the retreat, filed in haste and reached Adi-Cajè before the débris pursuance of the above-mentioned Anglo-Italian convention; of his arnıy. Thence he despatched telegrams to Italy throwing and (2) to slight rectifications of its northern and eastern bound- blame for the defeat upon his troops, a proceeding which sub- | aries by conventions concluded between the Eritrean and the « Battle of 1870-1902) ITALY 79 and ob- Anglo-Egyptian authorities. Under Signor Ferdinando Martini's | the hands of the mob. A palace was sacked, barricades were able administration (1898–1906) the cost of the colony to Italy erected and for forty-eight hours the troops under General was reduced and its trade and agriculture have vastly improved. Bava-Beccaris, notwithstanding the employment of artillery, While marked in regard to Eritrea by vacillation and un- were unable to restore order. In view of these occurrences, dignified readiness to yield to Radical clamour, the policy of Rudini authorized the proclamation of a state of siege at Milan, the marquis di Rudini was in other respects chiefly characterized Florence, Leghorn and Naples, delegating the suppression of by a desire to demolish Crispi and his supporters. Actuated by disorder to special military commissioners. By these means rancour against Crispi, he, on the 29th of April 1896, authorized order was restored, though not without considerable loss of life the publication of a Green Book on Abyssinian affairs, in which, i at Milan and elsewhere. At Milan alone the official returns without the consent of Great Britain, the confidential Anglo- confessed to eighty killed and several hundred wounded, a total Italian negotiations in regard to the Abyssinian war were generally considered below the real figures. As in 1894, excess- disclosed. This publication, which amounted to a gross breach ively severe sentences were passed by the military tribunals of diplomatic confidence, might have endangered the cordiality of upon revolutionary leaders and other persons considered to have Anglo-Italian relations, had not the esteem of the British been implicated in the outbreak, but successive royal amnesties government for General Ferrero, Italian ambassador in London, obliterated these condemnations within three years. induced it to overlook the incident.” Fortunately for Italy, No Italian administration since the death of Depretis under- the marquis Visconti Venosta shortly afterwards consented went so many metamorphoses as that of the marquis di Rudini. to assume the portfolio of foreign affairs, which had been resigned Modified a first time within five months of its forma- Pelloar by Duke Caetani di Sermoneta, and again to place, after an tion (July 1896) in connexion with General Ricotti's interval of twenty years, his unrivalled experience at the service Army Reform Bill, and again in December 1897, straction. of his country. In September 1896 he succeeded in concluding when Zanardelli entered the cabinet, it was recon- with France a treaty with regard to Tunisia in place of the old structed for a third time at the end of May 1898 upon the Italo-Tunisian treaty, denounced by the French Government a question of a Public Safety Bill, but fell for the fourth and last year previously. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 Visconti time on the 18th of June 1898, on account of public indignation Venosta laboured to maintain the European concert, joined at the results of Rudini's home policy as exemplified in the May Great Britain in preserving Grecce from the worst consequences riots. On the 29th of June Rudini was succeeded in the premier- of her folly, and lent moral and material aid in establishing an ship by General Luigi Pelloux, a Savoyard, whose only title to autonomous government in Crete. At the same time be mitigated office was the confidence of the king. The Pelloux cabinet the Francophil tendencies of some of his colleagues, accompanied possessed no clear programme except in regard to the Public King Humbert and Queen Margherita on their visit to Homburg Safety Bill, which it had taken over from its predecessor. Pre- in September 1897, and, by loyal observance of the spirit of the sented to parliament in November 1898, the bill was read a triple alliance, retained for Italy the confidence of her allies second time in the following spring, but its third reading was without forfeiting the goodwill of France. violently obstructed by the Socialists, Radicals and Republicans The home administration of the Rudini cabinet compared of the Extreme Left. After a series of scenes and scuffles the unfavourably with that of foreign affairs. Bound by a secret bill was promulgated by royal decree, the decree being post- understanding with the Radical leader Cavallotti, an able but dated to allow time for the third reading. Again obstruction unscrupulous demagogue, Rudini was compelled to bow to precluded debate, and on the 22nd of July 1899 the decree Radical exigencies. He threw all the influence of the government automatically acquired force of law, pending the adoption of against Crispi, who was charged with complicity in embezzlements a bill of indemnity by the Chamber. In February 1900 it was, perpetrated by Favilla, managing director of the Bologna however, quashed by the supreme court on a point of procedure, branch of the Bank of Naples. After being subjected to persecu- and the Public Safety Bill as a whole had again to be presented tion for nearly two years, Crispi's character was substantially to the Chamber. In view of the violence of Extremist obstruc- vindicated by the report of a parliamentary commission ap- tion, an effort was made to reform the standing orders of the pointed to inquire into his relations with Favilla. True, the Lower House, but parliamentary feeling ran so high that General commission proposed and the Chamber adopted a vote of censure Pelloux thought it expedient to appeal to the country. The upon Crispi's conduct in 1894, when, as premier and minister general election of June 1900 not only failed to reinforce the of the interior, he had borrowed £12,000 from Favilla to replenish cabinet, but largely increased the strength of the extreme the secret service fund, and had subsequently repaid the money parties (Radicals, Republicans and Socialists), who in the new as instalments for secret service were in due course furnished by Chamber numbered nearly 100 out of a total of 508. General the treasury. Though irregular, his action was to some extent Pelloux therefore resigned, and on the 24th of June a moderate justified by the depletion of the secret service fund under Giolitti Liberal cabinet was formed by the aged Signor Saracco, president and by the abnormal circumstances prevailing in 1893–1894, of the senate. Within five weeks of formation King Humbert when he had been obliged to quell the insurrections in Sicily was shot by an anarchist assassin named Bresci while leaving and Massa-Carrara. But the Rudini-Cavallotti alliance was an athletic festival at Monza, where his Majesty had distribute i destined to produce other results than those of the campaign the prizes (29th July 1900). The death of the unfortunate against Crispi. Pressed by Cavallotti, Rudini in March 1897 monarch, against whom an attempt had previously Death dissolved the Chamber and conducted the general election in been made by the anarchist Acciarito (22nd April of King such a way as to crush by government pressure the partisans of 1897), caused an outburst of profound sorrow and Crispi, and greatly to strengthen the (Socialist, Republican and indignation. Though not a great monarch, King Radical) revolutionary parties. More than ever at the mercy Humbert had, by his unfailing generosity and personal courage, of the Radicals and of their revolutionary allies, Rudini continued won the esteem and affection of his people. During the cholera so to administer public affairs that subversive propaganda epidemic at Naples and Busca in 1884, and the Ischia earth- and associations obtained unprecedented extension. The effect quake of 1885, he, regardless of danger, brought relief and en- was seen in May 1898, when, in consequence of a rise in the couragement to sufferers, and rescued many lives. More than price of bread, disturbances occurred in southern Italy. The £100,000 of his civil list was annually devoted to charitable pur- corn duty was reduced to meet the emergency, but the disturbed poses. Humbert was succeeded by his only son, Victor area extended to Naples, Foggia, Bari, Minervino Emmanuel III. (b. November 11, 1869), a liberal- of King Murge, Molfetta and thence along the line of railway minded and well-educated prince, who at the time of Victor May, which skirts the Adriatic coast. At Faenza, Piacenza, his father's assassination was returning from a cruise Emmanuel Cremona, Pavia and Milan, where subversive associa in the eastern Mediterranean. The remains of King tions were stronger, it assumed the complexion of a political revolt. Humbert were laid to rest in the Pantheon at Rome beside From the 7th to the 9th of May Milan remained practically in I those of his father, Victor Emmanuel II. (9th August). Two Humbert. Accession Riots of 1898. II. 80 ITALY (1902-1909 affairs. days later Victor Emmanuel III. swore fidelity to the con- sought to extend its political influence by means of strikes and stitution before the assembled Houses of Parliament and in the organization of labour leagues among agricultural labourers the presence of his consort, Elena of Montenegro, whom he had and artisans. The movement was confined chiefly to the married in October 1896. northern and central provinces. During the first six months of The later course of Italian foreign policy was marked by 1901 the strikes numbered 600, and involved more than 1,000,000 many vicissitudes. Admiral Canevaro, who had gained distinc-workmen. (H. W. S.) tion as commander of the international forces in Foreign Crete (1896–1898), assumed the direction of foreign G. 1902–1909 affairs in the first period of the Pelloux administration. In 1901-1902 the social economic condition of Italy was a His diplomacy, though energetic, lacked steadiness. Soon after matter of grave concern. The strikes and other economic agita- taking office he mpleted the negotiations begun by the Rudinitions at this time may be divided into three Labour administration for a new commercial treaty with France (October groups: strikes in industrial centres for higher wages, troubles. 1898), whereby Franco-Italian commercial relations were placed shorter hours and better labour conditions generally; upon a normal footing after a breach which had lasted for more strikes of agricultural labourers in northern Italy for better con- than ten years. By the despatch of a squadron to South tracts with the landlords; disturbances among the south Italian America he obtained satisfaction for injuries inflicted thirteen peasantry due to low wages, unemployment (particularly in years previously upon an Italian subject by the United States Apulia), and the claims of the labourers to public land occupied of Colombia. In December 1898 he convoked a diplomatic illegally by the landlords, combined with local feuds and the conference in Rome to discuss secret means for the repression struggle for power of the various influential families. The of anarchist propaganda and crime in view of the assassination prime cause in most cases was the unsatisfactory economic of the empress of Austria by an Italian anarchist-(Luccheni), condition of the working classes, which they realized all the more but it is doubtful whether results of practical value were achieved, vividly for the very improvements that had been made in it, The action of the tsar of Russia in convening the Peace Conference while education and better communications enabled them to at The Hague in May 1900 gave rise to a question as to the right organize themselves. Unfortunately these genuine grievances of the Vatican to be officially represented, and Admiral Canevaro, were taken advantage of by the Sccialists for their own purposes, supported by Great Britain and Germany, succeeded in prevents and strikes and disorders were sometimes promoted without ing the invitation of a papal delegate. Shortly afterwards his cause and conciliation impeded by outsiders who acted from term of office was brought to a close by the failure of an attempt motives of personal ambition or profit. Moreover, while many to secure for Italy a coaling station at Sanmen and a sphere strikes were quite orderly, the turbulent character of a part of of influence in China; but his policy of active participation in the Italian people and their hatred of authority often converted Chinese affairs was continued in a modified form by his successor, peaceful demands for better conditions into dangerous riots, in the Marquis Visconti Venosta, who, entering the reconstructed which the dregs of the urban population (known as teppisti or the Pelloux cabinet in May 1899, retained the portfolio of foreign mala vila) joined. affairs in the ensuing Saracco administration, and secured the Whereas in the past the strikes had been purely local and due despatch of an Italian expedition, 2000 strong, to aid in repress- to local conditions, they now appeared of more general and ing the Chinese outbreak and in protecting Italian interests political character, and the " sympathy" strike came to be a in the Far East (July 1900). With characteristic foresight, frequent and undesirable addition to the ordinary economic Visconti Venosta promoted an exchange of views between Italy agitation. The most serious movement at this time was that of and France in regard to the Tripolitan hinterland, which the the railway servants. The agitation had begun some fifteen Anglo-French convention of 1899 had placed within the French years before, and the men had at various times demanded better sphere of influence-a modification of the status quo ante con- pay and shorter hours, often with success. The next demand sidered highly detrimental to Italian aspirations in Tripoli. was for greater fixity of tenure and more regular promotion, as For this reason the Anglo-French convention had caused pro- well as for the recognition by the companies of the railwaymen's found irritation in Italy, and had tended somewhat to diminish union. On the 4th of January 1902, the employees of the the cordiality of Anglo-Italian relations. Visconti Venosta Mediterranean railway advanced these demands at a meeting at is believed, however, to have obtained from France a formal Turin, and threatened to strike if they were not satisfied. By the declaration that France would not transgress the limits assigned beginning of February the agitation had spread all over Italy, and to her influence by the convention. Similarly, in regard to the government was faced by the possibility of a strike which Albania, Visconti Venosta exchanged notes with Austria with would paralyse the whole economic life of the country. Then the a view to the prevention of any misunderstanding through the Turin gas men struck, and a general “sympathy ” strike broke conflict between Italian and Austrian interests in that part of out in that city in consequence, which resulted in scenes of the Adriatic coast. Upon the fall of the Saracco cabinet (9th violence lasting two days. The government called out all the February 1901) Visconti Venosta was succeeded at the foreign railwaymen who were army reservists, but continued to keep office by Signor Prinetti, a Lombard manufacturer of strong them at their railway work, exercising military discipline over temperament, but without previous, diplomatic experience. them and thus ensuring the continuance of the service. At the The new minister continued in most respects the policy of his same time it mediated between the companies and the employees, predecessor. The outset of his administration was inarked and in June a settlement was formally concluded between the by Franco-Italian fêtes at Toulon (10th to 14th April 1901), ministers of public works and of the treasury and the directors of when the Italian fleet returned a visit paid by the French the companies concerning the grievances of the employees. Mediterranean squadron to Cagliari in April 1899; and by the One consequence of the agrarian agitations was the increased despatch of three Italian warships to Prevesa to obtain satis- use of machinery and the reduction in the number of hands faction for damage done to Italian subjects by Turkish officials. employed, which if it proved advantageous to the landlord and to The Saracco administration, formed after the obstructionist the few labourers retained, who received higher wages, resulted crisis of 1899-1900 as a cabinet of transition and pacification, was in an increase of unemployment. The Socialist party, which had Zanar overthrown in February 1901 in consequence of its grown powerful under a series of weak-kneed administrations, vacillating conduct towards a dock strike at Genoa. now began to show signs of division, on the one hand there was It was succeeded by a Zanardelli cabinet, in which the the revolutionary wing, led by Signor Enrico Ferri, the Mantuan Cablaet. portfolio of the interior was allotted to Giolitti. Com- deputy, which advocated a policy of uncompromising class posed mainly of elements drawn from the Leſt, and dependent warfare, and on the other the riformisli, or moderate Socialists, for a majority upon the support of the subversive groups of the led by Signor Filippo Turati, deputy for Milan, who adopted a Extreme Left, the formation of this cabinet gave the signal for a more conciliatory attitude and were ready to ally themselves with yast working-class movement, during which the Socialist party | other parliamentary parties. Later the division took another 6 delli- Giolitti 1902-1909) ITALY 81 Strikes la 1907. General strike of 1904. aspect, the extreme wing being constituted by the sindacalisli, who | militarism is quite unknown, and without it anti-militarism can were opposed to all legislative parliamentary action and favoured gain no foothold. No serious mutinies have ever occurred in only direct revolutionary propaganda by means of the sindacati or the Italian army, and the only results of the propaganda were unions which organized strikes and demonstrations. In March occasional meetings of hooligans, where Hervéist sentiments 1902 agrarian strikes organized by the leghe broke out in the were expressed and applauded, and a few minor disturbances district of Copparo and Polesine (lower valley of the Po), owing among reservists unexpectedly called back to the colours. to a dispute about the labour contracts, and in Apulia on account in the army itself the esprit de corps and the sense of duty and of unemployment. In August there were strikes among the dock discipline nullified the work of the propagandists. labourers of Genoa and the iron workers of Florence; the latter In June and July 1907 there were again disturbances among agitation developed into a general strike in that city, which the agricultural labourers Ferrara and Rovigo, and a wide- aroused widespread indignation among the orderly part of the spread strike organized by the leghe throughout those population and ended without any definite result. At Come provinces caused very serious losses to all concerned. 15,000 textile workers remained on strike for nearly a month, but The leghisti, moreover, were guilty of much criminal there were no disorders. violence; they committed one murder and established a veritable The year 1903, although not free from strikes and minor reign of terror, boycotting, beating and wounding numbers of disturbances, was quieter, but in September 1904 a very serious peaceful labourers who would not join the unions, and brutally situation was brought about by a general economic maltreating solitary policemen and soldiers. The authorities, and political agitation. The troubles began with the however, by arresting a number of the more prominent leaders disturbances at Buggeru in Sardinia and Castelluzzo in succeeded in restoring order. Almost immediately afterwards an Sicily, in both of which places the troops were compelled agitation of a still less defensible character broke out in various to use their arms and several persons were killed and wounded; towns under the guise of anti-clericalism. Certain scandals at a demonstration at Sestri Ponente in Liguria to protest had come to light in a small convent school at Greco near Milan. against what was called the Buggeru " massacre,” four cara- This was seized upon as a pretext for violent anti-clerical demon- bineers and eleven rioters were injured. The Monza labour strations all over Italy and for brutal and unprovoked attacks exchange then took the initiative of proclaiming a general strike on unoffending priests; at Spezia a church was set on fire and throughout Italy (September 15th) as a protest against the another dismantled, at Marino Cardinal Merry del Val was government for daring to maintain order. The strike spread to attacked by a gang of hooligans, and at Rome the violence of nearly all the industrial centres, although in many places it was the leppisti reached such a pitch as to provoke reaction on the limited to a few trades. At Milan it was more serious and lasted part of all respectable people, and some of the aggressors were longer than elsewhere, as the movement was controlled by the very roughly handled. The Socialists and the Freemasons were anarchists under Arturo Labriola; the hooligans committed largely responsible for the agitation, and they filled the country many acts of savage violence, especially against those workmen with stories of other priestly and conventual immoralities, who refused to strike, and much property was wilfully destroyed. nearly all of which, except the original casc at Greco, proved to At Genoa, which was in the hands of the teppisti for a couple of be without foundation. In September 1907 disorders in days, three persons were killed and 50 wounded, including 14 Apulia over the repartition of communal lands broke out anew, policemen, and railway communications were interrupted for a and were particularly serious at Ruvo, Bari, Cerignola and short time. Venice was cut off from the mainland for two days Satriano del Colle. In some cases there was foundation for the and all the public services were suspended. Riots broke out also labourers' claims, but unfortunately the movement got into the in Naples, Florence, Rome and Bologna. The deputies of the hands of professional agitators and common swindlers, and Extreme Left, instead of using their influence in favour of the leader, a certain Giampetruzzi, who at one time seemed to pacification, could think of nothing better than to demand an be a worthy colleague of Marcelin Albert, was afterwards tried immediate convocation of parliament in order that they might and condemned for having cheated his own followers. present a bill forbidding the troops and police to use their arms in In October 1907 there was again a general strike at Milan, all conflicts between capital and labour, whatever the provocation which was rendered more serious on account of the action of might be. This preposterous proposal was of course not even the railway servants, and extended to other cities; traffic discussed, and the movement caused a strong feeling of reaction was disorganized over a large part of northern Italy, until the against Socialism and of hostility to the government for its government, being now owner of the railways, dismissed the weakness; for, however much sympathy there might be with the ringleaders from the service. This had the desired effect, and genuine grievances of the working classes, the September strikes although the Sindacato dei ferrovieri (railway servants' union) were of a frankly revolutionary character and had been fomented threatened a general railway strike if the dismissed men were by professional agitators and kept going by the dregs of the not reinstated, there was no further trouble. In the spring of people. The mayor of Venice sent a firm and dignified protest to 1908 there were agrarian strikes at Parma; the labour contracts the government for its inaction, and the people of Liguria raised had pressed hardly on the peasantry, who had cause for complaint; a large subscription in favour of the troops, in recognition of but while some improvement had been effected in the new their gallantry and admirable discipline during the troubles. contracts, certain unscrupulous demagogues, of whom Alceste Early in 1905 there was a fresh agitation among the railway De Ambris, representing the “syndacalist " wing of the Socialist servants, who were dissatisfied with the clauses concerning party, was the chief, organized a widespread agitation. The the personnel in the bill for the purchase of the lines landlords on their part organized an agrarian union to defend by the state. They'initiated a system of obstruction their interests and enrolled numbers of non-union labourers to which hampered and delayed the traffic without alto carry on the necessary work and save the crops. Conflicts get ner suspending it. On the 17th of April a general railway occurred between the strikers and the independent labourers strike was ordered by the union, but owing to the action of the and the police; the trouble spread to the city of Parma, where authorities, who for once showed energy, the traffic was carried violent scenes occurred when the labour exchange was occupied Other disturbances of a serious character occurred among by the troops, and many soldiers and policemen, whose behaviour the steelworkers of Terni, at Grammichele in Sicily and at as usual was exemplary throughout, were seriously wounded. Alessandria. The extreme parties now began to direct especial | The agitation ceased in June with the defeat of the strikers, attention to propaganda in the army, with a view to destroying but not until a vast amount of damage had been done to the its cohesion and thus paralysing the action of the government. crops and all had suffered heavy losses, including the government, The campaign was conducted on the lines of the anti-militarist whose expenses for the maintenance of public order ran into tens movement in France identified with the name of Hervé. Fortu- of millions of lire. The failure of the strike caused the Socialists nately, however, this policy was not successful, as military service to quarrel among themselves and to accuse each other of dis- is less unpopular in Italy than in many other countries; aggressive | honesty in the management of party funds; it appeared in fact Unrest of 1905. on. XV 2 82 (1902–1909 ITALY Laternal 1909. that the large sums collected throughout Italy on behalf of the Signor Fortis then became premier and minister of the interior, strikers had been squandered or appropriated by the “synda- Signor Maiorano finance minister and Signor Carcano treasury calist” leaders. The spirit of indiscipline had begun to reach minister, while Signor Tittoni, Admiral Mirabello the lower classes of state employees, especially the school teachers and General Pedotti retained the portfolios they had 1905 1906. and the postal and telegraph clerks, and at one time it seemed held in the previous administration. The new govern- as though the country were about to face a situation similar to ment was colourless in the extreme, and the premier's programme that which arose in France in the spring of 1909. Fortunately, aroused no enthusiasm in the House, the most important bill however, the government, by dismissing the ringleader, Dr presented being that for the purchase of the railways, which was Campanozzi, in time nipped the agitation in the bud, and it voted in June 1905. But the ministry never had any real hold did attempt to redress some of the genuine grievances. Public over the country or parliament, and the dissatisfaction caused opinion upheld the government in its attitude, for all persons by the modus vivendi with Spain, which would have wrought of common sense realized that the suspension of the public much injury, to the Italian wine-growers, led to demonstrations services could not be permitted for a moment in a civilized and riots, and a hostile vote in the Chamber produced a cabinet country. crisis (December 17, 1905); Signor Fortis, howeyer, reconstructed In parliamentary politics the most notable event in 1902 the ministry, inducing the marquis di San Giuliano to accept the was the presentation of a divorce bill by Signor Zanardelli's portfolio of foreign affairs. This last fact was significant, as government; this was done not because there was any the new foreign secretary, a Sicilian deputy and a specialist on real demand for it, but to please the doctrinaire international politics, had hitherto been one of Signor Sonnino's politics, 1902. anti-clericals and freemasons, divorce being regarded staunchest adherents; his defection, which was but one of many, not as a social institution but as a weapon against showed that the more prominent members of the Sonnino party Catholicism. But while the majority of the deputies were were tired of waiting in vain for their chief's access to power. nominally in favour of the bill, the parliamentary committee Even this cabinet was still-born, and a hostile vote in the Chamber reported against it, and public opinion was so hostile that an on the 30th of January 1906 brought about its fall. anti-divorce petition received 3,500,000 signatures, including Now at last, after waiting so long, Signor Sonnino's hour had not only those of professing Catholics, but of free-thinkers and struck, and he became premier for the first time. This result Jews, who regarded divorce as unsuitable to Italian conditions, was most satisfactory to all the best elements in the 1906 The opposition outside parliament was in fact so overwhelming country, and great hopes were entertained that the that the ministry decided to drop the bill. The financial situa- advent of a rigid and honest statesman would usher tion continued satisfactory; a new loan at 33 % was voted by in a new era of Italian parliamentary life. Unfortunately at the Chamber in April 1902, and by June the whole of it had been the very outset of its career the composition of the new cabinet placed in Italy. In October the rate of exchange was at par, proved disappointing; for while such men as Count Guicciardini, the premium on gold had disappeared, and by the end of the the minister for foreign affairs, and Signor Luzzatti at the year the budget showed a surplus of sixteen millions. treasury commanded general approval, the choice of Signor In January 1903 Signor Prinetti, the minister for foreign Sacchi as minister of justice and of Signor Pantano as minister affairs, resigned on account of ill-health, and was succeeded by of agriculture and trade, both of them advanced and militant Admiral Morin, while Admiral Bettolo took the latter's Radicals, savoured of an unholy compact between the premier place as minister of marine. The unpopularity of and his erstwhile bitter enemies, which boded ill for the success the ministry forced Signor Giolitti, the minister of the of the administration. For this unfortunate combination Signor interior, to resign (June 1903), and he was followed by Admiral Sonnino himself was not altogether to blame; having lost many Bettolo, whose administration had been violently attacked by of his most faithful followers, who, weary of waiting for office, the Socialists; in October Signor Zanardelli , the premier, had gone over to the enemy, he had been forced to seek support resigned on account of his health, and the king entrusted the among men who had professed hostility to the existing order of formation of the cabinet to Signor Giolitti. : The latter accepted things and thus to secure at least the neutrality of the Extreme the task, and the new administration included Signor Tittoni, Left and make the public realize that the “reddest ” of late prefect of Naples, as foreign minister, Signor Luigi Luzzatti, Socialists, Radicals and Republicans may be tamed and rendered the eminent financier, at the treasury, General Pedotti at the harmless, by the offer of cabinet appointments. A similar war office, and Admiral Mirabello as minister of marine. Almost experiment had been tried in France not without success. - immediately after his appointment Signor Tittoni accompanied Unfortunately in the case of Signor Sonnino public opinion the king and queen of Italy on a state visit to France and then expected too much and did not take to the idea of such a com- to England, where various international questions were discussed, promise. The new premier's first act was one which cannot be and the cordial reception which the royal pair met with in London sufficiently praised: he suppressed all subsidies to journalists, and at Windsor served to dispel the small cloud which had arisen and although this resulted in bitter attacks against him in the in the relations of the two countries on account of the Tripoli columns of the “ reptile press "it commanded the approval of agreements and the language question in Malta. The premier's all right-thinking men. Signor Sonnino realized, however, that programme was not well received by the Chamber, although his majority was not to be counted on: “ The country is with the treasury minister's financial statement was again satisfactory. me,” he said to a friend, “but the Chamber is against me.” The weakness of the government in dealing with the strike riots In April 1906 an eruption of Mount Etna caused the destruction caused a feeling of profound dissatisfaction, and the so-called of several villages and much loss of life and damage to property; experiment of liberty,” conducted with the object of conciliat- in appointing a committee to distribute the relief funds the premier ing the extreme parties, proved a dismal failure. In October refused to include any of the deputies of the devastated districts 1904, after the September strikes, the Chamber was dissolved, among its members, and when asked by them for the reason of and at the general elections in November a ministerial majority this omission, he replied, with a frankness more characteristic was returned, while the deputies of the Extreme Left (Socialists, of the man than politic, that he knew they would prove more Republicans and Radicals) were reduced from 107 to 94, and solicitous in the distribution of relief for their own electors than a few mild clericals elected. The municipal elections in several for the real sufferers. A motion presented by the Socialists in of the larger cities, which had hitherto been regarded as strong- the Chamber for the immediate discussion of a bill to prevent holds of socialism, marked an overwhelming triumph for the “the massacres of the proletariate” having been rejected by constitutional parties, notably in Milan, Turin and Genoa, for an enormous majority, the 28 Socialist deputies resigned their the strikes had wrought as much harm to the working classes seats; on presenting themselves for re-election their number as to the bourgeoisie. In spite of its majority the Giolitti was reduced to 25. A few days later the ministry, having received cabinet, realizing that it had lost its hold over the country, an adverse vote on a question of procedure, sent in its resignation resigned in March 1905. (May 17). 1903 1905. 3 > " 1902–1909) 83 ITALY The fall of Signor Sonnino, the disappointment caused by the | French government, in view of the rupture between Church and non-fulfilment of the expectations to which his advent to power State in France, formally asked to be placed under Italian pro- had given rise throughout Italy and the dearth of influential tection, which was granted in January 1907. The situation thus statesmen, made the return to power of Signor Giolitti inevitable. became the very reverse of what it had been in Crispi's time, An appeal to the country might have brought about a different when the French government, even when anti-clerical, protected result, but it is said that opposition from the highest quarters the Catholic Church abroad for political purposes, whereas the rendered this course practically impossible. The change of conflict between Church and State in Italy extended to foreign government brought Signor Tittoni back to the foreign office; countries, to the detriment of Italian political interests. A more Signor Maiorano became treasury minister, General Viganò difficult question was that of religious education in the public minister of war, Signor Cocco Ortu, whose chief claim to con- elementary schools. · Signor Giolitti wished to conciliate the sideration was the fact of his being a Sardinian (the island had Vatican by facilitating religious education, which was desired rarely been represented in the cabinet) minister of agriculture, by the majority of the parents, but he did not wish to offend the Signor Gianturco of justice, Signor Massimini of finance, Signor Freemasons and other anti-clericals too much, as they could Schanzer of posts and telegraphs and Signor Fusinato of educa- always give trouble at awkward moments. Consequently the tion. The new ministry began auspiciously with the conversion minister of education, Signor Rava, concocted a body of rules of the public debt from 4% to 31%, to be eventually reduced which, it was hoped, would satisfy every one: religious instruction to 31%. This operation had been prepared by Signor Luzzatti was to be maintained as a necessary part of the curriculum, but under Signor Sonnino's leadership, and although carried out by in communes where the majority of the municipal councillors Signor Maiorano it was Luzzatti who deservedly reaped the were opposed to it it might be suppressed; the council in that honour and glory; the bill was presented, discussed and voted case must, however, facilitate the teaching of religion to those by both Houses on the 29th of June, and by the 7th of July the children whose parents desire it. In practice, however, when the conversion was completed most successfully, showing on how council has suppressed religious instruction no such facilities are sound a basis Italian finance was now placed. The surplus for given. At the general elections of March 1909, over a score of the year amounted to 65,000,000 lire. In November Signor Clerical deputies were returned, Clericals of a very mild tone who Gianturco died, and Signor Pietro Bertolini took his place as had no thought of the temporal power and were supporters of the minister of public works; the latter proved perhaps the ablest monarchy and anti-socialists; where no Clerical candidate was member of the cabinet, but the acceptance of office under Giolitti in the field the Catholic voters plumped for the constitutional of a man who had been one of the most trusted and valuable candidate against all representatives of the Extreme Left. On lieutenants of Signor Sonnino marked a further step in the the other hand, the attitude of the Vatican towards Liberalism dégringolade of that statesman's party, and was attributed to within the Church was one of uncompromising reaction, and the fact that Signor Bertolini resented not having had a place under the new pope the doctrines of Christian Democracy and in the late Sonnino ministry. General Viganò was succeeded Modernism were condemned in no uncertain tone. Don Romolo in December by Senator Casana, the first civilian to become Murri, the Christian Democratic leader, who exercised much minister of war in Italy. He made various reforms which were influence over the younger and more progressive clergy, having badly wanted in army administration, but on the whole the been severely censured by the Vatican, made formal submission, experiment of a civilian “War Lord” was not a complete and declared his intention of retiring from the struggle. But he success, and in April 1909 Senator Casana retired and was suc- appeared again on the scene in the general elections of 1909, as a ceeded by General Spingardi, an appointment which received Christian Democratic candidate; he was elected, and alone of the general approval. Catholic deputies took his seat in the Chamber on the Extreme The elections of March 1909 returned a chamber very slightly Left, where all his neighbours were violent anti-clericals. different from its predecessor. The ministerial majority was 7. At 5 A.M. on the 28th of December 1908, an earthquake of over three hundred, and although the Extreme Left was some appalling severity shook the whole of southern Calabria and the what increased in numbers it was weakened in tone, and many eastern part of Sicily, completely destroying the cities Earth- of the newly elected "reds" were hardly more than pale pink. of Reggio and Messina, the smaller towns of Canitello, quake of · Meanwhile, the relations between Church and State began to Scilla, Villa San Giovanni, Bagnara, Palmi, Melito, show signs of change. The chief supporters of the claims of the Porto Salvo and Santa Eufemia, as well as a large papacy to temporal power were the clericals of France number of villages. In the case of Messina the horror of the and Austria, but in the former country they had lost situation was heightened by a tidal wave. The catastrophe was all influence, and the situation between the Church and the greatest of its kind that has ever occurred in any country; the government was becoming every day more strained. the number of persons killed was approximately 150,000, while With the rebellion of her “Eldest Daughter," the Roman the injured were beyond calculation. Church could not continue in her old attitude of uncompromising The characteristic feature of Italy's foreign relations during hostility towards United Italy, and the Vatican began to realize this period was the weakening of the bonds of the Triple Alliance the folly of placing every Italian in the dilemma of being either a and the improved relations with France, while the Foreign good Italian or a good Catholic, when the majority wished to be traditional friendship with England remained un- both. Outside of Rome relations between the clergy and the impaired. Franco-Italian friendship was officially authorities were as a rule quite cordial, and in May 1903 Cardinal cemented by the visit of King Victor Emmanuel and Queen Sarto, the patriarch of Venice, asked for and obtained an audience Elena in October 1903 to Paris where they received a very cordial with the king when he visited that city, and the meeting which welcome. The visit was returned in April 1904 when M. followed was of a very friendly character. In July following Leo Loubet, the French president, came to Rome; this action was XIII. died, and that same Cardinal Sarto became pope under the strongly resented by the pope, who, like his predecessor since style of Pius X. The new pontiff, although nominally upholding 1870, objected to the presence of foreign Catholic rulers in Rome, the claims of the temporal power, in practice attached but little and led to the final rupture between France and the Vatican. importance to it. At the elections for the local bodies the The Franco-Italian understanding had the effect of raising Catholics had already been permitted to vote, and, availing Italy's credit, and the Italian rente, which had been shut out themselves of the privilege, they gained seats in many municipal of the French bourses, resumed its place there once more, a fact councils and obtained the majority in some. At the general which contributed to increase its price and to reduce the unfavour- parliamentary elections of 1904 a few Catholics had been elected able rate of exchange. That agreement also served to clear up as such, and the encyclical of the 11th of June 1905 on the political the situation in Tripoli; while Italian aspirations towards organization of the Catholics, practically abolished the non Tunisia had been ended by the French occupation of that expedit. In September of that year a number of religious institu- territory, Tripoli and Bengazi were now recognized as coming tions in the Near East, formerly under the protectorate of the l within the Italian“ sphere of influence.” The Tripoli hinterland, . December 1908, Church and State. affairs. 84 (1902–1909 ITALY ( however, was in danger of being absorbed by other powers On the 29th of October, however, Austria abandoned her having large African interests; the Anglo-French declaration military posts in the sandjak of Novibazar, and the frontier of the 21st of March 1899 in particular seemed likely to interfere between Austria and Turkey, formerly an uncertain one, which with Italian activity. left Austria a half-open back door to the Aegean, was now a The Triple Alliance was maintained and renewed as far as distinct line of demarcation. Thus the danger of a pacific paper documents were concerned (in June 1902 it was reconfirmed penetration” of Macedonia by Austria became more remote. for 12 years), but public opinion was no longer so favourably Austria also gave way on another point, renouncing her right to disposed towards it. Austria's petty persecutions of her Italian police the Montenegrin coast and to prevent Montenegro from subjects in the irredente provinces, her active propaganda having warships of its own (paragraphs 5, 6 and 11 of art. 29 of incompatible with Italian interests in the Balkans, and the anti- the Berlin Treaty) in a note presented to the Italian foreign Italian war talk of Austrian litary es, imperilled the office on the 12th of April 1909. Italy had developed some relations of the two “allies "'; it was remarked, indeed, that the important commercial interests in Montenegro, and anything object of the alliance between Austria and Italy was to prevent which strengthened the position of that principality was a war between them. Austria had persistently adopted a policy guarantee against further Austrian encroachments. The harbour of pin-pricks and aggravating police provocation towards the works in the Montenegrin port of Antivari, commenced in Italians of the Adriatic Littoral and of the Trentino, while March 1905 and completed early in 1909, were an Italian encouraging the Slavonic element in the former and the Germans concern, and Italy became a party to the agreement for the in the latter. One of the causes of ill-feeling was the university Danube-Adriatic Railway (June 2, 1908) together with Russia, question; the Austrian government had persistently refused France and Servia; Italy was to contribute 35,000,000 lire out to create an Italian university for its Italian subjects, fearing of a total capital of 100,000,000, and to be represented by four lest it should become a hotbed of “irredentism,” the Italian- directors out of twelve. But the whole episode was a warning speaking students being thus obliged to attend the German- to Italy, and the result was a national movement for security. Austrian universities. An attempt at compromise resulted in Credits for the army and navy were voted almost without a the institution of an Italian law faculty at Innsbruck, but this dissentient voice; new battleships were laid down, the strength aroused the violent hostility of the German students and populace, of the army was increased, and the defences of the exposed who gave proof of their superior civilization by an unprovoked | eastern border were strengthened. It was clear that so long as attack on the Italians in October 1902. Further acts of violence Austria, bribed by Germany, could act in a way so opposed to were committed by the Germans in 1903, which led to anti- Italian interests in the Balkans, the Triple Alliance was a Austrian demonstrations in Italy. The worst tumults occurred mockery, and Italy could only meet the situation by being in November 1904, when Italian students and professors were prepared for all contingencies. attacked at Innsbruck without provocation; being outnumbered BIBLIOGRAPHY.-It is difficult to indicate in a short space the by a hundred to one the Italians were forced to use their revolvers most important sources of general Italian history. Muratori's great in self-defence, and several persons were wounded on both sides. collection, the Rerum Italicarum scriptores. in combination with his Anti-Italian demonstrations occurred periodically also at Vienna, by the Archivio Storico Italiano, and the works of detached annalists Dissertationes, the chronicles and other historical material published while in Dalmatia and Croatia Italian fishermen and workmen of whom the Villani are the most notable, take first rank. Next we (Italian citizens, not natives) were subject to attacks by gangs may mention Muratori's Annali d'Italia, together with Guicciardini's, of half-savage Croats, which led to frequent diplomatic " inci- Storia d' Italia and its modern continuation by Carlo Botta. Among dents.” A further cause of resentment was Austria's attitude (Brussels, 1838) and Carlo Troya's Storia d'Italia nel medio evo are the more recent contributions S. de Sismondi's Républiques italiennes towards the Vatican, inspired by the strong clerical tendencies among the most valuable general works, while the large Storia of the imperial family, and indeed of a large section of the Politica d'Italia by various authors, published at Milan, is also im. Austrian people. But the most serious point at issue was the portant-F; Bertolini, I Barbari; F. Lanzani, Storia dei comuni Balkan question. Italian public opinion could not view without Signorie Italiane dal 1313 al 1530 (1881); A. Cosci, L' Italia durante italiani dalle origini fino al 1313 (1882); C. Cipolla, Storia delle serious misgivings the active political propaganda which Austria le preponderanze straniere, 1530-1789 (1875); A. Franchetti, Storia was conducting in Albania. The two governments frequently d'Italia dal 1789 al 1799; G. de Castro, Storia d'Italia dal 1789 al discussed the situation, but although they had agreed to a self- 1814 (1881). For the beginnings of Italian history the chief works are T. Hodgkin's Italy and her Invaders (Oxford, 1892–1899) and denying ordinance whereby cach bound itself not to occupy any P. Villari's Le Invasioni barbariche (Milan, 1900), both based on part of Albanian territory, Austria's declarations and promises original research and sound scholarship. The period from 1494. to were hardly borne out by the activity of her agents in the Balkans. modern times is dealt with in various volumes of the Cambridge Italy, therefore, instituted a counter-propaganda by means of Modern History, especially in vol. i., “The Renaissance," which schools and commercial agencies. The Macedonian troubles of contains valuable bibliographies. Giuseppe Ferrari's Rivoluzioni d'Italia (1858) deserves notice as a work of singular vigour, though 1903 again brought Austria and Italy into conflict. The accept- no great scientific importance, and Cesare Balbo's Sommario ance by the powers of the Mürzsteg programme and the appoint-(Florence, 1856) presents the main outlines of the subject with ment of Austrian and Russian financial agents in Macedonia brevity and clearness. For the period of the French revolution and was an advantage for Austria and a set-back for Italy; but the italiano (Milan, 1906); E. Bonnal de Ganges, La Chute d'une ré- the Napoleonic wars see F. Lemmi's Le Origini del risorgimento latter scored a success in the appointment of General de Giorgis publique (Venise (Paris, 1885); D. Carutti, Storia della corte di as commander of the international Macedonian gendarmerie; Savoia durante la rivoluzione e impero francese, (2 vols., Turin: she also obtained, with the support of Great Britain, France 1892); G. de Castro, Storia d'Italia dal 1707 al 1814 (Milan, 1881); A. Dufourcq, Le Régime jacobin en Italie, 1796-1799. (Paris, 1900); and Russia, the assignment of the partly Albanian district of A. Franchetti, Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799 (Milan, 1878); P. Monastir to the Italian officers of that corps. Gaffarel, Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes (1796-1799) (Paris, In October 1998 came the bombshell of the Austrian annexa- 1895); R. M. Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy tion of Bosnia, announced to King Victor Emmanuel and to (2 vols., with full bibliography, London, 1904); E. Ramondini, other rulers by autograph letters from the emperor-king. The Geschichte des italienischen Volkes unter der na poleonischen Herrschaft . L' Italia durante la dominazione francese (Naples, 1882); E. Ruth, news caused the most widespread sensation, and public opinion (Leipzig, 1859): For modern times, see Bolton King's History of in Italy was greatly agitated at what it regarded as an act of Italian Unity (1899) and Bolton King and Thomas Okey's Italy brigandage on the part of Austria, when Signor Tittoni in a speech To-day (1901). With regard to the history of separate provinces it at Carate Brianza (October 6th) declared that" Italy might await may suffice to notice N. Machiaveili's Storia fiorentina, B. Corio's Storia di Milano, G. Capponi's Storia della repubblica di Firenze events with serenity, and that these could find her neither unpre-(Florence, 1875), P. Villari's I primi due secoli della storia di Firenze pared nor isolated.” These words were taken to mean that Italy (Florence, 1905), F. Pagano's Istoria del regno di Napoli (Palermo- would receive compensation to restore the balance of power Naples, 1832, &c.), P." Romanin's Storia documentata di Venezia upset in Austria’s favour. When it was found that there was (Venice, 1853), M. Amari's Musulmani di Sicilia (1854–1875), F. Gregorovius's Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1881), A. von to be no direct compensation for Italy a storm of indignation Reumont's Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1867), L. Cibrario's was aroused against Austria, and also against Signor Tittoni. Storia della monarchia piemontese (Turin, 1840), and D. Carutti's, ITEM-ITINERARIUM 85 Storia della diplomazia della corte di Savoia (Rome, 1875). The lying, as Ithaca does, just to the east of Cephalonia. Accordingly Archivii storici and Deputazioni di storia patric of the various Italian towns and provinces contain a great deal of valuable material for is not the island which was called Ithaca by the later Greeks, Professor W. Dörpfeld has suggested that the Homeric Ithaca local history. From the point of view of papal history, L. von Ranke's History of the Popes (English edition, London, 1870), M. but must be identified with Leucas (Santa Maura, 9.0.). He Geschichte der Päpste (Freiburg i. B., 1886-1896), should be mentioned. and suggests that the name may have been transferred in con- Creighton's History of the Papacy (London, 1897) and L. Pastor's succeeds in fitting the Homeric topography to this latter island, From the point of view of general culture, Jacob Burckhardt's Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (Basel, 1860); E. Guinet's Révolu- sequence of a migration of the inhabitants. There is no doubt tions d'Italie (Paris, 1857), and J. A. Symonds's Renaissance in Italy that Leucas fits the Homeric descriptions much better than (5 vols., London, 1875, &c.) should be consulted. (L. V.*) Ithaca; but, on the other hand, many scholars maintain that ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning." also," " likewise "), originally it is a mistake to treat the imaginary descriptions of a poet as used adverbially in English at the beginning of each separate if they were portions of a guide-book, or to look, in the author head in a list of articles, or each detail in an account book or of the Odyssey, for a close familiarity with the geography of the ledger or in a legal document. The word is thus applied, as a Ionian islands. noun, to the various heads in any such enumeration and also See, besides the works already referred to, the separate works on to a piece of information or news. Ithaca by Schreiber (Leipzig, 1829); Rühle von Lilienstern (Berlin, 1832); N. Karavias Grivas ('lotopla iñis výoov '10 ámns) (Athens, ITHACA (+10ákn), vulgarly Thiaki (Olákn), next to Paxo 1849); Bowen (London, 1851); and Gandar, (Paris, 1854); Hercher, the smallest of the seven Ionian Islands, with an area of about in Hermes (1866); Leake's Northern Greece; Mure's Tour in Greece; 44 sq. m. It forms an eparchy of the nomos of Cephalonia in Bursian's Geogr. von Griechenland; Gladstone, " The Dominions of the kingdom of Greece, and its population, which was 9873 in Ulysses:"in Macmillan's Magazine (1877). A history of the discus- sions will be found in Buchholz, Die Homerischen Realien (Leipzig, 1870, is now about 13,000. The island consists of two mountain 1871); Partsch, Kephallenia und Ithaka (1890); W. Dorpfeld in masses, connected by a narrow isthmus of hills, and separated Mélanges Perrot, pp. 79-93 (1903); P. Goessler, Leukas-Ithaka by a wide inlet of the sea known as the Gulf of Molo. The northern (Stuttgart, 1904). (E. GR.) 1 and greater mass culminates in the heights of Anoi (2650 ft.), ITHACA, a city and the county-seat of Tompkins county, and the southern in Hagios Stephanos, or Mount Merovigli New York, U.S.A., at the southern end of Cayuga Lake, 60 m. (2100 ft.). Vathy (Babý=" deep"), the chief town and port S.W. of Syracuse. Pop. (1890) 11,079, (1900) 13,136, of whom of the island, lies at the northern foot of Mount Stephanos, 1310 were foreign-born, (1910 .census) 14,802. It is served its whitewashed houses stretching for about a mile round the by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the Lehigh deep bay in the Gulf of Molo, to which it owes its name. As Valley railways and by interurban electric line; and steam- there are only one or two small stretches of arable land in Ithaca, boats ply on the lake. Most of the city is in the level valley, the inhabitants are dependent on commerce for their grain from which it spreads up the heights on the south, east and supply; and olive oil, wine and currants are the principal west. The finest residential district is East Hill, particularly products obtained by the cultivation of the thin stratum of Cornell and Cayuga Heights (across Fall Creek from the Cornell soil that covers the calcareous rocks. Goats are fed in con-campus). Renwick Beach, at the head of the lake, is a pleasure siderable number on the brushwood pasture of the hills; and resort. The neighbouring region is one of much beauty, and is hares (in spite of Aristotle's supposed assertion of their absence) | frequented by summer tourists. Near the city are many water- are exceptionally abundant. The island is divided into four falls, the most notable being Taughannock Falls (9 m. N.), with districts: - Vathy, Aeto (or Eagle's Cliff), Anoge (Anoi) or a fall of 215 ft. Through the city from the east run Fall, Cas- Upland, and Exoge (Exoi) or Outland. cadilla and Six Mile Creeks, the first two of which have cut The name has remained attached to the island from the deep gorges and have a number of cascades and waterfalls, earliest historical times with but little interruption of the tradi- the largest, Ithaca Fall in Fall Creek, being 120 ſt. high. Six tion; though in Brompton's travels (12th century) and in the Mile Creek crosses the south side of the city and empties into old Venetian maps we find it called Fale or Val de Compar, and Cayuga Inlet, which crosses the western and lower districts, at a later date it not unfrequently appears as Little Cephalonia. often inundated in the spring. The Inlet receives the waters of This last name indicates the general character of Ithacan history a number of small streams descending from the south-western (if history it can be called) in modern and indeed in ancient times; hills. Among the attractions in this direction are Buttermilk for the fame of the island is almost solely due to its position Falls and ravine, on the outskirts of the city, Lick Brook Falls in the Homeric story of Odysseus. Ithaca, according to the and glen and Enfield Falls and glen, the last 7 m. distant. Homeric epos, was the royal seat and residence of King Odysseus. Fall Creek furnishes good water-power. The city has various The island is incidentally described with no small variety of manufactures, including fire-arms, calendar clocks, traction detail, picturesque and topographical; the Homeric localities engines, electrical appliances, patent chains, incubators, auto- for which counterparts have been sought are Mount Neritos, phones, artesian well drills, salt, cement, window glass and wall- Mount Neion, the harbour of Phorcys, the town and palace of paper. The value of the factory product increased from Odysseus, the fountain of Arethusa, the cave of the Naiads, the $1,500,604 in 1900 to $2,080,002 in 1905, or 38.6%. Ithaca stalls of the swineherd Eumaeus, the orchard of Laertes, the is also a farming centre and coal market, and much fruit is grown Korax or Raven Cliff and the island Asteris, where the suitors in the vicinity. The city is best known as the seat of Cornell lay in ambush for Telemachus. Among the “identificationists" University (q.o.). It has also the Ezra Cornell Free Library there are two schools, one placing the town at Polis on the west of about 28,000 volumes, the Ithaca Conservatory of Music, coast in the northern half of the island (Leake, Gladstone, &c.), the Cascadilla School and the Ithaca High School. Ithaca and the other at Aeto on the isthmus. The latter site, which was settled about 1789, the name being given to it by Simeon was advocated by Sir William Gell (Topography and Antiquities De Witt in 1806. It was incorporated as a village in 1821, and of Ithaca, London, 1807), was supported by Dr H. Schliemann, was chartered as a city in 1888. At Buttermilk Falls stood who carried on excavations in 1873 and 1878 (see H. Schliemann, the principal village of the Tutelo Indians, Coreorgonel, Ithaque, le Péloponnèse, Troie, Paris, 1869, also published in settled in 1753 and destroyed in 1779 by a detachment of German; his letter to The Times, 26th of September, 1878; Sullivan's force. and the author's life prefixed to Ilios, London, 1880). But ITINERARIUM (i.e. road-book, from Lat. iter, road), a term his results were mainly negative. The fact is that no amount applied to the extant descriptions of the ancient Romạn roads of ingenuity can reconcile the descriptions given in the Odyssey and routes of traffic, with the stations and distances. It is with the actual topography of this island. Above all, the passage usual to distinguish two classes of these, Itineraria adnotata or in which the position of Ithaca is described offers great difficulties. scripta and Itineraria picta--the former having the character “Now Ithaca lies low, farthest up the sea line towards the of a book, and the latter being a kind of travelling map. Of darkness, but those others face the dawning and the sun the Itineraria Scripta the most important are: (1) It. Antonini (Butcher and Lang). Such a passage fits very ill an island | (sce ANTONINI ITINERARIUM), which consists of two parts, the 86 ITIUS PORTUS—ITRI a one dealing with roads in Europe, Asia and Africa, and the other in the “Pegasus,” bound for the same destination. For a year these with familiar sea-routes-the distances usually being measured two friends remained in London studying English methods from Rome; (2) It. Hierosolymitanum or Burdigalense, which | but then events occurred in Japan which recalled them to their belongs to the 4th century, and contains the route of a pilgrimage country. The treaties lately concluded by the shôgun with the from Bordeaux to Jerusalem and from Heraclea by Rome to foreign powers conceded the right to navigate the strait of Milan (ed. G. Parthey and M. Pinder, 1848, with the. Itinerarium Shimonoseki, leading to the Inland Sea. On the northern shores Antonini); (3) Il. Alexandri, containing a sketch of the march-of this strait stretched the feudal state. ruled over by Prince route of Alexander the Great, mainly derived from Arrian and Choshu, who refused to recognize the clause opening the strait, prepared for Constantiris's expedition in A.D. 340–345 against and erected batteries on the shore, from which he opened fire the Persians (ed. D. Volkmann, 1871). A collected edition of on all ships which attempted to force the passage. The shôgun the ancient itineraria, with ten maps, was issued by Fortia having declared himself unable in the circumstances to give effect d'Urban, Recueil des itinéraires anciens (1845). Of the Itineraria to the provision, the treaty powers determined to take the Picta only one great example has been preserved. This is the matter into their own hands. Ito, who was better aware than famous Tabula Peulingeriana, which, without attending to the his chief of the disproportion between the fighting powers of shape or relative position of the countries, represents by straight Europe and Japan, memorialized the cabinets, begging that lines and dots of various sizes the roads and towns of the whole hostilities should be suspended until he should have had time to Roman world (facsimile published by K. Miller, 1888; see also use his influence with Choshu in the interests of peace. With MAP). this object Ito hurried back to Japan. But his efforts were ITIUS PORTUS, the name given by Caesar to the chief harbour futile. Choshu refused to give way, and suffered the conse- which he used when embarking for his second expedition to quences of his obstinacy in the destruction of his batteries and Britain in 54 B.C. (De bello Gallico, v. 2). It was certainly in the infliction of a heavy fine. The part played by Ito in these near the uplands round Cape Grisnez (Promuntorium Itium), negotiations aroused the animosity of the more reactionary of but the exact site has been violently disputed ever since the his fellow-clansmen, who made repeated attempts to assassinate renaissance of learning. Many critics have assumed that Caesar him.' On one notable occasion he was pursued by his enemies used the same port for his first expedition, but the name does not into a tea-house, where he was concealed by a young lady beneath appear at all in that connexion (B. G. iv. 21-23). This fact, the floor of her room. Thus began a romantic acquaintance, coupled with other considerations, makes it probable that the which ended in the lady becoming the wife of the fugitive. two expeditions, started from different places. "It is generally Subsequently (1868) Ito was made governor of Hiogo, and in the agreed that the first embarked at Boulogne. The same view course of the following year became vice-minister of finance. was widely held about the second, but T. Rice Holmes in an In 1871 he accompanied Iwakura on an important mission to article in the Classical Review (May 1909) gave strong reasons Europe, which, though diplomatically a failure, resulted in the for preferring Wissant, 4 m. east of Grişnez. The chief reason is enlistment of the services of European authorities on military, that Caesar, having found he could not set sail from the small naval and educational systems. harbour of Boulogne with even 80 ships simultaneously, decided After his return to Japan Ito served in several cabinets as that he must take another point for the sailing of the “ more head of the bureau of engineering and mines, and in 1886 he than 800” ships of the second expedition. Holmes argues accepted office as prime minister, a post which, when he resigned that, allowing for change in the foreshore since Caesar's time, in 1901, he had held four times. In 1882 he was sent on a 800 specially built ships could have been hauled above the mission to Europe to study the various forms of constitutional highest spring-tide level, and afterwards launched simultaneously government; on this occasion he attended the coronation of the at Wissant, which would therefore have been “commodissimus' tsar Alexander III. On his return to Japan he was entrusted (v. 2) or opposed to “brevissimus traiectus ” (iv. 21). with the arduous duty of drafting a constitution. In 1890 he See T. R. Holmes in Classical Review (May 1909), in which he reaped the fruits of his labours, and nine years later he was partially revises the conclusions at which he arrived in his Ancient destined to witness the abrogation of the old treaties, and the Britain (1907), pp. 552-594; that the first expedition started from substitution in their place of conventions which place Japan on Boulogne is accepted, e.g. by H. Stuart Jones, in English Historical Review (1909), xxiv. 115; other authorities in Holmes's article. terms of equality with the European states. In all the great reforms in the Land of the Rising Sun Ito played a leading part. ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909), Japanese statesman, It was mainly due to his active interest in military and naval was born in 1841, being the son of Ito Jūző, and (like his father) affairs that he was able to meet Li Hung-chang at the end of began life as a retainer of the lord of Choshu, one of the most the Chinese and Japanese War (1895) as the representative of powerful nobles of Japan. Choshu, in common with many of his the conquering state, and the conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese fellow Daimyos, was bitterly opposed to the rule of the shôgun Alliance in 1902 testified to his triumphant success in raising or tycoon, an w his rule resulted in the conclusion of the Japan to the first rank among civilized powers. As a reward for treaty with Commodore M. C. Perry in 1854, the smouldering his conspicuous services in connexion with the Chinese War Ito discontent broke out into open hostility against both parties was made a marquis, and in 1897 he accompanied Prince Arisu- to the compact. In these views Ito cordially agreed with gawa as a joint representative of the Mikado at the Diamond his chieftain, and was sent on a secret mission to Yedo to report Jubilee of Queen Victoria. At the close of 1901 he again, though to his lord on the doings of the government. This visit had the in an unofficial capacity, visited Europe and the United States; effect of causing Ito to turn his attention seriously to the study and in England he was created a G.C.B. After 'the Russo- of the British and of other military systems. As a result he Japanese War (1905) he was appointed resident general in Korea, persuaded Choshu to remodel his army, and to exchange the and in that capacity he was responsible for the steps taken to bows and arrows of his men for guns and rifles. But Ito felt increase Japanese influence in that country. In September that his knowledge of foreigners, if it was to be thorough, should | 1907 he was advanced to the rank of prince. He retired from be sought for in Europe, and with the connivance of Choshu he, his post in Korea in July 1909, and became president of the in company with Inouye and three other young men of the same privy council in Japan. But on the 26th of October, rank as himself, determined to risk their lives by committing when on a visit to Harbin, he was shot dead by a Korean the then capital offence of visiting a foreign country. With great assassin. secrecy they made their way to Nagasaki, where they concluded He is to be distinguished from Admiral Count Yuko Ito (b. 1843), an arrangement with the agent of Messrs Jardine, Matheson & Co. | the distinguished naval commander. for passages on board a vessel which was about to sail for ITRI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caseria, Shanghai (1863). At that port the adventurers separated, three 6 m. by road N.W. of Formia. Pop. (1901) 5797. The town is of their number taking ship as passengers to London, while Ito picturesquely situated 690 ft. above sea-level, in the mountains and Inouye preferred to work their passages before the mast / which the Via Appia traverses between Fondi and Formia. ITURBIDE-IVAN 87 Interesting remains of the substruction wall supporting the unscrupulous, and by his haughty Spanish temper, impátient ancient road are preserved in Itri itself; and there are many of all resistance or control, to have forfeited the opportunity remains of ancient buildings near it. The brigand Fra Diavolo, of founding a secure imperial dynasty. His grandson Augustin the hero of Auber's opera, was a native of Itri, and the place was chosen by the ill-fated emperor Maximilian as his successor. was once noted for brigandage. See Statement of some of the principal events in the public-life of ITURBIDE (or YTURBIDE), AUGUSTIN DE (1783–1824), Augustin de Iturbide, written by himself (Eng. trans., 1824). emperor of Mexico from May 1822 to March 1823, was born on ITZA, an American Indian people of Mayan stock, inhabiting the 27th of September 1783, at Valladolid, now Morelia, in the country around Lake Peten in northern Guatemala. Chichen- Mexico, where his father, an Old Spaniard from Pampeluna, Itza, among the most wonderful of the ruined cities of Yucatan, had settled with his creole wife. After enjoying a better educa- was the capital of the Itzas. Thence, according to their traditions tion than was then usual in Mexico, Iturbide entered the military they removed, on the breaking up of the Mayan kingdom in 1420, service, and in 1810 held the post of lieutenant in the provincial to an island in the lake where another city was built. Cortes regiment of his native city. In that year the insurrection under met them in 1525, but they preserved their independence till Hidalgo broke out, and Iturbide, more from policy, it would seem, 1697, when the Spaniards destroyed the city and temples, and a than from principle, served in the royal army. Possessed of library of sacred books, written in hieroglyphics on bark fibre. splendid courage and brilliant military talents, which fitted him The Itzas were one of the eighteen semi-independent Maya especially for guerilla warfare, the young creole did signal service, states, whose incessant internecine wars at length brought and rapidly rose in military rank. In December 1813 Colonel about the dismemberment of the empire of Xibalba and the Iturbide, along with General Llano, dealt a crushing blow to destruction of Mayan civilization. the revolt by defeating Morelos, the successor of Hidalgo, in the ITZEHOE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of battle of Valladolid; and the former followed it up by another Schleswig-Holstein, on the Stör, a navigable tributary of the decisive victory at Puruaran in January 1814. Next year Don Elbe, 32 m. north-west of Hamburg and 15 m. north of Glückstadt. Augustin was appointed to the command of the army of the north Pop. (1900) 15,649. The church of St Lawrence, dating from and to the governorship of the provinces of Valladolid and the 12th century, and the building in which the Holstein estates Guanajuato, but in 1816 grave charges of extortion and violence formerly met, are noteworthy. The town has a convent founded were brought against him, which led to his recall. Although in 1256, a high school, a hospital and other benevolent institu- the general was acquitted, or at least although the inquiry was tions. Itzehoe is a busy commercial place. Its sugar refineries dropped, he did not resume his commands, but retired into private are among the largest in Germany. Ironfounding, shipbuilding life for four years, which, we are told, he spent in a rigid course and wool-spinning are also carried on, and the manufactures of penance for his former excesses. In 1820 Apodaca, viceroy include machinery, tobacco, fishing-nets, chicory, soap, cement of Mexico, received instructions from the Spanish cortes to and beer. Fishing employs some of the inhabitants, and the proclaim the constitution promulgated in Spain in 1812, but markets for cattle and horses are important: A considerable although obliged at first to submit to an order by which his trade is carried on in agricultural products and wood, chiefly power was much curtailed, he secretly cherished the design of with Hamburg and Altona. reviving the absolute power for Ferdinand VII. in Mexico. Itzehoe is the oldest town in Holstein. Its nucleus was a Under pretext of putting down the lingering remains of 'revolt, castle, built in 809 by Egbert, one of Charlemagne's counts, he levied troops, and, placing Iturbide at their head, instructed against the Danes. The community which sprang up around him to proclaim the absolute power of the king. Four years of it was diversely called Esseveldoburġ, Eselsfleth and Ezeho. reflection, however, had modified the general's views, and now, In 1201 the town was destroyed, but it was restored in 1224. To led both by personal ambition and by patriotic regard for his the new town the Lübeck rights were granted by Adolphus IV.. country, Iturbide resolved to espouse the cause of national in 1238, and to the old town in 1303. During the Thirty independence. His subsequent proceedings-how he issued the Years' War Itzehoe was twice destroyed by the Swedes, in 1644 Plan of Iguala, on the 24th of February 1821, how by the refusal and 1657; but was rebuilt on each occasion. It passed to Prussia of the Spanish cortes to ratify the treaty of Cordova, which he in 1867,with the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein. had signed with O'Donoju, he was transformed from a mere IUKA, the county-seat of Tishomingo county, Mississippi, champion of monarchy into a candidate for the crown, and how, | U.S.A., about 25 m. S.E. of Corinth in the N.E. corner of the hailed by the soldiers as Emperor Augustin I. on the 18th of state and 8 m. S. of the Tennessee river. Pop. (1900) 882; May 1822, he was compelled within ten months, by his arrogant (1910) 1221. It is served by the Southern railway, and has neglect of constitutional restraints, to tender his abdication to a considerable trade in cotton and farm products. Its mineral a congress which he had forcibly dissolved—will be found springs make it a health resort. In the American Civil War, detailed under Mexico. Although the congress refused to accept a Confederate force under General Sterling Price occupied the his abdication on the ground that to do so would be to recognize town on the 14th of September 1862, driving out a small Union the validity of his election, it permitted the ex-emperor to retire garrison; and on the 19th of September a partial engagement to Leghorn in Italy, while in consideration of his services in 1820 took place between Price and a Federal column commanded by a yearly pension of £5000 was conferred upon him. But Iturbide General Rosecrans, in which the Confederate losses were 700 resolved to make one more bid for power; and in 1824, passing and the Union 790. Price, whose line of retreat was threatened from Leghorn to London, he published a Statement, and on the by superior forces under General Grant, withdrew from luka IIth of May set sail for Mexico. The congress immediately issued on the morning of the 20th of September. an act of outlawry against him, forbidding him to set foot on IULUS, in Roman legend: (a) the eldest son of Ascanius Mexican soil on pain of death. Ignorant of this, the ex-emperor and grandson of Aeneas, founder of the Julian gens (gers I ulio), landed in disguise at Soto la Marina on the 14th of July. He was deprived of his kingdom of Latium by his younger brother almost immediately recognized and arrested, and on the 19th of Silvius (Dion. Halic. i. 70); (b) another name for, or epithet July 1824 was shot at Padilla, by order of the state of Tamaulipas, of, Ascanius. without being permitted an appeal to the general congress. IVAN (JOHN), 'the name of six grand dukes of Muscovy and Don Augustin de Iturbide is described by his contemporaries tsars of Russia. as being of handsome figure and ingratiating manner. His IVAN I., called Kalila, or Money-Bag (d. 1341), grand duke brilliant courage and wonderful success made him the idol of of Vladimir, was the first sobiratel, or“ gatherer" of the scattered his soldiers, though towards his prisoners he displayed the most Russian lands, thereby. laying the foundations of the future cold-blooded cruelty, boasting in one of his despatches of having autocracy as a national institution. This he contrived to do by honoured Good Friday by shooting three hundred excommuni-adopting a policy of complete subserviency to the khan of the cated wretches. Though described as amiable in his private Golden Horde, who, in return for a liberal and punctual tribute, life, he seems in his public career to have been ambitious and I permitted him to aggrandize himself at the expense of the lesser 90 IVAN Sylvester and Adashev, owing to their extraordinary backward- the truce of Ilyusa he at the same time abandoned Ingria to the ness in supporting the claims of his infant son to the throne Swedes. The Baltic seaboard was lost to Muscovy for another while he himself lay at the point of death. The ambiguous and century and a half. In his latter years Ivan cultivated friendly ungrateful conduct of the tsar's intimate friends and protégés relations with England, in the hope of securing some share in the on this occasion has never been satisfactorily explained, and he benefits of civilization from the friendship of Queen Elizabeth, had good reason to resent it. Nevertheless, on his recovery, one of whose ladies, Mary Hastings, he wished to marry, though much to his credit, he overlooked it, and they continued to direct his fifth wife, Martha Nagaya, was still alive. Towards the end affairs for six years longer. Then the dispute about the Crimea of his life Ivan was partially consoled for his failure in the west arose, and Ivan became convinced that they were mediocre by the unexpected acquisition of the kingdom of Siberia in the politicians as well as untrustworthy friends. In 1560 both of east, which was first subdued by the Cossack hetman Erniak them disappeared from the scene, Sylvester into a monastery or Yermak in 1581. at his own request, while Adashev died the same year, in honour- In November 1580 Ivan in a fit of ungovernable fury at some able exile as a general in Livonia. The death of his deeply contradiction or reproach, struck his eldest surviving son Ivan, beloved consort Anastasia and his son Demetrius, and the a prince of rare promise, whom he passionately loved, a blow desertion of his one bosom friend Prince Kurbsky, about the which proved fatal. In an agony of remorse, he would now have same time, seem to have infuriated Ivan against God and man. abdicated “as being unworthy to reign longer "; but his During the next ten years (1560-1570) terrible and horrible trembling boyars, fearing some dark ruse, refused to obey any one things happened in the realm of Muscovy. The tsar himself but himself. Three years later, on' the 18th of March 1584, lived in an atmosphere of apprehension, imagining that every while playing at chess, he suddenly fell backwards in his chair man's hand was against him. On the 3rd of December 1564 he and was removed to his bed in a dying condition. At the last quitted Moscow with his whole family. On the 3rd of January moment he assumed the hood of the strictest order of hermits, 1565 he declared in an open letter addressed to the metropolitan and died as the monk Jonah. his intention to abdicate. The common people, whom he had Ivan IV. was undoubtedly a man of great natural ability. His always favoured at the expense of the boyars, thereupon im- political foresight was extraordinary. He anticipated the plored him to come back on his own terms. He consented to do ideals of Peter the Great, and only failed in realizing them because so, but entrenched himself within a peculiar institution, the his material resources were inadequate. But admiration of his oprichina or “separate estate." Certain towns and districts all. talents must not blind us to his moral worthlessness, nor is it over Russia were separated from the rest of the realm, and their right to cast the blame for his excesses on the brutal and vicious revenues were assigned to the maintenance of the tsar's new society in which he lived. The same society which produced his court and household, which was to consist of 1000 carefully infamous favourites also produced St Philip of Moscow, and by selected boyars and lower dignitaries, with their families and refusing to listen to St Philip Ivan sank below even the not very suites, in the midst of whom Ivan henceforth lived exclusively. loſty moral standard of his own age. He certainly left Muscovite The oprichina was no constitutional innovation. . The duma, or society worse than he found it, and so prepared the way for council, still attended to all the details of the administration; the horrors of “the Great Anarchy.” Personally, Ivan was tall the old boyars still retained their ancient offices and dignities. and well-made, with high shoulders and a broad chest. His eyes The only difference was that the tsar had cut himself off from were small and restless, his nose hooked, he had a beard and them, and they were nct even to communicate with him except moustaches of imposing length. His face had a sinister, troubled on extraordinary and exceptional occasions. The oprichniki, expression; but an enigmatical smile played perpetually as being the exclusive favourites of the tsar, naturally, in their around his lips. He was the best educated and the hardest own interests, hardened the tsar's heart against all outsiders, worked man of his age. His memory was astonishing, his and trampled with impunity upon every one beyond the charmed energy indefatigable. As far as possible he saw to everything circle. Their first and most notable victim was Philip, the personally, and never sent away a petitioner of the lower orders. saintly metropolitan of Moscow, who was strangled for condemn- See S. M. Solov'ev, History of Russia (Rus.) vol. v. (St Petersburg, ing the oprichina as an unchristian institution, and refusing to 1895); A. Brückner, Geschichie Russlands bis zum Ende des 18ten bless the tsar (1569). Ivan had stopped at Tver, to murder St Jahrhunderts (Gotha, 1896); E. Tikhomirov, The first_Tsar of Moscovy, Ivan IV. (Rus.) (Moscow, 1888); L. G. T. Tidander, Philip, while on his way to destroy the second wealthiest city Kriget mellan Sverige och Ryssland åren 1555-1557 (Vesterås, 1888); in his tsardom-Great Novgorod. A delator of infamous char- P. Pierling, Un Arbitrage pontifical au XVIe siècle entre la Pologne acter, one Peter, had accused the authorities of the city to the et la Russie (Bruxelles, 1890); V. V. Novodvorsky, The Struggle for tsar of conspiracy; Ivan, without even confronting the Nov. Livonia, 1570-1582 (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1904); K. Waliszewski, Ivan le terrible (Paris, 1904); R. N. Bain, Slavonic Europe, ch. 5 gorodians with their accuser, proceeded at the end of 1569 to (Cambridge, 1907). punish them. After ravaging the land, his own land, like a wild IVAN V. (1666-1696), tsar of Russia, was the son of Tsar beast, he entered the city on the 8th of January 1570, and for Alexius Mikhailovichand his first consort Miloslavzkoya. the next five weeks, systematically and deliberately, day after Physically and mentally deficient, Iyan was the mere tool of the day, massacred batches of every class of the population. Every party in Muscovy who would have kept the children of the tsar monastery, church, manor-house, warehouse and farm within a Alexis, by his second consort Natalia Naruishkina, from the circuit of 100 m. was then wrecked, plundered and left roofless, throne. In 1682 the party of progress, headed by Artamon all goods were pillaged, all cattle destroyed. Not till the 13th Matvyeev and the tsaritsa Natalia, passed Ivan over and placed of February were the miserable remnants of the population his half-brother, the vigorous and promising little tsarevich permitted to rebuild their houses and cultivate their fields Peter, on the throne. On the 23rd of May, however, the Naruish- kin faction was overthrown by the stryelisi (musketeers), secretly An intermittent and desultory war, with Sweden and Poland worked upon by Ivan's half-sister Sophia, and Ivan was associ- simultaneously, for the possession of Livonia and Esthonia, ated as tsar with Peter. Three days later he was proclaimed went on from 1560 to 1582. Ivan's generals (he himself rarely “first tsar," in order still further to depress the Naruishkins, and took the field) were generally successful at first, and bore down place the government in the hands of Sophia exclusively. In their enemies by sheer numbers, capturing scores of fortresses and towns. But in the end the superior military efficiency of 1689 the name of Ivan was used as a pretext by Sophia in her attempt to oust Peter from the throne altogether. Ivan was the Swedes and Poles invariably prevailed. Ivan was also un- made to distribute beakers of wine to his sister's adherents with fortunate in having for his chief antagonist Stephen Báthory, his own hands, but subsequently, beneath the influence of his one of the greatest captains of the age. Thus all his strenuous uncle Prozorovsky, he openly declared that “even for his sister's efforts, all his enormous sacrifices, came to nothing. The West 1 Ivan V., if we count from the first grand duke of that name, as was too strong for him. By the peace of Zapoli (January 15th, most Russian historians do; Ivan II., if, with the minority, we 1582) he surrendered Livonia with Polotsk to Bathory, and by I reckon from Ivan the Terrible as the first Russian tsar. 2 once more. IVANGOROD-IVORY, SIR J. 91 sake, he would quarrel no longer with his dear brother.” During IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK, a town of middle Russia, in the the reign of his colleague Peter, Ivan V. took no part whatever government of Vladimir, 86 m. by rail N.of the town of Vladimir. in affairs, but devoted himself “ to incessant prayer and rigorous Pop. (1887) 22,000; (1900) 64,628. It consists of what were fasting." On the 9th of January 1684 he married Praskovia originally two villages-Ivanovo, dating from the 16th century, Saltuikova, who bore him five daughters, one of whom, Anne, and Voznesensk, of much more recent date-united into a town ultimately ascended the Russian throne. In his last years Ivan in 1861. Of best note among the public buildings are the was a paralytic. He died on the 29th of January 1696. cathedral, and the church of the Intercession of the Virgin, See R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905); M. P. formerly associated with an important monastery founded in Pogodin, The First Seventeen Years of the Life of Peter the Great (Rus.) 1579 and abandoned in 1754. One of the colleges of the town (Moscow, 1875). contains a public library: Linen-weaving was introduced in IVAN VI. (1740-1764), emperor of Russia, was the son of 1751, and in 1776 the manufacture of chintzes was brought from Prince Antony Ulrich of Brunswick, and the princess Anna Schlüsselburg. The town has cotton factories, calico print-works, Leopoldovna of Mecklenburg, and great-nephew of the empress iron-works and chemical works. Anne, who adopted him and declared him her successor on the IVARR BEINLAUSI (d. 873), son of Ragnar Lothbrok, the 5th of October 1740, when he was only eight weeks old. On the great Viking chieftain, is known in English and Continental death of Anne (October 17th) he was proclaimed emperor, and annals as Inuaer, Ingwar or Hingwar. He was one of the on the following day Ernest Johann Biren, duke of Courland, Danish leaders in the Sheppey expedition of 855 and was perhaps was appointed regent. On the fall of Biren (November 8th), present at the siege of York in 867. The chief incident in his the regency passed to the baby tsar's mother, though the govern life was his share in the martyrdom of St Edmund in 870. He ment was in the hands of the capable vice-chancellor, Andrei seems to have been the leader of the Danes on that occasion, Osterman. A little more than twelve months latér, a coup and by this act he probably gained the epithet “ crudelissimus d'état placed the tsesarevna Elizabeth on the throne (December by which he is usually described. It is probable that he is to be 6, 1741), and Ivan and his family were imprisoned in the identified with Imbar, king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and fortress of Dünamünde (Ust Dvinsk) (December 13, 1742) Britain, who was active in Ireland between the years 852 and after a preliminary detention at Riga, from whence the new 873, the year of his death. empress had at first decided to send them home to Brunswick. IVIZA, IBIZA or IVICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, In June 1744 they were transferred to Kholmogory on the White belonging to Spain, and forming part of the archipelago known as Sea, where Ivan, isolated from his family, and seeing nobody the Balearic Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 23,524; area 228 sq. m. but his gaoler, remained for the next twelve years. Rumours Iviza lies 50 m. S.W. of Majorca and about 60 m. from Cape San of his confinement at Kholmogory having leaked out, he was Martin on the coast of Spain. Its greatest length from north-east secretly transferred to the fortress of Schlüsselburg (1756), to south-west is about 25 m. and its greatest breadth about 13 m. where he was still more rigorously guarded, the very commandant The coast is indented by numerous small bays, the principal of of the fortress not knowing who "a certain arrestant " com- which are those of San Antonio on the north-west, and of Iviza mitted to his care really was. On the accession of Peter III. on the south-east. Of all the Balearic group, Iviza is the most the condition of the unfortunate prisoner seemed about to be varied in its scenery and the most fruitful. The hilly parts ameliorated, for the kind-hearted emperor visited and sym- which culminate in the Pico de Atalayasa (1560 ft.), are richly pathized with him; but Peter himself was overthrown a few wooded. The climate is for the most part mild and agreeable, weeks later. In the instructions sent to Ivan's guardian, Prince though the hot winds from the African coast are sometimes Churmtyev, the latter was ordered to chain up his charge, and troublesome. Oil, corn and fruits (of which the most important even scourge him should he become refractory. On the accession are the fig, prickly pear, almond and carob-bean) are the principal of Catherine still more stringent orders were sent to the officer products; hemp and flax are also grown, but the inhabitants are in charge of "the nameless one." If any attempt were made rather indolent, and their modes of culture are very primitive. from outside to release him, the prisoner was to be put to death; There are numerous salt-pans along the coast, which were in no circumstances was he to be delivered alive into any one's formerly worked by the Spanish government. Fruit, salt, char- hands, even if his deliverers produced the empress's own sign- coal, lead and stockings of native manufacture are exported. manual authorizing his release. By this time, twenty years of The imports are rice, flour, sugar, woollen goods and cotton. solitary confinement had disturbed Ivan's mental equilibrium, The capital of the island, and, indeed, the only town of much though he does not seem to have been actually insane. Never- importance--for the population is remarkably scattered—is theless, despite the mystery surrounding him, he was well aware Iviza or La Ciudad (6527), a fortified town on the south-east of his imperial origin,and always called himself gosudar(sovereign). coast, consisting of a lower and upper portion, and possessing Though instructions had been given to keep him ignorant, he a good harbour, a 13th-century Gothic collegiate church and an had been taught his letters and could read his Bible. Nor could ancient castle. Iviza was the see of a bishop from 1782 to 1851. his residence at Schlüsselburg remain concealed for ever, and South of Iviza lies the smaller and more irregular island of its discovery was the cause of his ruin. A sub-lieutenant of the Formentera (pop., 1900, 2243; area, 37 sq. m.), which is said to garrison, Vasily Mirovich, found out all about him, and formed derive its name from the production of wheat. With Iviza it a plan for freeing and proclaiming him emperor. At midnight agrees both in general appearance and in the character of its on the 5th of July 1764, Mirovich won over some of the garrison, products, but it is altogether destitute of streams. Goats and arrested the commandant, Berednikov, and demanded the sheep are found in the mountains, and the coasts are greatly delivery of Ivan, who there and then was murdered by his frequented by flamingoes. Iviza and Formentera are the principal gaolers in obedience to the secret instructions already in their islands of the lesser or western Balearic group, formerly known possession. as the Pityusae or Pine Islands. See R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peler the Great (London, 1897); IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842), Scottish mathematician, M. Semevsky, Ivan VI. Antonovich (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1866): was born in Dundee in 1765. In 1779 he entered the university A. Brückner, The Emperor Ivan VI. and his Family (Rus.). (Moscow, of St Andrews, distinguishing himself especially in mathematics. 1874); V. A. Bilbasov, Geschichte Catherine II. (vol. ii., Berlin, 1891-1893). (R. N. B.) He then studied theology; bụt, after two sessions at St Andrews and one at Edinburgh, he abandoned all idea of the church, and IVANGOROD, a fortified town of Russian Poland, in the in 1786 he became an assistant-teacher of mathematics and government of Lublin, 64 m. by rail S.E. from Warsaw, at the natural philosoghy in a newly established academy at Dundee. confluence of the Wieprz with the Vistula. It is defended by Three years later he became partner in and manager of a flax- nine forts on the right bank of the Vistula and by three on the spinning company at Douglastown in Forfarshire, still, however, left bank, and, with Warsaw, Novo-Georgievsk and Brest- prosecuting in moments of leisure his favourite studies. He was Litovsk, forms the Polish "quadrilateral.” essentially a self-trained mathematician, and was not only deeply 92 IVORY versed in ancient and modern geometry, but also had a full | part. Besides the elephant's tooth or tusk we recognize as ivory, knowledge of the analytical methods and discoveries of the conti- for commercial purposes, the teeth of the hippopotamus, walrus, nental mathematicians. His earliest memoir, dealing with an narwhal, cachalot or sperm-whale and of some animals of the analytical expression for the rectification of the ellipse, is pub- wild boar class, such as the warthog of South Africa. Practically, lished in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh however, amongst these the hippo and walrus tusks are the only (1796); and this and his later papers on “Cubic Equations” ones of importance for large work, though boars'tusks come to the (1799) and “ Kepler's Problem” (1802) evince great facility sale-rooms in considerable quantities from India and Africa. in the handling of algebraic formulae. In 1804 after the dis- Generally speaking, the supply of ivory imported into Europe solution of the flax-spinning company of which he was manager, comes from Africa; some is Asiatic, but much that is shipped he obtained one of the mathematical chairs in the Royal Military from India is really African, coming by way of Zanzibar and College at Marlow (afterwards removed to Sandhurst); and till | Mozambique to Bombay. A certain amount is furnished by the the year 1816, when failing health obliged him to resign, he dis- vast stores of remains of prehistoric animals still existing through- charged his professional duties with remarkable success. During out Russia, principally in Siberia in the neighbourhood of the this period he published in the Philosophical Transactions several Lena and other rivers discharging into the Arctic Ocean. The important memoirs, which earned for him the Copley medal in mammoth and mastodon seem at one time to have been common 1814 and ensured his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society over the whole surface of the globe. In England tusks have been in 1815. Of special importance in the history of attractions is recently dug up-for instance at Dungeness—as long as 12 ft. the first of these earlier memoirs (Phil. Trans., 1809), in which and weighing 200 lb. The Siberian deposits have been worked the problem of the attraction of a homogeneous ellipsoid upon an for now nearly two centuries. The store appears to be as in. external point is reduced to the simpler case of the attraction of exhaustible as a coalfield. Some think that a day may come another but related ellipsoid upon a corresponding point interior when the spread of civilization may cause the utter disappearance to it. This theorem is known as Ivory's theorem. His later of the elephant in Africa, and that it will be to these deposits papers in the Philosophical Transactions treat of astronomical that we may have to turn as the only source of animal ivory. refractions, of planetary perturbations, of equilibrium of fluid Of late years in England the use of mammoth ivory has shown masses, &c. For his investigations in the first named of these signs of decline. Practically none passed through the London he received a royal medal in 1826 and again in 1839. In 1831, sale-rooms during 1903-1906. Before that, parcels of 10 to 20 on the recommendation of Lord Brougham, King William IV. tons were not uncommon. Not all of it is good; perhaps about granted him.a pension of £300 per annum, and conferred on him half of what comes to England is so, the rest rotten; specimens, the Hanoverian Guelphic order of knighthood. Besides being however, are found as perfect and in as fine condition as if directly connected with the chief scientific societies of his own recently killed, instead of having lain hidden and preserved for country, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Irish Aca- thousands of years in the icy ground. There is a considerable demy, &c., he was corresponding member of the Royal Academy literature (see SHOOTING) on the subject of big-game hunting, of Sciences both of Paris and Berlin, and of the Royal Society of which includes that of the elephant, hippopotamus and smaller Göttingen. He died at London on the 21st of September 1842. tusk-bearing animals. Elephants until comparatively recent A list of his works is given in the Catalogue of Scientific Papers of times roamed over the whole of Africa from the northern deserts the Royal Society of London. to the Cape of Good Hope. They are still abundant in Central IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur), strictly speaking a term confined Africa and Uganda, but civilization has gradually driven them to the material represented by the tusk of the elephant, and for farther and farther into the wilds and impenetrable forests of commercial purposes almost entirely to that of the male elephant. the interior. In Africa both the male and female elephant produce good-sized The quality of ivory varies according to the districts whence tusks; in the Indian variety the female is much less bountifully it is obtained, the soft variety of the eastern parts of the con provided, and in Ceylon perhaps not more than 1% of either sex tinent being the most esteemed. When in perfect condition have any tusks at all. Ivory is in substance very dense, the pores African ivory should be if recently cut of a warm, transparent, close and compact and filled with a gelatinous solution which mellow tint, with as little as possible appearance of grain or contributes to the beautiful polish which may be given to it mottling. Asiatic ivory is of a denser white, more open in and makes it easy to work. It may be placed between bone and texture and softer to work. But it is apt to turn yellow sooner, horn; more fibrous than bone and therefore less easily torn or and is not so easy to polish. Unlike bone, ivory requires no splintered. For a scientific definition it would be difficult to find preparation, but is fit for immediate working. That from the a better one than that given by Sir Richard Owen. He says: ' neighbourhood of Cameroon is very good, then ranks the ivory The name ivory is now restricted to that modification of den- from Loango, Congo, Gabun and Ambriz; next the Gold Coast, tine or tooth substance which in transverse sections or fractures Sierra Leone and Cape Coast Castle. That of French Sudan shows lines of different colours, or striae, proceeding in the is nearly always “ ringy,” and some of the Ambriz variety also. arc of a circle and forming by their decussations minute curvi- We may call Zanzibar and Mozambique varieties soft; Angola linear lozenge-shaped spaces.” These spaces are formed by an and Ambriz all hard. Ambriz ivory was at one time much es- immense number of exceedingly minute tubes placed very close teemed, but there is comparatively little now. Siam ivory is together, radiating outwards in all directions.. It is to this rarely if ever soft. Abyssinian has its soft side, but Egypt is arrangement of structure that ivory owes its fine grain and practically the only place where both descriptions are largely almost perfect elasticity, and the peculiar marking resembling distributed. A drawback to Abyssinian ivory is a prevalence the engine-turning on the case of a watch, by which many people of a rather thick bark. Egyptian is liable to be cracked, from are guided in distinguishing it from celluloid or other imitations. the extreme variations of temperature; more so formerly Elephants' tusks are the upper incisor teeth of the animal, which, than now, since better methods of packing and transit are used. starting in earliest youth from a semi-solid vascular pulp, grow Ivory is extremely sensitive to sudden extremes of temperature; during the whole of its existence, gathering phosphates and other for this reason billiard balls should be kept where the temperature earthy matters and becoming hardened as in the formation of is fairly equable. teeth generally. The tusk is built up in layers, the inside layer The market terms by which descriptions of ivory are dis- being the last produced. A large proportion is embedded in the tinguished are liable to mislead. They refer to ports of shipment bone sockets of the skull, and is hollow for some distance up in a rather than to places of origin. For instance, “ Malta” ivory conical form, the hollow becoming less and less as it is prolonged is a well-understood term, yet there are no ivory producing into a narrow channel which runs along as a thread or as it is animals in that island. sometimes called, nerve, towards the point of the tooth. The Tusks should be regular and tapering in shape, not very outer layer, or bárk, is enamel of similar density to the central curved or twisted, for economy in cutting; the coat fine, thin, 'Lecture before the Society of Arts (1856). clear and transparent. The substance of ivory is so elastic IVORY 93 II 1 I and flexible that excellent riding-whips have been cut longi- / are Liverpool and Hamburg; and Germany, France and Portu. tudinally from whole tusks. The size to which tusks grow and gal have colonial possessions in Africa, from which it is imported. are brought to market depends on race rather than on size of America is a considerable importer for its own requirements. elephants. The latter run largest in equatorial Africa. Asiatic From the German Cameroon alone, according to Schilling, bull elephant tusks seldom exceed 50 lb in weight, though there were exported during the ten years ending 1905, 452,100 lengths of 9 ft. and up to 150 lb weight are not entirely un- kilos of ivory. Mr Buxton estimates the amount of ivory im- known. Record lengths for African tusks are the one presented ported into the United Kingdom at about 500 tons. If we give to George V., when prince of Wales, on his marriage (1893), the same to Antwerp we have from these two ports alone no less measuring 8 ft. 71 in. and weighing 165 lb, and the pair of tusks than 1ooo tons a year to be provided. Allowing a weight so which were brought to the Zanzibar market by natives in 1898, high as 30 tb per pair of tusks (which is far too high, perhaps weighing together over 450 lb. One of the latter is now in the twice too high) we should have here alone between thirty and Natural History Museum at South Kensington; the other is forty thousand elephants to account for. It is true that every in Messrs Rodgers & Co.'s collection at Sheffield. For length pair of tusks that comes to the market represents a dead elephant, the longest known are those belonging to Messrs Rowland Ward, but not necessarily by any means a slaiņ or even a recently killed Piccadilly, which measure 11 ft. and 11 ft. 5 in. respectively, one, as is popularly supposed and unfortunately too often with a combined weight of 293 lb. Osteodentine, resulting from repeated. By far the greater proportion is the result of stores the effects of injuries from spearheads or bullets, is sometimes accumulated by natives, a good part coming from animals which found in tusks. This formation, resembling stalactites, grows have died a natural death. Not 20% is live ivory or recently with the tusk, the bullets or iron remaining embedded without killed; the remainder is known in the trade as dead ivory. trace of their entry. In 1827 the principal London ivory importers imported 3000 cwt. The most important commercial distinction of the qualities in 1850, 8000 cwt. The highest price up to 1855 was £55 per cwt. of ivory is that of the hard and soft varieties. The terms are At the July sales in 1905 a record price was reached for biliard-ball difficult to define exactly. Generally speaking, hard or bright teeth of £167 per cwt. The total imports into the United Kingdom ivory is distinctly harder to cut with the saw or other tools. in 1895, 10,911 cwt.; in 1900, 9889 cwt.; in 1904, 9045 cwt. were, according to Board of Trade returns, in 1890, 14.349 cwt.; It is, as it were, glassy and transparent. Soft contains more From Messrs Hale & Son's (ivory brokers, 10 Fenchurch Avenue) moisture, stands differences of climate and temperature better, Ivory Report of the second quarterly sales in London, April 1906, and does not crack so easily. The expert is guided by the shape it appears that the following were offered :- of the tooth, by the colour and quality of the bark or skin, and fons. by the transparency when cut, or even before, as at the point From Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam 17. Egyptian 19 of the tooth. Roughly, a line might be drawn almost centrally West Coast African down the map of Africa, on the west of which the hard quality Lisbon prevails, on the east the soft. In choosing ivory for example Abyssinian: : : 67 for knife-handles-people rather like to see a pretty grain, 55 strongly marked; but the finest quality in the hard variety, Sea horse (hippopotamus teeth) which is generally used for them, is the closest and freest from Walrus grain. The curved or canine teeth of the hippopotamus are Waste ivory 103 valuable and come in considerable quantities to the European arkets. Owen describes this variety as “an tremely dense, 671 compact kind of dentine, partially defended on the outside by Gabun description, and some of very fine quality. There was very Hard ivory was scarce. West Coast African was principally of the a thin layer of enamel as hard as porcelain; so hard as to strike fire with steel.” By reason of this hardness it is not at all liked Soft East Coast tusks (Zanzibar, Mozambique, Bombay and Siam), little inquiry for walrus, The highest prices ranged as follows: by the turner and ivory workers, and before being touched by 102 to 143 tb. each £66, 1os. to £75, ros. per cwt. Billiard-ball them the enamel has to be removed by acid, or sometimes by scrivelloes, £104 per cwt. Cut points for billiard-balls (3} in. to 24 to heating and sudden cooling, when it can be scaled off. The 3 in.) £114 to £isi per cwt. Seahorse (for best), 3s. 6d. to 4s. id texture is slightly curdled, mottled or damasked. Hippo ivory per Ib. Boars' tusks, 6d. to 7d. per Ib. was at one time largely used for artificial teeth, but now mostly Quantities of ivory offered to Public auction (from Messrs Hale & for umbrella and stick-handles; whole in their natural form) Son's Reports). for fancy door-handles and the like. In the trade the term is 1903. 1904. 1905. riverhorse but “ seahorse teeth." Walrus ivory is less dense and coarser than hippo, but of fine quality-what there Tons. Tons. Tons. Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam 75 76 is of it, for the oval centre which has more the character of Egyptian 49 72 814 coarse bone unfortunately extends a long way up. At one Abyssinian 97 23 time a large supply came to the market, but of late years there West Coast African 411 Lisbon has been an increasing scarcity, the animals having been almost 3 If exterminated by the ruthless persecution to which they have 2031 2241 been subjected in their principal haunts in the northern seas. Seahorse teeth and Boars' tusks 7 98 7. It is little esteemed now, though our ancestors thought highly of it. Comparatively large slabs are to be found in medieval 210 2091 2311 sculpture of the 11th and 12th centuries, and the grips of most oriental swords, ancient and modern, are made from it. The Fluctuations in prices of ivory at the London Sale-Room (from Messrs Hale & Son's Charts, which show the prices at each quarterly ivory from the single tusk or horn of the narwhal is not of much, sale from 1870). commercial value except as an ornament or curiosity. Some horns attain a length of 8 to to ft., 4 in. thick at the base. It 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1905. is dense in substance and of a fair colour, but owing to the Billiard Ball pieces central cavity there is little of it fit for anything larger than £55 £90 4112 £68 £167 Averages napkin-rings. Hard Egyptian 36 to 50 lb. 30 38 50 29 48 Ivory in Commerce, and its Industrial Applications.-Almost Soft East Indian 50 to 70 lb. 67 55 57 72 the whole of the importation of ivory to Europe was until recent West Coast African 50 to 70 lb. 36 57 65 61 Hard East African 50 to 70 lb. 37 49 64. years confined to London, the principal distributing mart of the world. But the opening up of the Congo trade has placed In October 1889 soft East Indian fetched an average of £82 per cwt., the port of Antwerp in a position which has equalled and, for but in several instances higher prices were realized, and one lot a time, may surpass that of London. Other important markets reached £88 per cwt. At the Liverpool April sales 1906 about 7tons 13 not 81 ONG 22 393 3 200 88 48 61 .94 IVORY . Wood Chuck Metal Ring Nar. Noa No.3 No. WE Ivory Block Hall Turned SU ditto Reversed in Wood Chuck Rough Ball Ivory Ring were offered from Gabun, Angola, and Cameroon (from the last | But although ball teeth rose in 1905 to £167 a. cwt., the price of 51 tons). To the port of Antwerp the imports were 6830 cwt. in billiárd-balls was the same in 1905 as it was in 1885. Roughly 1904 and 6570 cwt in 1905; of which 5310 cwt. and 4890 cwt. speaking, there are about twelve different qualities and prices of respectively were from the Congo State. billiard-balls, and eight of pyramid-and pool-balls, the latter ranging The leading London sales are held quarterly in Mincing Lane, a from half a guinea to two guineas each. very interesting and wonderful display of tusks and ivory of all kinds being laid out previously for inspection in the great warehouses The ivory for piano-keys is delivered to the trade in the shape known as the “ Ivory Floor in the London docks. The quarterly of what are known as heads and tails, the former for the parts Liverpool sales follow the London ones, with a short interval. which come under the fingers, the latter for that running up The important part which ivory plays in the industrial arts between the black keys. The two are joined afterwards on the not only for decorative, but also for domestic applications is keyboard with extreme accuracy. Piano-keys are bleached, but hardly sufficiently recognized. Nothing is wasted of this valuable organists for some reason or other prefer unbleached keys. product. Hundreds of sacks full of cuttings and shavings, and The soft variety is mostly used for high-class work and preferably scraps returned by manufacturers after they have used what they of the Egyptian type. require for their particular trade, come to the mart. The dust is The great centres of the ivory industry for the ordinary used for polishing, and in the preparation of Indian ink, and even objects of common domestic use are in England, for cutlery for food in the form of ivory jelly. The scraps come in for in- handles Sheffield, for billiard-balls and piano-keys London. For laying and for the numberless purposes in which ivory is used for Lathe small domestic and decorative objects. India, which has been called the backbone of the trade, takes enormous quantities of the rings left in the turning of billiard-balls, which serve as women's bangles, or for making small toys and models, and in other characteristic Indian work. Without endeavouring to enumerate all the applications, a glance may be cast at the most important of those which consume the largest quantity. Chief among these is the manufacture of billiard-balls, of cutlery handles, of piano-keys and of brushware and toilet articles. FIG. 2. Billiard-balls demand the highest quality of ivory; for the best cutlery a large firm such as Rodgers & Sons uses an average of balls the soft description is employed, though recently, through some twenty tons of ivory annually, mostly of the hard variety. the competition of bonzoline and similar substitutes, the hard But for billiard-balls and piano-keys America is now a large has been more used in order that the weight may be assimilated producer, and a considerable quantity is made in France and to that of the artificial kind. Therefore the most valuable tusks Germany. Brush backs are almost wholly in English hands. of all are those adapted for the billiard-ball trade. The term used Dieppe has long been famous for the numberless little ornaments is “scrivelloes,” and is applied to teeth proper for the purpose, and useful articles such as statuettes, crucifixes, little book- weighing not over about 7 lb. The division of the tusk into covers, paper-cutters, combs, serviette-rings and articles de smaller pieces for subsequent manufacture, in order to avoid Paris generally. And St Claude in the Jura, and Geislingen waste, is a matter of importance. in Würtemberg, and Erbach in Hesse, Germany, are amongst The accompanying diagrams (figs. 1 and 2) show the method; the most important centres of the industry. India and China the cuts are made radiating from an imaginary centre of the curve supply the multitude of toys, models, chess and draughtsmen, of the tusk. In after processes the various trades have their own puzzles, workbox fittings and other curiosities. particular methods for making the most of the material. In making a billiard-ball of the Vegetable Tvory, &c.—Some allusion may be made to vegetable English size the first ivory and artificial substitutes. The plants yielding the vegetable thing to be done is to ivory, of commerce representtwo or more species of an anomalous genus rough out, from the of palms, and are known to botanists as Phytelephas. They are natives cylindrical section, a of tropical South America, occurring chiefly on the banks of the sphere about 2} in. in river Magdalena, Colombia, always found in damp localities, not diameter, which will only, however, on the lower coast region as in Darien, but also at eventually be 2 /16 or a considerable elevation above the sea. They are mostly found in sometimes for pro- separate groves, not mixed with other trees or shrubs. The plant is fessional players a lit- severally known as the “ tagua " by the Indians on the banks of the tle larger. One hemi. Magdalena, as the "anta " on the coast of Darien, and as the “ pulli- sphere-as shown in punta and "homero "in Peru. It is stemless or short-stemmed, the diagrams (fig. 2) and crowned with from twelve to twenty very long pinnatifid leaves. -is first turned, and The plants are dioecious, the males forming higher, more erect the resulting ring de- and robust trunks than the females. The male inflorescence is in tached with a parting the form of a simple fleshy cylindrical spadix covered with flowers; Shed or“Mük Tooth" tool. The diameter the female flowers are also in a single spadix, which, however, is is accurately taken shorter than in the male. The fruit consists of a conglomerated and the subsequent head composed of six or seven drupes, each containing from six to removals taken off in nine seeds, and the whole being enclosed in a walled woody covering other directions. The forming altogether a globular head as large as that of a man. A EAST INDIAN & ZANZIBAR *J'2!. ball is then fixed in single plant sometimes bears at the same time from six to eight of FIG. I. a wooden chuck, the these large heads of fruit, each weighing from 20 to 25 lb. In its very half cylinder re- young state the seed contains a clear insipid Auid, which travellers versed, and the operation repeated for the other hemisphere. take advantage of to allay thirst. As it gets older this fluid becomes It is now leſt five years to season and then turned dead true. milky and of a sweet taste, and it gradually continues to change The rounder and straighter the tụsk selected for ball-making both in taste and consistence until it becomes so hard as to make it the better. Evidently, if the tusk is oval and the ball the size valuable as a substitute for animal ivory. In their young and fresh of the least diameter, its sides which come nearer to the bark state the fruits are eaten with avidity by bears, hogs and other or rind will be coarser and of a different density from those portions animals. The seeds, or nuts as they are usually called when fully further removed from this outer skin. The matching of billiard-balls ripe and hard, are used by the American Indians for making small is important, for extreme accuracy in weight is essential. It is usual ornamental articles and toys. They are imported into Britain in to bleach them, as the purchaser-or at any rate the distributing considerable quantities, frequently under the name of " Corozo " intermediary-likes to have them of a dead white. But this is a nuts, a name by which the fruits of some species of Attalea (another mistake, for bleaching with chemicals takes out the gelatine to some palm with hard ivory-like seeds) are known in Central America extent, alters the quality and affects the density; it also makes them their uses being chiefly for small articles of turnery... Of vegetable more liable to crack, and they are not nearly so nice-looking. Billiard- ivory Great Britain imported in 1904 1200 tons, of which about 400 balls should be bought in summer time when the temperature is tons were re-exported, principally to Germany. It is mainly and most equable, and gently used till the winter season. On an average largely used for coat buttons. three balls of fine quality are got out of a tooth. The stock of more Many artificial compounds have, from time to time, been tried as than one great manufacturer surpasses at times 30,000 in number. substitutes for ivory; amongst them potatoes treated with sulphuric AFRICAN & EGYPTIAN WIDE HOLLOW ." CLOSE HOLLOW *** 1 101010 151 . BILLARD BALL SCRIVELLO They rarely give more than Blocks forst quality. 1 second with bark on) "No.1 wulit IVORY 95 « acid. Celluloid is familiar to us nowadays. In the form of bonzoline, difficult to find a dozen examples, from the age of Constantine into which it is said to enter, it is used largely for billiard balls; and onwards, other than sacred ones or of sacred symbolism. But a new French substitute-a caseine made from milk, called gallalith- has begun to be much used for piano keys in the cheaper sorts of as the period of the Renaissance approached, the influence of instrument. Odontolite is mammoth ivory, which through lapse of romantic literature began to assert itself, and a feeling and style time and from surroundings becomes converted into a substance similar to those which are characteristic of the charming series known as fossil or blue ivory, and is used occasionally in jewelry of religious art in ivory, so touchingly conceived and executed, as turquoise, which it very much resembles. It results from the tusks of antediluvian mammoths buried in the earth for thousands meet us in many objects in ivory destined for ordinary domestic of years, during which time under certain conditions the ivory uses and ornament. Mirror cases, caskets for jewelry or toilet becomes slowly penetrated with the metallic salts which give it the purposes, combs, the decoration of arms, or of saddlery or of peculiar vivid blue colour of turquoise. weapons of the chase, are carved and chased with scenes of real Ivory Sculpture and the Decorative Arts.—The use of ivory as life or illustrations of the romances, which bring home to us in a a material peculiarly adapted for sculpture and decoration has vivid manner details of the manners and customs, amusements, been universal in the history of civilization. The earliest dresses and domestic life of the times. With the Renaissance examples which have come down to us take us back to pre- and a return to classical ideas, joined with a love of display and historic times, when, so far as our knowledge goes, civilization of gorgeous magnificence, art in ivory takes a secondary place. as we understand it had attained no higher degree than that of There is a want of simplicity and of originality. It is the period the dwellers in caves, or of the most primitive races. Throughout of the commencement of decadence. Then comes the period succeeding ages there is continued evidence that no other nicknamed rococo, which persisted so long. Ivory carving substance-except perhaps wood, of which we have even fewer follows the vulgar fashion, is content with copying or adapting, ancient examples-has been so consistently connected with and until the revival in our own times is, except in rare instances, man's art-craftsmanship. It is hardly too much to say that to no longer to be classed as a fine art. It becomes a trade and is in follow properly the history of ivory sculpture involves the study the liands of the mechanic of the workshop. In this necessarily of the whole world's art in all ages. It will take us back to the brief and condensed sketch we have been concerned mainly with most remote antiquity, for we have examples of the earliest ivory carving in Europe. It will be necessary to give also, dynasties of Egypt and Assyria. Nor is there entire default presently, some indications enabling the inquirer to follow the when we come to the periods of the highest civilization of Greece history-or at least to put him on the track of it-not only in the and Rome. It has held an honoured place in all ages for the different countries of the West but also in India, China and Japan. adornment of the palaces of the great, not only in sculpture Prehistoric Ivory Carvings.-These are the result of investiga- proper but in the rich inlay of panelling, of furniture, chariots tions made about the middle of the 19th century in the cave and other costly articles. The Bible teems with references to dwellings of the Dordogne in France and also of the lake dwellings its beauty and value. And when, in the days of Pheidias, Greek of Switzerland. As records they are unique in the history of sculpture had reached the highest perfection, we learn from art. Further than this our wonderment is excited at finding ancient writers that colossal statues were constructed-notably these engravings or sculptures in the round, these chiselled the “Zeus of Olympia " and the “ Athena of the Parthenon.” examples of the art of the uncultivated savage, conceived and exe- The faces, hands and other exposed portions of these figurescuted with a feeling of delicacy and restraint which the most were of ivory, and the question, therefore, of the method of modern artist might envy. Who they were who executed them production of such extremely large slabs as perhaps were used must be left to the palaeontologist and geologist to decide. has been often debated. A similar difficulty arises with regard We can only be certain that they were contemporary with the to other pieces of considerable size, found, for example, amongst period when the mammoth and the reindeer still roved freely in consular diptychs. It has been conjectured that some means of southern France. The most important examples are the sketch softening and moulding ivory was known to the ancients, but of the mammoth (see PAINTING, Plate I.), on a slab of ivory as a matter of fact though it may be softened it cannot be again now in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, the head and restored to its original condition. If up to the 4th century we shoulders of an ibex carved in the round on a piece of reindeer are unable to point to a large number of examples of sculpture horn, and the figure of a woman (instances of representations in ivory, from that date onwards the chain is unbroken, and of the human form are most rare) naked and wearing a necklace during the five or six hundred years of unrest and strife from the and bracelet. Many of the originals are in the museum at St decline of the Roman empire in the 5th century to the dawn of Germain-en-Laye, and casts of a considerable number are in the the Gothic revival of art in the 11th or 12th, ivory sculpture British Museum. alone of the sculptural arts carries on the preservation of types Ancient Assyrian, Egyplian, Greek and Roman Ivories.-We and traditions of classic times in central Europe. Most import- I know from ancient writers that the Egyptians were skilled in ant indeed is the rôle which existing examples of ivory carving play in the history of the last two cen- turies of the consulates of the Western and Eastern empires. Though the evidences of decadence in art may be marked, the close of that period brings us down to the end of the reign of Justinian (527-563). Two centuries later the iconoclastic persecutions in the Eastern empire drive westward and compel to settle there numerous colonies of monks and artificers: Throughout the Carlovingian period, the examples of ivory sculpture which we possess in not inconsiderable quantity are of extreme importance in the history of the early development of Byzantine art in Europe. And when the Western world of art arose from its torpor, freed itself from Byzantine shackles and traditions, and began to think for itself, it is to the sculptures in ivory of the Gothic art of the 13th FIG. 3.-Panel with Cartouche, Nineveh. and 14th centuries that we turn with admiration of their exquisite beauty of expression. Up to about the ivory carving and that they procured ivory in large quantities 14th century the influence of the church was everywhere from Ethiopia. The Louvre possesses examples of a kind of predominant in all matters relating to art. In. ivories, fiat castanets or clappers, in the form of the curve of the tusks as in mosaics, enamels or miniature painting it would be themselves, engraved in outline, beautifully modelled hands AR 120 il 10000 96 IVORY AYROZ SETSTYLEYAZ FIZYKITE forming the tapering points; and large quantities of small | in the case of the private ones have a far greater artistic value. objects, including a box of plain form and simple decoration Of these the Victoria and Albert Museum possesses the most identified from the inscribed praenomen as the fifth dynasty, beautiful leaf of perhaps the finest example of ancient ivory about 4000 B.C. The British Museum and the museum at Cairo sculpture which has come down to us, diptychon Meleretense, are also comparatively rich. But no other collection in the world representing a Bacchante (fig. 5). The other half, which is much contains such an interesting collection of ancient Assyrian injured, is in the Cluny Museum. Other important pieces are ivories as that in the British Museum. Those exhibited number the Aesculapius and Hygeia at Liverpool, the Hippolytus and some fifty important pieces, and many other fragments are, on Phaedra at Brescia, the Barberini in the Bargello and at Vienna account of their fragility or state of decay, stowed away. The and the Rufius Probianus at Berlin. Besides the diptychs collection is the result of the excavations by Layard about 1840 ancient Greek and Roman on the supposed site of Nineveh opposite the modern city of ivories before the recognition Mosul. When found they were so decomposed from the lapse of Christianity are compara- SYMMACHORVM of time as scarcely to bear touching or the contact of the external tively small in number and are air. Layard hit upon the ingenious plan of boiling in a solution mostly in the great museums of of gelatine and thus restoring to them the animal matter which the Vatican, Naples, the British had dried up in the course of centuries. Later, the explorations Museum, the Louvre and the of Flinders Petrie and others at Abydos brought to light a con- Cluny Museum. Amongst them siderabie number of sculptured fragments which may be even are the statuette of Penthea, two thousand years older than those of Nineveh. They have perhaps of the 3rd century been exhibited in London and since distributed amongst various (Cluny), a large head of a museums at home and abroad. woman (museum of Vienna) Consular and Official and Private Diptychs.-About fifty of and the Bellerophon (British the remarkable plaques called “consular diptychs,” of the time Museum), nor must those of of the three last centuries the Roman occupation in of the consulates of the England and other countries be Roman and Greek empire forgotten. Notable instances have been preserved. They are the plaque and ivory mask range in date from perhaps found at Caerleon. Others are mid-fourth to mid-sixth cen- now in the Guildhall and British turies, and as with two or Museums, and most continental three exceptions the dates European museums have ex- are certain it would be diffi- amples connected with their cult to overestimate their own history. historic or intrinsic value. Early Christian and Early Sils The earliest of absolutely Byzantine Ivories. The few certain date is the diptych examples we possess of Christian of Aosta (A.D. 408), the first ivories previous to the time of after the recognition of Constantine are not of great Christianity; or, if the importance from the point of Monza diptych represents, view of the history of art. But as some think, the Consul | after that date the ivories which Fig. 5.-Leaf of Roman dip- Stilicon, then we may refer we may ascribe to the cen- tych, representing a Bacchante; the Victoria and Albert back six years earlier. At turies from the end of the Museum. any rate the edict of Theo- | 4th to at least the end of the dosius in A.D. 384, concern- gth become of considerable interest, on account of their connexion ing the restriction of the use with the development of Byzantine art in western Europe. of ivory to the diptychs of With regard to exact origins and dates opinions are largely the regular consuls, is evi- divergent. In great part they are due to the carrying on of dence that the custom must traditions and styles by which the makers of the sarcophagi have been long estab- were inspired, and the difficulties of ascription are increased lished. According to some when in addition to the primitive elements the influence of authorities the beautifulleaf | Byzantine systems introduced many new ideas derived from of diptych in the Liverpool many extraneous sources. The questions involved are of no Museum (fig. 4) is a consular small archaeological, iconographical and artistic importance, one and to be ascribed to but it must be admitted that we are reduced to conjecture in Marcus Julius Philippus many cases, and compelled to thcorize. And it would seem to be (A.D. 248). Similarly the impossible to be more precise as to dates than within a margin From photo by W. A. Mansell & Co. Gherardesca leaf in the of sometimes three centuries. Then, again, we are met by the Fig. 4.-Leaf of diptych showing British Museum may be question how far these ivories are connected with Byzantine, combats with stags; ' in the Liver. accepted as of the Consul art; whether they were made in the West by immigrant Greeks, pool Museum. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 308). or indigenous works, or purely imported productions. Some But the whole question of German critics have endeavoured to construct a system of the half dozen earliest examples is conjectural. With a few notable schools, and to form definite groups, assigning them to Rome, exceptions they show decadence in art. Amongst the finest may Ravenna, Milan and Monza. Not only so, but they claim to be be cited the leaf with the combats with stags at Liverpool, the dip- precise in dating even to a certain decade of a century. But it tych of Probianus at Berlin and the two leaves, one of Anas- is certainly more than doubtful whether there is sufficient tasius, the other of Orestes, in the Victoria and Albert Museum. evidence on which to found such assumptions. It is at least The literature concerning these diptychs is voluminous, from the probable that a considerable number of the ivories whose dates time of the erudite treatise by Gori published in 1759 to the are given by such a number of critics so wide a range as from present day. The latest of certain date is that of Basilius, the 4th to the 10th century are nothing more than the work of consul of the East in 541, the last of the consuls. The diptychs the monks of the numerous monasteries founded throughout of private individuals or of officials number about sixteen, and I the Carlovingian empire, copying and adapling from whatever VZUSZNIK/21 in IVORY : 97 museum SA " came into their hands. Many of them were Greek-immigrants This golden age of the ivory carver-at its best in the 13th cen- exiled at the time of the iconoclastic persecutions. To these tury-was still in evidence during the 14th, and although there must be added the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who is the beginning of a transition in style in the 15th century, the brought with them and disseminated their own national feeling period of neglect and decadence which set in about the beginning and technique. We have to take into account also the relations of the 16th hardly reached the acute stage until well on into the which existed not only with Constantinople but also with the 17th. To review the various developments both of religious art great governing provinces of Syria and Egypt. Where all our which reigned almost alone until the 14th century, or of the information is so vague, and in the face of so much conflicting | secular side as exemplified in the delightful mirror cases and opinion amongst authorities, it is not unreasonable to hold with caskets carved with subjects from the romantic stories which regard to very many of these ivories that instead of assigning were so popular, would be impossible here. Almost every great them to the age of Justinian or even the preceding century we museum and famous private collection abounds in examples ought rather to postpone their dating from one to perhaps three of the well-known diptychs and triptychs and little portable centuries later and to admit that we cannot be precise even oratories of this period. Some, as in a famous panel in the within these limits. It would be impossible to follow here the British Museum, are marvels of minute workmanship, others of whole of the arguments relating to this most important period delicate openwork and tracery. Others, again, are remarkable of the development of ivory sculpture or to mention a tithe of the for the wonderful way in which, in the compass of a few inches, examples which illustrate it. Amongst the most striking the whole histories and episodes of the scriptural narratives are earliest is the very celebrated leaf of a diptych in the British expressed in the most vivid and telling manner. Charming above Museum representing an archangel (fig. 6). It is generally all are the statuettes of the Virgin and Child which French and admitted that we have no ivory Flemish art, especially, have handed down to us. Of these the of the 5th or 6th centuries or in Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a representative collec- PAEXON fact of any early medieval period bad about to the KAUMAWIT WAUAN which can compare with it in qon bolly excellence of design and work and manship. There is no record (it is believed) from whence the Er / obtained the ivory.00 There are at least plausible grounds for surmising that it is identical with the Angelus longus eburneus” of a book- cover among the books brought to England by St Augustine which is mentioned in a list of things belonging to Christchurch, Canterbury (see Dart, App. p. xviii.). The dating of the four Passion plaques, also in the British Museum, varies from the 5th to the 7th century. But although most recent authorities accept the earlier date, the present writer holds strongly that they are not anterior, to, at earliest, the 7th century. Even then they will remain, with the exception of the Monza oil flaske leder tit 197 TESTOU COM and perhaps the St Sabina doors, Fig. 7.—Mirror Case, illustrating the Storming of the Castle of the earliest known representation Love; in the Victoria and Albert Museum. From photo by W. A. Mansell & Co. of the crucifixion. The ivory tion. Another series of interest is that of the croziers or pastoral FIG. 6.-Leaf of Diptych, vase, with cover, in the British staves, the development of which the student of ivories will be representing Archangel; in Museum, appears to possess de- careful to study in connexion with the earlier ones and the the British Museum. fined elements of the farther tau-headed staves. In addition there are shrines, reliquaries, East, due perhaps to the rela- bookcovers, liturgical combs, portable altars, pyxes, holy water tions between Syria and Christian India or Ceylon. Other buckets and sprinklers, flabella or liturgical fans, rosaries, memento important early Christian ivories are the series of pyxes, mori, paxes, small figures and groups, and almost every conceiv- the diptych in the treasury of St Ambrogio at Milan, the able adjunct of the sanctuary or for private devotion. It is to chair of Maximian at Ravenna (most important as a type French or Flemish art that the greater number and the most piece), the panel with the Ascension in the Bavarian beautiful must be referred. At the same time, to take one National Museum, the Brescia casket, the “ Lorsch” bookcovers example only--the diptych and triptych of Bishop Grandison of the Vatican and Victoria and Albert Museum, the Bodleian in the British Museum-we have evidence that English ivory and other bookcovers, the St Paul diptych in the Bargello at carvers were capable of rare excellence of design and workman- Florence and the “Annunciation " plaque in the Trivulzio ship. Nor can crucifixes be forgotten, though they are of collection. So far as unquestionably oriental specimens of extreme rarity before the 17th century. A most beautiful 13th- Byzantine art are concerned they are few in number, but we have century figure for one-though only a fragment-is in the Victoria in the famous Harbaville triptych in the Louvre a super- and Albert Museum. Amongst secular objects of this period, excellent example. besides the mirror cases (fig. 7) and caskets, there are hunting Gothic Ivories.—The most generally charming period of ivory horns (the earlier ones probably oriental, or more or less faith- sculpture is unquestionably that which, coincident with the fully copied from oriental models), chess and draughtsmen Gothic revival in art, marked the beginning of a great and (especially the curious set from the isle of Lewis), combs, marriage lasting change. The formalism imposed by Byzantine traditions coffers (at one period remarkable Italian ones of bone), memor- gáve place to a brighter, more delicate and tenderer conception. I andum tablets, seals, the pommels and cantles of saddles and a UNEA 98 IVORY COAST 6 unique harp now in the Louvre. The above enumeration will a certain amount is exhibited in the Royal Academy and in most alone suffice to show that the inquirer must be referred for foreign salons, but in England the works-necessarily not very details to the numerous works which treat of medieval ivory numerous—are soon absorbed in private collections. On the sculpture. European. continent, on the contrary, in such galleries as the Ivory Sculpture from the 16th to the 19th Century.—Compared Belgian state , collections or the Luxembourg, examples are with the wealth of ivory carving of the two preceding centuries, frequently acquired and exhibited. In Belgium the acquisition the 15th, and especially the 16th, centuries are singularly poor in of the Congo and the considerable import of ivory therefrom really fine work. But before we arrive at the period of real gave encouragement to a definite revival of the art. Important decadence we shall come across such things as the knife of exhibitions have been held in Belgium, and a notable one in Diana of Poitiers in the Louvre, the sceptre of Louis XIII., the Paris in 1904. Though ivory carving is as expensive as marble Rothschild hunting horn, many Italian powder horns, the sculpture, all sculptors delight in following it, and the material German Psyche in the Louvre, or the “ Young Girl and Death entails no special knowledge or training. Of 19th-century artists in the Munich Museum, in which there is undoubtedly originality there were in France amongst the best known, besides numerous and talent of the first order. The practice of ivory carving minor workers of Dieppe and St Claude, Augustin Moreau, became extremely popular throughout the 17th and 18th Vautier, Soitoux, Belleteste, Meugniot, Pradier, Triqueti and centuries, especially in the Netherlands and in Germany, and the Gerôme; and in the first decade of the 20th century, besides amount of ivory consumed must have been very great. But, such distinguished names in the first rank as Jean Dampt and with rare exceptions, and these for the most part Flemish, it is Théodore Rivière, there were Vever, Gardet, Caron, Barrias, art of an inferior kind, which seems to have been abandoned to Allouard, Ferrary and many others. Nor must the decorative second-rate sculptors and the artisans of the workshop. There is work of René Lalique be omitted. No less than forty Belgian little originality, the rococo styles run riot, and we seem to be sculptors exhibited work in ivory at the Brussels exhibition of condemned to wade through an interminable series of gods and 1887. The list included artists of such distinction as J. Dillens, goddesses, bacchanalians and satyrs, pseudo-classical copies Constantin Meunier, van der Stappen, Khnopff, P. Wolfers, from the que and imitations of the schools of Rubens. As a Samuel and Paul de Vigne, and amongst porary Belgian matter of fact few great museums, except the German ones, sculptors are also van Beurden, G. Devreese, Vincotte, de care to include in their collections examples of these periods. Tombay and Lagae. In England the most notable work includes Some exceptions are made in the case of Flemish sculptors of the “ Lamia ” of George Frampton, the “ St Elizabeth "of Alfred such talent as François Duquesnoy (Fiammingo), Gerard van Gilbert, the “ Mors Janua Vitae” of Harry Bates, the “ Launce- Obstal or Lucas Fayd'herbe. In a lesser degree, in Germany, lot " of W. Reynolds-Stephens and the use of ivory in the applied Christoph Angermair, Leonhard Kern, Bernhard Strauss, arts by Lynn Jenkins, A. G. Walker, Alexander Fisher and Elhafen, Kruger and Rauchmiller; and, in France, Jean Guiller- others. min, David le Marchand and Jean Cavalier. Crucifixes were AUTHORITIES.-See generally A. Maskell, Ivories (1906), and the turned out in enormous numbers, some of not inconsiderable bibliography there given. merit; but, for the most part, they represent anatomical exercises On Early Christian and Early Byzantine ivories, the following varying but slightly from a pattern of which a celebrated one works may be mentioned: Abbé Cabrol, Dictionnaire de l'archéologie atributed to Faistenberger may be taken as a type. Tankards Antiquities in British Museum (1902): E. Dobbert, Zur Geschichte chrélienne (in progress); O. M. Dalton, Catalogue of Early Christian abound, and some, notably the one in the Jones collection, than der Elfenbeinsculptur (1885); H. Graeven, Antike Schnitzereien which perhaps no finer example exists, are also of a high standard. (1903), R. Kanzler, Gli arori Vaticana (1903); Kondakov Duquesnoy's work is well illustrated by the charming series of L'Art byzantin; A. Maskell, Cantor Lectures, Soc. of Arts (1906) six plaques in the Victoria and Albert Museum known as the lecture 1l. "Early Christian and Early Byzantine Ivories"); Strzygowski, Byzantinische Denkmäler (1891): V. Schulze, Archdo Fiammingo boys." Amongst the crowd of objects in ivory logie der altchristlichen Kunst (1895); G. Stuhlfauth, Die altchristl. of all descriptions of the early 18th century, the many examples Elfenbeinplastik (1896). of the curious implements known as rappoirs, or tobacco graters, On the consular diptychs, see H. F. Clinton, Fasti Romani (1845- should be noticed. It may perhaps be necessary to add thať 1850); A. Gori, Thesaurus veterum diptychorum (1759): C. Lenor. mant, Trésor de numismatique et de glyplique (1834-1846); F. Pulszky, although the character of art in ivory in these periods is not of Catalogue of the Féjérváry Ivories (1856). the highest, the subject is not one entirely unworthy of attention On the artistic interest generally, see also C. Alabaster, Catalogue and study, and there are a certain number of remarkable and of Chinese Objects in the South Kensington Museum; Sir R. Alcock, Art and Art Industries in Japan (1878); Barraud et Martin, Le Baton even admirable examples. pastoral (1856); Bouchot, Les Reliures d'art à la Bibliothèque Natio. Ivory Sculpture of Spain, Portugal, India, China and Japan.- nale; Bretagne, Sur les peignes liturgiques; H. Cole, Indian Art Generally speaking, with regard to Spain and Portugal, there is at Delhi (1904); R. Garrucci, Storia dell'arte Christiana (1881); little reason to do otherwise than confine our attention to a certain A. Jacquemart, Histoire du mobilier (1876); J. Labarte, Histoire des class of important Moorish or Hispano-Moresque ivories of the arts industriels (1864); C. Lind, Über den Krummstab (1863); Sir F. Madden, “ Lewis Chessmen" (in Archaeologia, vol. xxiv. 1832); time of the Arab occupation of the Peninsula, from the 8th to the W. Maskell, Ivories, Ancient and Medieval in the South Kensington 15th centuries. Some fine examples are in the Victoria and Museum (1872); A. Michel, Histoire de l'art; E. Molinier, Histoire Albert Museum. Of Portuguese work there is little except the générale des arts (1896); E. Oldfield, Catalogue of Fictile Ivories sold hybrid productions of Goa and the Portuguese settlements in the by the Arundel Society (1855); A. H. Pitt Rivers, Antique Works of Art from Benin (1900); A. C. Quatremère de Quincy, Le Jupiter East. Some mention must be made also of the remarkable Olympien (1815); Charles Scherer, Elfenbein plastik seil der Renais. examples of mixed Portuguese and savage art from Benin, now sance (1903); E. du Sommerard, Les Arts au moyen âge (1838–1846); in the British Museum. Of Indian ivory carving the India G. Stephens, Runic Caskets (1866-1868); A. Venturi, Storia dell' arte Museum at Kensington supplies a very large and varied collection Westwood, Fictile Ivories in the South Kensington Museum (1876). Italiana (1901); Sir G. Watt, Indian Art at Delhi (1904); J. 0. which has no equal elsewhere. But there is little older than the Sir M.D. Wyatt, Notices of Sculpture in Ivory (1856). (A. ML.) 17th century, nor can it be said that Indian art in ivory can IVORY COAST (Côte d'Ivoire), a French West African colony, occupy a very high place in the history of the art. What we bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, W. by Liberia and French know of Chinese carving in ivory is confined to those examples which are turned out for the European market, and can hardly Gold Coast. Its area is approximately 120,000 sq. m., and its Guinea, N. by the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the be considered as appealing very strongly to cultivated tastes. population possibly 2,000,000, of whom some 600 are Europeans. A brief reference to the well-known deligḥtful netsukés and the Official estimates (1908) placed the native population as low as characteristic inlaid work must suffice here for the ivories of 980,000. Japan (see JAPAN: Arl). Ivory Sculpture in the 19th Century and of the Present Day: - and has a length of 380 m. It forms an arc of a circle of which the Physical Features. The coast-line extends from ?° 30' to 3° 7' W. Few people are aware of the extent to which modern ivory sculp-convexity turns slightly to the north: neither bay nor promontory ture is practised by distinguished artists. Year by year, however, I breaks the regularity of its outline. The shore is low, bordered in its IVORY COAST 99 2 eastern half with lagoons, and difficult of access on account of the Timbuktu engaged in the kola-nut trade with Ashanti and the Gold submarine bar of sand which stretches along nearly the whole of the Coast. Bontuku is peopled largely by Wongara and Hausa, and coast, and also because of the heavy surf caused by the great Atlantic most of the inhabitants, who number some 3000, are Moslems. billows. The principal lagoons, going W. to E. are those of Grand The town, which was founded in the 15th century or earlier, is Lahou, Grand Bassam or Ěbrié and Assini. The coast plains extend walled, contains various mosques and generally presents the inland about 40 m. Beyond the ground rises in steep slopes to a appearance of an eastern city. general level of over 1000 ft., the plateau being traversed in several Agriculture and Trade.-The natives cultivate maize, plantains, directions by hills rising 2000 ft, and over, and cut by valleys with a bananas, pineapples, limes, pepper, cotton, &c., and live easily on general south-eastern trend. In the north-east, in the district of the products of their gardens, with occasional help froin fishing and Kong (q.v.), the country becomes mountainous, Mt. Kommono hunting. They also weave cloth, make pottery and smelt iron. attaining a height of 4757 ft. In the north-west, by the Liberian Europeans introduced the cultivation of coffee, which gives good frontier, the mountains in the Gon region rise over 6000 ft. Starting results. The forests are rich in palm-tree products, rubber and from the Liberian frontier, the chief rivers are the Cavalla (or mahogany, which constitute the chief articles of export. The rubber Kavalli), the San Pedro, the Sassandra (240 m. long), the Bandama goes almost exclusively to England, as does also the mahogany. (225 m.), formed by the White and the Red Bandama, the Komoe The palm-oil and palm kernels are sent almost entirely to France. (360 m.) and the Bia. All these streams are interrupted by rapids The value of the external trade of the colony exceeded £1,000,000 as they descend from the highlands to the plain and are unnavigable for the first time in 1904. About 50% of the trade is with Great by steamers save for a few miles from their mouths. The rivers Britain. The export of ivory, for which the country was formerly named all drain to the Gulf of Guinea; the rivers in the extreme famous, has almost ceased, the elephants being largely driven out of north of the colony belong to the Niger system, being affluents of the colony. Cotton goods, by far the most important of the imports, the Bani or Mahel Balevel branch of that river. The watershed runs come almost entirely from Great Britain. Gold exists and many roughly from 9° N. in the west to 10° N. in the east, and is marked by native villages have small “placer" mines. In 1901 the government a line of hills rising about 650 ft. above the level of the plateau. of the colony began the granting of mining concessions, in which The climate is in general very hot and unhealthy, the rainfall being British capital was largely invested. There are many ancient mines very heavy. In some parts of the plateau healthier conditions in the country, disused since the close of the 18th century, if not prevail. The fauna and Aora are similar to those of the Gold Coast earlier. and Liberia. Primeval forest extends from the coast plains to about Communications. The railway from Little Bassam serves the 8° N., covering nearly 50,000 sq. m. east central part of the colony and runs to Katiola, in Kong, a total Inhabitants. The coast districts are inhabited by Negro distance of 250 m. The line is of metre gauge. The cutting of two tribes allied on the one hand to the Krumen (q.v.) and on the canals, whereby communication is effected by lagoon between Assini and Grand Lahou via Bassam, followed the construction of the other to the people of Ashanti (q.v.). The Assinis are of Ashanti railway. Grand and Little Bassam are in regular communication origin, and chiefly of the Ochin and Agni tribes. Farther west by steamer with Bordeaux, Marseilles, Liverpool, Antwerp and are found the “ Jack-Jacks” and the “Kwa-Kwas,” sobriquets cable via Dakar. Telegraph lines connect the coast with all the Hamburg. Grand Bassam is connected with Europe by submarine given respectively to the Aradian and Avikom by the early principal stations in the interior, with the Gold Coast, and with the European traders. The Kwa-Kwa are said to be so called other French colonies in West Africa. because their salutation“ resembles the cry of a duck.” In the Administration, &C.-The colony is under the general superintend. interior the Negro strain predominates but with an admixture ence of the government general of French West Africa. At the head of Hamitic or Berber blood. The tribes represented include by a council on which nominated unofficial members have seats. of the local administration is a lieutenant-governor, who is assisted Jamans, Wongaras and Mandingos (q.v.), some of whom are To a large extent the native forms of government are maintained Moslems. The Mandingos have intermarried largely with the under European administrators responsible for the preservation of Bambara or Sienuf, an agricultural people of more than average order, the colony, for this purpose being divided into a number of circles" each with its local government. The colony has a separate intelligence widely spread over the country, of which they are budget and is self-supporting: Revenue is derived chiefly from considered to be the indigenous race. The Bambara themselves customs receipts and a capitation tax of frs. 2.50 (2s.), instituted in are perhaps only a distinct branch of the original Mandingo 1901 and levied on all persons over ten years old. The budget for stock. The Baulé, who occupy the central part of the colony, 1906 balanced at £120,400. are of Agni-Ashanti origin. The bulk of the inhabitants are History.—The Ivory Coast is stated to have been visited by fetish worshippers. On the northern confines of the great forest Dieppe merchants in the 14th century, and was made known belt live races of cannibals, whose existence was first made known by the Portuguese discoveries towards the end of the 15th by Captain d'Ollone in 1899. In general the coast tribes are century. It was thereafter frequented by traders for ivory, peaceful. They have the reputation of being neither industrious slaves and other commodities. There was a French settlement nor intelligent. The traders are chiefly Fanti, Sierra Leonians, at Assini, 1700-1704, and a French factory was maintained at Senegalese and Mandingos. Grand Bassam from 1700 to 1707. In the early part of the 19th Towns. The chief towns on the coast are Grand and Little Bassam, century several French traders had established themselves Jackville and Assini in the east and Grand Lahou, Sassandra and along the coast. In 1830 Admiral (then Commandant) Bouët- Tabu in the west. Grand and Little Bassam are built on the strip Willaumez (1808–1871) began a series of surveys and expedi- of sand which separates the Grand Bassam or Ebrié lagoon from the This lagoon forms a commodious harbour, once the bar has tions which yielded valuable results. In 1842 he obtained from been crossed. Grand Bassam is situated at the point where the the native chiefs cessions of territory at Assini and Grand Bassam lagoon and the river Komoe enter the sea and there is a minimum depth of 12 ft. of water over the bar. The town (pop. 5000, including that time French influence ġradually extended along the coast, to France and the towns named were occupied in 1843. From about 100 Europeans) is the seat of the customs administration and of the judicial department, and is the largest centre for the trade of but no attempt was made to penetrate inland. As one result the colony. A wharf equipped with cranes extends beyond the surf of the Franco-Prussian War, France in 1872 withdrew her line and the town is served by a light railway. It is notoriously garrisons, handing over the care of the establishments to a unhealthy: yellow fever is endemic. Little Bassam, renamed by merchant named Verdier, to whom an annual subsidy of £800 the French Port Bouet, possesses an advantage over the other ports on the coast, as at this point there is no bar. The sea floor is here was paid. This merchant sent an agent into the interior who rent by a chasm, known as the " Bottomless Pit," the waters having made friendly treaties between France and some of the native a depth of 65 ft. Abijean (Abidjan), on the north side of the lagoon chiefs. In 1883, in view of the claims of other European powers opposite Port Bouet is the starting point of a railway to the oil and rubber regions. The half-mile of foreshore separating the port from to territory in Africa, France again took over the actual the lagoon was in 1904-1907 pierced by a canal, but ihe canal silted administration of Assini and Bassam. Between 1887 and 1889 up as soon as cut, and in 1908 the French decided to make Grand Captain Binger (an officer of marine infantry, and subsequently Bassam the chief port of the colony. Assini is an important centre director of the African department at the colonial ministry) for the rubber trade of Ashanti. On the northern shore of the Bassam lagoom and 19 m. from Grand Bassam, is the capital of the traversed the whole region between the coast and the Niger, colony, the native name Adjame having been changed into Binger- visited Bontukų, and the Kong country, and signed protectorate Ville, in honour of Captain L. G. Binger (see below). The town is treaties with the chiefs. The kingdom of Jaman, it may be men- built on a hill and is fairly healthy. In the interior are several towns, though none of any size numeric. tioned, was for a few months included in the Gold Coast hinter- land. ally. The best known are Koroko, Kong and Bona, entrepôts for In January 1889 a British mission sent by the governor the trade of the middle Niger, and Bontuku, on the caravan route of the Gold Coast concluded a treaty with the king of Jaman to Sokoto and the meeting-place of the merchants from Kong and I at Bontuku, placing his dominions under British protection. sea. 100 IVREA-IVY The king had, however, previously concluded treaties of “com- and later of a marquisate; both Berengar II. (950) and Arduin merce and friendship" with the French, and by the Anglo-French (1002) became kings of Italy for a short period. Later it sub- agreement of August 1889 Jaman, with Bontuku, was recognized mitted to the marquises of Monferrato, and in the middle of the as French territory. In 1892 Captain Binger made further ex- 14th century passed to the house of Savoy. (T. As.) plorations in the interior of the Ivory Coast, and in 1893 he was IVRY-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the depart: appointed the first governor of the colony on its erection into ment of Seine, near the left bank of the Seine, less than i m. an administration distinct from that of Senegal. Among other S.S.E. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 30,532. Ivry famous explorers who helped to make known the hinterland has a large hospital for incurables. It manufactures organs, was Colonel (then Captain) Marchand. It was to the zone earthenware, wall-paper and rubber, and has engineering works, between the Kong states and the hinterland of Liberia that breweries, and oil-works, its trade being facilitated by a port Samory (see SENEGAL) fled for refuge before he was taken on the Seine. The town is dominated by a fort of the older line prisoner (1898), and for a short time he was master of Kong. of defence of Paris. The boundary of the colony on the west was settled by Franco- IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, Liberian agreements of 1892 and subsequent dates; that on ärlov), the collective designation of certain species and the east by the Anglo-French agreements of 1893 and 1898. varieties of Hedera, a member of the natural order Araliaceae. The northern boundary was fixed in 1899 on the division of the middle Niger territories (up to that date officially called the French Sudan) among the other French West African colonies. The systematic development of the colony, the opening up of the hinterland and the exploitation of its economic resources date from the appointment of Captain Binger as governor, a post he held for over three years. The work he began has been carried on zealously and effectively by subsequent governors, who have succeeded in winning the co-operation of the natives. In the older books of travel are often found the alternative names for this region, Tooth Coast (Côte des Dents) or Kwa-Kwa Coast, and, less frequently, the Coast of the Five and Six Stripes (alluding to a kind of cotton fabric in favour with the natives). The term Côte des Dents continued in general use in France until the closing years of the 19th century. See Dix ans à la Côte d'Ivoire (Paris, 1906) by F.J. Clozel, governor of the colony, and Noire colonie de la Côte d'Ivoire (Paris, 1903) by R. Villamur and Richaud. These two volumes deal with the history, geography, zoology and economic condition of the Ivory Coast. La Côte d'Ivoire by Michellet and Clement describes the administra- tive and land systems, &c. Another volume also called La Côte d'Ivoire (Paris, 1908) is an official monograph on the colony. For ethnology consult Coutumes indigènes de la Côte d'Ivoire (Paris, 1902) by F. J. Clozel and R. Villamur, and Les Coutumes Agni, by R. Villamur and Delafosse. Of books of travel see Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée par Kong (Paris, 1892) by L. G. Binger, and Mission Hostains- d'Ollone 1898-1900 (Paris, 1901) by Captain d'Ollone. A Carte FIG, I.-Ivy (Hedera Helix) fruiting branch. 1. Flower. 2. Fruit, de la Côte d'Ivoire by A. Meunier, on the scale of 1:500,000 (6 sheets), was published in Paris, 1905: Annual reports on the colony are There are fifty species of ivy recorded in modern books, but they published by the French colonial and the British foreign offices. may be reduced to two, or at the most, three. The European ivy, IVREA (anc. Eporedia), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Hedera Helix (fig. 1), is a plant subject to infinite variety in the Italy, in the province of Turin, from which it is 38 m. N.N.E. forms and colours of its leaves, but the tendency of which is by rail and 27 m. direct, situated 770 ft. above sea level, on the always to a three-to five-lobed form when climbing and a regular Dora Baltea at the point where it leaves the mountains. Pop. ovate form of leaf when producing flower and fruit. The African (1901) 6047 (town), 11,696 (commune). The cathedral was ivy, H. canariensis, often regarded as a variety of H. Helix and built between 973 and 1005; the gallery round the back of the known as the Irish ivy, is a apse and the crypt have plain cubical capitals of this period. native of North Africa and the The two campanili flanking the apse at each end of the side adjacent islands. It is the com- aisle are the oldest example of this architectural arrangement. mon large-leaved climbing ivy, The isolated tower, which is all that remains of the ancient abbey and also varies, but in a less of S. Stefano, is slightly later. The hill above the town is crowned degree than H. Helix, from by the imposing Castello delle Quattro Torri, built in 1358, which its leaves differ in their and now a prison. One of the four towers was destroyed by larger size, rich deep green colour, lightning in 1676. A tramway runs to Santhià. and a prevailing tendency to a The ancient Eporedia, standing at the junction of the roads five-lobed outline. When in fruit from Augusta Taurinorum and Vercellae, at the point where the leaves are usually three- the road to Augusta Praetoria enters the narrow valley of the lobed, but they are sometimes Duria (Dora Baltea), was a military position of considerable entire and broadly ovate. The importance belonging to the Salassi who inhabited the whole Asiatic ivy, H. colchica (fig. 2), upper valley of the Duria. The importance of the gold-mines now considered to be a form of FIG. 2.-Hedera colchico, of the district led to its seizure by the Romans in 143 B.C. The H. Helix, has ovate, obscurely centre of the mining industry seems to have been Victumulae three-lobed leaves of a coriaceous texture and a deep green (see TICINUM), until in 100 B.C. a colony of Roman citizens was colour; in the tree or fruiting form the leaves are narrower founded at Eporedia itself; but the prosperity of this was only than in the climbing form, and without any trace of lobes. assured when the Salassi were finally defeated in 25 B.C. and Distinctive characters are also to be found in the appendages of Augusta Praetoria founded. There are remains of a theatre the pedicels and calyx, H. Helix having six-rayed stellate of the time of the Antonines and the Ponte Vecchio rests on hairs, H. canariensis fifteen-rayed hairs and H. colchica yellowish Roman foundations. two-lobed scales. In the middle ages Ivrea was the capital of a Lombard duchy, The Australian ivy, H. australiana, is a small glabrous shrub IWAKURA IOI now on with pinnate leaves. It is a native of Queensland, and is with leaves of creamy white, golden green or rich deep orange practically unknown in cultivation. yellow, soon prove handsome miniature trees, that thrive It is of the utmost importance to note the difference of char- almost as well in smoky town gardens as in the pure air of the acters of the same species of ivy in its two conditions of climbing country, and that no ordinary winter will injure in the least. and fruiting. The first stage of growth, which we will suppose The tree-form of the Asiatic ivy (H. colchica) is scarcely to be to be from the seed, is essentially scandent, and the leaves are equalled in beauty of leafage by any evergreen shrub known to lobed more or less. This stage is accompanied with a plentiful English gardens, and, although in the course of a few years it will production of the claspers or modified: roots by means of which attain to a stature of 5 or 6 ft., it is but rarely we meet with it, the plant becomes at- or indeed with tree ivies of any kind, but little attention having tached and obtains sup- been given to this subject until recent years. The scandent forms port. When it has are more generally appreciated, and are now much employed in reached the summit of the formation of marginal lines, screens and trained pyramids, the tree or tower, the as well as for clothing walls. A very striking example of the stems, being no longer capabilities of the commonest ivies, when treated artistically able to maintain a per- as garden plants, may be seen in the Zoological Gardens of pendicular attitude, Amsterdam, where several paddocks are enclosed with wreaths, fall over and become garlands and bands of ivy in a most picturesque manner. horizontal or pendent, About sixty varieties known in gardens are figured and Coincidently with this described in The Ivy, a Monograph, by Shirley Hibberd (1872). change they cease to To cultivate these is an extremely simple matter, as they will produce claspers, and thrive in a poor soil and endure a considerable depth of shade, the leaves are strik- so that they may with advantage be planted under trees. The ingly modified in form, common Irish ivy is often to be seen clothing the ground beneath .being narrower large yew trees where grass would not live, and it is occasionally FIG. 3.-Climbing Shoot of Ivy. and less lobed than planted in graveyards in London to form an imitation of grass the ascending turf, for which purpose it is admirably suited. stems. In due time this tree-like growth produces terminal The ivy, like the holly, is a scarce plant on the American umbels of greenish flowers, which have the parts in fives, continent. In the northern United States and British America with the styles united into a very short one. These flowers the winters are not more severe than the ivy can endure, but are succeeded by smooth black or yellow berries, containing two the summers are too hot and dry, and the requirements of the to five seeds. The yellow-berried ivy is met with in northern plant have not often obtained attention. In districts where India and in Italy, but in northern Europe it is known only as native ferns abound the ivy will be found to thrive, and the a curiosity of the garden, where, if sufficiently sheltered and varieties of Hedera Helix should have the preference. But in nourished, it becomes an exceedingly beautiful and fruitful tree. the drier districts ivies might often be planted on the north side It is stated in books that some forms of sylvestral ivy never of buildings, and, if encouraged with water and careful training flower, but a negative declaration of this kind is valueless. for three or four years, would then grow rapidly and train them- Sylvestral ivies of great age may be found in woods on the selves. A strong light is detrimental to the growth of ivy, but western coasts of Britain that have apparently never flowered, this enhances its value, for we have no hardy plants that may but this is probably to be explained by their inability to surmount be compared with it for variety and beauty that will endure the trees supporting them, for until the plant can spread its shade with equal patience. branches horizontally in full daylight, the flowering or tree-like The North American poison ivy (poison oak), Rhus Toxico- growth is never formed. dendron (nat. order Anacardiaceae), is a climber with pinnately, A question of great practical importance arises out of the compound leaves, which are very attractive in their autumn relation of the plant to its means of support. A moderate growth colour but poisonous to the touch to some persons, while others of ivy is not injurious to trees; still the tendency is from the first can handle the plant without injury. The effects are redness inimical to the prosperity of the tree, and at a certain stage it and violent itching followed by fever and a vesicular eruption. becomes deadly. Therefore the growth of ivy on trees should be The ground ivy, Nepeta Glechoma (nat. order Labiatae), is a kept within reasonable bounds, more especially in the case of small creeping plant with rounded crenate leaves and small trees that are of special value for their beauty, history, or the blue-purple flowers, occurring in hedges and thickets. quality of their timber. In regard to buildings clothed with IWAKURA, TOMOMI, PRINCE (1835-1883), Japanese states- ivy, there is nothing to be feared so long as the plant does not man, was born in Kioto. He was one of the court nobles (kuge) penetrate the substance of the wall by means of any fissure. of Japan, and he traced his descent to the emperor Murakami' Should it thrust its way in, the natural and continuous expansion (A.D. 947-967). A man of profound ability and singular force of of its several parts will necessarily hasten the decay of the character, he acted a leading part in the complications preceding edifice. But a fair growth of ivy on sound walls that afford no the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, and was obliged to fly from entrance beyond the superficial attachment of the claspers is, Kioto accompanied by his coadjutor, Prince Sanjo. They took without any exception whatever, beneficial. It promotes dryness refuge with the Daimyo of Chöshū, and, while there, established and warmth, reduces to a minimum the corrosive action of the relations which contributed greatly to the ultimate union of the atmosphere, and is altogether as conservative as it is beautiful. two great fiefs, Satsuma and Choshū, for the work of the Restora- The economical uses of the ivy are not of great importance. tion. From 1867 until the day of his death Iwakura was one The leaves are eaten greedily by horses, deer, cattle and sheep, of the most prominent figures on the political stage. In 1871 and in times of scarcity have proved useful. The flowers afford a he proceeded to America and Europe at the head of an imposing good supply of honey to bees; and, as they appear in autụmn, embassy of some fifty persons, the object being to explain to they occasionally make amends for the shortcomings of the foreign governments the actual conditions existing in Japan, season. The berries are eaten by wood pigeons, blackbirds and and to pave the way for negotiating new treaties consistent thrushes. From all parts of the plant a balsamic bitter may with her sovereign rights. Little success attended the mission. be obtained, and this in the form of hederic acid is the only Returning to Japan in 1873, Iwakura found the cabinet divided preparation of ivy known to chemists. as to the manner of dealing with Korea's insulting attitude. In the garden the uses of the ivy are innumerable, and the He advocated peace, and his influence carried the day, thus least known though not the least valuable of them is the cultiva- removing a difficulty which, though apparently of minor dimen- tion of the plant as a bush or tree, the fruiting growth being sions, might have changed the whole course of Japan's modern selected for this purpose. The variegated tree forms of H. Helix, I history. 102 IXION-IZU-NO-SHICHI-TO IXION, in Greek legend, son of Phlegyas, king of the Lapithae , suffered severely from the earthquake of the 16th-17th of in Thessaly (or of Ares), and husband of Dia. According to January 1889 It is a prosperous place with an enlightened Greek custom he promised his father-in-law, Deioneus, a handsome element in its population (hence the numerous families called bridal present, but treacherously murdered him when he claimed Spartali." in Levantine towns); and it is, in fact, the chief the fulfilment of the promise. As a punishment, Ixion was inland colony of Hellenism in Anatolia. Pop. 20,000 (Moslems seized with madness, until Zeus purified him of his crime and 13,000, Christians 7000). The new Aidin railway extends from admitted him as a guest to Olynipus. Ixion abused his pardon Dineir to Izbarta via Buldur. by trying to seduce Hera; but the goddess substituted for herself IZHEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vyatka, a cloud, by which he became the father of the Centaurs. Zeus 140 m. S.W. of Perm and 22 m. W. from the Kama, on the Izh bound him on a fiery wheel, which rolls unceasingly through the river. Pop. (1897) 21,500. It has one of the principal steel and air or (according the later version) in the underworld (Pindar, rifle works of the Russian crown, started in 1807. The making Pythia, ü. 21; Ovid, Metam. iv. 461; Virgil, Aeneid, vi. 601). of sporting guns is an active industry. Ixion is generally taken to represent the eternally moving sun. IZMAIL, or ISMAIL, à town of Russia, in the government Another explanation connects the story with the practice of Bessarabia, on the left bank of the Kilia branch of the Danube, (among certain peoples of central Europe) of carrying a blazing, 35 m. below Reni railway station. Pop. (1866) 31,779, (1900) revolving wheel through fields which needed the heat of the sun, 33,607, comprising Great and Little Russians, Bulgarians, the legend being invented to explain the custom and subsequently Jews and Gipsies. There are flour-mills and a trade in cereals, adopted by the Greeks (see Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte, wool, tallow and hides. Originally a Turkish fortified post, Ïi. 1905, p. 83). In view of the fact that the oak was the sun-god's Izmail had by the end of the 18th century grown into a place tree and that the mistletoe grew upon it, it is suggested by A. B. of 30,000 inhabitants. It was occupied by the Russians in Cook (Class. Rev. xvii. 420) that 'I&lwv is derived from 156s 1770, and twenty years later its capture was one of the brilliant (mistletoe), the sun's fire being regarded as an emanation from achievements of the Russian general, Count A. V. Suvarov. the mistletoe. Ixion himself is probably a by-form of Zeus On that occasion the garrison was 40,000 strong, and the assault (Usener in Rhein. Mus. liii. 345). cost the assailants 10,000 and the defenders 30,000 men. The “ The Myth of Ixion " (by C. Smith, in Classical Review, June victory was the theme of one of the Russian poet G. R. Der- 1895) deals with the subject of a red-figure cantharus in the British zhavin's odes. In 1809 the town was again captured by the Museum. IXTACCIHUATL, or IZTACCIHUATL (“white woman"), a Russians; and, when in 1812 it was assigned to them by the lofty mountain of volcanic origin, 10 m. N. of Popocatepetl and Bucharest peace, they chose it as the central station for their about 40 m. S.S.E of the city of Mexico, forming part of the short Danube fleet. It was about this time that the town of Tuchkov, spur called the Sierra Nevada. According to Angelo Heilprin with which it was later (1830) incorporated, grew up outside of (1853-1907) its elevation is 16,960 ft.; other authorities make it the fortifications. These were dismantled in accordance with much less. Its apparent height is dwarfed somewhat by its the treaty of Paris (1856), by which Izmail was made over to elongated summit and the large area covered. It has three Rumania. The town was again transferred to Russia by the summits of different heights standing on a north and south line, peace of Berlin (1878). the central one being the largest and highest and all three rising included in the empire of Japan. They stretch in a southerly IZU-NO-SHICHI-TO, the seven (shichi) islands (to) of Izu, above the permanent snow-line. As seen from the city of Mexico the three summits have the appearance of a shrouded human direction from a point near the mouth of Tokyo Bay, and lie figure, hence the poetic Aztec appellation of “white woman between 33° and 34° 48' N. and between 139° and' 140° E. and the unsentimental Spanish designation “ La mujer gorda." Their names, beginning from the north, are Izu-no-Oshima, The ascent is difficult and perilous, and is rarely accomplished. To-shima, Nii-shima, Kozu shima, Miyake-shima and Hachijo- i Heilprin says that the mountain is largely composed of trachytic shima. There are some islets in their immediate vicinity. rocks and that it is older than Popocatepetl. It has no crater and no Izu-no-Oshima, an island 10 m. long and 51 m. wide, is 15 m. trace of lingering volcanic heat. It is surmised that its crater, if it from the nearest point of the Izu promontory. It is known to ever had one, has been filled in and its cone worn away by erosion through long periods of time. western cartographers as Vries Island, a name derived from that IYRCAE, an ancient nation on the north-east trade route of Captain Martin Gerritsz de Vries, a Dutch navigator, who is described by Herodotus (iv. 22) beyond the Thyssagetae, some supposed to have discovered the island in 1643. But the group where about the upper basins of the Tobol and the Irtysh. was known to the Japanese from a remote period, and used as They were distinguished by their mode of hunting, climbing a convict settlements certainly from the 12th century and probably tree to survey their game, and then pursuing it with trained from a still earlier era. Hachijo, the most southerly, is often horses and dogs. They were almost certainly the ancestors erroneously written “Fatsisio” on English charts. Izu-no- of the modern Magyars, also called Jugra. Oshima is remarkable for its smoking volcano, Mihara-yama The reading Töpkai is an anachronism, and when Pliny (N.H. vi. (2461 ft.), a conspicuous object to all ships bound for Yokohama. 19) and Mela (i. 116) speak of Tyrcae it is also probably due to a false Three others of the islands—Nii-shima, Kozu-shima and correction, (E. H. M.) Miyake-shima-have active volcanoes. Those on Nii-shima and IZBARTA, or SPARTA (anc. Baris), the chief town of the Kozu-shima are of inconsiderable size, but that on Miyake- Hamid-abad sanjak of the Konia vilayet, in Asia Minor, wel! shima, namely, Oyama, rises to a height of 2707 ft. The most situated on the edge of a fertile plain at the foot of Aghlasun southerly island, Hachijo-shima, has a still higher peak, Dsubo- Dagh. It was once the capital of the Emirate of Hamid. It I take (2838 ft.), but it does not emit any smoke. J-JABLOCHKOV, 103 1 J » > A letter of the alphabet which, as far as form is concerned, in India and elsewhere as adjutant birds, belonging to the genus is only a modification of the Latin I and dates back Leptoptilus, distinguished by their sad-coloured plumage, their with a separate value only to the 15th century. It black scabrous head, and their enormous tawny pouch, which was first used as a special form of initial I, the ordinary depends occasionally some 16 in. or more in length from the lower form being kept for use in other positions. As, however, in part of the neck, and seems to be connected with the respiratory many cases initial i had the consonantal value of the English y and not, as commonly believed, with the digestive system. in iugum (yoke), &c., the symbol came to be used for the value of In many parts of India L. dubius, the largest of these birds, the y, a value which it still retains in German: Jal jung, &c. hargila as Hindus call it, is a most efficient scavenger, sailing Initially it is pronounced in English as an affricate dzh. The aloft at a vast height and descending on the discovery of offal, great majority of English words beginning with j are (1) of though frogs and fishes also form part of its diet. It familiarly foreign (mostly French) origin, as "jaundice," "judge"; (2) enters the large towns, in many of which an account of its services imitative of sound, like“ jar” (the verb); or (3) influenced by it is strictly protected from injury, and, having satisfied its analogy, like" jaw" (influenced by chaw, according to Skeat). In appetite, seeks the repose it has earned, sitting with its fee! early French g when palatalized by e or i sounds became constata.hu/00 fused with consonantal i (y), and both passed into the sound of pour ne pas 15 j which is still preserved in English. A similar sound-change the takes place in other languages, e.g, Lithuanian, where the Downlod resulting sound is spelt dž. Modern French and also Provençal lad mo and Portuguese have changed j=dzh into ž (zh). The sound initially is sometimes represented in English by g: gem, gaol as well as jail. At the end of modern English words the same sound is represented by -dge as in judge, French juge. In this position, however, the sound occurs also in genuine English words like bridge, sedge, singe, but this is true only for the southern dialects on which the literary, language is founded. In the northern dialects the pronunciation as brig, seg, sing still survives. (P, GI.) JA’ALIN (from Jā'al, to settle, i.e. “the squatters ”), an African tribe of Semitic stock. They formerly occupied the country on both banks of the Nile from Khartum to 'Abu Hamed. They claim to be of the Koreish tribe and even trace descent from Abbas, uncle of the prophet They are of Arab origin, but now of very mixed blood. According to their own tradition they emigrated to Nubia in the 12th century. They were at one time subject to the Funj kings, but their position was in a measure independent. At the Egyptian invasion in 1820 they were the most powerful of Arab tribes in the Nile valley. They submitted at first, but in 1822 rebelled and massacred the Egyptian garrison at Shendi. The revolt was mercilessly suppressed, and the Jā'alin were thenceforward looked on with suspicion. They were almost the first of the northern tribes to join the mahdi in 1884, and it was their position to the north of Khartum which made communication with Donec Jabiru. General Gordon so difficult. The Jā’alin are now a semi-nomad agricultural people. Many are employed in Khartum as ser- extended in front in a most grotesque attitude. A second and vants, scribes and watchmen. They are a proud religious smaller species, L. javanicus, has a more southern and eastern people, formerly notorious as cruel slave dealers. J. L. Burck- range; while a third, L. crumenifer, of African origin, and often hardt says the true Jā’alin from the eastern desert is exactly known as the marabou-stork, gives its name to the beautifully like the Bedouin of eastern Arabia. soft feathers so called, which are the under-tail-coverts; the See The Anglo-Egyplian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen “marabout ” feathers of the plume-trade are mostly supplied (London, 1905). by other birds, the term being apparently applied to any downy JABIRU, according to Marcgrave the Brazilian name of a bird, feathers. (A. N.) subsequently called by Linnaeus Mycteria americana, one of the JABLOCHKOV, PAUL (1847–1894), Russian electrical engi- largest of the storks, Ciconiidae, which occurs from Mexico neer and inventor, was born at Serdobsk, in the government of southwards to the territory of the Argentine Republic. It Saratov, on the 14th of September 1847, and educated at St stands between 4 and 5 ft. in height, and is conspicuous for its Petersburg. In 1871 he was appointed director of the telegraph massive bill, slightly upturned, and its entirely white plumage; / lines between Moscow and Kursk, but in 1875 he resigned his but the head and neck are bare and black, except for about the position in order to devote himself to his researches on electric lower third part of the latter, which is bright red in the living lighting by arc lamps, which he had already taken up. In 1876 bird. Very nearly allied to Mycteria, and also commonly called he settled in Paris, and towards the end of the year brought out jabirus, are the birds of the genera Xenorhynchus and Ephippio- his famous “candles," known by his name, which consisted of rhynchus—the former containing one or in the opinion of two carbon parallel rods, separated by a non-conducting par- some) two species, X. australis and x. indicus, and the latter tition; alternating currents were employed, and the candle was one only, E. senegalensis. These belong to the countries operated by a high-resistance carbon match connecting the tips indicated by their names, and differ chiefly by their feathered of the rods, a true arc forming between the parallel carbons head and neck, while the last is sometimes termed the saddle. when this burnt off, and the separators volatilizing as the billed stork from the very singular shape of its beak. Somewhat carbons burnt away. For a few years his system of electric more distantly related are the gigantic birds known to Europeans I lighting was widely adopted, but it was gradually superseded Bor COUTURNS 104 JABLONSKI_JABORANDI 1 (see LIGHTING: Electric) and is no longer in use. Jablochkov | Holmes, was ultimately adopted, was discovered almost simulta made various other electrical inventions, but he died in poverty, neously by Hardy in France and Gerrard in England, but was first having returned to Russia on the 19th of March 1894. obtained in a pure state by Petit of Paris. It is a liquid alkaloid, JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST (1660-1741), German theo- slightly soluble in water, and very soluble in alcohol, ether and Jogian, was born at Nassenhuben, near Danzig, on the 20th of chloroform. It strongly rotates the plane of polarization to the November 1660. His father was a minister of the Moravian right, and forms crystalline salts of which the nitrate is that Church, who had taken the name of Peter Figulus on his bap- chiefly used in medicine. The nitrate and phosphate are tism; the son, however, preferred the Bohemian family name of insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzol, while the hydro- Jablonski. His maternal grandfather, Johann Amos Comenius chlorate and hydrobromate dissolve both in these menstrua and (d. 1670), was a bishop of the Moravian Church. Haying studied in water and alcohol; the sulphate and acetate being deliques- at Frankfort-on-the-Oder and at Oxford, Jablonski entered upon cent are not employed medicinally. The formula of the alkaloid his career as a preacher at Magdeburg in 1683, and then from is Cu H16 N2O2. J ni sisig ji list 1686 to 1691 he was the head of the Moravian college at Lissa, Certain other alkaloids are present in the leaves. They have a position which had been filled by his grandfather. Still retain- been named jaborine, jaboridine and pilocarpidine. The first ing his connexion with the Moravians, he was appointed court of these is the most important and constant. It is possibly preacher at Königsberg in 1691 by the elector of Brandenburg, derived from pilocarpine, and has the formula C22 H132 N404 Frederick III., and here, entering upon a career of great activity, Jaborine resembles atropine pharmacologically, and is there- he soon became a person of influence in court circles. In 1693 fore antagonistic to pilocarpine. The various preparations of he was transferred to Berlin as court preacher, and in 1699 he brand i bazang ito na sisiw Liszert was consecrated a bishop of the Moravian Church. At Berliner ai ride Jablonski worked hard to bring about a union between the t 97 ng 29 followers of Luther and those of Calvin; the courts of Berlin, Урое упitive Hanover, Brunswick and Gotha were interested in his scheme, b0402 UITO I brs and his principal helper was the philosopher Leibnitz. His ideal Eign appears to have been to form a general union between theme German, the English and the Swiss Protestants, and thus to it allais M establish una eademque sancta catholica et apostolica eademque Nailzna ni IT HAS evangelica et reformata ecclesia. For some years negotiations To 901 Show were carried on with a view to attaining this end, but eventually beliggs โปร สระrt 311 (33 it was found impossible to surmount the many difficulties in the integrato med TOT 93 way; Jablonski and Leibnitz, however, did not cease to believe in the possibility of accomplishing their purpose. Jablonski's ("art" IAAL next plan was to reform the Church of Prussia by introducing laidunyo viol into it the episcopate, and also the liturgy of the English Action 1 Church, but here again he was unsuccessful. As a scholar Hove Dars 192 baslt Jablonski brought out a Hebrew edition of the Old Testament, dStA lo vyriqong of 34193295 and translated Bentley's A Confutation of Atheism into Latino Tint of Ab and Higito (1696). He had some share in founding the Berlin Academy of varit (Prusu Sciences, of which he was president in 1733, and he received otteont Tisk a degree from the university of Oxford. He died on the 25th an av Wyni 25 of May 1741. pt or ni zadi want : Jablonski's son, Paul Ernst Jablonski (1693-1757), was pro- be folloida't fessor of theology and philosophy at the university of Frankfort-25% dioya di on-the-Oder. STEVO Editions of the letters which passed between Jablonski and Ta vlezoliatori srit to terit Leibnitz, relative to the proposed union, were published at Leipzig 2012 din modo in 1747 and at Dorpat in 1899. fronten una HRT JABORANDI, a name given in a generic manner in Brazil and His Oil South America generally to a number of different plants, all sinusi Ult OS เป็น) ISUT) of which possess more or less marked sialogogue and sudorific TOE 25 properties. In the year 1875 a drug was introduced under the auoigile above name to the notice of medical men in France by Dr -- fotua 0,417004 Coutinho of Pernambuco, its botanical source being then un- 95% ise the known. Pilocarpus pennatifolius, a member of the natural BTA 775189 Wicobsdort aulil order Rutaceae, the plant from which it is obtained, is a slightly Jaborandi—a, leaf (reduced); b, leaflet; c, flower; d, fruit. branched shrub about 10 ft. high, growing in Paraguay and the eastern provinces of Brazil. The leaves, which are placed jaborandi leaves are therefore undesirable for therapeutic pur- alternately on the stem, are often id ft. long, and consist of from poses, and only the nitrate of pilocarpine itself should be used. two to five pairs of opposite leaflets, the terminal one having a This is a white crystalline powder, soluble in the ratio of about longer pedicel than the others. The leaflets are oval, lanceolate, one part in ten of cold water. The dose is to grain by the entire and obtuse, with the apex often slightly indented, from mouth, and up to one-third of a grain hypodermically, in which 3 to 4 in. long and 1 to 1 in. broad in the middle. When held fashion it is usually given. up to the light they may be observed to have scattered all over physostigmine, but whereas the latter is specially active in influ- The action of this powerful alkaloid closely resembles that of them numerous pellucid dots or receptacles of secretion immersed | encing the heart, the eye and the spinal cord, pilocarpine exerts its in the substance of the leaf. The leaves in size and texture greatest power on the secretions. It has no external action. When bear some resemblance to those of the cherry-laurel (Prunus taken by the mouth the drug is rapidly absorbed and stimulates the laurocerasus), but are less polished on the upper surface. The secretions of the entire alimentary tract, though not of the liver. The action on the salivary glands is the most marked and the best flowers, which are produced in spring and early summer, are understood. The great flow of saliva is due to an action of the drug, borne on a raceme, 6 or 8 in. long, and the fruit consists of five after absorption, on the terminations of the chorda tympani, sym carpels, of which not more than two or three usually arrive at pathetic and other nerves of salivary secretion. The gland cells maturity. The leaves are the part of the plant usually imported, that direct stimulation of them by electricity adds nothing to the themselves are unaffected. The nerves are so violently excited although occasionally the stems and roots are attached to them. rate of salivary flow. The action is antagonized by atropine, which The active principle for which the name pilocarpine, suggested by' paralyses the nerve terminals. About z doth of a grain of atropine 10 913 1 JACA—JACANA 105 antagonizes half a grain of pilocarpine. The circulation is depressed and some other groups, to which affinity has been claimed for by the drug, the pulse being slowed and the blood pressure falling them. In the opinion of Sclater (A Monograph of the Jacamars and The cardiac action is due to stimulation of the vagus, but the dilata- tion of the blood-vessels docs not appear to be due to a specific Puff-birds) the jacamars form two groups-one consisting of the action upon them. The drug does not kill by its action on the heart. single genus and species Jacamerops aureus (J. grandis of most Its dangerous action is upon the bronchial secretion, which is greatly authors), and the other including all the rest, viz. Urogalba with increased. Pilocarpine is not only the most powerful sialogogue two species, Galbula with nine, Brachygalbu with five, and Jaca- but also the most powerful diaphoretic known. One dose may cause the flow of nearly a pint of sweat in an hour. The action is due, as maralcyon and Galbalcyrhynchus with one each. They are all in the case of the salivation, to stimulation of the terminals of the rather small birds, the largest known being little over 10 in. in sudorific nerves. According to K. Binz, there is also in both cases length, with long and sharply pointed bills, and the plumage an action on the medullary centres for these secretions. Just as the more or less resplendent with golden or bronze reflections, but saliva is a true secretion containing a high proportion of ptyalin and salts, and is not a mere transudation of water, so the perspiration is at the same time comparatively soft. Jacamaralcyon tridactyla found to contain a high ratio of urea and chlorides. · The great differs from all the rest in possessing but three toes (as its name diaphoresis and the depression of the circulation usually cause a fall indicates), on each foot, the hallux being deficient. With the in temperature of about 2° F. The drug is excreted unchanged in the urine. It is a mild diuretic. When given internally or applied exception of Galbula melanogenia, which is found also in Central locally to the eye it powerfully stimulates the terminals of the America and southern Mexico, all the jacamars inhabit the oculomotor nerves in the iris and ciliary muscle, causing ext eme tropical portions of South America eastward of the Andes, contraction of the pupil and spasm of accommodation. The tension Galbula ruficauda, however, extending its range to the islands of of the eyeball is at first raised but afterwards lowered. The chief therapeutic use of the drug is as a diaphoretic in chronic Trinidad and Tobago.?: Very little is known of the babits of any Bright's disease. It is also used to aid the growth of the hair-in of the species. They are seen sitting motionless on trees, some- which it is sometimes successful; in cases of inordinate thirst, times solitarily, at other times in companies, whence they suddenly when one-tenth of a grain with a little bismuth held in the mouth dart off at any passing insect, catch it on the wing, and return may be of much value; in cases of lead and mercury poisoning, to their perch. Of their nidification almost nothing has been where it aids the elimination of the poison in the secretions; as a galactagogue; and in cases of atropine poisoning (though here it recorded, but the species occurring in Tobago is said by Kirk to is of doubtful value). make its nest in marl-banks, digging a hole about an inch and a JACA, a city of northern Spain, in the province of Huesca, half in diameter and some 18 in. deep.com onts (A. N.) 114 m. by rail N. by W. of Saragossa, on the left bank of the certain birds, since found to have some allies in other parts of the JAÇANÁ, the Brazilian name, according to Marcgrave, of river Aragon, and among the southern slopes of the Pyrenees, 2380 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900), 4934. Jaca is an episcopal world, which are also very generally called by the same appella- see, and was formerly the capital of the Aragonese county of tion. They have been most frequently classed with the water- Sobrarbe. Its massive Gothic cathedral dates at least from the hens or rails (Rallidae), but are now recognized by many system- 11th century, and possibly from the gth. The city derives some atists as forming a separate family, Parridae, whose leaning importance from its position on the ancient frontier road from seems to be rather towards the Limicolae, as apparently first Saragossa to Pau. In August 1904 the French and Spanish TO IGUT Eoniaralov adi bosib, bubrrelate to anothing Hidue governments agreed to supplement this trade-route by building colo a railway from Oloron in the Basscs Pyrénées to Jaca. Various mis frontier defence works were constructed in the neighbourhood at Retroda the close of the 19th century. The origin of the city is unknown. The Jaccetani ('Iäkkitavoi) are mentioned as one of the most celebrated of the numerous small tribes inhabiting the basin of the Ebro by Strabo, who adds that their territory was the theatre of the wars which took place in the ist century B.C. between Sertorius and Pompey. They are probably identical with the Lacetani of Livy (xxi. 60, 61) and Caesar (B.C. i. 60). Early in the 8th century Jaca fell into the possession of the Moors, by whose writers it is referred to under Comu? the name of Dyaka as one of the chief places in the province of Sarkosta (Saragossa). The date of its reconquest is uncertain, Ankle but it must have been before the time of Ramiro I. of Aragon (1035-1063), who gave it the title of “ city," and in 1063 held liggen iar 10 Tidmouth within its walls a council, which, inasmuch as the people were Pheasant-tailed Jaçaná. ar OT 2061 dTest 292 called in to sanction its decrees, is regarded as of great impor- tance in the history of the parliamentary institutions of the suggested by Blyth, a view which is supported by the osteological Peninsula. In 1705 Jaca supported King Philip V. from whom, observations of Parker (Proc. Zool. Society, 1863, p. 513), though in consequence, it received the title of muy noble, muy leal y The most obvious characteristic of this group of birds is the denied by A. Milne-Edwards (Ois. foss. de la France, ii. p. 110). vencedora, most noble, most loyal and victorious." During the Peninsular War it surrendered to the French in 1809, and extraordinary length of their toes and claws, whereby they are was recaptured in 1814. enabled to walk with ease over water-lilies and other aquatic JACAMAR, a word formed by Brisson from Jacameri, the plants growing in rivers and lakes. The family has been divided Brazilian name of a bird, as given by Marcgrave, and 'since into four genera-of which Parra, as now restricted, inhabits adopted in most European tongues for the species to which it South America; Metopidius, hardly differing from it, has was first applied and others allied to it, forming the family representatives in Africa, Madagascar and the Indian region; Galbulidae of ornithologists, the precise position of which is Hydralector, also very nearly allied to Parra, belongs to the uncertain, since the best authorities differ. All will agree that ? The singular appearance, recorded by Canon Tristram (Zoologist, the jacamars belong to the great heterogeneous group called by P. 3906), of a bird of this species in Lincolnshire seems to require Nitzsch Picariae, but further into detail it is hardly safe to go kept in confinement or brought to this country alive; but expert notice. No instance seems to be known of any jacamar having been The Galbulidae have zygodactylous or pair-toed feet, like the aviculturists are often not communicative, and many importations Cuculidae, Bucconidae and Picidae, they also resemble both the of rare birds have doubtless passed unrecorded. latter in laying glossy white eggs, but in this respect they bear 3 The classic Parra is by some authors thought to have been the the same resemblance to the Momotidae, Alcedinidae, Meropidae golden oriole (see leteros), while others suppose it was a jay or pie. The word seems to have been imported into ornithology by 1 Galbula was first applied to Marcgrave's bird by Moehring. It Aldrovandus, but the reason which prompted Linnaeus to apply it, is another form of Galguhes, and seems to have been one of the many as he seems first to have done, to a bird of this group, cannot be names of the golden oriole. See ICTERUS. satisfactorily stated. wysta 1320 2 . 106 JACINI-JACK 66 " northern portion of the Australian region; and Hydrophasianus, | is a small Union flag. (The Union flag should not be styled a the most extravagant form of the whole, is found in India, Ceylon Union Jack except when it is flown as a jack.) The jack of other and China. In habits the jacanás have much in common with the nations is usually the canton of the ensign, as in the German and water-hens, but that fact is insufficient to warrant the affinity the United States navies, or else is a smaller form of the national asserted to exist between the two groups; for in their osteological ensign, as in France. (See Flag.) structure there is much difference, and the resemblance seems The more common use of “jack” is for various mechanical to be only that of analogy. The Parridae lay very peculiar eggs and other devices originally used as substitutes for men or boys. of a rich olive-brown colour, in most cases closely marked with Thus the origin of the boot-jack and the meat-jack is explained dark lines, thus presenting an appearance by which they may in Isaac Watts's Logic, 1724: “So foot boys, who had fre- be readily known from those of any other birds, though an quently the common name of Jack given them, were kept to turn approach to it is occasionally to be noticed in those of certain the spit or pull off their masters' boots, but when instruments Limicolae, and especially of certain Charadriidae. (A. N.) were invented for both these services, they were both called JACINI, STEFANO, COUNT (1827-1891), Italian statesman and jacks.” The New English Diclionary finds a transitional sense economist, was descended from an old and wealthy Lombard in the use of the name jack ” for mechanical figures which family. He studied in Switzerland, at Milan, and in German strike the hours on a bell of a clock. Such a figure in the clock universities. During the period of the Austrian restoration in of St Lawrence Church at Reading is called a jack in the parish Lombardy (1849-1859) he devoted himself to literary and accounts for 1498-1499. There are many different applications of economic studies. For his work on La Proprietà fondiaria in ‘jack," to certain levers and other parts of textile machinery, Lombardia (Milan, 1856) he received a prize from the Milanese to metal plugs used for connecting lines in a telephone exchange, Società d'incoraggiamento di scienze e lettere and was made a to wooden uprights connecting the levers of the keys with the member of the Istituto Lombardo. In another work, Sulle strings in the harpsichord and virginal, to a framework form- condizioni economiche della Valtellina (Milan, 1858, translated | ing a seat or staging which can be fixed outside a window into English by W. E. Gladstone), he exposed the evils of for cleaning or painting purposes, and to many devices contain- Austrian rule, and he drew up a report on the general conditions ing a roller or winch, as in a jack towel a long towel hung on of Lombardy and Venetia for Cavour. He was minister of Publica roller. The principal mechanical application of the word, Works under Cavour in 1860-1861, in 1864 under La Marmora, however, is to a machine for raising weights from below. A and down to 1867 under Ricasoli. In 1866 be presented a bill jack chain, so called from its use in meat-jacks, is one in which favouring Italy's participation in the construction of the St the links, formed each in a figure of eight, are set in planes at Gotthard tunnel. He was instrumental in bringing about the right angles to each other, so that they are seen alternately flat alliance with Prussia for the war of 1866 against Austria, and in or edgeways. the organization of the Italian railways. From 1881 to 1886 he In most European languages the word “jack" in various was president of the commission to inquire into the agricultural forms appears for a short upper outer garment, particularly in conditions of Italy, and edited the voluminous report on the the shape of a sleeveless (quilted) leather jerkin, sometimes with subject. He was created senator in 1870, and given the title plates or rings of iron sewn to it. It was the common coat of of count in 1880. He died in 1891, defence of the infantry of the middle ages. The word in this L. Carpi's Risorgimento italiano, vol. iv. (Milan, 1888), contains a case is of French origin and was an adaptation of the common short sketch of Jacini's life. name Jacques, as being a garment worn by the common people. JACK, a word with a great variety of anings and appli- In French the word is jaque, and it appears in Italian as giace cations, all traceable to the common use of the word as a or giacco, in Dutch jak, Swedish jacka and German Jacke, still by-name of a man. The question has been much discussed the ordinary name for a short coat, as is the English jacket, from whether “ Jack” as a name is an adaptation of Fr. Jacques, the diminutive French jaquette. It was probably from some i.e. James, from Lat. Jacobus, Gr. 'lákwßos, or whether it is a resemblance to the leather coat that the well-known leather direct pet formation from John, which is its earliest and universal vessels for holding liquor or for drinking were known as jacks or use in English. In the History of the Monastery of St Augustine black jacks. These drinking vessels, which are often of great at Canterbury, 1414, Jack is given as a form of John-Mos est size, were not described as black jacks till the 16th century, Saxonum ... verba el nomina transformare . . ut pro though known as jacks much earlier. Among the important Johanne Jankin sive Jacke (see E. W.B. Nicholson, The Pedigree specimens that have survived to this day is one with the initials of Jack and other Allied Names, 1892). ' Jack was early used and crown of Charles I. and the date, 1646, which came from as a general term for any man of the common people, especially Kensington Palace and is now in the British Museum; one each in combination with the woman's name Jill or Gill, as in the at Queen's College and New College, Oxford; two at Winchester nursery rhyme. The New English Dictionary quotes from the College; one at Eton College; and six at the Chelsea Hospital. Coventry Mysteries, 1450: “And I wole kepe the feet this tyde Many specimens are painted with shields of arms, initials and Thow ther come both Iakke and Gylle.” Familiar examples of other devices; they are very seldom mounted in silver, though this generic application of the name are Jack or Jack Tar for a spurious specimens with silver medallions of Cromwell and other sailor, which seems to date from the 17th century, and such prominent personages exist. At the end of the 17th century a compound uses as cheap-jack and steeple-jack, or such expres, smaller jack of a different form, like an ordinary drinking mug sions as “ jack in office," " jack of all trades,” &c. It is a further with a tapering cylindrical body, often mounted in silver, came extension of this that gives the name to the knave in a pack of into vogue in a limited degree. The black jack is a distinct type cards, and also to various animals, as jackdaw, jack-snipe, jack- of drinking vessel from the leather botel and the bombard. The rabbit (a species of large prairie-hare); it is also used as a jack-boot, the heavy riding boot with long flap covering the knee general name for pike. and part of the thigh, and worn by troopers first during the 17th The many applications of the word “jack” to mechanical century, was so called probably from association with the leather devices and other objects follow two lines of reference, one to jack or jerkin. The jack-boot is still worn by the Household objects somewhat smaller than the ordinary, the other to appli- Cavalry, and the name is applied to a high riding boot reaching ances which take the place of direct manual labour or assist or to the knee as distinguished from the riding boot with tops, used save it. Of the first class may be noticed the use of the term for in full hunting-kit or by grooms or coachmen. the small object bowl in the game of bowls or for jack rafters, Jack, sometimes spelled jak, is the common name for the fruit those rafters in a building shorter than the main rafters, espe- of the tree Artiocarpus integrifolia, found in the East Indies, cially the end rafters in a hipped roof. The use of jack as the name The word is an adaptation of the Portuguese jaca from the Malay for a particular form of ship's flag probably arose thus, for it is name chakka. (See BREAD FRUIT.) always a smaller flag than the ensign. The jack is flown on a The word “jackanapes," now used as an opprobrious term for staff on the bowsprit of a vessel. In the British navy the jack I a swaggering person with impertinent ways and affected airs 46 JACKAL-JACKSON, ANDREW 107 < 66 VO and graces, has a disputed and curious history. According to afford excellent sport. Jackals are readily tamed; and domesti- the New English Dictionary it first appears in 1450 in reference cated individuals are said, when called by their masters, to wag to William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk (Political Poems, “ Rolls their tails, crouch and throw themselves on the ground, and Series," II. 224), “ Jack Napys with his clogge bath tiede Talbot otherwise behave in a dog-like fashion. The jackal, like the oure gentille dogge.” Suffolk's badge was a clog and chain, such fox, has an offensive odour, due to the secretion of a gland at as was often used for an ape kept in captivity, and he is alluded the base of the tail. to (ibid. 222) as Ape clogge.” Jack Napes, Jack o' Napes, JACKDAW, or simply Daw (Old Low German, Daha; Dutch, Jackanapes, was a common name for a tame ape from the 16th Kaauw), one of the smallest species of the genus Corvus (see century, and it seems more likely that the word is a fanciful name Crow), and a very well known inhabitant of Europe, the for a monkey than that it is due to the nickname of Suffolk. C. monedula of ornithologists. In some of its habits it much JACKAL (Turk. chakāl), a name properly restricted to Canis resembles its congener the rook, with which it constantly aureus, a wolf-like wild member of the dog family inhabiting associates during a great part of the year; but, while the rook eastern Europe and southern Asia, but extended to include a only exceptionally places its nest elsewhere than on the boughs number of allied species. Jackals resemble wolves and dogs in of trees and open to the sky, the daw almost invariably chooses their dentition, the round eye-pupils, the period of gestation, and holes, whether in rocks, hollow trees, rabbit-burrows or buildings. to a large extent also in habits. The European species grows Nearly every church-tower and castle, ruined or rot, is more or to a height of 15 in. at the shoulders, and to a length of about less numerously occupied by daws. Chimneys frequently give 2 ft., exclusive of its bushy tail. Typically the fur is greyish- them the accommodation they desire, much to the annoyance yellow, darker on the back and lighter beneath. The range of of the householder, who finds the funnel choked by the quantity the common jackal (C. aureus) extends from Dalmatia to India, of sticks brought together by the birds, since their industry in the species being represented by several local races. In Senegal collecting materials for their nests is as marvellous as it often this species is replaced by C. anthus, while in Egypt occurs the is futile. In some cases the stack of loose sticks piled up by much larger C. lupasler, commonly known as the Egyptian wolf.. daws in a belfry or tower has been known to form a structure Nearly allied to the last is the so-called Indian wolf (C. pallipes). 10 or 12 ft. in height, and hence this species may be accounted Other African species are the black-backed jackal (C. mesomelas), one of the greatest nest-builders in the world. The style of architecture practised by the daw thus brings it more than the rook into contact with man, and its familiarity is increased by 1:37" the boldness of its disposition which, though tempered by discreet cunning, is hardly surpassed among birds. Its small size, in comparison with most of its congeners, alone incapaci- tates it from inflicting the serious injuries of which some of them are often the authors, yet its pilferings are not to be denied, though on the whole its services to the agriculturist are great, for in the destruction of injurious insects it is hardly inferior to the rook, and it has the useful habit of ridding sheep, on whose backs it may be frequently seen perched, of some of their parasites. The daw displays the glossy black plumage so characteristic of the true crows, varied only by the hoary grey of the ear- coverts, and of the nape and sides of the neck, which is the mark of the adult; but examples from the east of Europe and western Asia have these parts much lighter, passing into a silvery white, and hence have been deemed by some authorities to constitute a distinct species (C. collaris, Drumm.). Further to the east- ward occurs the C. dauuricus of Pallas, which has not only the collar broader and of a pure white, but much of the lower parts of the body white also. Japan and northern China are inhabited also by a form resembling that of western Europe, but wanting the grey nape of the latter. This is the C. neglectus of Professor Schlegel, and is said by Dresser, on the authority of Swinboe, to interbreed frequently with C. dauuricus. These are all the birds that seem entitled to be considered daws, though Dr Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Museum, üï. 24) associates Egyptian Jackal (Canis lupaster). with them (under the little-deserved separate generic distinction Coloeus) the fish-crow of North America, which appears both in the variegated jackal (C. variegatus), and the dusky jackal structure and in habits to be a true crow. (A. N.) (C. adustus). Jackals are nocturnal animals, concealing them- JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845), seventh president of the selves until dusk in woody jungles and other natural lurking United States, was born on the 15th of March 1767, at the places, and then sallying forth in packs, which sometimes number Waxhaw or Warsaw settlement, in Union county, North two hundred individuals, and visiting farmyards, villages and Carolina, or in Lancaster county, South Carolina, whither his towns in search of food. This consists for the most part of the parents had immigrated from Carrickfergus, Ireland, in 1765. smaller mammals and poultry; although the association in packs He played a slight part in the War of Independence, and was enables these marauders to hunt down antelopes and sheep. taken prisoner in 1781, his treatment resulting in a lifelong When unable to obtain living prey, they feed on carrion and dislike of Great Britain. He studied law at Salisbury, North refuse of all kinds, and are thus useful in removing putrescent Carolina, was admitted to the bar there in 1787, and began to matter from the streets. They are also fond of grapes and other practise at McLeansville, Guilford county, North Carolina, where fruits, and are thus the pests of the vineyard as well as the poultry- for a time he was a constable and deputy-sheriff. In 1788, having yard. The cry of the jackal is even more appalling than that of been appointed prosecuting attorney of the western district of the hyena, a shriek from one member of a pack being the signal North Carolina (now the state of Tennessee), he removed to Nash- for a general chorus of screams, which is kept up during the ville, the seat of justice of the district. In 1791 he married Mrs greater part of the night. In India these animals are hunted Rachel Robards (née Donelson), having heard that her husband with foxhounds or greyhounds, and from their cunning and pluck I had obtained a divorce through the legislature of Virginia. The 108 JACKSON, ANDREW legislative act, however, had only authorized the courts to receiving the votes of 13 states, while Jackson received the determine whether or not there were sufficient grounds for a votes of 7 and Crawford the votes of 4. Jackson, however, was divorce and to grant or withhold it accordingly. It was more recognized by the abler politicians as the coming man. Martin than two years before the divorce was actually granted, and only Van Buren and others, going into opposition under his banner, on the basis of the fact that Jackson and Mrs Robards were then waged from the first a relentless and factious war on the admin- living together. On receiving this information, Jackson had istration. Van Buren was the most adroit politician of his time; the marriage ceremony performed a second time. and Jackson was in the hands of very astute men, who advised In 1796 Jackson assisted in framing the constitution of and controlled him. He was easy to lead when his mind was in Tennessee. From December 1796 to March 1797 he represented solution; and he gave his confidence freely where he had once that state in the Federal House of Representatives, where he placed it. He was not suspicious, but if hc withdrew his con- distinguished himself as an irreconcilable opponent of President fidence he was implacable. When his mind crystallized on a Washington, and was one of the twelve representatives who notion that had a personal significance to himself, that notion voted against the address to him by the House. In 1797 he was became a hard fact that filled his field of vision. When he was elected a United States senator; but he resigned in the following told that he had been cheated in the matter of the presidency," he year. He was judge of the supreme court of Tennessee from was sure of it, although those who told him were by no means so. 1798 to 1804. In 1804-1805 he contracted a friendship with There was great significance in the election of Jackson in 1828. Aaron Burr; and at the latter's trial in 1807 Jackson was one of A new generation was growing up under new economic and his conspicuous champions. Up to the time of his nomination for social conditions. They felt great confidence in themselves and the presidency, the biographer of Jackson finds nothing to record great independence. They despised tradition and Old World but military exploits in which he displayed perseverance, energy ways and notions; and they accepted the Jeffersonian dogmas, and skill of a very high order, and a succession of personal acts not only as maxims, but as social forces--the causes of the in which he showed himself ignorant, violent, perverse, quarrel- material prosperity of the country. By this generation, there- some and astonishingly indiscreet. His combative disposition fore, Jackson was recognized as a man after their own heart. led him into numerous personal difficulties. In 1795 he fought They liked him because he was vigorous, brusque, uncouth, a duel with Colonel Waitstill Avery (1745-1821), an opposing relentless, straightforward and open. They made him president counsel, over somé angry words uttered in a court room; but in 1828, and he fulfilled all their expectations. He had 178 both, it appears, intentionally fired wild. In 1806 in another votes in the electoral college against 83 given for Adams. Though duel, after a long and bitter quarrel, he killed Charles Dickinson, the work of redistribution of offices began almost at his inaugu- and Jackson himself received a wound from which he never ration, it is yet an incorrect aecount of the matter to say that fully recovered. In 1813 he exchanged shots with Thomas Hart Jackson corrupted the civil service. His administration is Benton and his brother Jesse in a Nashville tavern, and received rather the date at which a system of democracy," organized by a second wound. Jackson and Thomas Hart Benton were later the use of patronage, was introduced into the federal arena by reconciled. Van Buren. It was at this time that the Democratic or Repub- ; In 1813-1814, as major-general of militia, he commanded in lican party divided, largely along personal lines, into Jacksonian the campaign against the Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama, Democrats and National Republicans, the latter led by such men defeated them (at Talladega, on the oth of November 1813, and as Henry Clay and J. Q. Adams. The administration itself had at Tohopeka, on the 29th of March 1814), and thus first attracted two factions in it from the first, the faction of Van Buren, the public notice by his talents. In May 1814 he was commissioned secretary of state in 1829-1831, and that of Calhoun, vice-president as major-general in the regular army to serve against the British; in 1829–1832. The refusal of the wives of the cabinet and of Mrs. in November he captured Pensacola, Florida, then owned by Calhoun to accord social recognition to Mrs J. H. Eaton brought Spain, but used by the British as a base of operations; and on about a rupture, and in April 1831 the whole cabinet was re- the 8th of January 1815 he inflicted a severe defeat on the organized. Van Buren, a widower, sided with the president in enemy before New Orleans, the contestants being unaware that this affair and grew in his favour. Jackson in the meantime had a treaty of peace had already been signed. During his stay in learned that Calhoun as secretary of war had wished to censure New Orleans he proclaimed martial law, and carried out his him for his actions during the Seminole war in Florida in 1818, measures with unrelenting sternness, banishing from the town a and henceforth he regarded the South Carolina statesman as his judge who attempted resistance. When civil law was restored, enemy. The result was that Jackson transferred to Van Buren Jackson was fined $1000 for contempt of court; in 1844 Congress his support for succession in the presidency. The relations ordered the fine with interest ($2700) to be repaid. In 1818 between Jackson and his cabinet were unlike those existing Jackson received the command against the Seminoles. His under his predecessors. Having a military point of view, he conduct in following them up into the Spanish territory of was inclined to look upon the cabinet members as inferior officers, Florida, in seizing Pensacola, and in arresting and executing and when in need of advice he usually consulted a group of two British subjects, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambris- personal friends, who came to be called the “ Kitchen Cabinet.” ter, gave rise to much hostile comment in the cabinet and in the principal members of this clique were William B. Lewis Congress; but the negotiations for the purchase of Florida put(1784-1866), Amos Kendall and Duff Green, the last named an end to the diplomatic difficulty. In 1821 Jackson was being editor of the United States Telegraph, the organ of the military governor of the territory of Florida, and there again administration. he came into collision with the civil authority. From this, as In 1832 Jackson was re-elected by a large majority (219 from previous troubles, John Quincy Adams, then secretary of electoral votes to 49) over Henry Clay, his chief opponent. The state, extricated him. battle raged mainly around the re-charter of the Bank of the In July 1822 the general assembly of Tennessee nominated United States. It is probable that Jackson's advisers in 1828 Jackson for president; and in 1823 he was elected to the United had told him, though erronecusly, that the bank had worked States Senaie, from which he resigned in 1825. The rival against him, and then were not able to control him. The first candidates for the office of president in the campaign of 1824 message of his first presidency had contained a severe reflection were Jackson, John Quincy Adams, W. H. Crawford and Henry on the bank; and in the very height of this second campaign Clay. Jackson obtained the largest number of votes (99) in (July 1832) he vetoed the re-charter, which had been passed in the electoral college (Adams receiving 84, Crawford 41 and Clay 37); but no one had an absolute majority, and it thus became "The charge was freely made then and afterwards (though, it is the duty of the House of Representatives to choose one of the now believed, without justification) that Clay had supported three candidates-Adams, Jackson and Crawford--who had instrumental in securing his election, as the result of a bargain by Adams and by influencing his followers in the house had been received the greatest numbers of electoral votes. At the which Adams had agreed to pay him for his support by appointing election by the house (February 9, 1825) Adams was chosen, I him secretary of state. JACKSON, CYRIL 109 66 the session of 1831-1832. Jackson interpreted his re-election as were rich, but were agriculturists and remained philosophical an approval by the people of his war on the bank, and he pushed Democrats. Jackson was a man of low birth, uneducated, it with energy. In September 1833 he ordered the public prejudiced, and marked by strong personal feeling in all his deposits in the bank to be transferred to selected local banks, beliefs and disbeliefs. He showed, in his military work and in and entered upon the “ experiment " whether these could not his early political doings, great lack of discipline. The proposal act as fiscal agents for the government, and whether the desire to make him president won his assent and awakened his ambi- to get the deposits would not induce the local banks to adopt tion. In anything which he undertook he always wanted to sound rules of currency. During the next session the Senate carry his point almost regardless of incidental effects on himself passed a resolution condemning his conduct. Jackson protested, or others. He soon became completely engaged in the effort to and after a hard struggle, in which Jackson's friends were led by be made president. The men nearest to him understood his Senator Thomas Hart Benton, the resolution was ordered to be character and played on it. It was suggested to him that the expunged from the record, on the 16th of January 1837., money power was against him. That meant that, to the In 1832, when the state of South Carolina attempted to educated or cultivated class of that day, he did not seem to be nullify” the tariff laws, Jackson at once took steps to enforce in the class from which a president should-be chosen. He took the authority, of the federal government, ordering two war vessels the idea that the Bank of the United States was leading the to Charleston and placing troops within convenient distance. money power against him, and that he was the champion of the He also issued a proclamation warning the people of South masses of democracy and of the common people. The opposite Carolina against the consequences of their conduct. In the party, led by Clay, Adams, Biddle, &c., had schemes for banks troubles between Georgia and the Cherokee Indians, however, and tariffs, enterprises which were open to severe criticism. The he took a different stand. Shortly after his first election Georgia political struggle was very intense and there were two good sides passed an act extending over the Cherokee country the civil to it. Men like Thomas H. Benton, Edward Livingston, Amos laws of the state. This was contrary to the rights of the Cherokees Kendall, and the southern statesmen, found material for strong under a federal treaty, and the Supreme Court consequently attacks on the Whigs. The great mass of voters felt the issue declared the act void (1832). Jackson, however, having the as Jackson's managers stated it. That meant that the masses frontiersman's contempt for the Indian, refused to enforce the recognized Jackson as their champion. Therefore, Jackson's decision of the court (see NULLIFICATION; GEORGIA: History). personality and name became a power on the side opposed to Jackson was very successful in collecting old claims against banks, corporations and other forms of the new growing power various European nations for spoliations inflicted under of capital. That Jackson was a typical man of his generation Napoleon's continental system, especially the French spoliation is certain. He represents the spirit and temper of the free - claims, with reference to which he acted with aggressiveness and American of that day, and it was a part of his way of thinking firmness. Aiming at a currency to consist largely of specie, he and acting that he put his whole life and interest into the con- caused the payment of these claims to be received and imported flict. He accomplished two things of great importance in the in specie as far as possible; and in 1836 he ordered land-agents history: he crushed excessive state-rights and established the to receive for land nothing but specie. About the same time a contrary doctrine in fact and in the political orthodoxy of the law passed Congress for distributing among the states some democrats; he destroyed the great bank. The subsequent $35,000,000 balance belonging to the United States, the public history of the bank left it without an apologist, and prejudiced debt having all been paid. The eighty banks of deposit in which the whole later judgment about it. The way in which Jackson it was lying had regarded this sum almost as a permanent loan, accomplished these things was such that it cost the country ten and had inflated credit cn the basis of it. The necessary calling years of the severest liquidation, and left conflicting traditions in of their loans in order to meet the drafts in favour of the of public policy in the Democratic party. After he left Washing- states, combining with the breach of the overstrained credit ton, Jackson fell into discord with his most intimate old friends, between America and Europe and the decline in the price of and turned his interest to the cause of slavery, which he thought cotton, brought about a crash which prostrated the whole to be attacked and in danger. financial, industrial and commercial system of the country for Jackson is the only president of whom it may be said that he six or seven years. The crash came just as Jackson was leaving went out of office far more popular than he was when he entered. office; the whole burden fell on his successor, Van Buren. When he went into office he had no political opinions, only some In the 18th century the influences at work in the American popular notions. He left his party strong, perfectly organized colonies developed democratic notions. In fact, the circum- and enthusiastic on a platform of low expenditure, payment of stances were those which create equality of wealth and condition, the debt, no expenditure for public improvement or for glory as far as civilized men ever can be equal. The War of Indepen- or display in any form and low taxes. His name still remained dence was attended by a grand outburst of political dogmatism a spell to conjure with, and the politicians sought to obtain the of the democratic type. A class of men were produced who assistance of his approval for their schemes; but in general his believed in very broad dogmas of popular power and rights. last years were quiet and uneventful. He died at his residence, There were a few rich men, but they were almost ashamed to “ The Hermitage," near Nashville, Tennessee, on the 8th of differ from their neighbours and, in some known cases, they June 1845. affected democracy in order to win popularity. After the 19th BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Of the early biographies, that by. J. H. Eaton century began the class of rich men rapidly increased. In the (Philadelphia, 1824) is a history of Jackson's early military exploits, first years of the century a little clique at Philadelphia became written for political purposes. Amos Kendall's Life (New York, alarmed at the increase of the " money power,” and at the grow-1843) is incomplete, extending only to 1814. James Parton's elaborate work (3 vols., New York, 1860) is still useful. Parton ing perils to democracy. They attacked with some violence, prepared a shorter biography for the Great Commanders Series but little skill, the first Bank of the United States, and they (New York, 1893), which emphasizes Jackson's military career. prevented its re-charter. The most permanent interest of the W. G., Sumner's Andrew Jackson in the.“ American Statesmen Series history of the United States is the picture it offers of a primitive Jackson's life with a history of his times. „W. G. Brown wrote an " (Boston, 1882; revised, 1899) combines the leading facts of democratic society transformed by prosperity and the acquisi- appreciative sketch (Boston, 1900) for the “ Riverside Biographical tion of capital into a great republican commonwealth. The Series." of more recent works the most elaborate are the History denunciations of the “ money power” and the reiteration of of Andrew Jackson, by A. Ç. Buell (New York, 1904), marred by democratic dogmas deserve earnest attention. They show the A. S. Colyar (Nashville, 1904). Charles H. Peck's The Jacksonian numerous errors, and the Life and Times of Andrew Jackson, by development of classes or partics in the old undifferentiated mass. Epoch (New York, 1899) is an account of national politics from Jackson came upon the political stage just when a wealthy class 1815 to 1840, in which the antagonism of Jackson and Clay is first existed. It was an industrial and commercial class greatly emphasized. (W. G. S.) interested in the tariff, and deeply interested also in the then JACKSON, CYRIL (1746–1819), dean of Christ Church, current forms of issue banking. The southern planters also l Oxford, was born in Yorkshire, and educated at Westminster IIO JACKSON, F. G.—JACKSON, T. J. 1 and Oxford. In 1771 he was chosen to be sub-preceptor to the His chief work was a series of commentaries on the Apostles' two eldest sons of George III., but in 1776 he was dismissed, Creed, the first complete edition being entitled The Works of Thomas Jackson, D.D. (London, 1673). The commentaries were, however, probably through some household intrigues. He then took originally published in 1913-1657, as twelve books with different orders, and was appointed in 1779 to the preachership at titles, the first being The Eternal Truth of Scriptures (London, Lincoln's Inn and to a canonry at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1613). 1783 he was elected dean of Christ Church. His devotion to JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863), known as the college led him to decline the bishopric of Oxford in 1799 and “Stonewall Jackson,” American general, was born at Clarks- the primacy of Ireland in 1800. He took a leading part in burg, Virginia (now West Viginia), on the 21st of January 1824, framing the statute which, in 1802, launched the system of and was descended from an Ulster family. At an early age he public examinations at Oxford, but otherwise he was not was left a penniless orphan, and his education was acquired in a prominent in university affairs. On his resignation in 1809 he small country school until he procured, mainly by his own settled at Felpham, in Sussex, where he remained till his energy, a nomination to the Military Academy. Lack of social death. graces and the deficiencies of his early education impeded him at JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (1860- ), British Arctic first, but “in the end 'Old Jack,' as he was always called, with explorer, was educated at Denstone College and Edinburgh his desperate earnestness, his unflinching straightforwardness, University. His first voyage in Arctic waters was on a whaling- and his high sense of honour, came to be regarded with something cruise in 1886–1887, and in 1893 he made a sledge-journey of like affection.” Such qualities, he displayed not less amongst 3000 miles across the frozen tundra of Siberia lying between the the light-hearted cadets than afterwards at the head of troops Ob and the Pechora. His narrative of this journey was published in battle. After graduating he took part, as second lieutenant under the title of The Great Frozen Land (1895). On his return, in the ist U.S. Artillery, in the Mexican War. At Vera Cruz he he was given the command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic won the rank of first lieutenant, and for gallant conduct at expediton (1894–1897), which had for its objective the general Contreras and Chapultepec respectively he was brevetted captain exploration of Franz Josef Land. In recognition of his services and major, a rank which he attained with less than one year's he received a knighthood of the first class of the Danish Royal service. During his stay in the city of Mexico his thoughts were Order of St Olaf in 1898, and was awarded the gold medal of seriously directed towards religion, and, eventually entering the the Paris Geographical Society in 1899. His account of the Presbyterian communion, he ruled every subsequent action of expedition was published under the title of A Thousand Days in his life by his faith. In 1851 he applied for and obtained a the Arctic (1899). He served in South Africa during the Boer professorship at the Virginia military institute, Lexington; War, and obtained the rank of captain. His travels also include and here, except for a short visit to Europe, he remained for a journey across the Australian deserts. ten years, teaching natural science, the theory of gunnery and JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831-1885), American poet and battalion drill. Though he was not a good teacher, his influence novelist, who wrote under the intials of “H. H.” (Helen Hunt), both on his pupils and on those few intimate friends for whom was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 18th of October alone he relaxed the gravity of his manner was profound, and, 1831, the daughter of Nathan Welby Fiske (1798-1847), who little as he was known to the white inhabitants of Lexington, he was a professor in Amherst College. In October 1852 she was revered by the slaves, to whom he showed uniform kindness, married Lieutenant Edward Bissell Hunt (1822–1863), of the and for whose moral instruction he worked unceasingly. As to U.S. corps of engineers. In 1870 she published a little volume the great question at issue in 1861, Major Jackson's ruling of meditative Verses, which was praised by Emerson in the motive was devotion to his state, and when Virginia seceded, on preface to his Parnassus (1874). In 1875 she married William the 17th of April, and the Lexington cadets were ordered to S. Jackson, a banker, of Colorado Springs. She became a prolific Richmond, Jackson went thither in command of the corps. writer of prose and verse, including juvenile tales, books of His intimate friend, Governor Letcher, appreciating his gifts, travel, household hints and novels, of which the best is Ramona sent him as a colonel of infantry to Harper's Ferry, where the (1884), a defence of the Indian character. In 1883, as a special first collision with the Union forces was hourly expected. In commissioner with Abbot Kinney (b. 1850), she investigated the June he received the command of a brigade, and in July promo- condition and needs of the Mission Indians in California. -A tion to the rank of brigadier-general. He had well employed Century of Dishonor (1881) was an arraignment of the treatment the short time at his disposal for training his men, and on the of the Indians by the United States. She died on the 12th of first field of Bull Run they won for themselves and their August 1885 in San Francisco. brigadier, by their rigid steadiness at the critical moment of the In addition to her publications referred to above, Mercy Phil- battle, the historic name of “Stonewall.” brick's Choice (1876), Hetty's Strange History (1877), Zeph (1886), After the battle of Bull Run Jackson spent some time in and Sonnets and Lyrics (1886) may be mentioned. the further training of his brigade which, to his infinite regret, JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820–1903), British engraver," was he was compelled to leave behind him when, in October, he was born at Berwick-on-Tweed about 1820, and was trained as a assigned as a major-general to command in the Shenandoah wood engraver by his brother, John Jackson, the author of a Valley. His army had to be formed out of local troops, and history of this art. In the middle of the 19th century he made a few modern weapons were available, but the Valley regiments considerable reputation by his engravings for the Art Union retained the impress of Jackson's training till the days of Cedar of London, and for Knight's Shakespeare and other standard Creek. Discipline was not acquired at once, however, and the books; and in 1860 he was appointed art editor of the Illustrated first ventures of the force were not very successful. At Kerns- London News, a post which he held for thirty years. He wrote town, indeed, Jackson was tactically defeated by the Federals a history of the rise and progress of illustrated journalism. He under Shields (March 23, 1862). But the Stonewall brigade died in December 1903. had been sent to its old leader in November, and by the time JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640), president of Corpus Christi that the famous Valley Campaign (see SHENANDOAH VALLEY College, Oxford, and dean of Peterborough, was born at Witton- CAMPAIGNS) began, the forces under Jackson's command had le-Wear, Durham, and educated at Oxford: : He became a acquired cohesion and power of manœuvre. On the 8th of May probationer fellow of Corpus in 1606, and was soon afterwards 1862 was fought the combat of McDowell, won by Jackson elected vice-president. In 1623 he was presented to the living against the leading troops of Frémont's command from West of St Nicholas, Newcastle, and about 1625 to the living of Virginia. 2. Three weeks later the forces under Banks were being Winston, Durham. Five years later he was appointed president driven over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, and Jackson was of Corpus, and in 1632 the king presented him to the living of master of the Valley. Every other plan of campaign in Virginia Witney, Oxfordshire. He was made a prebendary of Winchester was at once subordinated to the scheme of “trapping Jackson.” in 1635, and was dean of Peterborough in 1635–1639. Although But the Confederates, marching swiftly up the Valley, slipped originally a Calvinist, he became in later life an Arminian. between the converging columns of Frémont from the west and JACKSON, W.—JACKSON III McDowell from the east, and concluded a most daring campaign 1 highly popular. · His next publication, Six Sonalas for she Harp- by the victorious actions of Cross Keys and Port Republic sichord, was a failure. His third work, Six Elegies for three voices, (8th and 9th of June). While the forces of the North were still preceded by an Invocation, with an Accompaniment, placed him scattered, Jackson secretly left the Valley to take a decisive among the first composers of his day. His fourth work was part in Lee's campaign before Richmond. In the “ Seven Days" another set of Twelve Songs, now very scarce; and his fifth work Jackson was frequently at fault, but his driving energy bore no was again a set of Twelve Songs, all of which are now forgotten. small part in securing the defeat of McClellan's advance on He next published Twelve Hymns, with some good remarks upon Richmond. Here he passed for the first time under the direct that style of composition, although his precepts were beiter orders of Robert Lee, and the rest of his career was spent in than his practice. A set of Twelve Songs followed, containing command of the II. corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. some good compositions. Next came an Ode to Fancy, the words As Lee's chief and most trusted subordinate he was throughout by Dr Warton. Twelve Canzonels for two voices formed his charged with the execution of the more delicate and difficult ninth work; and one of them—" Time has not thinned my operations of his commander's hazardous strategy. After his Flowing Hair "-Dng held a place at public and private con- victory over Banks at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia, certs. His tenth work was Eight Sonalas for the Horpsichord, Jackson led the daring march round the flank of General Pope's some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three army, which against all theoretical rules ended in the great dramatic pieces,-Lycidas (1767), The Lord of the Manor, to victory of second Bull Run. In the Maryland campaign General Burgoyne's words (1780), and The Mclamorphoses, a Lieut. General Jackson was again detached from the main army. comic opera produced at Drury Lane in 1783, which did not Eleven thousand Federals, surrounded in Harper's Ferry, were succeed. In the second of these dramatic works, two airs forced to surrender, and Jackson rejoined Lee just in time to Encompassed in an Angel's Form” and “When first this oppose McClellan's advance. At the Antietam his corps bore the Humble Roof I knew”-were great favourites. His church brunt of the battle, which was one of the most stubborn of music was published after his death by James Paddon (1820); modern warfare. At Fredericksburg bis wing of Lee's line of battle most of it is poor, but “ Jackson in F” was for many years was heavily engaged, and his last battle, before Chancellorsville, popular. In 1782 he published Thirty Lellers on Various Subjects, in the thickets of the Wilderness, was his greatest triumph. By in which he severely attacked canons, and described William one of his swift and secret ilank marches he placed his corps on the Bird's Non nobis Domine as containing passages not to be flank of the enemy, and on the end of May flung them against endured. But his anger and contempt were most strongly the Federal XI. corps, which was utterly routed. At the close expressed against catches of all kinds, which he denounced of a day of victory he was reconnoitring the hostile positions as barbarous. In 1791 he put forth a pamphlet, Observations on when suddenly the Confederate outposts opened fire upon his lhe Present Slate of Music in London, in which he found fault staff, whom they mistook in the dark and tangled forest for with everything and everybody. He published in 1798 The Federal cavalry. Jackson fell wounded, and on the roth of May Four Ages, logether with Essays on Various Subjects,-a work he died at Guinea's station. He was buried, according to his which gives a favourable idea of his character and of his literary own wish, at Lexington, where a statue and a memorial hall acquirements. Jackson also cultivated a taste for landscape commemorate his connexion with the place; and on the spot painting, and imitated, not unsuccessfully, the style of his friend where he was mortally wounded stands a plain granite pillar. Gainsborough. He died on the 5th of July 1803. The first contribution towards the bronze statue at Richmond JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, was made by the negro Baptist congregation for which Jackson Michigan, U.S.A., on both sides of the Grand River, 76 m. W. had laboured so earnestly in his Lexington years. He was twice of Detroit. Pop. (1890), 20,798; (1900), 25,180, of whom married, first to Eleanor (d. 1854), daughter of George Junkin, 3843 were foreign-born (1004 German, 941 English Canadian); president of Washington College, Virginia, and secondly in 1857 (1910 census) 31,433. ' It is served by the Michigan Central, to Mary Anna Morrison, daughter of a North Carolina clergyman. the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and That Jackson's death, at a critical moment of the fortunes the Cincinnati Northern railways, and by inter-urban electric of the Confederacy, was an irreparable loss was disputed by no lines. It is the seat of the stale prison (established 1839).- Lee said that he had lost his right arm, and, good soldiers as Coal is mined in the vicinity; the city has a large trade with were the other generals, not one amongst them was comparable the surrounding agricultural district (whose distinctive product to Jackson, whose name was dreaded in the North like that of is beans); the Michigan Central railway has car and machine Lee himself. His military character was the enlargement of shops here; and the city has many manufacturing establish- his personal character—" desperate earnestness, unflinching ments. The total factory product in 1904 was valued at straightforwardness,” and absolute, almost fatalist, trust in $8,348,125, an increase of 24.4 % over that of 1900. The muni- the guidance of providence. At the head of his troops, who cipality owns and operates its water-works. The place was idolized him, he was a Cromwell, adding to the zeal of a fanatic formerly a favourite camping ground of the Indians, and was and the energy of the born leader the special military skill and settled by whites in 1829. In 1830 it was laid out as a town, trained soldierly spirit which the English commander had to selected for the county-seat, and named Jacksonburg in honour gain by experience. His Christianity was conspicuous, even of Andrew Jackson; the present name was adopted in 1838. amongst deeply religious men like Lee and Stuart, and pene- Jackson was incorporated as a village in 1843, and in 1857 was trated every part of his character and conduct. chartered as a city. It was at a convention held at Jackson See lives by R. L. Dabney (New York, 1883), J. E. Cooke (New on the 6th of July 1854 that the Republican party was first York, 1866), M. A. Jackson (General Jackson's widow) (New York, organized and so named by a representative state body. 1892); and especially G. F. R. Henderson, Slonewall Jackson (London, JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Hinds county, 1898), and H. A. White, Slonewall Jackson (Philadelphia, 1909). Mississippi, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, on the W. bank JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803), English musician, was of the Pearl River, about 40 m. E. of Vicksburg and 185 m. N. born at Exeter on the 29th of May 1730. His father, a grocer, of New Orleans, Louisiana. Pop. (1890), 5920; (1900), 7816, bestowed a liberal education upon him, but, on account of the of whom 4447 were negroes. According to the Federal census lad's strong predilection for music, was induced to place him taken in 1910 the population hail increased to 21,262. Jackson is under the care of John Silvester, the organist of Exeter Cathedral, served by the Illinois Central, the Alabama & Vicksburg, the with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 he went to Gulf & Ship Island, New Orleans Great Northern, and the Yazoo London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the king's & Mississippi Valley railways, and during the winter by small chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and freight and passenger steamboats on the Pearl River. In Jackson composer, and in 1777 was appointed subchanter, organist, lay- is the state library, with more than 80,000 volumes. The new vicar and master of the choristers of the cathedral. In 1755 state capitol was finished in 1903. The old state capitol, dating be published his first work, Twelve Songs, which became at once from 1839, is of considerable interest; in it were held the secession one. . II2 JACKSON-JACKSONVILLE convention (1861), the "Black and Tan Convention" (1868), | It is the largest railway centre in the state, and is popularly and the constitutional convention of 1890, and in it Jefferson known as the Gate City of Florida. In appearance Jacksonville Davis made his last speech (1884). Jackson is the seat of Mill- is very attractive. It has many handsome buildings, and its saps College, chartered in 1890 and opened in 1892 (under the residential streets are shaded with live-oaks, water oaks and control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South), and having, bitter-orange trees. Jacksonville is the seat of two schools for in 1907-1908, 12 instructors and 297 students; of Belhaven negroes, the Florida Baptist Academy and Cookman Institute College (non-sectarian, 1894), for girls; and of Jackson College (1872; Methodist Episcopal). Many winter visitors are annually (founded in 1877 at Natchez by the American Baptist Home attracted by the excellent climate, the mean temperature for the Mission Society; in 1883 removed to Jackson), for negroes, which winter months being about 55° F. Among the places of interest had 356 students in 1907–1908. The city is a market for cotton in the vicinity is the large Florida ostrich farm. There are and farm products, and has a number of manufactories. In numerous municipal and other parks. The city owns and 1821 the site was designated as the seat of the state government, operates its electric-lighting plant and its water-works system. and early in the following year the town, named in honour of The capital invested in manufacturing increased from $1,857,844 Andrew Jackson, was laid out. The legislature first met here in 1900 to $4,837,281 in 1905, or 160.4%, and the value of the in December 1822. It was not until 1840 that it was chartered factory product rose from $1,798,607 in 1900 to $5,340, 264 in as a city. During the Civil War Jackson was in the theatre of 1905, or 196.9%. Jacksonville is the most important distributing active campaigning. On the 14th of May 1863 Johnston' who centre in Florida, and is a port of entry. In 1909 its foreign im- then held the city, was attacked on both sides by Sherman and ports were valued at $513,439; its foreign exports at $2,507,373. McPherson with two corps of Grant's army, which, after a sharp The site of Jacksonville was called Cow Ford (a version of engagement, drove the Confederates from the town. After the Indian name, Wacca Pilatka), from the excellent ford of the the fall of Vicksburg Johnston concentrated his forces at Jackson, St John's River, over which went the King's Road, a highway which had been evacuated by the Federal troops, and prepared built by the English from St Augustine to the Georgia line. The to make a stand behind the intrenchments. On the oth of first settlement was made in 1816. In 1822 a town was laid out July Sherman began an investment of the place, and during here and was named in honour of General Andrew Jackson; in the succeeding week a sharp bombardment was carried on. 1833 Jacksonville was incorporated. During the Civil War the In the night of the 16th Johnston, taking advantage of a lull city was thrice occupied by Federal troops. In 1888 there was an in the firing, withdrew suddenly from the city. Sherman's epidemic of yellow fever. . On the 3rd of May 1901 a fire destroyed army entered on the 17th and remained five days, burning a nearly 150 blocks of buildings, constituting nearly the whole of considerable part of the city and ravaging the surrounding the business part of the city, the total loss being more than country. $15,000,000; but within two years new buildings greater in JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, number than those destroyed were constructed, and up to Tennessee, U.S.A., situated on the Forked Deer river, about 85 December 1909 about 9000 building permits had been granted. m. N.E. of Memphis. Pop. (1890), 10,039; (1900), 14,511, of JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Morgan whom 6108 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,779. It is served county, Illinois, U.S.A., on Mauvaiseterre Creek, about 33 m. by the Mobile & Ohio, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St W. of Springfield. Pop. (1890), 12,935; (1900), 15,078, of whom Louis and the Illinois Central railways. The state supreme 1497 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 15,326. It is served court holds its sessions here for the western district of Ten by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, nessee. The city is the seat of Union University (co-educational), the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis and the Wabash railways. It chartered in 1875 as Southwestern Baptist University, and con- is the seat of several educational and philanthropic institutions. ducted under that name at Jackson until 1907, when the present Illinois College (Presbyterian), founded in 1829 through the name was adopted. In 1907-1908 the university had 17 instruc- efforts of the Rev. John Millot Ellis (1793-1855), a missionary of tors and 280 students. At Jackson, also, are St Mary's Academy the American Home Missionary Society and of the so-called (Roman Catholic); the Memphis Conference Female Institute Yale Band (seven Yale graduates devoted to higher education (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1843), and Lane College (for in the Middle West), is one of the oldest colleges in the Central negroes), under the control of the Colored Methodist Episcopal States of the United States. The Jacksonville Female Academy Church. Jackson is an important cotton market, and is a (1830) and the Illinois Conservatory of Music (1871) were ab- shipping point for the farm products and fruits of the surround sorbed in 1903 by Illinois College, which then became co-educa- ing country. It has also numerous manufactures and railway tional. The college embraces, besides the collegiate department, shops. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was Whipple Academy (a preparatory department), the Illinois $2,317,715. The municipality owns and operates the electric-Conservatory of Music and a School of Art, and in 1908-1909 had lighting plant and the water-works. There is in the city an 21 instructors and 173 students. The Rev. Edward Beecher electro-chalybeate well with therapeutic properties. Jackson was the first president of the college (from 1830 to 1844), and was settled about 1820, incorporated as a town in 1823, chartered among its prominent graduates have been Richard Yates, jun., as a city in 1854, and in 1907 received a new charter by which the the Rev. Thomas K. Beecher, Newton Bateman (1822–1897), sale of intoxicating liquors is forever prohibited. After General superintendent of public instruction of Illinois from 1865 to 1875 Grant's advance into Tennessee in 1862 Jackson was fortified and president of Knox College in 1875-1893, Bishop Theodore and became an important base of operations for the Federal army, N. Morrison (b. 1850), Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Iowa after Grant himself establishing his headquarters here in October. 1898, and William J. Bryan. The Illinois Woman's College JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Duval county, (Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1847 as the Illinois Confer- Florida, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the left bank of ence Female Academy) received its present name in 1899. The the St John's River, 14 m. from the Atlantic Ocean as the crow State Central Hospital for the Insane (opened in 1851), the State flies and about 27 m. by water. Pop. (1890), 17,201; (1900), School for the deaf (established in 1839, opened in 1845, and the 28,429, of whom 16,236 were negroes and 1166 foreign-born; first charitable institution of the state) and the State School for (1910 census) 57,699; the city being the largest in the state. the Blind (1849) are also in Jacksonville. Morgan Lake and It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Sea- Duncan Park are pleasure resorts. The total value of the board Air Line, the Georgia Southern & Florida and the factory product in 1905 was $1,981,582, an increase of 17.7% Florida East Coast railways, and by several steamship lines. since 1900. Jacksonville was laid out in 1825 as the county-seat of Morgan county, was named probably in honour of Andrew 1 Shoals in the river and sand rock at its mouth long prevented the Jackson, and was incorporated as a town in 1840, chartered as a development of an extensive water trade, but in 1896 the United States Government made an appropriation (supplemented in 1902, (mean low water), and by 1909 the work had been completed; 1903 and 1904) for deepening, for a width of 300 ft., the channel further dredging to a 24 ſt. depth between the navigable channel and connecting the city and the ocean to 24 ft., and on the bar 27 ft. pierhead lines was authorized in 1907 and completed by 1910, JACOB—JACOB OF EDESSA 113 city in 1867, and re-chartered in 1887. The majority of the These narratives are full of much valuable evidence regarding early settlers came from the southern and border states, princi- marriage customs, pastoral life and duties, popular beliefs and pally from Missouri and Kentucky; but subsequently there was traditions, and are evidently typical of what was currently re- à large immigration of New England and Eastern people, and tailed. Their historical value has been variously estimated. these elements were stronger in the population of Jacksonville The name existed long before the traditional date of Jacob, and than in any other city of southern Illinois. The city was a the Egyptian phonetic equivalent of Jacob-el (cf.Isra-el, Ishma-el) station of the “ Underground Railroad." appears to be the name of a district of central Palestine (or JACOB (Hebrew ya 'äqöb, derived, according to Gen. xxv. 26, possibly east of Jordon) about 1500 B.C. But the stories in xxvii. 36, from a root meaning “to seize the heel ” or “sup- their present form are very much later. The close relation plant "), son of Isaac and Rebekah in the Biblical narrative, and between Jacob and Aramaeans confirms the view that some the father of the twelve tribes of Israel. Jacob and his twin of the tribes of Israel were partly of Aramaean origin; his brother Esau are the eponyms of the Israelites and Edomites. entrance into Palestine from beyond the Jordan is parallel to It was said of them that they would be two nations, and that the Joshua's invasion at the head of the Israelites; and his previous elder would serve the younger. Esau was born first, but lost journey from the south finds independent support in traditions his superiority by relinquishing his birthright, and Jacob by an of another distinct movement from this quarter. Consequently, act of deceit gained the paternal blessing intended for Esau it would appear that these extremely elevated and richly deve- (Gen. xxvii., J and E). The popular view regarding Israel and loped narratives of Jacob-Israel embody, among a number of Edom is expressed when the story makes Jacob a tent-dweller, other features, a recollection of two distinct traditions of migra- and Esau a hunter, a man of the field. But whilst Esau married tion which became fused among the Israelites. See further among the Canaanite “ daughters of the land ” (P in xxvi. 34; GENESIS; JEWS. (S. A. C.) xxviii. 8 seq.), Jacob was sent, or (according to a variant tradition) JACOB, JOHN (1812–1838), Indian soldier and administrator, Aed from Beer-sheba, to take a wife from among his Syrian was born on the uth of January 1812, educated at Addiscombe, kinsfolk at Haran. On the way he received a revelation at and entered the Bombay artillery in 1828. He served in the Bethel (“house of God”) promising to him and to his descen- first Afghan War under Sir John Keane, and afterwards led his dants the whole extent of the land. The beautiful story of regiment with distinction at the battles of Meeanee, Shahdadpur, Jacob's fortunes at Haran is among the best examples of Hebrew and Umarkot; but it is as commandant of the Sind Horse and narrative: how he served seven years for Rachel, “and they political superintendent of Upper Sind that he was chiefly famous. seemed a few days for the love he had to her," and was tricked He was the pacificator of the Sind frontier, reducing the tribes by receiving the elder sister Leah, and how he served yet another to quietude as much by his commanding personality as by his seven years, and at last.won his love. The patriarch's increasing ubiquitous military measures. In 1853 he foretold the Indian wealth caused him to incur the jealousy of his father-in-law, Mutiny, saying:“ There is more danger to our Indian empire from Laban, and he was forced to flee in secret with his family. They the state of the Bengal army, from the feeling which there exists were overtaken at Gilead,? whose name (interpreted "heap of between the native and the European, and thence spreads witness ”) is explained by the covenant into which Jacob and throughout the length and breadth of the land, than from all Laban entered (xxxi. 47 sqq.). Passing Mahanaim (“camps ”), other causes combined. Let government look to this; it is a where he saw the camps of God, Jacob sent to Esau with friendly serious and most important truth ”; but he was only rebuked by overtures. At the Jabbok he wrestled with a divine being and Lord Dalhousie for his pains. He was a friend of Sir Charles prevailed (cf. Hos. xii. 3 sqq.), hence he called the place Peniel Napier and Sir James Outram, and resembled them in his out- or Penuel (“the face of God "); and received the new name spoken criticisms and independence of authority. He died at Israel. He then effected an unexpected reconciliation with the early age of 46 of brain fever, brought on by excessive heat Esau, passed to Succoth, where he built “ booths ” for his cattle and overwork. The town of Jacobabad, which has the reputa- (hence its name), and reached Shechem. Here he purchased tion of being the hottest place in India, is named after him. ground from the clan Hamor (cf. Judg. ix. 28), and erected an See A. I. Shand, General John Jacob (1900). altar to “ God (El) the God of Israel.” This was the scene of the rape of Dinah and of the attack of Simeon and Levi which led JACOB BEN ASHER (1280-1340), codifier of Jewish law, was to their ruin (xxxiv.; see Dan, LEVITES, SIMEON). Thence born in Germany and died in Toledo. A son of Asher ben Jacob went down south to Bethel, where he received a divine Yehiel (q.v.), Jacob helped to re-introduce the older elaborate revelation (P), similar to that recorded by the earlier narrator method of legal casuistry which had been overthrown by (J), and was called Israel (xxxv. 9-13, 15). Here Deborah, Maimonides (9.0). The Asheri family suffered great privations Rebekah's nurse, died, on the way to Ephrath. Rachel died in but remained faithful in their devotion to the Talmud. Jacob giving birth to Benjamin (q.v.), and further south Reuben was ben Asher is known as the Ba'al ha-țurim (literally “ Master of guilty of a grave offence (cf. xlix. 4). According to P, Jacob the Rows") from his chief work, the four Țurim or Rows (the came to Hebron, and it was at this juncture that Jacob and Esau title is derived from the four Țurim or rows of jewels in the separated (a second time) and the latter removed to Mount Seir High Priest's breastplate). In this work Jacob ben Asher (xxxvi. 6 sqq.; cf. the parallel in xiii. 5 sqq.). Compelled by codified Rabbinic law on ethics and ritual, and it remained a circumstances, described with much fullness and vividness, standard work of reference until it was edited with a commentary Jacob ultimately migrated to Egypt, receiving on the way the by Joseph Qaro, who afterwards simplified the code into the promise that God would make of him a great nation, which more popular Shulhan Aruch. Jacob also wrote two commen- should come again out of Egypt (see Joseph). After an inter- taries on the Pentateuch, view with the Pharaoh (recorded only by P, xlvii. 5-11), he See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.),vol. iv. ch. iii.; Weiss, dwelt with his sons in the land of Goshen, and as his death drew Dor dor we-dorashav, v. 118-123. (1. A.) near pronounced a formal benediction upon the two sons of JACOB OF EDESSA, who ranks with Barhebraeus as the most Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim), intentionally exalting the distinguished for scholarship among Syriac writers, was born at younger. Then he summoned all the " sons ” to gather round 'En-debhã in the province of Antioch, probably about A.D. 640. his bed, and told them “what shall befall in the latter days”. From the trustworthy account of his life by Barhebraeus (Chron. -(xlix.). He died at the age of 147 (so P), and permission was Eccles. i. 289) we learn that he studied first at the famous mon- given to carry his body to Canaan to be buried. astery of Ken-neshrē (on the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite For the symbols J, E, P, as regards the sources of the book of Jerābis) and afterwards at Alexandria, which had of course been Genesis, see Genesis; BIBLE : Old Test, Criticism. ? Since it is some 300 m from Haran to Gilead it is probable that 3" In the literature of his country Jacob holds much the saine Laban's home, only seven days' journey distant, was nearer Gilead place as Jerome among the Latin fathers " (Wright, Short Hist. of than the current tradition allows (Gen. xxxi. 22 sqq.). Syr. Lit. p. 143). 2a " XV3 JACOB OF JÜTERBOGK-JACOB OF SÉRŪGH 1 114 for some time in the hands of the Moslems.! On his return he his sense of the disadvantage under which Syriac labours through was appointed bishop of Edessa by his friend Athanasius II. (of its alphabet containing only consonants, he declined to introduce a general system of vowel-signs, lest the change should contribute Balad), probably in 684, but held this office only for three or to the neglect and loss of the older books written without vowels. four years, as the clergy withstood his strict enforcement of the At the same time he invented, by adaptation of the Greek vowels, Church canons and he was not supported by Julian, the successor such a system of signs as might serve for purposes of grammatical of Athanasius in the patriarchate. Accordingly, having in exposition, and elaborated the rules by which certain consonants serve to indicate vowels. He also systematized and extended anger publicly burnt a copy of the canons in front of Julian's the use of diacritical points. It is still a moot question how far residence, Jacob retired to the monastery of Kaisām near Jacob is to be regarded as the author of the five vowel-signs derived Samosāta, and from there to the monastery of Eusebhonā,from Greek which soon after came into use among the Jacobites.? where for eleven years he taught the Psalms and the reading of In any case he made the most important contribution to Syriac grammar down to the time of Barhebraeus. (8) As a translator the Scriptures in Grcek. But towards the close of this period Jacob's greatest achievement was his Syriac version of the Homiliae he again encountered opposition, this time from monks who cathedrales of Severus, the monophysite patriarch of Antioch hated the Greeks,” and so proceeded to the great convent of (512-518. 535-536). This important collection is now in part known Tell 'Addā or Teleda (? modern Tellādi, N. W. of Aleppo), where to us by E. W. Brooks's edition and translation of the 6th book of he spent nine years in revising and emending the Peshitta version by Athanasius of Nisibis in 669. (9) A large number of letters by selected epistles of Severus, according to another Syriac version made of the Old Testament by the help of the various Greek versions. Jacob to various correspondents have been found in various MSS He was finally recalled to the bishopric of Edessa in 708, but Besides those on the canon law to Addai, and on grammar to George died four months later, on the 5th of June. of Sěrūgh referred to above, there are others dealing with doctrine, liturgy, &c. A few are in verse. In doctrine Jacob was undoubtedly Monophysite. Of the very Jacob impresses the modern reader mainly as an educator of his large number of his works, which are mostly in prose, not many have countrymen, and particularly of the clergy. His writings lack the as yet been published, but much information may be gathered from Jacob of Sěrūgh and Philoxenus of Mabbog. But judged by the fervid rhetoric and graceful style of such authors as Isaac of Antioch, Assemani's Bibliotheca Orientalis and Wright's Catalogue of Syriac standard of his time he shows the qualities of a truly scientific MS$. in the British Museum. ,(?? Of the Syriac Old Testament Jacob produced what Wright calls (N. M.) a curious eclectic or patchwork theologian and scholar. text," of which five volumes survive in Europe (Wright's Catalogue JACOB OF JÜTERBOGK (C. 1381-1465), monk and theologian. 38). It was “ the last attempt at a revision of the Old Testament in the Monophysite Church.". Jacob was also the chief founder of the Benedict Stolzenhagen, known in religion as Jacob. was born at Syriac Massorah among the Monophysites, which produced such Jüterbogk in Brandenburg of poor peasant stock. He became MSS. as the one (Vat. cliii.) described by Wiseman in Horae syriacae, a Cistercian at the monastery of Paradiz in Poland, and was sent part iii. (2) Jacob was the author both of commentaries and of scholia on the sacred books; of these specimens are given by Assemani by the abbot to the university of Cracow, where he became and Wright. They were largely quoted by later commentators, who master in philosophy and doctor of theology. He returned to often refer to Jacob as “the interpreter of the Scriptures.” With his monastery, of which he became abbot. In 1441, however, dis- the commentaries may be mentioned his Hexahemeron, or treatise contented with the absence of strict discipline in his community, on the six days of creation, MSS. of which exist at Leiden and at Lyons. It was his latest work, and being left incomplete was he obtained the leave of the papal legate at the council of Basel finished by his friend George the bishop of the Arabs. Among to transfer himself to the Carthusians, entering the monastery apocrypha, the History of the Rechabites composed by Zosimus was of Salvatorberg near Erfurt, of which he became prior. He translated from Greek into Syriac by Jacob (Wright's Catalogue lectured on theology at the university of Erfurt, of which he was 1128, and Nau in Revue sémitique vi. 263, vii. 54, 136). (3) Mention has been made above of Jacob's zeal on behalf of ecclesiastical rector in 1455. He died on the 30th of April 1465. In his letter to the priest Addai we possess a collection of Jacob's main preoccupation was the reform of monastic life, the canons from his pen, given in the form of answers to Addai's ques: grave disorders of which he deplored, and to this end he wrote his tions. These were edited by .Lagarde in Reliquiae juris eccl. Pelitiones religiosorum pro reformatione sui status. Another work, syriace, pp. 117 sqq. and Lamy in Dissert. pp. 98 sqq. Additional De negligentia praelatorim, was directed against the neglect of their canons were given in Wright's Notulae syriacae. The whole have duties by the higher clergy, and he addressed a petition for the re. been translated and expounded by Kayser, Die Canones Jacobs von form of the church (Advisamentum pro reformalione ecclesiae) to Pope Edessa (Leipzig, 1886). (4) Jacob made many contributions to Nicholas V This having no effect, he issued the most outspoken of Syriac liturgy, both original and translated (Wright, Short Hist. his works, De septem ecclesiae statibus, in which he reviewed the work p. 145 seq.). ° (5) To philosophical literature his chief original contribu: of the reforming councils of his time, and, without touching the tion was his Enchiridion, a tract on philosophical terms (Wright's question of doctrine, championed a drastic reform of life and practice Catalogue 984). The translations of works of Aristotle which have of the church on the lines laid down at Constance and Basel. been attributed to him are probably by other hands (Wright, Short His principal works are collected in Walch, Monimenta med aev. Hist. p. 149; Duval, Littérature syriaque, pp. 255, 258). The treatise i and ii (1757, 1771), and Engelbert Klupfel, Vetus bibliotheca eccles. De causa omnium causarum, which was the work of a bishop of Edessa. (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1780). was formerly attributed to Jacob; but the publication of the whole by Kayser has made it clear that the treatise is of much later date. JACOB OF SĚRŪGH, one of the best Syriac authors, named by (6) An important historical work by Jacob-a Chronicle in continua- tion of that of Eusebius-has unfortunately perished all except a few one of his biographers “the flute of the Holy Spirit and the harp leaves. Of these a full account is given in Wright's Catalogue 1062. of the believing church,” was born in 451 at Kurtam, a village (7) Jacob's fame among his countrymen rests most of all on his on the Euphrates to the west of Harrān, and was probably edu- labours as a grammarian. In his letter to George, bishop of Sěrūgh, cated at Edessa. At an early age he attracted the attention of on Syriac orthography (published by Phillips in London 1869. and his countrymen by his piety and his literary gifts, and entered on by Martin in Paris the same year) he sets forth the importance the composition of the long series of metrical homilies on religious of fidelity by scribes in the copying of minutiae of spelling. In his grammar 6 (of which only some fragments remain), while expressing themes which formed the great work of his life. Having been ordained to the priesthood, he became periodeutes or episcopal 1 Merx infers that the fact of Jacob's going to Alexandria as a visitor of Haurā, in Sěrūgh, not far from his birthplace. His student tells against the vicw that the Arabs burned the great library tenure of this office extended over a time of great trouble to the (Hist. artis gramm. apud Syros, p: 35). On this question cf. Krehl in Atti del iv. congr. internaz. degli Orientalisti (Florence, 1880), Christian population of Mesopotamia, due to the fierce war PP. 433 sqq. carried on by Kavadh II. of Persia within the Roman borders. 2 Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahrē says 677; but Athanasius was When on the roth of January 503 Amid was captured by the patriarch only 684-687. Persians after a three months' siege and all its citizens put to the 3 According to Merx (op. cit. p. 43) this may be the celebrated convent of Eusebius near Apamea. sword or carried captive, a panic seized the whole district, and * Assemani tried hard to prove him orthodox (B.0. i. 470 sqq.) the Christian inhabitants of many neighbouring cities planned but changed his opinion on reading his biography by Barhebraeus (ib. ii. 337). See especially Lamy, Dissert.de Syrorum fide, pp. 206 sqq. 7 An affirmative answer is given by Wiseman (Horae syr. pp. 181-8) 5 Text at Leipzig 1889 (Das Buch der Erkenntniss der Wahrheit oder and Wright (Catalogue 1168; Fragm. of the Syriac Grammar of Jacob der Ursache aller Ursachen): translation (posthumously) at Strassburg of Edessa, preface; Short Hist. p. 151 seq.). But Martin (in Jour. As. (1893; May-June 1869. pp. 456 sqq.), Duval (Grammaire syriaque, p. 71) and • The surviving fragments were published by Wright (London, Merx (op.cit. p. 50) are of the opposite opinion. The date of the intro- 1871) and by Merx, op. cit. p. 73 sqq. of Syriac text. duction of the seven Nestorian vowel-signs is also uncertain. canons. JACOBA-JACOBI, F. H. 115 1 to leave their homes and flee to the west of the Euphrates. She submitted in April 1432, retained her title of duchess in They were recalled to a more courageous frame of mind by the Bavaria, and lived on her husband's estates in retirement. She letters of Jacob.' In 519, at the age of 68, Jacob was made died on the 9th of October 1436, leaving no children. bishop of Bațnān, another town in the district of Sěrūgh, but BIBLIOGRAPHY.-F. von Löher. Jakobäa von Bayern und ihre Zeit only lived till November 521. (2 vols., Nördlingen, 1862-1869); W. J. F. Nuyens, Jacoba van Beieren From the various extant accounts of Jacob's life and from the en de eerste helft der XV. eeuw (Haarlem, 1873); A. von Overstraten, number of his known works, we gather that his literary activity Jacoba van Beieren (Amsterdam, 1790). (G. E.) was unceasing. According to Barhebraeus (Chron. Eccles. i. 191) he JACOBABAD, a town of British India, the administrative employed 70 amanuenses and wrote in all 760 metrical homilies, besides expositions, letters and hymns of different sorts. Of his headquarters of the Upper Sind frontier district in Bombay; merits as a writer and poet we are now well able to judge from with a station on the Quetta branch of the North-Western rail- P. Bedjan's excellent edition of selected metrical homilies, of which four volumes have already appeared (Paris 1905-1908), containing 146 (1901), 10,787. It is famous as having consistently the highest way, 37 m. from the junction at Ruk, on the main line Pop. pieces. They are written throughout in dodecasyllabic metre, and those published deal mainly with biblical themes, though there are temperature in India. During the month of June the thermo- also poems on such subjects as the deaths of Christian martyrs, the meter ranges between 120° and 127° F. The town was founded fall of the idols, the council of Nicaea, &c.3 Of Jacob's prose works, on the site of the village of Khangarh in 1847 by General which are not nearly so numerous, the most interesting are his letters, John Jacob, for many years commandant of the Sind Horse, which throw light upon some of the events of his time and reveal who died here in 1858. It has cantonments for a cavalry regi- his attachment to the Monophysite doctrine which was then strug. gling for supremacy in the Syrian churches, and particularly at ment, with accommodation for caravans from Central Asia. It Edessa, over the opposite teaching of Nestorius.“ (N. M.) is watered by two canals. An annual horse show is held in JACOBA, or JACQUELINE (1401–1436), countess of Holland, January was the only daughter and heiress of William, duke of Bavaria JACOBEAN STYLE, the name given to the second phase of and count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut. She was married the early Renaissance architecture in England, following the as a child to John, duke of Touraine, second son of Charles VI., Elizabethan style. Although the term is generally employed king of France, who on the death of his elder brother Louis of the style which prevailed in England during the first quarter became dauphin. John of Touraine died in April 1417, and two of the 17th century, its peculiar decadent detail will be found months afterwards Jacoba lost her father. "Acknowledged as nearly twenty years earlier at Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire, sovereign in Holland and Zeeland, Jacoba was opposed by her and in Oxford and Cambridge examples exist up to 1660, not- uncle John of Bavaria, bishop of Liége. She had the support of withstanding the introduction of the purer Italian style by the Hook faction in Holland. Meanwhile she had been married Inigo Jones in 2019 at Whitehall. Already during Queen în 1418 by her uncle, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, to Elizabeth's reign reproductions of the classic orders had found her cousin John IV., duke of Brabant. By the mediation of their way into English architecture, based frequently upon John John the Fearless, a treaty of partition was concluded in 1419 Shute's The First and Chief Grounds of Architecture, published in between Jacoba and John of Bavaria; but it was merely a truce, 1563, with two other editions in 1579 and 1584. In 1577, three and the contest between uncle and niece soon began again and years before the commencement of Wollaton Hall, a copybook continued with varying success. In 1420 Jacoba fled to England; of the orders was brought out in Antwerp by Jan Vredeman de and there, declaring that her marriage with John of Brabant was Vries. Though nominally based on the description of the orders illegal, she contracted a marriage with Humphrey, duke of by Vitruvius, the author indulged freely not only in his rendering Gloucester, in 1422. Two years later Jacoba, with Humphrey, of them, but in suggestions of his own, showing how the orders invaded Holland, where she was now opposed by her former might be employed in various buildings. Those suggestions husband, John of Brabant, John of Bavaria having died of were of a most decadent type, so that even the author deemed it poison. In 1425 Humphrey deserted his wife, who found herself advisable to publish a letter from a canon of the Church, stating obliged to seek refuge with her cousin, Philip V., duke of Bur- that there was nothing in his architectural designs which was gundy, to whom she had to submit, and she was imprisoned in contrary to religion. It is to publications of this kind that the castle of Ghent. John of Brabant now mortgaged the two Jacobean architecture owes the perversion of its forms and the counties of Holland and Zeeland to Philip, who assumed their introduction of strap work and pierced crestings, which appear protectorate. Jacoba, however, escaped from prison in dis- for the first time at Wollaton (1580), at Bramshill, Hampshire guise, and for three years struggled gallantly to maintain herself (1607-1612), and in Holland House, Kensington (1624), it in Holland against the united efforts of Philip of Burgundy and receives its fullest development. (R. P. S.) John of Brabant, and met at first with success. The death of the JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819),' German weak John of Brabant (April 1427) freed the countess from her philosopher, was born at Düsseldorf on the 25th of January 1743. quondam husband; but nevertheless the pope pronounced The second son of a wealthy sugar merchant near Düsseldorf, Jacoba's marriage with Humphrey illegal, and Philip, putting he was educated for a commercial career. Of a retiring, medita- out his full strength, broke down all opposition. By a treaty, tive disposition, Jacobi associated himself at Geneva mainly made in July 1428, Jacoba was left nominally countess, but Philip with the literary and scientific circle of which the most prominent was to administer the government of Holland, Zeeland and member was Lesage. He studied closely the works of Charles Hainaut, and was declared heir in case Jacoba should die without Bonnet, and the political ideas of Rousseau and Voltaire. In children. Two years later Philip mortgaged Holland and Zeeland 1763 he was called back to Düsseldorf, and in the following year to the Borselen family, of which Francis, lord of Borselen, was the he married and took over the management of his father's busi- head. Jacoba now made her last effort. In 1432 she secretly ness.. After a short period he gave up his commercial career, married Francis of Borselen, and endeavoured to foment a rising and in 1770 became a member of the council for the duchies of in Holland against the Burgundian rule. Philip invaded the coun- Jülich and Berg, in which capacity he distinguished himself try, however, and threw Borselen into prison. Only on condition by his ability in financial affairs, and his zeal in social reform. that Jacoba abdicated her three countships in his favour would Jacobi kept up his interest in literary and philosophic matters he allow her liberty and recognize her marriage with Borselen. by an extensive correspondence, and his mansion at Pempelfort, 1. See the contemporary Chronicle called that of Joshua the Stylite. With C. M. Wieland he helped to found a new literary journal. near Düsseldorf, was the centre of a distinguished literary circle chạp. 54. * Assemani (Bibl. Orient. i. 305-339) enumerates 231 which he had Der Teutsche Mercur, in which some of his earliest writings, seen in MSS. mainly on practical or economic subjects, were published • Some other historical poems M. Bedjan has not seen fit to Here too appeared in part the first of his philosophic works, publish, on account of their unreliable and legendary character (vol. i. p. ix. of preface); Edward Alwills Briefsammlung (1776), a combination of romance .A full list of the older editions of works by Jacob is given by and speculation. This was followed in 1779 by Woldemar, a Wright in Short History of Syriac Literature, pp. 68-72. philosophic novel, of very imperfect structure, but full of genial 116 JACOBI, J. G. ideas, and giving the most complete picture of Jacobi's method province of the understanding is therefore strictly the region of the of philosophizing. In 1779 he visited Munich as member of the conditioned; to it the world must present itself as a mechanism. privy council, but after a short stay there differences with his be made known to us otherwise than through the logical faculty If, then, there is objective truth at all, the existence of real facts must colleagues and with the authorities of Bavaria drove him back of thought; and, as the regress from conclusion to premises must to Pempelfort. A few unimportant tracts on questions of theo- depend upon something not itself capable of logical grounding, retical politics were followed in 1785 by the work which first mediate thought implies the consciousness of immediate truth. brought Jacobi into prominence as a philosopher, A conversation (i.e. intelligible) explanation of things, and must content itself Philosophy therefore must resign the hopeless ideal of a systematic which he had held with Lessing in 1780, in which Lessing avowed with the examination of the facts of consciousness. It is a mere that he knew no philosophy, in the true sense of that word, save prejudice of philosophic thinkers, a prejudice which has descended Spinozism, led him to a protracted study of Spinoza's works. from Aristotle, that mediate or demonstrated cognition is The Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas (1785; 2nd ed., much enlarged superior, in cogency and value to the immediate perception of and with important Appendices, 1789) expressed sharply and As Jacobi starts with the doctrine that thought is partial and clearly Jacobi's strenuous objection to a dogmatic system in limited, applicable only to connect facts, but incapable of explaining philosophy, and drew upon him the vigorous enmity of the their existence, it is evident that for him any demonstrative system Berlin clique, led by Moses Mendelssohn. Jacobi was ridiculed principle of logical ground must be repulsive. Now in modern of metaphysic which should attempt to subject all existence to the as endeavouring to reintroduce into philosophy the antiquated philosophy the first and greatest demonstrative system of nieta: notion of unreasoning belief, was denounced as an enemy of physic is that of Spinoza, and it lay in the nature of things that upoh reason, as a pietist, and as in all probability a Jesuit in disguise, Spinoza's system Jacobi should first direct his criticism. "A summary and was especially attacked for his use of the ambiguous term 223): (1) Spinozism is atheism; (2) the Kabbalistic philosophy; of the results of his examination is thus presented (Werke, i. 216- belief.” Jacobi's next important work, David Hume über den in so far as it is philosophy, is nothing but undeveloped or conſused Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus (1787), was an attempt Spinozism; (3) the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff is not less to show not only that the term Glaube had been used by the fatalistic than that of Spinoza, and carries a resolute thinker to the most eminent writers to denote what he had employed it for in very principles of Spinoza; (4) every demonstrative method ends the Letters on Spinoza, but that the nature of the cognition of truths conditionally necessary), proceeding, always in identical in fatalism, (5) we can demonstrate only similarities (agreements, facts as opposed to the construction of inferences could not be propositions; every proof presupposes something already proved, otherwise expressed. In this writing, and especially in the the principle of which is immediately given (Offenbarung, revelation, Appendix, Jacobi came into contact with the critical philosophy, Lotze, to denote the peculiar character of an immediate, unproved is the term here employed by Jacobi, as by many later writers, e.g. and subjected the Kantian view of knowledge to searching truth), (6) the keystone (Element) of all human knowledge and activity examination. is belief (Glaube). Of these propositions only the first and fourth The outbreak of the war with the French republic induced require further notice. Jacobi, accepting the law of reason and Jacobi in 1793 to leave his home near Düsseldorf, and for nearly and as the rule explicitly followed by Spinoza, points out that, if consequent as the fundamental rule of demonstrative reasoning, ten years he resided in Holstein. While there he became we proceed by applying this principle so as to recede from particular intimately acquainted with Reinhold (in whose Beitrage, pt iii., and qualified facts to the more general and abstract conditions, we 1801, his important work Über das Unternehmen des Kriticismus, land ourselves, not in the notion of an active, intelligent creator die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen was first published), and of the system of things, but in the notion of an all-comprehen- Our with Matthias Claudius, the editor of the Wandsbecker Bote. unconditioned is either a pure abstraction, or else the impossible sive, indeterminate Nature, devoid of will or intelligence During the same period the excitement caused by the accusation notion of a completed system of conditions. In either case the result of atheism brought against Fichte at Jena led to the publication is atheism, and this result is necessary if the demonstrative method, of Jacobi's Letter to Fichte (1799), in which he made more precise the method of understanding, is regarded as the only possible means the relation of his own philosophic principles to theology, iatalism. For, if the action of the human will is to be made intelli. of knowledge. Moreover, the same method inevitably lands in Soon after his return to Germany, Jacobi received a call to gible to understanding, it must be thought as a conditioned pheno- Munich in connexion with the new academy of sciences just menon, having its sufficient ground in preceding circumstances, and, founded there. The loss of a considerable portion of his fortune in ultimate abstraction, as the outflow from nature which is the sum of conditions. induced him to accept this offer; he settled in Munich in 1804, which accepts the law of reason and consequent as the essence of But this is the fatalist conception, and any philosophy and in 1807 became president of the academy. In 1811 appeared understanding is fatalistic. Thus for the scientific understanding his last philosophic work, directed against Schelling specially there can be no God and no liberty. It is impossible that there should (Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Ofenbarung), the first part But a finite God, be a God, for if so he would of necessity be finite a God that is known, is no God. It is impossible that there should be of which, a review of the Wandsbecker Bole, had been written in liberty, for if so the mechanical order of phenomena, by means of 1798. A bitter reply from Schelling was left without answer by which they are comprehensible, would be disturbed, and we should Jacobi, but gave rise to an animated controversy in which Fries have an unintelligible world, coupled with the requirement that it and Baader took prominent part. In 1812 Jacobi retired from shall be understood. Cognition, then, in the strict sense, occupies the office of president, and began to prepare a collected edition of sense, and reason, which is belief in supersensuous fact the middle place between sense perception, which is belief in matters of his works. He died before this was completed, on the roth The best introduction to Jacobi's philosophy is the preface to the of March 1819. The edition of his writings was continued by second volume of the Works, and Appendix 7 to the Letlers on his friend F. Köppen, and was completed in 1825. The works Spinoza's. Theory: See also J. Kuhn, Jacobi und die Philosophie seiner Zeit (1834); F. Deycks, F. H. Jacobi im Verhältnis zu seinen fill six volumes, of which the fourth is in three parts. To the Zeitgenossen (1848), H. Düntzer, Freundesbilder aus Goethes Leben second is prefixed an introduction by Jacobi, which is at the same (1853); E. Zirngiebl, F. H. Jacobis Leben, Dichten, und Denken, time an introduction to his philosophy. The fourth volume has 1867: F. Harms, Über die Lehre von F, H. Jacobi (1876) Jacobi's also an important preface. Auserlesener Briefwechsel has been edited by F. Roth in 2 vols. (1825-1827). The philosophy of Jacobi is essentially unsystematic. A certain JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG (1740-1814), German poet, elder fundamental view which underlies all his thinking is brought to bear brother of the philosopher, F. H. Jacobi (1743-1819), was born at in succession upon those systematic doctrines which appear to stand most sharply in contradiction to it, and any positive philosophic Dusseldorf on the 2nd of September 1740. He studied theology results are given only occasionally. The leading idea of the whole is at Göttingen and jurisprudence at Helmstedt, and was appointed, that of the complete separation between understanding and appre in 1766, professor of philosophy in Halle. In this year he made hension of real fact. For Jacobi understanding, or the logical ſaculty: the acquaintance of J. W. L. (“ Vater ") Gleim, who, attracted is purely formal or elaborative, and its results never transcend the given material supplied to it. From the basis of immediate experi | by the young poet's Poetische Versuche (1764), became his ence or perception thought proceeds by comparison and abstraction, warm friend, and a lively literary correspondence ensued establishing, connexions among facts, but remaining in its nature between Gleim in Halberstadt and Jacobi in Halle. In order mediate and finite. The principle of reason and consequent, the necessity of thinking each given fact of perception as conditioned, to have Jacobi near him, Gleim succeeded in procuring for him a impels understanding towards an endless series of identical proposi prebendal stall at the cathedral of Halberstadt in 1769, and here tions, the records of successive comparisons and abstractions. The Jacobi issued a number of anacreontic lyrics and sonnets. He JACOBI, K. G. J.117 - —JACOBINS tired, however, of the lighter muse, and in 1774, to Gleim's , the club itself, after the promulgation of the constitution of grief, left Halberstadt, and for two years (1774-1776) edited at 1791, was Société des amis de la constitution séants aux Jacobins à Düsseldorf the Iris, a quarterly for women readers. Meanwhile, Paris, which was changed on the 21st of September 1792, after he wrote many charming lyrics, distinguished by exquisite taste the fall of the monarchy, to Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté and true poetical feeling. In 1784 he became professor of et de l'égalité. It occupied successively the refectory, the library, literature at the university of Freiburg im Breisgau, a post and the chapel of the monastery. which he held until his death there on the 4th of January 1814. Once transferred to Paris, the club underwent rapid modifica- In addition to the earlier Iris, to which Goethe, his brother tions. The first step was its expansion by the admission as F. H. Jacobi, Gleim and other poets contributed, he published, members or associates of others besides deputies; Arthur Young from 1803-1813, another periodical, also called Iris, in which was so admitted on the 18th of January 1790. On the 8th of Klopstock, Herder, Jean Paul, Voss and the brothers Stollberg February the society was formally constituted on this broader also collaborated. basis by the adoption of the rules drawn up by Barnave, which Jacobi's Sämmtliche Werke were published in 1774 (Halberstadt, were issued with the signature of the duc d'Aiguillon, the presi- 3 vols.). Other editions appeared at Zurich in 1807-1813 and 1825. dent. The objects of the club were defined as (1) to discuss in See Ungedruckte Briefe von und an Johann Georg Jacobi (Strassburg, advance questions to be decided by the National Assembly;(2) to 1874): biographical notice by Daniel Jacoby in Allg. Deutsche work for the establishment and strengthening of the constitution Biographie; Longo, Laurence Sterne und Johann Georg Jacobi (Vienna, 1898); and Leben J. G. Jacobis, von einem seiner Freunde in accordance with the spirit of the preamble (i.e. of respect for (1822). legally constituted authority and the rights of man); (3) to JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851), German correspond with other societies of the same kind which should be formed in the realm. At the same time the rules of order and mathematician, was born at Potsdam, of Jewish parentage, on the roth of December 1804. He studied at Berlin University, forms of election were settled, and the constitution of the club where he obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1825, determined. There were to be a president, elected every month, his thesis being an analytical discussion of the theory of fractions four secretaries, a treasurer, and committees elected to super. In 1827 he became extraordinary and in 1829 ordinary professor intend elections and presentations, the correspondence, and the of mathematics at Königsberg, and this chair he filled till 1842, administration of the club. Any member who by word or action when he visited Italy for a few months to recruit his health showed that his principles were contrary to the constitution and On his return he removed to Berlin, where he lived as a royal the rights of man was to be expelled, a rule which later on pensioner till his death, which occurred on the 18th of February of its more moderate elements. By the 7th article the club facilitated the “purification ” of the society by the expulsion 1851. His investigations in elliptic functions, the theory of which he France and to maintain with them a regular correspondence. decided to admit as associates similar societies in other parts of established upon quite a new basis, and more particularly his development of the theta-function, as given in his great treatise This last provision was of far-reaching importance. By the Fundamenta nova theorice functionum ellipticarum (Königsberg, 10th of August 1790 there were already one hundred and fifty- 1829), and in later papers in Crelle's Journal, constitute his grandest two affiliated clubs; the attempts at counter-revolution led to a analytical discoveries. Second in importance only to these are great increase of their number in the spring of 1791, and by the his researches in differential equations, notably the theory of the last multiplier, which is fully treated in his Vorlesungen über Dynamik, close of the year the Jacobins had a network of branches all over edited by R. F. A. Clebsch (Berlin, 1866). . It was in analytical France. It was this widespread yet highly centralized organiza. development that Jacobi's peculiar power mainly lay, and he made tion that gave to the Jacobin Club its formidable power. many important contributions of this kind to other departments At the outset the Jacobin Club was 'not distinguished by of mathematics, as a glance at the long list of papers that were published by him in Crelle's Journal and elsewhere from 1826 extreme political views. The somewhat high subscription onwards will sufficiently indicate. He was one of the early founders confined its membership to men of substance, and to the last it of the theory of determinants; in particular, he invented the func- was--so far as the central society in Paris was concerned tional determinant formed of the n- differential coefficients of n given composed almost entirely of professional men, such as Robes- functions of n independent variables, which now bears his name (Jacobian), and which has played an important part in many pierre, or well-to-do bourgeois, like Santerre. From the first, analytical investigations (see ALGEBRAIC FORMS). Valuable also however, other elements were present. Besides Louis Philippe, are his papers on Abelian transcendents, and his investigations in duc de Chartres (afterwards king of the French), liberal aristo- the theory of numbers, in which latter department he mainly supple- crats of the type of the duc d'Aiguillon, the prince de Broglie, ments the labours of K, F. Gauss. The planetary theory and other particular dynamical problems likewise occupied his attention from or the vicomte de Noailles, and the bourgeois who formed the time to time. He left a vast store of manuscript, portions of which mass of the members, the club contained such figures as “ Père" have been published at intervals in Crelle's Journal. , His other Michel Gérard, a peasant proprietor from Tuel-en-Montgermont, works include Commentatio de transformatione integralis duplicis in Brittany, whose rough common sense was admired as the indefiniti in formam simpliciorem (1832), Canon arithmeticus (1839), and Opuscula mathematica (1846-1857). His Gesammelte Werke oracle of popular wisdom, and whose countryman's waistcoat (1881-1891) were published by the Berlin Academy, and plaited hair were later on to become the model for the See Lejeune-Dirichlet, Gedächtnisrede auf Jacobi " in the Jacobin fashion.' The provincial branches were from the first far Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie (1852). more democratic, though in these too the leadership was usually JACOBINS, THE, the most famous of the political clubs of in the hands of members of the educated or propertied classes. the French Revolution. It had its origin in the Club Breton, Up to the very eve of the republic, the club ostensibly supported which was established at Versailles shortly after the opening the monarchy; it took no part in the petition of the 17th of July of the States General in 1789. It was at first composed exclu- 1790 for the king's dethronement; nor had it any official share sively of deputies from Brittany, but was soon joined by others even in the insurrections of the 20th of June and the 10th of from various parts of France, and counted among its early August 1792; it only formally recognized the republic on the members Mirabeau, Sieyès, Barnave, Pétion, the Abbé Grégoire, 21st of September. But the character and extent of the club's Charles and Alexandre Lameth, Robespierre, the duc d'Aiguillon, influence cannot be gauged by its official acts alone, and long and La Revellière-Lépeaux. At this time its meetings were before it emerged as the principal focus of the Terror, its charac- secret and little is known of what took place at them. After ter had been profoundly changed by the secession of its more the émeute of the 5th and 6th of October the club, still entirely moderate elements, some to found the Club of 1789, some in composed of deputies, followed the National Assembly to Paris, 1791-among them Barnave, the Lameths, Duport and Bailly- where it rented the refectory of the monastery of the Jacobins !“When I first sat among you I heard so many beautiful speeches in the Rue St Honoré, near the seat of the Assembly. The name that I might have believed myself in heaven, had there not been so " Jacobins,” given in France to the Dominicans, because their become involved in a galimatias of Rights of Man of which I under- many lawyers present.". Instead of practical questions we have first house in Paris was in the Rue St Jacques, was first applied stand mighty little but that it is worth nothing." Motion du Père to the club in ridicule by its enemies. The title assumed by Gérard in the Jacobins of the 27th of April 1790 (Aulard i. 63). 118 JACOBINS 66 to found the club of the Feuillants scoffed at by their former | a moderate display of energy would have saved the National friends as the club monarchique. The main cause of this Convention from the humiliation of being dominated by a club, change was the admission of the public to the sittings of the and the French Revolution from the blot of the Terror. But club, which began on the 14th of October 1791. The result is though the Girondins were fully conscious of the evil, they were described in a report of the Department of Paris on the state too timid, or too convinced of the ultimate triumph of their own of the empire," presented on the 12th of June 1792, at the request persuasive eloquence, to act. In the session of the 30th of of Roland, the minister of the interior, and signed by the duc April 1793 a proposal was made to move the Convention to de La Rochefoucauld, which ascribes to the Jacobins all the Versailles out of reach of the Jacobins, and Buzot declared that woes of the state. “ There exists,” it runs, “ in the midst of the it was “ impossible to remain in Paris so long as “ this abomina capital committed to our care a public pulpit of defamation, able haunt” should exist; but the motion was not carried, and where citizens of every age and both sexes are admitted day by the Girondins remained to become the victims of the Jacobins. day to listen to a criminal propaganda. . . . This establishment, Meanwhile other political clubs could only survive so long as situated in the former house of the Jacobins, calls itself a society; they were content to be the shadows of the powerful organization but it has less the aspect of a private society than that of a public of the Rue St Honoré. The Feuillants had been suppressed spectacle: vast tribunes are thrown open for the audience; on the 18th of August 1792. The turn of the Cordeliers came so all the sittings are advertised to the public for fixed days and soon as its leaders showed signs of revolting against Jacobin hours, and the speeches made are printed in a special journal and supremacy, and no more startling proof of this ascendancy lavishly distributed."'! In this society-the report continues—could be found than the ease with which Hébert and his fellows murder is counselled or applauded, all authorities are calumniated were condemned and the readiness with which the Cordeliers, and all the organs of the law bespattered with abuse; as to its after a feeble attempt at protest, acquiesced in the verdict. power, it exercises " by its influence, its affiliations and its It is idle to speculate on what might have happened had this correspondence a veritable ministerial authority, without title ascendancy been overthrown by the action of a strong govern- and without responsibility, while leaving to the legal and ment. No strong government existed, nor, in the actual condi- responsible authorities only the shadow of power" (Schmidt, tions of the country, could exist on the lines laid down by the Tableaux i. 78, &c.). constitution. France was menaced by civil war within, and by The constituency to which the club was henceforth responsible, a coalition of hostile powers without; the discipline of the Terror and from which it derived its power, was in fact the peuple was perhaps necessary if she was to be welded into a united force bêle of Paris; the sans-culottes--decayed lackeys, cosmopolitan capable of resisting this double peril; and the revolutionary ne'er-do-weels, and starving work people who crowded its leaders saw in the Jacobin organization the only instrument tribunes. To this audience, and not primarily to the members by which this discipline could be made effective. This is the of the club, the speeches of the orators were addressed and by apology usually put forward for the Jacobins by republican its verdict they were judged. In the earlier stages of the writers of later times; they were, it is said (and of some of them Revolution the mob had been satisfied with the fine platitudes it is certainly true), no mere doctrinaires and visionary sectaries, of the philosophes and the vague promise of a political millen- but practical and far-seeing politicians, who realized that nium; but as the chaos in the body politic grew, and with it “ desperate ills need desperate remedies," and, by having the the appalling material misery, it began to clamour for the courage of their convictions, saved the gains of the Revolution blood of the “traitors " in office by whose corrupt machinations for France. the millennium was delayed, and only those orators were listened The Jacobin Club was closed after the fall of Robespierre on to who pandered to its suspicions. Hence the elimination of the gth of Thermidor of the year III., and some of its members the moderate elements from the club; hence the ascendancy of were executed. An attempt was made to re-open the club, Marat, and finally of Robespierre, the secret of whose power was which was joined by many of the enemics of the Thermidorians, that they really shared the suspicions of the populace, to which but on the 21st of Brumaire, year III. (Nov. II, 1794), it was they gave a voice and which they did not shrink from translating definitively closed. Its members and their sympathizers were into action. After the fall of the monarchy Robespierre was in scattered among the cafés, where a ruthless war of sticks and effect the Jacobin Club; for to the tribunes he was the oracle chairs was waged against them by the young aristocrats" of political wisdom, and by his standard all others were judged.? known as the jeunesse dorée. Nevertheless the “ Jacobins With his fall the Jacobins too came to an end. survived, in a somewhat subterranean fashion, emerging again Not the least singular thing about the Jacobins is the very in the club of the Panthéon, founded on the 25th of November slender material basis on which their overwhelming power rested. 1795, and suppressed in the following February (see BABEUF; France groaned under their tyranny, which was compared to that François NOEL). The last attempt to reorganize them was the of the Inquisition, with its system of espionage and denuncia- foundation of the Réunion d'amis de l'égalité et de la liberlé, in tions which no one was too illustrious or too humble to escape. July. 1799, which had its headquarters in the Salle du Manège Yet it was reckoned by competent observers that, at the height of of the Tuileries, and was thus known as the Club du Manège. the Terror, the Jacobins could not command a force of more than It was patronized by Barras, and some two hundred and fifty 3000 men in Paris. But the secret of their strength was that, members of the two councils of the legislature were enrolled as in the midst of the general disorganization, they alone were members, including many notable ex-Jacobins. It published a organized. The police agent Dutard, in a report to the minister newspaper called the Journal des Libres, proclaimed the apothes Garat (April 30, 1793), describing an episode in the Palais osis of Robespierre and Babeuf, and attacked the Directory as a Égalité (Royal), adds: “ Why did a dozen Jacobins strike terror royauté pentarchique. But public opinion was now preponder. into two or three hundred aristocrats? It is that the former atingly moderate or royalist, and the club was violently attacked have a rallying-point and that the latter have none." When in the press and in the streets, the suspicions of the government the jeunesse dorée did at last organize themselves, they had little were aroused; it had to change its meeting-place from the difficulty in flogging the Jacobins out of the cafés into compara- Tuileries to the church of the Jacobins (Temple of Peace) in the tive silence. Long before this the Girondin government had Rue du Bac, and in August it was suppressed, after barely a been urged to meet crganization by organization, force by force; month's existence. Its members revenged themselves on the and it is clear from the daily reports of the police agents that even Directory by supporting Napoleon Bonaparte. lie. Journal des débats et de la correspondance de la Société, &c. Long before the suppression of the Jacobin Club the name of For the various newspapers published under the auspices of the * Jacobins " had been popularly applied to all promulgators Jacobins see Aulard i. p. cx., &c. of extreme revolutionary opinions. In this sense the word 2 In the published reports only the speeches of members are given passed beyond the borders of France and long survived the not the interruptions from the tribunes. But see the report (May 18, 1793) of Dutard to Garat on a meeting of the Jacobins (Schmidt, Revolution. Canning's paper, The Anti-Jacobin, directed against Tableaux ii. 242). the English Radicals, consecrated its use in England; and in the G 19 ( JACOBITE CHURCH-JACOBITES 119 correspondence of Metternich and other leaders of the repressive maphrian (fertilizer) since 1089 has lived at Mosul and ordains policy which followed the second fall of Napoleon, “ Jacobin " the bishops. Monkery is common among them, but there are no is the term commonly applied to anyone with Liberal tendencies, nuns. Next to the Roman Uniats (whom they term Rassen or even to so august a personage as the emperor Alexander I. of Venal) they most hate the Nestorian Syrians of Persia. In 1882, Russia. at the instance of the British government, the Turks began to The most important source of information for the history of the recognize them as a separate organization. Jacobins.is F. A. Aulard's La société des Jacobins, Recueil de docu, See M. Klein, Jacobus Baradaeus (Leiden, 1882); Assemani, ments (6 vols., Paris, 1889, &c.), where a critical bibliography will be Bibl. Or. ii. 62-69, 326 and 33!; G. P, Badger, The Nestorians found. This collection does not contain all the printed sources-- (London, 1852); Rubens Duval, La litérature syriaque (Paris, 1899); notably the official Journal of the Club is omitted—but these G. Krüger, Monophysitische Streitigkeiten (Jena, 1884); Silbernagel, şources, when not included, are indicated. The documents pub-Verfassung der Kirchen des Orients (Landshut, 1865); and G. Wright, lished are furnished with valuable explanatory notes. See also History of Syriac Literature (London, 1894). (F.C.C.) W, A. Schmidt, Tableaux de la révolution française (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870), notably for the reports of the secret police, which throw JACOBITES (from Lat. Jacobus, James), the name given after much light on the actual working of the Jacobin propaganda. the revolution of 1688 to the adherents, first of the exiled English (W. A. P.) king James II., then of his descendants, and after the extinction JACOBITE CHURCH. The name of “ Jacobites” is first exiled house of Stuart. of the latter in 1807, of the descendants of Charles I., i.e. of the found in a synodal decree of Nicaea A.D. 787, and was invented by hostile Greeks for the Syrian Monophysite Church as founded, and 1745, is part of the general history of England (q.v.), and The history of the Jacobites, culminating in the risings of 1715 or rather restored, by Jacob or James Baradaeus, who was especially of Scotland (q.v.), in which country they were com- ordained its bishop A.D. 541 or 543. The Monophysites, who like paratively more numerous and more active, while there was also the Greeks knew themselves simply as the Orthodox, were a large number of Jacobites in Ireland. They were recruited grievously persecuted by the emperor Justinian and the graeciz: largely, but not solely, from among the Roman Catholics, and ing patriarchs of Antioch, because they rejected the decrees of the Protestants among them were often identical with the Non- the council of Chalcedon, in which they-not without good reason Jurors. Owing to a variety of causes Jacobitism began to lose -saw nothing but a thinly veiled relapse into those opinions of ground after the accession of George I. and the suppression of Nestorius which the previous council of Ephesus had condemned. I the revolt of 1715; and the total failure of the rising of 1745 may James was born a little before A.D. 500 at Tella or Tela, 55 m. be said to mark its end as a serious political force. In 1765 east of Edessa, of a priestly family, and entered the convent of Horace Walpole said that “ Jacobitism, the concealed mother Phesilta on Mount Isla. About 528 he went with a fellow-monk of the latter (i.e. Toryism), was extinct,” but as a sentiment it Sergius to Constantinople to plead the cause of his co-religionists remained for some time longer, and may even be said to exist with the empress Theodora, and livid there fifteen years. to-day. In 1750, during a strike of coal workers at Elswick, Justinian during those years imprisoned, deprived or exiled James III. was proclaimed king; in 1780 certain persons walked most of the recalcitrant clergy of Syria, Mesopotamia, Cilicia, out of the Roman Catholic Church at Hexham when George III. Cappadocia, and the adjacent regions. Once ordained bishop of was prayed for; and as late as 1784 a Jacobite rising was talked Edessa, with the connivance of Theodora, James, disguised as a about. Northumberland was thus a Jacobite stronghold; and ragged beggar (whence his name Baradacus, Syriac Burdžānā, in Manchester, where in 1777 according to an American observer Arabic al-Barādiā), traversed these regions preaching, teaching Jacobitism "is openly professed,” a Jacobite rendezvous known and ordaining new clergy to the number, it is said, of 80,000. as“ John Shaw's Club ” lasted from 1735 to 1892. North Wales His later years were embittered by squabbles with his own clergy, was another Jacobite centre. The“ Cycle of the White Rose”. and he died in 578. His work, however, endured, and in the -the white rose being the badge of the Stuarts-composed of middle ages the Jacobite hierarchy numbered 150 archbishops members of the principal Welsh families around Wrexham, and bishops under a patriarch and his maphrian. About the including the Williams-Wynns of Wynnstay, lasted from 1710 year 728 six Jacobite bishops present at the council of Manazgert until some time between 1850 and 1860. Jacobite traditions established communion with the Armenians, who equally rejected also lingered among the great families of the Scottish Highlands; Chalcedon; they were sent by the patriarch of Antioch, and the last person to suffer death as a Jacobite was Archibald among them were the metropolitan of Urha (Edessa) and the Cameron, a son of Cameron of Lochiel, who was executed in bishops of Qarhan, Gardman, Nferkert and Amasia. How long 1753. Dr Johnson's Jacobite sympathies are well known, and this union lasted is not known. In 1842, when the Rev. G. P. on the death of Victor Emmanuel I., the ex-king of Sardinia, in Badger visited the chief Jacobite centrcs, their numbers in all 1824, Lord Liverpool wrote to Canning saying " there are those Turkey had dwindled to about 100,000 souls, owing to vast who think that the ex-king was the lawful king of Great Britain." secessions to Rome. At Aleppo at that date only ten families Until the accession of King Edward VII. finger-bowls were out of several hundred remained true to their old faith, and not placed upon the royal dinner-table, because in former times something like the same proportion at Damascus and Bagdad. those who secretly sympathized with the Jacobites were in Badger testifies that the Syrian proselytes to Rome were superior the habit of drinking to the king over the water. The romantic to their Jacobite brethren, having established schools, rebuilt side of Jacobitism was stimulated by Sir Walter Scott’s Waverley, their churches, increased their clergy, and, above all, having and many Jacobite poems were written during the 19th learned to live with each other on terms of peace and charity. century. As late as 1850 there were 150 villages of them in the Jebel Toor The chief collections of Jacobite poems are: Charles Mackay's to the north-east of Mardin, so in the district of Urſah and Jacobite Songs and Ballads of Scotland, 1688–1746, with Appendix of , Gawar, and a few in the neighbourhoods of Diarbekr, Mosul and Modern Jacobite Songs (1861); G. S. Macquoid's Jacobile Songs and Damascus. From about 1860, the seceders to Rome were able, Ballads (1888); and English Jacobite Ballads, edited by A. B. Grosart thanks to French consular protection, to seize the majority of from the Towneley manuscripts (1877). the Jacobite churches in Turkey; and this injustice has contri- Upon the death of Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, the last of buted much to the present degradation and impoverishment James II.'s descendants, in 1807, the rightful occupant of the of the Jacobites. British throne according to legitimist principles was to be found They used leavened bread in the Eucharist mixed with salt among the descendants of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I., who and oil, and like other Monophysites add to the Trisagion the married Philip I., duke of Orleans. Henrietta's daughter, Anne words “ Who wast crucified for our sake.” They venerate Marie (1669-1728), became the wife of Victor Amadeus II., duke pictures or images, and make the sign of the cross with one of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia; her son was King Charles finger to show that Christ had but one nature. Deacons, as in Emmanuel III., and her grandson Victor Amadeus III. The Armenia, marry before taking priests' orders. Their patriarch latter's son, King Victor Emmanuel I., left no sons, and his eldest is styled of Antioch, but seldom comes west of Mardin. His daughter, Marie Beatrice, married Francis IV., duke of Modena, " а I 20 JACOBS, C. F. W.-JACOBSEN whose son Ferdinand (d. 1849) left an only daughter, Marie | rousing his country against Napoleon, whom he regarded as a Thérèse (b. 1849). This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria, second Philip of Macedon. was in 1910 the senior member of the Stuart family, and accord- See E. F. Wüstemann, Friderici Jacobsii laudatio (Gotha, 1848); ing to the legitimists the rightful sovereign of Great Britain and c. Bursian, Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland; and Ireland. the appreciative article by C. Regel in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. Table showing the succession to the crown of Great Britain and Ireland JACOBS CAVERN, a cavern in latitude 36° 35' N., 2 m. E. according to Jacobite principles. of Pineville, McDonald county, Missouri, named after its dis- Charles I. (1600–1649) coverer, E. H. Jacobs, of Bentonville, Arkansas. It was Henrietta (1644-1670) = scientifically explored by him, in company with Professors Philip I., duke of Orleans (1640-1701) Charles Peabody and Warren K. Moorehead, in 1903. The results were published in that year by Jacobs in the Benton Anne Marie (1669-1728),= County Sun; by C. N. Gould in Science, July 31, 1903; by Victor Amadeus II., king of Sardinia (1666-1732) Peabody in the Am. Anthropologist, Sept. 1903; and in the Am. 1 Charles Emmanuel III. Journ. Archaeology, 1904; and by Peabody and Moorehead, 1904, king of Sardinia (1701–1773) as Bulletin I. of the Dept. of Archaeology in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in the museum of which are exhibits, maps and Victor Amadeus III. photographs. king of Sardinia (1726–1796) Jacobs Cavern is one of the smaller caves, hardly more than Victor Emmanuel I. a rock-shelter, and is entirely in the “ St Joe Limestone” of the king of Sardinia (1759-1824) sub-carboniferous age. Its roof is a single flat stratum of lime- stone; its walls are well marked by lines of stratification; drip- Marie Beatrice (c. 1780-1840) = stone also partly covers the walls, fills a deep fissure at the end Francis IV., duke of Modena (1779-1846) of the cave, and spreads over the floor, where it mingles with an Ferdinand (1821-1849) ancient bed of ashes, forming an ash-breccia (mostly firm and solid) that encloses fragments of sandstone, flint spalls, flint im- Marie Thérèse (b. 1849) = plements, charcoal and bones. Underneath is the true floor of Louis, prince of Bavaria (b. 1845) the cave, a mass of homogeneous yellow clay, one metre in thick- ness. It holds scattered fragments of limestone, and is itself the Rupert, prince result of limestone degeneration. The length of the opening is Charles Francis of Bavaria (b. 1869) (b. 1874) (b. 1875) over 21 metres; its depth 14 metres, and the height of roof above the undisturbed ash deposit varied from i m. 20 cm. to 2 m. Luitpold Albert Rudolph 60 cm. The bone recess at the end was from 50 cm. to 80 cm. in (b. 1901) (b. 1905) (b. 1909) height. The stratum of ashes was from 50 cm. to i m. 50 cm. Among the modern Jacobite, or legitimist, societies perhaps the thick. most important is the "Order of the White Rose," which has a branch The ash surface was staked off into square metres, and the in Canada and the United States. The order holds that sovereign authority is of divine sanction, and that the execution of Charles I. substance carefully removed in order. Each stalactite, stalag. and the revolution of 1688 were national crimes; it exists to study mite and pilaster was measured, numbered, and removed in the history of the Stuarts, to oppose all democratic tendencies, and sections. Six hus sk ons were found buried in the ashes. in general to maintain the theory that kingship, is independent of all parliamentary authority and popular approval. The order, which Seven-tenths of a cubic metre of animal bones were found: deer, was instituted in 1886, was responsible for the Stuart exhibition of bear, wolf, raccoon, opossum, beaver, buffalo, elk, turkey, wood- 1889, and has a newspaper, the Royalist. Among other societies chuck, tortoise and hog; all contemporary with man's occupancy. with similar objects in view are the “ Thames Valley Legitimist Three stone metates, one stone axe, one celt and fifteen hammer- Club" and the Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and stones were found. Jacobs Cavern was peculiarly rich in flint Ireland.” See Historical Papers relating to the Jacobite Period, edited by J. knives and projectile points. The sum total amounts to 419 Allardyce (Aberdeen, 1895-1898); James Hogg, The Jacobite Relics of objects, besides hundreds of fragments, cores, spalls and rejects, Scotland (Edinburgh, 1819-1821); and F. W. Head, The Fallen Stuarts retained for study and comparison. Considerable numbers of (Cambridge, 1901). The marquis de Ruvigny has compiled The bone or horn awls were found in the ashes, as well as fragments Jacobite Peerage (Edinburgh, 1904), a work which purports to give a list of all the titles and honours conferred by the kings of the of pottery, but no “ ceremonial ” objects. exiled House of Stuart. (A. W. H.*) The rude type of the implements, the absence of fine pottery, JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1764-1847), and the peculiarities of the human remains, indicate a race of German classical scholar, was born at Gotha on the 6th of Octo-occupants more ancient than the “mound-builders." The ber 1764. After studying philology and theology at Jena and deepest implement observed was buried 50 cm. under the stalag- Göttingen, in 1785 he became teacher in the gymnasium of his mitic surface. Dr. Hovey has proved that the rate of stalagmitic native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an office in the growth in Wyandotte Cave, Indiana, is .0254 cm. annually; and public library. In 1807 he became classical tutor in the lyceum if that was the rate in Jacobs Cavern, 1968 years would have of Munich, but, disgusted at the attacks made upon him by been needed for the embedding of that implement. Polished the old Bavarian Catholic party, who resented the introduc- rocks outside the cavern and pictographs in the vicinity indicate tion of north German teachers, he returned to Gotha in the work of a prehistoric race earlier than the Osage Indians, 1810 to take charge of the library and the numismatic cabinet. who were the historic owners previous to the advent of the white He remained in Gotha till his death on the 30th of March 1847. man. (H. C. H.) Jacobs was an extremely successful teacher; he took great JACOBSEN, JENS PETER (1847–1885), Danish imaginative interest in the affairs of his country, and was a publicist of writer, was born at Thisted in Jutland, on the 7th of April 1847; no mean order. But his great work was an edition of the he was the eldest of the five children of a prosperous merchant. Greek Anthology, with copious notes, in 13 volumes (1798- He became a student at the university of Copenhagen in 1868. 1814), supplemented by a revised text from the Codex Palatinus As a boy he showed a remarkable turn for science, particularly (1814-1817). He published also notes on Horace, Stobaeus, for botany. In 1870, although he was secretly writing verses Euripides, Athenaeus and the Iliaca of Tzetzes; translations already, Jacobsen definitely adopted botany as a profession. of Aelian (History of Animals); many of the Greek romances; He was sent by a scientific body in Copenhagen to report on the Philostratus; poetical versions of much of the Greek Anthology; flora of the islands of Anholt and Læsö. About this time the miscellaneous essays on classical subjects; and some very suc. discoveries of Darwin began to exercise a fascination over him, cessful school books. His translation of the political speeches and finding them little understood in Denmark, he translated of Demosthenes was undertaken with the express purpose of l into Danish The Origin of Species and The Descent of Man. In 6 JACOB'S WELL-JACOTOT I21 a the autumn of 1872, while collecting plants in a morass near | in the Dominican church at Genoa. A story, mentioned by the Ordrup, he contracted pulmonary disease. His illness, which chronicler Echard as unworthy of credit, makes Boniface VIII., cut him off from scientific investigation, drove him to literature. on the first day of Lent, cast the ashes in the archbishop's eyes He met the famous critic, Dr Georg Brandes, who was struck by instead of on his head, with the words, “ Remember that thou his powers of expression, and under his influence, in the spring art a Ghibelline, and with thy fellow Ghibellines wilt return to of 1873, Jacobsen began his great historical romance of Marie naught." Grubbe. His method of composition was painful and elaborate, Jacobus de Voragine left a list of his own works. Speaking of and his work was not ready for publication until the close of himself in his Chronicon januense, he says, “While he was in his 1876. In 1879 he was too ill to write at all; but in 1880 an im-order, and after he had been made archbishop, he wrote many works. For he compiled the legends of the saints (Legendae sanctorum) in provement came, and he finished his second novel, Niels Lyhne. one volume, adding many things from the Historia tripartita et In 1882 he published a volume of six short stories, most of them scholastica, and from the chronicles of many writers." The other written a few years earlier, called, from the first of them, Mogens. writings he claims are two anonymous volumes of “Sermons con- After this he wrote no more, but lingered on in his mother's house cerning all the Saints", whose yearly feasts the church celebrates. at Thisted until the 30th of April 1885. In 1886 his posthumous of these volumes, he adds, one is very diffuse, but the other short and concise. Then follow Sermones de omnibus evangeliis dominicalibus fragments were collected. It was early recognized that Jacobsen for every Sunday in the year; Sermones de omnibus evangeliis, i.e. was the greatest artist in prose that Denmark has produced. a book of discourses on all the Gospels, from Ash Wednesday to the He has been compared with Flaubert, with De Quincey, with Tuesday after Easter; and a treatise called “ Marialis, qui totus est Pater; but these parallelisms merely express a sense of the intense attributes, titles, &c., of the Virgin Mary. In the same work the de B. Maria compositus," consisting of about 160 discourses on the individuality of his style, and of his untiring pursuit of beauty in archbishop claims to have written his Chronicon januense in the colour, form and melody. Although he wrote so little, and second year of his pontificate (1293), but it extends to 1296 or 1297. crossed the living stage so hurriedly, his influence in the North To this list Echard adds several other works, such as a defence of the has been far-reaching. It may be said that no one in Denmark vitiorum Guillelmi Peraldi, a Dominican who died about 1250. Dominicans, printed at Venice in 1504, and a Summa virtulum et or Norway has tried to write prose carefully since 1880 whose Jacobus is also said by Sixtus of Siena (Biblioth. Sacra, lib. ix.) to efforts have not been in some degree modified by the example of have tra ated the old and New Testaments into his own tongue. Jacobsen's laborious art. "But,” adds Echard, “ if he did so, the version lies so closely hid that there is no recollection of it," and it may be added that it is His Samlede Skrifter appeared in two volumes in 1888; in 1899 highly improbable that the man who compiled the Golden Legend his letters (Breve) were edited by Edvard Brandes. In 1896 an ever conceived the necessity of having the Scriptures in the English translation of part of the former was published under the vernacular. title of Siren Voices: Niels Lyhne, by Miss E. F. L. Robertson. His two chief works are the Chronicon januense and the Golden (E. G.) Legend or Lombardica hystoria. The former is partly printed in JACOB'S WELL, the scene of the conversation between the first four deal with the mythical history of Genoa from the time Muratori (Scriplores Rer. Ital. ix. 6). It is divided into twelve parts. Jesus and the “woman of Samaria” narrated in the Fourth of its founder, Janus, the first king of Italy, and its enlarger, a second Gospel, is described as being in the neighbourhood of an other- Janus " citizen of Troy", till its conversion to Christianity “ about wise unmentioned “city called Sychar.” From the time of twenty-five years after the passion of Christ." Part v. professes Eusebius this city has been identified with Sychem or Shechem but of the first period the writer candidly confesses he knows nothing to treat of the beginning, the growth and the perfection of the city; (modern Nablus), and the well is still in existence it m. E. of except by hearsay. The second period includes the Genoese crusading the town, at the foot of Mt Gerizim. It is beneath one of the exploits in the East, and extends to their victory over the Pisans ruined arches of a church mentioned by Jerome, and is reached (c. 1130), while the third reaches down to the days of the author's by a few rough steps. When Robinson visited it in 1838 it city, the seventh and eighth with the duties of rulers and citizens, the archbishopric. The sixth part deals with the constitution of the was 105 ft. deep, but it is now much shallower and often dry. ninth with those of domestic life. The tenth gives the ecclesiastical For a discussion of Sychar as distinct from Shechem see T. K. history of Genoa from the time of its first known bishop, St Valentine, Cheyne, art. Sychar," in Ency. Bibl., col. 4830. It is possible whom we believe to have lived about 530 A.D., "till 1133, when the that Sychar should be placed at Tulūl Balātā, a mound about' m.w. city was raised to archiepiscopal rank. The eleventh contains the of the well (Palestine Exploration Fund Statement, 1907, p. 92 seq.): lives of all the bishops in order, and includes the chief events during when that village fell into ruin the name may have migrated to their pontificates; the twelfth deals in the same way with the Askar, a village on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about it m. E.n.e. archbishops, not forgetting the writer himself. from Nablus and I m. N. from Jacob's Well. It may be noted The Golden Legend, one of the most popular religious works of the that the difficulty is not with the location of the well, but with the middle ages, is a collection of the legendary lives of the greater identification of Sychar. saints of the medieval church. The preface divides the ecclesias- tical year into four periods corresponding to the various epochs of the JACOBUS DE VORAGINE (c. 1230-c. 1298), Italian chronicler, world's history, a time of deviation, of renovation, of reconciliation archbishop of Genoa, was born at the little village of Varazze, 7(e) from Advent to Christmas (cc. 1-5);' (6) from Christmas to and of pilgrimage. The book itself, however, falls into five sections: near Genoa, about the year 1230. He entered the order of the Septuagesima (6-30); (c) from Septuagesima to Easter (31-53); friars preachers of St Dominic in 1244, and besides preaching dj from Easter Day to the octave of Pentecost (54–76); (e) from the with success in many parts of Italy, taught in the schools of his octave of Pentecost to Advent (77–180). The saints' lives are full of own fraternity. He was provincial of Lombardy from 1267 till puerile legend, and in not a few cases contain accounts of 13th- 1286, when he was removed at the meeting of the order in Paris. to the Dominicans. The last chapter but one (181), " De Sancto century miracles wrought at special places, particularly with reference He also represented his own province at the councils of Lucca Pelagio Papa," contains a kind of history of the world from the (1288) and Ferrara (1290). On the last occasion he was one of middle of the 6th century; while the last (182) is a somewhat the four delegates charged with signifying Nicholas IV.'s desire allegorical disquisition, “ De Dedicatione Ecclesiae." for the deposition of Munio de Zamora, who had been master Vigny in the 14th century. It was also one of the earliest books The Golden Legend was translated into French by Jean Belet de of the order from 1285, and was deprived of his office by a papal to issue from the press. A Latin edition is assigned to about 1469; bull dated the 12th of April 1291. In 1288 Nicholas empowered and a dated one was published at Lyons in 1473. Many other Latin him to absolve the people of Genoa for their offence in aiding translation by Master John Bataillier is dated 1476; Jean de Vigny's editions were printed before the end of the century. A French the Sicilians against Charles II. Early in 1292 the same pope, appeared at Paris, 1488; an Italian one by Nic. Manerbi (? Venice, himself a Franciscan, summoned Jacobus to Rome, intending 1475); a Bohemian one at Pilsen, 1475-1479, and at Prague, 1495; to consecrate him archbishop of Genoa with his own hands. Caxton's English versions, 1483, 1487 and 1493; and a German one He reached Rome on Palm Sunday (March 30), only to find in 1489. Several 15th-century editions of the Sermons are also his patron ill of a deadly sickness, from which he died on Good known, and the Mariale was printed at Venice in 1497 and at Paris Friday (April 4). The cardinals, however, "propter honorem For bibliography see Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aev. (Berlin, Communis Januae," determined to carry out this consecration 1896), p. 634; U. Chevalier, Répertoire des sources hist. Bio.-bibl. on the Sunday after Easter. He was a good bishop, and espe- (Paris, 1905), s.v. “ Jacques de Voragine." cially distinguished himself by his efforts to appease the civil JACOTOT, JOSEPH (1770-1840), French educationist, author discords of Genoa. He died in 1298 or 1299, and was buried l of the method of “emancipation intellectuelle," was born 3 in 1503 I 22 JACQUARD-JADE ) at Dijon on the 4th of March 1770. He was educated at the JACQUERIE, THE, an insurrection of the French peasantry university of Dijon, where in his nineteenth year he was chosen which broke out in the Ile de France and about Beauvais at the professor of Latin, after which he studied law, became advocate, end of May 1358. The hardships endured by the peasants in and at the same time devoted a large amount of his attention the Hundred Years' War and their hatred for the nobles who to mathematics. In 1788 he organized a federation of the youth oppressed them were the principal causes which led to the rising, of Dijon for the defence of the principles of the Revolution; though the immediate occasion was an affray which took place and in 1792, with the rank of captain, he set out to take part in on the 28th of May at the village of Saint-Leu between “bri- the campaign of Belgium, where he conducted himself with gands" (militia infantry armoured in brigandines) and country- bravery and distinction. After for some time filling the office of folk. The latter having got the upper hand united with the secretary of the “commission d'organisation du mouvement inhabitants of the neighbouring villages and placed Guillaume des armées," he in 1794 became deputy of the director of the Karle at their head. They destroyed numerous châteaux in the Polytechnic school, and on the institution of the central schools valleys of the Oise, the Brèche and the Thérain, where they at Dijon he was appointed to the chair of the method of subjected the whole countryside to fire and sword, committing sciences,” where he made his first experiments in that mode of the most terrible atrocities. Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, tuition which he afterwards developed more fully. On the crushed the rebellion at the battle of Mello on the roth of June, central schools being replaced by other educational institutions, and the nobles then took violent reprisals upon the peasants, Jacotot occupied successively the chairs of mathematics and of massacring them in great numbers. Roman law until the overthrow of the empire. In 1815 he was See Simeon Luce, Histoire de la Jacquerie (Paris, 1859 and 1895). elected a representative to the chamber of deputies; but after (J. V.*) the second restoration he found it necessary to quit his native JACTITATION (from Lat. jactitare, to throw out publicly), in land, and, having taken up his residence at Brussels, he was in English law, the maliciously boasting or giving out by one party 1818 nominated by the Government teacher of the French that he or she is married to the other. In such a case, in order language at the university of Louvain, where he perfected into a to prevent the common reputation of their marriage that might system the educational principles which he had already practised ensue, the procedure is by suit of jactitation of marriage, in which with success in France. His method was not only adopted in the petitioner alleges that the respondent boasts that he or she several institutions in Belgium, but also met with some approval is married to the petitioner, and prays a declaration of nullity in France, England, Germany and Russia. It was based on and a decree putting the respondent to perpetual silence there- three principles: (1) all men have equal intelligence; (2) every after. Previously to 1857 such a proceeding took place only in man has received from God the faculty of being able to instruct the ecclesiastical courts, but by express terms of the Matrimonial himself; (3) everything is in everything. As regards (1) he Causes Act of that year it can now be brought in the probate, maintained that it is only in the will to use their intelligence that divorce and admiralty division of the High Court. To the suit men differ; and his own process, depending on (3), was to give there are three defences: (1) denial of the boasting; (2) the any one learning a language for the first time a short passage of truth of the representations; (3) allegation (by way of estoppel) à few lines, and to encourage the pupil to study, first the that the petitioner acquiesced in the boasting of the respondent. words, then the letters, then the grammar, then the meaning, In Thompson v. Rourke, 1893, Prob. 70, the court of appeal laid until a single paragraph became the occasion for learning down that the court will not make a decree in a jactitation suit an entire literature. After the revolution of 1830 Jacotot in favour of a petitioner who has at any time acquiesced in the returned to France, and he died at Paris on the 30th of assertion of the respondent that they were actually married. July 1840. Jactitation of marriage is a suit that is very rare. His system was described by him in Enseignement universel, JADE, or JAHDE, a deep bay and estuary of the North Sea, langue maternelle, Louvain and Dijon, 1823—which passed through belonging to the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The bay, several editions and in various other works; and he also advocated which was for the most part made by storm-floods in the 13th his views in the Journal de l'émancipation intellectuelle. For a com: and 16th centuries, measures 70 sq. m., and has communication plete list of his works and fuller details regarding his career, see Biographie de J. Jacotot, by Achille Guillard (Paris, 1860). with the open sea by a fairway, a mile and a half wide, which never freezes, and with the tide gives access to the largest vessels. JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE (1752-1834), French inventor, On the west side of the entrance to the bay is the Prussian naval was born at Lyons on the 7th of July 1752. On the death of port of Wilhelmshaven. A tiny stream, about 14 m. long, bis father, who was a working weaver, be inherited two looms, also known as the Jade, enters the head of the bay. with which he started business on his own account. He did JADE, a name commonly applied to certain ornamental stones, not, however, prosper, and was at last forced to become a lime- mostly of a green colour, belonging to at least two distinct burner at Bresse, while his wife supported herself at Lyons by species, one termed nephrite and the other jadeite. Whilst the plaiting straw. In 1793 he took part in the unsuccessful defence term jade is popularly used in this sense, it is now usually of Lyons against the troops of the Convention; but afterwards restricted by mineralogists to nephrite. The word jadel is served in their ranks on the Rhône and Loire. After seeing derived (through Fr.le jade for l’ejade) from Span. ijada (Lat. ilia), some active service, in which his young son was shot down at the loins, this mineral having been known to the Spanish con- his side, he again returned to Lyons. There he obtained a querors of Mexico and Peru under the name of piedra de ijada or situation in a factory, and employed his spare time in construct-yjada (colic stone). The reputed value of the stone in renal ing his improved loom, of which he had conceived the idea diseases is also suggested by the term nephrite (so named by several years previously. In 1801 he exhibited his invention at A. G. Werner from Gr. veopós, kidney), and by its old name the industrial exhibition at Paris; and in 1803 he was summoned lapis nephriticus. to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Jade, in its wide and popular sense, has always been highly A loom by Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782), deposited there, prized by the Chinese, who not only believe in its medicinal suggested various improvements in his own, which he gradually value but regard it as the symbol of virtue. It is known, with perfected to its final state. Although his invention was fiercely other ornamental stones, under the name of yu or yu-chi (yu- opposed by the silk-weavers, who feare that its introduction, stone). According to Pr ssor H. A. Giles, it occupies in China owing to the saving of labour, would deprive them of their liveli- the highest place as a jewel, and is revered as “the quintessence hood, its advantages secured its general adoption, and by 1812 of heaven and earth.” Notwithstanding its toughness or tenacity, there were 11,000 Jacquard looms in use in France. The loom due to a dense fibrous structure, it is wrought into complicated was declared public property in 1806, and Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. He died at 1. The English use of the word for a worthless, ill-tempered horse, Oullins (Rhône) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later referred doubtfully to the same Spanish source as the O. Sp. ijadear, screw," also applied as a term of reproach to a woman, has been a statue was erected to him at Lyons (see WEAVING). meaning to pant, of a broken-winded horse. a JADE I 23 forms and elaborately carved. On many prehistoric sites in Jade implements are widely distributed in Alaska and British Europe, as in the Swiss lake-dwellings, celts and other carved Columbia, being found in Indian graves, in old shell-heaps and on objects both in nephrite and in jadeite have not infrequently covery of some boulders of jade in the Fraser river valley, held that the sites of deserted villages. Dr.G.M.Dawson, arguing from the dis- been found; and as no kind of jade had until recent years been they were not obtained by barter from Siberia, but were of native discovered in situ in any European locality it was held, especially origin; and the locality was afterwards discovered by Lieut. G. M. by Professor L. H. Fischer, of Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden, that Stoney. It is known as the Jade Mountains, and is situated north either the raw material or the worked objects must have been large collection of jade implements by Professor F. W. Clarke and of Kowak river, about 150 miles from its mouth. The study of a brought by some of the early inhabitants from a jade locality PrG.P. Merrill proved that the Alaskan jade is true nephrite, not to probably in the East, or were obtained by barter, thus suggesting be distinguished from that of New Zealand. a very early trade-route to the Orient. Exceptional interest, Jadeite is a mineral species established by A. Damour in 1863, therefore, attached to the discovery of jade in Europe, nephrite differing markedly from nephrite in that its relation lies with the having been found in Silesia, and jadeite or a similar rock in pyroxenes rather than with the amphiboles. It is an aluminium sodium silicate, NaAl(SiO3)2, related to spodumene. S. L. Pen- the Alps, whilst pebbles of jade have been obtained from many field showed, by measurement, that jadeite is monoclinic. Its localities in Austria and north Germany, in the latter case colour is commonly very pale, and white jadeite, which is the purest probably derived from Sweden. It is, therefore, no longer variety, is known as “camphor jade." In many cases the mineral necessary to assign the old jade implements to an exotic origin. presence of chromium. Jadeite is much more fusible than nephrite, shows bright patches of apple-green or emerald-green, due to the Dr A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, always maintained that the Euro- and is rather harder (6:5 to 7), but its most readily determined pean jade objects were indigenous, and his views have become character is found in its higher specific gravity, which ranges from generally accepted. Now that the mineral characters of jade 3.20 to 3.41. Some jadeite seems to be a metamorphosed igneous rock. are better understood, and its identification less uncertain, it may possibly be found with altered peridotites, or with amphibo-century, is mostly jadeite. The quarries, described by Dr F. Noct- The Burmese jade, discovered by a Yunnan trader in the 13th lites, among the old crystalline schists of many localities. ling, are situated on the Uru river, about 120 m. from Mogaung, where the jadeite occurs in serpentine, and is partly extracted by fire- Nephrite, or true jade, may be regarded as a finely Albrous or com setting. It is also found as boulders in alluvium, and when these pact variety of amphibole, referred either to actinolite or to tremolite, occur in a bed of laterite they acquire a red colour, which imparts to according as its colour inclines to green or white. Chemically it is a them peculiar value. According to Dr W. G. Bleeck, who visited calcium-magnesium silicate, CaMg:(SiO3),. The fibres are either the jade country of Upper Burma after Noetling, jadeite occurs at more or less parallel or irregularly felted together, rendering the stone three localities in the Kachin Hills—Tawmaw, Hweka and Mamon. excessively tough; yet its hardness is not great, being only about 6 or The jadeite is known as chauk-sen, and is sent either to China or to 6.5: The mineral sometimes tends to become schistose, breaking Mandalay, by way of Bhamo, whence Bhamo has come erroneously with a splintery fracture, or its structure may be horny. The specific to be regarded as a locality for jade. Jadeite occurs in association gravity varies from 2.9 to 3.18, and is of determinative value, since with the nephrite of Turkestan, and possibly in some other Asiatic jadeite is much denser. The colour of jade presents various shades localities. In certain cases nephrite is formed by the alteration of of green, yellow and grey, and the mineral when polished has a rather jadeite, as shown by Professor J. P. Iddings. The Chinese feits'ui, greasy lustre. Professor F. W. Clarke found the colours due to com- sometimes called “imperial jade," is a beautiful green stone, which pounds of iron, manganese and chromium. One of the most famous seems generally to be jadeite, but it is said that in some cases it localities for nephrite is on the west side of the South Island of New may be chrysoprase. It is named from its resemblance in colour Zealand, where it occurs as nodules and veins in serpentine and to the plumage of the kingfisher. The resonant character of jade talcose rocks, but is generally found as boulders. It was known to the has led to its occasional use as a musical stone. Maoris as pounamu, or “green stone," and was highly prized, being In Mexico, in Central America and in the northern part of South worked with great labour into various objects, especially the club. America, objects of jadeite are common. The Kunz votive adze like implement known as the mere, or pattoo-pattoo, and the breast from Oaxaca, in Mexico, is now in the American Museum of Natural ornament called hei-tiki. The New Zealand jade, called by old History, New York. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico green talc of the Maoris," is now worked in Europe as an amulets of green stone were highly venerated, and it is believed that ornamental stone. The green jade-like stone known in New Zealand jadeite was one of the stones prized under the name of chalchihuill. as langiwai is bowenite, a translucent serpentine with enclosures of Probably turquoise was another stone included under this name, and magnesite. The mode of occurrence of the nephrite and bowenite of indeed any green stone capable of being polished, such as the Amazon New Zealand has been described by A. M. Finlayson (Quart. Jour, stone, now recognized as a green feldspar, may have been numbered Geol. Soc., 1909, p. 351).. It appears that the Maoris distinguished among the Aztec amulets. Dr Kunz suggests that the chalchihuit! six varieties of jade. Difference of colour seems due to variations in was jadeite in southern Mexico and Central America, and turquoise the proportion of ferrous silicate in the mineral. According to in northern Mexico and New Mexico. He thinks that Mexican Finlayson, the New Zealand nephrite results from the chemical jadeite may yet be discovered in places (Gems and Precious Slones of alteration of serpentine, olivine or pyroxene, whereby a fibrous Mexico, by G. F. Kunz: Mexico, 1907). amphibole is formed, which becomes converted by intense pressure Chloromelanite is Damour's name for a dense, dark mineral which and movement into the dense nephrite. has been regarded as a kind of jade, and was used for the manufac- Nephrite occurs also in New Caledonia, and perhaps in some of the ture of celts found in the dolmens of France and in certain Swiss other Pacific islands, but many of the New Caledonian implements lake-dwellings. It is a mineral of spinach-green or dark-green reputed to be of jade are really made of serpentine. From its use colour, having a specific gravity of 3.4, or even as high as 3.65, and as a material for axe-heads, jade is often known in Germany as may be regarded as a variety of jadeite rich in iron. Chloro- Beilstein (“ axe-stone "). A fibrous variety, of specific gravity 3.18, melanite occurs in the Cyclops Mountains in New Guinea, and is used found in New Caledonia, and perhaps in the Marquesas, was dis- for hatchets or agricultural implements, whilst the sago-clubs of the tinguished by A. Damour under the name of oceanic jade." island are usually of serpentine. Sillimanite, or fibrolite, is a mineral Much of the nephrite used by the Chinese has been obtained from which, like chloromelanite, was used by the Neolithic occupants of quarries in the Kuen-lun mountains, on the sides of the Kara-kash western Europe, and is sometimes mistaken for a pale kind of jade. valley, in Turkestan. The mineral, generally of pale colour, occurs It is an aluminium silicate, of specific gravity about 3:2, distinguished in nests and veins running through hornblende-schists and gneissose by its infusibility. The jade tenace of J. R. Haüy, discovered by rocks, and it is notable that when first quarried it is comparatively H. B. de Saussure in the Swiss Alps, is now known as saussurité. soft. It appears to have a wide distribution in the mountains, and Among other substances sometimes taken for jade may be mentioned has been worked from very ancient times in Khotan. Nephrite is prehnite, a hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate, which when polished said to occur also in the Pamir region, and pebbles are found in the much resembles certain kinds of jade. Pectolite has been used, like beds of many streams. In Turkestan, jade is known as yashm or jade, in Alaska. A variety of vesuvianite (idocrase) from California, jeshm, a word which appears in Arabic as yeshb, perhaps cognate described by Dr. G. F. Kunz as californițe, was at first mistaken for with laotis or jasper. The "jasper" of the ancients may have jade. The name jadeolite has been given by Kunz to a green included jade. Nephrite is said to have been discovered in 1891 in chromiferous syenite from the jadeite mines of Burma. The mineral the Nan-shan mountains in the Chinese province of Kan-suh, where called bowenite. at one time supposed to be jade, is a hard and tough it is worked. The grcat centre of Chinese jade-working is at Peking, variety of serpentine. Some of the common Chinese ornaments and formerly the industry was active at Su-chow Fu.. Siberia imitating jade are carved in steatite or serpentine, while others are has yielded very fine specimens of dark green nephrite, notably from merely glass.. The pâte de riz is a fine white glass. The so-called the neighbourhood of the Alibert graphite mine, near Batugol, Lake "pink jade "is mostly quartz, artificially coloured, and“ black jade," Baikal. The jade seems to occur as a rock in part of the Sajan though sometimes mentioned, has no existence. mountain system. New deposits in Siberia were opened up to supply An exhaustive description of jade will be found in a sumptuous material for the tomb of the tsar Alexander III. A gigantic mono- work, entitled Investigations and Studies in Jade (New York, 1906). lith exists at the tomb of Tamerlane at Samarkand. The occurrence This work, edited by Dr G. F. Kunz, was prepared in illustration of the Siberian jade has been described by Professor L. von Jaczewski. I of the famous jade collection made by Heber Reginald Bishop, and " writers I 24 JAEN—JÄGERNDORF presented by him to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. JAFARABAD, a state of India, in the Kathiawar agency of The work, which is in two folio volumes, superbly illustrated, was printed privately, and after 100 copies had been struck off on Ameri- Bombay, forming part of the territory of the nawab of Janjira; can band-made paper, the type was distributed and the material area, 42 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 12,097; estimated revenue, £4000. used for the illustrations was destroyed. The second volume is a The town of Jafarabad (pop. 6038), situated on the estuary of a catalogue of the collection, which comprises 900 specimens arranged river, carries on a large coasting trade. in three classes: mineralogical, archacological and artistic. The JAFFNA, a town of Ceylon, at the northern extremity of the important section on Chinese jade was contributed by Dr S. W. Bushell, who also translated for the work a discourse on jade island. The fort was described by Sir J. Emerson Tennent as Yü-shuo by T'ang Jung-tso, of Peking: Reference should also be “the most perfect little military work in Ceylon-a pentagon made to Heinrich Fischer's Nephrit und Jadeit (2nd ed., Stuttgart, built of blocks of white coral.” The European part of the town 1880), a work which at the date of its publication was almost bears the Dutch stamp more distinctly than any other town in exhaustive. (F. W. R. *) the island; and there still exists a Dutch Presbyterian church. JAEN, an inland province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of Several of the church buildings date from the time of the Portu- districts belonging to Andalusia; bounded on the N. by Ciudad guese. In 1901 Jaffna had a population of 33,879, while in the Real and Albacete, E. by Albacete and Granada, S. by Granada, district or peninsula of the same name there were 300,851 persons, and W. by Cordova. Pop. (1900), 474,490; area, 5848 sq. m. nearly all Tamils, the only Europeans being the civil servants and Jaen comprises the upper basin of the river Guadalquivir, which a few planters. Coco-nut planting has not been successful of traverses the central districts from east to west, and is enclosed recent years. The natives grow palmyras freely, and have a on the north, south and east by mountain ranges, while on the trade in the fibre of this palm. · They also grow and export west it is entered by the great Andalusian plain. The Sierra tobacco, but not enough rice for their own requirements. A Morena, which divides Andalusia from New Castile, extends steamer calls weekly, and there is considerable trade. The along the northern half of the province, its most prominent railway extension from Kurunegala due north to Jaffna and the ridges being the Loma de Chiclana and the Loma de Ubeda; coast was commenced in 1900. Jaffna is the seat of a govern- the Sierras de Segura, in the east, derive their name from the ment agent and district judge, and criminal sessions of the river Segura, which rises just within the border; and between supreme court are regularly held. Jaffna, or, as the natives call the last-named watershed, its continuation the Sierra del Pozo, it, Yalpannan, was occupied by the Tamils about 204 B.C., and and the parallel Sierra de Cazorla, is the source of the Guadal- there continued to be Tamil rajahs of Jaffna till 1617, when the quivir. The loftiest summits in the province are those of the Portuguese took possession of the place. As early as 1544 the Sierra Magina (7103 ft.) farther west and south. Apart from missionaries under Francis Xavier had made converts in this the Guadalquivir the only large rivers are its right-hand tribu- part of Ceylon, and after the conquest the Portuguese main- taries the Jándula and Guadalimar, its left-hand tributary the tained their proselytizing zeal. They had a Jesuit college, a Guadiana Menor, and the Segura, which flows easť and south Franciscan and a Dominican monastery. The Dutch drove out to the Mediterranean. the Portuguese in 1658. The Church of England Missionary In a region which varies so markedly in the altitude of its surface, Society began its work in Jaffna in 1818, and the American the climate is naturally unequal; and, while the bleak, wind-swept Missionary Society in 1822. highlands are only available as sheep-walks, the well-watered and fertile valleys favour the cultivation of the vine, the olive and all JÄGER, GUSTAV (1832– ), German naturalist and kinds of cereals. The mineral wealth of Jaen has been known since hygienist, was born at Bürg in Württemberg on the 23rd of June Roman times, and mining is an important industry, with its centre 1832. After studying medicine at Tübingen he became a teacher at Lináres. Over 400 lead mines were worked in 1903; small quanti- of zoology at Vienna. In 1868 he was appointed professor of ties of iron, copper and salt are also obtained. There is some trade zoology at the academy of Hohenheim, and subsequently he in sawn timber and cloth; esparto fabrics, alcohol and oil are manu- factured. The roads, partly owing to the development of mining, are became teacher of zoology and anthropology at Stuttgart poly- more numerous and better kept than in most Spanish provinces. technic and professor of physiology at the veterinary school. In Railway communication is also very complete in the western dis- 1884 he abandoned teaching and started practice as a physician tricts, as the main line Madrid-Cordova-Seville passes through them and is joined south of Linares by two important railways—from in Stuttgart. He wrote various works on biological subjects, Algeciras and Malaga on the south-west, and from Almería on the including Die Darwinsche Theorie und ihre Stellung zu Morel und south-east. The eastern half of Jaen is inaccessible by rail. In the Religion (1869), Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Zoologie (1871-1878), western half are Jaen, the capital (pop. (1900), 26,434), with Andujar and Die Entdeckung der Seele (1878). In 1876 he suggested an (16,302), Baeza (14,379), Bailen" (7420), Linares (38,245), Martos (17,078)" and Ubeda (19,913). Other towns of more than 7000 hypothesis in explanation of heredity, resembling the germ- inhabitants are Alcalá la Real, Alcaudete, Arjona, La Carolina and plasm theory subsequently elaborated by August Weismann, to Porcuna, in the west; and Cazorla, Quesada, Torredonjimeno, the effect that the germinal protoplasm retains its specific Villacarillo and Villanueva del Arzobispo, in the east. properties from generation to generation, dividing in each re- JAEN, the capital of the Spanish province of Jaen, on the production into an ontogenetic portion, out of which the Linares-Puente Genil railway, 1500 ft. above the sea. Pop. individual is built up, and a phylogenetic portion, which is (1900), 26,434. Jaen is finely situated on the well-wooded reserved to form the reproductive material of the mature off- northern slopes of the Jabalcuz Mountains, overlooking the spring. In Die Normalkleidung als Gesundheitsschutz (1880) he picturesque valleys of the Jaen and Guadalbullon rivers, which advocated the system of clothing associated with his name, How north into the Guadalquivir. The hillside upon which the objecting especially to the use of any kind of vegetable fibre narrow and irregular city streets rise in terraces is fortified with for clothes. Moorish walls and a Moorish citadel. Jaen is an episcopal see. JÄGERNDORF (Czech, Krnov), a town of Austria, in Silesia, Its cathedral was founded in 1532; and, although it remained 18 m. N.W. of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,675, mostly unfinished until late in the 18th century, its main characteristics German. It is situated on the Oppa and possesses a château are those of the Renaissance period. The city contains many belonging to Prince Liechtenstein, who holds extensive estates churches and convents, a library, art galleries, theatres, barracks in the district. Jägerndorf has large manufactories of cloth, and hospitals. Its manufactures include leather, soap, alcohol woollens, linen and machines, and carries on an active trade. and linen; and it was formerly celebrated for its silk. There are on the neighbouring hill of Burgberg (1420 ft.) are a church, hot mineral springs in the mountains, 2 m. south. much visited as a place of pilgrimage, and the ruins of the seat The identification of Jaen with the Roman Aurinx, which has of the former princes of Jägerndorf. The claim of Prussia to sometimes been suggested, is extremely questionable. After the the principality of Jägerndorf was the occasion of the first Moorish conquest Jaen was an important commercial centre, under Silesian war (1740-1742), but in the partition, which followed, the name of Jayyan; and ultimately became capital of a petty king, Austria retained the larger portion of it. Jägerndorf suffered dom, which was brought to an end only in 1246 by Ferdinand 11). of Castille, who transferred hither the bishopric of Baeza in 1248: severely during the Thirty Years' War, and was the scene of Ferdinand IV. died at Jaen in 1312. In 1712 the city suffered engagements between the Prussians and Austrians in May 1745 severely from an earthquake. and in January 1779. JAGERSFONTEIN-JAHANGIR I 25 66 JAGERSFONTEIN, a town in the Orange Free State, 50 m. visible. The general or typical coloration is, however, a rich tan N.W. by rail of Springfontein on the trunk line from Cape Town upon the head, neck, body, outside of legs, and tail near the root. to Pretoria. Pop. (1904), 5657-1293 whites and 4364 coloured | The upper part of the head and sides of the face are thickly persons. Jagersfontein, which occupies a pleasant situation on marked with small black spots, and the rest of body is covered the open veld about 4500 ft. above the sea, owes its existence to with rosettes, formed of rings of black spots, with a black spot in the valuable diamond mine discovered here in 1870. The first the centre, and ranged lengthwise along the body in five to seven diamond, a stone of 50 carats, was found in August of that year, rows on each side. These black rings are heaviest along the back. and digging immediately began. The discovery a few weeks The lips, throat, breast and belly, the inside of the legs and the later of the much richer mines at Bultfontein and Du Toits lower sides of tail are pure white, marked with irregular spots of Pan, followed by the great finds at De Beers and Colesberg black, those on the breast being long bars and on the belly and Kop (Kimberley) caused Jagersfontein to be neglected for several inside of legs large blotches. The tail has large black spots near years: Up to 1887 the claims in the mine were held by a large the root, some with light centres, and from about midway of its number of individuals, but coincident with the efforts to amalga- length to the tip it is ringed with black. The ears are black mate the interest in the Kimberley mines a similar movement took place at Jagersfontein, and by 1893 all the claims became the property of one company, which has a working arrangement with the De Beers corporation. The mine, which is worked on the open system and has a depth of 450 ft., yields stones of very fine quality, but the annual output does not exceed in value £500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft. deep was sunk with a view to working the mine on the underground system. Among the famous stones found in the mine are the “ Excelsior” (weighing 971 carats, and larger than any previously discovered) and the * Jubilee” (see DIAMOND): The town was created a munici- pality in 1904. Fourteen miles east of Jagersfontein is Boomplaats, the site of the battle fought in 1848 between the Boers under A. W. Pretorius and the British under Sir Harry Smith (see ORANGE FREE STATE: History). JAGO, RICHARD (1715-1781), English poet, third son of Richard Jago, rector of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, was born in 1715. He went up to University College, Oxford, in 1732, and took his degree in 1736. He was ordained to the curacy of Snitterfield, Warwickshire, in 1737, and became rector in 1754; and, although he subsequently received other preferments, Snitterfield remained his favourite residence. He died there on the 8th of May 1781. He was twice married. Jago s best- The Jaguar (Felis onca). known poem, The Blackbirds, was first printed in Hawkesworth's behind, with a large buff spot near the tip. The nose and upper Adventurer (No. 37, March 13, 1753), and was generally attri- lip are light rufous brown. The size varies, the total length of a buted to Gilbert West, but Jago published it in his own name, very large specimen measuring 6 ft. 9 in.; the average length, with other poems, in R. Dodsley's Collection of Poems (vol. iv., however, is about 4 ft. from the nose to root of tail. In form 1755). In 1767 appeared a topographical poem, Edge Hill, or the jaguar is thick-set; it does not stand high upon its legs; and the Rural Prospect delineated and moralized; two separate sermons in comparison with the leopard is heavily built; but its move- were published in 1755; and in 1768 Labour and Genius, a Fable. ments are very rapid, and it is fully as agile as its more graceful Shortly before his death Jago revised his poems, and they were relative. The skull resembles that of the lion and tiger, but is published in 1784 by his friend, John Scott Hylton, as Poems much broader in proportion to its length, and may be identified Moral and Descriptive. by the presence of a tubercle on the inner edge of the orbit. See a notice prefixed to the edition of 1784; A. Chalmers, English The species has been divided into a number of local forms, Poels (vol. xvii., 1810); F. L. Colvile, Warwickshire Worthies (1870); regarded by some American naturalists as distinct species, but some biographical notes are to be found in the letters of Shenstone preferably ranked as sub-species or races. to Jago printed in vol. iii. of Shenstone's Works (1769). JAGUARONDI, or YAGUARONDI (Felis jaguarondi), a South JAGUAR (Felis onca), the largest species of the Felidae found American wild cat, found in Brazil, Paraguay and Guiana, rang- on the American continent, where it ranges from Texas through ing to north-eastern Mexico. This relatively small cat, uniformly Central and South America to Patagonia. In the countries coloured, is generally of some shade of brownish-grey, but in some which bound its northern limit it is not frequently met with, but individuals the fur has a rufous coat, while in others grey pre- in South America it is quite common, and Don Felix de Azara dominates. These cats are said by Don Felix de Azara to keep states that when the Spaniards first settled in the district between to cover, without venturing into open places. They attack tame Montevideo and Santa Fé, as many as two thousand were killed poultry and also young fawns. The names jaguarondi and eyra yearly. The jaguar is usually found singly (sometimes in pairs), are applied indifferently to this species and Felis eyra. and preys upon such quadrupeds as the horse, tapir, capybara, JAHANABAD, a town of British India in Gaya district, Bengal, dogs or cattle. It often feeds on fresh-water turtles; sometimes situated on a branch of the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901), following the reptiles into the water to effect a capture, it inserts 7018. It was once a flourishing trading town, and in 1760 it a paw between the shells and drags out the body of the turtle by formed one of the eight branches of the East India Company's means of its sharp claws. Occasionally after having tasted central factory at Patna. Since the introduction of Manchester human flesh, the jaguar becomes a confirmed man-eater. The goods, the trade of the town in cotton cloth has almost entirely cry of this great cat, which is heard at night, and most frequently ceased; but large numbers of the Jolaha or Mabommedan weaver during the pairing season, is deep and hoarse in tone, and consists caste live in the neighbourhood. of the sound pu, pu, often repeated. The female brings forth JAHANGIR, or JEHANGIR (1569–1627), Mogul emperor of from two to four cubs towards the close of the year, which are Delhi, succeeded his father Akbar the Great in 1605. His name able to follow their mother in about fifteen days after birth. The was Salim, but he assumed the title of Jahangir, “Conqueror of ground colour of the jaguar varies greatly, ranging from white the World,” on his accession. It was in his reign that Sir to black, the rosette markings in the extremes being but faintly | Thomas Roe came as ambassador of Jamcs I., on behalf of the 126 JĀŅI?—JAHN, OTTO English company. He was a dissolute ruler, much addicted to JAHN, JOHANN (1750-1816), German Orientalist, was born drunkenness, and his reign is chiefly notable for the influence at Tasswitz, Moravia, on the 18th of June 1750. He studied philo- enjoyed by his wife Nur Jahan, “the Light of the World.” At sophy at Olmütz, and in 1772 began his theological studies at first she influenced Jahangir for good, but surrounding herself the Premonstratensian convent of Bruck, near Znaim. Having with her relatives she aroused the jealousy of the imperial been ordained in 1775, he for a short time held a cure at Mislitz, princes; and Jahangir died in 1627 in the midst of a rebellion but.was soon recalled to Bruck as professor of Oriental languages headed by his son, Khurram or Shah Jahan, and his greatest and Biblical hermeneutics. On the suppresșion of the convent general, Mahabat Khan. The tomb of Jahangir is situated in by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at Olmütz, and the gardens of Shahdera on the outskirts of Lahore. in 1789 he was transferred to Vienna as professor of Oriental JĀŅIZ (ABŪ 'UTHMĀN 'AMR IBN BAHR ÚL-JĀŅI?; i.e. “the languages, biblical archaeology and dogmatics. In 1792 he man the pupils of whose eyes are prominent ") (d. 869), published his Einleilung ins Alte Testament (2 vols.), which soon Arabian writer. He spent his life and devoted himself in Basra brought him into trouble; the cardinal-archbishop of Vienna laid chiefly to the study of polite literature. A Mu'tazilite in his a complaint against him for having departed from the traditional religious beliefs, he developed a system of his own and founded teaching of the Church, e.g. by asserting Job, Jonah, Tobit and a sect named after him. He was favoured by. Ibn uz-Zaiyāt, the Judith to be didactic poems, and the cases of demoniacal pos- vizier of the caliph Wāthiq. session in the New Testament to be cases of dangerous disease. An ecclesiastical commission reported that the views themselves His work, the Kitāb ul-Bayān wat-Tabyin, a discursive treatise were not necessarily heretical, but that Jahn had erred in showing on rhetoric, has been published in two volumes at Cairo (1895). The Kitāb ul-Mahāsin wal-Addūd was edited by G. van Vloten as Le too little consideration for the views of German Catholic theo. Livre des beautés et des antithèses (Leiden, 1898); the Kitāb ul-Bu-halā. logians in coming into conflict with his bishop, and in raising Le Livre des avares, ed. by the same (Leiden, 1900); two other smaller difficult problems by which the unlearned might be led astray. works, the Excellences of the Turks and the Superiority in Glory of He was accordingly advised to modify his expressions in future. the Blacks over the Whiles, also prepared by the same. The Kilab ul-Hayawān, or “ Book of Animals,' a philological and literary, Although he appears honestly to have accepted this judgment, not a scientific, work, was published at Cairo (1906). the hostility of his opponents did not cease until at last (1806) he (G.W.T.) was compelled to accept a canonry at St Stephen's, Vienna, which involved the resignation of his chair. This step had been JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1778–1852), German peda- preceded by the condemnation of his Introductio in libros sacros gogue and patriot, commonly called Turnvater (“Father of veteris foederis in compendium redacta, published in 1804, and Gymnastics "), was born in Lanz on the inth of August 1778. also of his Archaeologia biblica in compendium redacta (1805). He studied theology and philology from 1796 to 1802 at Halle, The only work of importance, outside the region of mere philo- Göttingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the Prussian logy, afterwards published by him, was the Enchiridion Hermen- army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at euticae (1812). He died on the 16th of August 1816. the Gymnasium zum Grauen as well as at the Plamann School. Brooding upon the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon, Sprachlehre für Anfänger (1792); Aramäische od. Chaldáische u: Besides the works already mentioned, he published Hebräische he conceived the idea of restoring the spirits of his countrymen Syrische Sprachlehre für Anfänger (1793) ; Arabische Sprachlehre(1796); by the development of their physical and moral powers through Elementarbuch der hebr. Šprache (1799); Chaldäische Chrestomathie the practice of gymnastics. The first Turnplatz, or open-air (1800); Arabische Chrestomathie (1802); Lexicon arabico-latinum gymnasium, was opened by him at Berlin in 1811, and the chrestomathiae accommodatum (1802); an edition of the Hebrew movement spread rapidly, the young gymnasts being taught mentary on the Messianic passages of the Old Testament (Valicinia Bible (1806); Grammatica linguae hebraicae (1809); a critical com- to regard themselves as members of a kind of gild for the prophetarum de Jesu Messia, 1815). In 1821 a collection of Nach- emancipation of their fatherland. This patriotic spirit was iräge appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical subjects. nourished in no small degree by the writings of Jahn. Early in The English translation of the Archaeologia by T. C. Upham (1840) 1813 he took an active part at Breslau in the formation of the has passed through several editions. famous corps of Lützow, a battalion of which he commanded, JAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), German archaeologist, philologist, though during the same period he was often employed in secret and writer on art and music, was born at Kiel on the 16th of service. After the war he returned to Berlin, where he was June 1813. After the completion of his university studies at appointed state teacher of gymnastics. As such he was a leader Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin, he travelled for three years in France in the formation of the student Burschenschaften (patriotic and Italy; in 1839 he became privatdocent at Kiel, and in 1842 fraternities) in Jena. professor-extraordinary of archaeology and philology at Greifs- A man of democratic nature, rugged, honest, eccentric and wald (ordinary professor 1845). In 1847 he accepted the chair outspoken, Jahn often came into collision with the reactionary of archaeology at Leipzig, of which he was deprived in 1851 for spirit of the time, and this conflict resulted in 1819 in the closing having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849. In of the Turnplatz and the arrest of Jahn himself. Kept in semi- 1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and confinement at the fortress of Kolberg until 1824, he was then director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he sentenced to imprisonment for two years; but this sentence was was called to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at reversed in 1825, though he was forbidden to live within ten Göttingen, on the oth of September 1869. miles of Berlin. He therefore took up his residence at Freyburg on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the The following are the most important of his works: 1. Archaeo- exception of a short period in 1828, when he was exiled to logical; Palamedes (1836); Telephos u. Troilos (1841); Die Gemälde des Polygnot (1841); Pentheus u. die Mänaden (1841); Paris u. Cölleda on a charge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by Oinone (1844); Die hellenische Kunst (1846); Peitho, die Göllin der the Prussian government with the Iron Cross for bravery in the Überredung" (1847); Uber einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils wars against Napoleon. In the spring of 1848 he was elected by(1849); Die Ficoronische Cista (1852); Pausaniae descriptio arcis the district of Naumburg to the German National Parliament. Athenarum (3rd ed., 1901); Darstellungen griechischer Dichter auf Vasenbildern (1861). 2. Philological: Critical editions of Juvenal, Jahn died on the 15th of October 1852 in Freyburg, where a Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bücheler, 1893); Censorinus monument was erected in his honour in 1859. (1845); Florus (1852); Cicero's Brutus (4th ed., 1877); and Orator (3rd ed., 1869); the Periochae of Livy (1853); the Psyche et Cupido Among his works are the following: Bereicherung des hochdeutschen of Apuleius (3rd ed., 1884; 5th ed., 1905); Longinus (1867; 3rd ed. Sprachschatzes (Leipzig, 1806), Deutsches Volksthum (Lübeck, 1810), by J. Vahlen, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: Ueber Mendelse Runenblätter (Frankfort, 1814), Neue Runenblätter (Naumburg, 1828), sohn's Paulus (1842); Biographie Mozarts, a work of extraordinary Merke zum deutschen Volksthum (Hildburghausen, 1833), and labour, and of great importance for the history of music (3rd ed. by Selbstvertheidigung (Vindication). (Leipzig, 1863). A complete H. Disters, 1889-1891; Eng. trans. by P. D. Townsend, 1891); Ludwig edition of his works appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography Uhland (1863); Gesammelie Aufsätze über Musik (1866); Biographs by Schultheiss (Berlin, 1894), and Jahn als Erzieher, by Friedrich ische Aufsätze (1866). His Griechische Bilderchroniken was published (Munich, 1895). after his death, by his nephew A. Michaelis, who has written an JAHRUM-JAINS 127 exhaustive biography in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xiii.; see almost certainly the same as the Niganthas, who are referred to also J, Vahlen, Otto Jahn (1870); Ç. Bursian, Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland. in numerous passages of the Buddhist Pāli Pitakas, and must therefore be at least as old as the 6th century B.C. In many of JAHRUM, a town and district of Persia in the province of these passages the Niganthas are mentioned as contemporaneous Fars, S.E. of Shiraz and S.W. of Darab. The district has with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning their thirty-three villages and is famous for its celebrated sháhán leader Nigantha Năta-putta (that is, the Niganţha of the dates, which are exported in great quantities; it also produces Jñātrika clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt, much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is scanty, and most as the same person as the Vaddhamāna Mahā-vīra of the Jain of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The town of books. This remarkable confirmation, from the scriptures of a. Jahrum, situated about 90. m. S.E. of Shiraz, is surrounded by rival religion, of the Jain tradition is conclusive as to the date a mud-wall 3 m. in circuit which was constructed in 1834. It of Maha-vīra. The Niganthas are referred to in one of Asoka's has a population of about 15,000, one half living inside and the edicts (Corpus Inscriptionum, Plate xx.). Unfortunately the other half outside the walls. It is the market for the produce of account of the teachings of Nigantha Nāta-putta given in the the surrounding districts, has six caravanserais and a post office. Buddhist scriptures are, like those of the Buddha's teachings JAINS, the most numerous and influential sect of heretics, or given in the Brahmanical literature, very meagre. nonconformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in Jain Literature.-The Jain scriptures themselves, though based India. They are found in every province of upper Hindustan, on earlier traditions, are not older in their present form than the in the cities along the Ganges and in Calcutta. But they are 5th century of our era. The most distinctively sacred books are more numerous to the west-in Mewar, Gujarat, and in the upper called the forty-five Agamas, consisting of eleven Angas, twelve part of the Malabar coast—and are also scattered throughout the Upangas, ten Pakinnakas, six Chedas, four Mūla-sūtras and two whole of the southern Peninsula. They are mostly traders, and position very similar to that occupied among the Buddhists by other books. Devaddhi Ganin, who occupies among the Jains a live in the towns; and the wealth of many of their community Buddhaghosa, collected the then existing traditions and teachings gives them a social importance greater than would result from of the sect into these forty-five Agamas. Like the Buddhist their mere numbers. In the Indian census of 1901 they are scriptures, the earlier Jain books are written in a dialect of their returned as being 1,334,140 in number. Their magnificent own, the so-called Jaina Prākrit: and it was not till between A.D. 1000 and 1100 that the Jains adopted Sanskrit as their literary series of temples and shrines on Mount Abu, one of the seven language. Considerable progress has been made in the publication wonders of India, is perhaps the most striking outward sign of and elucidation of these original authorities. But a great deal their wealth and importance. remains yet to be done. The oldest books now in the possession of The Jains are the last direct representatives on the continent existing order in the 6th century B.C., but only to the time of Bhad- the modern Jains purport to go back, not to the foundation of the of India of those schools of thought which grew out of the active rabahu, three centuries later. The whole of the still older literature, philosophical speculation and earnest spirit of religious inquiry on which the revision then made was based, the so-called Pūrvas, that prevailed in the valley of the Ganges during the 5th and have been lost. And the existing canonical books, while preserving 6th centuries before the Christian era. For many centuries later material. The problem remains to sort out the older from the a great deal that was probably derived from them, contain much Jainism was so overshadowed by that stupendous movement, later, to distinguish between the earlier form of the faith and its born at the same time and in the same place, which we call subsequent developments, and to collect the numerous data for the Buddhism, that it remained almost unnoticed by the side of its general, social, industrial, religious and political history of India. powerful rival. But when Buddhism, whose widely open doors the whole of the more ancient books in the second part of the second Professor Weber gave a fairly full and carefully-drawn-up analysis of had absorbed the mass of the community, became thereby volume of his Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. at Berlin, published in corrupted from its pristine purity and gradually died away, the 1888, and in vols. xvi. and xvii. of his Indische Studien. 'An English smaller school of the Jains, less diametrically opposed to the translation of these last was published first in the Indian Antiquary, victorious orthodox creed of the Brahmans, survived, and in and then separately at Bombay, 1893. Professor Bhandarkar gave an account of the contents of many later works in his Report on the some degree took its place. Search for Sanskrit MSS., Bombay, 1883. Only a small beginning Jainism purports to be the system of belief promulgated by has been made in editing and translating these works. The best Vaddhamāna, better known by his epithet of Mahā-vīra (the précis of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more impor- great hero), who was a contemporary of Gotama, the Buddha. the précis-writer will often omit the points some subsequent investi- tant features in it. And in the choice of what should be included But the Jains, like the Buddhists, believe that the same system gåtor may most especially want. All the older works ought there- had previously been proclaimed through countless ages by each fore to be edited and translated in full and properly indexed. The one of a succession of earlier teachers. The Jains count twenty- Jains themselves have now printed in Bombay a complete edition of their sacred books. But the critical value of this edition, and of four such prophets, whom they call Jinas, or Tīrthankaras, that other editions of separate texts printed elsewhere in India, leaves is, conquerors or leaders of schools of thought. It is from this much to be desired. Professor Jacobi has edited and translated the word Jina that the modern name Jainas, meaning followers of Kalpa Sūtra, containing a life of the founder of the Jain order; but He has the Jina, or of the Jinas, is derived. This legend of the twenty-. this can scarcely be older than the 5th century of our era. four Jinas contains a germ of truth.. Mahā-vira was not an Jains. The text, published by the Pali Text Society, is of 140 pages also edited and translated the Āyaranya Sutta of the Svetambara originator; he merely carried on, with but slight changes, a The first part of it, about 50 pages, is a very old document system which existed before his time, and which probably owes on the Jain views as to conduct, and the remainder consists of its most distinguishing features to a teacher named Pârșwa, who appendices, added at different times, on the same subject. The ranks in the succession of Jinas as the predecessor of Mahā-vira. older part may, go back as early as the 3rd century B.C., and it sets out more especially the Jain doctrine of tapas or self-mortification, in Pärşwa is said, in the Jain chronology, to have been born two contradistinction to the Buddhist view, which condemned asceticism. hundred years before Mahā-vīra (that is, about 760 B.C.); but The rules of conduct in this book are for members of the order. · Dr the only conclusion that it is safe to draw from this statement is Rudolf Hoernle edited and translated an ancient work on the that Pārşwa was considerably earlier in point of time than Maha- rules of conduct for laymen, the Uvāsaga Dasão. Professor Leumann edited another of the older works, the Aupapātika Sülra, and a vira. Very little reliance can be placed upon the details reported fourth, entitled the Dasa-vaikälika Sätra, both of them published by in the Jain books concerning the previous Jinas in the list of the the German Oriental Society. Professor Jacobi translated two more, twenty-four Tīrthankaras. The curious will find in them many the Uttarādhyāyana and the Sūtra Kritānga. Finally Dr Barnett has translated two others in vol. xvii. of the Oriental Translation reminiscences of Hindu and Buddhist legend; and the anti- Fund (new series, London, 1907). Thus about one-fiftieth part of quary must notice the distinctive symbols assigned to each, in these interesting and valuable old records is now accessible to the order to recognize the statues of the different Jinas, otherwise European scholar. The sect of the Svetambaras has preserved the identical, in the different Jain temples. oldest literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of The Jains are divided into two great parties—the Digambaras, or Sky-clad Ones, and the Svetāmbaras, or the White-robed 1 Published in the Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta, 1888. These two, and the other two mentioned above, form vols. i. and Ones. The latter have only as yet been traced, and that doubt. ii. of his Jaina Sutras, published in the Sacred Books of the East fully, as far back as the 5th century after Christ; the former are 1 (1884, 1895). octavo. 128 JAIPUR " the sect in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1898; / great deal of information on various points in the introductions Several scholars-notably Bhagvanlā! Indraji, Mr Lewis Rice and to the works referred to above. Professor Jacobi, who is the best Hofrath Bühlerb-have treated of the remarkable archaeological discoveries lately made. These confirm the older records in many authority on the history of this sect, thus sums up the distinction details, and show that the Jains, in the centuries before the Christian between the Mahā-vira and the Buddha:“ Maha-vīra was rather era, were a wealthy and important body in widely separated parts of the ordinary class of religious men in India. He may be of India. allowed a talent for religious matters, but he possessed not the Jainism.—The most distinguishing outward peculiarity of genius which Buddha undoubtedly bad. ... The Buddha's Mahā-vira and of his earliest followers was their practice of philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental ideas, going quite naked, whence the term Digambara. Against this whilst that of Mahā vīra scarcely forms a system, but is merely a custom, Gotama, the Buddha, especially warned his followers; sum of opinions (pannattis) on various subjects, no fundamental and it is referred to in the well-know Greek phrase, Gymnoso- | ideas being there to uphold the mass of metaphysical matter. phist, used already by Megasthenes, which applies very aptly to Besides this. it is the ethical element that gives to the Buddhist the Niganthas. Even the earliest name Nigaņţha, which means writings their superiority over those of the Jains. Maha-vīra “ free from bonds,” may not be without allusions to this curious treated ethics as corollary and subordinate to his metaphysics, belief in the sanctity of nakedness, though it also alluded to with which he was chiefly concerned." freedom from the bonds of sin and of transmigration. The statues ADDITIONAL AUTHORITIES.-Bhadrabāhu's Kalpa Sūtra, the re- of the Jinas in the Jain temples, some of which are of enormous cognized and popular manual of the Svetāmbara ļains, edited with size, are still always quite naked; but the Jains themselves English introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Hema- candra's “ Yoga S'āstram," edited by Windisch, in the Zeitschrift der have abandoned the practice, the Digambaras being sky-clad at deutschen morg. Ges. for 1874; “Zwei Jaina Stotra,” edited in the meal-time only, and the Svetāmbaras being always completely Indische Studien, vol. xv.; Ein Fragment der Bhagavatī, by Professor clothed. And even among the Digambaras it is only the re- Weber; Mémoires de l'Académie de Berlin (1866); Nirayāvaliya cluses or Yatis, men devoted to a religious life, who carry out 1879); Over de godsdienstige en wijsgeerige Begrippen der Jginas, by Sutta, edited by Dr Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam, this practice. The Jain laity—the Srāvakas, or disciples do Dr Warren (his doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); Beiträge zur not adopt it. Grammatik des Jaina-prākrit, by Dr Edward Müller (Berlin, 1876); The Jain views of life were, in the most important and essen- Colebrooke's Essays, vol. ii. Mr J. Burgess has an exhaustive account tial respects, the exact reverse of the Buddhist views. The of the Jain Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in two orders , Buddhist and Jain, were not only, and from the first, Fergusson and Burgess's Cave Temples in India (London, 1880). See also Hopkins' Religions of India (London, 1896), pp. 280-96, independent, but directly opposed the one to the other. In and J. G. Bühler On the Indian Sect of the Jainas, edited by J. philosophy the Jains are the most thorough-going supporters Burgess (London, 1904). (T. W. R. D.) of the old animistic position. . Nearly everything, according to JAIPUR, or JEYPORE, a city and native state of India in the them, has a soul within its outward visible shape--not only men Rajputana agency. The city is a prosperous place of com- and animals, but also all plants, and even particles of earth, and paratively recent date. It derives its name from the famous of water (when it is cold), and fire and wind. The Buddhist Maharaja Jai Singh II., who founded it in 1728. It is built of theory, as is well known, is put together without the hypothesis pink stucco in imitation of sandstone, and is remarkable for the of " soul” at all. The word the Jains use for soul is jira, which width and regularity of its streets. It is the only city in India means life; and there is much analogy between many of the that is laid out in rectangular blocks, and it is divided by cross expressions they use and the view that the ultimate cells and streets into six equal portions. The main streets are 111 ft. atoms are all, in a more or less modified sense, alive. They wide and are paved, while the city is lighted by gas. The regard good and evil and space as ultimate substances which regularity of plan, and the straight streets with the houses all come into direct contact with the minute souls in everything. built after the same pattern, deprive Jaipur of the charm of the And their best-known position in regard to the points most East, while the painted mud walls of the houses give it the discussed in philosophy is Syād-vāda, the doctrine that you may meretricious air of stage scenery. The huge palace of the say Yes” and at the same time “No” to everything. You maharaja stands in the centre of the city. Another noteworthy can affirm the eternity of the world, for instance, from one point building is Jai Singh's observatory. The chief industries are in of vicw, and at the same time deny it from another; or, at metals and marble, which are fostered by a school of art, founded different times and in different connexions, you may one day in 1868. There is also a wealthy and enterprising community affirm it and another day deny it. This position both leads to of native bankers. The city has three colleges and several vagueness of thought and explains why Jainism has had so little hospitals. Pop. (1901), 160,167. The ancient capital of Jaipur influence over other schools of philosophy in India. On the was Amber. other hand, the Jains are as determined in their views of asceti- The STATE OF JAIPUR, which takes its name from the city, cism (lapas) as they were compromising in their views of philo- has a total area of 15,579 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,658, 666, showing sophy. Any injury done to the “ souls " being one of the worst decrease of 6% in the decade. The estimated revenue is of iniquities, the good monk should not wash his clothes (indeed, £430,000, and the tribute £27,000. The centre of the state is a the most austere will reject clothes altogether), nor even wash sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft. above sea-level, bounded on the his teeth, for fear of injuring living things. “Subduc the body, E. by ranges of hills running north and south. On the N. and chastise thyself, weaken thyself, just as fire consumes dry wood.” W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an offshoot of the It was by suppressing, through such self-torture, the influence Aravalli mountains, beyond which lies the sandy desert of on his soul of all sensations that the Jain could obtain Rajputana. The soil is generally sandy. The hills are more salvation. It is related of the founder himself, the Mahā-vira, or less covered with jungle trees, of no value except for fuel. that after twelve years' penance he thus obtained. Nirvana Towards the S. and E. the soil becomes more fertile. Salt is (Jacobi, Jaina Sūtras, i. 201) before he entered upon his career largely manufactured and exported from the Sambhar lake, as a teacher. And through the rest of his life, till he died at which is worked by the government of India under an arrange- Pāvā, shortly before the Buddha, he followed the same habit ment with the states of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It yields salt of a of continual self-mortification. The Buddha, on the other very high quality. The state ' is traversed by the Rajputana hand, obtained Nirvāna in his 35th year, under the Bo tree, railway, with branches to Agra and Delhi. after he had abandoned penance; and through the rest The maharaja of Jaipur belongs to the Kachwaha clan of of his life he spoke of penance as quite useless from his Rajputs, claiming descent from Rama, king of Ajodhya. The state point of view. is said to have been founded about 1128 by Dhula Rai, from There is no manual of Jainism as yet published, but there is Gwalior, who with his Kachwahas is said to have absorbed or ? The Halthi Gumphā and three other inscriptions at Cuttack driven out the petty chiefs. The Jaipur house furnished to the (Leyden, 1885); Sravana Belgola inscriptions (Bangalore, 1889); Moguls some of their most distinguished generals. Among Vienna Oriental Journal, vols. ii.-v.; Epigraphia Indica, vols. i-vii. I them were Man Singh, who fought in Orissa and Assam; Jai " a JAISALMER-JAKOB 129 Singh, commonly known by his imperial title of Mirza Raja, with the British. Maharawal Salivahan, born in 1887, succeeded whose name appears in all the wars of Aurangzeb in the Deccan to the chiefship in 1891. and Jai Singh II., or Sawai Jai Singh, the famous mathema- JAJCE (pronounced Yaïtse), a town of Bosnia, situated on the tician and astronomer, and the founder of Jaipur city. Towards Pliva and Vrbas rivers, and at the terminus of a branch railway the end of the 38th century the Jats of Bharatpur and the chief from Serajevo, 62 m. S.E. Pop. (1895), about 4000. Jajce of Alwar each annexed a portion of the territory of Jaipur. occupies a conical hill, overlooking one of the finest waterfalls By the end of the century the state was in great confusion, in Europe, where the Pliva rushes down into the Vrbas, 100 ft. distracted by internal broils and impoverished by the exactions below. The 14th century citadel which crowns this hill is said of the Mahrattas. The disputes between the chiefs of Jaipur to have been built for Hrvoje, duke of Spalato, on the model of and Jodhpur had brought both states to the verge of ruin, and the Castel del Uovo at Naples; but the resemblance is very Amir Khan with the Pindaris was exhausting the country. By slight, and although both jajce and uovo signify an egg,” the a treaty in 1818 the protection of the British was extended to town probably derives its name from the shape of the hill. Jaipur and an annual tribute fixed. In 1835 there was a serious The ruined church of St Luke, said by legend to be the Evan- disturbance in the city, after which the British government took gelist's burial place, has a fine Italian belfry, and dates from the measures to insist upon order and to reform the administration 15th century, Jezero, 5 m. W. of Jajce, contains the Turkish as well as to support its effective action; and the state has fort.of Djöl-Hissar, or “the Lake-Fort.” In this neighbourhood gradually become well-governed and prosperous. During the a line of waterfalls and meres, formed by the Pliva, stretches Mutiny of 1857 the maharaja assisted the British in every way for several miles, enclosed by steep rocks and forest-clad moun- that lay in his power. Maharaja Madho Singh, G.C.S.I., G.C.V.O., tains. The power supplied by the main fall, at Jajce, is used was born in 1861, and succeeded in 1882. He is distinguished for industrial purposes, but the beauty of the town remains for his enlightened administration and his patronage of art. unimpaired. He was one of the princès who visited England at the time of From 1463 to 1528 Jajce was the principal outwork of eastern King Edward's coronation in 1902. It was he who started and Christendom against the Turks. Venice contributed money for endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards increased to its defence, and Hungary provided armies; while the pope 20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the “Indian People's Famine entreated all Christian monarchs to avert its fall. In 1463 Fund.” The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service Mahomet II. had seized more than 75 Bosnian fortresses, includ- in the Chitral and Tirah campaigns. ing Jajce itself; and the last independent king of Bosnia, Stephen JAISALMER, or JEYSÚLMERE, a town and native state of Tomašević, had been beheaded, or, according to one tradition, India in the Rajputana agency. The town stands on a ridge flayed alive, before the walls of Jajce, on a spot still called of yellowish sandstone, crowned by a fort, which contains the Kraljeva Polje, the “ King's Field.” His coffin and skeleton palace and several ornate Jain temples. Many of the houses are still displayed in St Luke's Church. The Hungarians, under and temples are finely sculptured. Pop. (1901), 7137. The King Matthias I., came to the rescue, and reconquered the greater area of the state is 16,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was part of Bosnia during the same year; and, although Mahomet 73,370, showing a decrease of 37% in ten years, as a con- returned in 1464, he was again defeated at Jajce, and compelled sequence of famine. The estimated revenue is about £6000; to flee before another Hungarian advance. In 1467 Hungarian there is no tribute. Jaisalmer is almost entirely a sandy waste, bans, or military governors, were appointed to rule in north- forming a part of the great Indian desert. The general aspect west Bosnia, and in 1472 Matthias appointed Nicolaus Ujlaki of the country is that of an interminable sea of sandhills, of all king of the country, with Jajce for his capital. This kingdom shapes and sizes, some rising to a height of 150 ft. Those in the lasted, in fact, for 59 years; but, after the death of Ujlaki, in west are covered with phog bushes, those in the east with tufts 1492, its rulers only bore the title of ban, and of vojvod. In of long grass. Water is scarce, and generally brackish; the 1500 the Turks, under Bajazet II., were crushed at Jajce by the average depth of the wells is said to be about 250 ft. There are Hungarians under John Corvinus; and several other attacks were no perennial streams, and only one small river, the Kakni, which, repelled between 1520 and 1526. But in 1526 the Hungarian after flowing a distance of 28 m., spreads over a large surface of power was destroyed at Mohács; and in 1528 Jajce was forced flat ground, and forms a lake or jhil called the Bhuj-Jhil. The to surrender. climate is dry and healthy. Throughout Jaisalmer only rain- See Brass, " Jajce, die alte Königstadt Bosniens," in Deutsche crops, such as bajra, joar, moth, til, &c., are grown; spring crops geog. Blätter, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899). of wheat, barley, &c., are very rare. Owing to the scant JĀJPUR, or JAJPORE, a town of British India, in Cuttack dis- rainfall, irrigation is almost unknown. trict, Bengal, situated on the right bank of the Baitarani river. The main part of the population lead a wandering life, grazing Pop. (1901), 12,111. It was the capital of Orissa under the Kesari their flocks and herds. Large herds of camels, horned cattle, sheep dynasty until the 11th century, when it was superseded by and goats are kept. The principal trade is in wool, ghi, camels, Cuttack. In Jājpur are numerous ruins of temples, sculptures, cattle and sheep. The chief imports are grain, sugar, foreign cloth, piece-goods, &c. Education is at a low ebb. Jain priests are the &c., and a large and beautiful sun pillar. chief schoolmasters, and their teaching is elementary. The ruler of JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON (1759–1827), German Jaisalmer is styled maharawal. The state suffered from famine in economist, was born at Wettin on the 26th of February 1759. 1897, 1900 and other years, to such an extent that it has had to In 1777 he entered the university of Halle. In 1780 he was incur a heavy debt for extraordinary expenditure. There are no railways. appointed teacher at the gymnasium, and in 1791 professor of The majority of the inhabitants are Bhatti Rajputs, who take their philosophy at the university. The suppression of the university name from an ancestor named Bhatti, renowned as a warrior when of Halle having been decreed by Napoleon, Jakob betook himself the tribe were located in the Punjab. Shortly after this the clan to Russia, where in 1807 he was appointed professor of political was driven southwards, and found a refuge in the Indian desert, which was thenceforth its home. Deoråj, a famous prince of economy at Kharkoff, and in 1809 a member of the government the Bhatti family, is esteemed the real founder of the present commission to inquire into the finances of the empire. In the Jaisalmer dynasty, and with him the title of rāwal commenced. following year he became president of the commission for the İn 1156 Jāisal, the sixth in succession from Deorāj, founded the fort revision of criminal law, and he at the same time obtained an and city of Jaisalmer, and made it his capital. In 1294 the Bhattis so enraged the emperor Ala-ud-din that his army captured and sacked important office in the finance department, with the rank of the fort and city of Jaisalmer, so that for some time it was quite counsellor of state; but in 1816 he returned to Halle to occupy deserted. After this there is nothing to record till the time of Rāwal the chair of political economy. He died at Lauchstädt on the Sabal Singh, whose reign marks an epoch in Bhatti history in that he 22nd of July. 1827. acknowledged the supremacy of the Mogul emperor Shāh Jahān. The Jaisalmer princes had now arrived at the height of their power, Shortly after his first appointment to a professorship in Halle but from this time till the accession of Răwal Mulrāj in 1762 the Jakob had begun to turn his attention rather to the practical than fortunes of the state rapidly declined, and most of its outlying the speculative side of philosophy, and in 1805 he published at provinces were lost. In 1818 Mulrāj entered into political relations Halle Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie, in which he was the first to 130 JAKOVA-JALAP 1 G advocate in Germany, the necessity of a distinct science dealing and coloured figure taken from living plants sent him two years specially with the subject of national wealth. His principal other previously from Mexico. The jalap plant has slender herbaceous works are Grundriss der allgemeinen Logik (Halle, 1788) Grundsätze der Polizeigesetzgebung und Polizeianstalten (Leipzig, 1809); Einleitung twining stems, with alternately placed heart-shaped pointed in das Studium der Staatswissenschaften (Halle, 1819); Entwurf eines leaves and salver-shaped deep purplish-pink flowers. The Criminalgesetzbuchs für das russische Reich (Halle, 1818) and underground stems are slender and creeping; their vertical roots Staatsfinanzwissenschaft (2 vols., Halle, 1821). d ipoings B evique enlarge and form turnip-shaped tubers. The roots are dug up JAKOVA (also written DIAKOVA, GYakovo and GJAKO- in Mexico throughout the year, and are suspended to dry in a VICA), a town of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet net over the hearth of the Indians' huts, and hence acquire a of Kossovo; on the river Erenik, a right-hand tributary of the smoky odour. The large tubers are often gashed to cause them White Drin. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Jakova is the chief to dry more quickly. In their form they vary from spindle- town of the Alpine region which extends from the Montenegrin shaped to ovoid or globular, and in size from a pigeon's egg to a frontier to the Drin and White Drin. This region has never man's fist. Externally they are brown and marked with small been thoroughly explored, or brought under effective Turkish transverse paler scars, and internally they present a dirty white rule, on account of the inaccessible character of its mountains ons and forests, and the lawlessness of its inhabitants-a group of Surinibos two Roman Catholic and three Moslem tribes, known collectively sale od att drooque 0 Eniro as the Malsia Jakovs, whose official representative resides instagram L-i Biror two Jakova. is 1993 HERRE JAKUNS, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula. They 0.732 izodbe Mia have become much mixed with other tribes, and are found belegralise obr ni balaa throughout the south of the peninsula and along the coasts. TE 20 Oylins The purest types are straight-haired, exhibit marked Mongolian emin olisi parere characteristics and are closely related to the Malays. They are bus bas probably a branch of the Pre-Malays, the “savage Malays" of of her A. R. Wallace. They are divided into two groups: (1) Jakunst of the jungle, (2) Jakuns of the sea or Orang Laut. The latter set of tribes now comprise the remnants of the pirates or“ sea- gipsies” of the Malaccan straits. The Jakuns, who must be 10 TOASTAL studied in conjunction with the other aboriginal peoples of the Malay Peninsula, the Semangs and the Sakais, are not so dwarfish 2013 e nation as those. The head is round; the skin varies from olive-brown to dark copper; the face is flat and the lower jaw square. The LT nose is thick and short, with wide, open nostrils. The cheek-as son bones are high and well marked. The hair has a blue-black tint, eyes are black and the beard is scanty. The Jakuns live a wild 3000), forest life, and in general habits much resemble the Sakai, being naw but little in advance of the latter in social conditions except 59 pag sdn where they come into close contact with the Malay peoples. ils 10 altid om in 1981 JALALÁBAD, or JELLALABAD, a town and province of nation sonted Afghanistan. The town lies at a height of 1950 ft. in a plaint risered 2013 on the south side of the Kabul river, 96 m. from Kabul and ads 17003 STORE 76 from Peshawar. Estimated pop., 4000. Between it and 6 2017 3d olid Peshawar intervenes the Khyber Pass, and between it and Kabul altor internet the passes of Jagdalak, Khurd Kabul, &c. The site was chosen lo site by the emperor Baber, and he laid out some gardens here; but TRAILER the town itself was built by his grandson Akbar in A.D. 1560. ais do 1980 It resembles the city of Kabul on a smaller scale, and has one aqori and central bazaar, the streets generally being very narrow. The 1972 901 most notable episode in the history of the place is the famous defence by Sir Robert Sale during the first Afghan war, when he is a signing held the town from November 1841 to April 1842. On its qaerle, bront les evacuation in 1842 General Pollock destroyed the defences, but forsagloow si e they were rebuilt in 1878. The town is now fortified, surrounded to trail sue sfushen by a high wall with bastions and loopholes. The province of to Jalap (Ipomaea Purga); about half natural size. Jalalabad is about 80 m. in length by 35 in width, andincludes sin the large district of Laghman north of the Kabul river , as well resinous or starchy fracture. The ordinary drug is distinguished as that on the south called Ningrahar. The climate of Jalalabad in commerce as Vera Cruz jalap, from the name of the port is similar to that of Peshawar. As a strategical centre Jalalabad whence it is shipped. is one of the most important positions in Afghanistan, for it Jalap has been cultivated for many years in India, chiefly at dominates the entrances to the Laghman and the Kunar valleys; Ootacamund, and grows there as easily as a yam, often producing commanding routes to Chitral or India north of the Khyber, as clusters of tubers weighing over 9 Ib; but these, as they differ in well as the Kabul-Peshawar road. atstumai of molesto appearance from the commercial article, have not as yet obtained JALAP, a cathartic drug consisting of the tuberous roots of a place in the English market. They are found, however, to be Ipomaea Purga, a convolvulaceous plant growing on the eastern rich in resin, containing 18%. In Jamaica also the plant has declivities of the Mexican Andes at an elevation of 5000 to been grown, at first amongst the cinchona trees, but more recently 8000 ft. above the level of the sea, more especially about the in new ground, as it was found to exhaust the soil. neighbourhood of Chiconquiaco, and near San Salvador on the Besides Mexican or Vera Cruz jalap, a drug called Tampico eastern slope of the Cofre de Perote. Jalap has been known in jalap. has been imported for some years in considerable quantity. Europe since the beginning of the 17th century, and derives its It has a much more shrivelled appearance and paler colour than name from the city of Jalapa in Mexico, near which it grows, ordinary jalap, and lacks the small transverse scars present in but its botanical source was not accurately determined until the true drug. This kind of jalap, the Purga de Sierra Gorda 1829, when Dr. J.R. Coxe of Philadelphia published a description of the Mexicans, was traced by Hanbury to I pomaea simulans. a 1 JALAPA-JALISCO 131 It grows in Mexico along the mountain range of the Sierra Gorda In early times Jalaun seems to have been the home of two in the neighbourhood of San Luis de la Paz, from which district Rajput clans, the Chandels in the east and the Kachwahas in it is carried down to Tampico, whence it is exported. A third the west. The town of Kalpi on the Jumna was conquered for the variety of jalap known as woody jalap, male jalap, or Orizaba princes of Ghor as early as 1196. Early in the 14th century the root, or by the Mexicans as Purgo macho, is derived from Bundelas occupied the greater part of Jalaun, and even succeeded I pomaea orizabensis, a plant of Orizaba. The root occurs in in holding the fortified post of Kalpi. That important possession fibrous pieces, which are usually rectangular blocks of irregular was soon recovered by the Mussulmans, and passed under the shape, 2 in. or more in diameter, and are evidently portions of a sway of the Mogul emperors. Akbar's governors at Kalpi large root. It is only occasionally met with in commerce., maintained a nominal authority over the surrounding district; and the Bundela chiefs were in a state of chronic revolt, which The dose of jalap is from five to twenty grains, the British Phar- macopeia directing that it must contain from 9 to 11 % of the culminated in the war of independence under Chhatar Sal. On resin, which is given in doses of two to five grains. One preparation the outbreak of his rebellion in 1671 he occupied a large province of this drug is in common use, the Pulvis Jalapae Compositus, which to the south of the Jumna. Setting out from this basis, and consists of 5 parts of jalap, 9 of cream of tartar, and i of ginger. assisted by the Mahrattas, he reduced the whole of Bundelkhand. The dose is from 20 grains to a drachm. It is best given in the On his death he bequeathed one-third of his dominions to his maximum dose which causes the minimum of irritation. The chief constituents of jalap resin are two glucosidesconvol- Mahratta allies, who before long succeeded in annexing the whole vulin and jalapin-sugar, starch and gum. Convolvulin constitutes of Bundelkhand. Under Mahratta rule the country was a prey nearly 20 % of the resin. It is insoluble in ether, and is more active to constant anarchy and intestine strife. To this period must than jalapin. It is not used separately in medicine. ., Jalapin is present in about the same proportions. It dissolves readily in ether, be traced the origin of the poverty and desolation which are still and has a soft resinous consistence. It may be given in half-grain conspicuous throughout the district. In 1806 Kalpi was made doses. It is the active principle of the allied drug scammony. over to the British, and in 1840, on the death of Nana Gobind According to Mayer, the formula of convolvulin is C3-H50016, and thắt Ras, his possessions lapsed to them also. Various interchanges of jalapin C31H 50016., Jalap is a typical hydragogue purgative, causing the excretion of of territory took place, and in 1856 the present boundaries were more huid than scammony, but producing less stimulation of the substantially settled. Jalaun had a bad reputation during the muscular wall of the bowel. For both reasons it is preferable to Mutiny. When the news of the rising at Cawnpore reached scammony. It was shown by Professor Rutherford at Edinburgh Kalpi, the men of the 53rd native infantry deserted their officers, to be a powerful secretory cholagogue, an action possessed by few and in June the Jhansi mutineers reached the district, and began hydragogue purgatives. The stimulation of the liver is said to depend upon the solution of the resin by the intestinal secretion. their murder of Europeans. The inhabitants everywhere The drug is largely employed in cases of Bright's disease and dropsy revelled in the licence of plunder and murder which the Mutiny from any cause, being especially useful when the liver shares in the had spread through all Bundelkhand, and it was not till Septem- general venous congestion. It is not much used in ordinary constipa- ber 1858 that the rebels were finally defeated. tion. JALISCO, XALISCO, or GUADALAJARA, a Pacific coast state JALAPA, XALAPA, or HALAPA, a city of the state of Vera Cruz, of Mexico, of very irregular shape, bounded, beginning on the Mexico, 70 m. by rail N.W. of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop. N., by the territory of Tepic and the states of Durango, Zacatecas, (1900), 20,388. It is picturesquely situated on the slopes of the Aguas Calientes, Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Colima. Pop. sierra which separates the central plateau from the tierra caliente (1900), 1,153,891. Area, 31,846 sq. m. Jalisco is traversed from of the Gulf Coast, at an elevation of 4300 ft., and with the Cofre N.N.W. to S.S.E. by the Sierra Madre, locally known as the de Perote behind it rising to a height of 13,419 ft. Its climate Sierra de Nayarit and Sierra de Jalisco, which divides the state is cool and healthy and the town is frequented in the hot season into a low heavily forested coastal plain and a high plateau by the wealthier residents of Vera Cruz. The city is well built, region, part of the great Anáhuac table-land, with an average in the old Spanish style. Among its public buildings are a fine elevation of about sooo ft., broken by spurs and flanking ranges old church, a Franciscan convent founded by Cortez in 1556, and of moderate height. The sierra region is largely volcanic and three hospitals, one of which, that of San Juan de Dios, dates earthquakes are frequent; in the S. are the active volcanoes of from colonial times. The neighbouring valleys and slopes are Colima (12,750 ft.) and the Nevado de Colima (14,363) ft.). The fertile, and in the forests of this region is found the plant (jalap), tierra caliente zone of the coast is tropical, humid, and unfavour-, which takes its name from the place. Jalapa was for a time the able to Europeans, while the inland plateaus vary from sub- capital of the state, but its political and commercial importance tropical to temperate and are generally drier and healthful. has declined since the opening of the railway between Vera The greater part of the state is drained by the Rio Grande de Cruz and the city of Mexico. It manufactures pottery and Lerma (called the Santiago on its lower course) and its tribù- leather. taries, chief of which is the Rio Verde. Lakes are numerous; JALAUN, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad the largest are the Chapala, about 80 m. long by 10 to 35 m. wide, division of the United Provinces. Pop. of town (1901), 8573. which is considered one of the most beautiful inland sh ets of Formerly it was the residence of a Mahratta governor, but never water in Mexico, the Sayula and the Magdalena, noted for their the headquarters of the district, which are at Orai. abundance of fish. The agricultural products of Jalisco include The DISTRICT OF JALAUN has an area of 1477 sq. m. It lies Indian corn, wheat and beans on the uplands, and sugar-cane, entirely within the level plain of Bundelkhand, north of the hill cotton, rice, indigo and tobacco in the warmer districts. Rubber country, and is almost surrounded by the Jumna and its tribu- and palm oil are natural forest products of the coastal zone. taries the Betwa and Pahuj. The central region thus enclosed Stock-raising an important occupation in some of the more is a dead level of cultivated land, almost destitute of trees, and elevated districts. The mineral resources include silver, gold, sparsely dotted with villages. The southern portion presents cinnabar, copper, bismuth, and various precious stones. There almost one unbroken sheet of cultivation. The boundary rivers are reduction works of the old-fashioned type and some manu- form the only interesting feature in Jalaun. The river Non factures, including cotton and woollen goods, pottery, refined flows through the centre of the district, which it drains by sugar and leather. The commercial activities of the state' innumerable small ravines instead of watering. Jalaun has contribute much to its prosperity. There is a large percentage suffered much from the noxious kans grass, owing to the spread of Indians and mestizos in the population. The capital is of which many villages have been abandoned and their lands Guadalajara, and other important towns with their populations thrown out of cultivation. Pop. (1901), 399,726, showing an in 1900 (unless otherwise stated) are: Zapotlanejo (20,275), 21 m. increase of 1%. The two largest towns are Kunch (15,888), E. by N. of Guadalajara; Ciudad Guzmán (17,374 in 1895), and Kalpi (10,139). The district is traversed by the line of the co m. N.E. of Colima; Lagos (14,716 in 1895), a mining town Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore. A small part 100 m. E.N.E. of Guadalajara on the Mexican Central railway; of it is watered by the Betwa canal. Grain, oil-seeds, cotton Tamazula, (8783 in 1895); Sayula (7883); Autlán (7715); and ghi are exported. Teocaltiche (8881); Ameca (7212 in 1895), in a fertile agricultural 132 JALNA-JAMAICA sea. " region on the western slopes of the sierras; Cocula (7090 in expands into a picturesque and fertile plain. The Black river 1895); and Zacoalco (6516). Jalisco was first invaded by the flows through a level country, and is navigable by small craft Spaniards about 1526 and was soon afterwards conquered by for about 30 m. The Salt river and the Cabaritta, also in the Nuño de Guzman. It once formed part of the reyno of Nueva south, are navigable by barges. Other rivers of the south are Galicia, which also included Aguas Calientes and Zacatecas. In the Rio Cobre (on which are irrigation works for the sugar and 1889 its area was much reduced by a subdivision of its coastal fruit plantations), the Yallahs and the Rio Minho; in the north zone, which was set apart as the territory of Tepic. are the Martha Brae, the White river, the Great Spanish river, JALNA, or JAULNA, a town in Hyderabad state, India, on the and the Rio Grande. Vestiges of intermittent volcanic action Godavari branch of the Nizam's railway, and 210 m. N.E. of occur, and there are several medicinal springs. Jamaica has Bombay. Pop. (1901), 20,270. Until 1903 it was a cantonment 16 harbours, the chief of which are Port Morant, Kingston, Old of the Hyderabad contingent, originally established in 1827. Its Harbour, Montego Bay, Falmouth, St Ann's Bay, Port Maria gardens produce fruit, which is largely exported. On the and Port Antonio. opposite bank of the river Kundlika is the trading town of Geology:--The greater part of Jamaica is covered by Tertiary Kadirabad; pop. (1901), 11,159. deposits, but in the Blue Mountain and some of the other ranges the JALPAIGURI, or JULPIGOREE, a town and district of British older rocks rise to the surface. The foundation of the island is India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. formed by a series of stratified shales and conglomerates, with tuffs and other volcanic rocks and occasional bands of marine limestone. The town is on the right bank of the river Tista, with a station The limestones contain Upper Cretaceous fossils, and the whole on the Eastern Bengal railway about 300 m. due N. of Calcutta. series has been strongly folded. Upon this foundation rests un- Pop. (1901), 9708. It is the headquarters of the commissioner conformably a series of marls and limestones of Eocene and early of the division. Oligocene age. Some of the limestones are made of Foraminifera, together with Radiolaria, and indicate a subsidence to abyssal depths. The DISTRICT OF JALPAIGURI (organized in 1869) occupies an Nevertheless, the higher peaks of the island still remained above the irregularly shaped tract south of Darjeeling and Bhutan and Towards the middle of the Oligocene period, mountain folding north of the state of Kuch Behar. It includes the Western took place on an extensive scale, and the island was raised far above Dwars, annexed from Bhutan after the war of 1864-1865. Area, its present level and was probably connected with the rest of the 2,962 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 787,380, an increase of 16 % in the time plutonic rocks of various kinds were intruded into the deposits At the same Greater Antilles and perhaps with the mainland also. decade. The district is divided into a “regulation ”tract, lying already formed, and in some cases produced considerable meta- towards the south-west, and a strip of country, about 22 m. in morphism. During the Miocene and Pliocene periods the island again width, running along the foot of the Himalayas, and known as sank, but never to the depths which it reached in the Eocene period. the Western Dwars. The former is a continuous expanse of limestones, with mollusca, brachiopoda, corals, &c. Finally, a The deposits formed were shallow-water conglomerates, marls and level paddy fields, only broken by groves of bamboos, palms, series of successive elevations of small amount, less than 500 ft. and fruit-trees. The frontier towards Bhutan is formed by the in the aggregate, raised the island to its present level. The terraces Sinchula mountain range, some peaks of which attain an elevation Montego Bay and elsewhere. which mark the successive stages in this elevation are well shown in The remarkable depressions of the of 6000 ft. It is thickly wooded from base to summit. The Cockpit country and the closed basin of the Hector river are similar principal rivers, proceeding from west to east, are the Mahan- in origin to swallow-holes, and were formed by the solution of a anda, Karatoya, Tista, Jaldhaka, Duduya, Mujnai, Tursa, limestone layer resting upon insoluble rocks. The island produces a Kaljani, Raidak, and Sankos. The most important is the great variety of marbles, porphyrites, granite and ochres. Traces of Tista, which forms a valuable means of water communication. gold have been found associated with some of the oxidized copper ores (blue and green carbonates) in the Clarendon mines. Copper Lime is quarried in the lower Bhutan hills. The Western Dwars ores are widely diffused but are very expensive to work; as are the are the principal centre of tea cultivation in Eastern Bengal. I lead and cobalt which are also found. Manganese iron ores and a form of arsenic occur. The other portion of the district produces jute. Jalpaiguri is traversed by the main line of the Eastern Bengal railway to Climate.—The climate is one of the island's chief attractions. Darjeeling. It is also served by the Bengal Dwars railway. Near the coast it is warm and humid, but that of the uplands is JAMAICA, the largest island in the British West Indies. It delightfully mild and equable. At Kingston the temperature lies about 80 m. S. of the eastern extremity of Cuba, between ranges from 70-7° to 87.8° F., and this is generally the average 17° 43' and 18° 32' N. and 76° 10' and 78° 20' W., is 144 m. long, of all the low-lying coast land. At Cinchona, 4907 ft. above 50 m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of 4207 sq. m. The the sea, it varies from 57.50 to 68.5°. The vapours from the coast-line has the form of a turtle, the mountain ridges repre-rivers and the ocean produce in the upper regions clouds saturated senting the back. A mountainous backbone runs through the with moisture which induce vegetation belonging to a colder island from E. to W., throwing off a number of subsidiary climate. During the rainy seasons there is such an accumulation ridges, mostly in a north-westerly or south-easterly direction of these vapours as to cause a general coolness and occasion In the east this range is more distinctly marked, forming the sudden heavy showers, and sometimes destructive floods. The Blue Mountains, with cloud-capped peaks and numerous rainy seasons, in May and October, last for about three weeks, bifurcating branches. They trend W. by N., and are crossed although, as a rule no month is quite without rain. The fall by five passes at altitudes varying from 3000 to 4000 ft. They varies greatly; while the annual average for the island is 66.3 in., culminate in Blue Mountain Peak (7360 ft.), after which the at Kingston it is 32.6 in., at Cinchona 105-5 in., and at some heights gradually decrease until the range is merged into the places in the north-east it exceeds 200 in. The climate of the hills of the western plateau. Two-thirds of the island are Santa Cruz Mountains is extremely favourable to sufferers from occupied by this limestone plateau, a region of great beauty tubercular and rheumatic diseases. Excepting near morasses broken by innumerable hills, valleys and sink-holes, and covered and lagoons, the island is very healthy, and yellow fever, once with luxuriant vegetation. The uplands usually terminate in prevalent, now rarely occurs. In the early part of the 19th steep slopes or bluffs, separated from the sea, in most cases, by a century, hurricanes often devastated Jamaica, but now, though strip of level land. On the south coast, especially, the plains they pass to the N.E. and S.W. with comparative frequency, are often large, the Liguanea plain, on which Kingston stands, they rarely strike the island itself. having an area of 200 sq. m. Upwards of a hundred rivers and a streams find their way to the sea, besides the numerous tribu- Florą.—The flora is remarkable, showing types from North, taries which issue from every ravine in the mountains. These Central, and South America, with a few European forms, besides the common plants found everywhere in the tropics. Of flowering streams for the most part are not navigable, and in times of flood plants there are 2180 distinct species, and of ferns 450 species, they become devastating torrents. In the parish of Portland, several of both being indigenous. The largeness of these numbers the Rio Grande receives all the smaller tributaries from the west. may be to some extent accounted for by differences of altitude, In St Thomas in the east the main range is drained by the temperature and humidity. There are many beautiful flowers, Plantain Garden river, the tributaries of which form deep Victoria regia ;and the cactus tribe is well represented. The Sensitive such as the aloe, the yucca, the datura the mountain pride and the ravines and narrow gorges. The valley of the Plantain Garden Plant grows in pastures, and orchids in the woods. There are forest JAMAICA 133 County Boundaries .... Parish Boundaries Railways...... Flint Pory Mosquito C Lucca, Pedro PL Green is Harbour en Island Montego B English Miles Montego Falmouth Marthab aeR North SEMOVER LAWNY Dry Harbour Salem Ost. Ann's Bay Caunery: ST. ANNU Ocho Rigs Bay Rio Novo Negrii Pla PA CORN auth. WESTMORELAND Calina Pt. Sport 3Meria Long Bay back AnnotaBay Buff Bay erine Peak Ro Grando PORT Homer's C eleme M Boston St. Johns Pt. Cabantra R A pro We Savannala grue Town Sanchioncas Plantain Garden Moran 18 Cras Pond Pe Parter's say Luanart. IZABETH THOM Foliy Bay Port Morant Point trees fit for every purpose; including the ballata, rosewood, satin: | rum, logwood, cocoa, pimento, ginger, coco-nuts, limes, nutmegs, wood, mahogany, lignum vitae, lancewood and ebony. The logwood pineapples, tobacco, grape-fruit and mangoes. There is a board of and fustic are exported for dyeing. There are also the Jamaica agriculture, with an experimental station at Hope; there is also an cedar, and the silk cotton tree (Ceiba Bombax)Pimento (peculiar to agricultural society with 26 branches throughout the colony. Bee- Jamaica) is indigenous, and furnishes the allspice. The bamboo, keeping is a growing industry, especially among the peasants. The coffee and cocoa are well known. Several species of palm abound, land as a rule is divided into small holdings, the vast majority --the macaw, the fan palm, screw palm, and palmetto royal. There consisting of five acres and less. The manufactures are few. In are plantations of coco-nut palm. The other noticeable trees and addition to the sugar and coffee estates and cigar factories, there plants are the mango, the breadfruit tree, the papaw, the lacebark are tanneries, distilleries, breweries, electric light and gas works, tree, and the guava. The Palma Christi, from which castor oil is ironfoundries, potteries and factories for the production of coco- made, is a very abundant annual. English vegetables grow in the nut oil, essential oils, ice, matches and mineral waters. There is hills, and the plains produce plantains, cocoa, yams, cassava, ochra, an important establishment at Spanish Town for the production of beans, pease, ginger and arrowroot. Maize and guinea-corn are logwood extract. The exports, more than half of which go to the cultivated, and the guinea-grass, accidentally introduced in 1750, United States, mostly comprise fruit, sugar and rum. The United is very valuable for horses and cattle, --so much so that pen-keeping States also contributes the majority of the imports. More than half or cattle farming is a highly profitable occupation. Among the the revenue of the colony is derived from import duties, the remainder principal fruits are the orange, shaddock, lime, grape or cluster is furnished by excise, stamps and licences. With the exception of fruit, pine-apple, mango, banana, grapes, melons, avocado pear, that of the parish boards, there is no direct taxation. breadfruit, and tamarind. Communications.-In 1900 an Imperial Direct West India Line Fauna.-There are fourteen sorts of lampyridae or fireflies, of steamers was started by Elder, Dempster & Co., to encourage besides the elateridae or lantern beetles. There are no venomous the fruit trade with England; it had a subsidy of £40,000, contri- serpents, but numerous harmless snakes and lizards exist. The land- buted jointly by the Imperial and Jamaican governments. Two crab is considered a table delicacy, and the land-turtle also is eaten. steamers go round the island once a week, calling at the principal The scorpion and centipede, though poisonous, are not very danger- ports, the circuit occupying about 120 hours. A number of sailing ous. Ants, sandflies and mosquitoes swarm in the lowlands. There droghers", also ply from port to port. Jamaica has a number are twenty different song-birds, and forty-three varieties of birds of good roads and bridle paths; the main roads, controlled by the are presumed to be peculiar to the island. The sea and the rivers public works department, encircle the island, with several branches swarm with fish. Turtles abound, and the seal, the manatee and from north to south. The parochial roads are maintained by the the crocodile are sometimes found. The coral reefs, with their parish boards. A railway traverses the island from Kingston in the varied polyps and anemones, the numerous alcyonarians and diverse south-east to Montego Bay in the north-west, and also branches to çoral-dwelling animals are readily accessible to the student, and the island is also celebrated for the number of species of its land-shells. JAMAICA 21 People.The population of the island was estimated in 1905 at 806,690. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawak o 5 10 15 20 25 30 inhabitants. Aboriginal petaloid celts and other implements, flattened skulls and vessels are common, and images are some- ory Marbod mes times found in the large limestone caverns of the island. The present inhabitants, of whom only 2% are white, include MIDDLESEX Maroons, the descendants of the slaves of the Spaniards who fled into the interior when the island was captured by the British; descendants of imported African slaves; mixed race of British and African blood; coolies from India; a few Chinese, and the British officials and white settlers. The Maroons live by them- selves and are few in number, while the half-castes enter into Longitude West 78 or Greenwich trade and sometimes into the professions. The number of white Port Antonio and to Ewarton. Jamaica is included in the Postal inhabitants other than British is very small. A negro peasant Union and in the Imperial penny post, and there is a weekly, mail service to and from England by the Royal Mail Line, but mails are population is encouraged, with a view to its being a support also carried by other companies. The island is connected by cable to the industries of the island; but, in many cases a field negro with the United States via Cuba, and with Halifax, Nova Scotia will not work for his employer more than four days a week. He via Bermuda. may till his own plot of ground on one of the other days or not, throughout the island, and there are also branches of the Colonial There is a government savings bank at Kingston with branches as the spirit moves him, but four days' work a week will keep Bank of London and the Bank of Nova Scotia. The coins in cir- him easily. He has little or no care for the future. He has culation are British gold and silver, but not bronze, instead of which probably squatted on someone's land, and has no rent to pay. local nickel is used. United States gold passes as currency. English Clothes he need hardly buy, fuel he needs only for cooking, and weights and measures are used. food is ready to his hand for the picking. Unfortunately a Administration, &c.-The island is divided into three counties, widespread indulgence in predial larceny is a great hindrance Surrey in the east, Middlesex in the centre, and Cornwall to agriculture as well as to moral progress. But that habits of in the west, and each of these is subdivided into five parishes. thriſt are being inculcated is shown by the steady increase in The parish is the unit of local government, and has jurisdic- the accounts in the government savings banks. That gross tion over roads, markets, sanitation, poor relief and water- superstition is still prevalent is shown by the cases of obeah or works. The management is vested in a parish board, the witchcraft that come before the courts from time to time. members of which are elected. The chairman or custos is Another indication of the status of the negro may be found in appointed by the governor. The island is administered by the fact that more than 60% of the births are illegitimate, a a governor, who bears the old Spanish title of captain-general, percentage that shows an unfortunate tendency to increase assisted by a legislative council of five ex officio members, rather than diminish. not more than ten nominated members, and fourteen members The capital, Kingston, stands on the south-east coast, and near elected on a limited suffrage. There is also a privy council capital, is in the parish of St Catherine, Middlesex, 11 m. by rail There is an Imperial garrison of about 2000 officers and men, it is the town of Port Royal. Spanish Town (pop. 5019), the former of three ex officio and not more than eight nominated members. west of Kingston. Since the removal of the seat of government to Kingston, the town has gradually sunk in importance. In the with headquarters at Newcastle, consisting of Royal Engineers, cathedral many of the governors of the island are buried. A marble Royal Artillery, infantry and four companies of the West India statue of Rodney, commemorates his victory over the count de Regiment. There is a naval station at Port Royal, and the Grasse off Dominica in 1782. Montego Bay. (pop: 4803), on the north-west coast, is the second town on the island, and is also a entrance to its harbour is strongly fortified. In addition there favourite bathing resort. Port Antonio (1784) lies between two is a militia of infantry and artillery, about 800 strong. 2011 secure harbours on the north-east, and owes its prosperity mainly Previous to 1870 the Church of England was established in to the development of the trade in fruit, for which it is the chief Jamaica, but in that year a disestablishment act was passed place of shipment. Industries. ---Agricultural enterprise falls into two classes-plant- which provided for gradual disendowment. It is still the most ing and pen-keeping, i.e. the breeding of horses, mules, cattle and numerous body, and is presided over by the bishop of Jamaica, sheep. The chief products are bananas, oranges, coffee, sugar, I who is also archbishop of the West Indies. The Baptists, Black Rivet Pargris Pt. Caldbash Bay Yallahs R. Greay Pedro Blush Maylida Alligator Pond New Broughton Milk R. Rio Minho des Morant Bay Carlisle Bun rtland 4 Bày, Pelican Cars Town Sto Great Bay Port Royal Kingston rallars Polne Emery Walker se 134 JAMAICA Wesleyans, Presbyterians, Moravians and Roman Catholics are the chief part of the town of Port Royal, built on a shelving all represented; there is a Jewish synagogue at Kingston, and bank of sand, slipped into the sea. Two dreadful hurricanes the Salvation Army has a branch on the island. The Church of devastated the island in 1712 and 1722, the second of which did England maintains many schools, a theological college, a deacon- so much damage that the seat of commerce had to be transferred esses' home and an orphanage. The Baptists have a theological from Port Royal to Kingston. college; and the Roman Catholics support a training college for The only prominent event in the history of the island during teachers, two industrial schools and two orphanages. Elemen- the later years of the 18th century, was the threatened invasion tary education is in private hands, but fostered, since 1867, by by the French and Spanish in 1782, but Jamaica was saved by government grants; it is free but not compulsory, although the the victory of Rodney and Hood off Dominica. The last attempt governor has the right to compel the attendance of all children at invasion was made in 1806, when the French were defeated from 6 to 14 years of age in such towns and districts as he may by Admiral Duckworth. When the slave trade was abolished designate. The teachers in these schools are for the most part the island was at the zenith of its prosperity; sugar, coffee, trained in the government-aided training colleges of the various cocoa, pimento, ginger and indigo were being produced in large denominations. For higher education there are the University quantities, and it was the dépôt of a very lucrative trade with the College and high school at Hope near Kingston, Potsdam School Spanish main. The anti-slavery agitation in Great Britain in St Elizabeth, the Mico School and Wolmer's Free School in found its echó in the island, and in 1832 the negroes revolted, Kingston, founded (for boys and girls) in 1729, the Montego believing that emancipation had been granted. They killed a Bay secondary school, and numerous other endowed and self-number of whites and destroyed a large amount of valuable supporting establishments. The Cambridge Local Examinations property. Two years later the Emancipation Act was passed, have been held regularly since 1882. and, subject to a short term of apprenticeship, the slaves were History.— Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3rd free. Emancipation left the planters in a pitiable condition of May 1494. Though he called it Santiago, it has always been financially. The British government awarded them conpensa- known by its Indian name Jaymaca, “the island of springs,” tion at the rate of £19 per slave, the market value of slaves at modernized in form and pronunciation into Jamaica. Except the time being £35, but most of this compensation went into the ing that in 1505 Columbus once put in for shelter, the island hands of the planters' creditors. They were left with over- remained unvisited until 1509, when Diego, the discoverer's worked estates, a poor market and a scarcity of labour. Nor son, sent Don Juan d'Esquivel to take possession, and thence- was this the end of their misfortunes. During the slavery times forward it passed under Spanish rule. Sant'Iago de la Vega, or the British government had protected the planter by imposing Spanish Town, which remained the capital of the island until a heavy differential duty on foreign sugar; but on the introduc- 1872, was founded in 1523. Sir Anthony Shirley, a British tion of free trade the price of sugar fell by one-half and reduced admiral, attacked the island in 1596, and plundered and burned the profits of the already impoverished planter. Many estates, the capital, but did not follow up his victory. Upon his retire already heavily mortgaged, were abandoned, and the trade of ment the Spaniards restored their capital and were unmolested the island was at a standstill. Differences between the executive, until 1635, when the island was again raided by the British under the legislature, and the home government, as to the means of Colonel Jackson. The period of the Spanish occupation is retrenching the public expenditure, created much bitterness. mainly memorable for the annihilation of the gentle and peaceful | Although some slight improvement marked the administration Arawâk Indian inhabitants; Don Pedro d'Esquivel was one of of Sir Charles Metcalfe and the earl of Elgin, when coolie immi- their cruellest oppressors. The whole island was divided among gration was introduced to supply the scarcity and irregularity eight noble Spanish families, who discouraged immigration to of labour and the railway was opened, the improvement was not such an extent that when Jamaica was taken by the British the permanent. In 1865 Edward John Eyre became governor. white and slave population together did not exceed 3000. Under Financial affairs were at their lowest ebb and the colonial the vigorous foreign policy of Cromwell an attempt was made to treasury showed a deficit of £80,000. To meet this difficulty crush the Spanish power in the West Indies, and an expedition new taxes were imposed and discontent was rife among the under Admirals Penn and Venables succeeded in capturing and negroes. Dr Underhill, the secretary of a Baptist organization . holding Jamaica in 1655. The Spanish were entirely expelled known as the British Union, wrote to the colonial secretary in in 1658. Their slaves then took to the mountains, and down to London, pointing out the state of affairs. This letter became the end of the 18th century the disaffection of these Maroons, public in Jamaica, and in the opinion of the governor added in as they were called, caused constant trouble. Jamaica con- no small measure to the popular excitement. On the 11th of tinued to be governed by military authority until 1661, when October 1865 the negroes rose at Morant Bay and murdered the Colonel D'Oyley was appointed captain-general and governor- custos and most of the white inhabitants. The slight encounter in-chief with an executive council, and a constitution was which followed filled the island with terror, and there is no doubt introduced resembling that of England. He was succeeded in that many excesses were committed on both sides. The assembly the next year by Lord Windsor, under whom a legislative passed an act by which martial law was proclaimed, and the council was established. Jamaica soon became the chief resort legislature passed an act abrogating the constitution. of the buccancers, who not infrequently united the characters The action of Governor Eyre, though generally approved of merchant or planter with that of pirate or privateer. By throughout the West Indies, caused much controversy in Eng- the Treaty of Madrid, 1670, the British title to the island was land, and he was recalled. A prosecution was instituted against recognized, and the buccaneers were suppressed. The Royal him, resulting in an elaborate exposition of martial law by African Company was formed in 1672 with a monopoly of the Chief Justice Cockburn, but the jury threw out the bill and Eyre slave trade, and from this time Jamaica was one of the greatest was discharged. He was succeeded in the government of slave marts in the world. The sugar-industry was introduced Jamaica by Sir Henry Storks, and under the crown colony about this period, the first pot of sugar being sent to London in system of government the state of the island made slow but 1673. An attempt was made in 1678 to saddle the island with steady progress. In 1868 the first fruit shipment took place a yearly tribute to the Crown and to restrict the free legisla- from Port Antonio, the immigration of coolies was revived, and ture. The privileges of the legislative assembly, wever, were cinchona planting was introduced. The method of government restored in 1682; but not till 46 years later was the question of was changed in 1884, when a new constitụtion, slightly modified revenue settled by a compromise by which Jamaica undertook in 1895, was granted to the island. to settle £8000 (an amount afterwards commuted to £6000) per In the afternoon of the 14th of January 1907 a cerrible earth- annum on the Crown, provided that English statute laws were quake visited Kingston. Almost every building in the capital made binding in Jamaica. and in Port Royal, and many in St Andrews, were destroyed or During these years of political struggle the colony was thrice seriously injured. The loss of life was variously estimated, but afilicted by nature. A great earthquake occurred in 1692, when probably exceeded one thousand. Among those killed was JAMAICA-JAMES 135 or 14 Sir James Fergusson, 6th baronet (b. 1832). The principal shock | Jacob), Giacomo (James), Prov. Jacme, Cat. Jaume, Cast. was followed by many more of slighter intensity during the Jaime), a masculine proper name popular in Christian countries ensuing fortnight and later. On the 17th of January assistance as having been that of two of Christ's apostles. It has been borne was brought by three American war-ships under Rear-Admiral by many sovereigns and other princes, the most important of Davis, who however withdrew them on the 19th, owing to a whom are noticed below, after the heading devoted to the misunderstanding with the governor of the island, Sir Alexander characters in the New Testament, in the following order: Swettenham, on the subject of the landing of marines from the (1) kings of England and Scotland, (2) other kings in the alpha- vessels with a view to preserving order. The incident caused betical order of their countries, (3) the “Old Pretender." considerable sensation, and led to Sir A. Swettenham's resigna- The article on the Epistle of James in the New Testament tion in the following March, Sir Sydney Olivier, K.C.M.G., being follows after the remaining biographical articles in which James appointed governor. Order was speedily restored; but the is a surname. destructive effect of the earthquake was a severe check to the JAMES (Gr. 'Iakwßos, the Heb. Ya'akob or Jacob), the name of prosperity of the island. several persons mentioned in the New Testament. See Bryan Edwards, History of the West Indies (London, 1809, I, JAMES, the son of Zebedee. He was among the first who and appendix, 1819); P. H. Gosse, Journal of a Naturalist in Jamaica were called to be Christ's immediate followers (Mark i. 19 seq.; (London, 1851), and Birds of Jamaica (1847); Jamaica Handbook Matt. iv, 21 seq., and perhaps Lukev. 10), and afterwards obtained (London, annual); Bacon and Aaron, New Jamaica (1890); W. P. Livingstone, Black Jamaica (London, 1900), F. Cundali, Bibliotheca an honoured place in the apostolic band, his name twice occupy- Jamaicensis (Kingston, 1895), and Studies in Jamaica History ing the second place after Peter's in the lists (Mark iii. 17; Acts (1900); W. J. Gardner, History of Jamaica (New York, 1909). For i. 13), while on at least three notable occasions he was, along with geology, see R, T. Hill, “ The Geology and Physical Geography of Peter and his brother John, specially chosen by Jesus to be with Jamaica,” Bull. Mus. Com. Zool. Harvard, xxxiv. (1899). him (Mark v. 37; Matt. xvii. i, xxvi. 37). This same prominence JAMAICA, formerly a village of Queens county, Long may have contributed partly to the title “Boanerges Island, New York, U.S.A., but after the ist of January 1898 a sons of thunder" which, according to Mark iii. 17, Jesus part of the borough of Queens, New York City. Pop. (1890) himself gave to the two brothers. But its most natural inter- 5361. It is served by the Long Island railroad, the lines of pretation is to be found in the impetuous disposition which would which from Brooklyn and Manhattan meet here and then have called down fire from heaven on the offending Samaritan separate to serve the different regions of the island.1 King's villagers (Luke ix. 54), and afterwards found expression, though Park (about 10 acres) comprises the estate of John Alsop King in a different way, in the ambitious request to occupy the places (1788–1867), governor of New York in 1857-1859, from whose of honour in Christ's kingdom (Mark x. 35 seq.). James is included heirs in 1897 the land was purchased by the village trustees. In among those who after the ascension waited at Jerusalem South Jamaica there is a race track, at which meetings are held (Acts i. 13) for the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of in the spring and autumn. The headquarters of the Queens Pentecost. And though on this occasion only his name is Borough Department of Public Works and Police are in the mentioned, he must have been a zealous and prominent member Jamaica town-hall, and Jamaica is the seat of a city training of the Christian community, to judge from the fact that when a school for teachers (until 1905 one of the New York State normal victim had to be chosen from among the apostles, who should be schools). For two guns, a coat, and a quantity of powder and sacrificed to the animosity of the Jews, it was on James that lead, several New Englanders obtained from the Indians a deed the blow fell first. The brief notice is given in Acts xii. 1, 2. for a tract of land here in September 1655. In March 1657 they Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. ii. 9) has preserved for us from Clement received permission from Governor Stuyvesant to found a town, of Alexandria the additional information that the accuser of which was chartered in 1660 and was named Rustdorp by the apostle beholding his confession and moved thereby, Stuyvesant, but the English called it Jamaica; it was rechar- confessed that he too was a Christian. So they were both led tered in 1666, 1686 and 1788. The village was incorporated in away to execution together; and on the road the accuser asked 1814 and reincorporated in 1855. In 1665 it was made the seat James for forgiveness. Gazing on him for a little while, he said, of justice of the north riding; in 1683-1788 it was the shire town Peace be with thee,' and kissed him. And then both were of Queens county. With Hempstead, Gravesend, Newtown beheaded together.” and Flushing, also towns of New England origin and type, The later, and wholly untrustworthy, legends which tell of the Jamaica was early disaffected towards the provincial government apostle's preaching in Spain, and of the translation of his body to of New York. In 1669 these towns complained that they had Santiago de Compostela, are to be found in the Acta Sanctorum no representation in a popular assembly, and in 1670 they pro- (July 25), vi. 1-124; see also Mrs Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art, i. 230-241. tested against taxation without representation. The founders of Jamaica were mostly Presbyterians, and they organized one 2. JAMES, the son of Alphaeus. He also was one of the of the first Presbyterian churches in America. At the begin- apostles, and is mentioned in all the four lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark ning of the War of Independence Jamaica was under the control iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13) by this name. We know nothing of Loyalists; after the defeat of the Americans in the battle further regarding him, unless we believe him to be the same as of Long Island (27th August 1776) it was occupied by the James “the little.” British; and until the end of the war it was the headquarters 3. JAMES, the little. He is described as the son of a Mary of General Oliver Delancey, who had command of all Long (Matt. xxvii. 56; Mark xv. 40), who was in all probability the Island. wife of Clopas (John xix. 25). And on the ground that Clopas JAMB (from Fr. jambe, leg), in architecture, the side-post or is another form of the name Alphaeus, this James has been lining of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window thought by some to be the same as 2. But the evidence of the outside the frame are called " reveals.” Small shafts to doors Syriac versions, which render Alphaeus by Chalphai, while and windows with caps and bases are known as “jamb-shafts ";Clopas is simply transliterated Kleopha, makes it extremely when in the inside arris of the jamb of a window they are some improbable that the two names are to be identified. And as times called “scoinsons. we have no better ground for finding in Clopas the Cleopas of JAMES (a variant of the name Jacob, Heb. giay, one who Luke xxiv. 18, we must be content to admit that James the little holds by the heel, outwitter, through 0. Fr. James, another is again an almost wholly unknown personality, and has no form of Jacques, Jaques, from Low Lat. Jacobus; cf. Ital. Jacopo connexion with any of the other Jameses mentioned in the New Testament. In June 1908 the subway lines of the interborough system of 4. JAMES, the father of Judas. There can be no doubt that New York City were extended to the Flatbush (Brooklyn) station in the mention of “ Judas of James” in Luke vi. 16 the ellipsis of the Long Island railroad, thus bringing Jamaica into direct connexion with Manhattan borough by way of the East river should be supplied by“ the son " and not as in the A.V. by " the tunnel, completed in the same year. 'brother" (cf. Luke iii. 1, vi. 14; Acts xii. 2, where the word 66 136 JAMES 1. 66 ådeløós is inserted). This Judas, known as Thaddaeus by JAMES I. (1566–1625), king of Great Britain and Ireland, Matthew and Mark, afterwards became one of the apostles, and formerly king of Scotland as James VI., was the only child of is expressly distinguished by St John from the traitor as “not Mary Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stewart Iscariot” (John xiv. 22). Lord Darnley. He was born in the castle of Edinburgh on the 5. JAMES, the Lord's brother. In Matt. xiii, 55 and Mark 19th of June 1566, and was proclaimed king of Scotland on the vi. 3 we read of a certain James as, along with Joses and Judas 24th of July 1567, upon the forced abdication of his mother. and Simon, a “brother” of the Lord. The exact nature of the Until 1578 he was treated as being incapable of taking any real relationship there implied has been the subject of much discussion. part in public affairs, and was kept in the castle of Stirling for Jerome's view (de vir. ill. 2), that the“ brothers ” were in reality safety's sake amid the confused fighting of the early years of his cousins, sons of Mary the sister of the Lord's mother,” rests minority. on too many unproved assumptions to be entitled to much weight, The young king was a very weakly boy. It is said that he and may be said to have been finally disposed of by Bishop could not stand without support until he was seven, and although Lightfoot in his essay on “ The Brothers of the Lord” (Galatians, he lived until he was nearly sixty, he was never a strong man. pp. 252 sqq., Dissertations on the Apostolic Age, pp. I sqq.). Even In after life he was a constant and even a reckless rider, but the however if we understand the word “ brethren " in its natural weakness in his legs was never quite cured. During a great part sense, it may be applied either to the sons of Joseph by a former of his life he found it necessary to be tied to the saddle. When wife, in which case they would be the step-brothers of Jesus, on one occasion in 1621 his horse threw him into the New River or to sons born to Joseph and Mary after the birth of Jesus. near his palace of Theobalds in the neighbourhood of London, The former of these views, generally known as the Epiphanian he had a very narrow escape of being drowned; yet he continued view from its most zealous advocate in the 4th century, can to ride as before. At all times he preferred to lean on the claim for its support the preponderating voice of tradition (see shoulder of an attendant when walking. This feebleness of the catena of references given by Lightfoot, loc. cit., who himself body, which had no doubt a large share in causing certain inclines to this view). On the other hand the Helvidian theory corresponding deficiencies of character, was attributed to the as propounded by Helvidius, and apparently accepted by Ter- agitations and the violent efforts forced on his mother by the tullian (cf. adv. Marc. iv. 29), which makes James a brother of murder of her secretary Rizzio when she was in the sixth month the Lord, as truly as Mary was his mother, undoubtedly seems of her pregnancy. The fact that James was a bold rider, in more in keeping with the direct statements of the Gospels, and spite of this serious disqualification for athletic exercise, should also with the after history of the brothers in the Church be borne in mind when he is accused of having been a coward. (see W. Patrick, James the Brother of the Lord, 1906, p. 5). The circumstances surrounding him in boyhood were not In any case, whatever the exact nature of James's antecedents, favourable to the development of his character. His immediate there can be no question as to the important place which he guardian or foster-father, the earl of Mar, was indeed an honour. occupied in the early Church. Converted to a full belief in the able man, and the countess, who had charge of the nursing of living Lord, perhaps through the special revelation that was the king, discharged her duty so as to win his lasting confidence. granted to him (1 Cor. xv. 7), he became the recognized head of James afterwards entrusted her with the care of his eldest son, the Church at Jerusalem (Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18), and is Henry. When the earl died in 1572 his place was well filled by called by St Paul (Gal. ii. 9), along with Peter and John, a "pillar" his brother, Sir Alexander Erskine. The king's education was of the Christian community. He was traditionally the author placed under the care of George Buchanan, assisted by Peter of the epistle in the New Testament which bears his name Young, and two other tutors. Buchanan, who did not spare the (see JAMES, EPISTLE OF). From the New Testament we learn rod, and the other teachers, who had more reverence for the no more of the history of James the Lord's brother, but Eusebius royal person, gave the boy a sound training in languages. The (Hist. Eccl. ii. 23) has preserved for us from Hegesippus the English envoy, Sir Henry Killigrew, who saw him in 1574, earliest ecclesiasticaltraditions concerning him. By that authority testified to his proficiency in translating from and into Latin and he is described as having been a Nazarite, and on account of his French. As it was very desirable that he should be trained a eminent righteousness called “ Just” and “ Oblias.” So great Protestant king, he was well instructed in theology. The was his influence with the people that he was appealed to by the exceptionally scholastic quality of his education helped to give scribes and Pharisees for a true and (as they hoped) unfavourable him a taste for learning, but also tended to make him a pedant. judgment about the Messiahship of Christ. Placed, to give the James was only twelve when the earl of Morton was driven greater publicity to his words, on a pinnacle of the temple, he, from the regency, and for some time after he can have been no when solemnly appealed to, made confession of his faith, and was more than a puppet in the hands of intriguers and party leaders. at once thrown down and murdered. This happened immedi- When, for instance, in 1582 he was seized by the faction of ately before the siege. Josephus (Antiq. xx. 9, 1) tells that it nobles who carried out the so-called raid of Ruthven, which was was by order of Ananus the high priest, in the interval between in fact a kidnapping enterprise carried out in the interest of the the death of Festus and the arrival of his successor Albinus, Protestant party, he cried like a child. One of the conspirators, that James was put to death; and his narrative gives the idea the master of Glamis, Sir Thomas Lyon, told him that it was of some sort of judicial examination, for he says that along with better “ bairns should greet (children should cry) than bearded some others James was brought before an assembly of judges, men.” It was not indeed till 1583, when he broke away from by whom they were condemned and delivered to be stoned his captors, that James began to govern in reality. Josephus is also cited by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. ii. 23) to the effect For the history of his reign reference may be made to the that the miseries of the siege were due to divine vengeance for articles on the histories of England and Scotland. James's the murder of James. Later writers describe James as an work as a ruler can be divided, without violating any sound ÉT LO KOTOS (Clem. Al. apud Eus. Hist. Ecc. ii. 1) and even as an rule of criticism, into black and white-into the part which was ÉTLO KOTOS ŠILO KÓTWV (Clem. Hom., ad init.). According to a failure and a preparation for future disaster, and the part Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. vii. 19) his episcopal chair was still shown which was solid achievement, honourable to himself and profit- at Jerusalem at the time when Eusebius wrote. able to his people. His native kingdom of Scotland had the benefit of the second. Between 1583 and 1603 he reduced the BIBLIOGRAPHY.-In addition to the relevant literature cited above, see the articles under the heading “James” in Hastings's Dictionary anarchical baronage of Scotland to obedience, and replaced the of the Bible (Mayor) and Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels (Fulford), subdivision of sovereignty and consequent confusion, which had and in the Encycl. Biblica (O. Cone); also the introductions to the been the very essence of feudalism, by a strong centralized Commentaries on the Epistle of James by Mayor and Knowling. Zahn has an elaborate essay on Brüder und Vellein Jesus que royal authority. In fact he did in Scotland the work which Brothers and Cousins of Jesus ") in the Forschungen zur Geschichte had been done by the Tudors in England, by Louis XI. in France, des neutestamentlichen Kanons, vi. 2 (Leipzig, 1900). and by Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain. It was the work of all (G. Mi.) the strong rulers of the Renaissance. But James not only JAMES 1. 137 6 brought his disobedient and intriguing barons to order-that shifts. Posterity can give him credit for his desire to forward was a comparatively easy achievement and might well have been religious peace in Europe, but his Protestant subjects were performed by more than one of his predecessors, had their lives simply frightened when he sought a matrimonial alliance with been prolonged-he also quelled the attempts of the Protestants Spain. Sagacious men among his contemporaries could not to found what Hallam has well defined as a “ Presbyterian see the consistency of a king who married his daughter Elizabeth Hildebrandism.” He enforced the superiority of the state over to the elector palatine, a leader of the German Protestants, and the church. Both before his accession to the throne of England also sought to marry his son to an infanta of Spain. The (1603) and afterwards he took an intelligent interest in the king's subservience to Spain was indeed almost besotted. He prosperity of his Scottish kingdom, and did much for the pacifica- could not sce her real weakness, and he allowed himself to be tion of the Hebrides, for the enforcement of order on the Borders, befooled by the ministers of Philip III. and Philip IV. The end and for the development of industry. That hc did so much al- of his scheming was that he was dragged into a needless war with though the crown was poor (largely it must be confessed because Spain by his son Charles and his favourite George Villiers, duke he made profuse gifts of the secularized church lands), and of Buckingham, just before his death on the 5th of March 1625 although the armed force at his disposal was so small that to the at his favourite residence, Theobalds. very end he was exposed to the attacks of would-be kidnappers James married in 1589 Anne, second daughter of Frederick II., (as in the case of the Gowrie conspiracy of 1600), is proof positive king of Denmark. His voyage to meet his bride, whose ship that he was neither the mere poltroon nor the mere learned fool had been driven into a Norwegian port by bad weather, is the he has often been called. only episode of a romantic character in the life of this very James's methods of achieving ends in themselves honourable prosaic member of a poetic family. By this wife James had three and profitable were indeed of a kind which has made posterity children who survived infancy: Henry Frederick, prince of unjust to his real merits. The circumstances in which he Wales, who died in 1612; Charles, the future king; and Elizabeth, passed his youth developed in him a natural tendency to craft. wife of the elector palatine, Frederick V. He boasted indeed of his “ king-craft” and probably believed Not the least of James's many ambitions was the desire to that he owed it to his studies. But it was in reality the resource excel as an author. He left a body of writings which, though of of the weak, the art of playing off one possible enemy against mediocre quality as literature, entitle him to a unique place another by trickery, and so deceiving all. The marquis de among English kings since Alfred for width of intellectual Fontenay, the French ambassador, who saw him in the early part interest and literary faculty. His efforts were inspired by his of his reign, speaks of him as cowed by the violence about him. preceptor George Buchanan, whose memory he cherished in It is certain that James was most unscrupulous in making promises later years. His first work was in versc, Essayes of a Prentise in which he never meant to keep, and the terror in which he passed the Divine Art of Poesie (Edin. Vautrollier, 1584), containing his youth sufficiently explains his preference for guile. He would fifteen sonnets, " Ane Metaphoricall invention of a tragedie called make promises to everybody, as when he wrote to the pope in Phoenix," a short poem “Of Time,” translations from Du 1584 more than hinting that he would be a good Roman Catholic Bartas, Lucan and the Book of Psalms (“ out of Tremellius "), iſ helped in his need. His very natural desire to escape from the and a prose tract entitled " Ane short treatise, containing some. poverty and insecurity of Scotland to the opulent English throne Reulis and Cautelis to be observit and eschewit in Scottis Poesie.” not only kept him busy in intrigues to placate the Roman The volume is introduced by commendatory sonnets, including Catholics or anybody else who could help or hinder him, but led one by Alexander Montgomerie. The chief interest of the book him to behave basely in regard to the execution of his mother lies in the “ Treatise” and the prefatory sonnets “To the in 1587. He blustered to give himself an air of courage, but took Reader” and “Sonnet decifring the perfyte poete.” There is good care to do nothing to offend Elizabeth. When the time little originality in this youthful production. It has been sur- came for fulfilling his promises and half-promises, he was notmised that it was compiled from the exercises written when the able, even if he had been willing, to keep his word to everybody. author was Buchanan's pupil at Stirling, and that it was directly The methods which had helped him to success in Scotland did suggested by his preceptor's De Prosodia and his annotations on him harm in England, where his reign prepared the way for the Vives. On the other hand, it shows intimate acquaintance with great civil war. In his southern kingdom his failure was in fact the critical reflections of Ronsard and Du Bellay, and of Gas- complete. Although England accepted him as the alternative coigne in his Notes of Instruction (1575). In 1591 James pub- to civil war, and although he was received and surrounded with lished Poeticall Exercises al Vacant Houres, including a transla- fulsome flattery, he did not win the respect of his English sub- tion of the Furies of Du Bartas, his own Lepanto, and Du Bartas's jects. His undignified personal appearance was against him, and version of it, La Lepanthe. His Daemonologie, a prose treatise so were his garrulity, his Scottish accent, his slovenliness and denouncing witchcraft and exhorting the civil power to the his toleration of disorders in his court, but, above all, his favour strongest measures of suppression, appeared in 1599. In the for handsome male favourites, whom he loaded with gifts and same year he printed the first edition (seven copies) of his caressed with demonstrations of affection which laid him open Basilikon Doron, strongly Protestant in tone. A French edition, to vile suspicions. In ecclesiastical matters he offended many, specially translated for presentation to the pope, has a disin- who contrasted his severity and rudeness to the Puritan divines genuous preface explaining that certain phrases (e.g.“ papistical at the Hampton Court conference (1604) with his politeness to doctrine ") are omitted, because of the difficulty of rendering the Roman Catholics, whom he, however, worried by fits and them in a foreign tongue. The original edition was, however, starts. In a country where the authority of the state had been translated by order of the suspicious pope, and was immediately firmly established and the problem was how to keep it from placed on the Index. Shortly after going to England James degenerating into the mere instrument of a king's passions, his produced his famous Counterblaste to Tobacco (London, 1604), insistence on the doctrine of divine right aroused distrust and in which he forsakes his Scots tongue for Southern English. hostility. In itself, and in its origin, the doctrine was nothing The volume was published anonymously. James's prose works more than a necessary assertion of the independence of the state (including his speeches) were collected and edited (folio, 1616) in face of the “ Hildebrandism” of Rome and Geneva alike. by James Montagu, bishop of Winchester, and were translated But when Englishmen were told that the king alone had inde- into Latin by the same hand in a companion folio, in 1619 (also feasible rights, and that all the privileges of subjects were re- Frankfort, 1689). A tract, entitled “The True Law of Free vocable gifts, they were roused to hostility. His weaknesses cast Monarchies," appeared in 1603; “ An Apology for the Oath of suspicion on his best-meant schemes. His favour for his Allegiance” in 1607; and a “ Déclaration du Roy Jacques I. ... countrymen helped to defeat his wise wish to bring about a full pour le droit des Rois " in 1615. In 1588 and 1589 James issued union between England and Scotland. His profusion, which had two small volumes of Meditations on some verses of (a) Revela. been bad in the poverty of Scotland and was boundless amid the tions and (b) 1 Chronicles. Other two meditations wealth of England, kept him necessitous, and drove him to I printed posthumously. 6 were 138 JAMES II. " I, See T. F. Henderson, James I. and VI. (London, 1904); P. Hume | important posts in the state, in virtue of the dispensing power of Brown, History of Scotland, vol. ii . (Edinburgh and Cambridge, 1902); James. The judges had been intimidated or corrupted, and the and Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol li. (Edinburgh, 1902) and James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery (London, 1902); The Register of royal promise to protect the Establishment violated. The army the Privy Council of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1877, &c.), vols. ii. to xii.; had been increased to 20,000 men and encamped at Hounslow S. R. Gardiner, History of England 1003-1642 (London, 1883-1884). Heath to overawe the capital. Public alarm was speedily mani- A comprehensive bibliography will be found in the Cambridge Modern Hist. iii. 847 (Cambridge, 1904). fested and suspicion to a high degree awakened. In 1687 James For James's literary work, see Edward Arber's reprint ol the made a bid for the support of the Dissenters by advocating a Essayes and Counterblaste (" English Reprints," 1869, &c.); R. S, system of joint toleration for Catholics and Dissenters. In Rait's Lusus Regius (1900); G. Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Critical April 1687 he published a Declaration of Indulgence-exempting Essays (1904), vol. i., where the Treatise is edited for the first time; Catholics and Dissenters from penal statutes. He followed up A. O. Meyer's“ Clemens VIII. und Jacob I. von England "in Quellen und Forschungen (Preuss. Hist. Inst.), VIL ii., for an account of the this measure by dissolving parliament and attacking the univer- issues of the Basilikon Doron; P., Hume Brown's George Buchanan sities. By an unscrupulous use of the dispensing power he (1890), pp. 250-261, for a sketch of James'sassociation with Buchanan. introduced Dissenters and Catholics into all departments of JAMES II. (1633-1701), king of Great Britain and Ireland, state and into the municipal corporations, which were remodelled second surviving son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born in their interests. Then in April 1688 he took the suicidal step at St James's on the 15th of October 1633, and created duke of of issuing a proclamation to force the clergy and bishops to read York in January 1643. During the Civil War James was taken the Declaration in their pulpits, and thus personally advocate a prisoner by Fairfax (1646), but contrived to escape to Holland measure they detested. Seven bishops refused, were indicted in 1648. Subsequently he served in the French army under by James for libel, but acquitted amid the indescribable enthu- Turenne, and in the Spanish under Condé, and was applauded siasm of the populace. Protestant nobles of England, enraged by both commanders for his brilliant personal courage. Re- at the tolerant policy of James, had been in negotiation with turning to England with Charles II. in 1660 he was appointed William of Orange since 1687. The trial of the seven bishops, lord high admiral and warden of the Cinque Ports. Pepys, who and the birth of a son to James, now induced them to send was secretary to the navy, has recorded the patient industry and William a definite invitation (June 30, 1688). James remained unflinching probity of his naval administration. His victory in a fool's paradise till the last, and only awakened to his danger over the Dutch in 1665, and his drawn battle with De Ruyter when William landed at Torbay (November 5, 1688) and swept in 1672, show that he was a good naval commander as well as an all before him. James pretended to treat, and in the midst of the excellent administrator. These achievements won him a repu- negotiations fled to France. He was intercepted at Faversham tation for high courage, which, until the close of 1688, was amply and brought back, but the politic prince of Orange allowed him deserved. His private record was not as good as his public. In to escape a second time (December 23, 1688). December 1660 he admitted to having contracted, under dis- At the end of 1688 James seemed to have lost his old courage. creditable circumstances, a secret marriage with Anne Hyde After his defeat at the Boyne (July 1, 1690) he speedily departed (1637-1671), daughter of Lord Clarendon, in the previous Sep- from Ireland, where he had so conducted himself that his English tember. Both before and after the marriage he seems to have followers had been ashamed of his incapacity, while French been a libertine as unblushing though not so fastidious as Charles officers had derided him. His proclamations and policy towards himself. In 1672 he made a public avowal of his conversion to England during these years show unmistakable traces of the Roman Catholicism. Charles II. had opposed this project, but same incompetence. On the 17th of May 1692 he saw the French in 1673 allowed him to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena as fleet destroyed before his very eyes off Cape La Hogue. He was his second wife. Both houses of parliament, who viewed this aware of, though not an open advocate of the Assassination union with abhorrence, now passed the Test Act, forbidding Plot,” which was directed against William. By its revelation Catholics to hold office. In consequence of this James was and failure (February 10, 1696) the third and last serious forced to resign his posts. It was in vain that he married his attempt of James for his restoration failed. He refused in the daughter Mary to the Protestant prince of Orange in 1677. same year to accept the French influence in favour of his candida- Anti-Catholic feeling ran so high that, after the discovery of the ture to the Polish throne, on the ground that it would exclude him Popish Plot, he found it wiser to retire to Brussels (1679), while from the English. Henceforward he neglected politics, and Louis Shaftesbury and the Whigs planned to exclude him from the of France ceased to consider him as a political factor. A mysteri- succession. He was lord high commissioner of Scotland (1680- ous conversion had been effected in him by an austere Cistercian 1682), where he occupied himself in a severe persecution of abbot. The world saw with astonishment this vicious, rough, the Covenanters. In 1684 Charles, having triumphed over the coarse-fibred man of the world transformed into an austere Exclusionists, restored James to the office of high admiral by use penitent, who worked miracles of healing. Surrounded by this of his dispensing power. odour of sanctity, which greatly edified the faithful, James lived James ascended the throne on the 16th of February 1685. at St Germain until his death on the 17th of September 1701. The nation showed its loyalty by its firm adherence to him during The political ineptitude of James is clear; he often showed the rebellions of Argyll in Scotland and Monmouth in England | firmness when conciliation was needful, and weakness when (1685). The savage reprisals on their suppression, in especial resolution alone could have saved the day. Moreover, though the “ Bloody Assizes ” of Jeffreys, produced a revulsion of public he mismanaged almost every political problem with which he feeling. James had promised to defend the existing Church and personally dealt, he was singularly tactless and impatient of government, but the people now became suspicious. James was advice. But in general political morality he was not below his not a mere tyrant and bigot, as the popular imagination speedily age, and in his advocacy of toleration decidedly above it. He assumed him to be. He was rather a mediocre but not alto- was more honest and sincere than Charles II., more genuinely gether obtuse man, who mistook tributary streams for the main patriotic in his foreign policy, and more consistent in his religious currents of national thought. Thus he greatly underrated the attitude. That his brother retained the throne while James strength of the Establishment, and preposterously exaggerated lost it is an ironical demonstration that a more pitiless fate that of Dissent and Catholicism. He perceived that opinion awaits the ruler whose faults are of the intellect, than one whose was seriously divided in the Established Church, and thought faults are of the heart. that a vigorous policy would soon prove effective. Hence he By Anne Hyde James had eight children, of whom two only, publicly celebrated Mass, prohibited preaching against Catholi- Mary and Anne, both queens of England, survived their father. cism, and showed exceptional favour to renegades from the By Mary of Modena he had seven children, among them being Establishment. By undue pressure he secured .a decision of James Francis Edward (the Old Pretender) and Louisa Maria the judges, in the test case of Godden v. Hale (1687), by which he Theresa, who died at St Germain in 1712. By one mistress, was allowed to dispense Catholics from the Test Act. Catholics Arabella Churchill (1648-1730), he had two sons, James, duke of were now admitted to the chief offices in the army, and to some I Berwick, and Henry (1673-1902), titular duke of Albemarle and C6 JAMES I.-II. OF SCOTLAND 139 grand prior of France, and a daughter, Henrietta (1667-1730), | by the additional importance assigned to parliament, the leaven who married Sir Henry Waldegrave, afterwards Baron Walde was prepared which was to work towards the destruction of the grave; and by another, Catherine Sedley, countess of Dorchester indefinite authority of the king and of the unbridled licence of the (1657–1717), a daughter, Catherine (d. 1743), who married James nobles. During the parliament held at Perth in March 1423 Annesley, 5th earl of Anglesey, and afterwards John Sheffield, James arrested Murdoch, duke of Albany, and his son, Alexander; duke of Buckingham and Normanby. together with Albany's eldest son, Walter, and Duncan, earl of BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Original Authorities: J. S. Clarke, James II. | Lennox, who had been seized previously; they were sentenced to Life (London, 1816): James Macpherson, Original Papers (2 vols., death, and the four were executed at Stirling. In a parliament London, 1775): Gilbert Burnet, Supplement to History, ed. H. C. held at Inverness in 1427 the king arrested many turbulent Foxcroft (Oxford, 1902); Earl of Clarendon and Earl of Rochester, Correspondence, vol. ii. (London, 1828); John Evelyn, Diary and Cor: northern chiefs, and his whole policy was directed towards respondence and Life, edited by Bray and Wheatley (London, 1906); crushing the power of the nobles. In this he was very successful. Sir John Reresby, Memoirs, ed. A. Ivatt (1904); Somers Tracts, Expeditions reduced the Highlands to order; earldom after vols. ix.-xi. (London, 1823). Modern Works: Lord Acton, Lectures earldom was forfeited; but this vigour aroused the desire for on Modern History, pp. 195-276 (London, 1906); Moritz Brosch, Geschichte von England, Bd. viii. (Gotha, 1903); Onno Klopp. Der Fali revenge, and at length cost James his life. Having been warned des Hauses Stuart, Bde. i.-ix. (Vienna, 1875-1878); L. von Ranke, that he would never again cross the Forth, the king went to History of England, vols. iv.-vi. (Oxford, 1875); and Allan Fea, reside in Perth just before Christmas 1436. Among those whom James II. and his Wives (1908). he had angered was Sir Robert Graham (d. 1437), who had been JAMES I. (1394-1437), king of Scotland and poet, the son of banished by his orders. Instigated by the king's uncle, Walter King Robert III., was born at Dunfermline in July 1394. Stewart, earl of Atholl (d. 1437), and aided by the royal chamber- After the death of his mother, Annabella Drummond of Stobhall, lain, Sir Robert Stewart, and by a band of Highlanders, Graham in 1402, he was placed under the care of Henry Wardlaw (d. 1440), burst into the presence of James on the night of the 20th of who became bishop of St Andrews in 1403, but soon his father February 1437 and stabbed the king to death. Graham and resolved to send him to France. Robert doubtless decided upon | Atholl were afterwards tortured and executed. James had this course owing to the fact that in 1402 his elder son, David, two sons: Alexander, who died young, and James II., who suc- duke of Rothesay, had met his death in a mysterious fashion, ceeded to the throne; and six daughters, among them being being probably murdered by his uncle, Robert, duke of Albany, Margaret, the queen of Louis XI. of France. His widow, Jane, who, as the king was an invalid, was virtually the ruler of Scot married Sir James Stewart, the “black knight of Lorne.” and land. On the way to France, however, James fell into the hands died on the 15th of July 1445. of some English sailors and was sent to Henry IV., who refused During the latter part of James's reign difficulties arose be- to admit him to ransom. The chronicler Thomas Walsingham, tween Scotland and England and also between Scotland and the says that James's imprisonment began in 1406, while the future papacy. Part of the king's ransom was still owing to England; king himself places it in 1404; February 1406 is probably the other causes of discord between the two nations existed, and in correct date. On the death of Robert III. in April 1406 James 1436 these culminated in a short war. In ecclesiastical matters became nominally king of Scotland, but he remained a captive James showed himself merciless towards heretics, but his desire in England, the government being conducted by his uncle, to reform the Scottish Church and to make it less dependent on Robert of Albany, who showed no anxiety to procure his Rome brought him into collision with Popes Martin V. and nephew's release. Dying in 1420, Albany was succeeded as Eugenius IV. regent by his son, Murdoch. At first James was confined in the James was the author of two poems, the Kingis Quair and Tower of London, but in June 1407 he was removed to the castle Good Counsel (a short piece of three stanzas). The Song of at Nottingham, whence about a month later he was taken to Absence, Peblis to the Play and Christis Kirk on the Greene have Evesham. His education was continued by capable tutors, and been ascribed to him without evidence. The Kingis Quair he not only attained excellence in all manly sports, but became (preserved in the Selden MS. B. 24 in the Bodleian) is an allego- perhaps more cultured than any other prince of his age. In rical poem of the cours d'amour type, written in seven-lined person he was short and stout, but well-proportioned and very Chaucerian stanzas and extending to 1379 lines. It was com- strong. His agility was not less remarkable than his strength; posed during James's captivity in England and celebrates his he excelled in all athletic feats which demanded suppleness of courtship of Lady Jane Beaufort. Though in many respects a limb and quickness of eye. As regards his intellectual attain- Chaucerian pastiche, it not rarely equals its model in verbal and ments he is reported to have been acquainted with philosophy, metrical felicity. Its language is an artificial blend of northern and it is evident from his subsequent career that he had studied and southern (Chaucerian) forms, of the type shown in Lancelot jurisprudence; moreover, besides being proficient in vocal and of the Laik and the Quair of Jelusy. instrumental music, he cultivated the art of poetry with much BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The contemporary authorities for the reign of success. When Henry V. became king in March 1413, James James I.are Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, was again imprisoned in the Tower of London, but soon after- edited by. D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); and Walter Bower's wards he was taken to Windsor and was treated with great con- 1 (Oxford, 1722). See also J. Pinkerton, History of Scotland (1797); continuation of John of Fordun's Scotichronicon, edited by T. Hearne sideration by the English king. In 1420, with the intention of A. Lang. History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900); and G. Burnett, Introduc- detaching the Scottish auxiliaries from the French standard, he tion to the Exchequer Rolls of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1878-1901). The was sent to take part in Henry's campaign in France; this move Kingis Quair was first printed in the Poetical Remains of James the failed in its immediate object and he returned to England after Firsi, edited by William Tytler (1783). Later editions are Morison's Henry's death in 1422. About this time negotiations for the reprint (Perth: 1786): J. Sibbald's, in his Chronıcle of Scottish Poetry (1802, vol. i.); Thomson's in 1815 and 1824: G. Chalmers's, in his release of James were begun in earnest, and in September 1423 Poetic Remains of some of the Scottish Kings (1824); Rogers's Poetical a treaty was signed at York, the Scottish nation undertaking to Remains of King James the first (1873), Skeat's edition published pay a ransom of 60,000 marks" for his maintenance in England.” by the Scottish Text Society (1884). An attempt has been made to dispute James's authorship of the poem, but the arguments elabor- By the terms of the treaty James was to wed a noble English ated by J. T. T. Brown (The Authorship of the Kingis Quair, Glasgow, lady, and on the 12th of February 1424 he was married at 1896) have been convincingly answered by Jusserand in his Jacques Southwark to Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset, I'r d'Ecosse fut-il poète ? Elude sur l'authenticité du cahier du roi (Paris, a lady to whom he was faithful through life. Ten thousand 1897. reprinted from the Revue historique, vol. Ixiv.). See also the full correspondence in the Athenaeum (July-Aug. 1896 and Dec. 1899); marks of his ransom were remitted as Jane's dowry, and in W. A. Neilson, Orgins and Sources of the Court of Love (Boston, 1899) April 1424 James and his bride entered Scotland. pp. 152 &c., 235 &c.; and Gregory Smith, Transition Period (1900), With the reign of James I., whose coronation took place at Pp. 40, 41. Scone on the 21st of May 1424, constitutional sovereignty may JAMES II. (1430-1460), king of Scotland, the only surviving be said to begin in Scotland. By the introduction of a system of son of James I. and his wife, Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, statute law, modelled to some extent on that of England, and I earl of Somerset, was born on the 16th of October 1430. Crowned : 140 JAMES III.-IV. OF SCOTLAND king at Holyrood in March 1437, shortly after the murder of his communication with Edward, and was condemned by the parlia. father, he was at first under the guardianship of his mother, ment after the death of the English king in April 1483. Albany's while Archibald, 5th earl of Douglas, was regent of the kingdom, death in France in 1485 did not end the king's troubles. and considerable power was possessed by Sir Alexander Living. His policy of living at peace with England and of arranging stone and Sir William Crichton (d. 1454). When about 1439 marriages between the members of the royal families of the two Queen Jane was married to Sir James Stewart, the knight of countries did not commend itself to the turbulent section of his Lorne, Livingstone obtained the custody of the young king, nobles; his artistic tastes and lavish expenditure added to the whose minority was marked by fierce hostility between the discontent, and a rebellion broke out. Fleeing into the north Douglases and the Crichtons, with Livingstone first on one side of his kingdom James collected an army and came to terms with and then on the other. About 1443 the royal cause was espoused his foes; but the rebels, having seized the person of the king's by William, 8th earl of Douglas, who attacked Crichton in the eldest son, afterwards James IV., renewed the struggle. The king's name, and civil war lasted until about 1446. In July rival armies met at the Sauchieburn near Bannockburn, and 1449 James was married to Mary (d. 1463), daughter of Arnold, James soon fled. Reaching Beaton's Mill he revealed his iden- duke of Gelderland, and undertook the government himself; and tity, and, according to the popular story, was killed on the nith almost immediately Livingstone was arrested, but Douglas of June 1488 by a soldier in the guise of a priest who had been retained the royal favour for a few months more. In 1452, how called in to shrive him. He left three sons—his successor, James ever, this powerful earl was invited to Stirling by the king, and, IV.; James Stewart, duke of Ross, afterwards archbishop of St charged with treachery, was stabbed by James and then killed Andrews, and John Stewart, earl of Mar. James was a cultured by the attendants. Civil war broke out at once between James prince with a taste for music and architecture, but was a weak and the Douglases, whose lands were ravaged; but after the and incapable king. His character is thus described by a chroni- Scots parliament had exonerated the king, James, the new earl cler: “He was ane man that loved solitude, and desired nevir to of Douglas, made his submission. Early in 1455 this struggle hear of warre, bot delighted more in musick and policie and was renewed. Marching against the rebels James gained several building nor he did in the government of the realme.” victories, after which Douglas was attainted and his lands for- JAMES IV. (1473-1513), king of Scotland, eldest son of feited. Fortified by this success and assured of the support of James III., was born on the 17th of March 1473. He was nomi- the parliament and of the great nobles, James, acting as an nally the leader of the rebels who defeated the troops of James absolute king, could view without alarm the war which had III. at the Sauchieburn in June 1488, and became king when his broken out with England. After two expeditions across the father was killed. As he adopted an entirely different policy borders, a truce was made in July 1457, and the king employed with the nobles from that of his father, and, moreover, showed the period of peace in strengthening his authority in the High-great affability towards the lower class of his subjects, among lands. During the Wars of the Roses he showed his sympathy whom he delighted to wander incognito, few if any of the kings with the Lancastrian party after the defeat of Henry VI. at of Scotland have won such general popularity, or passed a reign Northampton by attacking the English possessions to the south so untroubled by intestine strife. Crowned at Scone a few days of Scotland. It was while conducting the siege of Roxburgh after his accession, James began at once to take an active part Castle that James was killed, through the bursting of a cannon, in the business of government. A slight insurrection was easily on the 3rd of August 1460. He left three sons, his successor, suppressed, and a plot formed by some nobles to hand hịm over James III., Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, and John to the English king, Henry VII., came to nothing. In spite of Stewart, earl of Mar (d. 1479); and two ters. James, who this proceeding Henry wished to live at peace with his northern is sometimes called “ Fiery Face,” was a vigorous and popular neighbour, and soon contemplated marrying his daughter to prince, and, although not scholar like his father, showed James, but the Scottish king was not equally pacific. When, in interest in education. His reign is a period of some importance 1495, Perkin Warbeck, pretending to be the duke of York, in the legislative history of Scotland, as measures were passed Edward IV.'s younger son, came to Scotland, James bestowed with regard to the tenure of land, the reformation of the upon him both an income and a bride, and prepared to invade coinage, and the protection of the poor, while the organization England in his interests. For various reasons the war was for the administration of justice was greatly improved. confined to a few border forays. After Warbeck left Scotland JAMES III. (1451-1488), king of Scotland, eldest son of James in 1497, the Spanish ambassador negotiated a peace, and in II., was born on the 10th of July 1451. Becoming king in 1460 1502 a marriage was definitely arranged between James and he was crowned at Kelso. After the death of his mother in Henry's daughter Margaret (1489-1541). The wedding took 1463, and of her principal supporter, James Kennedy, bishop of place at Holyrood in August 1503, and it was this union which St Andrews, two years later, the person of the young king, and led to the accession of the Stewart dynasty to the English with it the chief authority in the kingdom, were seized by Sir throne. Alexander Boyd and his brother Lord Boyd, while the latter's About the same time James crushed a rebellion in the western son, Thomas, was created earl of Arran and married to the king's isles, into which he had previously led expeditions, and parlia- sister, Mary. In July 1469 James himself was married to ment took measures to strengthen the royal authority therein. Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and At this date too, or a little earlier, the king of Scotland began to Norway, but before the wedding the Boyds had lost their power. treat as an equal with the powerful princes of Europe, Maximilian Having undertaken the government in person, the king received I., Louis XII. and others; sending assistance to his uncle Hans, the submission of the powerful earl of Ross, and strengthened king of Denmark, and receiving special marks of favour from his authority in other ways. But his preference for a sedentary Pope Julius II., anxious to obtain his support. But his position and not for an active life and his increasing attachment to was weakened when Henry VIII. followed Henry VII. on the favourites of humble birth diminished his popularity, and he had English throne in 1509. Causes of quarrel already existed, and some differences with his parliament. About 1479, probably other causes, both public and private, soon arose between the with reason both suspicious and jealous, James arrested his two kings; sea-fights took place between their ships, while war brothers, Alexander, duke of Albany, and John, earl of Mar; was brought nearer by the treaty of alliance which James con- Mar met his death in a mysterious fashion at Craigmillar, but cluded with Louis XII. in 1512. Henry made a vain effort to Albany escaped to France and then visited England, where in prevent, or to postpone, the outbreak of hostilities; but urged 1482 Edward IV. recognized him as king of Scotland by the gift on by his French ally and his queen, James declared for war, in of the king of England. War broke out with England, but James, spite of the counsels of some of his advisers, and (it is said) of the made a prisoner by his nobles, was unable to prevent Albany and warning of an apparition. Gathering a large and well-armed his ally, Richard, duke of Gloucester (afterwards Richard III.), force, he took Norham and other castles in August 1513, spending from taking Berwick and marching to Edinburgh. Peace with some time at Ford Castle, where, according to report, he was en- Albany followed, but soon afterwards the duke was again in gaged in an amorous intrigue with the wife of its owner. Then JAMES V. OF SCOTLAND-JAMES I. OF ARAGON 141 he moved out to fight the advancing English army under 1536 he had refused to meet Henry VIII. at York, and in the Thomas Howard, carl of Surrey. The battle, which took place following year had received the gift of a cap and sword from at Flodden, or more correctly, at the foot of Brankston Hill, on Pope Paul III., thus renouncing the friendship of his uncle. Friday the gth of September 1513, is among the most famous and Two plots to murder the king were now discovered, and James disastrous, if not among the most momentous, in the history of also foiled the attempts of Henry VIII. to kidnap him. Although Scotland. Having led his troops from their position of vantage, in 1540 the English king made another attempt to win the sup- the king himself was killed while fighting on foot, together with port, or at least the neutrality, of James for his religious policy, nearly all his nobles; there was no foundation for the rumour -the relations between the two countries became very unfriendly, that he had escaped from the carnage. He left one legitimate and in 1542 Henry sent an army to invade Scotland. James child, his successor James V., but as his gallantries were numer- was not slow to make reprisals, but his nobles were angry or ous he had many illegitimate children, among them (by Marion indifferent, and on the 25th of November 1542 his forces were Boyd) Alexander Stewart, archbishop of St Andrews and chan- easily scattered at the rout of Solway Moss. This blow preyed cellor of Scotland, who was killed at Flodden, and (by Janet upon the king's mind, and on the 14th of December he died Kennedy) James Stewart, earl of Moray (d. 1544). One of his at Falkland, having just heard of the birth of his daughter. His other mistresses was Margaret Drummond (d. 1501). two sons had died in infancy, and his successor was his only James appears to have been a brave and generous man, and legitimate child, Mary. He left several bastards, among them a wise and energetic king. According to one account, he was James Stewart, earl of Murray (the regent Murray), Lord John possessed of considerable learning; during his reign the Scottish Stewart (1531-1563) prior of Coldingham, and Lord Robert court attained some degree of refinement, and Scotland counted Stewart, earl of Orkney (d. 1592). in European politics as she had never done before. Literature Although possessing a weak constitution, which was further flourished under the royal patronage, education was encouraged, impaired by his irregular manner of life, James showed great and the material condition of the country improved enormously. vigour and independence as a sovereign, both in withstanding Prominent both as an administrator and as a lawgiver, the king the machinations of his uncle, Henry VIII., and in opposing the by his vigorous rule did much to destroy the tendencies to inde- influence of the nobles. The persecutions to which heretics pendence which existed in the Highlands and Islands; but, on were exposed during this reign were due mainly to the excessive the other hand, his rash conduct at Flodden brought much influence exercised by the ecclesiastics, especially by David misery upon his kingdom. He was specially interested in his Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews. The king's habit of navy. The tournaments which took place under his auspices mingling with the peasantry secured for him a large amount were worthy of the best days of chivalry in France and England. of popularity, and probably led many to ascribe to him the James shared to the full in the superstitions of the age which was authorship of poems describing scenes in peasant life, Christis quickly passing away. He is said to have worn an iron belt as Kirk on the Grene, The Gaberlunzie Man and The Jolly Beggar. penance for his share in his father's death; and by his frequent There is no proof that he was the author of any of these poems, visits to shrines, and his benefactions to religious foundations, but from expressions in the poems of Sir David Lindsay, who was he won a reputation for piety. on terms of intimacy with him, it appears that occasionally JAMES V. (1512-1542), king of Scotland, son of James IV., he wrote verses. was born at Linlithgow on the roth of April 1512, and became JAMES I., the Conqueror (1208–1276), king of Aragon, son king when his father was killed at Flodden in 1513. The regency of Peter II., king of Aragon, and of Mary of Montpellier, whose was at first vested in his mother, but after Queen Margaret's mother was Eudoxia Comnena, daughter of the emperor Manuel, second marriage, with Archibald Douglas, 6th earl of Angus, in was born at Montpellier on the end of February 1208. His August 1514, it was transferred by the estates to John Stewart, father, a man of immoral life, was with difficulty persuaded to duke of Albany. Henceforward the minority of James was dis- cohabit with his wife. He endeavoured to repudiate her, and turbed by constant quarrels between a faction, generally favour- she fled to Rome, where she died in April 1213. Peter, whose able to England, under Angus, and the partisans of France possessions in Provence entangled him in the wars between the under Albany; while the queen-mother and the nobles struggled Albigenses and Simon of Montfort, endeavoured to placate the to gain and to regain possession of the king's person. The northern crusaders , by arranging a marriage between his son English had not followed up their victory at Flodden, although James and Simon's daughter. In 1211 the boy was entrusted there were as usual forays on the borders, but Henry VIII. was to Montfort's care to be educated, but the aggressions of the watching affairs in Scotland with an observant eye, and other crusaders on the princes of the south forced Peter to take up European sovereigns were not indifferent to the possibility of arms against them, and he was slain at Muret on the 12th of Sep- a Scotch alliance. In 1524, when Albany had retired to France, tember 1213. Montfort would willingly have used James as a the parliament declared that James was fit to govern, but that means of extending his own power. The Aragonese and Cata- he must be advised by his mother and a council. erec- lans, however, appealed to the pope, who forced Montfort to tion" of James as king was mainly due to the efforts of Henry surrender him in May or June 1214. James was now entrusted VIII. In 1526 Angus obtained control of the king, and kept him to the care of Guillen de Monredon, the head of the Templars in in close confinement until 1528, when James, escaping from Spain and Provence. The kingdom was given over to confusion Edinburgh to Stirling, put vigorous measures in execution till in 1216 the Templars and some of the more loyal nobles against the earl, and compelled him to flee to England. In 1529 brought the young king to Saragossa. At the age of thirteen he and 1530 the king made a strong effort to suppress his turbulent was married to Leonora, daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, vassals in the south of Scotland; and after several raids and whom he divorced later on the ground of consanguinity. A son counter-raids negotiations for peace with England were begun, born of the marriage, Alphonso, was -recognized as legitimate, and in May 1534 a treaty was signed. At this time, as on pre- but died before his father, childless. It was only by slow steps vious occasions, Henry VIII. wished James to marry his daughter that the royal authority was asserted, but the young king, who Mary, while other ladies had been suggested by the emperor was of gigantic stature and immense strength, was also astute Charles V.; but the Scottish king, preferring a French bride, and patient. By 1228 he had so far brought his vassals to visited France, and in January 1537 was married at Paris to obedience, that he was able to undertake the conquest of the Madeleine, daughter of King Francis I. Madeleine died soon after Balearic Islands, which he achieved within four years. At the her arrival in Scotland, and in 1538 James made a much more same time he endeavoured to bring about a union of Aragon with important marriage, being united to Mary (1515-1560), daughter Navarre, by a contract of mutual adoption between himself and of Claude, duke of Guise, and widow of Louis of Orleans, duke of the Navarrese king, Sancho, who was old enough to be his grand- Longueville. It was this connexion, probably, which finally father. The scheme broke down, and James abstained from a induced James to forsake his vacillating foreign policy, and to policy of conquest. He wisely turned to the more feasible range himself definitely among the enemies of England. In course of extending his dominions at the expense of the decadent This “ JAMES II. OF ARAGON-JAMES (OLD PRETENDER) — 142 Mahommedan princes of Valencia. On the 28th of September | immediately proclaimed king by Louis XIV. of France, but a 1238 the town of Valencia surrendered, and the whole territory fantastic attempt to perform a similar ceremony in London so was conquered in the ensuing years. Like all the princes of his roused the anger of the populace that the mock pursuivants house, James took part in the politics of southern France. He barely escaped with their lives. A bill. of attainder against endeavoured to form a southern state on both sides of the Pyre- him received the royal assent a few days before the death of nees, which should counterbalance the power of France north of William III. in 1702, and the Princess Anne, half-sister of the the Loire. Here also his policy failed against physical, social Pretender, succeeded William on the throne. An influential and political obstacles. As in the case of Navarre, he was too party still, however, continued to adhere to the Jacobite cause; wise to launch into perilous adventures. By the Treaty of but an expedition from Dunkirk planned in favour of James in Corbeil, with Louis IX., signed the 11th of May 1258, he frankly the spring of 1708 failed of success, although the French ships withdrew from conflict with the French king, and contented under the comte de Fourbin, with James himself on board, himself with the recognition of his position, and the surrender reached the Firth of Forth in safety. At the Peace of Utrecht of antiquated French claims to the overlordship of Catalonia. James withdrew from French territory to Bar-le-Duc in Lor- During the remaining twenty years of his life, James was much raine. A rebellion in the Highlands of Scotland was inaugurated concerned in warring with the Moors in Murcia, not on his own in September 1715 by the raising of the standard on the braes account, but on behalf of his son-in-law Alphonso the Wise of of Mar, and by the solemn proclamation of James Stuart, “the Castile. As a legislator and organizer he occupies a high place chevalier of St George,” in the midst of the assembled clans, among the Spanish kings. He would probably have been more but its progress was arrested in November by the indecisive successful but for the confusion caused by the disputes in his own battle of Sheriffmuir and by the surrender at Preston. Un- household. James, though orthodox and pious, had an ample aware of the gloomy nature of his prospects, the chevalier share of moral laxity. After repudiating Leonora of Castile he landed in December 1715 at Peterhead, and advanced as far married Yolande (in Spanish Violante) daughter of Andrew II. south as Scone, accompanied by a small force under the earl of of Hungary, who had a considerable influence over him. But Mar; but on learning of the approach of the duke of Argyll, he she could not prevent him from continuing a long series of retreated to Montrose, where the Highlanders dispersed to the intrigues. The favour he showed his bastards led to protest mountains, and he embarked again for France. A Spanish from the nobles, and to conflicts between his sons legitimate and expedition sent out in his behalf in 1719, under the direction of illegitimate. When one of the latter, Fernan Sanchez, who had Alberoni, was scattered by a tempest, only two frigates reaching behaved with gross ingratitude and treason to his father, was the appointed rendezvous in the island of Lewis. slain by the legitimate son Pedro, the old king recorded his grim In 1718 James had become affianced to the young princess satisfaction. At the close of his life King James divided his Maria Clementina Sobieski, grand-daughter of the warrior king states between his sons by Yolande of Hungary, Fedro and of Poland, John Sobieski. The intended marriage was forbidden James, leaving the Spanish possessions on the mainland to the by the emperor, who in consequence kept the princess and her first, the Balearic Islands and the lordship of Montpellier to the mother in honourable confinement at Innsbruck in Tirol. An second-a division which inevitably produced fratricidal con- attempt to abduct the princess by means of a ruse contrived by flicts. The king fell very ill at Alcira, and resigned his crown, a zealous Jacobite gentleman, Charles Wogan, proved successful; intending to retire to the monastery of Poblet, but died at Clementina reached Italy in safety, and she and James were Valencia on the 27th of July 1276. ultimately married at Montefiascone on the ist of September King James was the author of a chronicle of his own life, written 1719.. James and Clementina were now invited to reside in or dictated apparently, at different times, which is a very fine Rome at the special request of Pope Clement XI., who openly example of autobiographical literature. A translation into English by J. Forster, with notes by Don Pascual de Gayangos, was published acknowledged their titles of British King and Queen, gave them in London in 1883. See also James I. of Aragon, by F. Darwin a papal guard of troops, presented them with a villa at Albano Swift (Clarendon Press, 1894), in which are many references to and a palace (the Palazzo Muti in the Piazza dei Santi Apostoli) authorities. in the city, and also made them an annual allowance of 12,000 JAMES II. (c. 1260-1327), king of Aragon, grandson of crowns out of the papal treasury. At the Palazzo Muti, which James I., and son of Peter III. by his marriage with Constance, remained the chief centre of Jacobite intriguing, were born daughter of Manfred of Beneventum, was left in 1285 as king of James's two sons, Charles Edward (the Young Pretender) and Sicily by his father. In 1291, on the death of his elder brother, Henry Benedict Stuart. James's married life proved turbulent Alphonso, to whom Aragon had fallen, he resigned Sicily and and unhappy, a circumstance that was principally due to the hot endeavoured to arrange the quarrel between his own family and temper and jealous nature of Clementina, who soon after Henry's the Angevine House, by marriage with Blanca, daughter of birth in 1725 left her husband and spent over two years in a Charles of Anjou, king of Naples.. Roman convent. At length a reconciliation was effected, which JAMES II. (1243-1311), king of Majorca, inherited the Balearic Clementina did not long survive, for she died at the early age of Islands from his father James I. of Aragon. He was engaged in 32 in February 1735. Full regal honours were paid to the Stuart constant conflict with his brother Pedro III. of Aragon, and in queen at her funeral, and the splendid but tasteless monument alliance with the French king against his own kin. by Pietro Bracchi (1700-1773) in St Peter's was erected to her JAMES III. (1315-1349), king of Majorca, grandson of James II., memory by order of Pope Benedict XIV. was driven out of his little state and finally murdered by his His wife's death seems to have affected James's health and cousin Pedro IV. of Aragon, who definitely reannexed the spirits greatly, and he now began to grow feeble and indifferent, Balearic Islands to the crown. so that the political adherents of the Stuarts were gradually led JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766), to fix their hopes upon the two young princes rather than upon prince of Wales, known to the Jacobites as James III. and to their father. Travellers to Rome at this period note that James the Hanoverian party as the Old Pretender, the son and heir appeared seldom in public, and that much of his time was given of James II. of England, was born in St James's Palace, London, up to religious exercises; he was dévot d l'excès, so Charles de on the roth of June 1688. The scandalous story that he was a Brosses, an unprejudiced Frenchman, informs us. It was with supposititious child, started and spread abroad by interested great reluctance that James allowed his elder son to leave Italy politicians at the time of his birth, has been completely dis- for France in 1744; nevertheless in the following year, he per- proved, and most contemporary writers allude to his striking mitted Henry to follow his brother's example, but with the news family likeness to the Royal Stuarts. Shortly before the flight of Culloden he evidently came to regard his cause as definitely of the king to Sheerness, the infant prince together with his lost. The estrangement from his elder and favourite son, which mother was sent to France, and afterwards he continued to arose over Henry's adoption of an ecclesiastical career, so reside with his father at the court of St Germain. On the embittered his last years that he sank into a moping invalid and death of his father, on the 16th of September 1701, he was I rarely left his chamber. With the crushing failure of the JAMES, D.-JAMES, H. 143 7) "Forty-five" and his quarrel with his heir, the once-dreaded James has been compared to Dumas, and the comparison James soon became a mere cipher in British politics, and his holds good in respect of kind, though by no means in respect death at Rome on the 2nd of January 1766 passed almost of merit. Both had a certain gift of separating from the unnoticed in London. He was buried with regal pomp in St picturesque parts of history what could without much difficulty Peter's, where Canova's famous monument, erected by Pius VII. be worked up into picturesque fiction, and both were possessed in 1819, commemorates him and his two sons. As to James's of a ready pen. Here, however, the likeness ends. Of purely personal character, there is abundant evidence to show that he literary talent James had little. His plots are poor, his descrip- was grave, high-principled, industrious, abstemious and dignified, tions weak, his dialogue often below even a fair average, and he and that the unflattering portrait drawn of him by Thackeray was deplorably prone to repeat himself. The “ two cavaliers ” in Esmond is utterly at yariance with historical facts. Although who in one form or another open most of his books have passed a fervent Roman Catholic, he was far more reasonable and liberal into a proverb, and Thackeray's good-natured but fatal parody in his religious views than his father, as many extant letters of Barbazure is likely to outlast Richelieu and Darnley by many testify. a year. Nevertheless, though James cannot be allowed any very See Earl Stanhope, History of England and Decline of the Last high rank among novelists, he had a genuine narrative gift, and, Şluarts (1853); Calendar of the Stuart Papers at Windsor Castle; though his very best books fall far below Les trois mousquetaires 1. H. Jesse, Memories of the Pretenders and their Adherents (1845); and La reine Margot, there is a certain even level of interest to Dr John Doran, “Mann" and Manners at the Court of Florence be found in all of them. James never resorted to illegitimate (1876); Relazione della morte di Giacomo III., Rè d'Inghilterra; methods to attract readers, and deserves such credit as may be and Charles de Brosses, Lettres sur l'Italie (1885). (H.M.V.) due to a purveyor of amusement who never caters for the less JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893), English actor, was born in creditable tastes of his guests. London, his real name being Belasco. He began his stage His best novels were published in a revised form in 21 volumes career at an early age, and after 1863 gradually made his way in (1844-1849). humorous parts. His creation, in 1875, of the part of Perkyn JAMES, HENRY (1843-9 ), American author, was born in Middlewick in Our Boys made him famous as a comedian, the New York on the 15th of April 1843. His father was Henry James performance obtaining for the piece a then unprecedented run (1811-1882), a theological writer of great originality, from whom from the 16th of January 1875 till the 18th of April 1879. In both he and his brother Professor William James derived their 1885 he had another notable success as Blueskin in Little Jack psychological subtlety and their idiomatic, picturesque English. Sheppard at the Gaiety Theatre, his principal associates being Most of Henry's boyhood was spent in Europe, where he studied Fred Leslie and Nellie Farren. His song in this burlesque, under tutors in England, France and Switzerland. In 1860 he “Botany Bay,” became widely popular. In the part of John returned to America, and began reading law at Harvard, only Dory in Wild Oats he again made a great hit at the Criterion to find speedily that literature, not law, was what he most cared Theatre in 1886; and among his other most successful imper- for. His earliest short tale, “ The Story of a Year,” appeared sonations were Simon Ingot in David Garrick, Tweedie in in 1865, in the Atlantic Monthly, and frequent stories and Tweedie's Rights, Macclesfield in The Guv'nor, and Eccles in sketches followed. In 1869 he again went to Europe, where he Caste. His unctuous humour and unfailing spirits made him a subsequently made his home, for the most part living in London, great favourite with the public. He died on the end of October or at Rye in Sussex. Among his specially noteworthy works 1893. are the following: Watch and Ward (1871); Roderick Hudson JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFORD (1799-1860), English (1875); The American (1877); Daisy Miller (1878); French Poets novelist, son of Pinkstan James, physician, was born in George and Novelists (1878); A Life of Hawthorne (1879); The Portrait Street, Hanover Square, London, on the oth of August 1799. of a Lady (1881); Portraits of Places (1884); The Bostonians He was educated at a private school at Putney, and afterwards (1886); Partial Portraits (1888); The Tragic Muse (1890); in France. He began to write early, and had, according to his Essays in London (1893); The Two Magics (1898); The Awkward own account, composed the stories afterwards published as Age (1898); The Wings of the Dove (1902); The Ambassadors A String of Pearls before he was seventeen. As a contributor (1903); The Golden Bowl (1904); English Hours (1905); The to newspapers and magazines, he came under the notice of American Scene (1907); The High Bid (1909); Italian Hours Washington Irving, who encouraged him to produce his Life of (1909). Edward the Black Prince (1822). Richelieu was finished in 1825, As a novelist, Henry James is a modern of the moderns both in and was well thought of by Sir Walter Scott (who apparently subject matter and in method. He is entirely loyal to contem- saw it in manuscript), but was not brought out till 1829. Per- porary life and reverentially exact in his transcription of the haps Irving and Scott, from their natural amiability, were phase. His characters are for the most part people of the world rather dangerous advisers for a writer so inclined by nature to who conceive of life as a fine art and have the leisure to carry out abundant production as James. But he took up historical their theories. Rarely are they at close quarters with any ugly romance writing at a lucky moment. Scott had firmly estab- practical task. They are subtle and complex with the subtlety lished the popularity of the style, and James in England, like and the complexity that come from conscious preoccupation with Dumas in France, reaped the reward of their master's labours as themselves. They are specialists in conduct and past masters well as of their own. For thirty years the author of Richelieu in casuistry, and are full of variations and shadows of turning. continued to pour out novels of the same kind though of varying Moreover, they are finely expressive of milicu; each belongs merit. His works in prose fiction, verse narrative, and history unmistakably to his class and his race; each is true to inherited of an easy kind are said to number over a hundred, most of them moral traditions and delicately illustrative of some social code. being three-volume novels of the usual length. Sixty-seven are To reveal the power and the tragedy of life through so many catalogued in the British Museum. The best examples of his minutely limiting and apparently artificial conditions, and by style are perhaps Richelicu (1829); Philip Augustus (1831); means of characters who are somewhat self-conscious and are Henry Masterton, probably the best of all (1832); Mary of apt to make of life only a pleasant pastime, might well seem an Burgundy (1833); Darnley (1839); Corse de Léon (1841); The impossible task. Yet it is precisely in this that Henry James Smuggler (1845). His poetry does not require special mention, is pre-eminently successful. The essentially human is what he nor does his history, though for a short time during the reign of really cares for, however much he may at times seem preoccupied William IV. he held the office of historiographer royal. After with the technique of his art or with the mask of conventions writing copiously for about twenty years, James in 1850 went through which he makes the essentially human reveal itself. to America as British Consul for Massachusetts. He was Nor has “the vista of the spiritual been denied him." No more consul at Richmond, Virginia, from 1852 to 1856, when he was poignant spiritual tragedy has been recounted in recent fiction appointed to a similar post at Venice, where he died on the 9th than the story of Isabel Archer in The Portrait of a Lady. of June 1860. His method, too, is as modern as his subject matter. He early i « 144 JAMES, J. A.-JAMES OF HEREFORD, BARON fell in love with the “point of view," and the good and the bad JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827), English naval historian, author qualities of his work all follow from this literary passion. He is of the Naval History of Great Britain from the Declaration of War a very sensitive impressionist, with a technique that can fix the by France in 1793 to the Accession of George I V., practised as most elusive phase of character and render the most baffling a proctor in the admiralty court of Jamaica between 1801 and surface. The skill is unending with which he places his char- 1813. He was in the United States when the war of 1812 broke acters in such relations and under such lights that they flash out out, and was detained as a prisoner, but escaped to Halifax. in due succession their continuously varying facets. At times he His literary career began by letters to the Naval Chronicle over may seem to forget that a character is something incalculably the signature of “ Boxer.” In 1816 he published An Inquiry into more than the sum of all its phases; and then his characters the Merits of the Principal Naval Actions between Great Britain tend to have their existence, as Positivists expect to have their and the United States. In this pamphlet, which James reprinted immortality, simply and solely in the minds of other people. in 1817, enlarged and with a new title, his object was to prove But when his method is at its best, the delicate phases of char- that the American frigates were stronger than their British acter that he transcribes coalesce perfectly into clearly defined opponents nominally of the same class. In 1819 he began his and suggestive images of living, acting men and women. Doubt- Naval History, which appeared in five volumes (1822–1824), and less, there is a certain initiation necessary for the enjoyment of was reprinted in six volumes (1826). It is a monument of pains- Mr James. He presupposes a cosmopolitan outlook, a certain taking accuracy in all such matters as dates, names, tonnage, interest in art and in social artifice, and no little abstract armament and movements of ships, though no attempt is ever curiosity about the workings of the human mechanism. But for made to show the connexion between the various movements. speculative readers, for readers who care for art in life as well James died on the 28th of May 1827 in London, leaving a widow as for life in art, and for readers above all who want to encounter who received a civil list pension of £100. and comprehend a great variety of very modern and finely notes by Capt. F. Chamier, was published in 1837, and a further one An edition of the Naval History in six volumes, with additions and modulated characters, Mr James holds a place of his own, in 1886. An edition epitomized by R. O'Byrne appeared in 1888, unrivalled as an interpreter of the world of to-day. and an Index by C. G. Toogood was issued by the Navy Records For a list of the short stories of Mr Henry James, collections of Society in 1895. them in volume form, and other works, see bibliographies by F. A. JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910), American philosopher, son King, in The Novels of Henry James, by Elisabeth L. Cary (New York of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James, and brother of and London, 1905), and by Le Roy Phillips, A Bibliography of the the novelist Henry James, was born on the 11th of January 1842 Writings of Henry James (Boston, Mass., 1906). In 1909 an édition. de luxe of Henry James's novels was published in 24 volumes. at New York City. He graduated M.D. at Harvard in 1870. Two years after he was appointed a lecturer at Harvard in anatomy JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859), English Nonconformist and physiology, and later in psychology and philosophy. Subse- divine, was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, on the 6th of June quently he became assistant professor of philosophy (1880-1885), 1785. At the close of his seven years' apprenticeship’to a linen- professor (1885–1889), professor of psychology (1889-1897) and draper at Poole he decided to become a preacher, and in 1802 professor of philosophy (1897-1907). In 1899-1901 he delivered he went to David Bogue's training institution at Gosport. the Gifford lectures on natural religion at the university of A year and a half later, on a visit to Birmingham, his preaching Edinburgh, and in 1908 the Hibbert lectures at Manchester was so highly esteemed by the congregation of Carr's Lane College, Oxford. With the appearance of his Principles of Independent chapel that they invited him to exercise his Psychology (2 vols., 1890), James at once stepped into the front ministry amongst them; he settled there in 1805, and was or- rank of psychologists as a leader of the physical school, a position dained in May 1806. For several years his success as a preacher which he maintained not only by the brilliance of his analo- was comparatively small; but he jumped into popularity about gies but also by the freshness and unconventionality of his 1814, and began to attract large crowds wherever he officiated. style. In metaphysics he upheld the idealist position from the At the same time his religious writings, the best known of which empirical standpoint. Beside the Principles of Psychology, are The Anxious Inquirer and An Earnest Ministry, acquired which appeared in a shorter form in 1892 (Psychology), his chief a wide circulation. James was a typical Congregational preacher works are: The Will to Believe (1897); Human Immortality of the early 19th century, massive and elaborate rather than (Boston, 1898); Talks to Teachers (1899); The Varieties of original. His preaching displayed little or nothing of Calvinism, Religious Experience (New York, 1902); Pragmatism-a New the earlier severity of which had been modified in Birmingham Name for some Old Ways of Thinking (1907); A Pluralistic by Edward Williams, one of his predecessors. He was one Universe (1909; Hibbert lectures), in which, though he still of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance and of the Congrega- attacked the hypothesis of absolutism, he admitted it as a tional Union of England and Wales. Municipal interests appealed legitimate alternative. He received honorary degrees from strongly to him, and he was also for many years chairman of Padua (1893), Princeton (1896), Edinburgh (1902), Harvard Spring Hill (afterwards Mansfield) College. He died at Birming- (1905). He died on the 27th of August 1910. ham on the ist of October 1859. JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES, IST BARON A collected edition of James's works appeared in 1860-1864. See (1828– ), English lawyer and statesman, son of P. T. James, A Review of the Life and Character of J. Angell James (1860), by J. surgeon, was born at Hereford on the 30th of October 1828, and Campbell, and Life and Letters of J. A. James (1861), edited by his educated at Cheltenham College. A prizeman of the Inner successor, R. W. Dale, who also contributed a sketch of his predecessor Temple, he was called to the bar in 1852 and joined the Oxford to Pulpit Memorials (1878). circuit, where he soon came into prominence. In 1867 he was JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629), English librarian, was born made “postman " of the court of exchequer, and in 1869 became at Newport, Isle of Wight. He was educated at Winchester and a Q.C. At the general election of 1868 he obtained a seat in New College, Oxford, and became a fellow of New College in parliament for Taunton as a Liberal, by the unseating of Mr 1593. His wide knowledge of books, together with his skill in Serjeant Cox on a scrutiny in March 1869, and he kept the seat deciphering manuscripts and detecting literary forgeries, secured till 1885, when he was returned for Bury. He attracted atten- him in 1602 the post of librarian to the library founded in that tion in parliament by his speeches in 1872 in the debates on the year by Sir Thomas Bodley at Oxford. At the same time he Judicature Act. In 1873 (September) he was made solicitor- was made rector of St Aldate's, Oxford. In 1605 he compiled a general, and in November attorney-general, and knighted; classified catalogue of the books in the Bodleian Library, but in and when Gladstone returned to power in 1880 he resumed his 1620 substituted for it an alphabetical catalogue. The arrange- office. He was responsible for carrying the Corrupt Practices ment in 1610, whereby the Stationers' Company undertook to Act of 1883. On Gladstone's conversion to Home Rule, Sir Henry supply the Bodleian Library with every book published, was James parted from him and became one of the most influential James's suggestion. Ill health compelled him to resign his post of the Liberal Unionists: Gladstone had offered him the lord in 1620, and he died at Oxford in August 1629. chancellorship in 1886, but he declined it; and the knowledge JAMES, EPISTLE OF 145 6 of the sacrifice he had made in refusing to follow his old chief critics regard the very language alone as fatal to such a theory of in his new departure lent great weight to his advocacy of the date, authorship and circle addressed. The contents, ignoring the Unionist cause in the country. He was one of the leading religion (cf. i John iii. 17 seq. with James ii. 14-16) suggest a much conflict of Jew and Gentile, complaining of worldiness and tongue- counsel for The Times before the Parnell Commission, and later date than the death of James (A.D. 62-66). They also require a from 1892 to 1895 was attorney-general to the prince of Wales. different character in the author, if not also a different circle of From 1895 to 1902 he was a member of the Unionist ministry readers from those addressed in i. I. The prevalent conditions seem to be those of the Greek church of as chancellor for the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1895 he was made the post-apostolic period, characterized by worldiness of life, pro- a peer as Baron James of Hereford. In later years he was a fession without practice, and a contentious garrulity of teaching prominent opponent of the Tariff Reform movement, adhering (1 John iii. 3-10, 18;1 Tim. i. 6 seq., vi. 3-10;2 Tim. iii. 1-5, iv. 3 seq.). to the section of Free Trade Unionists. The author meets these with the weapons commanded for the pur- JAMES, EPISTLE OF, a book of the New Testament. The pose in . Tim. vi. 3, but quite in the spirit of one of the wise men of the Hebrew wisdom literature. His gospel is completely denation- superscription (Jas. i. 1) ascribes it to that pre-eminent“pillar” alized, humanitarian; but, while equally universalistic, is quite (Gal. ii. 9) of the original mother church who later came to be unsympathetic towards the doctrine and the mysticism of Paul. regarded in certain quarters as the “bishop of bishops” (Epist. He has nothing whatever to say of the incarnation, life, example, of James to Clement, ap. Clem. Hom. Superscription). As such suffering or resurrection of Jesus, and does not interest himself in the doctrines of Christ's person, which were hotly debated up to this he appears in a position to address an encyclical to "the twelve time. The absence of all mention of Christ (with the single exception tribes of the dispersion "; for the context (i. 18, v. 7 seq) and of ii. 1, where there is reason to think the words nuwv 'Inco Xp!OTOÜ literary relation (cf. 1 Pet. i. 1, 3, 23-25) prove this to be a figure maintained by Spitta, that the writing is a mere recast of a Jewish interpolated) has even led to the theory, ably but unconvincingly for the entire new people of God, without the distinction of carnal moralistic writing like the Two Ways. The thoughts are loosely birth, as Paul had described" the Israel of God” (Gal. vi. 16), strung together: yet the following seems to be the general framework spiritually begotten, like Isaac, by the word received in faith on which the New Testament preacher has collected his material. (Gal. iii. 28 seq., iv. 28; Rom.ix.6-9, iv, 16–18). This idea of the development through aid of divinely given wisdom" (2-11): 1. The problem of evil (i. 1-19a). Outward trials are for our spiritually begotten Israel becomes current after 1 Pet., as Inward (moral) trials are not to be imputed to God, the author of all appears John i. 11-13, iii. 3-8; Barn. iv. 6, xiii. 13; 2 Clem. good, whose purpose is the moral good of his creation (12-19a; ii. 2, &c. cf. i John i. 5). The interpretation which takes the expression “the twelve law. It is a product of deeds, not words (i. 196-27). 2. The righteousness God intends is defined in the eternal moral tribes ”literally, and conceives the brother of the Lord as sending 3. The “ royal law" of love is violated by discrimination against an epistle written in the Greek language throughout the Christian the poor (ii. 1-13); and by professions of faith barren of good works world, but as addressing Jewish Christians only (so e.g. Sieffert, (14-26). 5.0." Jacobus im N.T.” in Hauck, Realencykl. ed. 1900, vol. viii.), in goodness and meekness of life (ch. iii.). Strife and self-exaltation 4. The true spirit of wisdom appears not in aspiring to teach, but assumes not only such divisive interference as Paul might justly are fruits of a different spirit, to be resisted and overcome by humble resent (cf. Gal. ii. 1-10), but involves a strange idea of conditions. prayer for more grace (iv. 1-10). Were worldliness, tongue religion, moral indifference, the 5. God's judgment is at hand. The thought condemns censori- distinctive marks of the Jewish element? Surely the rebukes ousness (iv. 11 et seq.), presumptuous treatment of life (135:7), and the tyranny of the rich (v. 1-6). It encourages the believer to of James apply to conditions of the whole Church and not patient endurance to the end without murmuring or imprecations sporadic Jewish-Christian conventicles in the Greek-speaking (7-12). It impels the church to diligence in its work of worship, world, if any such existed. care and prayer (13-18), and in the reclamation of the erring (19-20). It is at least an open question whether the superscription | determining the terminus a quo of its own date as the use of it by The use made by James of earlier material is as important for (connected with that of Jude) be not a later conjecture prefixed later writers for the terminus ad quem. Acquaintance with the by some compiler of the catholic epistles, but of the late date evangelic tradition is apparent. It is conceived, however, more in implied in our interpretation of ver. I there should be small the Matthaean sense of " commandments to be observed” (Matt. dispute. Whatever the currency in classical circles of the epistle xxviii . 20) than the Pauline, Markan and Johannine of the drama of the incarnation and redemption. There is no traceable literary as a literary form, it is irrational to put first in the development contact with the synoptic gospels. Acquaintance, however, with of Christian literature a general epistle, couched in fluent, even some of the Pauline epistles must be regarded as incontestably rhetorical, Greek, and afterwards the Pauline letters, which both established ” (o. Cone, Ency. Bibl. ii. 2323). Besides scattered as to origin and subsequent circulation were a product of urgent in the article referred to, the section devoted to a refutation of the reminiscences of Romans, 1 Corinthians and Galatians, enumerated conditions. The order consonant with history is (1) Paul's doctrine of "justification by faith apart from works " undeniably "letters" to "the churches of” a province (Gal. i. 2; 2 Cor. i. 1); presupposes the Pauline terminology, Had the author been con- (2) the address to “the eléct of the dispersion” in a group of the sciously opposing the great apostle to the Gentiles he would probably Pauline provinces (1 Pet. i. I); (3) the address to "the twelve have treated the subject less superficially. What he really opposes is the same ultra-Pauline moral laxity which Paul himself had tribes of the dispersion " everywhere (Jas. i. 1; cf. Rev. vii. 2-4). I found occasion to rebuke among would-be adherents in Corinth James, like 1 John, is a homily, even more lacking than 1 John (1 Cor. vi. 12; viii. 1-3, 11, 12; x.23 seq., 32 seq.) and which appears in every epistolary feature, not even supplied with the customary still more marked in the pastoral epistles and i John. In rebuking epistolary farewell . The superscription, if original, compels us itself. To suppose that the technical terminology of Paul, including it James unconsciously retracts the misapplied Pauline principle to treat the whole writing as not only late but pseudonymous. even his classic example of the faith of Abraham, could be employed If prefixed by conjecture, to secure recognition and authority here independently of Rom. ii. 21-23, iii. 28, iv, 1; Gal. ii. 16, iii. 6, for the book, even this was at first a failure. The earliest trace is to pass a judgment which in every other field of literary criticism of any recognition of it is in Origen (A.D. 230) who refers to it Judaism is to misconceive the spirit of the synagogue. To make would be at once repudiated. To imagine it current in pre-Pauline as " said to be from James ” (depouéyn 'Iakubov 'Emcotonń), James the coiner and Paul the borrower not only throws back James seeming thus to regard ver. I as superscription rather than part to a date incompatible with the other phenomena, but implies a of the text. Eusebius (A.D. 325) classifies it among the disputed literary polemic tactlessly waged by Paul against the head of the books, declaring that it is regarded as spurious, and that not probable, for James ii. 25 adds an explication of the case of Rahab Jerusalem church. Acquaintance with Hebrews is only slightly less many of the ancients have mentioned it. Even Jerome also, cited in Heb. xi. 31 along with Abraham as an example of (A.D. 390), though personally he accepted it, admits that it was justification by faith only, to his correction of the Pauline scriptural said to have been published by another in the name of James." argument. The question whether James is dependent on i Peter. The Syrian canon of the Peshitta was the first to admit it. or conversely is still actively disputed. As regards the superscription Modern criticism naturally made the superscription its starting- point, endeavouring first to explain the contents of the writing on 1 Nothing adduced by Lightfoot (Comm. on Gal. Exc. “The faith this theory of authorship, but generally reaching the conclusion that of Abraham ") justifies the unsupported and improbable assertion the two do not agree.. Conservatives as a rule avoid the implication that the quotation James ii. 21 seq. was probably in common use of a direct polemic against Paul in ii. 14-26, which would lay open the among the Jews to prove that orthodoxy of doctrine sufficed for author to the bitter accusations launched against the interlopers of salvation (Mayor, s.v. “ James, Epistle of " in Hasting's Dict. 2 Cor. x.-xiii., by dating before the Judaistic controversy. Other | Bible, p. 546). 1 " 66 40 XV 3* 146 JAMES, EPISTLE OF 3 < " the relation has been defined above. Dependence on Revelation God." The difference in conception of the term is similar to that (A.D. 95) is probable (cf. i. 12 and ii. 5 with Rev. ii. 9, 10 and v. 9 between Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon. Our with Rev. ii. 20), but the contacts with Clement of Rome (a.p: author, like Paul, expects the hearers of the word to be “ a kind 95-120) indicate the reverse relation. James iv, 6 and v, 20 = í Clem. xlix. 5 and xxx. 2; but as both passages are also found in of first-fruits to God of his creation." (i. 18 cf. 1 Pet. i. 23), and 1 Peter (iv. 8.v.5), the latter may be the common source. Clement's bids them depend upon the gift of grace (i.5, iv. 5 seq.), but for further development of the cases of Abraham and Rahab, however, the evils of the world he has no remedy but the patient endurance adding as it does to the demonstration of James froin Scripture of their justification by works and not by faith only," that the of the Christian philosopher (i. 2-18). For the faithlessness particular good work which "wrought with the faith of Abraham (Seyvxia i. 6-8; cf. Didache and Hermas), worldliness (ii. 1-13) and Rahab to their justification was “ hospitality" (1 Clem. X.-xii.) and hollow profession (ii. 14-26) of the church life of his time, seems plainly to presuppose James. Priority is more difficult to with its “ theological wrangling ” (iii. 1-12), his remedy is again establish in the case of Hermas (A.D. 120-140), where the contacts are undisputed (cf. James iv. 7, 12 with Mand. xii. 5, 6; Sim. ix. 23). the God-given, peaceable spirit of the Christian philosopher (iii. 13-18), which is the antithesis of the spirit of self-seeking The date (A.D. 95-120) implied by the literary contacts of and censoriousness (iv. 1-12), and which appreciates the pettiness James of course precludes authorship by the Lord's brother, of earthly life with its sordid gains and its unjust distribution of though this does not necessarily prove the superscription later wealth (iv. 13-v. 6). This attitude of the Christian stoic will still. The question whether the writing as a whole is pseudony- maintain the individual in his patient waiting for the expected mous, or only the superscription a mistaken conjecture by the coming of the Lord " (v. 7-11); while the church sustains its scribe of Jude 1 is of secondary importance. A date about official functions of healing and prayer, and reclamation of the 100-120 for the substance of the writing is accepted by the erring (v. 13-20). For this conception of the gospel and of the majority of modern scholars and throws real light upon the officially organized church, our nearest analogy is in Matthew, author's endeavour. Pfleiderer in pointing out the similarities or rather in the blocks of precepts of the Lord which after of James and the Shepherd of Hermas declares it to be “ certain subtraction of the Markan narrative framework are found to that both writings presuppose like historical circumstances, and, underlie our first gospel. It may be mere coincidence that the from a similar point of view, direct their admonitions to their material in Matthew as well as in the Didache seems to be contemporaries, among whom a lax worldly-mindedness and arranged in five divisions, beginning with a commendation of unfruitful theological wrangling threatened to destroy the the right way, and ending with warnings of the judgment, while religious life.” 2 Holtzmann has characterized this as “the the logical analysis of James yields something similar; but of right visual angle” for the judgment of the book. Questions as the affinity of spirit there can be no doubs to the obligation of Mosaism and the relations of Jew and Gentile The type of ethical thought exemplified in James has been have utterly disappeared below the horizon. Neither the called Ebionite (Hilgenfeld). It is clearly manifest in the attachment to the religious forms of Judaism, which we are humanitarianism of Luke also. But with the possible exception informed was characteristic of James, nor that personal relation of the prohibition of oaths there is nothing which ought to suggest to the Lord which gave him his supreme distinction are indicated the epithet. The strong sense of social wrongs, the impatience by so much as a single word. Instead of being written in with tongue-religion, the utter ignoring of ceremonialism, the Aramaic, as it would almost necessarily be if antecedent to the reflection on the value and significance of “ life,” are distinctive Pauline epistles, or even in the Semitic style characteristic of simply of the “wisdom ” writers. Like these our author holds the older and more Palestinian elements of the New Testament himself so far aloof from current debate of ceremonial or doctrine we have a Greek even more fluent than Paul's and metaphors as to escape our principal standards of measurement regarding and allusions (i. 17, iii. 1-12). of a type more like Greek rhetoric place and time. Certain general considerations, however, are than anything else in the New Testament. Were we to judge fairly decisive. The prolonged effort, mainly of English scholar- by the contacts with Hebrews, Clement of Rome and Hermas ship, to vindicate the superscription, even on the condition of and the similarity of situation evidenced in the last-named, assuming priority to the Pauline epistles, grows only increasingly Rome would seem the most natural place of origin. The history hopeless with increasing knowledge of conditions, linguistic and of the epistle's reception into the canon is not opposed to this; other, in that early period. The moralistic conception of the for, once it was attributed to James, Syria would be more likely gospel as a “law of liberty,” the very phrase recalling the to take it up, while the West, more sceptical, if not better expression of Barn. ii., " the new law of Christ, which is without informed as to its origin, held back; just as happened in the the yoke of constraint,” the conception of the church as case of Hebrews. primarily an ethical society, its functions already officially dis- It is the author's conception of the nature of the gospel which tributed, suggest the period of the Didache, Barnabas and mainly gives us pause in following this pretty general disposition Clement of Rome. Independently of the literary contacts we of modern scholarship. With all the phenomena of vocabulary should judge the period to be about A.D. 100-120. The con- and style which seem to justify such conceptions as von Soden's nexions with the Pauline epistles are conclusive for a date later that c. iii. and iv. II-v. 6 represent excerpts respectively from than the death of James; those with Clement and Hermas are the essay of an Alexandrian scribe, and a triple fragment of perhaps sufficient to date it as prior to the former, and suggest Jewish apocalypse, the analysis above given will be found the Rome as the place of origin. The connexions with wisdom- exponent of a real logical sequence. We might almost admit a literature favour somewhat the Hellenistic culture of Syria, resemblance in form to the general literary type which Spitta as represented for example at Antioch. adduces. The term “ wisdom” in particular is used in the special The most important commentaries on the epistle are those of and technical sense of the “ wise men” of Hebrew literature Matt. Schneckenburger (1832), K. G. W. Theile (1833), J. Kern (Matt. xxiii. 34), the sense of “the wisdom of the just” of Luke (1838), G. H. Ewald (1870), C. F. D. Erdmann (1881), H. v. Soden i. 17. True, the mystical sense given to the term in one of the 1898), J; B. Mayor (1892) and W. Patrick (1906). The pre-Pauline sources of Luke, by Paul and some of the Church fathers, is not Commentary), Th. Zahn (Introd.), J. B. Mayor and W. Patrick. . J. V. date is championed by B. Weiss (Introd.), W. Beyschlag (Meyer's present. While the gospel is pre-eminently the divine gift of Bartlet (Ap. Age, pp. 217-250) pleads for it, and the view is still “wisdom," ,” “wisdom” is not personified, but conceived pri- common among English interpreters. F. K. Zimmer (2.w. Th., 1893) marily as a system of humanitarian ethics, i. 21-25, and only showed the priority of Paul, with many others. A. Hilgenfeld (Einl.) secondarily as a spiritual effluence, imparting the regenerate disposition, the “ mind that was in Christ Jesus," iii. 13-18. Perhaps it may be accounted for by the order of the compend of 3 The logical relation of v. 12 to the context is problematical. And yet for James as well as for Paul Christ is “the wisdom of Christian ethics the writer was following: Cf. Matt. v. 34-37 in relation to Matt. v. 12 (cf. ver. 10) and vi. 19 sqq. (cf. ver. 2, and 1 On the contacts in general see Moffat, Hist. N T. p. 578, on iv. 13 seq.). The non-charismatic conception of healing, no longer the relation to Clem. R. see Bacon, “Doctrine of Faith in Hebrews, gilt " of some layman in the community (1 Cor. xii. 9 seq.) but a James and Clement of Rome," in Jour. of Bib. Lit., 1900 pp. 12–21. function of “the elders (1 Tim. iv. 14), is another indication or 2 Das Urrhristenthum, 868, quoted by Cone, loc. cit. comparatively late date. " " JAMESON, A. B.-JAMESON, L. S. 147 16 and A.C. McGiffert (Ap, Age) place it in the period of Domitian; Baur (Ch. History), Schwegler (Nachap. Zeitalt.), Zeller, Volkmar (Z. W. over. to Mrs Jameson the materials and references he had Th.), Hausrath (Ap. Age), H. J. Holtzmann (Einl.), Jülicher (Einl.), collected. She recognized the extent of the ground before her Usteri (St. u. Kr., 1889), W. Brückner (Chron.), H. v. Soden (Hand as a mingled sphere of poetry, history, devotion and art. She comm.) and A. Harnack (Chron.) under Hadrian. A convenient infected her readers with her own enthusiastic admiration; synopsis of results will be found in J. Moffat, Historical New Testa? and, in spite of her slight technical and historical equipment, (pp. 576-581), and in the articles s.v. James " in Encycl. Bibl. and the Bible Dictionaries. (B. W. B.) Mrs. Jameson produced a book which thoroughly deserved its great success. JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL (1794-1860), British writer, She also took a keen interest in questions affecting the educa-' was born in Dublin on the 17th of May 1794. Her father, Denis tion, occupations and maintenance of her own sex. Her early Brownell Murphy (d. 1842), a miniature and enamel painter, essay on The Relative Social Position of Mothers and Governesses removed to England in 1798 with his family, and eventually was the work of one who knew both sides; and in no respect does settled at Hanwell, near London. At sixteen years of age Anna she more clearly prove the falseness of the position she describes became governess in the family of the marquis of Winchester than in the certainty with which she predicts its eventual reform. In 1821 she was engaged to Robert Jameson. The engagement To her we owe the first popular enunciation of the principle of was broken off, and Anna Murphy accompanied a young pupil male and female co-operation in works of mercy and education. to Italy, writing in a fictitious character a narrative of what she In her later years she took up a succession of subjects all bearing saw and did. This diary she gave to a bookseller on condition on the same principles of active benevolence and the best ways of receiving a guitar if he secured any profits. Colburn ulti- of carrying them into practice. Sisters of charity, hospitals, mately published it as The Diary of an Ennuyée (1826), which penitentiaries, prisons and workhouses all claimed her interest attracted much attention. The author was governess to the -all more or less included under those definitions of “the com- children of Mr Littleton, afterwards Lord Hatherton, from 1821 munion of love and communion of labour " which are inseparably to 1825, when she married Robert Jameson. The marriage connected with her memory. To the clear and temperate forms proved unhappy; when, in 1829, Jameson was appointed puisne in which she brought the results of her convictions before her judge in the island of Dominica the couple separated without friends in the shape of private lectures--published as Sisters of regret, and Mrs Jameson visited the Continent again with her Charity (1855) and The Communion of Labour (1856)-may be father. traced the source whence later reformers and philanthropists The first work which displayed her powers of original thought topk counsel and courage. was her Characteristics of Women (1832). These analyses of Mrs Jameson died on the 17th of March 1860. "She left the Shakespeare's heroines are remarkable for delicacy of critical | last of her Sacred and Legendary Art series in preparation. It insight and fineness of literary touch. They are the result of a was completed, under the title of The History of Our Lord in Art, penetrating but essentially feminine mind, applied to the study by Lady Eastlake. of individuals of its own sex, detecting characteristics and JAMESON (or JAMESONE), GEORGE (c. 1587-1644), Scottish defining differences not perceived by the ordinary critic and en portrait-painter, was born at Aberdeen, where his father was tirely overlooked by the general reader. German literature and architect and a member of the guild. After studying painting art had aroused much interest in England, and Mrs Jameson under Rubens at Antwerp, with Vandyck as a fellow pupil, he paid her first visit to Germany in 1833. The conglomerations of returned in 1620 to Aberdeen, where he was married in 1624 and hard lines, cold colours and pedantic subjects which decorated remained at least until 1630, after which he took up his residence Munich under the patronage of King Louis of Bavaria, were new in Edinburgh. He was employed by the magistrates of Edin- to the world, and Mrs Jameson's enthusiasm first gave them an burgh to copy several portraits of the Scottish kings for presen- English reputation. tation to Charles I. on his first visit to Scotland in 1633, and the In 1836 Mrs Jameson was summoned to Canada by her husband, king rewarded him with a diamond ring from his own finger. who had been appointed chancellor of the province of Toronto. This circumstance at once established Jameson's fame, and he He failed to meet her at New York, and she was left to make her soon found constant employment in painting the portraits of way alone at the worst season of the year to Toronto. After the Scottish nobility and gentry. He also painted a portrait six months' experiment she felt it useless to prolong a life far of Charles, which he declined to sell to the magistrates of from all ties of family happiness and opportunities of usefulness. Aberdeen for the price they offered. He died at Edinburgh in Before leaving, she undertook a journey to the depths of the 1644. Indian settlements in Canada; she explored Lake Huron, and JAMESON, LEANDER STARR (1853– ), British colonial saw much of emigrant and Indian life unknown to travellers, statesman, son of R. W. Jameson, a writer to the signet in Edin- which she afterwards embodied in her Winter Studies and Summer burgh, was born at Edinburgh in 1853, and was educated for the Rambles. She returned to England in 1838. At this period medical profession at University College Hospital, · London Mrs Jameson began making careful notes of the chief private art (M.R.C.S. 1875; M.D. 1877). After acting as house physician, collections in and near London. The result appeared in her house surgeon and demonstrator of anatomy, and showing Companion to the Private Galleries (1842), followed in the same promise of a successful professional career in London, his health year by the Handbook to the Public Galleries. She edited the broke down from overwork in 1878, and he went out to South Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters in 1845. In the same year Africa and settled down in practice at Kimberley. There he she visited her friend Ottilie von Goethe. Her friendship with rapidly acquired a great reputation as a medical man, and, Lady Byron dates from about this time and lasted for some besides numbering President Kruger and the Matabele chief seven years; it was brought to an end apparently through Lady Lobengula among his patients, came much into contact with Cecil Byron's unreasonable temper. A volume of essays published Rhodes. In 1888 his influence with Lobengula was successfully in 1846 contains one of Mrs Jameson's best pieces of work, The exerted to induce that chieftain to grant the concessions to the House of Titian. In 1847 she went to Italy with her niece and agents of Rhodes which led to the formation of the British South subsequent biographer (Memoirs, 1878), Geraldine Bate (Mrs Africa Company; and when the company proceeded to open up Macpherson), to collect materials for the work on which her Mashonaland, Jameson abandoned his medical practice and joined reputation rests-her series of Sacred and Legendary Art. The the pioneer expedition of 1890. From this time his fortunes time was ripe for such contributions to the traveller's library, were bound up with Rhodes's schemes in the north. Imme- The Acta Sanctorum and the Book of the Golden Legend had had diately after the pioneer column had occupied Mashonaland, their readers, but no one had ever pointed out the connexion Jameson, with F. C. Selous and A. R. Colquhoun, went east to between these tales and the works of Christian art. The way Manicaland and was instrumental in securing the greater part to these studies had been pointed out in the preface to Kugler's of that country, to which Portugal was laying claim, for the 'Handbook of Italian Painling by Sir Charles Eastlake, who had Chartered Company. In 1891 Jameson succeeded Colquhoun intended pursuing the subject himself. Eventually he made l as administrator of Rhodesia. The events connected with his 148 JAMESON, R. JAMESTOWN - 66 a vigorous administration and the wars with the Matabele are 1808; 3rd ed., 1820); Elements of Geognosy (1809); Mineralogical narrated under RHODESIA. At the end of 1894 Dr Jim' Travels through the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland Islands (2 vols., 1813); and Manual of Mineralogy (1821); besides a number of (as he was familiarly called) came to England and was fêted on occasional papers, of which a list will be found in the Edinburgh New all sides; he was made a C.B., and returned to Africa in the Philosophical Journal for July 1854, along with a portrait and bio- spring of 1895 with enhanced prestige. On the last day of that graphical sketch of the author. year the world was startled to learn that Jameson, with a force JAMESTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Stutsman of 600 men, had made a raid into the Transvaal from Mafeking county, North Dakota, U.S.A., on the James River, about in support of a projected rising in Johannesburg, which had been 93 m. W. of Fargo. Pop. (1900), 2853, of whom 587 were connived at by Rhodes at the Cape (see RHODES and TRANS-foreign-born; (1905) 5093; (1910) 4358. Jamestown is served VAAL). Jameson's force was compelled to surrender at Doorn- by the Northern Pacific railway, of which it is division head- kop, receiving a guarantee that the lives of all would be spared; quarters. At Jamestown is St John's Academy, a school for he and his officers were sent to Pretoria, and, after a short delay, girls, conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph. The state during which time sections of the Boer populace clamoured for hospital for the insane is just beyond the city limits. The city the execution of Jameson, President Kruger on the surrender is the commercial centre of a prosperous farming and stock- of Johannesburg (January 7) handed them over to the British raising region in the James River valley, and has grain-elevators government for punishment. They were tried in London under and four-mills. Jamestown was first settled in 1873, near Fort the Foreign Enlistment Act in May 1896, and Dr Jameson Seward, a U.S. military post established in 1872 and abandoned was sentenced to fifteen months' inprisonment at Holloway, in 1877, and was chartered as a city in 1883. He served a year in prison, and was then released on account of JAMESTOWN, a city of Chautauqua county, New York, ill health. He still retained the affections of the white popula- U.S.A., at the S. outlet of Chautauqua Lake, 68 m. S. by W. of tion of Rhodesia, and subsequently returned there in an un- Buffalo. Pop. (1900), 22,892, of whom 7270 were foreign-born, official capacity. He was the constant companion of Rhodes on mostly Swedish; (1910 census) 31,297. It is served by the his journeys up to the end of his life, and when Rhodes died in Erie and the Jamestown, Chautauqua & Lake Erie railways, May 1902 Jameson was left one of the executors of his will. In by electric lines extending along Lake Chautauqua to Lake Erie 1903 Jameson came forward as the leader of the Progressive on the N. and to Warren, Pennsylvania, on the S., and by (British) party in Cape Colony; and that party being victorious summer steamboat lines on Lake Chautauqua. Jamestown is' at the general election in January-February 1904, Jameson situated among the hills of Chautauqua county, and is a popular formed an administration in which he took the post of prime summer resort. There is a free public library. A supply of minister, He had to face a serious economic crisis and strenu- natural gas (from Pennsylvania) and a fine water-power combine ously promoted the development of the agricultural and pastoral to render Jamestown a manufacturing centre of considerable resources of the colony. He also passed a much needed Redis importance. In 1905 the value of its factory products was tribution Act, and in the session of 1906 passed an Amnesty Act $10,349,752, an increase of 33.9% since 1900. The city owns restoring the rebel voters to the franchise. Jameson, as prime and operates its electric-lighting plant and its water-supply minister of Cape Colony, attended the Colonial conference held system, the water, of exceptional purity, being obtained from in London in 1907. In September of that year the Cape parlia- artesian wells 4 m. distant. Jamestown was settled in 1810, ment was dissolved, and as the elections for the legislative was incorporated in 1827, and was chartered as a city in 1886. council went in favour of the Bond, Jameson resigned office, The city was named in honour of James Prendergast, an early 31st of January 1908 (see CAPE Colony: History). In 1908 he settler. was chosen one of the delegates from Cape Colony to the inter- JAMESTOWN, a former village in what is now James City colonial convention for the closer union of the South African county, Virginia, U.S.A., on Jamestown Island, in the James states, and he took a prominent part in settling the terms on River, about 40 m. above Norfolk. It was here that the first which union was effected in 1909. It was at Jameson's sugges- permanent English settlement in America was founded on the tion that the Orange River Colony was renamed Orange Free i3th of May 1607, that representative government was inau- State Province. gurated on the American Continent in 1619, and that negro JAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854), Scottish naturalist and servitude was introduced into the original thirteen colonies, also mineralogist, was born at Leith on the 11th of July 1774. He in 1619. In Jamestown was the first Anglican church built in became assistant to a surgeon in his native town; but, having America. The settlement was in a low marshy district which studied natural history under Dr John Walker in 1792 and 1793, proved to be unhealthy; it was accidentally burned in January he felt that his true province lay in that science. He went (1608, was almost completely destroyed by Nathaniel Bacon in in 1800 to Freiberg to study for nearly two years under Werner, September 1676, the state house and other buildings were again and spent two more in continental travel. In 1804 he succeeded burned in 1698, and after the removal of the seat of government Dr Walker as regius professor of natural history in Edinburgh of Virginia from Jamestown to the Middle Plantations (now university, and became perhaps the first eminent exponent in Williamsburg) in 1699 the village fell rapidly into decay. Its Great Britain of the Wernerian geological system; but when he population had never been large: it was about 490 in 1609, and found that theory untenable, he frankly announced his conver-183 in 1623; the mortality was always very heavy. By the sion to the views of Hutton. As a teacher, Jameson was remark: middle of the 19th century the peninsula on which Jamestown able for his power of imparting enthusiasm to his students, and had been situated had become an island, and by 1900 the James from his class-room there radiated an influence which gave a River had worn away the shore but had hardly touched the marked impetus to the study of geology in Britain. His energy territory of the “New Towne " (1619), immediately E. of the also, by means of government aid, private donation and personal first settlement; almost the only visible remains, however, were outlay, amassed a great part of the splendid collection which the tower of the brick church and a few gravestones. In 1900 now occupies the natural history department of the Royal the association for the preservation of Virginia antiquities, to Scottish Museum in Edinburgh. In 1819 Jameson, with Şir which the site was deeded in 1893, induced the United States David Brewster, started the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, government to build a wall to prevent the further encroachment which after the tenth volume remained under his sole conduct of the river; the foundations of several of the old buildings have till his death, which took place in Edinburgh on the 19th of since been uncovered, many interesting relics have been found, April 1854. His bust now stands in the hall of the Edinburgh and in 1907 there were erected a brick church (which is as far University library. as possible a reproduction of the fourth one built in 1639-1647), Jameson was the author of Outline of the Mineralogy of the Shetland a marble shaft marking the site of the first settlement, another Işlands and of the Island of Arran (1798), incorporated with Miner- alogy of the Scottish Isles (1800); Mineralogical Description of Scotland, shaft commemorating the first house of burgesses, a bronze vol. i. pt. 1. (Dumfries, 1805); this was to have been the first of a monument to the memory of Captain John Smith, and another series embracing all Scotland; System of Mineralogy (3 vols., 1804- | monument to the memory of Pocahontas. At the head of JĀMİ-JAMRUD 149 Jamestown peninsula Cornwallis, in July 1781, attempted to trick | Scarce Editions. Two pleasing lyrics of his own were included. the Americans under Lafayette and General Anthony Wayne by Scott; through whose assistance he received a government post displaying a few men on the peninsula and concealing the at Edinburgh, held Jamieson in high esteem and pointed out principal part of his army on the mainland; but when Wayne his skill in discovering the connexion between Scandinavian discovered the trap he made first a vigorous charge, and then and Scottish legends. Jamieson's work preserved much oral a retreat to Lafayette's line. Early in the Civil War the Con- tradition which might otherwise have been lost. He was federates regarded the site (then an island) as of such strategic associated with Henry Weber and Scott in Illustrations of importance that (near the brick church tower and probably near Northern Antiquities (1814). . He died on the 24th of September the site of the first fortifications by the original settlers) they 1844. erected heavy earthworks upon it for defence. (For additional JAMKHANDI, a native state of India, in the Deccan division details concerning the early history of Jamestown, see VIRGINIA: of Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta Jagirs. History.) Area, 524 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 105,357; estimated revenue, The founding at Jamestown of the first permanent English- £37,000; tribute, £1300. The chief is a Brahman of the speaking settlement in America was celebrated in 1907 by the Patwardhan family. Cotton, wheat and millet are produced, Jamestown tercentennial exposition, held on grounds at and cotton and silk cloth are manufactured, though not exported. Sewell's Point on the sbore of Hampton Roads. About twenty The town of JAMKHANDI, the capital, is situated 68 m. E. of foreign nations, the federal government, and most of the states Kolhapur. Pop. (1901), 13,029. of the union took part in the exposition. JAMMU, or JUMMOO, the capital of the state of Jammu and See L. G. Tyler, The Cradle of the Republic: Jamestown and James Kashmir in Northern India, on the river Tavi (Ta-wi), a tributary River (Richmond, 2nd ed., 1906); Mrs R. A. Pryor, The Birth of the of the Chenab. Pop. (1901), 36,130. The town and palace stand Nation: Jamestown, 1607, (New York, 1907); and particularly upon the right bank of the river; the fort overhangs the left S. H. Yonge, The Site of Old" James Towne," 1607-1698 (Richmond, 1904), embodying the results of the topographical investigations of bank at an elevation of 150 ft. above the stream. The lofty the engineer in charge of the river-wall built in 1900-1901. whitened walls of the palace and citadel present a striking JĀMI (NŪR-ED-DIN ABD-UR-RAĦMAN IBN AĦMAD) (1414- appearance from the surrounding country. Extensive pleasure 1492), Persian poet and mystic, was born at Jām in Khorasan, grounds and ruins of great size attest the former prosperity of whence the name by which he is usually known. In his poems the city when it was the seat of a Rajput dynasty whose he mystically utilizes the connexion of the name with the same dominions extended into the plains and included the modern word meaning “ wine-cup.” He was the last great classic poet district of Sialkot. It was afterwards conquered by the Sikhs, of Persia, and a pronounced mystic of the Sūfic philosophy and formed part of Ranjit Singh's dominions. After his death His three diwans (1479-1491) contain his lyrical poems and it was acquired by Gulab Singh as the nucleus of his dominions, odes; among his prose writings the chief is his Bahāristān to which the British added Kashmir in 1846. It is connected (“Spring-garden ") (1487); and his collection of romantic with Sialkot in the Punjab by a railway 16 m. long. In 1898 the town was devastated by a fire, which destroyed most of the poems, Haft Aurang (“Seven Thrones "), contains the Salāmān wa Absāl and his Yusuf wa Zalikha (Joseph and Potiphar's public offices. wife). The state of Jammu proper, as opposed to Kashmir, consists On Jāmi's life and works see V. von Rosenzweig, Biographische of a submontane tract, forming the upper basin of the Chenab. Notizen über Mewlana Abdurrahman Dschami (Vienna, 1840); Gore Pop. (1901), 1,521,307, showing an increase of 5% in the decade. Ouseley, Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (1846); W. N. Lees, A land settlement has recently been introduced under British A Biographical Sketch of the Mystic Philosopher and Poet Jami supervision. (Calcutta, 1859); E. Beauvois s.v. Djami in Nouvelle Biographie JAMNIA ('Iauvia or 'Iauvela), the Greek form of the Hebrew générale; and H. Ethé in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologic, ii. There are English translations of the Bahāristān by name Jabneel—i.e. “God causeth to build ” (Josh. xv. 11)-or E. Rehatsek (Benares, 1887) and Sorabji Fardunji (Bombay, 1899); Jabneh (2 Chron. xxvi. 6), the modern Arabic YEBNA, a town of of Salāmān wa Absāl by Edward FitzGerald (1856, with a notice Palestine, on the border between Dan and Judah, situated 13 m. of Jāmi's life): of Yusuf wa Zalīkha by R. T. H. Griffith (1882), and S. of Jaffa, and 4 m. E. of the seashore. The modern village A. "Rogers (1892); also selections in English by F. Hadland Davis , stands on an isolated sandy hillock, surrounded by gardens The Persian Mystics: Jāmī (1908). (See also PERSIA: Literature.) JAMIESON, JOHN (1759–1838), Scottish lexicographer, son with olives to the north and sand-dunes to the west. It con- tains a small crusaders' church, now a mosque. of a minister, was born in Glasgow, on the 3rd of March 1759. Jamnia He was educated at Glasgow University, and subsequently belonged to the Philistines, and Uzziah of Judah is said to have attended classes in Edinburgh. After six years' theological taken it (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). In Maccabean times Joseph and Azarias attacked it unsuccessfully (1 Macc. v. 55-62; 2 Macc. study, Jamieson was licensed to preach in 1789 and became xii. 8 seq. is untrustworthy). Alexander Jannaeus subdued it, and pastor of an Anti-burgher congregation in Forfar; and in 1797 he was called to the Anti-burgher church in Nicolson Street, under Pompey it became Roman. It changed hands several Edinburgh. The union of the Burgher and Anti-burgher sections times, is mentioned by Strabo (xvi. 2) as being once very of the Secession Church in 1820 was largely due to his exertions. populous, and in the Jewish war was taken by Vespasian. The He retired from the ministry in 1830 and died in Edinburgh population was mainly Jewish (Philo, Leg. ad Gaium, $ 30), and on the 12th of July 1838. the town is principally famous as having been the seat of the Jamieson's name stands at the head of a tolerably long list of Sanhedrin and the religious centre of Judaism from A.D. 70 to works in the Bibliotheca britannica; but by far his most important 135. It sent a bishop to Nicaea in 325. In 1144 å crusaders' book is the laborious and erudite compilation, best described by fortress was built on the hill, which is often mentioned under its own title-page: An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Lan- the name Ibelin. There was also a Jabneel in Lower Galilee guage; illustrating the words in their different significations by examples (Josh. xix. 33), called later Caphar Yama, the present village from Ancient and Modern Writers; Shewing their Affinity to those of other Languages, and especially the Northern; explaining many terms Yemma, 8 m. S. of Tiberias; and another fortress in Upper which though now obsolete in England were formerly common to both Galilee was named Jamnia (Josephus, Vila, 37). Attempts countries; and elucidating National Rites, Customs and Institutions in have been made to unify these two Galilean sites, but without their Analogy to those of other nations; to which is prefixed a Disserta- lion on the Origin of the Scottish Language. This appeared in 2 vols., 4to, at Edinburgh in 1808, followed in 1825 by a Supplement, in JAMRUD, a fort and cantonment in India, just beyond the 2 vols., 4to, in which he was assisted by scholars in all parts of the border of Peshawar district, North-West Frontier Province, country. A revised edition by Longmuir and Donaldson was issued situated at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, 101 m. W. of Peshawar in 1879-1887. city, with which it is connected by a branch railway. It was JAMIESON, ROBERT (c. 1780-1844), Scottish antiquary, was occupied by Hari Singh, Ranjit Singh's commander in 1836; born in Morayshire. In 1806 he published a collection of but in April 1837 Dost Mahommed sent a body of Afghans to Popular Ballads and Songs from Tradition, Manuscript and I attack it. The Sikhs gained a doubtful victory, with the loss of " : success. 150 JAMS AND JELLIES-JANIN their general. During the military operations of 1878–79 | 70 m. S.W. of Milwaukee and 90 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. Jamrud became a place of considerable importance as the (1900), 13,185, of whom 2409 were foreign-born; (1910 frontier outpost on British territory towards Afghanistan, and census), 13,894. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western it was also the base of operations for a portion of the Tirah and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by electric campaign in 1897–1898. It is the headquarters of the Khyber lines connecting with Madison and Beloit, Wis., and Rockford, Rifles, and the collecting station for the Khyber tolls. Pop. Illinois. The Rock river is not commercially navigable at this (1901), 1848. point, but furnishes valuable water-power for manufacturing JAMS AND JELLIES. In the article Food PRESERVATION purposes. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs above it is pointed out that concentrated sugar solution inhibits the the river. Janesville is the centre of the tobacco trade of the growth of organisms and has, therefore, a preservative action. state, and has various manufactures. The total value of the The preparation of jams and jellies is based upon that fact. All city's factory product in 1905 was $3,846,038, an increase of fresh and succulent fruit contains a large percentage of water, 20.8 % since 1900. Its public buildings include a city hall, amounting to at least four-fifths of the whole, and a compara- court house, post office, city hospital and a public library. It tively small proportion of sugar, not exceeding as a rule from is the seat of a school for the blind, opened as a private institu- 10 to 15%. Such fruit is naturally liable to decomposition tion in 1849 and taken over by the state in 1850, the first unless the greater proportion of the water is removed or the charitable institution controlled by the state, ranking as one of percentage of sugar is greatly increased. The jams and jellies the most successful of its kind in the United States. The first of commerce are fruit preserves containing so much added sugar settlement was made here about 1834. Janesville was named that the total amount of sugar forms about two-thirds of the in honour of Henry F. Janes, an early settler, and was chartered weight of the articles. All ordinary edible fruit can be and is as a city in 1853. made into jam. The fruit is sometimes pulped and stoned, JANET, PAUL (1823–1899), French philosophical writer, was sometimes used whole and unbroken; oranges are sliced or born in Paris on the 30th of April 1823. He was professor of shredded. For the preparation of jellies only certain fruit is moral philosophy at Bourges (1845-1848) and Strassburg (1848-. suitable, namely such as contains a peculiar material which on 1857), and of logic at the lycée Louis-le-Grand, Paris (1857-1864). boiling becomes dissolved and on cooling solidifies with the In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Sor- formation of a gelatinous mass. This material, often called bonne, and elected a member of the academy of the moral and pectin, occurs mainly in comparatively acid fruit like goose- political sciences. He wrote a large number of books and articles berries, currants and apples, and is almost absent from straw- upon philosophy, politics and ethics, on idealistic lines : La berries and raspberries. It is chemically a member of the group Famille, Histoire de la philosophie dans l'antiquité et dans le of carbohydrates, is closely allied with vegetable gums abun- temps moderne, Histoire de la science politique, Philosophie de la dantly formed by certain sea-weeds and mosses (agar-agar and Révolution Française, &c. They are not characterized by much Iceland moss), and is probably a mixture of various pentoses. originality of thought. In philosophy he was a follower of Pentoses are devoid of food-value, but, like animal gelatine, Victor Cousin, and through him of Hegel. His principal work with which they are in no way related, can form vehicles for in this line, Théorie de la morale, is little more than a somewhat food material. Some degree of gelatinization is aimed at also patronizing reproduction of Kant. He died in October 1899. in jams; hence to such fruits as have no gelatinizing power an JANGIPUR, or JAHANGIRPUR, a town of British India, in addition of apple or gooseberry juice, or even of Iceland moss or Murshidabad district, Bengal, situated on the Bhagirathi. agar-agar, is made. Animal gelatin is very rarely used. Pop. (1901), 10,921. The town is said to have been founded by The art of jam and jelly making was formerly domestic, but the Mogul emperor Jahangir. During the early years of British has become a very large branch of manufacture. For the rule it was an important centre of the silk trade, and the site of production of a thoroughly satisfactory conserve the boiling- one of the East India Company's commercial residencies. Jangi- down must be carried out very rapidly, so that the natural pur is now best known as the toll station for registering all the colour of the fruit shall be little affected. Considerable experi- traffic on the Bhagirathi. The number of boats registered ence is required to stop at the right point; too short boiling annually is about 10,000. leaves an excess of water, leading to fermentation, while over- JANIN, JULES GABRIEL (1804-1874), French critic, was born concentration promotes crystallization of the sugar. The at St Étienne (Loire) on the 16th of February 1804, and died manufactured product is on that account, as a rule,more uniform near Paris on the 19th of June 1874. His father was a lawyer, and bright than the domestic article. The finish of the boiling and he was well educated, first at St Etienne, and then at the is mostly judged by rule of thumb, but in some scientifically lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He betook himself to journalism conducted factories careful thermometric observation is em- very early, and worked on the Figaro, the Quotidienne, &c., until ployed. Formerly jams and jellies consisted of nothing but in 1830 he became dramatic critic of the Journal des Débats. fruit and sugar; now starch-glucose is frequently used by Long before this, however, he had made a considerable literary manufacturers as an ingredient. This permits of the production reputation, for which indeed his strange novel L'Âne mort et la of a slightly more aqueous and gelatinous product, alleged also femme guillotinée (1829) would have sufficed. La Confession to be devoid of crystallizing power, as compared with the home-|(1830), which followed, was less remarkable in substance but made article. The addition of starch-glucose is not held to be even more so in style; and in Barnave (1831) he attacked the an adulteration. Aniline colours are very frequently used by Orleans family. From the day, however, when Janin became manufacturers to enhance the colour, and the effect of an excess the theatrical critic of the Débats, though he continued to write of water is sought to be counteracted by the addition of some books indefatigably, he was to most Frenchmen a dramatic salicylic acid or other preservative. There has long been, and critic and nothing more. He was outrageously inconsistent, and still exists to some extent, a popular prejudice in favour of sugar judged things from no general point of view whatsoever, though obtained from the sugar-cane as compared with that of the his judgment was usually good-natured. Few journalists have sugar-beet. This prejudice is absolutely baseless, and enormous ever been masters of a more attractive fashion of saying the first quantities of beet-sugar are used in the boiling of jam. Adul- thing that came into their heads. After many years of feuilleton teration in the gross sense, such as a substantial addition of writing he collected some of his articles in the work called coarse pulp, like that of turnips or mangolds,very rarely occurs; Histoire de la littérature dramatique en France (1853–1858), which but the pulp of apple and other cheap fruit is often admixed by no means deserves its title. In 1865 he made his first attempt without notice to the purchaser. The use of colouring matters upon the Academy, but was not successfull till five years later. and preservatives is discussed at length in the article Meanwhile he had not been content with his feuilletons, written ADULTERATION. (O. H.*) persistently about all manner of things. No cne was more in JANESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Rock County, request with the Paris publishers for prefaces, letterpress to Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated on both sides of the Rock river, illustrated books and such trifles. He travelled (picking up in a JANISSARIES 151 one of his journeys a curious windfall, a country house at Lucca, accession of Mahommed IV. (1648), the accession-bakshish was in a lottery), and wrote accounts of his travels; he wrote numer- distributed to 50,000 janissaries. During the war of 1683-1698 ous tales and novels, and composed many other works, of which the rules for admission were suspended, 30,000 recruits being by far the best is the Fin d'un monde et du neveu de Rameau received at one time, and the effective of the corps rising to (1861), in which, under the guise of a sequel to Diderot's master-70,000; about 1805 it numbered more than 112,000; it went piece, he showed his great familiarity with the late 18th century. on increasing until the destruction of the janissaries, when it He married in 1841; his wife had money, and he was always in reached 135,000. It would perhaps be more correct to say that easy circumstances. In the early part of his career he had these are the numbers figuring on the pay-sheets, and that they many quarrels, notably one with Félix Pyat (1810-1889), whom doubtless largely exceed the total of the men actually serving in he prosecuted successfully for defamation of character. For the ranks. the most part his work is mere improvisation, and has few ele- Promotion to the rank of warrant officer was obtained by ments of vitality except a light and vivid style. His Cuvres long or distinguished service; it was by seniority up to the rank choisies (12 vols., 1875-1878)were edited by A. de la Fitzelière. of odabashi, but odabashis were promoted to the rank of chorbaji A study on Janin with a bibliography was published by A. Piédag- (commander of an orta) solely by selection. Janissaries advanced nel in 1874. See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, ii. and y., in their own orta, which they left only to assume the command of and Gustave Planche, Portraits littéraires. another. Ortas remained permanently stationed in the fortress JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni chếri, new towns in which they were in garrison, being displaced in time of troops), an organized military force constituting until 1826 the peace only when some violent animosity broke out between two standing army of the Ottoman empire. At the outset of her companies. There were usually 12 in garrison at Belgrade, history Turkey possessed no standing army. All Moslems 14 at Khotin, 16 at Widdin, 20 at Bagdad, &c. The commander capable of bearing arms served as a kind of volunteer yeomanry was frequently changed. A new chorbaji was usually appointed known as akinjis; they were summoned by public criers, or, if to the command of an orta stationed at a frontier post; he was the occasion required it, by secret messengers. It was under then transferred elsewhere, so that in course of time he passed Orkhan that a regular paid army was first organized: the soldiers through different provinces. were known as yaya or piyadé. The result was unsatisfactory, In time of peace the janissary received no pay. At first his as the Turcomans, from whom these troops were recruited, were war pay was limited to one aspre per diem, but it was eventually unaccustomed to fight on foot or to submit to military discipline. raised to a minimum of three aspres, while veterans received as Accordingly in 1330, on the advice of Chendéréli Kara Khalil, much as 29 aspres, and retired officers from 30 to 120. The aga the system known as deushurmé or forced levy, was adopted, received 24,000 piastres per annum; the ordinary pay of a whereby a certain number of Christian youths (at first 1000) commander was 120 aspres per diem. The aga and several of were every year taken from their parents and, after undergoing his subordinates received a percentage of the pay and allowance a period of apprenticeship, were enrolled as yeni chéri or new of the troops; they also inherited the property of deceased troops. The venerable saint Haji Bektash, founder of the Bek- janissaries. Moreover, the officers profited largely by retaining tashi dervishes, blessed the corps and promised them victory; the names of dead or fictitious janissaries on the pay-rolls. he remained ever after the patron saint of the janissaries. Rations of mutton, bread and candles were furnished by the At first the corps was exclusively recruited by the forced levy government, the supply of rice, butter and vegetables being at of Christian children, for which purpose the officer known as the charge of the commandant. •The rations would have been tournaji-bashi, or head-keeper of the cranes, made periodical entirely inadequate if the janissaries had not been allowed, tours in the provinces. The fixed organization of the corps contrary to the regulations, to pursue different callings, such as dates only from Mahommed II., and its regulations were subse- those of baker, butcher, glazier, boatman, &c. At first the quently modified by Suleiman I. In early days all Christians janissaries bore no other distinctive mark save the white felt were enrolled indiscriminately; later those from Albania, Bosnia cap. Soon the red cap with gold embroidery was substituted. and Bulgaria were preferred. The recruits wbile serving their Later a uniform was introduced, of which the distinctive mark apprenticeship were instructed in the principles of the faith by was less the colour than the cut of the coat and the shape of the khojas, but according to D'Ohsson (vii. 327) they were not obliged head-dress and turban. The only distinction in the costume of to become Moslems. commanding officers was in the colour of their boots, those of The entire corps, commanded by the aga of the jaņissaries, the beuluks being red while the others were yellow; subordinate was known as the ojak (hearth); it was divided into orlas or officers wore black boots. units of varying numbers; the oda (room) was the name given to The fundamental laws of the janissaries, which were very the barracks in which the janissaries were lodged. There were, early infringed, were as follows: implicit obedience to their after the reorganization of Suleiman I., 196 ortas of three classes, officers; perfect accord and union among themselves; abstinence viz. the jemaat, comprising 101 ortas, the beuluk, 61 ortas, and from luxury, extravagance and practices unseemly for a soldier the şekban, or seimen, 34 ortas; to these must be added 34 ortas and a brave man; observance of the rules of Haji Bektash and of ajami or apprentices. The strength of the orta varied greatly, of the religious law; exclusion from the ranks of all save those sometimes being as low as 100, sometimes rising considerably properly levied; special rules for the infliction of the death- beyond its nominal war strength of 500. The distinction penalty; promotion to be by seniority; janissaries to be between the different classes seems to have been principally in admonished or punished by their own officers only; the infirm name; in theory the jemaat, or yaya beiler, were specially charged and unfit to be pensioned; janissaries were not to let their with the duty of frontier-guards; the beuluks had the privilege beards grow, not to marry, nor to leave their barracks, nor to of serving as the sultan's guards and of keeping the sacred banner engage in trade; but were to spend their time in drill and in in their custody. practising the arts of war. Until the accession of Murad III. (1574) the total effective In time of peace the state supplied no arms, and thejanissaries of the janissaries, including the ajami or apprentices, did not on service in the capital were armed only with clubs; they were exceed 20,000. In 1582 irregularities in the mode of admission forbidden to carry any arm save a cutlass, the only exception the ranks began. Soon parents themselves begged to have being at the frontier-posts. In time of war the janissaries their children enrolled, so great were the privileges attaching provided their own arms, and these might be any which took to the corps; later the privilege of enlistment was restricted to their fancy. However, they were induced by rivalry to procure the children or relatives of former janissaries; eventually the the best obtainable and to keep them in perfect order. The regulations were much relaxed, and any person was admitted, banner of the janissaries was of white silk on which verses from only negroes being excluded. In 1591 the ojak numbered the Koran were embroidered in gold. This banner was planted 48,688 men. Under Ibrahim (1640–1648) it was reduced by beside the aga's tent in camp, with four other flags in red cases, Kara Mustafa to 17,000; but it soon rose again, and at the and his three horse-tails. Each orta had its flag, half-red and 152 JANIUAY-JAN MAYEN half-yellow, placed before the tent of its commander. Each | to collect on the Et Meidan square at Constantinople; at mid- orta had two or three great caldrons used for boiling the soup and pilaw; these were under the guard of subordinate officers. A particular superstition attached to them: if they were lost in battle all the officers were disgraced, and the orta was no longer allowed to parade with its caldrons in public ceremonies. The janissaries were stationed in most of the guard-houses of Constantinople and other large towns. No sentries were on duty, but rounds were sent out two or three times a day. It was customary for the sultan or the grand vizier to bestow largess on an orta which they might visit. night they attacked the house of the aga of janissaries, and, finding he had made good his escape, proceeded to overturn the caldrons of as many ortas as they could find, thus forcing the troops of those ortas to join the insurrection. Then they pillaged and robbed throughout the town. Meanwhile the government was collecting its forces; the ulema, consulted by the sultan, gave the following fetva: “If unjust and violent men attack their brethren, fight against the aggressors and send them before their natural judge!" On this the sacred standard of the prophet was unfurled, and war was formally declared against these disturbers of order. Cannon were brought against the Et Meidan, which was surrounded by troops. Ibrahim Aga, known as Kara Jehennum, the commander of the artillery, made a last appeal to the janissaries to surrender; they refused, and fire was opened upon them. Such as escaped were shot down as they fled; the barracks where many found refuge were burnt; those who were taken prisoner were brought before the grand vizier and hanged. Before many days were over the corps had ceased At first a source of strength to Turkey as being the only well- to exist, and the janissaries, the glory of Turkey's early days and organized and disciplined force in the country, the janissaries the scourge of the country for the last two centuries, had passed soon became its bane, thanks to their lawlessness and exactions. | for ever from the page of her history.. One frequent means of exhibiting their discontent was to set fire to Constantinople; 140 such fires are said to have been caused during the 28 years of Ahmed III.'s reign. The janis- saries were at all times distinguished for their want of respect towards the sultans; their outbreaks were never due to a real desire for reforms of abuses or of misgovernment, but were solely caused to obtain the downfall of some obnoxious minister. The janissaries conducted themselves with extreme violence and brutality towards civilians. They extorted money from them on every possible pretext: thus, it was their duty to sweep the streets in the immediate vicinity of their barracks, but they forced the civilians, especially if rayas, to perform this task or to pay a bribe. They were themselves subject to severe corporal punishments; if these were to take place publicly the ojak was first asked for its consent. The first recorded revolt of the janissaries is in 1443, on the occasion of the second accession of Mahommed II., when they broke into rebellion at Adrianople. A similar revolt happened at his death, when Bayazid II. was forced to yield to their demands and thus the custom of the accession-bakshish was established; at the end of his reign it was the janissaries who forced Bayazid to summon Prince Selim and to hand over the reins of power to him. During the Persian campaign of Selim I. they mutinied more than once. Under Osman II. their disorders reached their greatest height and led to the dethronement and murder of the sultan. It would be tedious to recall all their acts of insubordination. Throughout Turkish history they were made use of as instruments by unscrupulous and ambitious statesmen, and in the 17th century they had become a praetorian guard in the worst sense of the word. Sultan Selim III. in despair endeavoured to organize a properly drilled and disciplined force, under the name of nizam-i-jedid, to take their place; for some time the janissaries regarded this attempt in sullen silence; a curious detail is that Napoleon's ambassador Sebastiani strongly dissuaded the sultan from taking this step. Again serving as tools, the janissaries dethroned Selim III. and obtained the abolition of the nizam-i-jedid. But after the successful revo- | lution of Bairakdar Pasha of Widdin the new troops were re- established and drilled: the resentment of the janissaries rose to such a height that they attacked the grand vizier's house, and after destroying it marched against the sultan's palace. They were repulsed by cannon, losing 600 men in the affair (1806). But such was the excitement and alarm caused at Constantinople that the nizam-i-jedid, or sckbans as they were now called, had to be suppressed. During the next 20 years the misdeeds and tur- bulence of the janissaries knew no bounds. Sultan Mahmud II., powerfully impressed by their violence and lawlessness at his accession, and with the example of Mehemet Ali's method of suppressing the Mamlukes before his eyes, determined to rid the state of this scourge; long biding his time, in 1825 he decided to form a corps of regular drilled troops known as eshkenjis. A fetva was obtained from the Sheikh-ul-Islam to the effect that it was the duty of Moslems to acquire military science. The imperial decree announcing the formation of the new troops was promulgated at a grand council, and the high dignitaries present (including certain of the principal officers of the janissaries who concurred) undertook to comply with its provisions. But the janissaries rose in revolt, and on the 10th of June 1826, began See M. d'Ohsson, Tableaux de l'empire ottoman (Paris, 1787- 1820); Ahmed Vefyk, Lekjé-i-osmanié (Constantinople, 1290-1874); A. Djévad Bey, Elat militaire olloman (Constantinople, 1885). JANIUAY, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on the Suague river, about 20 m. W.N.W. of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. (1903), 27,399, including Lambúnao (6661) annexed to Janiuay in 1903. The town commands delightful views of mountain and valley scenery. An excellent road connects it with Pototan, about 10 m. E. The surrounding country is hilly but fertile and well cultivated, producing rice, sugar, tobacco, vegetables (for the Iloilo market), hemp and Indian corn. The women weave and sell beautiful fabrics of pina, silk, cotton and abaca. The language is Panay-Visayan. Janiuay was founded in 1578; it was first established in the mountains and was subsequently removed to its present site. JANJIRA, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay, situated along the coast among the spurs of the Western Ghats, 40 m. S. of Bombay city. Area, 324 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 85,414, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. The estimated revenue is about £37,000; there is no tribute: The chief, whose title is Nawab Sahib, is by descent a Sidi or Abyssinian Mahommedan; and his ancestors were for many generations admirals of the Mahommedan rulers of the Deccan. The state, popularly known as Habsan (= Abyssinian), did not come under direct subordination to the British until 1870. It supplies sailors and fishermen, and also firewood, to Bombay, with which it is in regular communication by steamer. The Nawab of Janjira is also chief of the state of JAFARABAD (q.v.). JAN MAYEN, an arctic island between Greenland and the north of Norway, about 71° N. 8° W. It is 34 m. long and 9 in greatest breadth, and is divided into two parts by a narrow isthmus. The island is of volcanic formation and mountainous, the highest summit being Beerenberg in the north (8350 ft.). Volcanic eruptions have been observed. Glaciers are fully developed. Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and called it Hudson's Tutches or Touches. Thereafter it was several times. observed by navigators who successively claimed its discovery and renamed it. Thus, in 1611 or the following year whalers from Hull named it Trinity Island; in 1612 Jean Vrolicq, a French whaler, called it Île de Richelieu; and in 1614 Joris Carolus named one of its promontories Jan Meys Hoek after the captain of one of his ships. The present name of the island is derived from this, the claim of its discovery by a Dutch navigator, Jan Mayen, in 1611, being unsupportable. island is not permanently inhabited, but has been frequently visited by explorers, sealers and whalers; and an Austrian station for scientific observations was maintained here for a year in 1882-1883. During this period a mean temperature of 27.8° F. was recorded. JANSEN JANSENISM 153 | All these three evils were attacked by Jansen. As against the theologians, he urged that in a spiritual religion experience, not reason, must be our guide. As against the stoical self-sufficiency of the moralists, he dwelt on the helplessness of man and his dependence on his maker. As against the ceremonialists, he maintained that no amount of church-going will save a man, unless the love of God is in him. But this capacity for love no one can give himself. If he is born without the religious instinct, he can only receive it by going through a process of sion." And whether God converts this man or that depends on his good pleasure. Thus Jansen's theories of conversion melt into predestination; although, in doing so, they omewhat modify its, grimness. Even for the worst miscreant there is hope-for who can say but that God may yet think fit to convert him? Jansen's thoughts went back every moment to his two spiritual heroes, St Augustine and St. Paul, each of whom had been "the chief of sinners.' " conver- JANSEN, CORNELIUS (1585–1638), bishop of Ypres, and father | moralistic religion, quite as close to Epictetus as to Christianity. of the religious revival known as Jansenism, was born of humble Catholic parentage at Accoy in-the province of Utrecht on the 28th of October 1585. In 1602 he entered the university of Louvain, then in the throes of a violent conflict between the Jesuit, or scholastic, party and the followers of Michael Baius, who swore by St Augustine. Jansen ended by attaching himself strongly to the latter party, and presently made a momentous friendship with a like-minded fellow-student, Du Vergier de Hauranne, afterwards abbot of Saint Cyran. After taking his degree he went to Paris, partly to recruit his health by a change of scene, partly to study Greek. Eventually he joined Du Vergier at his country home near Bayonne, and spent some years teaching at the bishop's college. All his spare time was spent in studying the early Fathers with Du Vergier, and laying plans for a reformation of the Church. In 1616 he returned to Louvain, to take charge of the college of St Pulcheria, a hostel for Dutch students of theology. Pupils found him a somewhat choleric and exacting master and academic society a great recluse. However, he took an active part in the university's resistance to the Jesuits; for these had established a theological school of their own in Louvain, which was proving a formidable rival to the official faculty of divinity. In the hope of repressing their encroachments, Jansen was sent twice to Madrid, in 1624 and 1626; the second time he narrowly escaped the Inquisition. He warmly supported the Catholic missionary bishop of Holland, Rovenius, in his contests with the Jesuits, who were trying to evangelize that country without regard to the bishop's wishes. He also crossed swords more than once with the Dutch Presby- terian champion, Voetius, still remembered for his attacks on Descartes. Antipathy to the Jesuits brought Jansen no nearer Protestantism; on the contrary, he yearned to beat these by their own weapons, chiefly by showing them that Catholics could interpret the Bible in a manner quite as mystical and pietistic as theirs. This became the great object of his lectures, when he was appointed regius professor of scriptural interpre- tation at Louvain in 1630. Still more was it the object. of his Augustinus, a bulky treatise on the theology of St Augustine, barely finished at the time of his death. Preparing it had been his chief occupation ever since he went back to Louvain. But Jansen, as he said, did not mean to be a school-pedant all his life; and there were moments when he dreamed political dreams. He looked forward to a time when Belgium should throw off the Spanish yoke and become an independent Catholic republic on the model of Protestant Holland. These ideas became known to his Spanish rulers, and to assuage them he wrote a philippic called the Mars gallicus (1635), a violent attack on French ambitions generally, and on Richelieu's indifference to inter- national Catholic interests in particular. The Mars gallicus did not do much to help Jansen's friends in France, but it more than appeased the wrath of Madrid with Jansen himself; in 1636 he was appointed bishop of Ypres. Within two years he was cut off by a sudden illness on the 6th of May 1638; the Augustinus, the book of his life, was published posthumously in 1640, Such doctrines haye a marked analogy to those of Calvin; but in many ways Jansen differed widely from the Protestants. He vehemently rejected their doctrine of justification by faith; con- version might be instantaneous, but it was only the beginning of a long and gradual process of justification. Secondly, although the one thing necessary. in religion was a personal relation of the human soul to its maker, Jansen held that that relation was only possible in and through the Roman Church. Herein he was following Augustine, who had managed to couple together a high theory of church authority and sacramental grace with a strongly personal religion. But the circumstances of the 17th century were not those of the 5th; and Jansen landed his follow- ers in an inextricable confusion. What were they to do, when the outward church said one thing, and the inward voice said another? Some time went by, however, before the two authori- ties came into open conflict. Jansen's ideas were popularized in France by his friend Du Vergier, abbot of St Cyran; and he dwelt mainly on the practical side of the matter-on the necessity of conversion and love of God, as the basis of the religious life. This brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he accused of giving absolution much too easily, without any serious inquiry into the dispositions of their penitent. His views are expounded at.length by his disciple, Antoine Arnauld, in a book on Frequent Communion (1643). This book was the first manifestation of Jansenism to the general public in France, and raised a violent storm. But many divines supported Arnauld; and no official action was taken against his party till 1649. In that. year the Paris University condemned five propositions from Jansen's Augustinus, all relative to predestination. This censure, backed by the signatures of eighty-five bishops, was sent up to Rome for endorsement; and in 1653 Pope Innocent X. declared all five propositions heretical. This decree placed the Jansenists between two fires; for although the five propositions only represented one side of Jansen's teaching, it was recognized by both parties that the whole question was to be fought out on this issue. Under the leadership of Arnauld, who came of a great family of lawyers, Full details as to Jansen's career will be found in Reuchlin's the Jansenists accordingly took refuge in a series of legal tactics. Geschichte von Port Royal (Hamburg, 1839), vol. i. See also Jansenius Firstly, they denied that Jansen had meant the propositions in by the Abbés Callawaert and Nols (Louvain, 1893). (ST C.) the sense condemned. Alexander VII. replied (1656) that his JANSENISM, the religious principles laid down by Cornelius predecessor had condemned them in the sense intended by their Jansen in his Augustinus. This was simply a digest of the teach-author. Arnauld retorted that the church might be infallible ing of St Augustine, drawn up with a special eye to the needs of the 17th century. In Jansen's opinion the church was suffering from three evils.. The official scholastic theology was anything but evangelical. Having set out to embody the mysteries of faith in human language, it had fallen a victim to the excellence of its own methods; language proved too strong for mystery. Theology sank into a branch of dialectic; whatever would not fit in with a logical formula was cast aside as useless. But average human nature does not take kindly to a syllogism, and theology had ceased to have any appreciable influence on popular religion. Simple souls found their spiritual pasture in little mincing" devo- tions "; while robuster minds built up for themselves a natural | in abstract questions of theology; but as to what was passing through an author's mind it knew no more than any one else. However, the French government supported the pope. In 1656 Arnauld was deprived of his degree, in spite of Pascal's Provincial Letters (1656–1657), begun in an attempt to save him' (see PASCAL; CASUISTRY). In 1661 a formulary, or solemn renunciation of Jansen, was imposed on all his suspected followers; those who would not sign it went into hiding, or to the Bastille. Peace was only restored under Clement IX. in 1669. This peace was treated by Jansenist writers as a triumph; really it was the beginning of their downfall. They had set out 154 JANSSEN, C.-JANSSEN, J. to reform the Church of Rome; they ended by having to fight | Jansenist deacon of singularly holy life, and a perfervid opponent hard for a doubtful foothold within it. Even that foothold soon of the Unigenitus. All sorts of miraculous cures were believed gave way. Louis XIV. was a fanatic for uniformity, civil and to have been worked at his tomb, until the government closed religious; the last thing he was likely to tolerate was a handful the cemetery in 1732. This gave rise to the famous epigram: of eccentric recluses, who believed themselves to be in special De par le roi, défense à Dieu touch with Heaven, and therefore might at any moment set their De faire miracle en ce lieu. conscience up against the law. During the lifetime of his cousin, On the miracles soon followed the rise of the so-called Convul- Madame de Longueville, the great protectress of the Jansenists, sionaries. These worked themselves up, mainly by the use of Louis stayed his hand; on her death (1679) the reign of severity frightful self-tortures, into a state of frenzy, in which they began. That summer Arnauld, who had spent the greater part prophesied and cured diseases. They were eventually disowned of his life in hiding, was forced to leave France for good. by the more reputable Jansenists, and were severely repressed Six years later he was joined in exile by Pasquier Quesnel by the police. But in 1772 they were still important enough for who succeeded him as leader of the party. Long before his Diderot to enter the field against them. Meanwhile genuine flight from France Quesnel had published a devotional commen- Jansenism survived in many country parsonages and convents, tary-Réflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament—which had and led to frequent quarrels with the authorities. Only one of gone through many editions without exciting official suspicion. its latter-day disciples, however, rose to real eminence; this was But in 1695 Louis Antoine de Noailles, bishop of Châlons, was the Abbé Henri Grégoire, who played a considerable part in the made archbishop of Paris. He was known to be very hostile to French Revolution. A few small Jansenist congregations still the Jesuits, and at Châlons had more than once expressed survive in France; and others have been started in connexion official approval of Quesnel's Réflexions. So the Jesuit party with the Old Catholic Church in Holland. determined to wreck archbishop and book at the same time. LITERATURE.-For the 17th century, see the Port Royal of The Jansenists played into their hands by suddenly raising (1701) Sainte-Beuve (5th ed., Paris, 1888) in six volumes. See also H. in the Paris divinity school the question whether it was necessary Reuchlin, Geschichte von Port Royal (2 vols., Hamburg, 1839-1844), to accept the condemnation of Jansen with interior assent, or and C. Beard, Port Royal (2 vols., London, 1861). No satisfactory Roman Catholic history of the subject exists, though reference may whether a “respectful silence " was enough. Very soon ecclesi- be made to Count Joseph de Maistre's De l'église gallicane (last ed., astical France was in a blaze. In 1703 Louis XIV. wrote to Lyons, 1881). On the Jansenism of the 18th century no single work Pope Clement XI., proposing that they should take joint action exists, though much information will be found in the Gallican to make an end of Jansenism for ever. Clement replied in 1705 excellent sketches see also Seche, Les Derniers Jansénistes (3 vols., Church of Canon Jervis (2 vols., London, 1872). For a series of with a bull condemning respectful silence. This measure only Paris, 1891). A more detailed list of books bearing on the subject whetted Louis's appetite. He was growing old and increasingly will be found in the 5th volume of the Cambridge Modern History; superstitious; the affairs of his realm were going from bad to and J. Paquier's Le Jansénisme (Paris, 1909) may also be consulted. worse; he became frenziedly anxious to propitiate the wrath of (St C.) his maker by making war on the enemies of the Church. In 1711 JANSSEN, or JANSEN (sometimes JOHNSON), CORNELIUS he asked the pope for a second, and still stronger bull, that (1593–1664), Flemish painter, was apparently born in London, would tear up Jansenism by the roots. The pope's choice of a and baptized on the 14th of October 1593. There seems no book to condemn fell on Quesnel's Réflexions; in 1713 appeared reason to suppose, as was formerly stated, that he was born at the bull Unigenitus, anathematizing no less than one-hundred- Amsterdam. He worked in England from 1618 to 1643, and and-one of its propositions. Indeed, in his zeal against the afterwards retired to Holland, working, at Middelburg, Am- Jansenists the pope condemned various practices in no way sterdam, The Hague and Utrecht, and dying at one of the last two peculiar to their party; thus, for instance, many orthodox places about 1664. In England he was patronized by James I. Catholics were exasperated at the heavy blow he dealt at popular and the court, and under Charles I. he continued to paint the Bible reading. Hence the bull met with much opposition from numerous portraits which adorn many English mansions and Archbishop de Noailles and others who did not call themselves collections. Janssen's pictures, chiefly portraits, are dis- Jansenists. In the midst of the conflict Louis XIV. died tinguished by clear colouring, delicate touch, good taste and (September 1715); but the freethinking duke of Orleans, who careful finish. He generally painted upon panel, and often succeeded him as regent, continued after some wavering to worked on a small scale, sometimes producing replicas of his support the bull. Thereupon four bishops appealed against it larger works. A characteristic of his style is the very dark to a general council; and the country became divided into background, which throws the carnations of his portraits into appellants” and “acceptants” (1717). The regent's disrepu- rounded relief. In all probability his earliest portrait (1618) table minister, Cardinal Dubois, patched up an abortive truce in was that of John Milton as a boy of ten. 1720, but the appellants promptly “re-appealed " against it. JANSSEN, JOHANNES (1829–1891), German historian, was During the next ten years, however, they were slowly crushed, born at Xanten on the roth of April 1829, and was educated and in 1730 the Unigenitus was proclaimed part and parcel of as a Roman Catholic at Münster, Louvain, Bonn and Berlin, the law of France. This led to a great quarrel with the judges, afterwards becoming a teacher of history at Frankfort-on-the- who were intensely Gallican in spirit (see GALLICANISM), and had Main. He was ordained priest in 1860; became a member of always regarded the Unigenitus as a triumph of ultramontanism. the Prussian Chamber of Deputies in 1875; and in 1880 was made The quarrel dragged indefinitely on through the 18th century, domestic prelate to the pope and apostolic pronotary. He died though the questions at issue were really constitutional and at Frankfort on the 24th of December 1891. Janssen was a political rather than religious. stout champion of the Ultramontane party in the Roman Meanwhile the most ardent Jansenists had followed Quesnel Catholic Church. His great work is his Geschichte des deutschen to Holland. Here they met with a warm welcome from the Volkes seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (8 vols., Freiburg, 1878– Dutch Catholic body, which had always been in close sympathy 1894). In this book he shows himself very hostile to the Reforma. with Jansenism, although without regarding itself as formally tion, and attempts to prove that the Protestants were responsible pledged to the Augustinus. ' But it had broken loose from Rome for the general unrest in Germany during the 16th and 17th in 1702, and was now organizing itself into an independent centuries. The author's partisanship led to some controversy, church (see UTRECHT).' The Jansenists who remained in France and Janssen wrote An meine Kritiker (Freiburg, 1882) and had meanwhile fallen on evil days. Persecution usually begets Ein zweites Wort an meine Kritiker (Freiburg, 1883) in reply to hysteria in its victims; and the more extravagant members of the the Janssens Geschichte des deutschen Volkes (Munich, 1883) of party were far advanced on the road which leads to apocalyptic M. Lenz, and other criticisms. prophecy and “speaking with tongues.” About 1728 the The Geschichte, which has passed through numerous editions, has “ miracles of St Médard " became the talk of Paris. This was been continued and improved by Ludwig Pastor, and the greater part the cemetery where was buried François de Paris, a young l of it has been translated into English by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. " JANSSEN, P. J. C.- JANUS 155 Christie (London, 1896, fol.); Of his other works perhaps the most | in bold composition and in treatment of the nude he equalled important are: the editing of Frankfurts Reichskorrespondenz, 1376– 1519. (Freiburg, 1863-1872); and of the Leben, Briefe und kleinere him; but in faculty of colour and in general freedom of dis- A master of chiaroscuro, Schriften of his friend J. F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph, position and touch he fell far short. Schiller als Historiker (Freiburg, 1863); and Zeit- und Lebensbilder he gratified his taste for strong contrasts of light and shade (Freiburg, 1875). in his torchlights and similar effects. Good examples of this . See L. Pastor, Johannes Janssen (Freiburg, 1893); F. Meister, Erin- nerung an Johannes Janssen (Frankfort, 1896); Schwann, Johannes master are to be seen in the Antwerp museum and the Vienna Janssen und die Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (Munich, 1892). gallery. The stories of his jealousy of Rubens, and of his dissolute life are quite unfounded. He died at Antwerp in JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR (1824-1907), French 1632. astronomer, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1824, JANUARIUS, ST, or SAN GENNARO, the patron saint of and studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences. Naples. According to the legend, he was bishop of Benevento, He taught at the lycée Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school and flourished towards the close of the 3rd century. On the of architecture 1865-1871, but his energies were mainly devoted outbreak of the persecution by Diocletian and Maximian, he to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857 was taken to Nola and brought before Timotheus, governor of he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; Campania, on account of his profession of the Christian religion. in 1861-1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar After various assaults upon his constancy, he was sentenced to spectrum in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out be cast into the fiery furnace, through which he passed wholly optical and magnetic experiments at the Azores; he successfully unharmed. On the following day, along with a number of fellow observed both transits of Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of martyrs, he was exposed to the fury of wild beasts, which, 1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he took part in a long series of however, laid themselves down in tame submission at his feet. solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani (1867), Guntoor (1868), Timotheus, again pronouncing sentence of death, was struck Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline Islands (1883), and to with blindness, but immediately healed by the powerful inter- Alcosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of 1870 he escaped cession of the saint, a miracle which converted nearly five from besieged Paris in a balloon. At the great Indian eclipse thousand men on the spot. The ungrateful judge, only roused of 1868 he demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red promi- to further fury by these occurrences, caused the execution of nences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary Januarius by the sword to be forthwith carried out. The body daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic was ultimately removed by the inhabitants of Naples to that inquiries was to answer the question whether the sun contains city, where the relic became very famous for its miracles, espe- oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual cially in counteracting the more dangerous eruptions of Vesuvius. elimination of oxygen-absorption in the earth's atmosphere, whatever the difficulties raised by his Acta, the cult of St and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of Januarius, bishop and martyr, is attested historically at Naples Mont Blanc was prompted by a perception of the advantages to as early as the 5th century (Biblioth. hagiog. latina, No. 6558). be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which Two phials preserved in the cathedral are believed to contain the observations have to be made. This observatory, the founda-blood of the martyr. The relic is shown twice a year-in May tions of which were fixed in the snow that appears to cover the and September. On these occasions the substance contained summit to a depth of ten metres, was built in September 1893, in the phial liquefies, and the Neapolitans see in this phenomenon and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent a supernatural manifestation. The “miracle of St Januarius " and spent four days taking observations. In 1875 he was did not occur before the middle of the 15th century. appointed director of the new astrophysical observatory estab- A great number of saints of the name of Januarius are lished by the French government at Meudon, and set on mentioned in the martyrologies. The best-known are the foot there in 1896 the remarkable series of solar photographs Roman martyr (festival, the roth of July), whose epitaph was collected in his great Atlas de photographies solaires (1904). | written by Pope Damasus (De Rossi, Bullettino, p. 17, 1863), The first volume of the Annales de l'observatoire de Meudon and the martyr of Cordova, who forms along with Faustus and was published by him in 1896. He died at Paris on the 23rd of Martialis the group designated by Prudentius (Peristephanon, December 1907. iv. 20) by the name of tres coronae. The festival of these See A. M. Clerke, Hist. of Astr. during the 19th Century (1903); martyrs is celebrated on the 13th of October. H. Macpherson, Astronomers of To-Day (1905). JANSSENS (or JANSENS), VICTOR HONORIUS (1664-1739), Esame di un codice greco pubblicato nel tomo secondo della bibliotheca See Acta sanctorum, September, vi. 761-891; G. Scherillo, Flemish painter, was born at Brussels. After seven years in casinensis (Naples, 1876); G. Taglialatela, Memorie storico-critiche. the studio of an obscure painter named Volders, he spent four del culto del sangue di S. Gennaro (Naples, 1893), which contains years in the household of the duke of Holstein. The next eleven many facts, but little criticism; G. Albini, Sulla mobilità dei liquidi years Janssens passed in Rome, where he took eager advantage viscosi non omogenei (Società regle di Napoli, Rendiconti, 2nd series, vol. iv., 1890); Acta sanctorum, October, vi. 187-193. (H. DE.) of all the aids to artistic study, and formed an intimacy with Tempesta, in whose landscapes he frequently inserted figures. JANUARY, the first month in the modern calendar, consisting Rising into popularity, he painted a large number of cabinet of thirty-one days. The name (Lat. Januarius) is derived from historical scenes; but, on his return to Brussels, the claims of the two-faced Roman god Janus, to whom the month was his increasing family restricted him almost entirely to the larger dedicated. As doorkeeper of heaven, as looking both into the and more lucrative size of picture, of which very many of the past and the future, and as being essentially the deity who churches and palaces of the Netherlands contain examples. In busied himself with the beginnings of all enterprises, he was 1718 Janssens was invited to Vienna, where he stayed three appropriately made guardian of the fortunes of the new year. years, and was made painter to the emperor. The statement The consecration of the month took place by an offering of meal, that he visited England is based only upon the fact that certain salt, frankincense and wine, each of which was new. The fashionable interiors of the time in that country have been Anglo-Saxons called January Wulfmonath, in allusion to the attributed to him. Janssen's colouring was good, his touch fact that hunger then made the wolves bold enough to come into delicate and his taste refined. the villages. The principal festivals of the month are: New JANSSENS (or JANSENS) VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567- Year's Day; Feast of the Circumcision; Epiphany; Twelfth- 1632), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp in 1567. He Day; and Conversion of St Paul (see CALENDAR). studied under Jan Snellinck, was a master "in 1602, and in JANUS, in Roman mythology one of the principal Italian 1607 was dean of the master-painters. Till the appearance of deities. The name is generally explained as the masculine form Rubens he was considered perhaps the best historical painter of Diana (Jana), and Janus as originally a god of light and day, of his time. The styles of the two artists are not unlike. In who gradually became the god of the beginning and origin of correctness of drawing Janssens excelled his great contemporary; I all things. According to some, however, he is simply the god 156 JAORA-JAPAN (GEOGRAPHY : 1 commerce. 1 of doorways (januae) and in this connexion is the patron of all the gods of the under-world; like Janus, Cernunnus and Heimdal entrances and beginnings. According to Mommsen, he was were considered to be the fons et origo of all things. “the spirit of opening,” and the double-head was connected See S. Linde, De Jano summo romanorum deo (Lund, 1891); with the gate that opened both ways. Others, attributing to J. S. Speyer," Le Dieu romain Janus,” in Revue de l'histoire des him an Etruscan origin, regard him as the god of the vault of religions (xxvi., 1892); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer heaven, which the Etruscan arch is supposed to resemble. The (1902); W. Deecke, Etruskische Forschungen, vol. i.; W. Warde rationalists explained him as an old king of Latium, who built Fowler, The Roman - Festivals of the Period of the Republic (1899), pp. 282–290; articles in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and a citadel for himself on the Janiculum. It was believed that Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquités; J. Toutain, his worship, which was said to have existed as a local cult before Études de Mythologie (1909). On other jani (arched passages) in the foundation of Rome, was introduced there by Romulus, Rome: frequented by business men and money changers, see and that a temple was dedicated to him by Numa. This temple, 0.. Richter, Topographie der Rom (1901). (J. H. F.): in reality only an arch or gateway (Janus geminus) facing east JAORA, a native state of Central India, in the Malwa agency. and west, stood at the north-east end of the forum. It was open. It consists of two isolated tracts, between Ratlam and Neemuch. during war and closed during peace (Livy i. 19); it was shut only Area, with the dependencies of Piplauda and Pant Piplauda, four times before the Christian era. A possible explanation is, 1 568 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 84,202. The estimated revenue is that it was considered a bad omen to shut the city gates while £57,000; tribute, £9000. The chief, whose title is nawab, is the citizens were outside fighting for the state; it was necessary a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The state was confirmed that they should have free access to the city, whether they by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsaur. returned victorious or defeated. Similarly, the door of a Nawab Mahommed Ismail, who died in 1895, was an honorary private house was kept open while the members of the family major in the British army: His son, Iftikhar Ali Khan, a minor were away, but when all were at home it was closed to keep at his accession, was educated in the Daly College at Indore, with out intruders. There was also a temple of Janus near the theatre a British officer for his tutor, and received powers of administra- of Marcellus, in the forum olitorium, erected by Gaius Duilius tion in 1906. The chief crops are millets, cotton, maize and (Tacitus, Ann. ii. 49), if not earlier. poppy. The last supplies a large part of the Malwa opium of The beginning of the day (hence his epithet Matutinus), of The town of JAORA is on the Rajputana-Malwa the month, and of the year (January) was sacred to Janus; on railway, 20 m. N. of Ratlam. Pop. (1901), 23,854. It is well the 9th of January the festival called Agonia was celebrated in laid out, with many good modern buildings, and has a high his honour. He was invoked before any other god at the school and dispensary. To celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond beginning of any important undertaking; his priest was the Rex Jubilee, the Victoria Institute and a zenana dispensary were Sacrorum, the representative of the ancient king in his capacity opened in 1898. as religious head of the state. All gateways, housedoors and JAPAN, an empire of eastern Asia, and one of the great powers entrances generally, were under his protection; he was the of the world. The following article is divided for convenience inventor of agriculture (hence Consivius," he who sows or into ten sections:-I. GEOGRAPHY; II. THE PEOPLE; III. plants”), of civil laws, of the coining of money and of religious LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; IV. ART; V. ECONOMIC CONDI- worship. He was worshipped on the Janiculum as the protector TIONS; VI. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION; VII. RELIGION; of trade and shipping; his head is found on the as, together VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE; IX. DOMESTIC HISTORY; X. with the prow of a ship. He is usually represented on the THE CLAIM OF JAPAN. earliest coins with two bearded faces, looking in opposite 1.--GEOGRAPHY directions; in the time of Hadrian the number of faces is in- creased to four. In his capacity as porter or doorkeeper he The continent of Asia stretches two arms into the Pacific holds a staff in his right hand, and a key (or keys) in his left; as Ocean, Kamchatka in the north and Malacca in the south, such he is called Patulcius (opener) and Clusius (closer). His between which lies a long cluster of islands Position titles Curiatius, Patricius, Quirinus originate in his worship in constituting the Japanese empire, which covers and Exteat. the gentes, the curiae and the state, and have no reference to 37° 14' of longitude and 29° 11' of latitude. On the any special functions or characteristics. In late times, he is extreme north are the Kuriles (called by the Japanese Chishima, both bearded and unbearded; in place of the staff and keys, the or the myriad isles”), which extend to 156° 32' E. and to fingers of his right hand show the number 300 (CCC.), those of 50° 56' N.; on the extreme south is Formosa (called by the his left the number of the remaining days of the year (LXV.). Japanese Taiwan), which extends to 122° 6' E., and to 21° 45' According to A. B. Cook (Classical Review, xviii. 367), Janus N. There are six large islands, namely Sakhalin (called by the is only another form of Jupiter, the name under which he was Japanese Karafuto); Yezo or Ezo (which with the Kuriles is worshipped by the pre-Latin (aboriginal) inhabitants of Rome; designated Hokkaidő, or the north-sea district); Nippon (the after their conquest by the Italians, Janus and Jana took their 'origin of the sun"), which is the main island; Shikoku. (the place as independent divinities by the side of the Italian Jupiter “ four provinces ”), which lies on the east of Nippon; Kiūshiū and Juno. He considers it probable that the three-headed or 'Kyushu (the “ nine provinces "), which lies on the south of Janus was a triple oak-god worshipped in the form of two Nippon, and Formosa, which forms the most southerly link of vertical beams and a cross-bar (such as the tigillum sororium, the chain. Formosa and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan for which see HORATII); hence also the door, consisting of two by China after the war of 1894-1895, and the southern half of lintels and side-posts, was sacred to Janus. The three-headed Sakhalin-the part south of 50° N.-was added to Japan by type may have been the original, from which the two-headed cession from Russia in 1905. - Korea, annexed in August 1910, and four-headed types were developed. J. G. Frazer (The is separately noticed. Early History of the Kingship, pp. 214, 285), who also identifies · Coast-line. The following table shows the numbers, the lengths Janus with Jupiter, is of opinion that Janus was not originally of coast-line, and the areas of the various groups of islands, only a doorkeeper, but that the door was called after him, not vice those being indicated that have a coast-line of at least i ri (24 m.), Janua may be an adjective, janua foris meaning a door or that, though smaller, are inhabited; except in the case of Formosa and the Pescadores, where the whole numbers are given with a symbol of Janus close by the chief entrance, to serve as Length of Area a protection for the house; then janua alone came to mean a door Number. coast in in square generally, with or without the symbol of Janus.. The double miles. miles. head may have been due to the desire to make the god look both Nippon 4,765.03 99,373.57 ways for greater protection. By J. Rhys (Hibbert Lectures, Isles adjacent to Nippon 167 1,275.09 470.30 1886, pp. 82, 94) Janus is identified with the three-faced (some-Isles adjacent to Shikoku : Shikoku 1,100.85 6,461.39 | 548.12 175.40 times three-headed) Celtic god Cernunnus, a chthonian divinity, Kiūshiū 2,101.28 13,778.68 compared by Rhys with the Teutonic Heimdal, the warder of Isles adjacent to Kiūshiu : 150 2,405.86 1,821.85 (6 versa. 1 1 75 I 120 B 122 C 124 D 126 E 128 F 130 G 132 H 134 4 44 5 80 109 Japanese.... JAPAN AND KOREA. Scale 1: 7,500,000 0 50 English Statute Miles 100 Kilometres 100 Political Colouring: British..... Key to the Provinces of Korea: 1. Northern Ham-gyöng; 2.South- -ern Ham-gyöng; 3. Northern Phyong-an; 4.Southern Phyong-an, 5. Hwang-hai; 6. Kang-won; 7. Kyöng-kwi; 8.Western Chung-chöng; 9. Eastern Chung chöng; 10. Northern Kyöng-sang; 11.Southern 12. Northern Chöl-la, 13.Southern Chöl-la. Kyöng-sang; ILongitude 136 East of KGreenwich 138 L 140 C.Egorov Plastun B. Mutu-ho Tutiha Liful-ho M 442 Romanzor Bay Nosakkan Repunshiri Bakka Kalaka Rishiri Oniwaki Poronup Teshio Wembets Furebets Teure & Yangeshiri Tomamat Onishika YEZO Soyazaki ChietomanaiN Sarubutsu HOKKAIDO) Mashike Ru Mashikeya Ishikari (Strogonovy Kamaizaky Hurupirayama Kayanoma Franci Suttsy Barauta Setana Okushiri Str.. Voivoda Rock Tsurikake Okushiri 200 150 Russian. Chinese OC Korea. Singrant Laze Lao-per Urr-changing.king-oking Pei-shan Pail-san 4-WT STA miju Stor sti Ataguyong F Bokong vid hon Omoso Nann Lasare T = DROV Poluryst Pratiti Nikolsk Ushagorsk Shkotova Birtere e-chung Lang-ming-tsze Tề trong Hun-chuu On hàng ung falsze Chan-po-shan Sha-hor Tsong stong W Hortong Cherkasskay asdolnaya Sarangu Saboka kh Takhober Madeshdinskaya Shkotora Madivostok TO Petrovka Ayaktag. Strele Ryasanov Askold 1. king kwang Ꮒ St Vladimir B. Sobor C Zentyala Olga B. St Eustaphia B P.hu-sun (Mosquito R) Tau-ho StValentin B. Belyarski Pt. Siao-wu-hu B. Alexandrovku olubovka A Cruilor (Rovotnyi) America B. Reter the Great B Novo Kievskoye Gumor P Possiet Bay ng/heung Kugen-fu Chien1oo Cashkevich B dwwakun I. Pu-ryang Sivuch Bay Linden C. 1 Champong Chin-chan SegelruKyöng-song không ch hơn, kosakor Kap-san Tao kwang Chang-sarja Tai po-san Kiju Pt la Mong pa-kot/C.Boltin) anch.hön Plaksin B. Song-chin C.Schlippenbach Wa-chung-hot Pallada H Paikum sank-ch-hön Port Shestakoy a-heung Hodo Broughton B Loser Trompeuse)Pt. Yong-heung or Port Lazarev Gulf of Korea Yung hing Bay san Gen-san) KOREA Tong- Chagu-chien-Dogu H CDuroch (Peshchurov) Ko-song Kang-song Syedlowaya Mt JAPAN The chang Kang ge Dựng-wang - chung Ch-ho-sun Siuven Kao-limum hangsong Fachou Pliyaboten China grze Tatang houd Ngan tung-ju -am Sak ju Hwang yong Morty San Sön-ch höf Long-Woh akung Yong pyon 10 Ching-pying Shi-chaing-tao Chöng) Hai-yang-tao Phyöngyang Frak-chy ho An-j 4 Sak-ch-han Si-mito Sunan of cha-san Sung.ch-kor hong walon Ta-ru-san Tokwond AT Okok san Star Hot Wand O so heung Fm-kang-san kemasong Ch.hol won Hai-ju Kai-Sond Tono Chang duck of KOR Pup Pila ju SEOUL ang pe G Fangyang Ch-ham chin Langneung Che mul po Kwang-p eung-ya-san Tak-chao SEA OF N 4 Aruta Bay Otaroro Aputi 144 Tombetsu Esashi Ohuskin Chakaptomuushi Teahlotake. Para cufisto shila usushinobari 0 146 P 148 Q 150 R 152 Mombetsu Shibumutzunai Sarma-ko Shari. Abashiri LA's aldos Poronto Opuislopp Tomatoma Shikiu Alororo Sar Takae Uchiura (Volcano B) Kommata ke Esashist Hakodate Bramacha Oshima Shirpur Fukuyama di Shirakamiga Tsu Tappizaki Kotomari Gashogawara Ajigasawa Iwakiyan okotsutake Esan Volc. Esanzaki is t. r. Omazaki Obata Ommato tumap wan Tha Takan Karmnike shu sh Pombetsu Tokachi. Rammitake Ubahu Urakawa Shamani Horoisuma Shiriyazaki Tanabe Kelafusezan oor Tomari B obeji Tomat Kogawarantuma Senohe Hirosala Yangkutan Minato Gammoritake Noshirogawa Noshirga Hachirogata # Shinzar Finakawa Tsuchizaki www pachinohe Akita kusht Honjio Karate Shiokoshu Tobishima' Chiokaizan Tokofe Makati mo Kunai Anche higji Noda Omoto Hargobinczan 0 Miyako the r Wamada Kamaishi ama Shiretokonaki Yezo Str. Rewtausi Monoto C. Chachanobori (StAntony P (Chiachiya) Kaushi- Kimashiri Hausumobori (Furefu) yama Tachiusu Tomari Shabetst Boka fish B. Shikotan Shikotan Channel Taraku hibotsu (Takashima) Voshapzaki Nemuro Otchisi llamanaka Akkeshi tn. Ray Kushiro Shiranaika Shakbetsu Tokachigara Otsu Yito-ka Peruhune Moyoro(Baru) Shoja Terimozaki CI A 40 S 154 5 8 0 Yezo Str. Bekkai D 144 P 38 S E A K Onje R I JD F E S R 6 427 S 154 T 156 Aangan KAMCHATKA Osemaya Kosheliov Von Alaid (Araito) Kuriles. Alaid St Paramusir or Paramoshiri Shirinki U Kyril 1 Lopatka C. Str Shumshiri Paramusir Lit. Kurile)Str. CIniukumi CKapar Henry Amphitrite Str. HI M Avos Rocks Makanrushir Onnekotan Asirmintar Volcano Chirinkotan Bharmal OK HOTSK OB C I H Toarussyr (Blakiston Pk) Tharimkotan Sinnarka Vole Shiashkotan Mushiri(Mushir/Rocks Otomé B Mushir Str. Raikokel Golovnin Str. Matua Volcano) Nadjeshda Str. Srednoi Rocks XI Rashua (Rastua) Ketoi StUshishir IS Ketoil Diana Simusir. or Shimoshiri (Marikan I.) Boussole Makanruru Itarkioi (PCPrévôt) Milne Mts. Str (Broughton) Rebuntsiriboi CNobu CArimui Tokotan Bay Kairanobori (Black Brothers) C.Itoientomo R atsumobori (Mobu-yama) Tavano Pt. Urup (Compagnie Eiland) Okabetsufu Nobunotsu Shibetoro (D eVries Str) Moyoro B Shanayega Mokoro nobori Etorofu (Etorop) Furubetsy Atosha Naibo B. Kunash Hotoko Mts. Shitokap B. Taneng Koko Mts. C.Tesiko (Ricord) Chachanobori ashiri Str. Kunashiri Tomari Amagi Reef Furefu Anama HT Shikotan Shebetsuyag Shibotsu I. Tarakul. Akiroro (Akiyuri) Nenuro Shishiyo Turur Hamanaka Yezo Akkeshi 146 P (D E 148 Q 150 R I E 152 S CONTINUATION NORTH S الله 50 2 46 3 40 44 5 156 H Ungatowan Kesennuma Koidumi Motoyoshi Shideukawa) Ishinomaki Mogamigawa Fujishima Tsurugao Awoshima, Gas Tarr Shin Kinkmazan Tazaki Asaitake Sendai gama Ajishima tn.&Bay S Aikuwa Kawaharada bisa Maransha Suzu Ogo Niga Teradomar Sany Nakamura Jidestor Mishima Odaka Othineyama N Hirono Naoetsy Sukagave Onahama 0 Hekurashima (Utsishima). Nanatsushima Wajima Noto Peru Tog Nakamu Sagore & Talda Murakam amaramu Shade Achat Abukanagawa. Kertashinohe thru Karinema plajund zaki zumozaki Wakaviarstihaninusu ida Kashiwazaki Ogamiyama Nanao wan Daineryagama Fusi Taka Imaisur Kanazawa wan Ishikawa Mostly Talayala Komatsu Daishoj Sakai Echizenzaki Kyogamizak an Tsuruga wan Wakasa Tsurug Miy Toyog Mineyam Hamasaka Yum Tottori Waschman's hitn Nagaoka kamta Kamapalate Shirakawa aira Mgangamatan Mikko Mitte Takahagi Karasama Ota Minato Arkolde vod Tsuchtura Ashoka Kasumiga-ura +36 Shiretokozaki swara Iruboesaki Sul Choshi Chiba Togane Daki Ichinomiya okosuka Kominato chi ແ Miramar Mokohama avara Sagami nada TO Izu-no- Okazaki Handay Shia92 hakegawa Shijiam The Totomi- Hamamatsu Toyohashi Tragozaki -nada Matoyaminato Daiozaki Goza Amagizan Samoda Miharayama Izu-no-Oshima Irozaki Toshima Shichi-to Mishima Miyakeshima, Namahiro Ya Redfield Rocks Kozushima 42 6 Mukden Fungien HENG cho SHE en-tai Kaupang-tspe Liarang Sta shum chow Yeu chung Vui du ng Niu-chwan Tu-shi hu Gulf of Sung-yo Siungo Liao-tung Li-kwa Fu-chou Bay Chang-sing tao Society Bay in chom Kwang-tungPenh). Lizo-tie-shan gun sham Hai-chring Shi mu dlung Kai-ping Wating fin, Pahwang-ho Port dams szewo Elliot I shi-li-pu Blonde Is Brad's Saurr-hu-chaing Sin Fang Tungstow KIN Klaid chaty ti Batmayin tien-ting Korea Ba Ysum hwdamo Tin-wan B.& tu. Sian ping tao Port Arthur. Encounter Reet's 38 36 9 Wei hai wéi (Brit) Liu-kung-tao Wonn rong Yung cheng Sin shan-so Sang kow B Tsing.hai B. Moye-tao ng hai wei Phyongyang Phung-ch hàng Sing in Ta-ting B Pengyong-do Sir James Hall Gr. Su-menn-tao (Staunton I.) Taich-hong-do YELLOW 34 Chanyron Phony san Hasayang Han-gang Tsia-tung Prince Imperial Gr Chök-jom: PrJarome-Wo AG San Chang jug Chong sin Sampli Bok Anl công Chiku-piyon B. Wood-ang Sun Heung-in horring Teotition A-dong Napa Hong Kong-ju Jam-fo 013 Whak Rony sa sand Mu Tho SE Conference.. (Cufford An-min-do Marjoribanks H Group Basil B. Keum gaur Kunsan Ko-kaun-tao I Te-do Price H Nan-san-do (HWANG-HAI) shi 10 32 11 Modestel Barrens Mackau Group Mok.po So ch hon Chön jo slang yu 12 Kothang Phying-hai Yong-ha Chong song 10 Whammy in dony ng-hai Unkofski B. C.Clonard Ton-il Van ju Tai-ku Mil Chang song Hanyang ang Tam-ying tu Kwangu Chin ju Halong Raju Neng 2529 Gr. Hydrographer Gr Washington Chin do Maagy Won.do 2 (Hok-san-dojSoan (Crichton) Gr Rossi EAST from Shanghai Bate Gr Tong osa Ong-nai AFU- X Matsushima Boussole Rock Str. san Isag-liang-hai Ma.san-po Wah-hat-do Ilancourt Rocks (Hornet I.) I Okishima Nishino Omineyama shima Nakanoshima Akasaki Hog Mikuriya Kinomizaki Shinjo. Kizuk Sambeyam Matsus Saka Kurayoshu Omort Gogawa Takashima. Hamad Karasakanashimar Aomishima Tsu Kots Reitsui B Shima S shima ctr. Seen Is Change Sun-ch-hon Hong-yang Pen A Auckland. Crichton HT Che-ju Pelto Polto) H Hal-la-san (MAuckland Tai-jong (Montressor E Beaufort H Chống-vi McDougall P Hai-pang Tsu Kosak A Takeshiki Shimonosek Adzahara Krusenstern Iki kist trad Takustriana Hiradoshima Ukushimas Odukastama Quelpart I. Nakaorishima Gotoshima Osexaki Fukaeshima Hisagashima Torishima (Pallas) Meshima CH-IN A 30 SEA 12 28 (TUN G Sasebo Ashira Takatsu Tsuwale a yanay psht kodataka zu udazoshado uyo Onomich rosmunas Wandman 22 Mitsit P Unkasan unahama thena Sasthamas Ots Fiotor Hiogo kobshl waji sada moto Akash Sakai Fuckig Marugany ha Sozu amat Milya Rikushings Cinches Shizuchizan Mishimas want Han Toyou Korad Moji Suo-nada Matsuyama aleata Yawata-hiama Aurusa Musany Sukie Takeda Asotele Suckt abars Tsuyasak Genkai mada Haida rohash Aukorica Naksuitsuki Takts Nagasaki take Nomora Amakusanadd Tontiok Amakusashima Ushibuka Nagashima Mislykata Satsuma Is Shimokoshikishima Ichiku Teuchizaki Kagoshi Taniya ats shire Bakuzar Takashima Tsurakase: Kascha Ujishima Bonomisak Kagoshimawa Satanomisaki Kusakakishima: Takashima Kuroshima woshima Kromata Hiwasa Hirai Shishikai Taxabe umi giri lazgaharazan nashi Chinomoto Kinnanogawa Shingu Ratsuura Kushin Oshima Shionomizaki Linschoten Str.(i Chan.) Koch Murotozaki Toso-nada. Yoneyama Sakinohama Kure Suzaki SHIKOKU ἀπάλαια ο Kubokawa Nakamura Shimantogaw Shimoda Sadazaki ungo-nada Okinoshima KIUSHIU Wobeoka Vimatsu Takanabe trose Miyazaki ruhida Avivalomojo bi gushi Kadaya Toizaki Ariakeno-ura Uchinoura ashiki Van Diemen Str. (Osumi-Kaikyo) Akaogi Make -shima Jura Yokoyama Tanegashima shinomura Kuchinoerabushima Miyano Masuda Yaedake, Miyanouratake Colnett Str. Kuchinoshima Vincennes Str. (Yaku-Kaikyo) Yakulshima (Tokara Kauryo) Kawabe-Shichito anoshima Ilirashima Suvanose-shim Linschoten kusekishima (Samarang I) (Pinnacle, Kotakarashima (Sabine, Cooper-Gr.) Cecilia) Is Takarashima Pennell Roy L) Yokoateshima Kaminoneshima Sandon Rocks Fukauminato asarizaki Amamioshima Oshimaseto gmi kaigashima Komi Ogame.R. Kakeromashimasimidru HAI) 126 E 128 F 130 P C H 14 References and abbreviations-I, Northern Nippon; II, Central Nippon, Western Nippon; A., Aichi Ken; Gu., Gumma Ken, K., Kanagawa Ken; S., Saitama Ken; Sh., Shiga Ken, Ya,Yamanashi Ken. Provincial, tc., capitals underlined thus, Free ports thus. Railways Cables --- ----; Light-houses &c.. Definitive terms and abbreviations-Gata, Minato, Tsu, Harbour (Harb., H); Gawa, g., river; Ko, lake; Nobori, San, Yama, Y, Zan, mountain, Po, anchorage; Saki, Zaki, cape; Shima, Sia, To, island; Wan, bay. Ra,range; tn, town. G 132 H 134 I 136 Continuation South, see Inset. 124 D Reproduced From Original Colorprints By The Gill Engraving Co., N.Y. N I 9 kurashima Inabashima (Broughton I) Hachijoshima Koshima Dsubotake Bonin Guam Avogashima 140 10 34 28 B 122 Tal ping To-ding Tai-chow I Shi-tang-shah I-man Liyangy Ta-wu I. Wen cho in ra Tunghwang-shan Wen-chow Bay yang Bullock Harb. Pei-ki-shan Nankishan Fingang-shan Pu-menn Tai-shan Nan kwan Hr.&n Tayang Fuming Cho-yang-pag Ning to Loyuen Lien-kian Sharp I.. Ma-tsu an-tuao San-sa Entrance Tungging Tung-sha TR. 32 26 Fu-chow EU KIEN Changto S Tung-kwan (MiddleDog) hing hi rang Fietsing essara Is Norton Rocks Sing wa Sengu Hai-tani angbout Sing-wa wasa 11-gi-shen Lan-yi *Oakseius Port Matheson Tsuan-chow Chi-mo B uitow Bay Amoy from 24 K Pinnacle. Fukt kaku (Fo-ki) Tamsuits Taihoku Tape Churek Shinchiku Teuk olan Byorits Kalizan Gyubato Taichu (Taiwan ful Hong Kong AF S Pescadores Is from scadores Fisher (Hoko Gunto Hol Taisho g FOR Junk S Taike Agincourt Craig Ke-hung (Kilung) Bito-kaku(Pitao San-tiao Kisanto (Steep I), Giran (1-lan) Soo(Su-au) SanSylvia) Shinjo 0 on same Scale 154 124 D 126 E 128 Oshima- -shoto H T Fukauminato Naseminato Amamioshima Oshimaseta Kakeromashimasimidru Yorg'shima heshima 28 fugni Komi OgameR. Torishama a Inokawofusatake Tokunoshima Kakirouma) Okinoerabushima Montgomery ametsu (Oukin 1) Wadomari Yoronstima Hetozaki Priegima Sago Thiyashima Izenashima Tyeshima Nago,wan Akumishima Tsushima (Torisha) Okinawa wa-gunto... Yomitanza chim-wan Kumeshima Torlashish Keramashima, Sakagusu Mauri Kyamuzaki Tokashikishim Naba 0kin aa- 13 26 Tua-usu (Pinnacle 1) R Raleigh - KIU apanes IV R -Ken (Chinese L Providence Reef Kemashima Karimata HT. Erabushima Mitsinasharimitac Taramashima Kawahirandnato Iriomoto- shima Tonakunisha (Kuni Sindjio Namiteruma (Hasyokan) Rokkohol (wa) BoudrouetRk. Seira TAIWAN Karenko Tarimu Tokan zan Kagalkan Clairei dasshisho Shukoran NitakayamaMorrison) FORMAS aito-Sanmyaku Seiko-wan Tainan eto (Taitung) Toran Kashoto (Samasara) An-ping Akotem Banchoryo P Aishigaki- shigaki Kuroshima U Miyakoshima (Taï-pin-san) Hiyakamazaki Ykimá Sakishima-retto Takau Toko Tung-kang Lambay L 120 Koshun Heng-chun Kyujo Hosen Pinan (Pei-nan) Paroye 122 otansha Fuko Teroso Koto-sho Botel-tobago) C 124 Garampi B CONTINUATION SOUTH on same Scale K 138 L A D 126 E Tropic of Cancer 128 F 14 24 15 Copyright in the United States of America, 1910. by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Co. GEOGRAPHY) JAPAN 157 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 20 I 12 Length of Area | branches. Lofty summits are separated by comparatively low Number. coast in in square passes, which lie at the level of crystalline rocks and schists consti- miles. miles. tuting the original uplands upon which the summits have been piled Yezo 1,423.32 30,148:41 by volcanic action. The scenery among the mountains is generally Isles adjacent to Yezo 13 110.24 30.51 soft. Climatic agencies have smoothed and modified everything Sakhalin (Karafuto) Unsurveyed 12,487.64 rugged or abrupt, until an impression of gentle undulation rather Sado 130.05 335.92 than of grandeur is suggested. Nowhere is the region of eternal Okishima 182-27 130-40 snow reached, and masses of foliage enhance the gentle aspect of Isles adjacent to Okishima 3.09 0.06 the scenery and glorify it in autumn with tints of striking brilliancy. Awaji 94.43 217.83 Mountain alternates with valley, so that not more than one-eighth Isles adjacent to Awaji 5:32 0.83 Pof the country's entire area is cultivable. Iki 86.47 50.96 The king of Japanese mountains is Fuji-yama or Fuji-san (peer- Isles adjacent to Iki 4:41 0.47 less mount), of which the highest point (Ken-ga-mine) is 12,395 ft. Tsushima 4.09.23 261.72 above sea-level. The remarkable grace of this moun- Fujl. Isles adjacent to Tsushima 5 118.80 4:58 tain's curve-an inverted catenary--makes it one Riūkiū (or Luchu) Islands 55 768.74 935.18 of the most beautiful in the world, and has obtained for it Kuriles (Chishima) 31 1,496.23 6,159.42 a .prominent place in Japanese decorative art. Great streams of Bonin (Ogasawara Islands) 174.65 26.82 lava flowed from the crater in ancient times. The course of one is Taiwan (Formosa) 731.31 13,429.31 still visible to a distance of 15 m. from the summit, but the rest are Isles adjacent to Formosa 7 128.32 Not surveyed covered, for the most part, with deep deposits of ashes and scoriae. Pescadores (Hoko-to) 98.67 85.50 On the south Fuji slopes unbroken to the sea, but on the other three sides the plain from which it rises is surrounded by mountains, Totals 549 18,160.98 973,786.75 | among which, on the north and west, a series of most picturesque If the various smaller islands be included, a total of over 3000 is dammed by ashes ejected from Fuji's crater. To a height of some lakes has been formed in consequence of the rivers having been reached, but there has not been any absolutely accurate enumeration. It will be observed that the coast-line is very long in proportion land stretches up the next 2500 ft.; then follows a forest, the upper 1500 ft. the slopes of the mountain are cultivated; a grassy moor- to the area, the ratio being I m. of coast to every 9.5 in. of area. The Pacific Ocean, which washes the eastern shores, moulds their there is a wide area of ashes and scoriae. There is entire absence edge of which climbs to an altitude of nearly 8000 ft., and finally outline into much greater diversity than does the Sea of Japan of the Alpine plants found abundantly on the summits of other high which washes the western shores. Thus the Pacific sea-board mountains in Japan, a fact due, doubtless, to the comparatively measures 10,562 m. against 2887 m. for that of the Japan Sea. In recent activity of the volcano. The ascent of Fuji presents no depth of water, too, the advantage is on the Pacific side. There the difficulties. À traveller can reach the usual point of departure, bottom slopes very abruptly, descending, precipitously at a point not Gotemba, by rail from Yokohama, and thence the ascent and descent far from the north-east coast of the main island, where soundings have may be made in one day by a pedestrian. shown 4655 fathoms. This, the deepest sea-bed in the world, is The provinces of Hida and Étchiu are bounded on the east by a called the Tuscarora Deep, after the name of the United States' man-of-war which made the survey. The configuration seems to chain of mountains including, or having in their immediate vicinity, the highest peaks in Japan after Fuji. Six of these point to a colossal crater under the ocean, and many of the carth- summits rise to a height of 9000 ft. or upwards, and The quakes which visit Japan appear to have their origin in this sub- constitute the most imposing assemblage of mountains marine region. On the other hand, the average depth of the Japan in the country. The ridge runs due north and south Japanese Sea is only 1200 fathoms, and its maximum depth is 3200. The through 60 to 70 m., and has a width of 5 to 10 m. It Alps. east coast, from Cape Shiriya (Shiriyazaki) in the north to Cape is mostly of granite, only two of the mountains--Norikura and Inuboye (Inuboesaki) near Tokyo Bay, though abounding in small indentations, has only two large bays,' those of Sendai and Matsu- Tateyama showing clear traces of volcanic origin. Its lower flanks are clothed with forests of beech, conifers and oak. Farther shima; but southward from Tokyo Bay to Cape Satta (Satanomisaki) south, in the same range, stands Oritake (10,450 ft.), the second in Kiushiū there are many capacious inlets which offer excellent highest mountain in Japan proper (as tinguished from Formosa anchorage, as the Gulf of Sagami (Sagaminada), the Bays of Suruga and other remarkable though not so lofty peaks mark the same (Surugawan), Ise (Isenumi) and Osaka, the Kii Channel, the Gulf regions. This grand group of mountains has been well called the of Tosa (Tosonada), &c. Opening into both the Pacific and the " Alps of Japan," and a good account of them may be found in The Sea of Japan and separating Shikoku and Kiūshiū from the main Japanese Alps (1896) by the Rev. W. Weston. On the summit of island as well as from each other, is the celebrated Inland Sea, one Ontake are eight large and several small craters, and there also may of the most picturesque sheets of water in the world. Its surface be seen displays of trance and" divine possession,” such as are measures 1325 sq. m.; it has a length of 255 m. and a maximum described by Mr Percival Lowell in Occult Japan. (1895). width of 56 m.; its coast-lines aggregate 700 m.; its depth is nowhere Even more picturesque, though less lofty, than the Alps of Japan, more than 65 ſathoms, and it is studded with islands which present are the Nikko mountains, enclosing the mausolea of the two greatest scenery of the most diverse and beautiful character. There are of the Tokugawa shoguns. The highest of these are four narrow avenues connecting this remarkable body of water with Shirane-san (7422 ft.), Nantai-san (8169 ft.), Nyohô- the Pacific and the Japan Sea; that on the west, called Shimonoseki zan (8100 ft.), and Omanago. (7546 ft.). They are Mountalas. Strait, has a width of 3000 yds., that on the south, known as clothed with magnificent vegetation, and everywhere Hayamoto Strait, is 8 m. across; and the two on the north, Yura they echo the voices of waterfalls and rivulets. and Naruto Straits, measure 3000 and 1500 yds. respectively. It In the north of the main island there are no peaks of remarkable need scarcely be said that these restricted approaches give little height. The best known are Chiokai-zan, called “ Akita-Fuji" access to the storms which disturb the seas outside. More broken (the Fuji of the Akita province), a volcano 7077 ft. into bays and inlets than any other part of the coast is the western high, which was active as late as 1861; Ganju-san Mountains shore of Kiūshiū. Here three promontories-Nomo, Shimabara (6791 ft.), called also“ Nambu-Fuji" or Iwate-zan, of the North. and Kizaki-enclose a large bay having on its shores Nagasaki, the remarkable for the beauty of its logarithmic curves; great naval port of Sasebo, and other anchorages. On the south of Iwaki-san (5230 ft.), known as Tsugaru-Fuji, and said by some to Kiūshiū the Bay of Kagoshima has historical interest, and on the be even more imposing than Fuji itself; and the twin mountains west are the bays of Ariakeno-ura and Yatsushiro. To the north Gassan (6447 ft.) and Haguro-san (5600 ft.). A little farther south, of Nagasaki are the bays of Hakata, Karatsu and Imari. Between enclosing the fertile plain of Aizu (Xizu-taira, as it is called) several this coast and the southern extremity of the Korean peninsula are important peaks are found, among them being lide-san (5332 ſt.); situated the islands of Iki and Tsushima, the latter being only Azuma-yama (7733 ft.), which, after a long interval of quiescence, 30 m. distant from the peninsula. Passing farther north, the shore has given many evidences of volcanic activity during recent years; line of the main island along the Japan Sea is found to be compara- Nasu-dake (6296 ft.), an active volcano; and Bandai-san (6037 ft.). tively straight and monotonous, there being only one noteworthy A terrible interest attaches to the last-named mountain, for, after indentation, that of Wakasa-wan, where are situated the naval port having remained quiet so long as to lull the inhabitants of the neigh- of Maizuru and the harbour of Tsuruga, the Japanese point of bouring district into complete security, it suddenly burst into fierce communication with the Vladivostok terminus of the Trans-Asian activity on the 15th of July 1888, discharging a vast avalanche of railway. From this harbour to Osaka Japan's waist measures only earth and rock, which dashed down its slopes like an inundation, 77 m., and as the great lake of Biwa and some minor sheets of water burying four hamlets, partially destroying seven villages, killing break the interval, a canal may be dug to join the Pacific and the 461 people and devastating an area of 27 sq. m. Sea of Japan. Yezo is not rich in anchorages. Uchiura (Volcano In the province of Közúke, which belongs to the central part of Bay), Nemuro (Walfisch) Bay and Ishikari Bay. are the only remark- the main island, the noteworthy mountains are Asama-yama (8136 able inlets. As for Formosa, the peculiarity of its outline is that the ft.), one of the best known and most violently active Mountains of eastern coast falls precipitously into deep water, while the western volcanoes of Japan; Akagi-san, a circular range. of Kāzuke, Kai slopes slowly to shelving bottoms and shoals. The Pescadores peaks surrounding the basin of an old crater and rising and Shinano. Islands afford the best anchorage in this part of Japan. to a height of 6210 ft.; the Haruna group, celebrated Mountains: - The Japanese islands are traversed from north to for scenic beauties, and Myogi-san, a cluster of pinnacles which, south by a range of mountains, which sends out various lateral though not rising higher than 3880 ft., offer scenery which dispels The Nikko 1 158 (GEOGRAPHY JAPAN the delusion that nature as represented in the classical pictures | Bandai-san (Iwashiro) entombed with their inhabitants and cattle; (bunjingwa) of China and Japan exists only in the artist's imagina- 6037—(cont.). seven villages were partially wrecked: tion. Farther south, in the province of Kai (Koshiu), and separating forests were levelled or the trees entirely two great rivers, the Fuji-kawa and the Tenriu-gawa, there lies å denuded of bark; rivers were blocked up, range of hills with peaks second only to those of the Japanese Alps and lakes were formed. The lip of the spoken of above. The principal elevations in this range are Shirane- fracture is now marked by a line of steaming san-with three summits, Nodori (9970 ft.), Ai-no-take (10,200 ft.) vents. and Kaigane (10,330 ft.)—and Hõõzan (9550 ft.). It will be observed Azuma-yama (Fuku. Long considered extinct, but has erupted that all the highest mountains of Japan form a species of belt across shima) 7733. several times since 1893, the last explosion the widest part of the main island, beginning on the west with the having been in 1900, when 82 sulphur. Alps of Etchiu, Hida and Shinano, and ending on the east with diggers were killed or injured; ashes were Fuji-yama. In all the regions of the main island southward of this thrown to a distance of 5 m., accumulatingin belt the only mountains of conspicuous altitude are Omine (6169 ſt.) places to a depth of 5 ft.; and a crater 300 ft. and Odai-gaharazan (5540 ft.) in Yamato and Daisen or Oyama in diameter, and as many in depth, was (5951 ft.) in Höki. formed on the E. side of the mountain. This The island of Shikoku has no mountains of notable crater is still active. The summit-crater is Mountalas of Shikoku. magnitude. The highest is Ishizuchi-zan (7727 ft.), but occupied by a beautiful lake. On the there are several peaks varying from 2000 to 6000 ft. Fukushima (E.) side of the volcano rises Kiūshiū, though abounding in mountain chains, independent or a large parasitic cone, extinct. connected, is not remarkable for lofty peaks. In the neighbourhood of Nasu (Tochigi) 6296. Has both a summit and a lateral crater, Mountalas of Nagasaki, over the celebrated solfataras of Unzen-take which are apparently connected and per. (called also Onsen) stands an extinct volcano, whose. Klūshla. petually emitting steam. At or about the summit, Fugen-dake, is 4865 ft. high. More notable main vents are numerous solfataras. The is Aso-take, some 20 m. from Kumamoto; for, though the highest of whole of the upper part of the cone consists its five peaks has an altitude of only 5545 ft., it boasts the largest of grey highly acidic lava. At the base is a crater in the world, with walls nearly 2000 ft. high and a basin from thermal spring, where baths have existed 19 to 14 m. in diameter. Aso-take is still an active volcano, but its since the 7th century, eruptions during recent years have been confined to ashes and dust. shirane (Nikko) 7422. The only remaining active vent of the Only two other mountains in Kiūshiū need be mentioned-a volcano once highly volcanic Nikko district. Erup- (3743 ſt.) on the island Sakura.jima, in the extreme south; and tion in 1889. Kirishima-yama (5538 ft.), on the boundary of Hjūga, a mountain Shirane (Kai) 10,330. Eruption in 1905, when the main crater specially sacred in Japanese eyes, because on its eastern peak was enlarged to a length of 3000 ft. It is (Takachiho-dake) the god Ninigi descended as the forerunner of the divided into three parts, separated by walls, first Japanese sovereign, Jimmu. and each containing a lake, of which the Among the mountains of Japan there are three volcanic ranges, middle one emits steam and the two others namely, that of the Kuriles, that of Fuji, and that of Kirishima. are cold. The central lake, during the Volcanoes. Fuji is the most remarkable volcanic peak. The periods of eruption (which are frequent), Japanese regard it as a sacred mountain, and numbers displays a geyser-like activity. These lakes of pilgrims make the ascent in midsummer, From 500 to 600 ft. contain free sulphuric acid, mixed with iron is supposed to be the depth of the crater. There are neither sul- and alum. phuric exhalations nor escapes of steam at present, and it would seem Unzen (Hizen) 4865. A triple-peaked volcano in the solfatara that this great volcano is permanently extinct. But experience stage, extinct at the summit, but displaying in other parts of Japan shows that a long quiescent crater may at considerable activity at its base in the any moment burst into disastrous activity. Within the period form of numerous fumaroles and boiling of Japan's written history several eruptions are recorded the last sulphur springs. having been in 1707, when the whole summit burst into flame, rocks Aso-take (Higo) 5545. Remarkable for the largest crater in the were shattered, ashes fell to a depth of several inches even in Yedo world. It measures 10 m. by 15, and (Tōkyō), 60 m. distant, and the crater poured forth streams of lava. rises almost symmetrically to a height of Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known:- about 2000 ft., with only one break Name of Volcano. through which the river Shira Aows. The Height in feet: centre is occupied by a mass of peaks, on Remarks. the W. flank of which lies the modern active Tarumai (Yezo) 2969. Forms southern wall of a large ancient crater. Two of the five compartments into crater now occupied by a lake (Shikotsu); which it is divided by walls of deeply A little steam still issues from several striated volcanic ash are constantly emitting smaller cones on the summit of the ridge, steam, while a new vent displaying great as well as from one, called Eniwa, on the activity has been opened at the base of the northern side. cone on the south side. Eruptions have Noboribetsu (Yezo) In a state of continuous activity, with been recorded since the earliest days of 1148. frequent detonations and rumblings. The Japanese history. In 1884 the ejected dust crater is divided by a wooded rock-wall. and ashes, devastated farmlands through The northern part is occupied by a steaming large areas. An outbreak in 1894 produced lake, while the southern part contains numerous riſts in the inner walls from which numerous solfataras and boiling springs. steam and smoke have issued ever since. Komagatake (Yezo) The ancient crater-wall, with a lofty Kaimon (Kagoshima One of the most beautiful volcanoes of 3822. pinnacle on the western side, contains a Bay) 3041. Japan, known as the Satsuma-Fuji. The low new cone with numerous steaming rifts symmetry of the cone is marred by a con- and vents. In a serious eruption in 1856 vexity on the seaward (S.) side. This the S.E. flank of the mountain and the volcano is all but extinct. country side in that direction were denuded Sakura-jima (Kago- An island-volcano, with several parasitic of trees. shima Bay) 3743. cones (extinct), on the N. and Ė. sides. Esan 2067. A volcano-promontory at the Pacific end At the summit are two deep craters, the of the Tsugaru Strait: a finely formed cone southern of which emits steam. Grass surrounded on three sides by the sea, the grows, however, to the very edges of the crater breached on the land side. The crater. The island is celebrated for ther. central vent displays considerable activity, mal springs, oranges and daikon (radishes), while the rocky walls are stained with red, which sometimes grow to a weight of 70 Ib. yellow and white deposits from numerous Kiri-shima (Kagoshima A volcanic range of which Takachiho, minor vents. Bay) 5538. the_only active cone, forms the terminal Agatsuma (Iwaki). Erupted in 1903 and killed two geolo- ($.E.) peak. The crater,situated on the S.W. 5230. gists. side of the volcano, lies some 500 ft. below Bandai-san (Iwashiro) Erupted in 1888 after a long period of the summit-peak. It is of remarkably 6037 quiescence. The outbreak was preceded regular formation, and the floor is pierced by an earthquake of some severity, after by a number of huge fumaroles whence which about 20 explosions took place. A issue immense volumes of steam. huge avalanche of earth and rocks buried Izuno Oshima (Vries The volcano on this island is called the Nagase Valley with its villages and Island) (lzu) 2461. Mihara. There is a double crater, the outer inhabitants, and devastated an area of being almost complete. The diameter of over 27 sq. m. The number of lives lost the outer crater, within which rises the was 461; * four hamlets were completely modern cone to a height of 500 ft. above GEOGRAPHY) JAPAN 159 1) do. 1 1) 1 2 11 11 Izuno Oshima (Vries the surrounding fpoor, is about 2 m.; while in which province Tokyo is situated) and Sagami have been most Island) (Izu) 2461- the present crater, which displays incessant subject to disturbance. (cont.). activity, has itself a diameter of m. Plains.-Japan, though very mountainous, has many extensive Asama (Ise) 8136. The largest active volcano in Japan. plains. The northern island-Yezo-contains seven, and there are An eruption in 1783, with a deluge of as many more in the main and southern islands, to say nothing of lava, destroyed an extensive forest and flat lands of minor dimensions. The principal are given in the overwhelmed several villages. The present following table: cone is the third, portions of two concentric crater rings remaining. The present crater Name: Situation. Area. Remarks. is remarkable for the absolute perpendicu. Tokachi plain Yezo. 744,000 acres. larity of its walls, and has an immense depth Ishikari do. 480,000 --from 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, tm. Kushiro do. 1,229,000 in circumference, with sides honeycombed Nemuro do. 320,000 and burned to a red hue, Kitami 230,000 Hidaka do. Some of the above information is based upon Mr. C. E. Bruce- 200,000 Teshio do. 180,000 Mitford's valuable work (see Geog. Jour., Feb. 1908, &c.). Main Island. Unascertained. Earthquakes.- Japan is subject to marked displays of seismic Echigo Sendai do. do. violence. One steadily exercised influence is constantly at work, Kwanto do. do. In this plain lie the for the shores bordering the Pacific Ocean are slowly though appre- ciably rising, while on the side of the Japan Sea a corresponding sub- capital, Tōkyō, and the town of Yokohama. It sidence is taking place. Japan also experiences a vast number of petty vibrations not perceptible without the aid of delicate instru- supports about 6 mil. lions of people. ments. But of earthquakes proper, large or small, she has an excep. Mino-Owari,, do. do. tional abundance. Thus in the thirteen years ending in 1897--that is Has Id million inhabi- tants. to say, the first period when really scientific apparatus for recording Kinai do. do. Has the cities of purposes was available--she was visited by no fewer than 17.750 Osaka, Kioto and Kobe, shocks, being an average of something over 3} daily. The frequency and 2 million people. of these phenomena is in some degree a source of security, for the Tsukushi Kiushiū. do. The chief coalfield of minor vibrations are believed to exercise a binding effect by removing weak cleavages. Nevertheless the annals show that during the Japan. three centuries before 1897 there were 108 earthquakes sufficiently Rivers.-Japan is abundantly watered. Probably no country in disastrous to merit historical mention. If the calculation be carried the world possesses a closer network of streams, supplemented by farther back-as has been done by the seismic disaster investigation canals and lakes. But the quantity of water carried seawards committee of Japan, a body of scientists constantly engaged in varies within wide limits; for whereas, during the rainy season in studying these phenomena under government auspices, -- it is found summer and while the snows of winter are melting in spring, great that, since the country's history began to be written in the 8th cen- tury A.D., there have been 2006 major disturbances; but inasmuch rivers dwindle at other times to petty rivulets trickling among a volumes of water sweep down from the mountains, these broad as 1489 of these occurred before the beginning of the Tokugawa waste of pebbles and boulders. Nor are there any long rivers, administration (early in the 17th century, and therefore in an era and all are so broken by shallows and rapids that navigation is when methods of recording were comparatively defective), exact generally impossible except by means of fat-bottomed boats details are naturally lacking. The story, so far as it is known, may drawing only a few inches. The chief rivers are given in the follow- be gathered from the following table: ing table: Date A.D. Region. Houses Deaths. Length destroyed. in miles. Source. Mouth. 684 Southern part of Tosa Ishikari-gawa 275 Ishikari-dake . Otaru. 869 Mutsu Shinano-gawa · 215 Kimpu-san Niigata. 1361 Kioto Teshio-gawa 192 Teshio-take Sea of Japan. 1498 Tökaido 2,000 (3) | Tone-gawa 177 Monju-zan, Közuke: Choshi (Shi.. 1569 Bungo 700 mosa). 1596 Kioto 2,000 Mogami-gawa 151 Dainichi-dake(Uzen). Sakata. 1605 (31/1) Pacific Coast 5,000 Yoshino-gawa. 149 Yahazu-yama (Tosa) Tokushima 1611 (27/9) Aizu. 3,700 (Awa). 1614 (2/12) Pacific Coast (N.E.) 1,700 Kitakami-gawa 146 Nakayama-dake Ishinomaki 1662 (16/6) Kioto 5,500 500 (Rikuchiu) (Rikuzen). 1666 (2/2) Echigo 1,500 Tenriu-gawa 136 Suwako (Shinano) Tốtomi Bay. 1694 (19/2) Ugo. 2,760 390 Go-gawa or Iwa- 1703 (30/12). Tokyo 20,162 5,233 mega wa 122 Maruse-yama (Bingo) Iwami Bay. 1707 (28/10). Pacific Coast of Kiūshiū and Abukuma-gawa Asahi-take (Iwashiro) Matsushima Bay. Shikoku 29,000 4,900 Tokachi-gawa 120 Tokachi-dake. Tokachi Bay 1751 (20/5) Echigo 9,100 1,700 Sendai-gawa 112 Kunimi-zan (Hiuga). Kumizaki (Sat- 1766 (8/3) Hirosaki 7,500 1,335 suma). 1792 (10/2) Hizen and Higo 12,000 15,000 Oi-gawa 112 Shirane-san (Kai). Suruga Bay. 1828 (18/2) Echigo I1,750 1,443 Kiso-gawa Kiso-zan (Shinano) Bay of Isenumi. 1844 (8/5) Echigo 34,000 12,000 Ara-kawa 104 Chichibu-yama Tokyo Bay. 1854 (617) Yamato, Iga, Ise 5,000 2,400 Naga-gawa 102 Nasu-yama (Shimo. Naka-no-minato. 1854 23/12). Tokaido (Shikoku) 60,000 3,000 tsuke) (Huachi). 1855 (11/11). Yedo (Tokyo). 50,000 6,700 1891 (28/10). Mino, Owari 222,501 7,273 Lakes and Waterfalls.--Japan has many lakes, remarkable for 1894 (22/10). Shõnai 8,403 726 the beauty of their scenery rather than for their extent. Some 1896 (15/6) Sanriku 13,073 27,122 are contained in alluvial depressions in the river valleys; others have 1896 (31/8) Ugo, Rikuchu 8,996 209 been formed by volcanic eruptions, the ejecta damming the rivers 1906 (12/2) Formosa 5,556 1,228 until exits were found over cliffs or through gorges. Some of these (1) An area of over 1,200,000 acres swallowed up by the sea. lakes have become favourite summer resorts for foreigners. To that (2) Tidal wave killed thousands of people. category belong especially the lakes of Hakone, of Chiuzenji, of Shõji. (3) Hamana lagoon ſormed. of Inawashiro, and of Biwa. Among these the highest is Lake In the capital (Tökyö) the average yearly number of shocks of 93 fathoms, and empties itself at one end over a fall (Kegon) 250 ft. Chiuzenji, which is 4375 ft, above sea-level, has a maximum depth throughout the 26 years ending in 1906 was 96, exclusive of minor high. The Shōji lakes lie at a height of 3160 ft., and their neigh- vibrations, but during the 50 years then ending there were only two bourhood abounds in scenic charms. Lake Hakone is at a height severe shocks (1894 and 1894), and they were not directly responsible of 2428 ft.; Ina washiro, at a height of 1920 ft. and Biwa at a for any damage to life or limb. The Pacific coast of the Japanese height of 328 ft. The Japanese associate Lake Biwa (Omi) with islands is more liable than the western shore to shocks disturbing a eight views of special loveliness ( Omi-no-hakkei). Lake Suwa, in Shi. wide area. Apparent proof has been obtained that the shocks nano, which is emptied by the Tenriu-gawa, has a height.of 2624 ſt. occurring in the Pacific districts originate at the bottom of the sea - In the vicinity of many of these mountain lakes thermal springs, the Tuscarora Deep is supposed to be the centre of seismic activity with remarkable curative properties, are to be found. (F. By.) and they are accompanied in most cases by tidal waves. It would Geology. It is a popular belief that the islands of Japan consist seem that of late years Tajima, Hida, Kāzuké and some other regions for the most part of volcanic rocks. But although this conception in central Japan have enjoyed the greatest immunity, while Musashi I might reasonably be suggested by the presence of many active and . i . . . . . I 22 . • II2 . . . 160 JAPAN (GEOGRAPHY 1 the in "! extinct volcanoes, Professor J. Milne has pointed out that it is younger groups of that formation appear to be developed. Nor is literally true of the Kuriles alone, partially true for the northern there any sign of moraines, glacier-scorings or other traces of the half of the Main Island and for Kiūshiū, and quite incorrect as ice-age. applied to the southern half of the Main Island and to Shikoku. The oldest beds which have yielded fossils in any ab ndance This authority sums up the geology of Japan briefly and succinctly belong to the Carboniferous System. The Trias proper is repre- as follows (in Things Japanese, by Professor Chamberlain): "The sented by truly marine deposits, while the Rhaetic beds contain backbone of the country, consists of primitive gneiss and schists. plant remains.' The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are also in part Amongst the latter, in Shikoku, there is an extremely interesting marine and in part terrestrial. During the whole of the Mesozoic rock consisting largely of piedmontite. Overlying these amongst era Japan appears to have lain on or near the margin of the Asiatic the Palaeozoic rocks, we meet in many parts of Japan with slates continent, and the marine deposits are confined for the most part and other rocks possibly of Cambrian or Silurian age. Trilobites to the eastern side of the islands. have been discovered in Rikuzen. Carboniferous rocks are repre- The igneous rocks occur at several geological horizons, but the sented by mountain masses of Fusulina and mestones. There great vold eruptions did not begin until the Tertiary period. is also amongst the Palaeozoic group an interesting series of red The existing volcanoes belong to four separate arcs or chains. On slates containing Radiolaria. Mesozoic rocks are represented by the south is the arc of the Luchu islands, which penetrates into slates containing Ammonites and Monotis, evidently of Triassic age, Kiū Shiū. In the centre there is the arc of the Izu-no-Shichito rocks containing Ammonites Bucklandi of . Liassic age, a series of islands, which is continued into Hondo along the Fossa Magna. In beds rich in plants of Jurassic age, and beds of Cretaceous age North Hondo the great Bandai arc forms the axis of the island and containing Trigonia and many other fossils. The Cainozoic or stretches into Yezo (Hokkaido). Finally in the east of Yezo rise Tertiary system forms a fringe round the coasts of many portions the most westerly, volcanoes of the Ķurile chain. The lavas and of the empire. It chiefly consists of stratified volcanic tuffs rich in ashes ejected by these volcanoes consist of liparite, daçite, andesite coal, lignite, fossilized plants and an invertebrate fauna. Diatoma- and basalt. ceous earth exists at several places in Yezo. In the alluvium which Structurally Japan is divided into two regions by a depression covers all, the remains have been discovered of several species of (the "Fossa Magna". of Naumann) which stretches across the elephant, which, according to Dr Edmund Naumann, are of Indian island of Hondo from Shimoda to Nagano. The depression is marked origin, The most common eruptive rock is andesite. Such rocks by a line of volcanoes, including Fuji, and is in part buried beneath as basalt , diorite and trachyte are comparatively rare. Quartz the products of their eruptions. It is supposed to be due to a great porphyry, quartzless porphyry, and granite are largely developed.” fault along its western margin. South and west of the Fossa Magna Drs von Richthofen and Rein discuss the subject in greater detail. the beds are thrown into folds which run approximately parallel They have pointed out that in the mountain system of Japan there to the general direction of the coast, and two zones may be recoge are three main lines. One runs from S.W. to N.E.; another from nized-an outer, consisting of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic beds, and an S.S.W. to N.N.E., and the third is meridional. These they call inner, consisting of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks, with granitic respectively the southern schist range,' northern schist | intrusions. Nearly along the boundary between the two zones lie range," and the “snow range," the last consisting mainly of old the inland seas of south Japan. Towards the Fossa Magna the crystalline massive rocks. The rocks predominating in Japan fall folds bend northwards. also into three groups. They are, first, plutonic rocks, especially North and east of the Fossa Magna the structure is concealed, to granite; secondly, volcanic rocks, chiefly trachyte and dolerite; f a very large extent, by the outpourings of the volcanoes which form and thirdly, palaeozoic schists. On the other hand, limestone and so marked a feature in the northern part of Hondo. But the founda- sandstone, especially of the Mesozoic strata, are strikingly deficient. tion on which the volcanoes rest is exposed along the east coast of The strike of the old crystalline rocks follows, in general, the main Hondo (in the Kwanto, Abukuma and Kitakami hills), and also in direction of the islands (S.W. to N.E.). They are often overlain the island of Yezo. This foundation consists of Archean, Palaeozoic by schists and quartzites, or broken through by volcanic masses. and Mesozoic beds folded together, the direction of the folds being ** The basis of the islands consist of granite, syenite, diorite, dia- N. by W. to s. by E., that is to say, slightly oblique to the general base and related kinds of rock, porphyry appearing comparatively direction of this part of the island. Towards the Fossa. Magna the seldom. Now the granite, continuing for long distances, forms the folds bend sharply round until they are nearly parallel to the Fossa prevailing rock; then, again, it forms the foundation for thick strata | itself. (P. LA.). of schist and sandstone, itself only appearing in valleys of erosion It has been abundantly demonstrated by careful observations and river boulders, in rocky projections on the coasts or in the that the east coasts of Japan are slowly rising. This phenomenon ridges of the mountains. 'In the composition of many moun- was first noticed in the case of the plain on which Secular tains in Hondo (the main island) granite plays a prominent part. stands the capital, Tokyo. Maps of sufficiently trust- Movement It appears to form the central mass which crops up in hundreds of worthy accuracy show that in the nth century places towards the coast and in the interior. Old schists, free from Tokyo Bay penetrated much more deeply in a northern direction fossils and rich in quartz, overlie it in parallel chains through the than it does now; the point where the city's main river (Sumida whole length of the peninsula, especially in the central and highest or Arakawa). enters the sea was considerably to the north of its ridges, and bear the ores. of Chū-goku (the central provinces), present position, and low-lying districts, to-day thickly populated, principally copper pyſites and magnetic pyrites. These schist. were under water. Edmund Naumann was the discoverer of these ridges rich in quartz show, to a depth of 20 metres, considerable facts, and his attention was first drawn to them by learning that an disintegration. The resulting pebble and quartz-sand is very un. edible sea-weed, which flourishes only in salt water, is called Asakusa- productive, and supports chiefly a poor underwood and crippled nori, from the place (Asakusa) of its original provenance, which pines with widely spreading roots which seek their nourishment afar. now lies some 3 m. inland. Similar phenoména were found in In the province of Settsu granite everywhere predominates, which Sakhalin by Schmidt and on the north-east coast of the main island may be observed also in the railway cuttings between Hiõgo and by Rein, and there can be little doubt that they exist at other places Osaka, as well as in the temples and walls of these towns. The also. Naumann has concluded that “formerly Tōkyō Bay stretched waterfalls near Kobe descend over granite walls and the rikageishi further over the whole level country of Shimosa and Hitachi and (stone of Mikage), famous throughout Japan, is granite from northwards as far as the plain of Kwanto extends;" that “the Settsu. . . , In the hill country on the borders of Ise, Owari, mountain country of Kasusa-Awa emerged from it an island, and Mikawa and Totomi, on the one side, and Omi, Mino and Shinano, that a current ran in a north-westerly direction between this island on the other, granite frequently forms dark grey, and much dis- and the northern mountain margin of the present plain toward the integrated rock-projections above schist and diluvial quartz pebbles. north-east into the open ocean.' The feldspar of a splendid pegmatite and its products of disintegra- Mineral Springs. The presence of so many active volcanoes is tion on the borders of Owari, Mino and Mika wa form the raw material partially compensated by a wealth of mineral springs. Since many of the very extensive ceramic industry of this district, with its of these thermal springs possess great medicinal value, Japan may chief place; Seto. Of granite are chiefly formed the meridional become one of the world's favourite health-resorts. There are more mountains of Shinano. Granite, diorite and other plutonic rocks hem than a hundred spas; some hot, some cold, which, being easily in the winding upper valleys of the Kisogawa, the Saigawa (Shinano accessible and highly efficacious, are largely visited by the Japanese. river) and many other rivers of this province, their clear water The most noteworthy are as follows:- running over granite. Also in the hills bordering on the plain of Kwanto these old crystalline rocks are widely spread. Farther Name of Spa. Prefecture. Quality. Temp., Fº northwards they give way again, as in the south, to schists and erup- Arima Hiogo . Salt tive rocks. Yet even here granite may be traced in many places. Asama Nagano Pure III-127 Of course it is not always a pure granite; even hablit and granite Asamushi Salt 134-168 porphyry are found here and there. Thus, for instance, near Nikko Atami Shizuoka do. 131-226 in the upper valley of the Daiya-gawa, and in several other places Beppu Carbonic Acid 109-132 in the neighbouring mountains, a granite-porphyry appears with Bessho Nagano Pure or Sulphurous 108-113 large, pale, flesh-coloured crystals of orthoclase, dull triclinic felspar, Dogo Ehime Pure 70 quartz and hornblende." “From the mine of Ichinokawa in Hakone Kanagawa Pure, Sait or Sulphurous 98-168 Shikoku come the wonderful crystals of antimonite, which form Higashi-yama Fukushima Pure or Salt 117-144 such conspicuous objects in the mineralogical cabinets of Europe.' Ikao Gumma Salt. TU-127 (Rein's Japan and Milne in Things Japanese.). The above con- Isobe Cold ditions suggest the presence of tertiary formations, yet only the 'Kusatsu. do. do. do. Sulphurous 127–148 100 Oita. -110 . GEOGRAPHY) 161 JAPAN Name of Spa. Prefecture. Quality Temp., Fº. There are three wet seasons in Japan: the first, from the middle of Nasu Tochigi Sulphurous 162—172 April to the beginning of May; the second, from the middle of June Noboribetsu Ishikari do. 125 to the beginning of July; and the third, from early in Shibu Ralafall. Nagano Salt 98—115 September to early in October. The dog days (doyo) Chiuzenji Shizuoka · Carbonate of Soda and are from the middle of July till the second half of August. Septem. Sulphur , 114-185 ber is the wettest month: January the driest. During the four Takarazuka Hiogo Çarbonic Acid Cold months from November to February inclusive only about 18% Ureshino Saga do. 230 of the whole rain for the year falls. In the district on the east Unzen Nagasaki Sulphurous 158—204 of the main island the snowfall is insignificant, seldom attaining a Wagura Ishika wa Salt 180 depth of more than four or five inches and generally melting in a few Yamashiro do. do. 165 days, while bright, sunny skies are usual. But in the mountainous Yunoshima Hiogo do. 104-134 provinces of the interior and in those along the western coast, deep snow covers the ground throughout the whole winter, and the sky is Climate.— The large extension of the Japanese islands in a usually wrapped in a veil of clouds. These differences are due to the northerly and southerly direction causes great varieties of climate. action of the north-westerly wind that blows over Japan from General characteristics are hot and humid though short summers, Siberia. The intervening sea being comparatively warm, this wind and long, cold and clear winters. The equatorial currents produce arrives at Japan having its temperature increased and carrying conditions differing from those existing at corresponding latitudes moisture which it deposits as snow on the western faces of the on the neighbouring continent. In Kiūshiū. Shikoku and the Japanese mountains. Crossing the mountains and descending southern half of the main island, the months of July and August their eastern slopes, the wind becomes less saturated and warmer, alone are marked by oppressive heat at the sea-level, while in ele- so that the formation of clouds ceases. Japan is emphatically vated districts a cool and even bracing temperature may always be a wet country so far as quantity of rainfall is concerned, the average found, though the direct rays of the sun retain distressing power. for the whole country being 1570 mm. per annum. Still there are Winter in these districts does not last more than two months, from about four sunny days for every three on which rain or snow falls, the the end of December to the beginning of March: for although the actual figures being 150 days of snow or rain and 215 daysof sunshine. latter month is not free from frost and even snow, the balminess of During the cold season, which begins in October and ends in April. spring makes itself plainly, perceptible. In the northern half of northerly and westerly winds prevail throughout Japan. They come the main island, in Yezo and in the Kuriles, the cold is severe during from the adjacent continent of Asia, and they de- Wiod. the winter, which lasts for at least four months, and snow falls some- velop considerable strength owing to the fact that times to great depths. Whereas in Tōkyō the number of frosty nights there is an average difference of some 22 mm. between the during a year does not average much over 60, the corresponding atmospheric pressure (750 mm.) in the Pacific and that (772 mm.) number in Sapporo on the north-west of Yezo is 145. But the in the Japanese islands. But during the warm season, from variation of the thermometer in winter and summer being con. May to September, these conditions of atmospheric pressure are siderable as much as 72° F. in Tokyo-the climate proves some- reversed, that in the Pacific rising to 767 mm. and that in Japan what trying to persons of weak constitution. On the other hand, falling to 750 mm. Hence throughout this season the prevailing the mean daily variation is in general less than that in other countries winds are light breezes from the west and south. A comparison having the same latitude: it is greatest in January, when it reaches of the force habitually developed by the wind in various parts 18° F., and least in July, when iť barely exceeds 9° F. The monthly of the islands shows that at Suttsu in Yezo the average strength variation is very great in March, when it usually reaches 43° F. is 9 metres per second, while Izuhara in the island Tsu-shima, During the first 40 years of the Meiji era numerous meteorological Kumamoto in Kiūshiū and Gifu in the east centre of the main stations were established. Reports are constantly forwarded by island stand at the bottom of the list with an average wind velocity Meteorology. telegraph to the central observatory in Tokyo, which of only 2 metres. A calamitous atmospheric feature is the periodical issues daily statements of the climatic conditions arrival of storms called typhoons (Japanese tai-fu or “great during the previous twenty-four hours, as well as forecasts for wind "). These have their origin, for the most part, in the China the next twenty-four. The whole country is divided into districts Sea, especially in the vicinity of Luzon. Their season is from June for meteorological purposes, and storm-warnings are issued when to October, but they occur in other months also, and they develop a necessary. At the most important stations observations are taken velocity of 5 to 75 m. an hour. The meteorological record for ten every hour; at the less important, six observations daily: and at the years ended 1905 shows a total of 120 typhoons, being an average least important, three observations. From the record of three de- of 12 annually: September had 14 of these phenomena, March 11 cades the following yearly averages of temperature are obtained and April 10, leaving 85 for the remaining 9 months. But only 65 out of the whole number developed disastrous force. It is particu- Fº Taihoku (in Formosa) larly unfortunate that September should be the season of greatest 71 typhoon frequency, for the earlier varieties of rice flower in that Nagasaki (Kiūshiū) 60 Kõbe (Main Island) month and a heavy storm does much damage. Thus, in 1902-by 59 no means an abnormal year-statistics show the following disasters Osaka (Main Island) 59 Okayama (Main Island) owing to typhoons: casualties to human life, 3639: ships and Nagoya (Main Island) boats lost, 3244; buildings destroyed wholly or partially, 695,062; Sakai (Main Island). land inundated, 1,071,575 acres; roads destroyed, 1236 m.; bridges Tokyo (Capital) washed away, 13, 685; embankments broken, 705 m.; crops damaged, 57 Kioto (Main Island), 8,712,655, bushels. The total loss, including cost of repairs, was 57 Niigata (Main Island) estimated at nearly 3 millions sterling, which may be regarded as an 55 annual average. Ishinomaki (Main Island) 52 Flora.-The flora of Japan has been carefully studied by many Aomori (Main Island) 50 scientific men from Siebold downwards. Foreigners visiting Japan Sapporo (Yezo) 44 are immediately struck by the affection of the people for Aowers, The following table affords data for comparing the climates of Peking, trees and natural beauties of every kind, In actual wealth of Shanghai, Hakodate, Tōkyō and San Francisco:- blossom or dimensions of forest trees the Japanese islands cannot Mean claim any special distinction. The spectacles most admired by all Longitude. Latitude. Temp., Fº. classes are the tints of the foliage in autumn and the glory of flowering Peking 116° 29' E trees in the spring. In beauty and variety of pattern and colour 53 Shanghai 121° 20' E. 31° 12' N. the autumnal tints are unsurpassed. The colours pass from deep 59 Hakodate brown through purple to yellow and white, thrown into relief by the 47 Tokyo dark green of non-deciduous shrubs and trees. Oaks and wild 57 San Francisco 122° 25' E. 37° 48' N. 56 prunus, wild vines and sumachs, various kinds of maple, the dodan (Enkianthus Japonicus Hook.)—a wonderful bush which in autumn Mean Temp. of develops a hue of ruddy red-birches and other trees, all add Hottest Month. Hottest Month. multitudinous colours to the brilliancy, of a spectacle which is Peking July 80 further enriched by masses of feathery bamboo. The one defect Shanghai do. 84 is lack of green sward. The grass used for Japanese lawns loses its Hakodate August verdure in autumn and remains from November to March a greyish. Tokyo do. 79 brown blot upon the scene. Spring is supposed to begin in February San Francisco September when, according to the old calendar, the new year sets in, but the only flowers then in bloom are the camellia japonica and some kinds Mean Temp. of Coldest Month. of daphne. The former-called by the Japanese Isubaki--may Coldest Month. often be seen glowing fiery red amid snow, but the pink (olome Peking: January tsubaki), white (shiro-tsubaki) and variegated (shibori-no-isubaki) Shanghai do. 26 kinds do not bloom until, March or April. Neither the camellia nor Hakodate do. the daphne is regarded as a refined flower: their manner of shedding Tokyo do. their blossoms is too unsightly. Queen of spring flowers is the plum San Francisco do. 49 (ume). The tree lends itselt with peculiar readiness to the skilful 58 58 58 39° 57' N. 410 140° 45' E. 47' E. 46' N. 41' N. 138° 350 22 28 36 162 (FLORA AND FAUNA JAPAN 1 . 1. manipulation of the gardener, and is by him trained into shapes of The investigations of Japanese botanists are adding constantly to remarkable grace. Its pure white or rose-red blossoms, heralding the above number, and it is not likely that finality will be reached the first approach of genial weather, are regarded with special for some time. According to a comparison made by A. Gray with favour and are accounted the symbol of unassuming hardihood. regard to the numbers of genera and species respectively represented The cherry (sakura) is even more esteemed. It will not suffer any in the forest trees of four regions of the northern hemisphere, the training, nor does it, like the plum, improve by pruning, but the following is the case: sunshine that attends its brief period of bloom in April, the magni: Atlantic Forest-region of N. America 66 ficence of its flower-laden boughs and the picturesque flutter of its genera and 155 species falling petals, inspired an ancient poet to liken it to the “ soul of Pacific Forest-region of N. America 3! genera and 78 species Yamato " (Japan), and it has ever since been thus regarded. The Japan and Manchuria Fórest-region 66 genera and 168 species. Forests of Europe wild peach (momo) blooms at the same time, but attracts little atten. 33 genera and 85 species. tion. All these trees--the plum, the cherry and the peach-bear no While there can be no doubt that the luxuriance of Japan's flora fruit worthy of the name, nor do they excel their Occidental repre- is due to rich soil, to high temperature and to rainfall not only sentatives in wealth of blossom, but the admiring affection they plentiful but well distributed over the whole year, the wealth and inspire in Japan is unique. Scarcely has the cherry season passed variety of her trees and shrubs must be largely the result of immi. when that of the wistaria (fuji) comes, followed by the azalea (tsutsuji) gration. Japan has four insular chains which link her to the and the iris (shõbu), the last being almost contemporaneous with the neighbouring continent. On the south, the Riūkių Islands bring peony (botan), which is regarạed by many Japan se as the king of her within reach of Formosa and the Malayan archipelago; on the Rowers and is cultivated assiduously. A species of weeping maple west, Oki, Iki, and Tsushima bridge the sea between her and Korea, (shidare-momiji) dresses itself in peachy-red foliage and is trained on the north-west Sakhalin connects her with the Amur region; into many picturesque shapes, though not without detriment to its and on the north, the Kuriles form an almost continuous route to longevity. Summer sees the lotus (renge) convert wide expanses Kamchatka. By these paths the germs of Asiatic plants were carried of lake and river into sheets of white and red blossoms; a compara- over to join the endemic fora of the country, and all found suitable tively Rowerless interval ensues antil, in October and November, homes amid greatly varying conditions of climate and physiography. the chrysanthemum arrives to furnish an excuse for fashionable Fauna.- Japan is an exception to the general rule that continents gatherings. With the exception of the dog-days and the dead of are richer in fauna than are their neighbouring islands. It has winter, there is no season when flowers cease to be an object of been said with truth that "an industrious collector of beetles, attention to the Japanese, nor does any class fail to participate in butterflies, neuroptera, &c., finds a greater number of species in a the sentiment. There is similar enthusiasm in the matter of gardens. circuit of some miles near Tokyo than are exhibited by the whole From the roth century onwards the art of landscape gardening British Isles. steadily grew into a science, with esoteric as well as exoteric aspects, Of mammals 50 species have been identified and catalogued and with a special vocabulary. The underlying principle is to Neither the lion nor the tiger is found. The true Carnivora are three reproduce nature's scenic beauties, all the features being drawn to only, the bear, the dog and the marten. Three species of bears are scale, so that however restricted the space, there shall be no violation scientifically recognized, but one of them, the ice-bear (Ursus of proportion. Thus the artificial lakes and hills, the stones forming maritimus), is only an accidental visitor, carried downcby the Arctic rockeries or simulating solitary crags, the trees and even the bushes current. In the main island the black bear (kuma, Ursus ja ponicus) are all selected or manipulated so as to fall congruously into the alone has its habitation, but the island of Yezo has the great brown general scheme. If, on the one hand, huge stones are transported bear (called shi-guma, oke-kuma or aka-kuma), the “grisly" of North hundreds of miles from sea-shore or river-bed where, in the lapse of America. The bear does not attract much popular interest in Japan.' long centuries, waves and cataracts have hammered them into Tradition centres rather upon the fox (kitsune) and the badger strange shapes, and if the harmonizing of their various colours and (mujina), which are credited with supernatural powers, the former the adjustment of their forms to environment are studied with pro- being worshipped as the messenger of the harvest god, while the found subtlety, so the training and tending of the trees and shrubs latter is regarded as a mischievous rollicker. Next to these comes that keep them company require much taste and much toil. Thus the monkey (saru), which dwells equally among the snows of the the red pine (aka-malsu or pinus densiflora), which is the favourite north and in the mountainous regions of the south. Saru enters garden tree, has to be subjected twice a year to a process of spray; into the composition of many place-names, an evidence of the dressing which involves the careful removal of every weak or aged people's familiarity with the animal. There are ten species of bat needle. One tree occupies the whole time of a gardener for about ten (komori) and seven of insect-eaters, and prominent in this class are days. The details are endless, the results delightful. But it has to the mole (mugura) and the hedgehog (hari-nezumi). Among the be clearly understood that there is here no mention of a flower. martens there is a weasel (itachi), which, though useful as a rat. garden in the Occidental sense of the term. Flowers are cultivated, killer, has the evil repute of being responsible for sudden and but for their own sakes, not as a feature of the landscape garden. mysterious injuries to human beings; there is a river-otter (kawa. If they are present, it is only as an incident. This of course does not uso), and there is a sea-otter (rakko) which inhabits the northern apply to shrubs which blossom at their seasons and fall always into seas and is highly valued for its beautiful pelt. The rodents are the general scheme of the landscape. Forests of cherry-trees, plum represented by an abundance of rats, with comparatively few mice, trees, magnolia trees, or hiyaku-jikko (Lagerstroemia indica), banks of and by the ordinary squirrel, to which the people give the name of azalea, clumps of hydrangea, groups of camellia—such have their tree-rat (ki-nezumi), as well as the Aying squirrel, known as the permanent places and their foliage adds notes of colour when their momo-dori (peach-bird) in the north, where it hides from the light Howers have fallen. But chrysanthemums, peonies, roses and so in hollow tree-trunks, and in the south as the ban-tori (or bird of forth, are treated as special shows, and are removed or hidden when evening). There are no rabbits, but hares (usagi) are to be found out of bloom. There is another remarkable feature of the Japanese in very varying numbers, and those of one species put on a white gardener's art. He dwarfs trees so that they remain measurable coat during winter. The wild boar (shishi or ii-no-shishi) does not only by inches after their age has reached scores, even hundreds, of differ appreciably from its European congener. Its flesh is much years, and the proportions of leaf, branch and stem are preserved relished, and for some unexplained reason is called by its vendors with fidelity. The pots in which these wonders of patient skill are “ mountain-whale". (yama-kujira). A very beautiful stag (shika), grown have to be themselves fine specimens of the keramist's craft, with eight-branched antlers, inhabits the remote woodlands, and and as much as £200 is sometimes paid for a notably well trained tree. there are five species of antelope (kamo-shika) which are found in There exists among many foreign observers an impression that the highest and least accessible parts of the mountains. Domestic Japan is comparatively poor in wild-Aowers; an impression probably animals have for representatives the horse (uma), a small beast with due to the fact that there are no flowery meadows or lanes. Besides, little beauty of form though possessing much hardihood and endu. the flowers are curiously wanting in fragrance. Almost the only nota: rance; the ox (ushi), mainly a beast of burden or draught; the pig ble exceptions are the mokusei (Osmanthus fragrans), the daphne and (buta), very occasionally;, the dog (inu), an unsightly and useless the magnolia. Missing the perfume-laden air of the Occident, a visitor brute; the cat (neko), with a stump in lieu of a tail; barndoor fowl is prone to inſer paucity of blossoms. But if some familiar European (niwa-tori), ducks (ahiro) and pigeons (hato). The turkey (shichi. flowers are absent, they are replaced by others strange to Western mencho) and the goose (gacho) have been introduced but are little eyes-a wealth of lespedeza and Indigo-fera; a vast variety of lilies; appreciated as yet. graceful grasses like the eulalia and the ominameshi (Patrina scabio- Although so-called singing birds exist in tolerable numbers, those saefolia): the richly-hued Pyrus japonica; azaleas, diervillas and worthy of the name of songster are few. Eminently first is a species deutzias; the kikyó (Platycodon grandiflorum), the giboshi (Funkia of nightingale (uguisu), which, though smaller than its congener of ovata), and many another. The same is true of Japanese forests. the West, is gifted with exquisitely modulated flute-like notes of It has been well said that " to enumerate the constituents and considerable range. The uguisu is a dainty bird in the matter of inhabitants of the Japanese mountain-forests would be to name at temperature. After May it retires from the low-lying regions and least hail the entire fiora." gradually ascends to higher altitudes as midsummer approaches. According to Franchet and Savatier Japan possesses: A variety of the cuckoo called hototogisu (Cuculus poliocephalus) in Families. Genera. Species. imitation of the sound of its voice, is heard as an accompaniment of Dicotyledonous plants . 795 1934 the uguisu, and there are also three other species, the kakködori Monocotyledonous plants 28 613 (Cuculus canorus), the tsutsu-dori (C. himalayanus), and the masu. Higher Cryptogamous plants . 38 196 hakari, or juichi (C. hyperythrus), To these the lark, hibarı (Alauda japonica), joins its voice, and the cooing of the pigeon (hato) is Vascular plants . 154 1035 2743 supplemented by the twittering of the ubiquitous sparrow (suzume). ) a 121 202 FAUNA) JAPAN 163 autumn. while over all are heard the raucous caw of the raven (karasu) and The seas surrounding the Japanese islands may be called a resort the harsh scream of the kite (tombi), bet ween which and the raven of fishes, for, in addition to numerous species which abide there there is perpetual feud. The falcon (laka), always an honoured bird permanently, there are migatory kinds, coming and going with the in Japan, where from time immemorial hawking has been an aristo- monsoons and with the great ocean streams that set to and from the cratic pastime, is common enough, and so is the sparrow-hawk shores. In winter, for example, when the northern monsoon begins (hai-taka), but the eagle (washi) affects solitude. Two English to blow, numbers of denizens of the Sea of Okhotsk swim southward. ornithologists, Blakiston and Pryer, are the recognized authorities to the more genial waters of north Japan; and in summer the Indian on the birds of Japan, and in a contribution to the Transactions of Ocean and the Malayan archipelago send to her southern coasts a the Asiatic Society of Japan (vol. x.) they have enumerated 359 crowd of emigrants which turn homeward again at the approach of species. Starlings (muku-dori) are numerous, and so are the wag. winter. It thus falls out that in spite of the enormous quantity of tail (sekirei), the swallow ([subame) the martin (ten), the woodchat fish consumed as food or used as fertilizers year after year by the (mozu) and the jay (kakesu or kashi-dori), but the magpie (togarasu). Japanese; the seas remain as richly stocked as ever, Nine orders of though common in China, is rare in Japan. Blackbirds and thrushes fishes have been distinguished as the piscifauna of Japanese waters. are not found, nor any species of parrot, but on the other hand, we | They may be found carefully catalogued with all their included have the hoopoe (yatsugashira), the red-breast (komadori), the blue- species in Rein's Japan, and highly interesting researches by Japan. bird (ruri), the wren (miso-sazai), the golden-crested wren (itadaki), ese physiographists are recorded in the Journal of the College of the golden-eagle (inu-washi), the finch (hiwa), the longtailed rose- Science of the Imperial University of Tokyo. Briefly, the chief finch (benimashiko), the ouzel-brown (akahara), dusky (isugumi) fish of Japan are the bream (tai), the perch (suzuki), the mullet (bora), and water (kawa-garasu)--the kingfisher (kawasemi). the crake the rock-hish (hatatate), the grunter (oni-o-koze), the mackerel (saba). (kuina) and the tomtit (kara). Among game-birds there are the the sword-fish (tachi-uwo), the wrasse (kusabi), the haddock (tara), quail (uzura), the heathcock (ezo-racho), the ptarmigan (ezo-raicho the founder (karei), and its congeners the sole (hirame) and the or ezo-yama-dori), the woodcock (hodo-shigi), the snipe (ia-shigi)- turbot (ishi-garei), the shad (namazu), the salmon (shake), the masu, with two special species, the solitary snipe (yama-shigi) and the the carp (koi), the funa, the gold fish (kingyo), the gold carp (higoi), painted snipe (tama-shigi)--and the pheasant (kiji). Of the last the loach (dojo), the herring (nishin), the iwashi (Clupea melanosticta). there are two species, the kiji proper, a bird presenting no remark the eel (unagi), the conger eel (anago), the coffer-fish (hako-uwo), able features, and the copper pheasant, a magnificent bird with the fugu (Telrodon), the ai (Plecoglossus altivelis), the sayori (Hemir. plumage of dazzling beauty. Conspicuous above all others, not amphus sayori), the shark (same), the dogfish (manuka-zame), the only for grace of form but also for the immemorial attention paid ray (e), the sturgeon (cho-zame) and the maguro (Thynnus sibi) to them by Japanese artists, are the crane (tsuru) and the heron The insect life of Japan broadly corresponds with that of temperate (sagi). of the crane there are seven species, the stateliest and most regions in Europe. But there are also a number of tropical species, beautiful being the Grus japonensis (tancho or tancho-zuru), which notably among butterflies and beetles. The latter-for which the stands some 5 ft high and has pure white plumage with a red crown, generic term in Japan is mushi or kaichūtinclude some beautiful black tail-feathers and black upper neck. It is a sacred bird, and species, from the jewel beetle" (tama-mushi), the gold beetle it shares with the tortoise the honour of being an emblem of longevity: (kogane-mushi) and the Chrysochroa fulgidissima, which glow and The other species are the demoiselle crane (anewa-zuru), the black sparkle with the brilliancy of gold and precious stones, to the jet crane (kuro-zuru or nezumi-zuru, i.e. Grus cinerea), the Grus leucauchen black Melanauster chinensis, which seems to have been fashioned (mana-zuru), the Grus monachus (nabe-zuru), and the white crane out of lacquer spotted with white. There is also a giant nasicornous (shiro-zuru). The Japanese include in this category the stork beetle. Among butterflies (chocho) Rein gives prominence to the (közuru), but it may be said to have disappeared from the island. broad-winged kind (Papilio), which recall tropical brilliancy. One The heron (sagi) constitutes a charming feature in a Japanese land- (Papilio macilentus) is peculiar to Japan. Many others seem to be scape, especially the silver heron (shira-sagi), which displays its practically identical with European species. That is especially true brilliant 'white' plumage in the rice fields from spring to early of the moths (yacho), 100 species of which have been identified with The night-heron (goi-sagi) is very common. Besides English types. There are seven large silk-moths, of which two only these waders there are plover (chidori); golden (muna-guro or ai (Bombyx mori and Antheraea yama-mai) are employed in producing guro); gray (daizen); ringed (shiro-chidori); spur-winged (keri) and silk. Fishing lines are manufactured from the cocoons of the Harting's sand-plover (ikaru-chidori); sand-pipers-green (ashiro- genjiki-mushi (Caligula japonica), which is one of the commonest shigi) and spoon-billed (hera-shigi)—and water-hens (ban). Among moths in the islands. Wasps, bees and hornets, generically known swimming birds the most numerous are the gull (kamome), of which as hachi, differ little from their European types, except that they are many varieties are found; the cormorant (u)---which is trained by somewhat larger and more sluggish. The gad-iy (abu), the house- the Japanese for fishing purposes and multitudinous Alocks of Ay (hai), the mosquito (ka), the flea (nomi) and occasionally the bed- wild-geese (gan) and wild-ducks (kamo), from the beautiful mandarin bug (called by the Japanese kara-mushi because it is believed to be duck (oshi-dori), emblem of conjugal fidelity, to teal (kogamo) and imported from China), are all fully represented, and the dragon-fly widgeon (hidori-gamo), of several species. Great preserves of wild. (combo) presents itself in immense numbers at certain seasons. duck and teal used to be a frequent feature in the parks attached to Grasshoppers (balta) are abundant, and one kind (inago), which the feudal castles of old Japan, when a peculiar method of netting frequent the rice-fields when the cereal is ripening, are caught and the birds or striking them with falcons was a favourite aristocratic fried in oil as an article of food. On the moors in late summer the pastime. A few of such preserves still exist, and it is noticeable mantis (kama-kiri-mushi) is commonly met with, and the cricket that in the Palace-moats of Tokyo all kinds of water-birds, attracted (kürogi) and the cockroach abound. Particularly obtrusive is the by the absolute immunity they enjoy there, assemble in countless cicada (semi), of which there are many species. Its strident voice numbers at the approach of winter and remain until the following is heard most loudly at times of great heat, when the song of the spring, wholly indifferent to the close proximity of the city. birds is hushed. The dragon-fly and the cicada afford ceaseless Of reptiles Japan has only 30 species, and among them is included entertainment to the Japanese boy: He catches them by means of the marine turtle (umz-game) which can scarcely be said to frequenta rod smeared with bird-lime, and then tying a fine string under their her waters, since it is seen only at rare intervals on the southern wings, he flies them at its end. Spiders abound, from a giant species coast. This is even truer of the larger species (the shogakubo, i.e. to one of the minutest dimensions, and the tree-bug is always ready Chelonia cephalo). Both are highly valued for the sake of the shell, to make a destructive lodgment in any sickly tree-stem. The which has always been a favourite material for ladies' combs and scorpion (sasori) exists but is not poisonous. hairpins. By carefully selecting certain portions and welding Japanese rivers and lakes are the habitation of several-seven or them together in a perfectly flawless mass, a pure amber-coloured eight--species of freshwater crab (kani), which live in holes on the object is obtained at heavy cost. Of the fresh-water tortoise there shore and emerge in the day-time, often moving to considerable are two kinds, the suppon (Trionyx japonica) and the kame-no-ko distances from their homes. Shrimps (kawa-ebi) also are found in (Emys vulgaris japonica). The latter is one of the Japanese emblems the rivers and rice-fields. These shrimps as well as a large species of longevity. It is often depicted with a flowing tail, which appendix of crab-mokuző-gani-serve the people as an article of food, but attests close observation of nature; for the mino-game, as it is called, the small crabs which live in holes have no recognized raison d'être. represents a tortoise to which, in the course of many scores of years, In Japan, as elsewhere, the principal crustacea are found in the sea. confervae have attached themselves so as to form an appendage of Flocks of lupa and other species swim in the wake of the tropical long green locks as the creature swims about. Sea-snakes occasion. fishes which move towards Japan at certain seasons. Naturally ally make their way to Japan, being carried thither by the Black these migratory crabs are not limited to Japanese waters. Milne Current (Kuro Shiwo) and the monsoon, but they must be regarded Edwards has identified ten species which occur in Australian seas as merely fortuitous visitors. There are 10 species of land-snakes also, and Rein mentions, as belonging to the same category, (hebi), among which one only (the mamushi, or Trigonocephalus the helmet-crab" or " horse-shoe crab" (kabuto-goni, Limulus Blomhoffi) is venomous. The others for the most part frequent longispina Hoeven). Very remarkable is the giant Taka-ashi- the rice fields and live upon frogs. The largest is the aodaisho long legs (Macrocheirus Kaempferi), which has legs 1 metres long (Elophis virgatus), which sometimes attains a length of 5 ft., but is and is found in the seas of Japan and the Malay archipelago. There quitė harmless. Lizards (tokage), frogs (kawazu or kaeru), toads is no lobster on the coasts of Japan, but there are various species (ebogayeru) and newts (imori) are plentiful, and much curiosity of cray-fish (Palinurus and Scyllarus) the principal of which, under attaches to a giant salamander (sansho-uwo, called also hazekai and the names of ise-ebi (Palinurus ja ponicus) and kuruma-ebi (Penaeus other names according to localities), which reaches to a length of canaliculatus) are greatly prized as an article of diet. 5 ft., and (according to Rein) is closely related to the Andrias Already in 1882, Dunker in his Index Molluscorum Maris Japonici Scheuchzeri of the Oeningen strata. enumerated nearly 1200 species of marine molluscs found in the 164 JAPAN (POPULATION Japanese archipelago, and several others have since then been added i According to quasi-historical records, the population of the empire to the list. As for the land and fresh-water molluscs, some 200 of in the year A.D. 610 was 4,988,842, and in 736 it had grown to which are known, they are mainly kindred with those of China and 8,631,770. It is impossible to say how much reliance may be placed Siberia. tropical and Indian forms being exceptional. There are on these figures, but from the 18th century, when the name of every 57 species of Helix (maimaitsuburi, dedemushi, kalatsumuri or kwagyu) subject had to be inscribed on the roll of a temple as a measure and 25 of Clausilia (kiseru-gai or pipe-snail), including the two against his adoption of Christianity, a tolerably trustworthy census largest snails in Japan, namely the Cl! Marlensi and the Ci. Yoko- could always be taken. The returns thus obtained show that from hamensis, which attain to a length of 58 mm. and 44 mm. respec. the year 1723 until 1846 the population remained almost stationary. tively. The mussel (i-no-kai) is well represented by the species the figure in the former year being 26,065,422, and that in the latter numa-gai (marsh-mussel), karasu-gai (raven-mussel), kamisori-gai year 26,907,625. There had, indeed, been five periods of declining (razor-mussel), shijimi-no-kai (Corbicula), of which there are nine population in that interval of 124 years, namely, the periods 1738- species, &c. Unlike the land-molluscs, the great majority of Japanese 1744, 1759-1762, 1773-1774, 1791-1792, and 1844-1846. But after sea-molluscs are akin to those of the Indian Ocean and the Malay 1872, when the census showed a total of 33,1 10,825, the population archipelago. Some of them extend westward as far as the Red Sea. grew steadily, its increment between 1872 and 1898 inclusive, a period The best known and most frequent forms are the asari (Tapes of 27 years, being 10,649,990. Such a rate of increase invests the philippinarum), the hamaguri (Meretrix lusoria), the baka (Macira question of subsistence with great importance. In former times the sulcataria), the aka-gai (Scapharca inflata), the kaki (oyster), the area of land under cultiyation increased in a marked degree. Returns awabi (Haliotis japonica), the sazae (Turbo cornutus), the hora-gai prepared at the beginning of the 10th century showed 21 million acres (Tritonium trilonius), &c. Among the cephalopods several are of under crops, whereas the figure in 1834 was over 8 million acres. But great value as articles of food, e.g. the surume (Onychotheuthis the development of means of subsistence has been outstripped by Banksii), the tako (octopus), the shidako (Eledone), the ika (Sepia) the growth of population in recent years. Thus, during the period and the lako-fune (Argonauta). between 1899 and 1907, the population received an increment of Greeff enumerates, as denizens of Japanese seas, 26 kinds of sea. 11.6% whereas the food-producing area increased by only 4:4 %. urchins (gaze or uni) and 12 of starfish (hilode or tako-no-makura). This discrepancy caused anxiety at one time, but large fields suitable These, like the mollusca, indicate the influence of the Kuro Shiwo for colonization have been opened in Sakhalin, Korea, Manchuria and the south-west monsoon, for they have close affinity with species and Formosa, so that the problem of subsistence has ceased to be found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. For edible purposes the troublesome. The birth-rate, taking the average of the decennial most valuable of the Japanese echinoderms is the sea-slug or bêche period ended 1907, is 3.05 % of the population, and the death-rate de mer (namako), which is greatly appreciated and forms an important is 2:05. Males exceed females in the ratio of 2% approximately staple of export to China. Rein writes: “ Very remarkable in con- But this rule does not hold after the age of 65, where for every 100 nexion with the starfishes is the occurrence of Asterias rubens on females only 83 males are found. The Japanese are of low stature the Japanese coast. This creature displays an almost unexampled as compared with the inhabitants of Western Europe: about 16% frequency and extent of distribution in the whole North Sea, in the of the adult males are below 5 ft. But there are evidences of western parts of the Baltic, near the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Green- steady improvement in this respect. Thus, during the period of ten land and the English coasts, so that it may be regarded as a charac- years between 1893 and 1902, it was found that the percentage of teristic North Sea echinoderm form. Towards the south this star. recruits of 5 ft. 5 in. and upward grew from 10.09 to 12.67, the rate fish disappears, it seems, completely: for it is not yet known with of increase having been remarkably steady; and the percentage of certainty to exist either in the Mediterranean or in the southern those under 5 ft. declined from 20-21 to 16-20. parts of the Atlantic Ocean. In others also Asterias rubens is not Towns. There are in Japan 23 towns having a population of known and then it suddenly reappears in Japan. Archasler over 50,000, and there are 76 having a population of over 20,000. typicus has a pretty wide distribution over the Indian Ocean; other The larger towns, their populations and the growth of the latter Asteridae of Japan, on the other hand, appear to be confined to its during the five-year period commencing with 1898 were as follow:- shores." Japan is not rich in corals and sponges. Her most interesting URBAN POPULATIONS contributions are crust-corals (Gorgonidae, Corallium, Isis, &c.), 1898. 1903 and especially fint-sponges, called by the Japanese hoshi-gai and known as Tokyo glass-coral" (Hyalonema sieboldi). These last have not 1,440,121 1,795,128 Osaka 821,235 988,200 been found anywhere except at the entrance of the Bay of Tokyo Kioto at a depth of soine 200 fathoms. 353,139 379,404 Nagoya 244,145 284,829 Kobe 215,780 283,839 II.—THE PEOPLE Yokohama 193,762 324,776 Hiroshima 122,306 113,545 Population.—The population was as follows on the 31st of Nagasaki 107,422 151,727 December 1907:- Kanazawa Population 83,595 97,548 Sendai 83,325 рег 93,773 Population. Males. Females. Totals. Hakodate 78,040 84,746 sq. m. Fukuoka 66,190 70,107 Japan proper. 24,601,658 24,172,627 48,774,285 330 Wakayama 63,667 67.908 Formosa (Taiwan) 1,640,778 1,476,137 3,116,915 224 Tokushima 61,501 62,998 Sakhalin 7,175 3,631 10,806 Kumamoto O.1 61,463 55,277 Toyama 59,558 86,276 Okayama 58,025 80,140 Totals :: 26,249,611 25,652,395 51,902,006 Otaru 56,961 79,746 Kagoshima 58,384 Niigata 58,821 The following table shows the rate of increase in the four Sakai 50,203 quadrennial periods between 1891 and 1907 in Japan proper:- Sapporo 55,304 Kure 62,825 Average Population Sasebo 52,607 Year. Males. Females. Totals. increase per per cent. sq. m. The growth of Kure and Sasebo is attributable to the fact that they have become the sites of large ship-building yards, the property of 1891 20,563,416 20,155,261 40,718,677 1.09 272 the state. 1895 21,345,750 20,904,870 42,270,620 1.09 286 The number of houses in Japan at the end of 1903, when the census 1899 22,330,112 21,930,540 44,260,652 1.14 299 was last taken, was 8,725,544, the average number of inmates in each house being thus 5.5. 1903 . 23,601,640 23,131,236 46,732,876 1.54 316 1907 24,601,658 24,172,627 48,774,285 1:13 330 Physical Characteristics.—The best authorities are agreed that the Japanese people do not differ physically from their Korean The population of Formosa (Taiwan) during the ten-year and Chinese neighbours as much as the inhabitants of northern period 1898-1907 grew as follows:- Europe differ from those of southern Europe. It is true that the Average Population Japanese are shorter in stature than either the Chinese or the Year. Males. Females. Totals. increase per Koreans. Thus the average height of the Japanese male is only 5 ft. 31 in., and that of the female 4 ft. 101 in., whereas in 1898 1,307,428 1,157,539 2,464,967 182 the case of the Koreans and the northern Chinese the correspond. 1902 1,513,280 1,312,067 2,825,347 2.70 209 ing figures for males are 5 ft. si in. and s ft. 7 in. respectively. 7 1907 1.640,778 1,476,137 3,116,915 2.37 224 Yet in other physical characteristics the Japanese, the Koreans 53,481 53,366 per cent. sq. m. CHARACTERISTICS) JAPAN 165 and the Chinese resemble each other so closely that, under the ratio does not amount to one-seventh; but in the Japanese similar conditions as to costume and coiffure, no appreciable it exceeds the latter figure. In all nations men of short stature difference is apparent. Thus since it has become the fashion for have relatively large heads, but in the case of the Japanese there Chinese students to flock to the schools and colleges of Japan, appears to be some racial reason for the phenomenon. Another there adopting, as do their Japanese fellow-students, Occidental striking fcature is shortness of legs relatively to length of trunk. garments and methods of hairdressing, the distinction of nation- In northern Europeans the leg is usually much more than one- ality ceases to be perceptible. The most exhaustive anthro- half of the body's length, but in Japanese the ratio is one-half pological study of the Japanese has been made by Dr E. Baelz or even less, so that whereas the Japanese, when seated, looks (emeritus professor of medicine in the Imperial University of almost as tall as a European, there may be a great difference Tōkyō), who enumerates the following sub-divisions of the race between their statures when both are standing. This special inhabiting the Japanese islands. The first and most important feature has been attributed to the Japanese habit of kneeling is the Manchu-Korean type; that is to say, the type which prevails | instead of sitting, but investigation shows that it is equally in north China and in Korea. This is seen specially among the marked in the working classes who pass most of their time stand- upper classes in Japan. Its characteristics are exceptional ing. In Europe the same physical traits-relative length of tallness combined with slenderness and elegance of figure; a face head and shortness of legs-distinguish the central race (Alpine) somewhat long, without any special prominence of the cheek- from the Teutonic, and seem to indicate an affinity between the bones but having more or less oblique eyes; an aquiline nose; former and the Mongols. It is in the face, however, that we a slightly receding chin, largish upper teeth; a long neck; a find specially distinctive traits, namely, in the eyes, the eye- narrow chest; a long trunk, and delicately shaped, small hands lashes, the cheekbones and the beard. Not that the eyeball with long, slender fingers. The most plausible hypothesis is that itself differs from that of an Occidental. The difference consists men of this type are descendants of Korean colonists who, in in the fact that “the socket of the eye is comparatively small and prehistoric times, settled in the province of Izumo, on the west shallow, and the osseous ridges at the brows being little marked, coast of Japan, having made their way thither from the Korean the eye is less deeply set than in the European. In fact, seen in peninsula by the island of Oki, being carried by the cold current profile, forehead and upper lip often form an unbroken line." which flows along the eastern coast of Korea. The second type Then, again, the shape of the eye, as modelled by the lids, shows is the Mongol. It is not very frequently found in Japan, per- a striking peculiarity For whereas the open eye is almost haps because, under favourable social conditions, it tends to invariably horizontal in the European, it is often oblique in the pass into the Manchu-Korean type. Its representative has a Japanese on account of the higher level of the upper corner. broad face, with prominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, a nose “But even apart from obliqueness, the shape of the corners is more or less flat and a wide mouth. The figure is strongly and peculiar in the Mongolian eye. The inner corner is partly squarely built, but this last characteristic can scarcely be called or entirely covered by a fold of the upper lid continuing more typical. There is no satisfactory theory as to the route by which or less into the lower lid. This fold often covers also the the Mongols reached Japan, but it is scarcely possible to doubt whole free rim of the upper lid, so that the insertion of the eye- that they found their way thither at one time. More important lashes is hidden ” and the opening between the lids is so narrowed than either of these types as an element of the Japanese nation as to disappear altogether at the moment of laughter. As for is the Malay. Small in stature, with a well-knit frame, the cheek- the eye-lashes, not only are they comparatively short and sparse, bones prominent, the face generally round, the nose and neck but also they converge instead of diverging, so that whereas in a short, a marked tendency to prognathism, the chest broad and European the free ends of the lashes are further distant from well developed, the trunk long, the hands small and delicate each other than their roots, in a Japanese they are nearer to- this Malay type is found in nearly all the islands along the east gether. Prominence of cheekbones is another special feature, coast of the Asiatic continent as well as in southern China and but it is much commoner in the lower than in the upper classes, in the extreme south-west of Korean peninsula. Carried where elongated faces may almost be said to be the rule. Finally, northward by the warm current known as the Kuro Shiwo, the there is marked paucity of hair on the face of the average Japan- Malays seem to have landed in Kiūshiū—the most southerly ese-apart from the Ainu-and what hair there is is nearly of the main Japanese islands—whence they ultimately pushed always straight. It is not to be supposed, however, that because northward and conquered their Manchu-Korean predecessors, the Japanese is short of stature and often finely moulded, he the Izumo colonists. None of the above three, however, can be lacks either strength or endurance. On the contrary, he possesses regarded as the earliest settlers in Japan. Before them all was both in a marked degree, and his deftness of finger is not less a tribe of immigrants who appear to have crossed from north- remarkable than the suppleness and activity of his body. eastern Asia at an epoch when the sea had not yet dug broad Moral Characteristics.--The most prominent trait of Japanese channels between the continent and the adjacent islands. disposition is gaiety of heart. Emphatically of a laughter- These people-the Ainu-are usually spoken of as the aborigines loving nature, the Japanese passes through the world with a of Japan. They once occupied the whole country, but were smile on his lips. The petty ills of life do not disturb his equa- gradually driven northward by the Marchu-Koreans and the nimity. He takes them as part of the day's work, and though he Malays, until only a mere handful of them survived in the sometimes grumbles, rarely, if ever, does he repine. Excep- northern island of Yezo. Like the Malay and the Mongol types tional to this general rule, however, is a mood of pessimism they are short and thickly built, but unlike either they have which sometimes overtakes youths on the threshold of manhood. prominent brows, bushy locks, round deep-set eyes, long diver- | Finding the problem of life insolvable, they abandon the attempt gent lashes, straight noses and much hair on the face and the to solve it and take refuge in the grave. It seems as though body. In short, the Ainu suggest much closer affinity with there were always a number of young men hovering on the brink Europeans than does any other of the types that go to make up of such suicidal despair. An example alone is needed finally to the population of Japan. It is not to be supposed, however, destroy the equilibrium. Some one throws himself over a that these traces of different elements indicate any lack of homo- cataract or leaps into the crater of a volcano, and immediately geneity in the Japanese race. Amalgamation has been com- a score or two follow. Apparently the more picturesquely pletely effected in the course of long centuries, and even the awful the manner of the demise, the greater its attractive force. Ainu, though the small surviving remnant of them now live The thing is not a product of insanity, as the term is usually apart, have left a trace upon their conquerors. interpreted; letters always left behind by the victims prove The typical Japanese of the present day has certain marked them to have been in full possession of their reasoning faculties physical peculiarities. In the first place, the ratio of the height up to the last moment. Some observers lay the blame at the of his head to the length of his body is greater than it is in Euro- door of Buddhism, a creed which promotes pessimism by beget- peans. The Englishman's head is often one-eighth of the length ting the anchorite, the ascetic and the shuddering believer in of his body or even less, and in continental Europeans, as a rule, seven hells. But Buddbism did not formerly produce such 166 (CHARACTERISTICS JAPAN 1 incidents, and, for the rest, the faith of Shaka has little sway of sexual virtue and morality in Japan, grounds for a conclusive over the student mind in Japan. The phenomenon is modern: verdict are hard to find. In the interests of hygiene prostitution it is not an outcome of Japanese nature, nor yet of Buddhist is licensed, and that fact is by many critics construed as proof of teaching, but is due to the stress of endeavouring to reach the tolerance. But licensing is associated with strict segregation, standards of Western acquirement with grievously inadequate and it results that the great cities are conspicuously free from equipment, opportunities and resources. In order to support evidences of vice, and that the streets may be traversed by wonen himself and pay his academic fees many a Japanese has to fall at all hours of the day and night with perfect impunity and with- into the ranks of the physical labourer during a part of each day out fear of encountering offensive spectacles. The ratio of or night. Ill-nourished, over-worked and, it may be, disap- marriages is approximately 8 46 per thousand units of the popu- pointed, he finds the struggle intolerable and so passes out into lation, and the ratio of divorces is 1.36 per thousand. There are the darkness. But he is not a normal type. The normal type is thus about 16 divorces for every hundred marriages. Divorces take light-hearted and buoyant. One naturally expects to find, and place chiefly among the lower orders, who frequently treat marriage one does find, that this moral sunshine is associated with good merely as a test of a couple's suitability to be helpmates in the temper. The Japanese is exceptionally serene. Irascibility is struggles of life. If experience develops incompatibility of temper regarded as permissible in sickly children only: grown people or some other mutually repellent characteristic, separation are supposed to be superior to displays of impatience. But follows as a matter of course. On the other hand, divorces among there is a limit of imperturbability, and when that limit is persons of the upper classes are comparatively rare, and divorces reached, the subsequent passion is desperately vehement. It on account of a wife's unfaithfulness are almost unknown. has been said that these traits go to make the Japanese soldier Concerning the virtues of truth and probity, extremely con. what he is. The hardships of a campaign cause him little suffer-flicting opinions have been expressed. The Japanese samurai ing since he never frets over them, but the hour of combat finds always prided himself on having " no second word.” He never him forgetful of everything .save victory. In the case of the drew his sword without using it; he never gave his word without military class—and prior to the Restoration of 1867 the term keeping it. Yet it may be doubted whether the value attached military class ” was synonymous with “educated class "- in Japan to the abstract quality, truth, is as high as the value this spirit of stoicism was built up by precept on a solid basis of attached to it in England, or whether the consciousness of having heredity. The samurai (soldier) learned that his first charac- told a falsehood weighs as heavily on the heart. Much depends teristic must be to suppress all outward displays of emotion. upon the motive. Whatever may be said of the upper class, it Pain, pleasure, passion and peril must all find him unperturbed. is probably true that the average Japanese will not sacrifice The supreme test, satisfied so frequently as to be commonplace, expediency on the altar of truth. He will be veracious only so was a shocking form of suicide performed with a placid mien. long as the consequences are not seriously injurious. Perhaps This capacity, coupled with readiness to sacrifice life at any no more can be affirmed of any nation. The "white lie ” of the moment on the altar of country, fief or honour, made a remark- Anglo-Saxon and the hõben no uso of the Japanese are twins. ably heroic character. On the other hand, some observers hold in the matter of probity, however, it is possible to speak with that the education of this stoicism was effected at the cost of the more assurance. There is undoubtedly in the lower ranks of feelings it sought to conceal. In support of that theory it is Japanese tradesmen a comparatively large fringe of persons pointed out that the average Japanese, man or woman, will re- whose standard of commercial morality is defective. They are count a death or some other calamity in his own family with a descendants of feudal days when the mercantile element, being perfectly calm, if not a smiling, face. Probably there is a measure counted as the dregs of the population, lost its self-respect. of truth in the criticism. Feelings cannot be habitually hidden Against this blemish-which is in process of gradual correction without being more or less blunted. But here another Japanese -the fact has to be set that the better class of merchants, the trait presents itself-politeness. There is no more polite nation whole of the artisans and the labouring classes in general, obey in the world than the Japanese. Whether in real courtesy of canons of probity fully on a level with the best to be found else- heart they excel Occidentals may be open to doubt, but in all where. For the rest, frugality, industry and patience charac- the forms of comity they are unrivalled. Now one of the car- terize all the bread-winners; courage and burning patriotism are dinal rules of politeness is to avoid burdening a stranger with the attributes of the whole nation. weight of one's own woes. Therefore a mother, passing from the There are five qualities possessed by the Japanese in a marked chamber which has just witnessed her paroxysms of grief, will degree. The first is frugality. From time immemorial the describe calmly to a stranger-especially a forcigner-the death great mass of the people have lived in absolute ignorance of of her only child. The same suppression of emotional display luxury in any form and in the perpetual presence of a necessity in public is observed in all the affairs of life. Youths and to economize. Amid these circumstances there has emerged maidens maintain towards each other a demeanour of reserve capacity to make a little go a long way and to be content with and even indifference, from which it has been confidently affirmed the most meagre fare. The second quality is endurance. It is that love does not exist in Japan. The truth is that in no other born of causes cognate with those which have begotten frugality. country do so many dual suicides occur-suicides of a man and The average Japanese may be said to live without artificial heat; woman who, unable to be united in this world, go to a union his paper doors admit the light but do not exclude the cold. beyond the grave. It is true, nevertheless, that love as a prelude His brazier barely suffices to warm his hands and his face. to marriage finds only a small place in Japanese ethics. Mar- Équally is 'he a stranger to methods of artificial cooling. He riages in the great majority of cases are arranged with little takes the frost that winter inflicts and the fever that summer reference to the feelings of the parties concerned. It might be brings as unavoidable visitors. The third quality is obedience; supposed that conjugal fidelity must suffer from such a custom. the offspring of eight centuries passed under the shadow of mili- It does suffer seriously in the case of the husband, but emphati- tary autocracy. Whatever he is authoritatively bidden to do, cally not in the case of the wife. Even though she be cog- that the Japanese will do. The fourth quality is altruism. In nisant-as she often is—of her husband's extra-marital relations, the upper classes the welfare of the family has been set above the she abates nothing of the duty which she has been taught to interests of each member. The fifth quality is a genius for detail. regard as the first canon of female ethics. From many points of Probably this is the outcome of an extraordinarily elaborate view, indeed, there is no more beautiful type of character than system of social etiquette. Each generation has added some- that of the Japanese woman. She is entirely unselfish; exqui- thing to the canons of its predecessor, and for every ten points sitely modest without being anything of a prude; abounding in preserved not more than one has been discarded. An instinctive intelligence which is never obscured by egoism; patient in the respect for minutiae has thus been inculcated, and has gradually hour of suffering; strong in time of affliction; a faithful wife; a extended to all the affairs of life. That this accuracy may some- loving mother; a good daughter; and capable, as history shows, times degenerate into triviality, and that such absorption in of heroism rivalling that of the stronger sex. As to the question I trifles may occasionally hide the broad horizon, is conceivable. LANGUAGE) JAPAN 167 But the only hitherto apparent evidence of such defects is an As to which of the first two methods of pronunciation had chro- excessive clinging to the letter of the law; a marked reluctance nological precedence, the weight of opinion is that the kan came later than the go. Evidently this triplication of sounds had many dis- to exercise discretion; and that, perhaps, is attributable rather to advantages, but, on the other hand, the whole Chinese language may the habit of obedience. Certainly the Japanese have proved them- be said to have been grafted on the Japanese. Chinese has the selves capable of great things, and their achievements seem to widest capacity of any tongue ever invented. It consists of thou- have been helped rather than retarded by their attention to detail. sands of monosyllabic roots, each having a definite meaning. These monosyllables may be used singly or combined, two, three or four III.-LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE at a time, so that the resulting combinations convey almost any conceivable shades of meaning. Take, for example, the word Language.-Since the year 1820, when Klaproth concluded that clectricity." The very idea conveyed was wholly novel in Japan. the Japanese language had sprung from the Ural-Altaic stock, But scholars were immediately able to construct the following: philologists have busied themselves in tracing its affinities. If the Lightning. Den. theories hitherto held with regard to the origin of the Japanese Exhalation. Ki Electricity. Denki. people be correct, close relationship should exist between the Telegram. Dempo. Hồetidings. Japanese and the Korean tongues, and possibly between the Electric light. Dento. Törlamp. Japanese and the Chinese. Aston devoted much study to the Negative electricity. Indenki. In=the negative principle. former question, but although he proved that in construction the Positive electricity. Yodenki. Yo=the positive principle. Thermo-electricity. Netsudenki. Netsu = heat. two have a striking similarity, he could not find any correspond- Dynamic-electricity. Ryūdo-denki. Ryūdo=fluid. ing likeness in their vocabularies. As far back as the beginning Telephone. Denwa. Wa=conversation. of the Christian era the Japanese and the Koreans could not hold Every branch of learning can thus be equipped with a vocabulary. intercourse without the aid of interpreters. If then the languages Potent, however, as such a vehicle is for expressing thought, its of Korea and Japan had a common stock, they must have ideographic script constitutes a great obstacle to general acquisition, branched off from it at a date exceedingly remote. As for the and the Japanese soon applied themselves to minimizing the difficulty languages of Japan and China, they have remained essentially required sounds could be conveyed with 47 syllables, and having by substituting a phonetic system. Analysis showed that all the different throughout some twenty centuries in spite of the fact selected the ideographs that corresponded to those sounds, they that Japan adopted Chinese calligraphy and assimilated Chinese reduced them, first, to forms called hiragana, and, secondly, to still literature. Mr K. Hirai has done much to establish his theory more simplified forms called katakana. that Japanese and Aryan had a common parent. But nothing come to dissect' it, we find several striking characteristics. First, Such, in brief, is the story of the Japanese language. When we has yet been substantiated. Meanwhile an inquirer is confronted the construction is unlike that of any European tongue: all qualifiers by the strange fact that of three neighbouring countries between precede the words they qualify, except prepositions which become which frequent communication existed, one (China) never postpositions. Thus instead of saying the house of Mr Smith is in that street, deviated from an ideographic script; another (Korea) invented in is." Then there is no relative pronoun, and the resulting com- " Smith Mr of house that street a Japanese says an alphabet, and the third (Japan) devised a syllabary. Anti- plication seems great to an English-speaking person, as the following quaries have sought to show that Japan possessed some illustration will show: form of script before her first contact with either Korea or JAPANESE. ENGLISH China. But such traces of prehistoric letters as are supposed | Zenaku wo saiban suru tame no The unique standard which Virtue to have been found seem to be corruptions of the Korean vice-judging sake of is used for judging virtue or vice is benevolent conduct alphabet rather than independent symbols. It is commonly mochiitaru yüitsu no hyojun wa unique standard solely. believed that the two Japanese syllabaries—which, though jiai kõi tada distinct in form, have identical sounds--were invented by benevolence of conduct only Kukai (790) and Kibi Daijin (730) respectively. But the kore nomi. this alone. evidence of old documents seems to show that these syllabaries had a gradual evolution and that neither was the outcome of a It will be observed that in the above sentence there are two untrans. lated words, wo and wa. These belong to a group of four auxiliary single scholar's inventive genius. particles called te ni wo ha (or wa), which serve to mark the cases of The sequence of events appears to have been this:-Japan's nouns, te (or de) being the sign of the instrumental ablative; ni that earliest contact with an oversea people was with the Koreans, and of the dative; wo that of the objective, and we that of the nomina- she made some tentative efforts to adapt their alphabet to the tive. These exist in the Korean language also, but not in any other expression of her own language. Traces of these efforts survived, tongue. There are also polite and ordinary forms of expression, and inspired the idea that the art of writing was practised by the often so different as to constitute distinct languages; and there Japanese before the opening of intercourse with their continental are a number of honorifics which frequently discharge the duty of neighbours. Korea, however, had neither a literary nor an ethical pronouns. Another marked peculiarity is that active agency is message to deliver, and thus her script failed to attract much atten- never attributed to neuter nouns. A Japanese does not say " the tion. Very different was the case when China presented her noble poison killed him” but “ he died on account of the poison;", nor code of Confucian philosophy and the literature embodying it. does he say “the war has caused commodities to appreciate," but The Japanese then recognized a lofty civilization and placed them- commodities have appreciated in consequence of the war.' That selves as pupils at its feet, learning its script and deciphering its books. Their veneration extended to ideographs. At first they denied: metaphor and allegory are almost completely banished. the language loses much force owing to this limitation cannot be adapted them frankly, to their own tongue. For example, the The difficulties that confront an Occidental who attempts to learn ideographs signifying rice or metal or water in Chinese were used to Japanese are enormous. There are three languages to be acquired: convey the same ideas in Japanese. Each ideograph thus came to ürst, the ordinary colloquial; second, the polite colloquial; and, have two sounds, one Japanese, the other Chinese. 1.g. the ideo third, the written. The ordinary colloquial differs materially from graph for rice had for Japanese sound kome and for Chinese sound bei. its polite form, and both are as unlike the written form as modern Nor was this the whole story. There were two epochs in Japan's Italian is unlike ancient Latin. “Add to this," writes Professor study of the Chinese language: first, the epoch when she received Confucianism through Korea; and, secondly, the epoch when she syllabaries, one of which has many variant forms, and at least two B. H, Chamberlain," the necessity of committing to memory two began to study Buddhism direct from China. Whether the sounds or three thousand Chinese ideographs, in forms standard and cursive that came by Korea were corrupt, or whether the interval separating --ideographs, too, most of which are susceptible of three or four these epochs had sufficed to produce a sensible difference of pronun- different readings according to circumstance,-add, further, that all ciation in China itself, it would seem that the students of Buddhism these kinds of written symbols are apt to be encountered pell mell who flocked from Japan to the Middle Kingdom during the Sui era (A.D. 589-619) insisted on the accurac of the pronunciation ac- and the task of mastering Japanese becomes almost Herculean."" view of all this there is a strong movement in quired there, although it diverged perceptibly from the pronuncia- favour of romanizing the Japanese script; that is to say, abolishing tion already recognized in Japan. Thus, in fine, each word came the ideograph and adopting in its place the Roman alphabet. But to have three sounds--two Chinese, known as the kan and the go, and one Japanese, known as the kun. For example:- while every one appreciates the magnitude of the relief that would thus be afforded, there has as yet been little substantial progress. JAPANESE A language which has been adapted from its infancy to ideographic SOUND. SOUND. MEANING. transmission cannot easily be fitted to phonetic uses. Sei Jo Koe Voice Dictionaries.-F. Brinkley, An Unabridged Japanese-English Nen Zen Toshi Dictionary (Tokyo, 1896); Y. Shimada, English-Japanese Dictionary, Jinkan Ningen Hito no aida Human being. (Tokyo, 1897); Webster's Dictionary, trans. into japanese, (Tokyo, no a 4 RAN" " GO." SOUND. Year 168 JAPAN (LITERATURE 1899); J. H. Gubbins, Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Words (3 vols., I and its consequent accessibility, there arose a galaxy of London, 1889); J. C. Hepburn, Japanese-English and English- Japanese Dictionary (London, 1903); E. M. Satow and I. Masa kata, scholars under whose influence the archaic style and the ancient English-Japanese Dictionary (London, 1904). Japanese traditions entered a period of renaissance. The story of this period and of its products has been admirably told by Sir Lileråture.-From the neighbouring continent the Japanese Ernest Satow (“Revival of Pure Shinto," Proceedings of the derived the art of transmitting ideas to paper. But as to Asiatic Sociely of Japan, vol. iii.), whose essay, together with the date of that acquisition there is doubt. An authenticated Professor Chamberlain's Kojiki, the same author's introduction work compiled A.D. 720 speaks of historiographers having been to The Classical Poetry of the Japanese, and Mr W. G. Aston's appointed to collect local records for the first time in 403, Nihongi, are essential to every student of Japanese literature. from which it is to be inferred that such officials had already To understand this. 17th century renaissance, knowledge of one existed at the court. There is also a tradition that some kind fact is necessary, namely, that about the year A.D. 810, a cele- of general history was compiled in 620 but destroyed by fire brated Buddhist priest, Kūkai, who had spent several years in 645. At all events, the earliest book now extant dates from studying in China, compounded out of Buddhism, Confucianism 712. Its origin is described in its preface. When the emperor and Shinto a system of doctrine called Ryōbu Shinto (Dual Temmu (673-686) ascended the throne, he found that there did Shinto), the prominent tenet of which was that the Shinto deities not exist any revised collection of the fragmentary annals of the were merely transmigrations of Buddhist divinities. By this chief families. He therefore caused these annals to be collated. device Japanese conservatism was effectually conciliated, and There happened to be among the court ladies one Hiyeda no Are, Buddhism became in fact the creed of the nation, its positive who was gifted with an extraordinary memory. Measures were and practical precepts entirely eclipsing the agnostic intuition- taken to instruct her in the genuine traditions and the old lan-alism of Shinto. Against this hybrid faith several Japanese guage of former ages, the intention being to have the whole ulti- scholars arrayed themselves in the 17th and 18th centuries, the mately dictated to a competent scribe. But the emperor died greatest of them being Mabuchi and Motoori. The latter's before the project could be consummated, and for twenty-five magnum opus, Kojikiden (Exposition of the Record of Ancient years Are's memory remained the sole depository of the collected Matters), declared by Chamberlain to be “ perhaps the most annals. Then, under the auspices of the empress Gemmyö, the admirable work of which Japanese erudition can boast,” con- original plan was carried out in 712, Yasumaro being the scribe. sists of 44 large volumes, devoted to elucidating the Kojiki and The work that resulted is known as the Kojiki (Record of Ancient resuscitating the Shinto cult as it existed in the earliest days. Matters). It has been accurately translated by Professor B. H. This great work of reconstruction was only one feature of the Chamberlain (Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol.x.), literary activity which marked the 17th and 18th centuries, who, in a preface justly regarded by students of Japan as an when. under Tokugawa rule, the blessing of long-unknown exegetical classic, makes the pertinent comment: “Taking the peace came to the nation. Iyeyasu himself devoted the last word Altaïc in its usual acceptation, viz. as the generic name of years of his life to collecting ancient manuscripts. In his all the languages belonging to the Manchu, Mongolian, Turkish country retreat at Shizuoka' he formed one of the richest libraries and Finnish groups, not only the archaic, but the classical, ever brought together. in Japan, and by will he bequeathed the literature of Japan carries us back several centuries beyond the Japanese section of it to his eighth son, the feudal chief of earliest extant documents of any other Altaſc tongue." By the Owari, and the Chinese section to his ninth son, the prince of term “ archaic” is to be understood the pure Japanese language Kishū, with the result that under the former feudatory's auspices of earliest times, and by the term “ classical ” the quasi-Chinese two works of considerable merit were produced treating of ancient language which came into use for literary purposes when Japan ceremonials and supplementing the Nihongi. Much more appropriated the civilization of her great neighbours. The memorable, however, was a library formed by Iyeyasu's grand- Kojiki is written in the archaic form: that is to say, the language son the feudal chief of Mito (1662-1700), who not only collected is the language of old Japan, the script, although ideographic, is a vast quantity of books hitherto scattered among Shinto and used phonetically only, and the case-indicators are represented Buddhist monasteries and private houses, but also employed by Chinese characters having the same sounds. It is a species of a number of scholars to compile a history unprecedented in saga, setting forth not only the heavenly beginnings of the Japan- magnitude, the Dai-Nihon-shi. It consisted of 240 volumes, and ese race, but also the story of creation, the succession of the it became at once the standard in its own branch of literature. various sovereigns and the salient events of their reigns, the Still more comprehensive was a book emanating from the same whole interspersed with songs, many of which may be attributed source and treating of court ceremonials. It ran to more than to the 6th century, while some doubtless date from the fourth or 500 volumes, and the emperor honoured the work by bestowing even the third. This Kojiki marks the parting of the ways. on it the title Reigi Ruiten (Rules of Ceremonials). These com- Already by the time of its compilation the influence of Chinese pilations together with the Nihon Gwaishi (History of Japan civilization and Chinese literature had prevailed so greatly in Outside the Court), written by Rai Sanyo and published in 1827, Japan that the next authentic work, composed only eight years constituted the chief sources of historical knowledge before the later, was completely Chinese in style and embodied Chinese Meiji era. Rai Sanyo devoted twenty years to the preparation traditions and Chinese philosophical doctrines, not distinguishing of his 22 volumes and took his materials from 259 Japanese and them from their Japanese context. This volume was called the Chinese works. But neither he nor his predecessors recognized Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan). It may be said to have wholly in history anything more than a vehicle for recording the mere supplanted its predecessor in popular favour, for the classic style sequence of events and their relations, together with some account -that is to say, the Chinese—had now come to be regarded as of the personages concerned. Their volumes make profoundly the only erudite script. The Chronicles re-traversed much of the dry reading. Vicarious interest, however, attaches to the pro- ground already gone over by the Record, preserving many of the ductions of the Mito School on account of the political influence songs in occasionally changed form, omitting some portions, they exercised in rehabilitating the nation's respect for the throne supplementing others, and imparting to the whole such an by unveiling the picture of an epoch prior to the usurpations exotic character as almost to disqualify the work for a place in of military feudalism. The struggles of the great rival clans, Japanese literature. Yet this was the style which thenceforth replete with episodes of the most tragic and stirring character, prevailed among the litterati of Japan. “Standard Chinese soon inspired quasi-historical narrations of a more popular character, became easier to understand than archaic Japanese, as the former which often took the form of illuminated scrolls. But it was not alone was taught in the schools, and the native language changed until the Meiji era that history, in the modern sense of the term, rapidly during the century or two that followed the diffusion began to be written. During recent times many students have of the foreign tongue and civilization ” (CHAMBERLAIN). The turned their attention to this branch of literature. Works of neglect into which the Kojiki fell lasted until the 17th century. wide scope and clear insight have been produced, and the Almost simultaneously with its appearance in type (1644) | Historiographers' section in the Imperial University of Tokyo LITERATURE] JAPAN 169 5 and ture, has been for several years engaged in collecting and collating Murasaki no Shikibu-probably a pseudonym-was the first novel materials for a history which will probably rank with anything gatari (narratives), but all consisted merely of short stories, mythical composed in Japan. Before her time there had been many mono- of the kind in existence. or quasi-historical, whereas Murasaki no Shikibu did for Japan what In their poetry above everything the Japanese have remained Fielding and Richardson did for England. Her work was a prose impervious to alien influences. It owes this conservation to its epic of real life," the life of her hero, Genji. Her language is graceful Poetry. prosody. Without rhyme, without variety of metre, and natural, her sentiments are refined and sober; and, as Mr Aston without elasticity of dimensions, it is also without well says, her "story flows on easily from one scene of real life to known counterpart. To alter it in any way would be to deprive another, giving us a varied and minutely detailed picture of life and it of all distinguishing characteristics. Ať some remote date a society in Kioto, such as we possess for no other country at the same Japanese maker of songs seems to have discovered that a peculiar period." The Makura no Zoshi (Pillow Sketches), like the Genji and very fascinating rhythm is produced by lines containing Monogatari , was by a noble lady-Sei Shonagon-but it is simply a 5 syllables and 7 syllables alternately That Japanese poetry record of daily events and fugitive thoughts, though not in the form (ute or tanka). There are generally five lines: the first and third of a diary. The book is one of the most natural and unaffected consisting of 5 syllables, the second, fourth and fifth of 7, making a compositions ever written. Undesignedly it conveys a wonderfully total of 3i in all. The number of lines is not compulsory: sometimes realístic picture of aristocratic life and social ethics in Kioto at the they may reach to thirty, forty or even more, but the alternation of beginning of the 11th century “ If we compare it with anything syllables compulsory. The most attenuated form of all that Europe period, it must be admitted that is the hon klub boris nisi puhich contibes no soniy tenere lines, ma meiy, is indeed a remarkable work is what at revelation in would have it 17 syllables. Necessarily the ideas embodied in such a narrow we had the court life of Alfred's or Canute's reign depicted to us in vehicle must be fragmentary. Thus it results that Japanese poems a similar way." are, for the most part, impressionist; they suggest a great deal more The period from the early part of the 14th century to the opening than they actually express. Here is an example: of the i7th is generally regarded as the dark age of Japanese litera- The constant wars of the time left their impress The Dark Momiji-ha wo upon everything. To them is due the fact that the Kaze ni makasete More fleeting than the glint of two principal works compiled during this epoch were, Age. Miru yori mo withered leaf wind-blown, the one political, the other quasi-historical. In the former, Jinkoshoto. Hakanaki mono wa thing called life. ki (History of the True Succession of the Divine Monarchs), Kitabatake Inochi nari keri Chìkafusá (1340) undertook to prove that of the two sovereigns then disputing for supremacy in Japan, Go-Daigo was the rightful There is no English metre with this peculiar cadence. monarch; in the latter, Taihei-ki (History of Great Peace), Kojima It is not to be inferred that the writers of Japan, enamoured as(1370) devoted his pages to describing the events of contempo- they were of Chinese ideographs and Chinese style, deliberately ex- raneous history. Neither work can be said to possess signal literary cluded everything Chinese from the realm of poetry. On the contrary, merit, but both had memorable consequences. For the Jinkoshoto-ki, many of them took pleasure in composing versicles to which Chinese by its strong advocacy of the mikado's administrative rights as words were admitted and which showed something of the “parallel- against the usurpations of military feudalism, may be said to have ism " peculiar to Chinese poetry, since the first idcograph of the last sowed the seeds of Japan's modern polity; and the Taihei-ki, by line was required to be identical with the final ideograph. But its erudite diction, skilful rhetoric, simplification of old gram- rhyme was not attempted, and the syllabic metre of Japan was matical constructions and copious interpolation of Chinese words, preserved, the alternation of 5 and 7 being, however, dispensed with. furnished a model for many imitators and laid the foundations Such couplets were called shi to distinguish them from the pure of Japan's 19th-century style. The Taihei-ki produced another Japanese uta or tanka. The two greatest masters of Japanese poetry notable effect; it inspired public readers who soon developed into were Hitomaro and Akahito, both of the early 8th century, and next historical raconteurs; a class of professionals who are almost as to them stands Tsurayuki, who flourished at the beginning of the much in vogue to-day as they were 500 years ago. , Belonging to Ióth century, and is not supposed to have transmitted his mantle about the same period as the Jinkoshoto-ki, another classic occupies to any successor. The choicest productions of the former two with a leading place in Japanese esteem. It is the Tsure-zure-gusa those of many other poets were brought together in 756 and embodied (Materials for Dispelling Ennui), by Kenko-boshi, described by Mr in a book called the Manyoshū (Collection of a Myriad Leaves). The Aston as one of the most delightful oases in Japanese literature; volume remained unique until the beginning of the roth century, when a collection of short sketches, anecdotes and essays on all imaginable (A.D: 905) Tsurayuki and three coadjutors compiled the Kokinshū subjects, something in the manner of Selden's Table Talk." (Collection of Odes Ancient and Modern), the first of twenty-one similar The so-called dark age of Japanese literature was not entirely anthologies between the rith and the 15th centuries, which con- unproductive: it gave the drama (No) to Japan. Tradition ascribes stitute the Niju-ichi Dai-shū (Anthologies of the One-and-Twenty the origin of the drama to. a religious dance of a panto- The Drama. Reigns). If to these we add the Hyaku-ninshú (Hundred Odes by @mimic character, called Kagura and associated with Hundred Poets) brought together by Teika Kyo in the 13th century, Shinto ceremonials. . The No, however, owed its development we have all the classics of Japanese poetry. For the composition mainly to Buddhist influence. During the medieval era of inter- of the uta gradually deteriorated from the end of the 9th century, Decine strife the Buddhist priests were the sole depositaries of literary when a game called uta-awase became a fashionable pastime, and talent, and seeing that, from the close of the 14th century, the aristocratic men and women tried to string together versicles of 31 Shinto mime (Kagura) was largely employed by the military class syllables, careful of the form and careless of the thought. The to invoke or acknowledge the assistance of the gods, the monks of uta-awase, in its later developments, may not unjustly be compared Buddha set themselves to compose librettos for this mime, and the to the Occidental game of bouts-rimés.' The poetry of the nation performance, thus modified, received the name of No. Briefly remained immovable in the ancient groove until very modern times, speaking, the No was a dance of the most stately character, adapted when, either by direct access to the originals or through the medium to the incidents of dramas “which embrace within their scope a of very defective translations, the nation became acquainted with world of legendary lore, of quaint fancies and of religious sentiment. the masters of Occidental song. A small coterie of authors, headed Their motives were chiefly confined to such themes as the law of by Professor Toyama, then attempted to revolutionize Japanese retribution to which all human beings are subjected, the transitori- poetry by recasting it on European lines. But the project failed ness of life and the advisability of shaking off from one's feet the dust signally, and indeed it may well be doubted whether the Japanese of this sinful world. But some were of a purely martial nature. language can be adapted to such uses. This difference is probably explained by the fact that the idea of It was under the auspices of an empress (Suiko) that the first thus modifying the Kagura had its origin in musical recitations historical manuscript is said to have been compiled in 620. It was from the semi-romantic semi-historical narratives of the 14th cen- lafluence under the auspices of an empress (Gemmyö) that the tury. Such recitations were given by itinerant Bonzes, and it is Record of Ancient Matters was transcribed (712) from the easy to understand the connexion between them and the No. Very of Women lips of a court lady. And it was under the auspices of an soon the No came to occupy in the estimation of the military class a Literatures empress that the Chronicles of Japan were composed position similar to that held by the tanka as a literary pursuit, and .(720). To women, indeed, from the 8th century onwards the gagaku as a musical, in the Imperial court. All the great aristo- may be said to have been entrusted the guardianship of the pure crats not only patronized the Nō but were themselves ready to take Japanese language, the classical, or Chinese, form being adopted by part in it. Costumes of the utmost magnificence were worn, and men. The distinction continued throughout the ages. To this day the the chiselling of masks for the use of the performers occupied scores spoken language of Japanese women is appreciably simpler and softer of artists and ranked as a high glyptic accomplishment. There are than that of the men, and to this day while the educated woman uses 335 classical dramas of this kind in a compendium called the Yökyoka the hiragana syllabary in writing, eschews Chinese words and rarely Isüge, and many of them are inseparably connected with the names pens an ideograph, the educated man employs the ideograph of Kwanami Kiyotsugu (1406) and his son Motokiyo (1455), who are entirely, and translates his thoughts as far as possible into the counted the fathers of the art. For a moment, when the tide of mispronounced Chinese words without recourse to which it would Western civilization swept over Japan, the No seemed likely to be be impossible for him to discuss any scientific subject, or even to permanently submerged. But the renaissance of nationalism reſer to the details of his daily business. Japan was thus enriched (kokusui hoson) saved the venerable drama, and owing to the with two works of very high merit, the Genji Monogatari (c. 1004) exertions of Prince Iwakura, the artist Hosho Kuro and Umewaka and the Makura no Zóshi (about the same date). The former, by 'Minoru, it stands as high as ever in popular favour. Concerning the 170 JAPAN (LITERATURE 11 five schools into which the No is divided, their characteristics and to the kangakusha of that time. For their day and country they were their differences-these are matters of interest to the initiated alone. emphatically the salt of earth." But naturally not all were believers The Japanese are essentially a laughter-loving people. They are in the same philosophy. The fervour of the followers of Chu-Hi highly susceptible of tragic emotions, but they turn gladly to the (the orthodox school) could not fail to provoke opposition. Thus brighter phases of life. Hence a need was soon felt some arose who declared allegiance to the idealistic intuitionalism The Farce. of something to dispel the pessimism of the Nő, and of Wang Yang-ming, and others advocated direct study of the works that something took the form of comedies played in the interludes of Confucius and Mencius. Connected with this rejection of Chu- of the No and called Kyōgen (mad words)." The Kyogen needs no Hi were such eminent names as those of Ito Junsai (1627-1718), elaborate description: it is a pure farce, never immodest or vulgar. Itō Tōgai (1617-1736), Ogyu Sorai (1666–1728) and Dazai Shuntai The classic drama No and its companion the Kyogen had two (1679-1747). These Chinese scholars made no secret of their children, the Joruri and the Kabuki. They were born at the close contempt for Buddhism, and in their turn they were held in a version The Theatre. of the 16th century and they owed their origin to the by the Buddhists and the Japanese scholars (wagakusha), so that the growing influence of the commercial class, who asserted second half of the 18th century was a time of perpetual wrangling a right to be amused but were excluded from enjoyment of the and controversy. The worshippers at the shrine of Chinese philo- aristocratic No and the Kyōgen. The Joruri is a dramatic ballad, sophy evoked a reactionary spirit of nationalism, just as the excessive sung or recited to the accompaniment of the samisen and in unison worship of Occidental civilization was destined to do in the 19th with the movements of puppets. It came into existence in Kioto century. and was thence transferred to Yedo (Tokyo), where the greatest of Apart from philosophical researches and the development of Japanese playwrights, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724), and a the drama, as above related, the Tokugawa era is remarkable for musician of exceptional talent, Takemoto Gidayū, collaborated to folk-lore, moral discourses, fiction and a peculiar form of poetry render, this puppet drama a highly popular entertainment. It This last does not demand much attention. Its principal variety flourished for nearly 200 years in Yedo, and is still occasionally is the haikai, which is nothing more than a tanka shorn of its con- performed in Osaka. Like the Nõ the Jõruri dealt always with cluding fourteen syllables, and therefore virtually identical with the sombre themes, and was supplemented by the Kabuki (farce), hokku, already described. The name of Basho is immemorially This last owed its inception to a priestess who, having abandoned associated with this kind of lilliputian versicle, which reached the her holy vocation at the call of love, espoused dancing as a means of extreme of impressionism. A more important addition to Japanese livelihood and trained a number of girls for the purpose. The law literature was made in the 17th century in the form of children's presently interdicted these female comedians (onna-kabuki) in the tales (Otogibanashi). They are charmingly simple and graceful, interests of public morality, and they were succeeded by boy and they have been rendered into English again and again since the comedians (wakashu-kabuki) who simulated women's ways and beginning of the Meiji era. But whether they are to be regarded as were vetoed in their turn, giving place to yaro-kabuki (comedians genuine folk-lore or merely as a branch of the fiction of the age when with queues). Gradually the Kabuki developed the features of a they first appeared in book form, remains uncertain. of fiction genuine theatre; the actor and the playwright were discriminated, proper there was an abundance. The pioneer of this kind of litera- and, the performances taking the form of domestic drama (Wagoto ture is considered to have been Saika ku (1641-1693), who wrote and Sewamono) or historical drama (Aragoto or Jidaimono), actors sketches of every-day life as he saw it, short tales of some merit of perpetual fame sprang up, as Sakata Tõjūrō and Ichikawa and novels which deal with the most disreputable phases of human Danjinro (1660-1704). Mimetic posture-dances (Shosagoto) were existence. His notable successors in the same line were two men of always introduced as interludes; past and present indiscriminately Kioto, named Jisho (1675-1745) and Kiseki (1666-1716). They had contributed to the playwright's subjects; realism was carried to their own publishing house, and its name Hachimonji-ya (figure-of- extremes; a revolving stage and all mechanical accessories were eight store) came to be indelibly associated with this kind of litera. supplied; female parts were invariably taken by males, who attained ture. But these men did little more than pave the way for the true almost incredible skill in these simulations; a chorus-relic of the romantic novel, which first took shape under the hand of Santo No-chanted expositions of profound sentiments or thrilling inci- Kyöden (1761-1816), and culminated in the works of Bakin, Tane. dents; and histrionic talent of the very highest order was often hiko, Samba, Ikku, Shunsui and their successors. Of nearly all the displayed. But the Kabuki-za' and its yakusha (actors) remained books in this class it may be said that they deal largely in sensation- always a plebeian institution. No samurai frequented the former alism and pornography, though it does not follow that their language or associated with the latter. With the introduction of Western is either coarse or licentious. The life of the virtuous Japanese civilization in modern times, however, the theatre cease to be woman being essentially uneventful, these romancists not unnatur- tabooed by the aristocracy, Men and women of all ranks began to ally sought their female types among dancing-girls and courtesans. visit it; the emperor himself consented (1887) to witness a perform. The books were profusely illustrated with wood-cuts and chromo- ance by the great stars of the stage at the private residence of Marquis xylographs from pictures of the ukiyoe masters, who, like the play. Inouye; a dramatic reform association was organized by a number of wright, the actor and the romancer, ministered to the pleasure of prominent noblemen and scholars; drastic efforts were made to the man in the street. Brief mention must also be made of two purge the old historical dramas of anachronisms and inconsistencies, other kinds of books belonging to this epoch; namely, the Shingaku- and at length a theatre (the Yuraku-za) was built on purely European sho (ethical essays) and the Jitsuroku-mono (true records). The lines, where instead of sitting from morning to night witnessing latter were often little more than historical novels founded on facts; one long-drawn-out drama with interludes of whole farces, a visitor and the former, though nominally intended to engraft the doctrines may devote only a few evening-hours to the pastime. The Shosa- of Buddhism and Shinto upon the philosophy of China, were really goto has not been abolished, nor is there any reason why it should be. of rationalistic tendency. It has graces and beauties of its own. There remains to be noted Although the incursions made into Chinese philosophy and the the incursion of amateurs into the histrionic realm. In former times revival of Japanese traditions during the Tokugawa Epoch contri. the actor's profession was absolutely exclusive in Japan. Children buted materially to the overthrow of feudalism and were trained to wear their fathers' mantles, and the idea that a non- the restoration of the Throne's administrative power, The Meij Era. professional could tread the hallowed ground of the stage did not the immediate tendency of the last two events was to enter any imagination But with the advent of the new regimen in divert the nation's attention wholly from the study of either Meiji days there arose a desire for social plays depicting the life of the Confucianism or the Record of Ancient Matters. A universal thirst modern generation, and as these" croppy dramas." (zampatsu- set in for Occidental science and literature, so that students mono) so called in allusion to the European method of cutting the occupied themselves everywhere with readers and grammars hair close were not included in the repertoire of the orthodox modelled on European lines rather than with the Analects or the theatre, amateur troupes (known as soshi-yakusha), were organized Kojiki. English at once became the language of learning. Thus to fill the void. Even Shakespeare has been played by these ama- the three colleges which formed the nucleus of the Imperial Univer- teurs, and the abundant wit of the Japanese is on the way to enrich sity of Tōkyō were presided over by a graduate of Michigan College the stage with modern farces of unquestionable merit. (Professor Toyama), a member of the English bar (Professor The Tokugawa era (1603-1867), which popularized the drama, had Hözumi) and a graduate of Cambridge (Baron Kikuchi). If Japan other memorable effects upon Japanese literature. Yedo, the show was eminently fortunate in the men who directed her political gun's capital, displaced Kioto as the centre of literary career at that time, she was equally favoured in those that presided of the over her literary culture. Fukuza wa Yukichi, founder of the activity. Its population of more than a million, includ- ing all sorts and conditions of men-notably wealthy Keio Gijuku, now one of Japan's four universities, did more than Tokugawa merchants and mechanics-constituted a new audience any of his contemporaries by writing and speaking to spread a Era. to which authors had to address themselves; and an knowledge of the West, its ways and its thoughts, and Nakamura unparalleled development of mental activity necessitated wholesale Keju laboured in the same cause by translating Smiles's Self-help drafts upon the Chinese vocabulary. To this may be attributed the and Mill's Representative Government. A universal geography (by appearance of a groupof men knownas kangakusha (Chinese scholars). Uchida Masao); a history of nations (by Mitsukuri Rinshó)a The most celebrated among them were: Fujiwara Seikwa (1560- translation of Chambers's Encyclopaedia' by the department of 1619), who introduced his countrymen to the philosophy of Chu-Hi; education; Japanese renderings of Herbert Spencer and of Guizot Hayashi Rasan (1583-1657), who wrote 170 treatises on scholastic and Buckle--all these made their appearance during the first fourteen and moral subjects; Kaibara Ekken (1630-17.4), teacher of a fine years of the epoch. The influence of politics may be strongly systein of ethics; Arai Hakuseki (1657–1725), historian, philosopher, traced in the literature of that time, for the first romances produced statesman and financier: and Muro Kiuso, the second great exponent by the new school were all of a political character: Kerkoku Bidan of Chu-Hi's philosophy. “ Japan owes a profound debt of gratitude(Model for Statesmen, with Epaminondas ſor hero) by Yano Fumio; 19 Literature NEWSPAPERS) JAPAN 171 44 Setchūbai(Plum-blossoms in snow) and Kwakwan-(Nightingale Among officialdom át that time to brook such assaults. The Köko Shimbun Flowers) by Suyehiro. This idea of subserving literature to political was suppressed; Fukuchi was thrust into prison, and all journals ends is said to have been suggested by Nakae Tokuşuke's translation or periodicals except those having official sanction were vetoed. of Rousseau's Contrat social. The year 1882 saw Julius Caesar in a At the beginning of 1868 only two newspapers remained in the field. Japanese dress. The translator was Tsubouchi Shoyo, one of the Very soon, however, the enlightened makers of modern Japan greatest writers of the Meiji era. His Shosetsu Shinsui (Essentials appreciated the importance of journalism, and in 1871 the Shimbun of a Novel) was an eloquent plea for realism as contrasted with the Zasshi (News Periodical) was started under the auspices of the artificiality of the characters depicted by Bakin, and his own works illustrious Kido. Shortly afterwards there appeared in Yokohama- illustrative of this theory took the public by storm. He also brought whence it was subsequently transferred to Tokyo--the Mainichi out the first literary periodical published in Japan, namely, the Shimbun (Daily News), the first veritable daily and also the first Waseda Bungaku, so called because Tsubouchi was professor of journal printed with movable types and foreign presses. Its editors literature in the Waseda University, an institution founded by Count were Numa Morikage, Shimada Saburo and Koizuka Ryū, all des. Okuma, whose name cannot be omitted from any history of Meiji tined to become celebrated not only in the field of journalism but literature, not as an author but as a patron. As illustrating the also in that of politics. It has often been said of the Japanese that rapid development of familiarity with foreign authors, a Japanese they are slow in forming a decision but very quick to act upon it. retrospect of the Meiji era notes that whereas Macaulay's Essays. This was illustrated in the case of journalism. 'In 1870 the country were in the curriculum of the Imperial University in 1881-1882, they possessed only two quasi-journals, both under official auspices. In were studied, five or six years later, in secondary schools, and pupils 1875 it possessed over 100 periodicals and daily newspapers. The of the latter were able to read with understanding the works of most conspicuous were the Nichi Nichi Shimbun (Daily News), the Goldsmith, Tennyson and Thackeray. Up to Tsubouchi's time the Yübin Höchi (Postal Intelligence), the Chöya Shimbun (Government Meiji literature was all in the literary language, but there was then and People News), the Akebono Shimbun (The Dawn), and the formed a society calling itself Kenyūsha, some of whose associates-Mainichi Shimbun (Daily News). These were called “the five as Bimyosai-used the colloquial language in their works, while great journals." The Nichi Nichi Shimbun had an editor of con- others--as Köyō, Rohan, &c. -went back to the classical dictionspicuous literary ability in Fukuchi Genichirō, and the Höchi Shim- of the Genroku era (1655-1703). Rõhan is one of the most renowned bun, its chief rival, received assistance from such men as Yano of Japan's modern authors, and some of his historical romances have Fumio, Fujita Makichi, Inukai Ki and Minoura Katsundo. Japan had wide vogue. Meanwhile the business of translating went on had not yet any political parties, but the ferment that preceded арасе. Great numbers of European and American authors were their birth was abroad. The newspaper press being almost entirely rendered into Japanese Calderon, Lytton, Disraeli, Byron, Shake in the hands of men whose interests suggested wider opening of the speare, Milton, Turgueniev, Carlyle, Daudet, Emerson, Hugo, Heine, door to official preferment, nearly all editorial pens were directed De Quincey, Dickens, Körner, Goethe-their name is legion and their against the government. So strenuous did this campaign become influence upon Japanese literature is conspicuous. In 1888. a 1 that, in 1875, a press law was enacted empowering the minister of special course of German literature was inaugurated at the Imperial home affairs and the police to suspend or suppress a journal and to University, and with it is associated the name of Mori Ogai, Japan's fine or imprison its editor without public trial. Many suffered under most faithful interpreter of German thought and speech. Virtually this law, but the ultimate effect was to invest the press with new every literary magnate of the Occident has found one or more inter- | popularity, and very soon the newspapers conceived a device which preters, in modern Japan. Accurate reviewers of the era: have effectually protected their literary staff, for they employed dummy divided it into periods of two or three years each, according to the editors "whose sole function was to go to prison in lieu of the true various groups of foreign authors that were in vogue, and every year editor. sées a large addition to the number of Japanese who study the Japanese journalistic writing in these early years of Meiji was masterpieces of Western literature in the original. marred by extreme and pedantic classicism. There had not yet Newspapers, as the term is understood in the West, did not exist been any real escape from the tradition which assigned the crown in old Japan, though block-printed leaflets were occasionally issued of scholarship to whatever author drew most largely upon the to describe some specially stirring event. Yet the resources of the Chinese language and learning. The example set Newspapers Japanese were entirely unacquainted with by the Imperial court, and still set by it, did not tend to correct journalism. During the last decades of the factory at this style. The sovereign, whether speaking by rescript or by Periodicals. Deshima the Dutch traders made it a yearly custom to ordinance, never addressed the bulk of his subjects. His words submit to the governor of Nagasaki selected extracts were taken from sources so classical.as to be intelligible to only the from newspapers arriving from Batavia, and these extracts, having highly educated minority. The newspapers sacrificed theiraudience been translated into Japanese, were forwarded to the court in Yedo to their erudition and preferred classicism to circulation. Their together with their originals. To such compilations the name of columns were thus a sealed book to the whole of the lower middle Oranda fuşetsu-sho (Dutch Reports) was given. Immediately after classes and to the entire female population. The Yomiuri Shimbun the conclusion of the first treaty in 1857, the Yedo authorities (Buy and Read News), was the first to break away from this perni. instructed the office for studying foreign books (Bunsko torishirabe- cious fashion. Established in 1875, it adopted a style midway dokoro) to translate excerpts from European and American journals. | between the classical and the colloquial, and it appended the Occasionally these translations were copied for cireulation among syllabic characters to each ideograph, so that its columns became officials, but the bulk of the people knew nothing of them. Thus the intelligible to every reader of ordinary education. It was followed first real newspaper did not see the light until 1861, when a Yedo by the Veiri Shimbun (Pictorial Newspaper), the first to insert illus- publisher brought out the Batavia News, a compilation of items trations and to publish feuilleton romances. Both of these journals from foreign newspapers, printed on Japanese paper from wooden devoted space to social news, a radical departure from the austere blocks. Entirely devoid of local interest, this journal did not restrictions observed by their aristocratic contemporaries. survive for more than a few months. It was followed, in 1864, by The year 1881 saw the nation divided into political parties and the Shimbun-shi (News), which was published in Yokohama, with within measured distance of constitutional government. Thence- Kishida Ginko for editor and John Hiko for sub-editor. The latter forth the great majority of the newspapers and perio- had been cast away, many years previously, on the coast of the dicals ranged themselves under the flag of this or that Era of United States and had become a naturalized American citizen. He party., An era of embittered polemics ensued. The retained a knowledge of spoken Japanese, but the ideographic script journals, while fighting, continuously against each Parties. was a sealed book to him, and his editorial part was limited to oral other's principles, agreed in attacking the ministry, translations from American journals which the editor committed and the latter found it necessary to establish organs of its own which to writing. The Shimbun-shi essayed to collect domestic news as preached the German system of state autocracy: Editors seemed to well as foreign. It was published twice a month and might possibly be incapable of rising above the dead level of political strife, and have created a demand for its wares had not the editor and sub- their utterances were not relieved even by a semblance of fairness. .editor left for America after the issue of the soth number. The Readers turned away in disgust, and journal after journal passed example, however, had now been set. During the three years that out of existence. The situation was saved by a newspaper which separated the death of the Shimbun-shi from the birth of the Meiji from the outset of its career obeyed the best canons of journalism. era (October 1867) no less than ten quasi-journals made their Born in 1882, the Jiji Shi:npo (Times) enjoyed the immense advan- appearance. They were in fact nothing better than inferior maga- tage of having its policy controlled by one of the greatest thinkers zines, printed from wood-blocks, issued weekly or monthly, and of modern Japan, Fukuzawa Yukichi. Its basic principle was giving little evidence of enterprise or intellect, though connected liberty of the individual, liberty of the family and liberty of the with them were the names of men destined to become famous in the nation; it was always found on the side of broad-minded justice, and world of literature, as Fukuchi Genichiro, Tsūji Shinji (afterwards it derived its materials from economic, social and scientific sources. Baron Tsūji) and Suzuki Yuichi. These publications attracted little Other newspapers of greatly improved character followed the Jiji interest and exercised no influence. Journalism was regarded as a Shimpo, especially notable among them being the Kokumin Shimbun. mere pastime. The first evidence of its potentialities was furnished In the meanwhile Osaka, always pioneer in matters of commercial by the Kōko Shimbun (The World) under the editorship of Fukuchi enterprise, had set the example of applying the force of capital to Genichiro and Sasa no Dempei. To many Japanese observers it journalistic development. Tokyo journals were all seemed that the restoration of 1867 had merely transferred the ad- on a literary or political basis, but the Osaka Asahi Commercial ministrative authority from the Tokugawa Shögun to the clans of Shimbun (Osaka Rising Sun News) was purely a Journalism. Satsuma and Chöshú. The Koko Shimbun severely attacked the business undertaking. Its proprietor, Maruyama two clans as specious usurpers. It was not in the mood of Japanese | Ryuhei, spared no expense to obtain news from all quarters of the not dad Political 172 [ART JAPAN world, and for the first time the Japanese public learned what stores | ideas of symmetry, so different from ours, from a close study of of information may be found in the columns of a really enterprising nature and her processes in the attainment of endless variety, journal. Very soon the Asahi had a keen competitor in the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun (Osaka Daily News) and these papers ultimately A special feature of their art is that, while often closely and crushed all rivals in Osaka. In 1888 Maruyama established another minutely imitating natural objects, such as birds, flowers and Asahi in Tokyo, and thither he was quickly followed by his Osaka fishes, the especial objects of their predilection and study, they rival, which in Tokyo took the name of Mainichi Dempo (Daily frequently combine the facts of external nature with a conven- Telegraph). These two newspapers now stand alone as purveyors of copious telegraphic news, and in the next rank, not greatly lower, tional mode of treatment better suited to their purpose. During comes the Jiji Shimpō. the long apprenticeship that educated Japanese serve to acquire With the opening of the diet in 1890, politics again obtruded the power of writing with the brush the complicated charac- themselves into newspaper columns, but as practical living issues now occupied attention, readers were no longer wearied by the habit of minute observation and the power of accurate ters borrowed from Chinese, they unconsciously cultivate the abstract homilies of former days. Moreover, freedom of the press was at length secured. Already (1887) the government had volun- imitation, and with these the delicacy of touch and freedom of tarily made a great step in advance by divesting itself of the right hand which only long practice can give. A hair's-breadth devia- to imprison or fine editors by executive order. But it reserved the tion in a line is fatal to good calligraphy, both among the Chinese power of suppressing or suspending a newspaper, and against that reservation a majority of the lower house voted, session after session, and the Japanese. When they come to use the pencil in drawing, only to see the bill rejected by the peers, who shared the govern- they already possess accuracy of eye and free command of the ment's opinion that to grant a larger measure of liberty would brush. Whether a Japanese art-worker sets himself to copy certainly encourage licence. Not until 1897 was this opposition what he sees before him or to give play to his fancy in combining fully overcome. A new law, passed by both houses and confirmed by the emperor, took from the executive all power over journals, what he has seen with some ideal in his mind, the result shows except in cases of lèse majesté, and nothing now remains of the perfect facility of execution and easy grace in all the lines. former arbitrary system except that any periodical having a political complexion is required to deposit security varying from 175 to 1000 yen. The result has falsified all sinister forebodings. A much more moderate tone pervades the writings of the press since restrictions were entirely removed, and although there are now 1775 journals and periodicals published throughout the empire, with a total annual circulation of some 700 million copies, intemperance of language, such as in former times would have provoked official interference, is practically unknown to-day. Moreover, the best Japanese editors have caught with remarkable aptitude the spirit of modern journalism. But a few years ago they used to compile laborious essays, in which the inspiration was drawn from Occidental text-books, and the alien character of the source was hidden under a veneer of Chinese aphorisms. To-day they write terse, succinct, closely-reasoned articles, seldom diffuse, often witty; and generally free from extra- vagance of thought or diction. Incidentally they are hastening the assimilation of the written and the spoken languages (genbun itchi) which may possibly prelude a still greater reform, abolition of the ideographic script. Yet, with few exceptions, the profession of journalism is not remunerative. Very low rates of subscription, and almost prohibitory charges for advertising, are chiefly to blame.¹ The vicissitudes of the enterprise may be gathered from the fact that, whereas 2767 journals and periodicals were started between 1889 and 1894 (inclusive), no less than 2465 ceased publishing. The largest circulation recorded in 1908 was about 150,000 copies daily, and the honour of attaining that exceptional figure belonged to the Osaka Asahi Shimbun. (F. BY.) Pictorial IV.-JAPANESE ART Painting and Engraving. In Japanese art the impressionist element is predominant. Pictures, as the term is understood in Europe, can scarcely be said to have existed at Art. any time in Japan. The artist did not depict emotion: he depicted the subjects that produce emotion. Therefore he took his motives from nature rather than from history; or, if he borrowed from the latter, what he selected was a scene, not the pains or the passions of its actors. Moreover, he never exhausted his subject, but was always careful to leave a wide margin for the imagination of the spectator. This latter consideration sometimes impelled him to represent things which, to European eyes, seem trivial or insig- nificant, but which really convey hints of deep significance. In short, Japanese pictures are like Japanese poetry: they do not supply thought but only awaken it. Often their methods show conventionalism, but it is conventionalism so perfect and free in its allurements that nature seems to suggest both the motive and the treatment. Thus though neither botanically nor orni- thologically correct, their flowers and their birds show a truth to nature, and a habit of minute observation in the artist, which cannot be too much admired. Every blade of grass, each leaf and feather, has been the object of loving and patient study. It has been rashly assumed by some writers that the Japanese do not study from nature. All their work is an emphatic pro- test against this supposition. It can in fact be shown con- clusively that the Japanese have derived all their fundamental The highest rate of subscription to a daily journal is twelve shillings per annum, and the usual charge for advertisement is from 7d. to one shilling per line of 22 ideographs (about nine words). I The beauties of the human form never appealed to the Jap- anese artist. Associating the nude solely with the performance of menial tasks, he deemed it worse than a solecism to transfer such subjects to his canvas, and thus a wide field of motive was closed to him. On the other hand, the draped figure received admirable treatment from his brush, and the naturalistic school of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries reached a high level of skill in depicting men, women and children in motion. Nor has there ever been a Japanese Landseer. Sosen's monkeys and badgers constitute the one possible exception, but the horses, oxen, deer, tigers, dogs, bears, foxes and even cats of the best Japanese artists were ill drawn and badly modelled. In the field of land- scape the Japanese painter fully reached the eminence on which his great Chinese masters stood. He did not obey the laws of linear perspective as they are formulated in the Occident, nor did he show cast shadows, but his aerial perspective and his foreshortening left nothing to be desired. It has been suggested that he deliberately eschewed chiaroscuro because his pictures, destined invariably to hang in an alcove, were required to be equally effective from every aspect and had also to form part of a decorative scheme. But the more credible explanation is that he merely followed Chinese example in this matter, as he did also in linear perspective, accepting without question the curious canon that lines converge as they approach the spectator. It is in the realm of decorative art that the world has chiefly benefited by contact with Japan. Her influence is second only to that of Greece. Most Japanese decorative designs Decorative consist of natural objects, treated sometimes in a more Art. or less conventional manner, but always distinguished by delicacy of touch, graceful freedom of conception and delight- fully harmonized tints. Perhaps the admiration which the Japanese artist has won in this field is due not more to his wealth of fancy and skilful adaptation of natural forms, than to his individuality of character in treating his subjects. There is complete absence of uniformity and monotony. Repetition without any variation is abhorrent to every Japanese. He will not tolerate the stagnation and tedium of a dull uniformity by mechanical reproduction. His temperament will not let him endure the labour of always producing the same pattern. Hence the repetition of two articles exactly like each other, and, generally, the division of any space into equal parts are instinctively avoided, as nature avoids the production of any two plants, or even any two leaves of the same tree, which in all points shall be exactly alike. The application of this principle in the same free spirit is the secret of much of the originality and the excellence of the decora- tive art of Japan. Her artists and artisans alike aim at symmetry, not by an equal division of parts, as we do, but rather by a cer- tain balance of corresponding parts, each different from the other, and not numerically even, with an effect of variety and freedom from formality. They seek it, in fact, as nature attains the same end. If we take for instance the skins of animals that ART] 173 JAPAN The paintings of which we have any mention were almost limited to representations of Buddhist masters of the Tang dynasty (618- 905), notably Wu Tao-zu (8th century), of whose genius romantic stories are related. The oldest existing work of this period is a mural decoration in the hall of the temple of Horyu-ji, Nara, attributed to a Korean priest named Doncho, who lived in Japan in the 6th century; and this painting, in spite of the destructive cffects of time and exposure, shows traces of the same power of line. colour and composition that stamps the best of the later examples of Buddhist art. Second Period. are striped or spotted, we have the best possible illustration of nature's methods in this direction. Examining the tiger or the leopard, in all the beauty of their symmetrical adornment, we do not sec in any one example an exact repetition of the same stripes or spots on each side of the mesial line. They seem to be alike, and yet are all different. The line of division along the spine, it will be observed, is not perfectly continuous or defined, but in part suggested; and each radiating stripe on either side is full of variety in size, direction, and to some extent in colour The native artist who crested the first great wave of and depth of shade. Thus nature works, and so, following in Japanese painting was a court noble named Kosé no Kanaoka, her footsteps, works the Japanese artist. The same law pre-living under the patronage of the emperor Seiwa' vailing in all nature's creation, in the plumage of birds, the paint- (850-859) and his successors down to about the end of ing of butterflies' wings, the marking of shells, and in all the the 9th century, in the midst of a period of peace and infinite variety and beauty of the floral kingdom, the lesson is culture. Of his own work few, if any, examples have reached us; constantly renewed to the observant eye. Among flowers the and those attributed with more or less probability to his hand are orchids, with all their fantastic extravagance and mimic imita- all representations of Buddhist divinities, showing a somewhat tions of birds and insects, are especially prolific in examples of formal and conventional design, with a masterly calligraphic symmetrical effects without any repetition of similar parts or touch and perfect harmony of colouring. Tradition credits him divisions into even numbers. with an especial genius for the delineation of animals and land- scape, and commemorates his skill by a curious anecdote of a painted horse which left its frame to ravage the fields, and was reduced to pictorial stability only by the sacrifice of its eyes. He left a line of descendants extending far into the 15th century, all famous for Buddhist pictures, and some engaged in establishing a native style, the Wa-gwa-ryū. The orchids may be taken as offering fair types of the Japanese artist's ideal in all art work. And thus, close student of nature's processes, methods, and effects as the Japanese art workınan is, he ever seeks to produce humble replicas from his only art master. Thus he proceeds in all his decorative work, avoiding studiously the exact repetition of any lines and spaces, and all diametrical divisions, or, if these be forced upon him by the shape of the object, exercising the utmost ingenuity to disguise the fact, and train away the eye from observing the weak point, as nature does in like circumstances. Thus if a lacquer box in the form of a parallelogram is the object, Japanese artists will not divide it in two equal parts by a perpendicular line, but by a diagonal, as offering a more pleasing line and division. If the box be round, they will seek to lead the eye away from the naked regularity of the circle by a pattern distracting attention, as, for example, by a zigzag breaking the circular outline, and sup- ported by other ornaments. A similar feeling is shown by them as colourists, and, though sometimes eccentric and daring in their contrasts, they never produce discords in their chromatic scale. They have undoubtedly a fine sense of colour, and a similarly delicate and subtle feeling for harmonious blending of brilliant and sober hues. As a rule they prefer a quiet and refined style, using full but low-toned colours. They know the value of bright colours, however, and how best to utilize them, both supporting and contrasting them with their secondaries and complementaries. into Periods. The development of Japanese painting may be divided into the following six periods, each signalized by a wave of progress. (1) From the middle of the 6th to the middle of the Division 9th century: the naturalization of Chinese and Chino- Buddhist art. (2) From the middle of the 9th to the middle of the 15th century: the establishment of great native schools under Kosé no Kanaoka and his descendants and followers, the pure Chinese school gradually falling into neglect. (3) From the middle of the 15th to the latter part of the 17th century: the revival of the Chinese style. (4) From the latter part of the 17th to the latter part of the 18th century: the estab- lishment of a popular school. (5) From the latter part of the 18th to the latter part of the 19th century: the foundation of a naturalistic school, and the first introduction of European influ- ence into Japanese painting; the acme and decline of the popular school. (6) From about 1875 to the present time: a period of transition. Period. Tradition refers to the advent of a Chinese artist named Nanriu, invited to Japan in the 5th century as a painter of the Imperial banners, but of the labours and influence of First this man and of his descendants we have no record. The real beginnings of the study of painting and sculp- ture in their higher branches must be dated from the introduction of Buddhism from China in the middle of the 6th century, and for three centuries after this event there is evidence that the practice of the arts was carried on mainly by or under the instruction of Korean and Chinese immigrants. At the end of the 9th century there were two exotic styles of painting, Chinese and Buddhist, and the beginning of a native style founded upon these. All three were practised by the same artists, and it was not until a later period that each became the badge of a school. ** Chinese Style. The Chinese style (Kara-ryu), the fundamental essence of all Japanese art, has a fairly distinct history, dating back to the introduction of Buddhism into China (A. D. 62), and it Tao-zu, the master of the 8th century, that Kanaoka is said to have been chiefly from the works of Wu drew his inspiration. This early Chinese manner, which lasted in the parent country down to the end of the 13th century, was characterized by a virile grace of line, a grave dignity of composi tion, striking simplicity of technique, and a strong but incomplete naturalistic ideal. The colouring, harmonious but subdued in tone, held a place altogether secondary to that of the outline, and was frequently omitted altogether, even in the most famous works. Shadows and reflections were ignored, and perspective, approximately correct for landscape distances, was isometrical for near objects, while the introduction of a symbolic sun or moon lent the sole distinction between a day and a night scene. The art was one of imperfect evolution, but for thirteen centuries it was the only living pictorial art in the world, and the Chinese deserve the honour of having created landscape painting. The materials used were water-colours, brushes, usually of deer-hair, and a surface of unsized paper, translucid silk or wooden panel. The chief motives were landscapes of a peculiarly wild and romantic type, animal life, trees and flowers, and figure compositions drawn from Chinese and Buddhist history and Taoist legend; and these, together with the grand aims and strange shortcomings of its principles and the. limited range of its methods, were adopted almost without change by Japan. It was a noble art, but unfortunately the rivalry of the Buddhist and later native styles permitted it to fall into comparative whom was a priest of the 14th century named Kawo, to preserve it neglect, and it was left for a few of the faithful, the most famous of from inanition till the great Chinese renaissance that lent its stamp to the next period. The reputed founder of Japanese caricature may also be added to the list. He was a priest named Kakuyū, but better known as the abbot of Toba, who lived in the 12th century. An accomplished artist in the Chinese manner, he amused himself and his friends by burlesque sketches, marked by a grace and humour that his imitators never equalled. Later, the motive of the Toba pictures, as such caricatures were called, tended to degenerate, and the elegant figures of Kakuyū were replaced by scrawls that often substituted indecency and ugliness for art and wit. Some of the old masters of the Yamato school were, however, admirable in their rendering of the burlesque, and in modern times Kyōsai, the last of the Hokusai school, outdid all his predecessors in the riotous origin- ality of his weird and comic fancies. A new phase of the art now lives in the pages of the newspaper press. The Buddhist style was probably even more ancient than the Chinese, for the scheme of colouring distinctive of the Buddhist picture was almost certainly of Indian origin; brilliant and decorative, and heightened by a lavish use of gold. it was essential to the effect of a picture destined for the dim light of the Buddhist temple. The style was applied only to the representations of sacred personages and scenes, and Buddhist Style. 174 JAPAN (ART as the traditional forms and attributes of the Brahmanic and as that of China, and trusting more to the sure and sweeping stroke Buddhist divinities were mutable only within narrow limits, of the brush than to colour. Shūbun was an artist of little less the subjects seldom afforded scope for originality of design or power, but he followed more closely his exemplars, the Chinese observation of nature. The principal Buddhist painters down to masters of the 12th and 13th centuries; while Kano Masanobů the 14th century were members of the Kosé, Takuma and Kasuga (1424-1520), trained in the love of Chinese art, departed little from lines, the first descended from Kanaoka, the second from Takuma the canons he had learned írom Josetsu or Oguri Sotan. It was left Taméuji (ending loth century), and the third from Fujiwara no to his more famous son, Motonobu, to establish the school which Motomitsu (11th century). The last and greatest master of the bears the family name. Kano Motonobu (1477-1559) was one school was a priest named Meicho, better known as Cho Densu, the of the greatest Japanese painters, an eclectic ol genius, who excelled Japanese Fra Angelico. It is to him that Japan owes the possession in every style and every branch of his art. His variety was in. of some of the most stately and most original works in her art, exhaustible, and he remains to this day a model whom the most sublime in conception, line and colour, and deeply instinct with the distinguished artists are proud to imitate. The names of the cele. religious spirit. "He died in 1427, at the age of seventy-six, in the brated members of this long line are too many to quote here, but the seclusion of the temple where he had passed the whole of his days. most accomplished of his descendants was Tanyū, who died in 1674; The native style, Yamato or Wa-gwa-ryū, was an adaptation of at the age of seventy-three. The close of this long period brought Chinese art canons to motives drawn from the court life, poetry a new style of art, that of the Körin school. Ogata Kõrin (1653- Native and stories of old Japan. It was undoubtedly prac- 1716) is claimed by both the Tosa and Kano schools, but his work Style. tised by the Kose line, and perhaps by their prede. bears more resemblance to that of an erratic offshoot of the Kano cessors, but it did not take shape as a school until the line named Sõtatsu than to the typical work of the academies. He beginning of the uth century under Fujiwara no Motomitsu, was an artist of eccentric originality, who achieved wonders in bold who was a pupil of Kose no Kinmochi; it then became known decorative effects in spite of a studied contempt for detail. As a as Yamato-ryū, a title which two centuries later was changed to lacque: painter he left a strong mark upon the work of his con- that of Tosa, on the occasion of one of its masters, Fujiwara no temporaries and successors. His brother and pupil. Kenzan, Tsunetaka, assuming that appellation as a family name. The adopted his style, and left a reputation as a decorator of pottery Yamato-Tosa artists painted in all styles, but that which was the hardly less brilliant than Körin's in that of lacquer; and a later speciality of the school, to be found in nearly all the historical rolls follower, Hõitsu (1762-1828), greatly excelled the master in delicacy bequeathed to us by their leaders, was a lightly touched outline and refinement, although inferior to him in vigour and invention. filled in with flat and bright body-colours, in which verdigris-green Down to the end of this era painting was entirely in the hands of a played a great part. The originality of the motive did not prevent patrician caste--courtiers, priests, feudal nobles and their military the adoption of all the Chinese conventions, and of some new ones retainers, all men of high education and gentle birth, living in a of the artist's own. The curious expedient of spiriting away the polished circle. It was practised more as a phase of aesthetic roof of any building of which the artist wished to show the interior culture than with any utilitarian views. It was a labour of loving was one of the most remarkable of these. Amongst the foremost service, untouched by the spirit of material gain, conferring upon names of the school are those of Montomitsu (11th century), No- the work of the older masters a dignity and poetic feeling which we buzane (13th century), Tsunetaka (13th century). Mitsunobu (15th vainly seek in much of the later work. Unhappily, but almost inevit. and 16th centuries), his son Mitsushige, and Mitsuoki (17th century). ably, over-culture led to a gradual falling-off from the old virility. The struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans for the power The strength of Meicho, Sesshū, Motonobu and Tanyū gave place that had long been practically abandoned by the Imperial line to a more or less slavish imitation of the old Japanese painters and lasted through the rith and the greater part of the 12th centuries, their Chinese exemplars, till the heirs to the splendid traditions of ending only with the rise of Yoritomo to the shogunate in 1185. the great masters preserved little more than their conventions and These internecine disturbances had been unfavourable to any new shortcomings. It was time for a new departure, but there seemed departure in art, except in matters appertaining to arms and armour, to be no sufficient strength left within the charmed circle of the and the strife between two puppet emperors for a shadow of authority orthodox schools, and the new movement was fated to come from in the 14th century brought another distracting element. It was the masses, whose voice had hitherto been silent in the art world. not until the triumph of the northern dynasty was achieved through the prowess of an interested champion of the Ashikaga clan that the A new era in art began in the latter half of the 17th century culture of ancient Japan revived. The palace of the Ashikaga with the establishment of a popular schoolunder an embroiderer's shöguns then replaced the Imperial court as the centre of patronage draughtsman named Hishigawa Moronobu (c. 1646– Fourth of art and literature and established a new era in art history. 1713). Perhaps no great change is ever entirely a Period: Towards the close of the Ashikaga shogunate painting entered novelty. The old painters of the Yamato-Tosa line Popular on a new phase. Talented representatives of the Kose, Takuma had frequently shown something of the daily life and Tosa .lines maintained the reputation of the around them, and one of the later scions of the school, named Third Period. native and Buddhist schools, and the long-neglected Iwasa Matahei, had even made a speciality of this class of Chinese school was destined to undergo a vigorous motive; but so little is known of Matahei and his work that revival. The initiation of the new movement is attributed to a even his period is a matter of dispute, and the few pictures priest named Jôsetsu, who lived in the early part of the 15th attributed to his pencil are open to question on grounds of century, and of whom little else is known. It is not even certain authenticity. He probably worked some two generations before whether he was of Chinese or Japanese birth; he is, however, the time of Moronobu, but there is no reason to believe that his believed by some authorities to have been the teacher of three labours had any material share in determining the creation and great artists-Shūbụn, Sesshū and Kano Masanobu-who be trend of the new school. came the leaders of three schools: Shūbun, that of the pure Moronobu was a consummate artist, with all the delicacy and Chinese art of the Sung and Yuan dynasties (10th and 13th calligraphic force of the best of the Tosa masters, whom he un- centuries); Sesshū, that of a modified school bearing his name; doubtedly strove to emulate in style; and his pictures are not only and Masanobu, of the great Kano school, which has reached to the most beautiful but also the most trustworthy records of the life of his time. the present day. The qualities of the new Chinese schools greatest influence, but to the powerful impulse he gave to the It was not to his paintings, however, that he owed his were essentially those of the older dynasties: breadth, sim- illustration of books and broadsides by wood-engravings. It is plicity, a daringly calligraphic play of brush that strongly true that illustrated books were known as early as 1608, if not before, recalled the accomplishments of the famous scribes, and a but they were few and unattractive, and did little to inaugurate colouring that varied between sparing washes of flat local tints the great stream of ehon, or picture books, that were to take so large a share in the education of his own class. It is to Moronobu that and a strength and brilliancy of decorative effort that rivalled Japan owes the popularization of artistic wood-engravings, for even that of the Buddhist pictures. The motives remained nothing before his series of xylographic albums approached his best almost identical with those of the Chinese masters, and so work in strength and beauty, and nothing since has surpassed it, Later there came abundant aid to the cause of popular art, partly imbued with the foreign spirit were many of the Japanese from pupils of the Kano and Tosa schools, but mainly from the disciples that it is said they found it difficult to avoid artisan class. Most of these artists were designers for books and introducing Chinese accessories even into pictures of native broadsides by calling, painters only on occasion, but a few of them did nothing for the engravers. Throughout the whole of this scenery period, embracing about a hundred years, there still continued to Sesshū (1421-1507) was a priest who visited China and studied work, altogether apart from the men who were making the success painting there for several years, at length returning in 1469, dis- of popular art, a large number of able painters of the Kano, Tosa appointed with the living Chinese artists, and resolved to strike out and Chinese schools, who multiplied pictures that had every merit a style of his own, based upon that of the old masters. He was the except that of originality. These men living in the past, paid little boldest and most original of Japanese landscape artists, leaving attention to the great popular movement, which seemed to be quite powerful and poetic records of the scenery of his own land as well | outside their social and artistic sphere and scarcely worthy of School ART) JAPAN 175 Filth Period: Natural istic cultured criticism. It was in the middle of the 18th century that strong reaction in favour of pure Japanese art, have fought man- the decorative, but relatively feeble, Chinese art of the later Ming fully to win public sympathy, and though their success is not yet period found favour in Japan and a clever exponent in a painter named Ryūrikyo, It must be regarded as a sad decadence from the crowned, it is not impossible that an Occidental school may ulti- old Chinese ideals, which was further hastened, from about 1765, mately be established. Thus far the great obstacle has been by the popularity of the southern Chinese style. This was a weak. that pictures painted in accordance with Western canons are affectation that found its chief votaries amongst literary men ambitious of an easily earned artistic reputation. The principal not suited to Japanese interiors and do not appeal to the taste Japanese supporter of this school was Taigado (1722-1775), but the of the most renowned Japanese connoisseurs. Somewhat more volume of copies of his sketches, Taigado sansui juseki, published successful has been an attempt-inaugurated by Hashimoto about 1870, is one of the least attractive albums ever printed in Gaho and Kawabata Gyokusho--to combine the art of the West Japan. with that of Japan by adding to the latter the chiaroscuro and The fifth period was introduced by a movement as momentous the linear perspective of the former. If the disciples of this as that which stamped its predecessor—the foundation of a school could shake off the Sesshū tradition of strong outlines and naturalistic school under a group of men outside the adopt the Kano Motonobu revelation of modelling by mass orthodox academical circles. The naturalistic principle only, their work would stand on a high place. But they, too, was by no means a new one; some of the old Chinese receive little encouragement. The tendency of the time is masters were naturalistic in a broad and noble manner, conservative in art matters. School. and their Japanese followers could be admirably and A series of magnificent publications has popularized art and its minutely accuratè when they pleased; but too many of the best products in a manner such as could never have been anticipated. latter were content to construct their pictures out of fragmentary and edited by Japanese students, has reached its 223rd number; The Kokka, a monthly magazine richly and beautifully illustrated reminiscences of ancient Chinese masterpieces, not presuming to the Shimbi Daikan, a colossal album containing chromoxylographic see a rock, a tree, an ox, or a human figure, except through facsimiles of celebrated examples in every branch of art, has been Chinese spectacles. It was a farmer's son named Okyo, trained completed in 20 volumes; the masterpieces of Kõrin and Motonobu in his youth to paint in the Chinese manner, who was first bold have been reproduced in similar albums; the - masterpieces of the Ukiyo-e are in process of publication, and it seems certain that the enough to adopt as a canon what his predecessors had only Japanese nation will ultimately be educated to such a knowledge admitted under rare exceptions, the principle of an exact of its own art as will make for permanent appreciation.. Meanwhile imitation of nature. Unfortunately, even he had not all the the intrepid group of painters in oil plod along unflinchingly, having courage of his creed, and while he would paint a bird or a fish formed themselves into an association (the hakuba-kai) which gives periodical exhibitions, and there are, in Tokyo and Kioto, well. with perfect realism, he no more dared to trust his eyes in organized and flourishing art schools which receive a substantial larger motives than did the most devout follower of Shūbun or measure of state aid, as well as a private academy founded by Motonobu. He was essentially a painter of the classical schools, Okakura with a band of seceders from the hybrid fashions of the with the speciality of elaborate reproduction of detail in certain and more convinced that its art future should not wander far from Gaho system. . Altogether the nation seems to be growing more sections of animal life, but fortunately this partial concession the lines of the past. (W. An.; F. By.) to truth, emphasized as it was by a rare sense of beauty, did Although a little engraving on copper has been practised in large service. Japan of late years, it is of no artistic value, and the only Okyō rose into notice about 1775, and a number of pupils flocked branch of the art which calls for recognition is the to his studio in Shijo Street, Kioto (whence Shijō school). Amongst cutting of wood-blocks for use either with colours or Eograviag. these the most famous were Goshun (1742-1811), who is sometimes without. This, however, is of supreme importance, and as its regarded as one of the founders of the school; Sosen (1757-1821), an animal painter of remarkable power, but especially celebrated for technique differs in most respects from the European practice, pictures of monkey life; Shūho, the younger brother of the last, also it demands a somewhat detailed description. an animal painter; Rosetsu (1755-1799), the best landscape painter of his school; Keibun, a younger brother of Goshun, and some later The wood used is generally that of the cherry-tree, sakura, which followers of scarcely less fame, notably Hoyen, a pupil of Keibun; has a grain of peculiar evenness and hardness. It is worked plank- Tessan, an adopted son of Sosen; Ippo and Yōsai (1788–1878), well wise to a surface parallel with the grain, and not across it. A design known for a remarkable set of volumes, the Zenken kojitsu, con- is drawn by the artist, to whom the whole credit of the production taining a long series of portraits of ancient Japanese celebrities : generally belongs, with a brush on thin paper, which is then pasted face downwards on the block. The engraver, who is very rarely Ozui and Ojyu, the sons of Okyo, painted in the style of their father, but failed to attain great eminence. Lastly, amongst the the designer, then cuts the outlines into the block with a knife, associates of the Shijo master was the celebrated Ganku (1798- Great skill is shown in this operation, which achieves perhaps the afterwards removing the superfluous wood with gouges and chisels. 1837), who developed a special style of his own, and is sometimes regarded as the founder of a distinct school. He was, however, aid of photographic processes. A peculiar but highly artistic finest facsimile reproduction of drawings ever known without the greatly influenced by Okyo's example, and his sons, Gantai, Ganryo, device is that of gradually rounding off the surfaces where necessary, and Gantoku or Renzan, drifted into a manner almost indistin- in order to obtain in printing a soft and graduated mass of colour guishable from that of the Shijō school., which does not terminate too abruptly. In printing with colours It remains only, to allude to the European school, if school it a separate block is made in this manner for each tint, the first con- can be called, founded by Kokan and Denkichi, two contem- taining as a rule the mere lines of the composition, and the others poraries of Okyo. These artists, at first educated in the paper is laid on the upper surface of the block, and the impres- providing for the masses of tint to be applied. In all printing European one of the native schools, obtained from a Hollander sion rubbed off with a circular pad, composed of twisted cord within in Nagasaki some training in the methods and prin a covering of paper cloth and bamboo-lear, and called the baren. In ciples of European painting, and left a few oil paintings in which colour-printing, the colours, which are much the same as those in the laws of light and shade and perspective were correctly for each operation, and the power of regulating the result given by use in Europe, are mixed, with rice-paste as a medium, on the block observed. They were not, however, of sufficient capacity to this custom to an intelligent craftsman (who, again, is neither the render the adopted manner more than a subject of curiosity, artist nor the engraver) was productive in the best period of very except to a few followers who have reached down to the present by any mechanical device. A wonderfully accurate register; or beautiful and artistic effects, such as could never have been obtained generation. It is possible that the essays in perspective found successive superposition of each block, is got mainly by the skill of in the pictures of Hokusai, Hiroshige, and some of the popular the printer, who is assisted only by a mark defining one corner and artists of the 19th century, were suggested by Kokan's drawings another mark showing the opposite side limit. and writings. The origins of this method of colour-printing are obscure. It The sixth period began about 1875, when an Italian artist was has been practised to some extent in China and Korea, but there engaged by the government as a professor of painting in the is no evidence of its antiquity in these countries. It appears Engineering College at Tokyo. Since that time some to be one of the few indigenous arts of Japan. But before distinguished European artists have visited Japan, accepting this conclusion as final, one must not lose sight of the and several Japanese students have made a pilgrim- fact that the so-called chiaroscuro engraving was at the height age to Europe to see for themselves what lessons may be of its use in Italy at the same time that embassies from the gained from Western art. These students, confronted by a Christians in Japan visited Rome, and that it is thus possible School. Sixth Period. 176 JAPAN (ART Book Illus that the suggestion at least may have been derived from Europe. the cuts were roughly coloured by hand; but the execution of The fact that no traces of it have been discovered in Japan would these is not as good as contemporary European work. The date be easily accounted for, when it is remembered that the examples of the first use of colour-printing in Japanese book illus- taken home would almost certainly have been religious pictures, tration is uncertain. In 1667 a collection of designs for tration. would have been preserved in well-known and accessible places, kimono (garments) appeared, in which inks of several and would thus have been entirely destroyed in the terrible and colours were made use of; but these were only employed in turn minute extermination of Christianity by Hideyoshi at the begin- for single printings, and in no case were two of them used on ning of the 17th century. Japanese tradition ascribes the inven- the same print. It is certain, however, that the mere use of tion of colour-printing to Idzumiya Gonshiro, who, about the coloured inks must soon have suggested the combination of end of the 17th century, first made use of a second block to apply two or more of them, and it is probable that examples of this a tint of red (beni) to his prints., Sir Ernest Satow states more will be discovered much earlier in date than those known at definitely that “Sakakibara attributes its origin to the year present. 1695, when portraits of the actor Ichikawa Danjiuro, coloured by About the year 1680 Hishigawa Moronobu achieved a great popu. this process, were sold in the streets of Yedo for five cash apiece.” larity for woodcut illustration, and laid the foundations of the The credit of the invention is also given to Torii Kiyonobu, who splendid school which followed. The names of the engravers who worked at about this time, and, indeed, is said to have made the craftsmen is curiously subordinated to that of the designers in all cut his designs are not known, and in fact the reputation of these prints above mentioned. But authentic examples of his work Japanese work of the kind. With Moronobu must be associated now remaining, printed in three colours, seem to show a tech- Okumura Masanobu, a little later perhaps in date, whose work is nique too complete for an origin quite so recent. However, he also of considerable value. During the ensuing thirty years numerous is the first artist of importance to have produced the broadsheets illustrated books appeared, including the earliest yet known which -for many years chiefly portraits of notable actors, historical 1751) illustrated a very large number of books, many of which were are illustrated by colour-printing. Nishikawa Sukenobu. (1671- characters and famous courtesans—which are the leading and not published until after his death. With him may be associated characteristic use to which the art was applied. Pupils, the Ichio Shumboku (d. C. 1773) and Tsukioka Tange (1717-1786), the chief of whom were Kiyomasa, Kiyotsume, Kiyomitsu, Kiyonaga books which form so interesting and distinctive a branch of Japanese latter of whom made the drawings for many of the meisho or guide- and Kiyomine, carried on his tradition until the end of the 18th illustration. The work of Tachibana Morikuni (1670-1748) is also century, the three earlier using but few colours, while the works of great importance. The books illustrated by the men of this of the two last named show a technical mastery of all the capa- school were mainly collections of useful information, guide-books, bilities of the process. romances and historical and religious compilations; but much of the best of their work is to be found in the collections of pictorial The next artist of importance is Suzuki Harunobu (worked c. 1760- designs, very often taken from Chinese sources, which were produced 1780), to whom the Japanese sometimes ascribe the invention of the for the use of workers in lacquer, pottery and similar crafts. These, process, probably on the grounds of an improvement in his technique, both for design and for skill of cutting, hold their own with the best and the fact that he seems to have been one of the first of the colour work of European wood-cutting of any period. The development print makers to attain great popularity: Katsukawa Shunsho of the art of Japanese colour-printing naturally had its effect on (d. 1792) must next be mentioned, not only for the beauty of his book-illustration, and the later years of the 18th and the earlier own work, but because he was the first master of Hokusai; then of the 19th century saw a vast increase of books illustrated by this Yeishi (worked c. 1781-1800), the founder of the Hosoda school; process. The subjects also now include a new series of landscapes Utamaro (1754-1806), whose prints of beautiful women were col- and views drawn as seen by the designers, and not reproductions of lected by Dutchmen while he was still alive, and have had in our the work of other men; and also sketches of scenes and characters own day a vogue greater, perhaps, than those of any other of his of every-day life and of the folk-lore in which Japan is so rich. fellows; and Toyokuni I. (1768-1825), who especially devoted him- Among the artists of this period, as of all others in Japan, Hokusai self to broadsheet portraits of actors and dramatic scenes. The (1760-1849) is absolutely pre-eminent. His greatest production greatest of all the artists of the popular school was, however, in book-illustration was the Mangwa, a collection of sketches which Hokusai (1760-1849). His most famous series of broadsheets is cover the whole ground of Japanese life and legend, art and handi- the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (1823-1829), which, in spite of the craft. . It consists of fifteen volumes, which appeared at intervals conventional title, includes at least forty-six. His work is catalogued from 1812 to 1875, twelve being published during his life and the in detail by E. de Goncourt. At the beginning of the 19th century others from material left by him. Among his many other works the process was technically at its greatest height, and in the hands may be mentioned the Azumi Asobi (Walks round Vedo, 1799). Of of the great landscape artist, Hiroshige I., as well as the pupils of his pupils, Hokkei (1780-1856) and Kyosai were the greatest: Most Toyokuni I.-Kunisada and Kuniyoshi-and those of Hokusai, it of the artists, whose main work was the designing of broadsheets, at first kept up an excellent level. But an undue increase in the produced elaborately illustrated books; and this series includes number of blocks used, combined with the inferiority of the im: specimens of printing in colours from wood-blocks, which for ported colours and carelessness or loss of skill in printing, brought technique have never been excelled. Among them should be men- about a rapid decline soon after 1840. This continued until the old tioned 'Shunsho (Seiro bijin awase kagami, 1776); Utamaro (Seiro traditions were well-nigh exhausted, but since 1880 there has been nenjyū gyoji, 1804): Toyokuni I. (Yakusha kono teikishiwa, 1801); as a distinct revival. The prints of the present day are cut with great well as Harunobu Yeishi (Onna sanjyu rokkasen, 1798), Kitao Masan. skill, and the designs are excellent, though both these branches seem obu and Tachibana Minko, each of whom produced beautiful work to lack the vigour of conception and breadth of execution of the of the same nature. In the period next following, the chief artists older masters. The colours now used are almost invariably of were Keisai Yeisen (Keisai so-gwa, 1832) and Kikuchi Yōsai (Zenken cheap German origin, and though they have a certain prettiness-kojitsu), the latter of whom ranks perhaps as highly as any of the ephemeral, it is to be feared-they again can not compare with the artists who confined their work to black and white. The books old native productions. Among workers in this style, Yoshitoshi produced in the period 1880-1908 in Japan are still of high technical (d. c. 1898) was perhaps the best. Living artists in 1908 included excellence. The colours are, unfortunately, of cheap. European Toshihide, Miyagawa Shuntei, Yoshiu Chikanobu-one of the elder manufacture; and the design, although quite characteristic and often generation-Tomisuka Yeishu, Toshikata and Gekko. Formerly beautiful, is as a rule merely pretty. The engraving is as good as the colour-print artist was of mean extraction and low social position, ever. Among the book-illustrators of our own generation must be but he now has some recognition at the hands of the professors of again mentioned Kyosai; Kono Bairei (d. 1895), whose books of more estecmed branches of art. This change is doubtless due in birds--the Bairei hyakucho gwafu (1881 and 1884) and Yūaka-no- part to Occidental appreciation of the products of his art, which isuki (1889)-are unequalled of their kind; Imao Keinen, who also were formerly held in little honour by his own countrymen, the place issued a beautiful set of illustrations of birds and flowers (Keinen assigned to them being scarcely higher than that accorded to kwacho gwafu), engraved by Tanaka Jirokichi and printed by Miki magazine illustrations in Europe and America. But it is also Nisaburo (1891-1892); and Watanabe Scitei, whose studies of similar largely due to his displays of unsurpassed skill in preparing xylo- subjects have appeared in Seitei kwacho gwafu (1890-1899) and the graphs for the beautiful art publications issued by the Shimbi Shoin Bijutsu sekai (1894), engraved by Goto Tokujiro. Mention should and the Kokka company. These xylographs prove that the Japanese also be made of several charming series of fairy tales, of which that art-artisan of the present day was not surpassed by the greatest of published in English by the Kobunsha in Tōkyō in 1885 is perhaps his predecessors in this line. (E. F. S.; F. By.) the best. In their adaptation of modern processes of illustration The history of the illustrated book in Japan may be said lithographs and other reproductions in the Kokka, a periodical the Japanese are entirely abreast of Western nations, the chromo- to begin with the Isc monogatari, a romance first published in record of Japanese works of art (begun in 1889), 'in the superb the 10th century, of which an edition adorned with woodcuts albums of the Shimbi Shõin, and in the publications of Ogawa being appeared in 1008. In the course of the 17th century many other of quite a high order of merit. (E. F. S.; F. By.) works of the same nature were issued, including some in which Sculpture and Carving.--Sculpture in wood and metal is of JAPAN Plate I. (These illustrations are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company, Tokyo, Japan.) PAINTING Fig. 1.—Manjusri, Deity of Wisdom. Kosé School (13th century). Fig. 2.-Waterfall of Nachi. Attri- buted to Kanaoka (9th century). Fig. 3.-Portrait of the Priest Daitokokushi. Tosa School (14th century). Plate II. JAPAN -1 Fig. 4.—Priests Caricatured by Animals. By Joba Sojo (1053-1140). PAINTING Fig. 5.— Escape of the Emperor Disguised as a Woman. Scene from the Civil War. By Keion (13th century). JAPAN PLATE III. PAINTING Fig. 6.— Kwannon, Goddess of Mercy. By Mincho or Cho Densu (1352-1431). Fig. 7.-Landscape in Snow. By Kano Motonobu (1476-1559). Fig. 8.-Jurojin. By Sesshiu (1420-1506). PLATE IV. JAPAN PAINTING 1 S *** Fig. 9.–Plum Trees and Stream-Screen on Gold Ground. By Korin (1661-1716). Fig. 10.—Peacocks. By Ganku (1749-1838). I JAPAN Plate V. SCULPTURE 11 Fig. 11.–Vajra Malla. By Unkei (13th century). Fig. 12.-Statue of Asanga (12th century, artist unknown). As Fig. 13.—Statues of Buddha Ami'tabha and Two Bodhisattvas (7th century). Plate VI. JAPAN METAL WORK AND LACQUER Fig. 15.—Bronze Duck Incense Burner (15th cen- tury). British Museum. Fig. 16.--Bronze Mirror (12th to 13th century). Fig. 14.— Door of Bronze Lantern in the Tôdai Temple (8th century). Fig. 17.-Inkstone Box in Lacquer. By Koyetsu (1557–1637). 1 JAPAN PLATE VII. 1 LACQUER Fig. 18.–Lid of Box. By Korin. Fig. 19.—Case for Head of a Skakujo. Fujiwara Period (851-1069 A.D.). Fig. 20.-Owl on a Branch. By Ritsuo. Fig. 21.-Box with Butterflies and Flowers in Gold (12th century). Fig. 22.-Lacquered Boxes. By Kôami (1598-1651). Plate VIII. JAPAN On i ad Fig. 23.—Tea Bowl. By Kenzan. Fig. 26.-Lion. By Chojiro Raku. Fig. 24.—Tea Jar. By Ninsei. Fig. 25.—Figure. By Kakiemon. Arita porcelain. POTTERY AND PORCELAIN aio Minna Fig. 27.–Censer, with Kochi glaze. By Eisen. Fig. 28.-Tea Jar. By Ninsei. Fig. 29.-Bizen Ware. Samantabhadra. Fig. 30.–Censer. By Kenzan. है ART) JAPAN 177 Historical Sketch. Second Period. art. First Period. Third Period. ) ancient date in Japan. . Its antiquity is not, indeed, comparable | The Miyochins, a line that claimed ancestry from the 7th century, to that of ancient Egypt or Greece, but no country besides Japan were at the head of their calling, and their work in iron breast- can boast a living and highly developed art that has plates and helmets, chiefly in repoussé, is still un- numbered upwards of twelve centuries of unbroken rivalled. It was not until the latter half of the 15th and brilliant productiveness. Setting aside rude century that there came into vogue the elaborate decor- prehistoric essays in stone and metal, which have special interest ation of the sword, a fashion that was to last four hundred years. for the antiquary, we have examples of sculpture in wood and The metal guard (tsuba), made of ironor precious alloy, wasadorned metal, magnificent in conception and technique, dating from with engraved designs, often inlaid with gold and silver. The frec the earliest periods of what we may term historical Japan; that end of the hilt was crowned with a metallic cap or pommel (kashira), is, from near the beginning of the great Buddhist propaganda the other extremity next the tsuba was embraced by an oval ring under the emperor Kimmei (540-571) and the princely hierarch, called the menuki, all adapted in material and workmanship to (fuchi), and in the middle was affixed on each side a special ornament Shotoku Taishi (573-621). Stone has never been in favour in harmonize with the guard. The kodzuka, or handle of a little knife Japan as a material for the higher expression of the sculptor's implanted into the sheath of the short sword or dagger, was also of metal and engraved with like care. The founder of the first The first historical period of glyptic art in Japan reaches from friend of the painter Kano Motonobu, whose designs he adopted. great line of tsuba and menuki artists was Goto Yūjō (1440-1512), a the end of the 6th to the end of the 12th century, culminating Many families of sword artists sprang up at a later period, furnishing in the work of the great Nara sculptors, Unkei and treasures for the collector even down to the present day, and their his pupil Kwaikei. Happily, there are still preserved labours reached a level of technical mastery and refined artistic in the great' temples of Japan, chiefly in the ancient judgment almost without parallel in the art industries of Europe. Buddhist sculpture was by no means neglected during this period, capital of Nara, many noble relics of this period. but there are few works that call for special notice. The most The place of honour may perhaps be conferred upon sculptures noteworthy effort was the casting by Ono Goroyémon in 1252 of the in wood, representing the Indian Buddhists, Asangha and Vasa- well-known bronże image, the Kamakura Daibutsu. bandhu, preserved in the Golden Hall of Kofuku-ji, Nara. These The third period includes the 17th, 18th and the greater part are attributed to a Kamakura sculptor of the 8th or 9th century of the 19th centuries. It was the era of the artisan artist. The and in simple and realistic dignity of pose and grand lines of com- position are worthy of comparison with the works of ancient Greece. makers of Buddhist images and of sword ornaments With these may be named the demon lantern-bearers, so perfect carried on their work with undiminished industry in the grotesque treatment of the diabolical heads and the accurate and success, and some famous schools of the latter anatomical forms of the sturdy body and limbs; the colossal temple arose during this period. The Buddhist sculptors, however, guardians of the great gate of Tódai-ji, by Unkci and Kwaikei (11th century), somewhat conventionalized, but still bearing evidence of tended to grow more conventional and the metal-workers more direct study from nature, and inspired with intense energy of action; naturalistic as the 18th century began to wane. It was in con- and the smaller but more accurately modelleự temple guardians in nexion with architecture that the great artisan movement began. the Saikondo, Nara, which almost compare with the fighting The initiator was Hidari Jingoro (1594–1652), at first a simple gladiator "in their realization of menacing strength. The“ goddess of art " of Akishino-dera, Nara, attributed to the 8th century, is carpenter, afterwards one of the most famous sculptors in the the most graceful and least conventional of female sculptures in land of great artists. The gorgeous decoration of the mausoleum Japan, but infinitely remote from the feminine conception of the of Iyeyasu at Nikko, and of the gateway of the Nishi Hongwan Greeks. The wooden portrait of Vimalakirtti, attributed to Unkei, temple at Kioto, are the most striking instances of his handiwork at Kofuku-ji, has some of the qualities of the images of the two Indian Buddhists. The sculptures attributed to Jõcho, the founder or direction. of the Nara school, although powerful in pose and masterly in execution, lack the truth of observation seen in some of the earlier able part of the structure, are covered with arabesques and sculp- The pillars, architraves, ceilings, panels, and almost every avail- and later masterpieces. The most perfect of the ancient bronzes is the great image of torial compositions with landscapes and figures, deeply carved in tured figures of dragons, lions, tigers, birds, flowers, and even pic- Bhaicha-djyaguru in the temple of Yakushi-ji, Nara, attributed to solid or open work-the wood sometimes plain, sometimes overlaid a Korean monk of the 7th century, named Gjõgi. The bronze with pigment and gilding, as in the panelled ceiling of the chapel of image of the same divinity at Höryū-ji, said to have been cast at Iyeyasu in Tokyo. The designs for these decorations, like those of the beginning of the 7th century by Tori Busshi, the grandson of a the sword ornaments, were adopted from the great schools of paint- Chinese immigrant, is of good technical quality, but much inferior ing, but the invention of the sculptor was by no means idle. From in design to the former. The colossal Nara Daibutsu (Vairocana) at this time the temple carvers, although still attached to the carpen- Tõdai-ji, cast in 749 by a workman of Korean descent, is the largest ters' guild, took a place apart from the rest of their craft, and the of the great bronzes in Japan, but ranks far below the Yakushi-ji genius of Hidari Jingoro secured for one important section of the image in artistic qualities. The present head, however, is a later artisan world a recognition like that which Hishigawa Moronobu, substitute for the original, which was destroyed by fire. the painter and book-illustrator, afterwards won for another. The great Nara school of sculpture in wood was founded in the early part of the 17th century, by a sculptor of Imperial descent A little later arose another art industry, also emanating from named Jõcho, who is said to have modelled his style upon that of the masses. The use of tobacco, which became prevalent in the the Chinese wood-carvers of the Tang dynasty; his traditions were maintained by descendants and followers down to the beginning of 17th century, necessitated the pouch. In order to suspend this the 13th century. All the artists of this period were men of aristo- from the girdle there was employed a kind of button or toggle- cratic rank and origin, and were held distinct from the carpenter the netsuke. The metallic bowl and mouthpiece of the pipe architects of the imposing, temples which were to contain their offered a tempting surface for embellishment, as well as the clasp works. Sacred images were not the only specimens of glyptic art pro- of the pouch; and the netsuke, being made of wood, ivory or duced in these six centuries; reliquaries, bells, vases, incense other material susceptible of carving, also gave occasion for art burners, candlesticks, lanterns, decorated arms and armour, and and ingenuity. many other objects, showing no less mastery of design and execution, have reached us. Gold and silver had been applied to the adornment The engravers of pipes," pouch clasps, and the metallic discs of helmets and breastplates from the 7th century, but it was in the (kagami-bula) attached to certain netsuke, sprang from the same 12th century that the decoration reached the high degree of elabo- class and were not less original. They worked, too, with a skill little ration shown us in the armour of the Japanese Bayard, Yoshitsunē, inferior to that of the Gotos, Naras, and other aristocratic sculptors which is still preserved at Kasuga, Nara. of sword ornaments, and often with a refinement which their relative Wooden masks employed in the ancient theatrical performances disadvantages in education and associations render especially remark- were made from the 7th century, and offer a distinct and often able. The netsuke and the pipe, with all that pertained to it, were grotesque phase of wood-carving, Several families of experts have for the commoners what the sword-hilt and guard were for the gentry. been associated with this class of sculpture, and their designs have spared thought or expense in the embellishment of the object they Neither class cared to bestow jewels upon their persons, but neither been carefully preserved and imitated down to the present day. most loved. The final manifestation of popular glyptic art was the The second period in Japanese glyptic art extends from the okimono, an ornament pure and simple, in which utility was alto- beginning of the 13th to the early part of the 17th century. gether secondary in intention to decorative effect. Its manufacture The great struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans had as a special branch of art work dates from the rise of the naturalistic ended, but the militant spirit was still strong, and brought under the Katsugawa, but the okimono formed an occasional amuse, school of painting and the great expansion of the popular school work for the artists who made and ornamented arms and armour. ment of the older glyptic artists. Some of the most exquisite and XV 4 2a 178 (ART JAPAN commerce. most ingenious of these earlier productions, such as the magnificent Scarcely less important in Japanese eyes than the chiselling iron eagle in the South Kensington Museum, the wonderful articu- of the decorative design itself is the preparation of the field to lated models of crayfish, dragons, serpents, birds, that are found in many European collections, came from the studios of the Miyochins; which it is applied. There used to be a strict canon The Field but these were the play of giants, and were not made as articles of with reference to this in former times. Namako for The new artisan makers of the okimono struck out a (fish-roe) grounds were essential for the mountings Sculptured line for themselves, one influenced more by the naturalistic and popular schools than by the classical art, and the quails of Kamejo, of swords worn on ceremonial occasions, the ishime the tortoises of Seimin, the dragons of Tõun arid Tõryū, and in recent (stone-pitting) or jimigaki (polished) styles being considered less years the falcons and the peacocks of Suzuki Chokichi, are the joy of aristocratic. the European collector. The best of these are exquisite in workman. ship, graceful in design, often strikingly original in conception, and Namako is obtained by punching the whole surface-except the usually naturalistic in ideal. They constitute a phase of art in which portion carrying the decorative design-into a texture of micro- Japan has few rivals. scopic dots. The first makers of namako did not aim at regularity in the distribution of these dots; they were content to produce the The present generation is more systematically commercial in effect of millet-seed siſted haphazard over the surface. But from its glyptic produce than any previous age. Millions of commer- the 15th century the punching of the dots in rigidly straight lines cial articles in metal-work, wood and ivory flood the European came to be considered essential, and the difficulty involved was so markets, and may be bought in any street in Europe at a small great that na mako-making took its place among the highest technical achievements of the sculptor. When it is remembered that the price, but they offer a variety of design and an excellence of punching tool was guided solely by the hand and eye, and that three workmanship which place them almost beyond Western compe- or more blows of the mallet had to be struck for every dot, some tition, Above all this, however, the Japanese sculptor is a conception may be formed of the patience and accuracy needed to force in art. He is nearly as thorough as his forefathers, and exactly equal intervals and of absolutely uniform size. produce these tiny protuberances in perfectly straight lines, at Namako maintains the same love of all things beautiful; and if he cannot disposed in straight parallel lines originally ranked at the head of this show any epoch-making novelly, he is at any rate doing his best kind of work. But a new kind was introduced in the 16th century. to support unsurpassed the decorative traditions of the past. It was obtained by punching, the dots in intersecting lines, so arranged that the dots fell uniformly into diamond-shaped groups History has been eminently careful to preserve the names of five each. This is called go-no-me-namako, because of its resem- and records of the men who chiselled sword furniture. The blance to the disposition of chequers in the Japanese game of go. Sword- sword being regarded as the soul of the samurai, A century later, the daimyo namako was invented, in which lines of maklog every one who contributed to its manufacture, described as diapering. There is scarcely any limit to the inge- dots alternated with lines of polished ground. Ishime may be briefly Families. whether as forger of the blade or sculptor of the nuity and skill of the Japanese expert in diapering a metal surface. furniture, was held in high repute. The Goto family worked It is not possible to enumerate here even the principal styles of steadily during 14 generations, and its 19th century representa ishime, but mention may be made of the zara-maki (broad-cast), in tive-Goto Ichijo-will always be remembered as one of the which the surface is finely but irregularly pitted after the manner of the face of a stone; the nashi-ji (pear-ground), in which we have family's greatest experts. But there were many others whose a surface like the rind of a pear; the hari-ishime (needle ishime), productions fully equalled and often excelled the best efforts where the inclentations are so minute that they seem to have been of the Gotõ. The following list gives the names and periods of made with the point of a needle; the gama-ishime, which is intended the most renowned families:- to imitate the skin of a toad; the isuya-ishime, produced with a chisel sharpened so that its traces have a lustrous appearance; the (It should be noted that the division by centuries indicates the ore-kucki (broken-tool), a peculiar kind obtained with a jagged tool; time of a family's origin. In a great majority of cases the represen- and the gozamé, which resembles the plaited surface of a fine straw tatives of each generation worked on through succeeding centuries). mat. 15th and 10th Centuries. Great importance has always been attached by Japanese experts Miyochin; Goto; Umetada; Muneta; Aoki; Soami; Nakai. to the patina of metal used for artistic chiselling. It was mainly 17th Century. for the sake of their patina that value attached to the Patina. remarkable alloys shakudo (3 parts of gold to 97 of Kuwamura; Mizuno; Koichi; Nagayoshi; copper) and shibuichi (1 part of silver to 3 of copper). Neither Kuninaga: Yoshishige; Katsugi; Tsuji; Muneyoshi; Tadahira; Shoami; Hosono; metal, when it emerges from the furnace, has any beauty, shakudo Yokoya; Nara; Okada ; Okamoto; Kinai; Akao; being simply dark-coloured copper and shibuichi pale gun-metal. Yoshioka; Hirata; Nomura; Wakabayashi; Inouye; But after proper treatment the former develops a glossy black Yasui; Chiyo; Kaneko; Uemura; Iwamoto. patina with violet sheen, and the latter shows beautiful shades of 18th Century. grey with silvery lustre. Both these compounds afford. delicate, unobtrusive and effective grounds for inlaying with gold, silver Gorobei; Shõemon; Kikugawa; Yasuyama; Noda; Tamagawa; and other metals, as well as for sculpture, whether incised or in Fujita; Kikuoka; Kizaemon; Hamano; Omori; Okamoto; Kashi- relief. Copper, too, by patina-producing treatment, is made to waya; Kusakari; Shichibei; Ito. show not merely a rich golden sheen with pleasing limpidity, but 19th Century. also red of various hues, from deep coral to light vermilion, several Natsuo; Ishiguro; Yanagawa; Honjo; Tanaka; Okano; Kawara shades of grey, and browns of numerous tones from dead-leaf to bayashi; Oda; and many masters of the Omori, Hamano and chocolate. Even greater value has always been set upon the patina Iwamoto families, as well as the five experts, Shuraku, Temmin, of iron, and many secret recipes were preserved in artist families Ryūmin, Minjo and Minkoku. (W. AN.; F. By.) for producing the fine, satin-like texture so much admired by all connoisseurs. There is a radical difference between the points of view of In Japan, as in Europe, three varieties of relief carving are distin- the Japanese and the Western connoisseur in estimating the guished-alto (taka-bori), mezzo (chūniku-bori) and basso (usuniku- Japanese merits of sculpture in metal. The quality of the bori, In the opinion of the Japanese expert, these styles Methods of Point of chiselling is the first feature to which the Japanese three kinds of ideographic script in caligraphy: High relief hold the same respective rank as that occupied by the Chiselling. Vlew. directs his attention; the decorative design is the carving corresponds to the kaisho, or most classical form of writing; prime object of the Occidental's attention. With very rare medium relief to the gyosho, or semi-cursive style; and low relief to exceptions, the decorative motives of Japanese sword furniture the sosho or grass character. With regard to incised chiselling the were always supplied by painters. Hence it is that the ing, the lines being of uniform thickness and depth. Very beautiful commonest form is kebori (hair-carving), which may be called engrav- Japanese connoisseur draws a clear distinction between the results are obtained by the kebori method, but incomparably the decorative design and its technical execution, crediting the finest work in the incised class is that known as kata-kiri-bori. In former to the pictorial artist and the latter to the sculptor. this kind of chiselling the Japanese artist can claim to be unique as He detects in the stroke of a chisel and the lines of a graving the originators of the style, was to break away from the somewhat well as unrivalled. Evidently the idea of the great Yokoya experts, tool subjective beauties which appear to be hidden from the formal monotony of ordinary engraving, where each line performs great majority of Western dilettanti. He estimates the rank exactly the same function, and to convert the chisel into an artist's of a specimen by the quality of the chisel-work. The Japanese kinzoku-shi (metal sculptor) uses thirty-six principal classes of ? It is first boiled in a lye obtained by lixiviating wood ashes; it chisel, each with its distinctive name, and as most of these vinegar and salt; then washed with weak lye and placed in a tub is next polished with charcoal powder; then immersed in plum classes comprise from five to ten sub-varieties, bis cutting of water to remove all traces of alkali, the final step being to digest and graving tools aggregate about two hundred and fifty. in a boiling solution of copper sulphate, verdigris and water. ART] JAPAN 179 Skill. brush instead of using it as a common cutting tool. They succeeded broken blisters, which are then hammered down until each becomes a admirably. In the kata-kiri-bori every line has its proper value centre of wave propagation. In fine work the apex of the blister is in the pictorial design, and strength and directness become cardinal ground off before the final hammering. Iron was the metal used elements in the strokes of the burin just as they do in the brush- exclusively for work of this kind down to the 16th century, but work of the picture-painter. The same fundamental rule applied, various metals began thenceforth to be combined. Perhaps the too, whether the field of the decoration was silk, paper or metal. choicest variety is gold graining in a shakudo field. By repeated The artist's tool, be it brush or burin, must perform its task by one hammering and polishing the expert obtains such control of the effort. There must be no appearance of subsequent deepening, or wood-grain pattern that its sinuosities and eddies seem to have extending, or re-cutting or finishing. Kata-kiri-bori by a great developed symmetry without losing anything of their fantastic expert is a delight. One is lost in astonishment at the nervous yet grace." There are other methods of producing mokume-ji. perfectly regulated force and the unerring fidelity of every trace of the chisel. Another variety of carving much affected by artists It has been frequently asserted by Western critics that the of the 17th century, and now largely used, is called shishi-ai-bori year (1876) which witnessed the abolition of sword-wearing in or niku-ai-bori. In this style the surface of the design is not raised Japan, witnessed also the end of her artistic metal- Modern and above the general plane of the field, but an effect of projection is obtained either by recessing the whole space immediately surround- work. That is a great mistake. The art has merely Ancient ing the design, or by enclosing the latter in a scarped frame. Yet developed new phases in modern times. Not only are model the design on both faces of the metal so as to give a sculpture the Nara, the Yokoya and the Yanagawa celebrities, but also another, and very favourite method, giving beautiful results, is to its masters as skilled now as they were in the days of the Goto, in the round. The fashion is always accompanied by chiselling their productions must be called greater in many respects and à jour (sukashi-bori), so that the sculptured portions stand out in their entirety. more interesting than those of their renowned predecessors. Inlaying with gold or silver was among the early forms of They no longer devote themselves to the manufacture of sword decoration in Japan. The skill developed in modern times is at ornaments, but work rather at vases, censers, statuettes, lolaying, least equal to anything which the past can show, and the results produced are much more imposing. There plaques, boxes and other objects of a serviceable or ornamental åre two principal kinds of inlaying: the first called hon-zögan (true nature. All the processes described above are practised by inlaying), the second nunome-zõgan (linen-mesh inlaying). As to them with full success, and they have added others quite as the former, the Japanese method does not differ from that seen remarkable. in the beautiful iron censers and vases inlaid with gold which the Chinese produced from the Süen-tê era (1426-1436). In the surface Of these, one of the most interesting is called kiribame (insertion). of the metal the workman cuts grooves wider at the base than at the The decorative design having been completely chiselled in the round, top, and then hammers into them gold or silver wire. Such a process is then fixed in a held of a different metal, in which a design of presents.no remarkable features, except that it has been carried by exactly similar outline has been cut out. The result is that the the Japanese to an extraordinary degree of elaborateness. The picture has no blank reverse. For example, on the surface of nunome-zõgan is more interesting Suppose, for example, that the shibuichi box-lid we see the backs of a fock of geese chiselled in artist desires to produce an inlaid diaper. His first business is to silver, and when the lid is opened, their breasts and the under-sides chisel the surface in lines forming the basic pattern of the design. of their pinions appear. The difficulty of such work is plain. Micro- Thus, for a diamond-petal diaper the chisel is carried across the face scopic accuracy has to be attained in cutting out the space for the of the metal horizontally, tracing a number of parallel bands insertion of the design, and while the latter must be soldered firmly divided at fixed intervals by ribs which are obtained by merely in its place, not the slightest trace of solder or the least sign of straightening the chisel and striking it a heavy blow. The same junction must be discernible between the metal of the inserted process is then repeated in another direction, so that the new bands picture and that of the field in which it is inserted. Suzuki Gensuke cross the old at an angle adapted to the nature of the design. Several is the inventor of this method. He belongs to a class of experts independent chisellings may be necessary before the lines of the called uchimono-shi (hammerers) who perform preparatory work diaper emerge clearly, but throughout the whole operation no for glyptic artists in metal. The skill of these men is often wonder- measurement of any kind is taken, the artist being guided entirely ful. Using the hammer only, some of them can beat out an intricate by his hand and eye. The metal is then heated, not to redness, but shape as truly and delicately as a sculptor could carve it with his sufficiently to develop a certain degree of softness, and the workman, chisels. Ohori Masatoshi, an uchimono-shi of Aizu (d. 1897), made taking a very thin sheet of gold (or silver), hammers portions of it a silver cake-box in the form of a sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum. into the salient points of the design. In ordinary cases this is the The shapes of the body and lid corresponded so intimately that, The seventh is to hammer gold into the outlines of whereas the lid could be slipped on easily and smoothly without any the diaper; the eighth, to hammer it into the pattern filling the attempt to adjust its curves to those of the body, it always fitted so spaces between the lines, and the ninth and tenth to complete the closely that the box could be lifted by grasping the lid only. details. Of course the more intricate the design the more numerous Another feat of his was to apply a lining of silver to a shakudo box the processes. It is scarcely possible to imagine a higher effort of by shaping and hammering only, the fit being so perfect that the hand and eye than this nunome-zőgan displays, for while intricacy lining clung like paper to every part of the box. Suzuki Gensuke and elaborateness are carried to the very extreme, absolute mechanic and Hirata Sāko are scarcely less expert. The latter once exhibited cal accuracy is obtained. Sometimes in the same design we see gold in Tokyo a silver game-cock with soft plumage and surface modelling of three different hues, obtained by varying the alloy. A third kind of the most delicate character. It had been made by means of the of inlaying, peculiar to Japan, is sumi-zôgan (ink-inlaying), so called hammer only; Suzuki's kiribame process is not to be confounded because the inlaid design gives the impression of having been painted with the kiribame-zogan (inserted inlaying) of Toyoda Koko, also a with Indian ink beneath the transparent surface of the metal. The modern artist. The gist of the latter method is that a design difference between this process and ordinary inlaying is that for chiselled a jour has its outlines veneered with other metal which sumi-zögan the design to be inlaid is fully chiselled out of an indepen- serves to emphasize them. Thus, having pierced a spray of fowers dent block of metal with sides sloping so as to be broader at the in a thin shect of shibuichi, the artist fits a slender rim of gold, silver, base than at the top. The object which is to receive the decoration or shakudo to the petals, leaves and stalks, so that an effect is is then channelled in dimensions corresponding to those of the design produced of transparent blossoms outlined in gold, silver or purple. block, and the latter having been fixed in the channels, the surface Another modern achievement-also due to Suzuki Gensukeis is ground and polished until an intimate union is obtained between maze-gane (mixed metals). It is a singular conception, and the the inlaid design and the metal forming its field. Very beautiful results obtained depend largely on chance. Shibuichi and shakudo effects are thus produced, for the design seems to have grown up to are melted separately, and when they have cooled just enough not the surface of the metal field rather than to have been planted in it. to mingle too intimately, they are cast into bar which is subse- Shibuichí inlaid with shakudo used to be the commonest combination quently beaten flat. The plate thus obtained shows accidental of metals in this class of decoration, and the objects usually depicted clouding, or massing of dark tones, and these patches are taken as were bamboos, crows, wild-fowl under the moon, peony sprays and the basis of a pictorial design to which final character is given by so forth. inlaying with gold and silver, and by katā-kiri sculpture. Such A variety of decoration much practised by early experts, and pictures partake largely of the impressionist character, but they carried to a high degree of excellence in modern times, is mokume-ji attain much beauty in the hands of the Japanese artist with his Wood- (wood-grained ground). The process in this case is to extensive répertoire of suggestive symbols. A process resembling grained take a thin plate of metal and beat it into another plate maze-gane, but less fortuitous, is shibuichi-doshi (combined shibui- Grounds. of similar metal, so that the two, though welded together, chi), which involves beating together two kinds of shibuichi and then retain their separate forms. The mass, while still hot, is adding a third variety, after which the details of the picture are coated with hena-Isuchi (a kind of marl) and rolled in straw ash, in worked in as in the case of maze-gane. The charm of these methods which state it is roasted over a charcoal fire raised to glowing heat is that certain parts of the decorative design seem to float, not on with the bellows. The clay having been removed, another plate of the surface of the metal, but actually within it, an admirable effect the same metal is beaten in, and the same process is repeated. This of depth and atmosphere being thus produced. Mention must also is done several times, the number depending on the quality of grain be made of an extraordinarily elaborate and troublesome process ing that the expert desires to produce. The manifold plate is then invented by Kajima lppu, a great artist of the present day. It is heavily punched from one side, so that the opposite face protrudes in I called logi-dashi-zögan (ground-out inlaying). In this exquisite and sixth process. a 180 (ART JAPAN zawa. ingenious kind of work the design appears to be growing up from the build them up gradually in their places by casting segment after depths of the metal, and a delightful impression of atmosphere and segment. Thus, for the Nara Dai-butsu, the mould was constructed water is obtained. All these processes, as well as that of repoussé, in in a series of steps ascending 12 in. at a time, until the head and which the Japanese have excelled from a remote period, are now neck were reached, which, of course, had to be east in one shell, practised with the greatest skill in Tokyo, Kioto, Osaka and Kana- 12 ft. high. At the art exhibitions held twice a year in the principal The term parlour bronzes serves to designate objects for cities there may be seen specimens of statuettes, alcove ornaments, domestic use, as flower-vases, incense-burners and alcove orna. and household utensils which show that the Japanese worker in ments. Bronze-casters began to turn their attention to these metals stands more indisputably than ever at the head of the world's objects about the middle of the 17th century. The art of casting artists in that field. The Occident does not yet appear to have bronze reached its culmination in the hands of a group of great full realized the existence of such talent in Japan; partly perhaps experts-Seimin, Tõun, Masatune, Teijā, Somin, Keisai, Takusai, because its displays in former times were limited chiefly to sword. Gido, Zenryūsai and Hotokusai-who flourished during the second furniture, possessing little interest for the average European or half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th. Many American; and partly because the Japanese have not yet learned brilliant specimens of these men's work survive, their general to adapt their skill to foreign requirements. They confine themselves features being that the motives are naturalistic, that the quality at present to decorating plaques, boxes and cases for cigars or of the metal is exceptionally, fine, that in addition to beautifully cigarettes, and an occasional tea or coffee-service; but the whole clear casting obtained by highly skilled use of the cera-perduta domain of salvers, dessert-services, race-cups and so on remains process, the chisel was employed to impart delicacy and finish to virtually unexplored. Only within the past few years have stores the design, and that modelling in high relief is most successfully been established in the foreign settlements for the sale of silver introduced. But it is a mistake to assert, as many have asserted, utensils, and already the workmanship on these objects displays pals that after the era of the above ten masters--the latest of whom, pable signs of the deterioration which all branches of Japanese art Sõmin, ceased to work in 1871-no bronzes comparable with theirs have undergone in the attempt to cater for foreign taste. In a general were cast. Between 1875 and 1879 some of the finest bronzes ever sense the European or American connoisseur is much less exacting produced in Japan were turned out by a group of experts working than the Japanese. Broad effects of richness and splendour under the business name of Sanseisha. Started by two brothers, captivate the former, whereas the latter looks for delicacy of finish, Oshima Katsujiro (art-name Jõun) and Oshima Yasutaro (art. accuracy of detail and, above all, evidences of artistic competence. name Shōkaku), this association secured the services of a number of It is nothing to a Japanese that a vase should be covered with pro- skilled chisellers of sword-furniture, who had lost their occupation fuse decoration of flowers and foliage: he requires that every by the abandonment of sword-wearing. Nothing could surpass the blossom and every leaf-shall be instinct with vitality, and the delicacy of the works executed at the Sanseisha's atelier in Tokyo, comparative costliness of fine workmanship does not infuence his but unfortunately such productions were above the standard of the choice. But if the Japanese sculptor adopted such standards in customers for whom they were intended.. Foreign buyers, who working for foreign patrons, his market would be reduced to very | alone stood in the market at that time, failed to distinguish the fine narrow dimensions. He therefore adapts himself to his circum- and costly bronzes of Jõun, Shōkaku and their colleagues from cheap stances, and, using the mould rather than the chisel, produces imitations which soon began to compete with them, so that ulti- specimens which show tawdry handsomeness and are attractivelymately the Sanseisha had to be closed. This page in the modern cheap. It must be admitted, however, that even though foreign history of Japan's bronzes needs little alteration to be true of her appreciative faculty were sufficiently educated, the Japanese artist applied art in general. Foreign demand has shown so little dis- in metals would still labour under the great difficulty of devising crimination that experts, finding it impossible to obtain adequate shapes to take the place of those which Europe and America have remuneration for first-class work, have been obliged to abandon the learned to consider classical.. field altogether, or to lower their standard to the level of general Bronze is called by the Japanese kara-kane, a term signify- appreciation, or by forgery to cater for the perverted taste which ing “ Chinese metal and showing cleanly the source from thoroughly capable of producing, bronzes at least equal to the best of attaches unreasoning value to age. Jõun has produced, and is which knowledge of the alloy was obtained. It is a Seimin's masterpieces, yet he has often been induced to put Seimin's Brooze copper-lead-tin compound, the proportions of its con- name on objects for the sake of attracting buyers who attach more Casting. stituents varying from 72 to 88 % of copper, from 4 value to cachet than to quality. If to the names of Jõun and his bril- liant pupil Ryūki we add those of Suzuki Chōkichi, Okazaki Sessei, to 20 % of lead and from 2 to 8 % of tin. There are also present Hasegawa Kumaző, Kanaya Gorosaburo and Jomi Eisuke, we have small quantities of arsenic and antimony, and zinc is found gener- a group of modern bronze-casters who unquestionably surpass the ally as a mere trace, but sometimes reaching to 6%. Gold is ten experts beginning with Seimin and ending with Sõmin. Okazaki supposed to have found a place in ancient bronzes, but its Sessei has successfully achieved the casting of huge panels carrying presence has never been detected by analysis, and of silver not designs in high relief; and whether there is question of patina or of workmanship, Jomi Eisuke has never been surpassed. more than 2% seems to have been admitted at any time. Mr W. Occidental influence has been felt, of course, in the field of modern Gowland has shown that, whatever may have been the practice of bronze-casting. At a school of art officially established in Tokyo Japanese bronze makers in ancient and medieval eras, their suc- in 1873 under the direction of Italian teachers--a school which owed cessors in later days deliberately introduced arsenic and antimony behaviour of some of its foreign professors, and partly to a strong its signal failure partly to the incompetence and intemperate into the compound in order to harden the bronze without impair- renaissance of pure Japanese classicism-one of the few accomplish; ing its fusibility, so that it might take a sharper impression of ments successfully taught was that of modelling in plaster and Marble statues are the mould. Japanese bronze is well suited for castings, not only chiselling in marble after Occidental methods. because of its low melting-point, great fluidity and capacity for and even plaster busts or groups, though less incongruous perhaps, out of place in the wooden buildings as well as in the parks of Japan, taking sharp impressions, but also because it has a particularly have not yet found favour. Hence the skill undoubtedly possessed smooth surface and readily develops a fine patina. One variety by several graduates of the defunct art school has to be devoted deserves special mention. It is a golden yellow bronze, called chiefly to a subordinate purpose, namely, the fashioning of models for metal-casters. To this combination of modellers in European sentcku-this being the Japanese pronunciation of Sueir-tē, the style and metal workers of such force as Suzuki and Okazaki, Japan era of the Ming dynasty of China when this compound was owes various memorial bronzes and effigies which are gradually invented. Copper, tin, lead and zinc, mixed in various propor- finding a place in her parks, her museums, her shrines or her private houses. tions by different experts, are the ingredients, and the beautiful There is here little departure from the well-trodden paths golden hues and glossy texture of the surface are obtained by with fragments of torsos attached (in extreme violation of true art), of Europe. Studies in drapery, prancing steeds, ideal poses, heads patina-producing processes, in which branch of metal-work the crouching beasts of prey-all the stereotyped styles are reproduced. Japanese show altogether unique skill. The imitation is excellent. From the time when they began to cast bronze statues, Japanese experts understood how to employ a hollow, removable core round Among the artists of early times it is often difficult to dis. which the metal was run in a skin just thick enough for strength tinguish between the carver of wood and the caster of bronze. without waste of material; and they also understood the use of wax The latter sometimes made his own models in wax, Carving in for modelling purposes. In ordinary circumstances, a casting thus sometimes chiselled them in wood, and sometimes had Wood and obtained took the form of a shell without any break of continuity. Ivory But for very large castings the process had to be modified. The recourse to a specialist in wood-carving. great image of Lochana Buddha at Nara, for example, would of splendid sculptors in wood that graced the inth, 12th and 13th measure 138 ft . in height were it standing erect, and its weight is centuries left names never to be forgotten, but undoubtedly about 550 tons. The colossal Amida at Kamakura has a height many other artists of scarcely less force regarded bronze-casting only 3 ſt. less. It would have been scarcely possible to cast such statues in cne piece in situ, or, if cast elsewhere, to transport them as their principal business. Thus the story of wood-carving is and elevate them on their pedestals. The plan pursued was to very difficult to trace. Even in the field of architectural The group ARCHITECTURE) JAPAN 181 Netsuke Private The Reallstic decoration for interiors, tradition tells us scarcely anything about | artist is a figure of a farmer who has just shot an eagle that swooped the masters who carved such magnificent works as those seen in upon his grandson; The old man holds his bow still raised. Some of the eagle's feathers, blown to his side, suggest the death of the the Kiðto temples, the Tokugawa mausolea, and some of the old bird; at his feet lies the corpse of the little boy, and the horror, castles. There are, however, no modern developments of such grief and anger that such a tragedy would inspire are depicted with work to be noted. The ability of former times exists and is striking realism in the farmer's face. Such work has very close exercised in the old way, though the field for its employment has feature is that the glyptic character is preserved at the expense of affinities with Occidental conceptions. The chief distinguishing been greatly narrowed. surface finish. The undisguised touches of the chisel tell a story of technical force and directness which could not be suggested by When Japanese sculpture in wood or ivory is spoken of, the first perfectly smooth surfaces. To subordinate process to result is the idea that presents itself is connected with the netsuke, which, of all European canon; to show the former without marring the latter is the art objects found in Japan, is perhaps the most the Japanese ideal. Many of Koun's sculptures appear unfinished essentially Japanese. If Japan had given us nothing to eyes trained in Occidental galleries, whereas the Japanese Carvers. but the netsuke, we should still have no difficulty in connoisseur detects evidence of a technical feat in their seeming differentiating the bright versatility of her national roughness. genius from the comparatively sombre, mechanic and unimaginative temperament of the Chinese. But the netsuke may now be said to Architecture. From the-evidence of ancient records it appears be: a thing of the past. The inro (medicine-box), which it mainly that before the 5th century the Japanese resided in houses of served to fix in the girdle, has been driven out of fashion by the new civilization imported from the West, and artists who would have a very rude character. The sovereign's palace itself carved netsuke in former times now devote their chisels to statuettes was merely a wooden hut. Its pillars were thrust Dwellings. . It is not to be inferred, however, though it into the ground and the whole framework-con- is a favourite assertion of collectors, that no good netsuke have been sisting of posts, beams, rafters, door-posts and window-frames made in modern times. That theory is based upon the fact that after the opening of the country to foreign intercourse in 1857, -was tied together with cords made by twisting the long hundreds of inferior specimens of netsuke were chiselled by inexpert fibrous stems of climbing plants. The roof was thatched, and New York, London and Paris, where, though they brought profit smoke of the wood fire to escape. Wooden doors swung on hands, purchased wholesale by treaty-port merchants, and sent to perhaps had a' gable at each end with a hole to allow the to the exporter, they also disgusted the connoisseur and soon earned discredit for their whole class. But in fact the glyptic artists of a kind of hook; the windows were mere holes in the walls. Tokyo, Osaka and Kioto, though they now devote their chisels Rugs of skins or rush matting were used for sitting on, and chiefly to works of more importance than the netsuke, are in no sense the whole was surrounded with a palisade. In the middle inferior to their predecessors of feudal days, and many beautiful of the 5th century two-storeyed houses seem to have been built, netsuke bearing their signatures are in existence. As for the modern ivory statuette or alcove ornament, of which great numbers but the evidence on the subject is slender. In the 8th century, are now carved for the foreign market, it certainly stands on a plane however, when the court was moved to Nara, the influence of much higher than the netsuke, since anatomical defects which Chinese civilization made itself felt. Architects, turners, tile- escape notice in the latter owing to its diminutive size, become makers, decorative artists and sculptors, coming from China obtrusive in the former. One of the most remarkable developments of figure sculpture in and from Korea, erected grand temples for the worship of Buddha modern Japan was due to Matsumoto Kisaburo (1830-1869). He enshrining images of much beauty and adorned with paintings carved human figures with as much accuracy as though and carvings of considerable merit. The plan of the city itself they were destined for purposes of surgical demonstra- was taken from that of the Chinese metropolis. A broad central tion. Considering that this man had neither art educa- Departure. tion nor anatomical instruction, and that he never avenue led straight to the palace, and on either side of it ran four enjoyed an opportunity of studying from a model in a studio, parallel streets, crossed at right angles by smaller thoroughfares. his achievements were remarkable. He and the craftsmen of the During this century the first sumptuary edict ordered that the school he established completely refute the theory that the anatomi- dwellings of all high officials and opulent civilians should have cal solecisms commonly seen in the works of Japanese sculptors tiled roofs and be coloured red, the latter injunction being evi- are due to faulty observation. Without scientific training of any kind Matsumoto and his followers produced works in which the eye dently intended to stop the use of logs carrying their bark. of science cannot detect any error. But it is impossible to admit Tiles thenceforth became the orthodox covering for a roof, but within the circle of high-art productions these wooden figures of vermilion, being regarded as a religious colour, found no favour everyday men and women, unrelieved by any subjective element, and owing their merit entirely to the fidelity with which their cona in private dwellings. In the 9th century, after the capital had tours are shaped, their muscles modelled, and their anatomical been established at Kioto, the palace of the sovereigns and the proportions preserved. They have not even the attraction of being mansions of ministers and nobles were built on a scale of unpre. cleanly sculptured in wood, but are covered with thinly lacquered cedented grandeur. It is true that all the structures of the time muslin, which, though doubtless a good preservative, accentuates their puppet-like character. Nevertheless, Matsumoto's figures had the defect of a box-like appearance. Massive, towering marked an epoch in Japanese wood sculpture. Their vivid realism roofs, which impart an air of stateliness even to a wooden build appealed strongly to the taste of the average foreigner. A consider. ing and yet, by their graceful curves, avoid any suggestion of able school of carvers soon began to work in the Matsumoto style, ponderosity, were still confined to Buddhist edifices. The and hundreds of their productions have gone to Europe and America, architect of private dwellings attached more importance to finding no market in Japan. Midway between the Matsumoto school and the pure style satin-surfaced boards and careful joinery than to any appearance approved by the native taste in former times stand a number of strength or solidity. of wood-carvers headed by Takamura Kõun, who occupies in the field of sculpture much the same place Except for the number of buildings composing it, the palace had foreiga School, as that held by Hashimoto Gaho in the realm of little to distinguish it from a nobleman's mansion. The latter painting. Kõun carves figures in the round which consisted of a principal hall, where the master of the house lived, ate not only display great power of chisel and breadth of style, but also and slept, and of three suites of chambers, disposed on the north, tell a story not necessarily drawn from the motives of the classical the east and the west of the principal hall. In the northern suite school. This departure from established canons must be traced to the lady of the house dwelt, the eastern and western suites being the influence of the short-lived academy of Italian art established allotted to other members of the family, Corridors joined the prin. by the Japanese government early in the Meiji era. In the fore: cipal hall to the subordinate edifices, for as yet the idea had not front of the new movement are to be found men like Yoneharu Unkai been conceived of having more than one chamber under the same and Shinkai Taketarõ; the former chiselled a figure of Jenner for roof. The principal hall was usually 42 ft. square. Its centre was the Medical Association of Japan when they celebrated the centenary occupied by a parent chamber," 30 ft. square, around which ran of the great physician, and the latter has carved life-size effigies of an ambulatory and a veranda, each 6 ft. wide. The parent two Imperial princes who lost their lives in the war with China (1894- chamber and the ambulatory were ceiled, sometimes with interlacing 95). The artists of the Kõun school, however, do much work which strips of bark or broad laths, so as to produce a plaited effect; appeals to emotions in general rather than to individual memories. sometimes with plain boards. The veranda had no ceiling. Sliding Thus Arakawa Reiun, one of Kõun's most brilliant pupils, has doors, a characteristic feature of modern Japanese houses, had exhibited a figure of a swordsman in the act of driving home a not yet come into use, and no means were provided for closing the furious thrust. The weapon is not shown. Reiun sculptured veranda, but the ambulatory was surrounded by a wall of latticed simply a man poised on the toes of one foot, the other foot raised, timber or plain boards, the lower half of which could be removed the arm extended, and the body straining forward in strong yet altogether, whereas the upper half, suspended from hooks, could be zlastic muscular effort. A more imaginative work by the same swung upward and outward. Privacy was obtained by blinds of The Seml. 182 (ARCHITECTURE JAPAN ture. Buddhist split bamboo, and the parent chamber was separated from the , and every available point of the interior is used as a means of ambulatory by similar bamboo blinds with silk cords for raising support. or lowering them, or by curtains. The thick rectangular mats of The floor is partly boarded and partly matted. The shrines, altars uniform size which, fitting together so as to present a level unbroken and oblatory tables are placed at the back in the centre, and there surface, cover the floor of all modern Japanese houses, were not yet are often other secondary shrines at the sides. In temples of the in use: floors were boarded, having only a limited space matted. best class the floor of the gallery and of the central portion of the This form of mansion underwent little modification until the 12th main building from entrance to altar are richly lacquered; in those century, when the introduction of the Zen sect of Buddhism with its of inferior class they are merely polished by continued rubbing." contemplative practice called for greater privacy. Interiors were -(5. Conder, in the Proceedings of the Royal Institute of British then divided into smaller rooms by means of sliding doors covered Architects.) with thin rice-paper, which permitted the passage of light while obstructing vision; the hanging lattices were replaced by wooden None of the magnificence of the Buddhist temple belongs doors which could be slid along a groove so as to be removable in to the Shinto shrine. In the case of the latter conservatism has the daytime, and an alcove was added in the principal chamber been absolute from time immemorial. The shrines Shiato for a sacred picture or Buddhist image to serve as an object of of Ise, which may be called the Mecca of Shinto Architec contemplation for a devotee while practising the rite of abstraction. Thus the main features of the Japanese dwelling-house were evolved, devotees, are believed to present to-day precisely the and little change took place subsequently, except that the brush appearance they presented in 478, when they were moved thither, of the painter was freely used for decorating partitions, and in in obedience to a revelation from the Sun-goddess. It has been aristocratic mansions unlimited care was exercised in the choice the custom to rebuild them every twentieth year, člternately on of rare woods. each of two sites set apart for the purpose, the features of the old The Buddhist temple underwent little change at Japanese edifice being reproduced in the new with scrupulous accuracy. hands except in the matter of decoration. Such as it was in outline when first erected in accordance with Chinese above, having rafters with their upper ends crossed; thatched or They are enlarged replicas of the primeval wooden hut described Temple models, such it virtually remained, though in later shingled roof, boarded floors, and logs laid on the roof-ridge at right Architecture. times all the resources of the sculptor and the angles for the purpose of binding the ridge and the rafters firmly painter were employed to beautify it externally and internally. together. A thatched roof is imperative in the orthodox shrine, but in modern days tiles or sheets of copper are sometimes substi- “The building, sometimes of huge dimensions, is invariably sur. tuted. At Ise, however, no such novelties are tolerated. The rounded by a raised gallery, reached by a fight of steps in the centre avenue of approach generally passes under a structure called torii. of the approach front, the batustrade of which is a continuation of Originally designed as a perch for fowls which sang to the deities at the gallery railing. This galleryis sometimes supported upon a daybreak, this torii subsequently came to be erroneously regarded deep system of bracketing, corbelled out from the feet of the main as a gateway characteristic of the Shinto shrine. It consists of two pillars. Within this raised gallery, which is sheltered by the over- thick trunks placed upright, their upper ends mortised into a hori. sailing eaves, there is, in the larger temples, a columned loggia passing zontal log which projects beyond them at either side. The structure round the two sides and the front of the building, or, in some cases, derives some grace from its extreme simplicity. placed on the façade only. The ceilings of the loggias are generally sloping, with richly carved roof-timbers showing below at intervals; Textile Fabrics and Embroidery.-In no branch of applied art and quaintly carved braces connect the outer pillars with the main does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results posts of the building. Some temples are to be seen in which the ceiling of the loggia is boarded Aat and decorated with large paintings than in that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been more of dragons in black and gold. The intercolumniation is regulated conspicuous progress during recent years. Her woven and em- by a standard of about six or seven feet, and the general result of broidered stuffs have always been beautiful; but in former times the treatment of columns, wall-posts, &c., is that the whole mural few pieces of size and splendour were produced, if we except the space, not filled in with doors or windows, is divided into regular oblong panels, which sometimes receive plaster, sometimes boarding curtains used for draping festival cars and the hangings of and sometimes rich framework and carving or painted panels. temples. Tapestry, as it is employed in Europe, was not Diagonal bracing or strutting is nowhere to be found, and in many thought of, nor indeed could the small hand-looms of the period cases mortises and other joints are such as very materially to weaken the timbers at their points of connexion. It would seem be easily adapted to such work. All that has been changed, that only the immense weight of the roofs and their heavy projec- however. Arras of large dimensions, showing remarkable tions prevent a collapse of some of these structures in high winds. workmanship and grand combinations of colours, is now manu- The principal façade of the temple is filled in one, two or three com- factured in Kioto, the product of years of patient toil on the part partments with hinged doors, variously ornamented and folding of weaver and designer alike. Kawashima of Kioto has acquired outwards, sometimes in double folds. From these doorways, gener- ally left open, the interior light is principally obtained, windows, as high reputation for work of this kind. He inaugurated the the term is generally understood, being rare. An elaborate cornice new departure a few years ago by copying a Gobelin, but it may of wooden bracketing, crowns the walls, forming one of the principal safely be asserted that no Gobelin will bear comparison with the ornaments of the building. The whole disposition of pillars, posts, pieces now produced in Japan. brackets and rafters is harmonically arranged according to some measure of the standard of length. A very important feature of The most approved fashion of weaving is called tsuzure-ori the façade is the portico or porch-way, which covers the principal (linked-weaving); that is to say, the cross threads are laid in with steps and is generally formed by producing the central portion of the fingers and pushed into their places with a comb by hand, very the main roof over the steps and supporting such projection upon little machinery being used. The threads extend only to the outlines isolated wooden pillars braced together near the top with horizontal of each figure, and it follows that every part of the pattern has a rim ties, carved, moulded and otherwise fantastically decorated. Above of minute holes like pierced lines separating postage stamps in these ties are the cornice brackets and beams, corresponding in sheet, the effect being that the design seems to hang suspended in general design to the cornice of the walls, and the intermediate space the ground-linked into it, as the Japanese term implies. A is filled with open carvings of dragons or other characteristic designs. specimen of this nature recently manufactured by Kawashima's The forms of roof are various, but mostly they commence in a steep weavers measured 20 ft. by 13, and represented the annual festival slope at the top, gradually flattening towards the eaves so as to at the Nikkō mausolea. The chief shrine was shown, as were also produce a slightly concave appearance, this concavity being ren- the gate and the long flight of stone steps leading up to it, several dered more emphatic by the tilt which is given to the eaves at the other buildings, the groves of cryptomeria that surround the four corners. The appearance of the ends of the roof is half hip, mausolea, and the festival procession. All the architectural and half gable. Heavy ribs of tile-cresting with large terminals are decorative details, all the carvings and colours, all the accessories carried along the ridge and the slope of the gable. The result of everything was wrought in silk, and each of the 1500 figures forming the whole is very picturesque, and has the advantage of looking the procession wore exactly appropriate costume. Even this wealth equally satisfactory from any point of view. The interior arrange of detail, remarkable as it was, seemed less surprising than the fact ment of wall columns, horizontal beams and cornice bracketing that the weaver had succeeded in producing the effect of atmosphere corresponds with that on the outside. The ceiling is invariably and aerial perspective. Through the graceful cryptomerias distant boarded and subdivided by ribs into small rectangular coffers: mountains and the still more distant sky could be seen, and between Sometimes painting is introduced into these panels and lacquer and the buildings in the foreground and those in the middle distance metal clasps are added to the ribs. When the temple is of very atmosphere appeared to be perceptible. Two years of incessant large dimensions an interior peristyle of pillars is introduced to labour with relays of artisans working steadily throughout the assist in supporting the roof, and in such cases each pillar carries twenty-four hours were required to finish this piece. Naturally profuse bracketing corresponding to that of the cornice. The construction of the framework of the Japanese roof is such that the old. It is by no means a modern weights all act vertically; there is no thrust on the outer walls, I invention, as some writers have asserted. i This method is some 300 years CERAMICS JAPAN 183 such specimens are not produced in large numbers. Next in decora- | for the potters of the Middle Kingdom had then (Sung dynasty) tive importance to tsuzure-ori stands yüzen birôdo, commonly fully entered the road which was destined to carry them ulti- known among English-speaking people as cut velvet. Dyeing by the yüzen process is an innovation of modern times. The design mately to a high pinnacle of their craft. It had long been cus- is painted on the fabric, after which the latter is steamed, and the tomary in Japan to send students to China for the purpose of picture is ultimately fixed by methods which are kept secret. The studying philosophy and religion, and she now (1223) sent a soft silk known as habutaye is a favourite ground for such work, but silk crape also is largely employed. No other method permits the potter, Kato Shirozaemon, who, on his return, opened a kiln at decorator to achieve such fidelity and such boldness of draughtsman- Seto in the province of Owari, and began to produce little ship. The difference between the results of the ordinary and the jars for preserving tea and cups for drinking it. These yūzen processes of dyeing is, in fact, the difference between a sten- cilled sketch and a finished picture. In the case of cut velvet, the tured. Kato is regarded as the father of Japanese ceramics. were conspicuously superior to anything previously manufac- yüzen process is supplemented as follows: The cutter, who works at an ordinary wooden bench, has no tool except a small sharp But the ware produced by him and his successors at the chisel with a V-shaped point. This chisel is passed into an iron Seto kilns, or by their contemporaries in other parts of the pencil having at the end guards, between which the point of the country, had no valid claim to decorative excellence. Nearly chisel projects, so that it is impossible for the user to cut beyond a certain depth. When the velvet comes to him, it already carries a three centuries elapsed before a radically upward movement coloured picture permanently fixed by the yüzen process, but the took place, and on this occasion also the inspiration came wires have not been withdrawn. It is, in fact, velvet that has from China. In 1520 a potter named Gorodayu Goshonzui passed through all the usual stages of manufacture except the (known to posterity as Shonzui) made his way to Fuchow and cutting of the thread along each wire and the withdrawal of the thence to King-te-chen, where, after five years' study, he acquired wires. The cutting artist lays the piece of unfinished velvet on his bench, and proceeds to carve into the pattern with his chisel, just the art of manufacturing porcelain, as distinguished from pottery, as though he were shading the lines of the design with a steel pencil. together with the art of applying decoration in blue under the When the pattern is lightly traced, he uses his knife delicately; when glaze. He established his kiln at Arita in Hizen, and the event the lines are strong and the shadows heavy, he makes the point marked the opening of the second epoch of Japanese ceramics. pierce deeply; In short, the little chisel becomes in his fingers a painter's brush, and when it is remembered that, the basis upon which Yet the new departure then made did not lead far. The exis- he works being simply a thread of silk, his hand must be trained to tence of porcelain clay in Hizen was not discovered for many such delicacy of muscular effort as to be capable of arresting the edge of the knife at varying depths within the diameter of the tiny imported from China, their manufacture ceased after his death, years, and Shonzui's pieces being made entirely with kaolin filament, the difficulty of the achievement will be understood. Of course it is to be noted that the edge of the cutting tool is never though knowledge of the processes learned by him survived and allowed to trespass upon a line which the exigencies of the design was used in the production of greatly inferior wares. The third require to be solid. The veining of a cherry petal, for example, the clearly differentiated epoch was inaugurated by the discovery of tessellation of a carp's scales, the serration of a leaf's edge-all these lines remain intact, spared by the cutter's tool, while the leaf itself, true kaolin at Izumi-yama in Hizen, the discoverer being one of or the petal, or the scales of the fish, have the threads forming them the Korean potters who came to Japan in the train of Hide- cut so as to show the velvet nap and to appear in soft, low relief. yoshi's generals returning from the invasion of Korea, and the In one variety of this fabric, a slip of gold foil is laid under each wire, date of the discovery being about 1605. Thus much premised, and left in position after the wire is withdrawn, the cutting tool being then used with freedom in some parts of the design, so that the it becomes possible to speak in detail of the various wares for gold gleams through the severed thread, producing a rich and which Japan became famous. suggestive effect. Velvet, however, is not capable of being made The principal kinds of ware are Hizen, Kioto, Satsuma, the basis for pictures so elaborate and microscopically accurate as Kutani, Owari, Bizen, Takatori, Banko, Izumo and Yatsushiro. those produced by the yüzen process on silk crape or habutaye. The rich-toned, soft plumage of birds or the magnificent blending There are three chief varieties of Hizen ware, namely, (1) the of colours in a bunch of peonies or chrysanthemums cannot be enamelled porcelain of Arita--the “old Japan" of European collec- obtained with absolute fidelity on the ribbed surface of velvet. tors; (2) the enamelled porcelain of Nabeshima; and The embroiderer's craft has been followed for centuries in Hírado. The earliest manufacture of porcelain—as distinguished (3) the blue and white, or plain white, porcelain of Japan with eminent success, but whereas it formerly ranked from pottery-began in the opening years of the 16th century, but with dyeing and weaving, it has now come to be its materials were exotic. Genuine Japanese porcelain dates from Embroidery. regarded as an art. Formerly the embroiderer was about a century later. The decoration was confined to blue under the glaze, and as an object of art the ware possessed no special merit. content to produce a pattern with his needle, now he paints a Not until the year 1620 do we find any evidence of the style for picture. So perfectly does the modern Japanese embroiderer which Arita porcelain afterwards became famous, namely, decora- elaborate his scheme of values that all the essential elements of tion with vitrifiable enamels. The first efforts in this direction were pictorial effects-chiaroscuro, aerial perspective and atmosphere comparatively crude; but before the middle of the 17th century, are present in his work. Thus a graceful and realistic school of considerable excellence. From that time forward the Arita two experts-Goroshichi and Kakiemon-carried the art to a point has replaced the comparatively stiff and conventional style of factories turned out large quantities of porcelain profusely decorated former times. with blue under the glaze and coloured enamels over it. Many Further, an improvement of a technical character was recently pieces were exported by the Dutch, and some also were specially made, which has the effect of adding greatly to the durability of manufactured to their order. Specimens of the latter are still these embroideries. Owing to the use of paper among the threads preserved in European collections, where they are classed as genuine of the embroidery and sizing in the preparation of the stuff forming examples of Japanese ceramic art, though beyond question their the ground, every operation of folding used to cause perceptible The porcelains of Arita were carried to the neighbouring town of style of decoration was greatly influenced by Dutch interference. injury to a piece, so that after a few years it acquired a crumpled Imari for sale and shipment. Hence the ware came to be known to and dingy appearance. But by the new method embroiderers now succeed in producing fabrics which defy all destructive influences Japanese and foreigners alike as Imari-yaki (yaki = anything baked ; hence ware). -except, of course, dirt and decay. The Nabeshima porcelain-so called because of its production at Ceramics.-All research proves that up to the 12th century of private factories under the special patronage of Nabeshima Naoshige, the Christian era the ceramic ware produced in Japan was of a feudal chief of Hizen-was produced at Okawachiyama, very rude character. The interest attaching to it is it differed from Imari-yaki in the milky whiteness and Nabeshima. Early softness of its glaze, the comparative sparseness of its Period. historical rather than technical. Pottery was certainly enamelled decoration, and the relegation of blue sous couverte to an manufactured from an early date, and there is evi- entirely secondary place. This is undoubtedly the finest jewelled dence that kilns existed in some fifteen provinces in the 10th porcelain in Japan; the best examples leave nothing to be desired. century. But although the use of the potter's wheel had long The factory's period of excellence began about the year 1680, and culminated at ihe close of the 18th century. been understood, the objects produced were simple utensils to The Hirado porcelain-so called because it enjoyed the special contain offerings of rice, fruit and fish at the austere ceremonials patronage of Matsuura, feudal chief of Hirado-was produced at of the Shinto faith, jars for storing seeds, and vessels for common Mikawa-uchi-yama, but did not attain excellence until domestic use. In the 13th century, however, the introduction of the middle of the 18th century, from which time until tea from China, together with vessels for infusing and serving it, decorated with blue under the glaze, but some were pure white about 1830 specimens of rare beauty were produced. They were revealed to the Japanese a new conception of ceramic possibilities, with exquisitely chiselled designs incised or in relief. The production Hizea. Hirado. 184 JAPAN ICERAMICS was always scanty, and, owing to official prohibitions, the ware did | point of fact, the production of faience decorated with gold and not find its way into the general market. coloured enamels may be said to have commenced at the beginning The history of Kioto warewhich, being for the most part faience, of the 19th century in Satsuma. Some writers maintain that it belongs to an entirely different category from the Hizen porcelains did actually commence then, and that nothing of the kind had κιδίο. spoken of above is the history of individual ceramists existed there previously: Setting aside, however, the strong improb- rather than of special manufactures.. Speaking broadly, ability that a style of decoration so widely practised and so highly however, four different varieties are usually distinguished. They esteemed could have remained unknown during a century and a are raku-yaki, awata-yaki, iwakura-yaki and kiyomizu-yaki. half to experts working for one of the most puissant chieftains in Raku-yaki' is essentially the domestic faience of Japan; for, Japan, we have the evidence of trustworthy traditions and written being entirely hand-made and fired at a very low temperature, records thąt enamelled faience was made by the potters at Tat. Raku. its manufacture offers few difficulties, and has conse- sumonji-the principal factory of Satsuma-ware in early days-as quently been carried on by amateurs in their own far back as the year 1676. Mítsuhisa, then feudal lord of Satsuma, homes at various places throughout the country. The raku-yaki was a munificent patron of art. He summoned to his fief the painter of Kioto is the parent of all the rest. It was first produced by a Tangen-a pupil of the renowned Tanyű, who died in 1674-and Korean who emigrated to Japan in the early part of the 16th cen- employed him to paint faience or to furnish designs for the ceramists tury. But the term raku-yaki did not come into use until the close of Tatsumonji. The ware produced_under these circumstances of the century, when Chōjiro (artistic name, Chöryü) received from is still known by the name of Satsuma Tangen. But the number of Hideyoshi (the Taikā) a seal bearing the ideograph raku, with which specimens was small. Destined chiefly for private use or for pre- he thenceforth stamped his productions. Thirteen generations of the sents, their decoration was delicate rather than rich, the colour same family carried on the work, each using a stamp with the same chiefly employed being brown, or reddish brown, under the glaze, ideograph, its calligraphy, however, differing sufficiently to be identi- and the decoration over the glaze being sparse and chaste. Not until fied by connoisseurs. The faience is thick and clumsy, having soft, the close of the 18th century or the beginning of the 19th did the brittle and very light pâte. The staple type has black glaze showing more profuse fashion of enamelled decoration come to be largely little lustre, and in choice varieties this is curiously speckled and employed. It was introduced by two potters who had visited pitted with red. Salmon-coloured, red, yellow and white glazes Kioto, and there observed the ornate methods so well illustrated are also found, and in late specimens gilding was added. The raku in the wares of Awata and Kiyomizu. At the same time a strong faience owed much of its popularity to the patronage of the tea impetus was given to the production of faience at Tadeno-then the clubs. The nature of its paste and glaze adapted it for the infusion chief factory in Satsuma-owing to the patronage of Shimazu of powdered tea, and its homely character suited the austere canons Tamanobu, lord of the province. To this increase in production of the tea ceremonies. and to the more elaborate application of vitrifiable enamels may be Awata-yaki is the best known among the ceramic productions of attributed the erroneous idea that Satsuma faience decorated with Kioto. There is evidence to show that the art of decoration with gold and coloured enamels had its origin at the close of the 18th enamels over the glaze reached Kioto from Hizen in century; For all the purposes of the ordinary collector it may be Awata. the middle of the 17th century. Just at that time said to have commenced then, and to have come to an end about there flourished in the Western capital a potter of remarkable ability, 1860; but for the purposes of the historian we must look farther back. called Nomura Seisuke. He immediately utilized the new method, The ceramic art in Satsuma owed much to the aid of a number of and produced many beautiful examples of jewelled faience, having Korean experts who settled there after the return of the Japanese close, hard pâte, yellowish-white, or brownish-white, glaze covered forces from Korea. One of these men, Boku Heii, discovered with a network of fine crackle, and sparse decoration in pure fullo (1603) clay fitted for the manufacture of white craquelé faience. bodied colours-red, green, gold and silver. He worked chiefly | This was the subsequently celebrated Satsuma-yaki. But in Boku's at Awata, and thus brought that factory into prominence. Nomura time, and indeed as long as the factories flourished, many other Seisuke, or Ninsei as he is commonly called, was one of Japan's kinds of faience were produced, the principal having rich black or greatest ceramists. Genuine examples of his faience have always flambé glazes, while a few were green or yellow monochromes. been highly prized, and numerous imitations were subsequently One curious variety, called same-yaki, had glaze chagrined like the produced, áll stamped with the ideograph Ninsei. After Ninsei's skin of a shark. Most of the finest pieces of enamelled faience time, the most renowned ceramists of the Awata factories were were the work of artists at the Tadeno factory, while the best speci. Kenzan (1688-1740); Ebisei, a contemporary of Kenzan; Döhachi mens of other kinds were by the artists of Tatsumonji. (1751-1763), who subsequently moved to Kiyomizu-zaka, another The porcelain of Kutani is among those best known to Western part of Kioto, the faience of which constitutes the Kiyomizu-yaki collectors, though good specimens of the old ware have always been mentioned above; Kinkózan (1745-1760); Hõzan (1690-1721); scarce. Its manufacture dates from the close of the 17th Kutaol, Taizan (1760-1800); Bizan (1810-1838); and Tanzan, who was still century, when the feudal chief of Kaga took the industry, living in 1909. It must be noted that several of these names, as under his patronage. There were two principal varieties of the ware: Kenzan, Dóhachi, Kinkózan, Hozan and Taizan, were not limited to ao-Kutani, so called because of a green (ao) enamel of great brilliancy one artist. They are family names, and though the dates we have and beauty which was largely used in its decoration, and Kutani given indicate the eras of the most noted ceramists in each family, with painted and enamelled pâte varying from hard porcelain to amateurs must not draw any chronological conclusion from the mere pottery. Many of the pieces are distinguished by a peculiar creamy fact that a specimen bears such and such a name. whiteness of glaze, suggesting the idea that they were intended to The origin of the Iwakura-yaki is somewhat obscure, and its imitate the soft-paste wares of China. The enamels are used to Iwakura. history, at an early date, becomes confused with that delineate decorative subjects and are applied in masses, the principal of the Awata yaki, from which, indeed, it does not materi- colours being green, yellow and soft Prussian blue, all brilliant and ally differ. transparent, with the exception of the last which is nearly opaque. In the term Kiyomizu-yaki may be included roughly all the faience in many cases we find large portions of the surface completely of Kioto, with the exception of the three varieties described above. covered with green or yellow enamel overlying black diapers or Kiyomizu. The distinction between Kiyomizu, Awata and Iwa- scroll patterns. The second variety of Kutani ware may often be kura is primarily local. They are parts of the sanie mistaken for “old Japan " (i.e. Imari porcelain). The most charac- city, and if their names have been used to designate particular teristic examples of it are distinguishable, however, by the prepon- classes of pottery, it is not because the technical or decorative derating presence of a peculiar russet red, differing essentially from features of each class distinguish it from the other two, but chiefly the full-bodied and comparatively brilliant colour of the Arita for the purpose of identifying the place of production. On the pottery. Moreover, the workmen of Kaga did not follow the Arita slopes called Kiyomizu-zaka and Gojo-zaka" lived a number of precedent of massing blue under the glaze. In the great majority ceramists, all following virtually the same models with variations of cases they did not use blue at all in this position, and when they due to individual genius. The principal Kiyomizu artists were: did, its place was essentially subordinate. They also employed Ebisei, who moved from Awata to Gojõ-zaka in 1688; Eisen and silver freely for decorative purposes, whereas we rarely find it thus Rokubei, pupils of Ebisei; Mokubei, a pupil of Eisen, but more used on “old Japan" porcelain. celebrated than his master; Shūhei (1790–1810), Kentei (1782- About the time (1843) of the ao-Kutani revival, a potter called 1820), and Zengoro Hozen, generally known as Eiraku (1790-1850). Iida Hachiroemon introduced a style of decoration which subse- Eisen was the first to manufacture porcelain (as distinguished from quently came to be regarded as typical of all Kaga procelains. faience) in Kioto, and this branch of the art was carried to a high Taking the Eiraku porcelains of Kioto as models, Hachiroemon standard of excellence by Eiraku, whose speciality was a rich coral employed red grounds with designs traced on them in gold. The red glaze with finely executed decoration in gold. The latter cera. style was not absolutely new in Kaga. We find similar decoration mist excelled also in the production of purple, green and yellow on old and choice examples of Kutani-yaki. But the character of glazes, which he combined with admirable skill and taste. Some the old red differs essentially from that of the modern manufacture choice ware of the latter type was manufactured by him in Kishū, the former being a soft, subdued colour, more like a bloom than an by order of the feudal chief of that province. It is known as Kaira- enamel; the latter a glossy, and comparatively crude pigment. ku-yen-yaki (ware of the Kairaku park). In Hachiroemon's time and during the twenty years following the No phrase is commoner in the mouths of Western collectors than date of his innovation, many beautiful examples of elaborately “ Old Satsuma '; no ware is rarer in Western collections. Nine decorated Kutani porcelain were produced. The richness, profusion Satsuma. hundred and ninety-nine pieces out of every thousand and microscopic accuracy of their decoration could scarcely have been that do duty as genuine examples of this prince of surpassed; but, with very rare exceptions, their lack of delicacy of faiences are simply cxamples of the skill of modern forgers. In technique disqualifies them to rank as fine porcelains. CERAMICS JAPAN 185 60 It was at the little village of Seto, some five miles from Nagoya, terms. Representative specimens are truly admirable-every line, the chief town of the province of Owari, or Bishū, that the celebrated every contour faithful. The production was very limited, and good Kato Shirozaemon made the first Japanese faience pieces soon ceased to be procurable except at long intervals and Owark worthy to be considered a technical success. Shiro- heavy expense. The Bizen-yaki familiar to Western collectors is zaemon produced dainty little tea-jars, ewers and other cha-no- comparatively coarse brown or reddish brown, stoneware, modelled yu utensils. These, being no longer stoved in an inverted posi- rudely, though sometiines redeemed by touches of the genius never tion, as had been the habit before Shirozaemon's time, were not entirely absent from the work of the Japanese artisan-artist. Easy disfigured by the bare, blistered lips of their predecessors. Their to be confounded with it is another ware of the same type manu- påte was close and well-manufactured pottery, varying in colour factured at Shidoro in the province of Totomi. from dark brown to russet, and covered with thick, lustrous glazes The Japanese potters could never vie with the Chinese in the -black, amber-brown, chocolate and yellowish grey. These glazes production of glazes: the wonderful monochromes and polychromes were not monochromatic: they showed differences of tint, and of the Middle Kingdom had no peers anywhere. In sometimes marked varieties of colour; as when chocolate-brown Japan they were most closely approached by the faience Takatori, passed into amber, or black was relieved by streaks and clouds of of Takatori in the province of Chikuzen. In its early days the grey and dead-leaf red. *This ware came to be known as Toshiro- ceramic industry of this province owed something to the assistance yaki, a term obtained by combining the second syllable of Kato of Korean experts who settled there after the expedition of 1592. with the two first of Shirozaemon. A genuine example of it is at But its chief development took place under the direction of Igarashi present worth many times its weight in gold to Japanese dilettanti, Jizaemon, an amateur ceramist, who, happening to visit Chikuzen though in foreign eyes it is little more than interesting: Shirozaemon about 1620, was taken under the protection of the chief of the was succeeded at the kiln by three generations of his family, each fief and munificently treated. Taking the renowned yao-pien-yao, representative retaining the name of Toshiro, and each distinguish-or transmutation ware of China as a model, the Takatori potters ing himself by the excellence of his work. Thenceforth Seto became endeavoured, by skilful mixing of colouring materials, to reproduce the headquarters of the manufacture of cha-no-yu utensils, and many the wonderful effects of oxidization seen in the Chinese ware. of the tiny pieces turned out there deserve high admiration, their They did not, indeed, achieve their ideal, but they did succeed technique being perfect, and their mahogany, russet-brown, amber in producing some exquisitely lustrous glazes of the flambé type, and buff glazes showing, wonderful lustre and richness. Seto, in rich transparent brown passing into claret colour, with flecks or fact, acquired such a widespread reputation for its ceramic pro streaks of white and clouds of " iron dust." The pâte of this ductions that the term seto-mono (Seto article) came to be used faience was of the finest description, and the technique in every generally for all pottery and porcelain, just as China is in the respect faultless. Unfortunately, the best experts confined them- West. Seto has now ceased to be a pottery-producing centre, and selves to working for the tea clubs, and consequently produced only has become the chief porcelain manufactory of Japan. The porce- insignificant pieces, as tea-jars, cups and little ewers. During the lain industry was inaugurated in 1807 by Tamikichi, a local cera- 18th century, a departure was made from these strict canons. From mist, who had visited Hizen and spent three years there studying this period date most of the specimens best known outside Japan- the necessary processes. Owari abounds in porcelain stone; but cleverly modelled figures of mythological beings and animals covered it does not occur in constant or particularly simple forms, and as with lustrous variegated glazes, the general colours being grey or the potters have not yet learned to treat their materials scientifically, buff, with tints of green, chocolate, brown and sometimes blue. their work is often marred by unforeseen difficulties. For many A ware of which considerable quantities have found their way years after Tamikichi's processes had begun to be practised, the westward of late years in the Awaji-yaki, so called from the island only decoration employed was blue under the glaze. Sometimes of Awaji where it is manufactured in the village of Iga. Chinese cobalt was used, sometimes Japanese, and sometimes a It was first produced between the years 1830 and 1840 Awaji. mixture of both. To Kawamoto Hansuke, who flourished about by one Kajū Mimpei, a man of considerable private means who 1830-1845, belongs the credit of having turned out the richest and devoted himself to the ceramic art out of pure enthusiasm. His most attractive ware of this class. But, speaking generally, Japanese story is full of interest, but it must suffice here to note the results blues do not rank on the same decorative level with those of China. of his enterprise. Directing his efforts at first to reproducing the At Arita, although pieces were occasionally turned out of which deep green and straw-yellow glazes of China, he had exhausted almost the colour could not be surpassed in purity and brilliancy, the his entire resources before success came, and even then the public general character of the blue sous couverte was either thin or dull. was slow to recognize the merits of his ware. Nevertheless he Åt Hirado the ceramists affected a lighter and more delicatetone than persevered, and in 1838 we find him producing not only green and that of the Chinese, and, in order to obtain it, subjected the choice yellow monochromes, but also greyish white and mirror-black pigment of the Middle Kingdom to refining processes of great severity. glazes of high excellence. So thoroughly had he now mastered the The Hirado blue, therefore, belongs to a special aesthetic category. management of glazes that he could combine yellow, green, white But at Owari the experts were content with an inferior colour, and claret colour in regular patches to imitate tortoise-shell. Many and their blue-and-white porcelains never enjoyed a distinguished of his pieces have designs incised or in relief, and others are skilfully reputation, though occasionally we find a specimen of great merit. decorated with gold and silver. Awaji-yaki, or Mimpei-yaki as it Decoration with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze, though it is often called, is generally porcelain, but we occasionally find speci- began to be practised at Owari about the year 1840, never became mens which may readily be mistaken for Awata faience. a speciality of the place. Nowadays, indeed, numerous examples Banko faience is a universal favourite with foreign collectors. of porcelains decorated in this manner are classed among Owari The type generally known to them is exceedingly light ware, for the products. But they receive their decoration, almost without most part made of light grey, unglazed clay, and having exception, in Tokyo or Yokohama, where a large number of artists, hand-modelled decoration in relief. But there are Banko. called e-isuke-shi, devote themselves entirely to porcelain-painting. numerous varieties. Chocolate or dove-coloured grounds with deli- These men seldom use vitrifiable enamels, pigments being much cate diapers in gold and engobe; brown or black faience with white, more tractable and less costly: The dominant feature of the designs yellow and pink designs incised. or in relief; pottery curiously. is pictorial. They are frankly adapted to Western taste. Indeed, and deſtly marbled by combinations of various coloured clays-- of this porcelain it may be said that, from the monster pieces of these and many other kinds are to be found, all, however, presenting blue-and-white manufactured at Seto-vases six feet high and one common feature, namely, skilful finger-moulding and a slight garden pillar-lamps half as tall again do not dismay the Bishū roughening of the surface as though it had received the impression ceramist-to. tiny coffee-cups decorated in Tokyo, with their of coarse linen or crape before baking. This modern banko-yaki is delicate miniatures of birds, flowers, insects, fishes and so forth, produced chiefly at Yokkaichi in the province of Ise. It is entirely everything indicates the death of the old severe aestheticism. To different from the original banko-ware made in Kuwana, in the same such a depth of debasement had the ceramic art fallen in Owari, that province, by Numanami Gozaemon at the close of the 18th century. before the happy renaissance of the past ten years, Nagoya dis- Gozaemon was an imitator. He took for his models the raku credited itself by employing porcelain as a base for cloisonné enamel. faience of Kioto, the masterpieces of Ninsei and Kenzan, the rococo ling. Many products of this vitiated industry have found their wares of Korea, the enamelled porcelain of China, and the blue-and- way into the collections of foreigners. white ware of Delft. He did not found a school, simply because he Pottery was produced at several hamlets in Bizen as far back as had nothing new to teach, and the fact that a modern ware goes by the 14th century, but ware worthy of artistic notice did not make its the same name as his productions is simply because his seal--the appearance until the close of the 16th century, when inscription on which (banko, everlasting) suggested the name of Bizea. the Taiko himself paid a visit to the factory at Imbe. the ware-subsequently (1830) fell into the hands of one Mori Thenceforth utensils for the use of the tea clubs began to be Yūsetsu, who applied it to his own ware. Mori Yūsetsu, however, manufactured. This Bizen-yaki was red stoneware, with thin had more originality than Numanami. He conceived the idea of diaphanous glaze. Made of exceedingly, refractory clay, it under shaping his pieces by putting the mould inside and pressing the clay went stoving for more than three weeks, and was consequently with the hand into the matrix. The consequence was that his remarkable for its hardness and metallic timbre. Some fifty years wares received the design on the inner as well as the outer surface, later, the character of the choicest Bizen-yaki underwent a marked and were moreover thumb-marked---essential characteristics of the change. It became slate-coloured or bluish-brown faience; with banko-yaki now so popular. påte as fine as pipe-clay, but very hard. In the co-Bizen (blue Among a multitude of other Japanese wares, space allows us to Bizen), as well as in the red variety, figures of mythical beings and mention only two, those of Izumo and Yatsushiro. The Izumo. animals, birds, fishes and other natural objects, were modelled with chief of the former is faience, having light grey, close a degree of plastic ability that can scarcely be spoken of in too high 'pâte and yellow or straw-coloured glaze, with or without crackle, 186 JAPAN (CERAMICS to which is applied decoration in gold and green enamel. Another | either in China or any other Oriental country can dispute the variety has chocolate glaze, clouded with amber and Aecked with gold dust. The former faience had its origin at the close of the palm with really representative specimens of Satsuma ware. i7th century, the latter at the close of the 18th; but the Izumo- Not without full reason have Western connoisseurs lavished yaki now procurable is a modern production. panegyrics upon that exquisite production. The faience of the The Yatsushiro faience is a production of the province of Higo, Kioto artists never reached quite to the level of the Satsuma in where a number of Korcan potters settled at the close of the quality of pâte and glowing mellowness of decoration; their 17th century. It is the only Japanese ware in which the Yatsushiro. characteristics of a Korean original are unmistakably pre- materials were slightly inferior. But their skill as decorators served. Its diaphanous, pearl-grey glaze, uniform, lustrous and finely was as great as its range was wide, and they produced a multi- crackled, overlying encaustic decoration in white slip, the fineness tude of masterpieces on which alone Japan's ceramic fame might of its warm reddish pâte, and the general excellence of its technique, safely be rested. have always commanded admiration. It is produced now in con- siderable quantities, but the modern ware falls far short of its When the mediatization of the fiefs, in 1871, terminated predecessor. the local patronage hitherto extended so munificently to artists, the Japanese ceramists gradually learned Change of Many examples of the above varieties deserve the enthusiastic that they must thenceforth depend chiefly upon the Style after admiration they have received, yet they unquestionably belong markets of Europe and America. They had to the Restora. tion. to a lower rank of ceramic achievements than the choice produc- appeal, in short, to an entirely new public, and tions of Chinese kilns. The potters of the Middle Kingdom, how to secure its approval was to them a perplexing problem. from the early eras of the Ming dynasty down to the latest years Having little to guide them, they often interpreted Western of the 18th century, stood absolutely without rivals as makers taste incorrectly, and impaired their own reputation in a of porcelain. Their technical ability was incomparable—though corresponding degree. Thus, in the early years of the Meiji in grace of decorative conception they yielded the palm to the era, there was a period of complete prostitution. No new Japanese-and the representative specimens they bequeathed skill was developed, and what remained of the old was to posterity remained, until quite recently, far beyond the imita- expended chiefly upon the manufacture of meretricious tive capacity of European or Asiatic experts. As for faience objects, disfigured by excess of decoration and not relieved and pottery, however, the Chinese despised them in all forms, by any excellence of technique. In spite of their artistic with one notable exception, the yi-hsing-yao, known in the defects, these specimens were exported in considerable Occident as boccaro. Even the yi-hsing-yao, too, owed much of numbers by merchants in the foreign settlements, and their first its popularity to special utility. It was essentially the ware of cost being very low, they found a not unremunerative market. the tea-drinker. If in the best specimens exquisite modelling, But as European and American collectors became better ac- wonderful accuracy of finish and pâtes of interesting tints are quainted with the capacities of the pre-Meiji potters, the great found, such pieces are, none the less, stamped prominently with inferiority of these new specimens was recognized, and the prices the character of utensils rather than with that of works of art. commanded by the old wares gradually appreciated. What then In short, the artistic output of Chinese kilns in their palmiest happened was very natural: imitations of the old wares were days was, not faience or pottery, but porcelain, whether of soft produced, and having been sufficiently disfigured by staining and or hard paste. Japan, on the contrary, owes her ceramic distinc- other processes calculated to lend an air of rust and age, they tion in the main to her faience. . A great deal has been said by were sold to ignorant persons, who laboured under the singu- enthusiastic writers about the famille chrysanthemo-péonienne of lar yet common hallucination that the points to be looked for in Imari and the genre Kakiemon of Nabeshima, but these porce- specimens from early kilns were, not technical excellence, deco- lains, beautiful as they undoubtedly are, cannot be placed on the rative tastefulness and richness of colour, but dinginess, imper- same level with the kwan-yao and famille rose of the Chinese fections and dirt; persons who imagined, in short, that defects experts. The Imari ware, even though its thick biscuit and which they would condemn at once in new porcelains ought to be generally ungraceful shapes be omitted from the account, shows regarded as merits in old. Of course a trade of that kind, based no enamels that can rival the exquisitely soft, broken tints of on deception, could not have permanent success. One of the the famille rose; and the Kakiemon porcelain, for all its rich imitators of “old Satsuma ” was among the first to perceive though chaste contrasts, lacks the delicate transmitted tints of that a new line must be struck out. Yet the earliest results of the shell-like kwan-yao. So, too, the blue-and-white porcelain his awakened perception helped to demonstrate still further the of Hirado, though assisted by exceptional tenderness of sous-pâte depraved spirit that had come over Japanese art. For he applied colour, by milk-white glaze, by great beauty of decorative himself to manufacture wares having a close affinity with the design, and often by an admirable use of the modelling or graving shocking monstrosities used for sepulchral purposes in ancient tool, represents a ceramic achievement palpably below the soft Apulia, where fragments of dissected satyrs, busts of nymphs or paste kai-pien-yao of King-te-chen. It is a curious and inter- halves of horses were considered graceful excrescences for the esting fact that this last product of Chinese skill remained adornment of an amphora or a pithos. This Makuzu faience, unknown in Japan down to very recent days. In the eyes of produced by the now justly celebrated Miyagawa Shozan of Ota a Chinese connoisseur, no blue-and-white porcelain worthy of (near Yokohama), survives in the form of vases and pots having consideration exists, or ever has existed, except the kai-pien-yao, birds, reptiles, flowers, crustacea and so forth plastered over with its imponderable pâle, its wax-like surface, and its rich, the surface-specimens that disgrace the period of their manu- glowing blue, entirely free from superficiality or garishness and facture, and represent probably the worst aberration of Japanese broken into a thousand tints by the microscopic crackle of the ceramic conception. glaze. The Japanese, although they obtained from their neigh- A production so degraded as the early Makuzu faience could bour almost everything of value she had to give them, did not not possibly have a lengthy vogue. Miyagawa soon began to know this wonderful ware, and their ignorance is in itself sufficient cast about for a better inspiration, and found it in Adoption of to prove their ceramic inferiority. There remains, too, a wide the monochromes and polychromes of the Chinese Chinese domain in which the Chinese developed high skill, whereas the Kang-hsi and Yung-cheng kilns. The extraordinary Japanese can scarcely be said to have entered it at all; namely, value attaching to the incomparable red glazes of China, not the domain of monochromes and polychromes, striking every only in the country of their origin but also in the United States, note of colour from the richest to the most delicate; the domain where collectors showed a fine instinct in this matter, seems to of truité and flambé glazes, of yő-pien-yao (transmutation ware), have suggested to Miyagawa the idea of imitation. He took for and of egg-shell with incised or translucid decoration. In all model the rich and delicate “liquid-dawn” monochrome, and that region of achievement the Chinese potters stood alone and succeeded in producing some specimens of considerable merit. seemingly unapproachable. The Japanese, on the contrary, Thenceforth his example was largely followed, and it may now be made a specialty of faience, and in that particular line they said that the tendency of many of the best Japanese ceramists reached a high standard of excellence. No faience produced I is to copy Chinese chefs-d'ouvre. To find them thus renewing Models. CERAMICS) JAPAN 187 Kioto. their reputation by reverting to Chinese models; is not only them in the manufacture of large imposing pieces or wares of another tribute to the perennial supremacy of Chinese porce- moderate price. But in the matter of true monochromatic and lains, but also a fresh illustration of the eclectic genius of Jap- inaugurated Chinese fashions, and if he has never fully succeeded in polychromatic, glazes, to Shōzan belongs the credit of having anese art. All the products of this new effort are porcelains achieving lang-yao (sang-de-bæuf), chi-hung (liquid-dawn red), proper. Seven kilns are devoted, wholly or in part, to the new chiang-lou-hung (bean-blossom red, the "peach-blow" of American wares: belonging to Miyagawa Shõzan of Ota, Seifū Yohei of collectors), or above all pin-kwo-lsing (apple-green with red bloom), his efforts to imitate them have resulted in some very interesting Kioto, Takemoto Hayata and Kato Tomojiro of Tokyo, Higuchi pieces. Haruzane of Hirado, Shida Yasukyo of Kaga and Kato Masukichi Takemoto and Katy of Tokyo entered the field subsequently to of Seto. Shōzan, but followed the same models approximately: Takemoto, however, has made a speciality, of black glazes, his Among the seven ceramists here enumerated, Seifū of Kioto aim þeing to rival the Sung Chien-yoo, with its glaze Tokyo Ceramists. probably enjoys the highest reputation. If we except the ware of of mirror-black or raven's-wing green, and its leveret Seifu of Satsuma, it may be said that nearly all the fine faience fur streaking or russet-moss dappling, the prince of all wares in the of Japan was manufactured formerly in Kiāto. Nomura estimation of the Japanese tea-clubs. Like Shozan, he is still very far Ninsei, in the middle of the 17th century, inaugurated from his original, but, also like Shōzan, he produces highly meritorious a long era of beautiful productions with his cream-like "fish-roe picces in his efforts to reach an ideal that will probably continue to craquelé glazes, carrying rich decoration of clear and brilliant elude him for ever. Of Katō there is not much to be said. He has vitrifiable enamels. It was he who gave their first really artistic not succeeded in winning great distinction, but he manufactures impulse to the kilns of Awata, Mizoro and Iwakura, whence so some very delicate monochromes, fully deserving to be classed among many delightful specimens of faience issued almost without inter- prominent evidences of the new departure. Tokyo was never a ruption until the middle of the 19th century and continue to centre of ceramic production. Even during the 300 years of its issue to-day. The three Kenzan, of whom the third died in 1820; conspicuous prosperity as the administrative capital of the Toku- Ebisei; the four Dõhachi, of whom the fourth was still alive gawa shoguns, it had no noted factories, doubtless owing to the in 1909; the Kagiya family, manufacturers of the celebrated absence of any suitable .potter's clay in the immediate vicinity, Kinkózan ware; Hozan, whose imitations of Delft faience and his Its only notable production of a ceramic character was the work pâle-sur-pâte pieces with fern-scroll decoration remain incomparable; of Miura Kenya (1839-1843), who followed the methods of the cele Taizan Yöhei, whose ninth descendant of the same name now pro- brated Haritsu (1688-1704) of Kioto in decorating plain or lacquered duces fine specimens of Awata ware for foreign markets; Tanzan wood with mosaics of raku faience having coloured glazes. Kenya Yoshitaro and his son Rokuro, to whose credit stands a new departure was also a skilled modeller of figures, and his factory in the Imado in the form of faience having pâte-sur-pâte decoration of lace patterns, suburb obtained a considerable reputation for work of that nature. diapers and archaic designs executed in low relief with admirable He was succeeded by Tozawa Benshi, an old man of over seventy skill and minuteness; the two Bizan, renowned for their represen- in 1999, who, using clay from Owari or Hizen, has turned out many tations of richly apparelled figures as decorative motives; Rokubei, porcelain statuettes of gſeat beauty. . But although the capital who studied painting under Maruyama Ökyō and followed the of Japan formerly played only an insignificant part in Japanese naturalistic style of that great artist; Mokubei, the first really ceramics, modern Tokyo has an important school of artist-artisans, expert manufacturer of translucid porcelain in Kioto; Shūhei, Every year large quantities of porcelain and faience are sent from Kintei, and above all, Zengoro Hözen, the celebrated potter of the provinces to the capital to receive surface decoration, and in Eiraku wares-these names and many others give to Kioto ceramics wealth of design as well as carefulness of execution the results are an eminence as well as an individuality which few other wares of praiseworthy. But of the pigments employed nothing very lauda- Japan can boast. Nor is it to be supposed that the ancient capital tory could be said until very recent times. They were generally now lacks great potters. Okamura Yasutaro, commonly called crude, of impure tone, and without depth or brilliancy: Now, how. Shōzan, produces specimens which only a very acute connoisseur ever, they have lost these defects and entered a period of consider- can distinguish from the work of Nomura Ninsei; Tanzan Rokuro's able excellence. Figure-subjects constitute the chief feature of the half-tint enamels and soft creamy glazes would have stood high in designs. A majority of the artists are content to copy old pictures any epoch; Taizan Yöhei produces Awata faience not inferior to of Buddha's sixteen disciples, the seven gods of happiness, and other that of former days; Kagiya Sõbei worthily supports the reputation similar assemblages of mythical or historical personages, not only of the Kinkòzan ware; Kawamoto Eijiro has made to the order of because such work offers large opportunity for the use of striking a well-known Kioto firm many specimens now figuring in foreign colours and the production of meretricious effects, dear to the eye collections as old masterpieces; and Ito Tozan succeeds in decorating of the average Western householder and tourist, but also because faience with seven colours sous couverte (black, green, blue, russet- a complicated design, as compared with a simple one, has the advan- red, tea-brown, purple and peach), a ſeat never before accomplished. tage of hiding the technical imperfections of the ware. Of late there It is therefore an error to assert that Kioto has no longer a title have happily appeared some decorators who prefer to choose their to be called a great ceramic centre. Seifū Yohei, however, has the subjects from the natural field in which their great predecessors special faculty of manufacturing monochromatic and jewelled excelled, and there is reason to hope that this more congenial and porcelain and faience, which differ essentially from the traditional more pleasing style will supplant its modern usurper. The best Kioto types, their models being taken directly from China. But a known factory in Tokyo for decorative purposes is the Hyōchi-en. sharp distinction has to be drawn between the method of Scifū and It was established in the Fukagawa suburb in 1875, with the imme. that of the other six ceramists mentioned above as following Chinese diate object of preparing specimens for the first Tokyo exhibition fashions. It is this, that whereas the latter produce their chromatic held at that time. Its founders obtained a measure of official aid, effects by mixing the colouring matter with the glaze, Seifū paints and were able to secure the services of some good artists, among the biscuit with a pigment over which he runs a translucid colourless whom may be mentioned Obanawa and Shimauchi. The porcelains glaze. The Kioto artist's process is much easier than that of his of Owari and Arita naturally received most attention at the hands of rivals, and although his monochromes are often of most pleasing the Hyōchi-en decorators, but there was scarcely one of the principal delicacy and fine tone, they do not belong to the same category of wares of Japan upon which they did not try their skill, and if a piece technical excellence as the wares they imitate. From this judg. of monochromatic Minton or Sèvres came in their way, they under- ment must be excepted, however, his ivory-white and céladon wares, took to improve it by the addition of designs copied from old masters as well as his porcelains decorated with blue, or blue and red sous or suggested by modern taste. The cachet of the Fukagawa couverte, and with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze. In these five atelier was indiscriminately, applied to all such pieces, and has varieties he is emphatically great. It cannot be said, indeed, that probably proved a source of confusion to collectors. Many other his céladon shows the velvety richness of surface and tenderness of factories for decoration were established from time to time in colour that distinguished the old Kuang-yao and Lungchuan-yao Tōkyō. Of these some still exist; others, ceasing to be profitable, of China, or that he has ever essayed the moss-edged crackle of the have been abandoned. On the whole, the industry may now be beautiful Ko-yao. But his céladon certainly equals the more modern said to have assumed a domestic character. In a house, presenting Chinese examples from the Kang-hsi and Yung-cheng kilns. As for no distinctive features whatsoever, one finds the decorator with a his ivory-white, it distinctly surpasses the Chinese Ming Chen-yao cupboard full of bowls and vases of glazed biscuit, which he adorns, in every quality except an indescribable intimacy of glaze and piece by piece, using the simplest conceivable apparatus and a meagre pâte which probably can never be obtained by either Japanese or supply of pigments. Sometimes he fixes the decoration himself, European methods. employing for that purpose a small kiln which stands in his back Miyagawa Shōzan, or Makuzu, as he is generally called, has never garden; sometimes he entrusts this part of the work to a factory. followed Seifū's example in descending from the difficult manipu. As in the case of everything Japanese, there is no pretence, no useless Miyagawa lation of coloured glazes to the comparatively simple expenditure about the process. Yet it is plain that this school of Shōzaa. process of painted biscuit. This comment does not Tokyo decorators, though often choosing their subjects badly, have refer to the use of blue and red sous couverte. In that contributed much to the progress of the ceramic art during the past class of beautiful ware the application of pigment to the unglazed few years. Little by little there has been developed a degree of skill pâte is inevitable, and both Seiſū and Miyagawa, working on which compares not unfavourably with the work of the old masters. the same lines as their Chinese predecessors, produce porcelains Table services of Owari porcelain the ware itself excellently that almost rank with choice Kang-hsi specimens, though they manipulated and of almost egg-shell fineness-are now decorated have not yet mastered the processes sufficiently to employ | with floral scrolls, landscapes, insects, birds, figure-subjects and all 188 JAPAN (CERAMICS sorts of designs, chaste, elaborate or quaint; and these services, beginning of the 19th century was porcelain decorated with blue representing so much artistic labour and originality, are sold for under the glaze, the best specimens of which did not approach their prices that bear no due ratio to the skill required in their manu- Chinese prototypes in fineness of pâte, purity of glaze or richness of facture. colour. During the first twenty-five years of the Meiji era the There is only one reservation to be made in speaking of the Owari potters sought to compensate the technical and artistic modern decorative industry of Japan under its better aspects. defects of their pieces by giving them magnificent dimensions; but In Tōkyō, Kioto, Yokohama and Kobe-in all of which places at the Tōkyō industrial exhibition (1891) they were able to contribute decorating ateliers (etsuke-dokoro), similar to those of Tokyo, have some specimens showing decorative, plastic and graving skill of no been established in modern times—the artists use chiefly pigments, mean order. Previously to that time, one of the Seto experts, seldom venturing to employ vitrifiable enamels. That the results Kato Gosuke, had developed remarkable ability in the manufacture achieved with these different materials are not comparable is a fact of céladon, though in that field he was subsequently distanced by which every connoisseur must admit. The glossy surface of a porce- Seifū of Kioto. Only lately did Owari feel the influence of the new lain glaze is ill fitted for rendering artistic effects with ordinary movement towards Chinese types. Its potters took flambé glazes colours. The proper field for the application of these is the biscuit, for models, and their pieces possessed an air of novelty that attracted in which position the covering glaze serves at once to soften and to connoisseurs. But the style was not calculated to win general preserve the pigment. It can scarcely be doubted that the true popularity, and the manufacturing processes were too easy to instincts of the ceramist will ultimately counsel him to confine his occupy the attention of great potters. On a far higher level stood decoration over the glaze to vitrifiable enamels, with which the egg-shell porcelain, remarkable examples of which were sent from Chinese and Japanese potters of former times obtained such brilliant Seto to the Kioto industrial exhibition of 1895. Chinese potters results. But to employ enamels successfully is an achievement of the Yung-lo era (1403-1414) enriched their country with a quantity demanding special training and materials not easy to procure or to of ware to which the name of totai-ki (bodiless utensil) was given on prepare. ”The Tōkyō decorators are not likely, therefore, to change account of its wonderfully attenuated pâte. The finest specimens of their present methods immediately: this porcelain had incised decoration, sparingly employed but adding An impetus was given to ceramic decoration by the efforts of a much to the beauty of the piece. In subsequent eras the potters of new school, which owed its origin to Dr G. Wagener, an eminent King-te-chen did not fail to continue this remarkable manufacture, German expert formerly in the service of the Japanese government. but its only Japanese representative was a porcelain distinctly Dr Wagener conceived the idea of developing the art of decoration inferior in more than one respect, namely, the egg-shell utensils under the glaze, as applied to faience. Faience thus decorated has of Hizen and Hirado, some of which had finely woven basket-cases always been exceptional in Japan. Rare specimens were produced to protect their extreme fragility. The Seto experts, however, are in Satsuma and Kioto, the colour employed being chiefly blue, now making bowls, cups and vases that rank nearly as high as though brown and black were used in very exceptional instances. the celebrated Yung-lo totai-ki. In purity of tone and velvet. The difficulty of obtaining clear, rich tints was nearly prohibitive, like gloss of surface there is distinct inferiority on the side of the and though success, when achieved, seemed to justify the effort, Japanese ware, but in thinness of pâte it supports comparison, and this class of ware never received much attention in Japan. By in profusion and beauty of incised decoration it excels its Chinese careful selection and preparation of pâte, glaze and pigments, Dr original. Wagener proved not only that the manufacture was reasonably Latest of all to acknowledge the impulse of the new departure feasible, but also that decoration thus applied to pottery possesses have been the potters of Kaga. For many years their ware enjoyed unique delicacy and softness.' Ware manufactured by his direction the credit, or discredit, of being the most lavishly deco- Ware of at the Tokyo school of technique (shokkô gakko), under the name of rated porcelain in Japan. It is known to Western collectors csahi-yaki, ranks among the interesting productions of modern as a product blazing with red and gold, a very degenerate Kaga. Japan. The decorative colour cliefly employed is chocolate brown, offspring of the Chinese Ming type, which Hozen of Kioto reproduced which harmonizes excellently with the glaze. But the ware has so beautifully at the beginning of the 19th century under the name never found favour in Japanese eyes, an element of unpleasant of eirakıl-yaki. Undoubtedly the best specimens of this kinran-de garishness being imparted to it by the vitreous appearance of the (brocade) porcelain of Kaga merit praise and admiration; but, on glaze, which is manufactured according to European methods. the whole, ware so gaudy could not long hold a high place in public The modern faience of Ito Tozan of Kioto, decorated with colour esteem. The Kaga potters ultimately appreciated that defect. under the glaze, is incomparably more artistic than the Tokyo They still manufacture quantities of tea and coffee sets, and dinner asahi-yaki, from which, nevertheless, the Kioto master doubtless or dessert services of red-and-gold porcelain for foreign markets; borrowed some ideas. The decorative industry in Tokyo owed but about 1885 some of them made zealous and patient efforts to much also to the kosho-kaisha, an institution started by: Wakai and revert to the processes that won so much fame for the old Kutani- Matsuo in 1873, with official assistance.. Owing to the intelligent yaki, with its grand combinations of rich, lustrous, soft-toned glazes. patronage of this company, and the impetus given to the ceramic The attempt was never entirely successful, but its results restored trade by its enterprise, the style of the Tokyo etsuke was much im- something of the Kaga kilns' reputation. Since 1895, again, a proved and the field of their industry extended. It must be acknow- totally new departure has been made by Morishita Hachizaemon, ledged, however, that the Tōkyō artists often devote their skill to a ceramic expert, in conjunction with Shida Yasukyo, president of purposes of forgery, and that their imitations, especially of old the Kaga products joint stock company (Kaga bussan kabushiki Satsuma-yaki, are sometimes franked by dealers whose standing kaisha) and teacher in the Kaga industrial school. The line chosen should forbid such frauds. In this context it may be mentioned by these ceramists is purely Chinese. Their great aim seems to be that, of late years, decoration of a remarkably microscopic character the production of the exquisite Chinese monochromes known as has been successfully practised in Kioto, Osaka and Kobe, itsu-kwo-tien-tsing (blue of the sky after rain) and yueh-peh (clair-de- originator being Meisan of Osaka. Before dismissing the subject lune), But they also devote much attention to porcelains decorated of modern Tōkyō ceramics, it may be added that Kato Tomataro, with blue or red sous couverte. Their work shows much promise, mentioned above in connexion with the manufacture of special but like all fine specimens of the Sino-Japanese school, the prices glazes, has also been very successful in producing porcelains deco- are too high to attract wide custom. rated with blue sous couverte at his factory in the Koishikawa suburb. Higuchi of Hirado is to be classed with ceramists of the new school after many efforts to cater for the taste of the Occident, The sum of the matter is that the modern Japanese ceramist, on account of one ware only, namely, porcelain having translucid decoration, the so-called grains of rice of American evidently concludes that his best hope consists in Summary Wares of collectors, designated hotaru.de (firefly style) in Japan. devoting all his technical and artistic resources to Hirado. That, however, is an achievement of no small con reproducing the celebrated wares of China. In explanation of sequence, especially since it had never previously been essayed outside China. The Hirado expert has not yet attained the fact that he did not essay this route in former times, it may technical skill equal to that of the Chinese. He cannot, like them, be noted, first, that he had only a limited acquaintance with the cover the greater part of a specimen's surface with a lacework of wares in question; secondly, that Japanese connoisseurs never transparent decoration, exciting wonder that pâte deprived so greatly attached any value to their countrymen's imitation of Chinese of continuity could have been manipulated without accident. But his artistic instincts are higher than those of the Chinese, and there is porcelains so long as the originals were obtainable; thirdly, that reasonable hope that in time he may excel their best works. In the ceramic art of China not having fallen into its present state other respects the Hirado factories do not produce wares nearly of decadence, the idea of competing with it did not occur to out- so beautiful as those manufactured there between 1759 and 1840, siders; and fourthly, that Europe and America had not deve- when the Hirado-yaki stood at the head of all Japanese porcelain on account of its pure, close-grained pâte, its lustrous milk-white loped their present keen appreciation of Chinese masterpieces. glaze, and the soft clear blue of its carefully executed decoration. Yet it is remarkable that China, at the close of the 19th century, The Owari potters were slow to follow the lead of Miyagawa should have again furnished models to Japanese eclecticism. Shõzan and Seifū Yōhei. At the industrial exhibition in Kioto (1895) the first results of their efforts were shown (probably about the beginning of the 6th century), but she Lacquer.- Japan derived the art of lacquering from China Ware of attracting attention at ance. In medieval times Owari was celebrated for faience glazes of various colours, ultimately carried it far beyond Chinese conception. At first much affected by the tea-clubs, but its staple manufacture from the her experts confined themselves to plain black lacquer. From Modera Owari. LACQUER) JAPAN 189 meat. the early part of the 8th century they began to ornament it shown any marked development in the Meiji era is that in which with dust of gold or mother-of-pearl, and throughout the Heian parts of the decorative scheme consist of objects in gold, silver, epoch (9th to 12th century) they added pictorial designs, though of pearl.' It might indeed be inferred, from some of shakudo, shibuichi, iron, or, above all, ivory or mother- New of a formal character, the chief motives being floral subjects, the essays published in Europe on the subject of Japan's Develop arabesques and scrolls. All this work was in the style known as ornamental arts, that this application of ivory and hira-makie (ilat decoration); that is to say, having the decorative mother-of-pearl holds a place of paramount importance. Such is not the case. design in the same plane as the ground. In the days of the great dent with gold lacquer grounds carrying elaborate and profuse Cabinets, fire-screens, plaques and boxes resplen- dilettante · Yoshimasa (1449–1490), lacquer experts devised a decoration of ivory and mother-of-pearl are not objects that appeal new style, taka-makie, or decoration in relief, which immensely to Japanese taste. They belong essentially to the catalogue of augmented the beauty of the ware, and constituted a feature articles called into existence to meet the demand of the foreign altogether special, to Japan. Thus when, at the close of the decorative furniture for European houses. On the whole it is a market, being, in fact, an attempt to adapt the lacquerer's art to 16th century, the Taiko inaugurated the fashion of lavishing all successful attempt. The plumage of gorgeously-hued birds, the the resources of applied art on the interior decoration of castles blossoms of flowers (especially the hydrangea), the folds of thick and temples, the services of the lacquerer were employed to an brocade, microscopic diapers and arabesques, are built up with tiny extent hitherto unknown, and there resulted some magnificent lacquer and coloured bone, the whole producing a rich and sparkling fragments of iridescent shell, in combination with silver-foil, gold- work on friezes, coffered ceilings, door panels, altar-pieces and effect. In fine specimens the workmanship is extraordinarily cenotaphs. This new departure reached its climax in the Toku- minute, and every fragment of metal, shell, ivory or bone, used to gawa mausolea of Yedo and Nikko, which are enriched by the construct the decorative scheme, is imbedded firmly in its place. possession of the most splendid applications of lacquer decora- paste and glue only, so that the result lacks durability. The employ- But in a majority of cases the work of building is done by means of tion the world has ever seen, nor is it likely that anything of ment of mother-of-pearl to ornament lacquer grounds dates from a comparable beauty and grandeur will be again produced in the period as remote as the 8th century, but its use as a material for same line. Japanese connoisseurs indicate the end of the 17th constructing decorative designs began in the 17th century, and was due to an expert called Shibayama, whose descendant, Shibayama century as the golden period of the art, and so deeply rooted is Sõichi, has in recent years been associated with the same work in this belief that whenever a date has to be assigned to any | Tokyo. specimen of exceptionally fine quality, it is unhesitatingly In the manufacture of Japanese lacquer there are three processes. referred to the time of Joken-in (Tsunayoshi). The first is the extraction and preparation of the lac; the second, its application; and the third, the decoration of the Processes. lacquered surface. The lac, when taken from an incision A:..ong the many skilled artists who have practised this beautiful in the trunk of the Rhus vernicifera (urushi-no-ki), contains approxi. craft since the first on record, Kiyohara Norisuye (c. 1169), may be mately 70% of lac acid, 4% of gum arabic, 2% of albumen, and mentioned Köyetsu (1558-1637) and his pupils, who are especially 24% of water. It is strained, deprived of its moisture, and receives noted for their inro (medicine-cases worn as part of the costume); an admixture of gamboge, cinnabar, acetous protoxide or some Kajika wa Kinjiro. (c. 1680), the founder of the great Kajikawa other colouring matter, The object to be lacquered, which is family, which continued up to the 19th century; and Koma Kyūhaku generally made of thin white pine, is subjected to singularly thorough (d. 1715). whose pupils and descendants maintained his traditions and painstaking treatment, one of the processes being to cover it for a period of equal length. Of individual artists, perhaps the most with a layer of Japanese paper or thin hempen cloth, which is fixed notable is Ogata Körin (d. 1716), whose skill was equally great in by means of a pulp of rice-paste and lacquer. In this way the danger the arts of painting and pottery. He was the eldest son of an artist of warping is averted, and exudations from the wooden surface are named Ogato Soken, and studied the styles of the Kano and Tosa prevented from reaching the overlaid coats of lacquer. Numerous schools successively. Among the artists who influenced him were operations of luting, sizing, lacquering, polishing, drying, rubbing Kano Tsunenobu, Nomura Sõtatsu and Köyetsu. His lacquer-ware is down, and so on, are performed by the nurimono-shi, until, after distinguished for a bold and at times almost eccentric impressionism, many days' treatment, the object emerges with a smooth, lustre. and his use of inlay is strongly characteristic. Ritsuo (1663-1747), like dark-grey or coloured surface, and is ready to pass into the hands à pupil and contemporary of Körin, and like him a potter and of the makie-shi, or decorator. The latter is an artist; those who painter also, was another lacquerer of great skill. Then followed have performed the preliminary operations are merely skilled arti- Hanzan, the two Shiome, Yamamoto Shunshō and his pupils, The makie-shi may be said to paint a picture on the surface Yamada Jõka and Kwanshōsai Tõyo (late 18th century). In the of the already lacquered object. He takes for subject a landscape, beginning of the 19th century worked Shokwasai, who frequently a seascape, a battle-scene, Howers, foliage, birds, fishes, insects-in collaborated with the metal-worker Shibayama, encrusting his short, anything. This he sketches in outline with a paste of white lacquer with small decorations in metal by the latter. lead, and then, having filled in the details with gold and colours, he No important new developments have taken place during modern superposes a coat of translucid lacquer, which is finally subjected times in Japan's lacquer manufacture. Her artists follow the old to careful polishing. If parts of the design are to be in relief, they Modera ways faithfully; and indeed it is not easy to see how are built up with a putty of black lacquer, white lead, camphor and they could do better. On the other hand, there has lamp-black. In all fine lacquers gold predominates so largely that Work. not been any deterioration; all the skill of former days the general impression conveyed by the object is one of glow and is still active. The contrary has been repeatedly affirmed by foreign richness. It is also an inviolable rule that every part must show critics, but no one really familiar with modern productions can beautiful and highly finished work, whether it be an external or an entertain such a view. Lacquer-making, however, being essentially internal part. The makie-shi ranks almost as high as the pictorial an art and not a mere handicraft, has its eras of great masters and artist in Japanese esteem. He frequently signs his works, and a its seasons of inferior execution. Men of the calibre of Köyetsu Kõrin, great number of names have been thus handed down during the Ritsuo, Kajikawa and Mitsutoshi must be rare in any age, and the past two centuries. epoch when they flourished is justly remembered with enthusiasm. But the Meiji era has had its Zeshin, and it had in 1909 Shirayama Cloisonné Enamel.—Cloisonné enamel is essentially of modern Fukumatsu, Kawanabe Itcho, Ogāwa Sbomin, Uematsu Hómin, Shibayama Soichi, Morishita Morihachi and other lesser experts. all development in Japan. The process was known at an early masters in designing and execution. Zeshin, shortly before he died, period, and was employed for the purpose of subsidiary indicated Shirayama Fukumatsu as the man upon whom his mantle decoration from the close of the 16th century, but not until the should descend, and that the judgment of this really great craftsman was correct cannot be denied by any one who has seen the works 19th century did Japanese experts begin to manufacture of Shirayama. He excels in his representations of landscapes and the objects known in Europe as enamels;” that is to say, waterscapes, and has succeeded in transferring to gold-lacquer vases, plaques, censers, bowls, and so forth, having their surface panels tender and delicate pictures of nature's softest moods-pic- covered with vitrified pastes applied either in the champlevé or the tures that show balance, richness, harmony and a fine sense of cloisonné style. It is necessary to insist upon this fact, because decorative proportion. Kawanabe Itchó is celebrated for his representations of flowers and foliage, and Morishita Morihachi it has been stated with apparent authority that numerous speci- and Asano Saburo (of Kaga) are admirable in all styles, but especially, mens which began to be exported from 1865 were the outcome perhaps, in the charming variety called logi-dashi (ground down), of industry commencing in the 16th century and reaching its which is pre-eminent for its satin-like texture and for the atmosphere point of culmination at the beginning of the 18th. There is of dreamy softness that pervades the decoration. The togi-dashi design, when finely executed, seems to hang suspended in the velvety not the slenderest ground for such a theory. The work began in lacquer or to float under its silky surface. The magnificent sheen and 1838, and Kaji Tsunekichi of Owari was its originator. During richness of the pure kin-makie (gold lacquer) are wanting, but in 20 years previously to the reopening of the country in 1858. their place we have inimitable tenderness and delicacy. The only branch of the lacquerer's art that can be said to have * Obtained from the shell of the Halictis. sans. 190 JAPAN ICOMMUNICATIONS cloisonné enamelling was practised in the manner now understood itself contains the colouring matter, påle and glaze being fired by the term; when foreign merchants began to settle in Yoko- simultancously at the same high temperature. It is apparent that a vitrified enamel may be made to perform, in part at any rate, the hama, several experts were working skilfully in Owari after the function of a porcelain glaze. Acting upon that theory, the experts methods of Kaji Tsunekichi Up to that time there had been of Tokyo and Nagoya have produced many very beautiful speci- little demand for enamels of large dimensions, but when the mens of monochrome enamel-yellow (canary or straw), rose du foreign market called for vases, censers, plaques and such things, Love-grey and lapis lazuli blue. The pieces do not quite reach the Barry, liquid-dawn, red, aubergine purple, green (grass or leaf), no difficulty was found in supplying them. Thus, about the level of Chinese monochrome porcelains, but their inferiority is not year 1865, there commenced an export of enamels which had no marked. The artist's great difficulty is to hide the metal base prototypes in Japan, being destined frankly for European and completely. A' monochrome loses much of its attractiveness when American collectors. From a technical point of view these the colour merges into a metal rim, or when the interior of a vase is covered with crude unpolished paste. But to spread and fix the specimens had much to recommend them. The base, usually of enamel so that neither at the rim nor in the interior shall there be copper, was as thin as cardboard, the cloisons, exceedingly fine any break of continuity, or any indication that the base is copper, and delicate, were laid on with care and accuracy; the colours not porcelain, demands quite exceptional skill. were even, and the designs showed artistic judgment. . Two The translucid enamels of the modern school are generally associated with decorative bases. In other words, a suitable design faults, however, marred the work-first, the shapes were clumsy is chiselled in the metal base so as to be visible through Translucid and unpleasing, being copied from bronzes whose solidity the diaphanous enamel. Very beautiful effects of broken Epamel. justified forms unsuited to thin enamelled vessels, secondly, and softened lights, combined with depth and delicacy of the colours, sombre and somewhat impure, lacked the glow and colour, are thus obtained. But the decorative designs which lend themselves to such a purpose are not numerous. mellowness that give decorative superiority to the technically chiselled in wave-diaper and overrun with a pasie of aubergine A gold base decply inferior Chinese enamels of the later Ming and early Tsing eras purple is the most pleasing. A still higher achievement is to apply Very soon, however, the artisans of Nagoya (Owari), Yokohama to the chiselled base designs executed in coloured enamels, finally Admirable results are and Tokyo-where the art had been taken up-found that covering the whole with translucid paste. faithful and fine workmanship did not pay. The foreign mer- goldfish and blue-backed carp appear swimming in silvery waves, thus produced; as when, through a medium of cerulean blue, bright chant desired many and cheap specimens for export, rather than or brilliantly plumaged birds seem to soar among fleecy clouds. The few and costly. There followed then a period of gradual decline, artists of this school show also much skill in using enamels for the and the enamels exported 10 Europe showed so much inferiority Pics, birds or Aoral sprays, among the reticulations of a silver purposes of subordinate decoration-suspending enamelled butter- that they were supposed to be the products of a widely different vase chiselled à jour; or filling with translucid enamels parts of a era and of different makers. The industry was threatened with decorative scheme sculptured in iron, silver, gold or shakudo. extinction, and would certainly have dwindled to insignificant dimensions had not a few earnest artists, working in the face of V:-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS many difficulties and discouragements, succeeded in striking out new lines and establishing new standards for excellence. Communications. From the conditions actually existing in the 8th century after the Christian era the first compilers of Three clearly differentiated schools now (1875) came into existence. One, headed by Namikawa Yasuyuki of kišto, took for its objects | Japanese history inferred the conditions which might Roads and the utmost delicacy and perfection of technique, rich have existed in the 7th century before that era. One Posts la ness of decoration, purity of design and harmony of of their inferences was that, in the early days, com- Early colour. The thin clumsily-shaped vases of the Kaji munication was by water only, and that not until Times. school, with their uniformly distributed decoration of diapers. 549 - B.C. did the most populous region of the empire-the scrolls and arabesques in comparatively dull colours, ceased alto- gether to be produced, their place being taken by graceful specimens, west coast-come into possession of public roads. Six hundred technically flawless, and carrying designs not only free from stiffness, years later, the local satraps are represented as having received but also executed in colours at once rich and soft. This school may instructions to build regular highways, and in the 3rd century be subdivided, Kioto representing one branch, Nagoya, Tokyo and Yokohama the other. In the products of the Kioto' branch the the massing of troops for an over-sea expedition invested decoration generally covered the whole surface of the piece; in the roads with new value. Nothing is yet heard, however, about products of the other branch the artist aimed rather at pictorial posts. These evidences of civilization did not make their effect, placing the design in a monochromatic field of low tone. is plain that such a method as the latter implies great command of appearance until the first great era of Japanese reform, the coloured pastes, and, indeed, no feature of the manufacture is more Taika period (645-650), when stations were established along conspicuous than the progress made during the period 1880-1900 | the principal highways, provision was made of post-horses, in compounding and firing vitrifiable enamels. Many excellent and a sysiem of bells and checks was devised for distinguishing examples of cloisonné enamel have been produced by cach branch official carriers. In those days ordinary travellers were required of this school. There has been nothing like them in any other country, and they stand at an immeasurable distance above the to carry passports, nor had they any share in the benefits of works of the early Owari school represented by Kaji Tsunekichi the official organization, which was entirely under the control of and his pupils and colleagues. the minister of war. Great difficulties attended the movements The second of the modern schools is headed by Namikawa Sosuke of private persons. Even the task of transmitting to the of Tōkyō. It is an easily traced outgrowth of the second branch of the central Cloisopless first school just described, for one can readily under. government provincial taxes paid in kind had to be dis- stand that from placing the decorative design in a charged by specially organized parties, and this journey from the Eaamels. monochromatic field of low tone, which is essentially north-eastern districts to the capital generally occupied three a pictorial method, development would proceed in the direction months. At the close of the 7th century the emperor Mommu is of concealing the mechanics of the art in order to enhance the said to have enacted a law that wealthy persons living near the pictorial effect. Thus arose the so-called “ cloisonless enamels (musenjippo). They are not always without cloisons. The design highways must supply rice to travellers, and in 745 an empress is generally framed at the outset with a ribbon of thin inetal. (Koken) directed that a stock of medical necessaries must be precisely after the manner of ordinary cloisonné ware. But as kept at the postal stations. Among the benevolent acts attri- the work proceeds the cloisons are hidden-unless their presence buted to renowned Buddhist priests posterity specially remembers is necessary to give emphasis to the design-and the final result is a picture in vitrified enamels. their efforts to encourage the building of roads and bridges. The The characteristic productions of the third among the modern great emperor Kwammu (782-806) was constrained to devote schools are monochromatic and translucid enamels. All students a space of five years to the reorganization of the whole system of of the ceramic art know that the monochrome porce- Monochro• lains of China owe their beauty to the fact that the post-stations. Owing to the anarchy which prevailed during Enamels, colour is in the glaze, not under it. The ceramist the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries, facilities of communication finds no difficulty in applying a uniform coat of pig- disappeared almost entirely, even for men of rank a long journey ment to porcelain biscuit, and covering the whole with a diaphanous involved danger of starvation or fatal exposure, and the pains glaze. The colour is fixed and the glaze set by secondary firing at a lower temperature than that necessary for hardening the påte. and perils of travel became a household word among the people. Such porcelains, however, lack the velvet-like softness and depth of Yoritomo, the founder of feudalism at the close of the 12th century, tone so justly prized in the genuine monochrome, where the glaze was too great a ştatesman to underestimate the value of roads and New Schools. RAILWAYS) JAPAN 191 posts. The highway between his stronghold, Kamakura, and the Class 2. Roads leading from Tökyo to the ancestral shrines Imperial city, Kioto, began in his time to develop features which in the province of Isē, and also to the cities or to ultimately entitled it to be called one of the finest roads in the world. military stations. But after Yoritomo's death the land became once more an armed Class 3. Roads leading from Tokyo to the prefectural offices, camp, in which the rival barons discouraged travel beyond the and those forming the lines of connexion between limits of their own domains. Not until the Tokugawa family cities and military stations. obtained military control of the whole empire (1603), and, fixing its II. Prefectural roads, consisting of capital at Yedo, required the feudal chiefs to reside there every Class 1. Roads connecting different prefectures, or leading second year, did the problem of roads and post-stations force itself from military stations to their outposts. once more on official attention. Regulations were now strictly Class 2. Roads connecting the head offices of cities and enforced, fixing the number of horses and carriers available at each prefectures with their branch offices. station, the loads to be carried by them and their charges, as well as Class 3. Roads connecting noted localities with the chief the transport services that each feudal chief was entitled to demand town of such neighbourhoods, or leading to seaports and the fees he had to pay in return. Tolerable hostelries now came convenient of access. into existence, but they furnished only shelter, fuel and the coarsest III. Village roads, consisting of, kind of food. By degrees, however, the progresses of the feudal Class 1. Roads passing through several localities in chiefs to and from Yedo, which at first were simple and economical, succession, or merely leading from one locality to developed features of competitive magnificence, and the importance another. of good roads and suitable accommodation received increased Class 2. Roads specially constructed for the convenience attention. This found expression in practice in 1663., A system of irrigation, pasturage, mines, factories, &c., in more elaborate than anything antecedent was then introduced under accordance with measures determined by the people the name of “ flying transport." Three kinds of couriers operated. of the locality. The first class were in the direct employment of the shogunate. Class 3. Roads constructed for the benefit of Shinto They carried official messages between Yedo and Osaka- a distance shrines, Buddhist temples, or to facilitate the culti- of 348 miles in four days by means of a well organized system of vation of rice-fields and arable land. relays. The second class maintained communications between the fiefs and the Tokugawa court as well as their own families in Yedo, Of the above three headings, it was decided that all national for in the alternate years of a feudatory's compulsory residence in roads should be maintained at the national expense, the regu- that city his family had to live there. The third class were main-lations for their up-keep being entrusted to the care of the prefec- tained by a syndicate of 13 merchants as a private enterprise for tures along the line of route, and the cost incurred being paid transmitting letters between the three great cities of Kioto, Osaka and Yedo and intervening places. This syndicate did not undertake from the Imperial treasury. Prefectural roads are maintained to deliver a letter direct to an addressee. The method pursued by a joint contribution from the government and from the par- was to expose letters and parcels at fixed places in the vicinity of ticular prefecture, each paying one-half of the sum needed. their destination, leaving the addressees to discover for themselves Village roads, being for the convenience of local districts alone, that such things had arrived. Imperfect as this system was, it are maintained at the expense of such districts under the general represented a great advance from the conditions in medieval times. supervision of the corresponding prefecture. The width of The nation does not seem to have appreciated the deficiencies of national roads was determined at 42 ft. for class 1, 36 ft. for class the syndicate's service, supplemented as it was by a network of 2, and 30 ft. for class 3; the prefectural roads were to be from waterways which greatly increased the facilities for transport. 24 to 30 ft., and the dimensions of the village roads were optional, After the cessation of civil wars under the sway of the Tokugawa, the building and improvement of roads went on steadily. It is not too according to the necessity of the case. much to say, indeed, that when Japan opened her doors to foreigners The vehicles chiefly employed in ante-Meijidays were ox-carriages, in the middle of the 19th century, she possessed a system of roads norimono, kago and carts drawn by hand. Ox-carriages were used some of which bore striking testimony to her medieval greatness. only by people of the highest rank. They were often The most remarkable was the Tokaido (castern-sea way), constructed of rich lacquer; the curtains suspended in Vehicles. so called because it ran eastward along the coast from Tokaido. front were of the finest bamboo workmanship, with thick cords and Kioto. This great highway, 345 m. long, connected Osaka and Kioto with Yedo. The date of its construction is not recorded, proportions, was brilliantly caparisoned. The care and expense tassels of plaited silk, and the draught animal, an ox of handsome but it certainly underwent signal improvement in the 12th and 13th lavished upon these highly ornate structures would have been deemed centuries, and during the two and a half centuries of Tokugawa sway extravagant even in medieval Europe. They have passed entirely in Yedo. A wide, well-made and well-kept avenue, it was lined out of use, and are now to be seen in museums only, but the type throughout the greater part of its length by giant pine-trees, render still exists' in China. The norimono resembled a miniature house ing it the most picturesque highway in the world. Iyçyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shöguns, directed that his slung by its roof-ridge from a massive pole which projected at either end sufficiently to admit the shoulders of a carrier. It, too, was body should be interred at Nikkö, a place of exceptional beauty, frequently of very ornamental nature and served to carry aristocrats consecrated eight hundred years previously. This meant an exten- or officials of high position. The kago was the humblest of all sion of the Tokaido (under a different name) nearly a hundred miles conveyances recognized as usable by the upper classes. It was an northward, for the magnificent shrines erected then at Nikko and open palanquin, V-shaped in cross section, slung from a pole which the periodical ceremonies thenceforth performed there demanded a rested on the shoulders of twc bearers. Extraordinary skill and correspondingly fine avenue of approach. The original Tokaido endurance were shown by the men who carried the norimono and was taken for model, and Yedo and Nikko were joined by a highway the kago, but none the less these vehicles were both profoundly un. flanked by rows of cryptomeria. Second only to the Tokaido is comfortable. They have now been relegated to the warehouses of the Nakasendo (mid-mountain road), which also was undertakers, where they serve as bearers for folks too poor to employ The constructed to join Kioto with Yedo, but follows an Nakasendő. inland course through the provinces of Yamashiro, completely taken by the jinrikisha, a two-wheeled catafalques, their place on the roads and in the streets having been Omi, Mino, Shinshū, Kötzuke and Musashi. Its length is 340 m., The vehicle pulled by one or two men who think nothing and though not flanked by trees or possessing so good a bed as the Jiorikisha. of running 20 m. at the rate of 6 m. an hour. The Tõkaidő, it is nevertheless a sufficiently remarkable highway; Ajinrikisha was devised by a Japanese in 1870, and since then it has third road, the Oshūkaidō runs northward from Yedo The come into use throughout the whole of Asia eastward of the Suez (now Tokyo) to Aomori on the extreme north of the Canal. Luggage, of course, could not be carried by norimono or Oshukaldo. main island, a distance of 445 m., and several lesser kago. It was necessary to have recourse to packmen, packhorses highways give access to other regions. or baggage-carts drawn by men or horses. All these still exist and are as useful as ever within certain limits. In the cities and towns The question of road superintendence received early attention horses used as beasts of burden are now shod with iron, but in rural from the government of the restoration. At a general assembly or mountainous districts straw shoes are substituted, a device which of local prefects held at Tōkyō in June 1875 it was enables the animals to traverse rocky or precipitous roads with Super decided to classify the different roads throughout the safety. lotendence empire, and to determine the several sources from Railways.--It is easy to understand that an enterprise like of Roads which the sums necessary for their maintenance and railway construction, requiring a great outlay of capital with repair should be drawn. After several days' discussion all roads returns long delayed, did not at first commend itself to the Jap- were eventually ranged under one or other of the following anese, who were almost entirely ignorant of co-operation as a heads: factor of business organization. Moreover, long habituated to I, National roads, consisting of spail-like modes of travel, the people did not rapidly appreciate Class 1. Roads leading from Tokyo to the various treaty the celerity of the locomotive. Neither the ox-cart, the norimono, ports. nor the kago covered a daily distance of over 20 m. on the average, The Modera 192 JAPAN (RAILWAYS and the packhorse was even slower. Amid such conditions the interior was subsequently, constructed, strategical considerations idea of railways would have been slow to germinate had not a were not allowed completely to govern its direction. catastrophe furnished some impetus. In 1869 a rice-famine When this building of railways began in Japan, much discussion was taking place in England and India as to the relative advantages occurred in the southern island, Kiūshiū, and while the cereal of the wide and narrow gauges, and so strongly did the arguments was procurable abundantly in the northern provinces, people in in favour of the latter appeal to the English advisers of the Japanese the south perished of hunger owing to lack of transport facilities. government that the metre gauge was chosen. Some fitful efforts Sir Harry Parkes, British representative in Tokyo, seized this lines are single, for the most part; and as the embankments, the made in later years to change the system proved unsuccessful. The occasion to urge the construction of railways. Ito and Okuma, cuttings, the culverts and the bridge-piers have not been constructed then influential members of the government, at once recognized for a double line, any change now would be very costly. The the wisdom of his advice. Arrangements were made for a loan average speed of passenger trains in Japan is 18 m. an hour, the of a million sterling in London on the security of the customs corresponding figure over the metre-gauge roads in India being figure for English parliamentary trains from 19 to revenue, and English engineers were engaged to lay a line 28 m. British engineers surveyed the routes for the first lines and between Tokyo and Yokohama (18 m.). Vehement voices of superintended the work of construction, but within a few years the opposition were at once raised in private and official circles alike, Japanese were able to dispense with foreign aid altogether, both in building and operating their railways. They also construct all persons engaged in transport business imagined themselves carriages, wagons and locomotives, and they may therefore be threatened with ruin, and conservative patriots detected loss of said to have become entirely independent in the matter of railways, national independence in a foreign loan. So fierce was the an- for a government iron-foundry at Wakamatsu in Kiūshiū is able tagonism that the military authorities refused to permit opera- to manufacture steel rails. The total length of lines open for traffic at the end of March 1906 tions of survey in the southern suburb of Tōkyō, and the road was +746 m., 1470 m. having been built by the state and 3276 by had to be laid on an embankment constructed in the sea. Ito private companies; the former at a cost of 16 millions sterling for and Okuma, however, never flinched, and they were ably sup- construction and equipment, and the latter at a cost of 25 millions. ported by Marquis M. Inouye and M. Mayejima. The latter Thus the expenditure by the state averaged £10,884 per mile, and that by private companies, £7631. This difference is explained by published, in 1870, the first Japanese work on railways, advoca- the facts that the state lines having been the pioneers, portions of ting the building of lines from Tōkyō to Kioto and Osaka; the them were built before experience had indicated cheap methods; former, appointed superintendent of the lines, held that post for that a very large and costly foreign staff was employed on these 30 years, and is justly spoken of. as “the father of Japanese roads in the early days, whereas no such item appeared in the accounts of private lincs; that extensive works for the building of railways." locomotives and rolling stock are connected with the government's September 1872 saw the first official opening of a railway (the roads, and that it fell to the lot of the state to undertake lines in Tōkyō-Yokohama line) in Japan, the ceremony being performed by districts presenting exceptional engineering difficulties, such dis- the emperor himself, a measure which effcctually silenced all further tricts being naturally avoided by private companies. The gross opposition. Eight years from the time of turning the first sod saw carnings of all the lines during the fiscal year 1905-1906 were 7 mil. 71 m. of road open to traffic, the northern section being that between lions sterling, approximately, and the gross expenses (including the Tokyo and Yokohama, and the southern that between Kioto and payment of interest on loans and debenturcs) were under 31 millions, Kobe. A period of interruption now ensued, owing to domestic so that there remained a net profit of 31 millions, being at the rate troubles and foreign complications, and when, in 1878, the govern- of a little over 81% on the invested capital. The facts that the ment was able to devote attention once again to railway problems, outlays averaged less than 47% of the gross income, and that it found the treasury empty. Then for the first time a public works accidents and irregularities are not numerous, prove that Japanese loan was floated in the home market, and about £300,000 of the management in this kind of enterprise is efficient. total thus obtained passed into the hands of the railway burcau, When the fiscal year 1906–1907 opened, the number of private which at once underiook the building of a road from Kioto to the companics was no less than 36, owning and operating 3276 m. of shore of Lake Biwa, a work memorable as the first line built in Japan railway. To say that this represented an average National without foreign assistance. During all this time private enterprise of 91 m. per company is to convey an over-favourable had remained wholly inactive in the matter of railways, and it idea, for, as a matter of fact, 15 of the companies Private became a matter of importance to rouse the people from this a pathetic averaged less than 24., m. Anything like efficient co; Railways attitude. For the ordinary process of organizing a joint-stock operation was impossible in such circumstances, and company and raising share-capital the nation was not yet prepared. constant complaints were heard about delays in transit and undue But shortly after the abolition of feudalism there had come into the expense. The defects of divided ownership had long suggested the possession of the former feudatories state loan-bonds amounting expediency of nationalization, but not until 1906 could the diet be to some 18 millions sterling, which represented the sum granted by induced to give its consent. On March 31 of that year, a railway the treasury in commutation of the revenues formerly accruing to nationalization law was promulgated. It enacted that, within a these men from their fiels. Already events had shown that the period of 10 years from 1906 to 1915, the state should purchase the feudatories, quite devoid of business experience, were not unlikely 17 principal private roads, which had a length of 2812 m., and whose to dispose of these bonds and devote the proceeds to unsound enter. cost of construction and equipment had been 231 millions sterling. prises. Prince Iwakura, one of the leaders of the Meiji statesmen, The original scheme included 15 other railways, with an aggregate persuaded the feudatories to employ a part of the bonds as capital mileage of only 353 m.; but these were eliminated as being lines of for railway construction, and thus the first private railway company local interest only. The actual purchase price of the 17 lines was was formed in Japan under the name Nippon telsudo kaisha (Japan calculated at 13 millions sterling (about double their cost price), on the railway company), the treasury guaranteeing 8% on the paid-up following basis: (a) An amount equal to 20 times the sum obtained capital for a period of 15 years. Some time elapsed before this by multiplying the cost of construction at the date of purchase by example found followers, but ultimately a programme was elaborated the average ratio of the profit to the cost of construction during the and carried out having for its basis a grand trunk line extending six business terms of the company from the second half-year of the whole length of the main island from Aomori on the north to 1902 to the first half-year of 1905. (6) The amount of the actual Shimonoseki on the south, a distance of 1153 m.; and a continuation cost of stored articles converted according to current prices thereof of the same line throughout the length of the southern island of into public loan-bonds at face value, except in the case of articles Kiūshiū, from Moji on the north-which lies on the opposite side of which had been purchased with borrowed money. The government the strait from Shimonoseki-to Kagoshima on the south, a distance agreed to hand over the purchase money within 5 years from the of 232 m.; as well as a line from Moji to Nagasaki, a distance date of the acquisition of the lines, in public loan-bonds bearing 5% of 1631 m. Of this main road the state undertook to build the interest calculated at their face value; the bonds to be redeemed central section (376 m.), between Tokyo and Kobe (via Kioto); out of the net profits accruing from the purchased railways. It was the Japan railway company undertook the portion (457 m.) north- calculated that this redemption would be effected in a period of ward of Tokyo ió Aomori; the Sanyō railway company undertook 32 ycars, after which the annual profit accruing to the state from the portion (320 m.) southward of Tokyo to Shimonoseki; and the the lines would be 54 millions sterling. But the nationalization Kiūshiū railway company undertook the lines in Kiūshiū. The scheme, though apparently the only effective method of linking whole line is now in operation. The first project was to carry the together and co-ordinating an excessively subdivided system of lines, Tökyö-Kioto line through the interior of the island so as to secure has proved a source of considerable financial embarrassment. For it against enterprises on the part of a maritime enemy: Such, when the state constituted itself virtually the sole owner of railways, engineering difficulties presented themselves, however, that the it necessarily assumed responsibility for extending them so that they coast route was ultimately chosen, and though the line through the should suffice to meet the wants of a nation numbering some 50 millions. Such extension could be effected only by borrowing money. Now the government was pledged by the dict in 1907 to an expendi- In 1877. there were 120 English engineers, drivers and foremen ture of 11 millions (spread over 8 years) for extending the old state in the service of the railway bureau. Three years later only three system of roads, and an expenditure of 6 millions (spread over 12 advisers remained. years) for improving them. But from the beginning of that year, a ization of MARITIME COMMUNICATIONS] JAPAN 193 a Electric period of extreme commercial and financial depression set in, and themselves to the coastwise trade. Ocean-going enterprise the treasury had to postpone all recourse to loans for whatever ceased altogether. purpose, so that railway progress was completely checked in the field alike of the original and the acquired state lines. Moreover, Things remained thus until the middle of the 19th century, all securities underwent such sharp depreciation that, on the one when a growing knowledge of the conditions existing in the West hand, the government hesitated to hand over the bonds representing warned the Tokugawa administration that continued isolation the purchase-price of the railways, lest such an addition to the would be suicidal, In 1853 the law prohibiting the construction volume of stocks should cause further depreciation, and, on the other, the former owners of the nationalized lines found the character of of sea-going ships was revoked and the Yedo government built their bargain greatly changed. In these circumstances the govern. at Uraga a sailing vessel of European type aptly called the ment decided to take a strong step, namely, to place the whole of Phoenix" (" Howo Maru ”). Just 243 years had elapsed since the railways owned by it-the original state lines as well as those the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty constructed Japan's first nationalized-in an account independent of the regular budget, and to devote their entire profits to works of extension and improve ship after a foreign model, with the aid of an English pilot, Will ment, supplementing the amount with loans from the treasury when Adams. In 1853 Commodore M. C. Perry made his appearance, necessary. and thenceforth everything conspired to push Japan along the In the sequel of the war of 1904-5 Japan, with China's consent, new path. The Dutch, who had been proximately responsible acquired from Russia the lease of the portion of the South-Manchuria railway (see MANCHURIA) between Kwang-cheng-tsze for the adoption of the seclusion policy in the 17th century, now South (Chang-chun) on the north and Tairen (Dalny), Port took a prominent part in promoting a liberal view. They sent Manchuria Railway. Arthur and Niuchwang on the south-a total length to the Tokugawa a present of a man-of-war and urged the vital of 470 m. At the close of 1906 this road was handed necessity of equipping the country with a navy. Then followed over to a joint-stock company with a capital of 20 millions sterling the establishment of a naval college at Tsukiji in Yedo, the the government contributing 10 millions in the form of the road and its associated properties; the public subscribing 2 millions, and the building of iron-works at .Nagasaki, and the construction at company being entitled to issue debentures to the extent of 8 millions, Yokosuka of a dockyard destined to become one of the greatest the principal and interest of these debentures being officially guar- enterprises of its kind in the East. This last undertaking bore anteed. Four millions' worth of debentures were issued in London witness to the patriotism of the Tokugawa rulers, for they reso- in 1907 and 4 millions in 1908. This company's programme is not limited to operating the railway. It also works coal-helds at Yentai lutely carried it to completion during the throes of a revolution and Fushun; has a line of steamers plying between Tairen and which involved the downfall of their dynasty. Their encourage- Shanghai; and engages in enterprises of electricity, warehousingment of maritime enterprise had borne fruit, for when, in 1867, and the management of houses and lands within zones 50 li (17 m.) wide on either side of the line. The government guarantees 6% they restored the administration to the Imperial court, 44 interest on the capital paid up by the general public. ocean-going ships were found among their possessions and 94 Not until 1905 did Japan come into possession of an electric were in the hands of the feudatories, a steamer and 20 sailing railway. It was a short line of 8 m., built in Kioto for the purposes vessels having been constructed in Japan and the rest purchased. of a domestic exhibition held in that city. Thence- abroad. Railways. forth this class of enterprise grew steadily in favour, so that, in 1907, there were 16 companies with an If the Tokugawa had been energetic in this respect, the new aggregate capital of 8 millions sterling, having 165 m. open to traffic government was still more so. It caused the various maritime and 77 m. under construction. Fifteen other companies with an carriers to amalgamate into one association called the Nippon- aggregate capital of 3 millions had also obtained charters. The koku yubin jokisen kaisha (Mail SS. Company of Japan), to which principal of these is the Tōkyō railway company, with a subscribed capital of 6 millions (3) paid up), 90 m. of line open and 149 m. were transferred, free of charge, the steamers, previously the under construction. In 1907 it carried 153 million passengers, and property of the Tokugawa or the feudatories, and a substantial its net earnings were £300,000. subsidy was granted by the state. This, the first steamship com- pany ever organized in Japan, remained in existence only four The traditional story of prehistoric Japan indicates that the years. Defective management and incapacity to compete with first recorded emperor was an over-sea invader, whose followers foreign-owned vessels plying between the open ports caused its must therefore have possessed some knowledge of downfall (1875). Already, however, an independent company ship-building and navigation. But in what kind of had appeared upon the scene. Organized and controlled by a Communla catioas. craft they sailed and how they handled them, there is man (Iwasaki Yataro) of exceptional enterprise and business nothing to show clearly. Nine centuries later, but still faculty, this milsubishi kaisha (three lozenge company, so called 500 years before the era of surviving written annals, an empress from the design on its flag), working with steamers chartered is said to have invaded Korea, embarking her forces at Kobe from the former feudatory of Tosa, to which clan Iwasaki (then called Takekura) in 500 vessels. In the middle of the 6th belonged, proved a success from the outset, and grew with each century we read of a general named Abe-no-hirafu who led a vicissitude of the state. For when(1874) the Meiji government's flotilla up the Amur river to the invasion of Manchuria (then first complications with a foreign country necessitated the des- called Shukushin). All these things show that the Japanese patch of a military expedition to Formosa, the administration of the earliest era navigated the high sea with some skill, and at had to purchase 63 foreign steamers for transport purposes, and later dates down to medieval times they are found occasionally these were subsequently transferred to the mitsubishi company sending forces to Korea and constantly visiting China in vessels together with all the vessels (17) hitherto in the possession of which seem to have experienced no difficulty in making the the Mail SS. Company, the Treasury further granting to the voyage. The 16th century was a period of maritime activity mitsubishi a subsidy of £50,000 annually. Shortly afterwards so marked that, had not artificial checks been applied, the Japan- it was decided to purchase a service maintained by the Pacific ese, in all probability, would have obtained partial command of Mail Ss. Company with 4 steamers between Yokohama and Far-Eastern waters. They invaded Korea; their corsairs harried Shanghai, and money for the purpose having been lent by the the coasts of China; two hundred of their vessels, sailing under state to the mitsubishi, Japan's first line of steamers to a foreign authority of the Taiko's vermilion seal, visited Siam, Luzon, country was firmly established, just 20 years after the law Cochin China and Annam, and they built ships in European interdicting the construction of ocean-going vessels had been style which crossed the Pacific to Acapulco. But this spirit of rescinded. adventure was chilled at the close of the 16th century and early in the 17th, when events connected with the propagation of The next memorable event in this chapter of history occurred in Christianity taught the Japanese to believe that national 1877, when the Satsuma clan, eminently the most powerful and most safety could not be secured without international isolation. In rebellion. For a time the fate of the government hung in the balance, warlike among all the former feudatories, took the field in open 1638 the ports were closed to all foreign ships except those flying and only by a flanking movement over-sea was the rebellion crushed. the flag of Holland or of China, and a strictly enforced edict This strategy compelled the purchase of 10 foreign steamers, and forbade the building of any vessel having a capacity of more than these too were subsequently handed over to the mitsubishi company, soo koku (150 tons) or constructed for purposes of ocean naviga- tons, whereas all the other vessels of foreign type in the country which, in 1880, found itself possessed of 32 ships aggregating 25,600 tion. Thenceforth, with rare exceptions, Japanese craft confined totalled only 27 with a tonnage of 6500. It had now becomie Maritime 194 JAPAN (MARITIME COMMUNICATIONS . . . ๐ ๐ ๑๔ง 8 8 11 3508 apparent that the country could not hope to meet emergencies which | 27,000 tons at home and bought 177,000 abroad, so that the net might at any moment arise, especially in connexion with Korean increase to her mercantile feet of steamers was 133,000 tons. The affairs, unless the development of the mercantile marine proceeded following table shows the growth of her marine during the ten years more rapidly. Therefore in 1881 the formation of a new company ending 1907; was officially promoted. It had the name of the kyodo unyu kaisha Steamers. (Union Transport Company); its capital was about a million sterling; Totals. Sailing Vessels. it received a large subsidy from the state, and its chief purpose was Year. Number. Gross Gross Gruss Number. Number. Tonnage. to provide vessels for military uses and as commerce-carriers. Tonnage. Tonnage. Japan had now definitely embraced the policy of entrusting to 1898 1130 477,430 1914 170,194 3044 648,324 private companies rather than to the state the duty of acquiring a 1899 1221 510,007 *3322 286,923 4543 467,930 feet of vessels capable of serving as transports or auxiliary cruisers 1900 • 1329 543,365 3850 320,572 5179 863,937 in time of war. But there was now seen the curious spectacle of 1901 1395 583.532 4026 336,528 5471 920,060 two companies (the Mitsubishi and the Union Transport) com- 1902 1441 610,445 3907 336,154 5348 946,600 peting in the same waters and both subsidized by the treasury. 1993 1570 663,220 3934 328,953 5504 992,173 After this had gone on for four years, the two companies were amal- 1904 1815 798,240 3940 329,125 5755 1,127,365 gamated (1885) into the Nippon yusen kaisha (Japan Mail SS. Com- 1905 1988 939.749 4132 336,571 6170 1,276,320 pany) with a capital of £1,100,000 and an annual subsidy of £88,000, 1900 2103 1,041,569 4547 353,356 6700 1,395,925 fixed on the basis of 8% of the capital. Another company had 1907 2139 1,115,880 4728 365,5596867 1,481,439 come into existence a few months earlier. Its fleet consisted of 100 small steamers, totalling 10,000 tons, which had hitherto been With regard to the development of ship-building in Japanese competing in the Inland Sea. Japan now possessed a substantial mercantile marine, the rate of yards the following figures convey information:- whose development is indicated by the following figures:- NUMBERS OF VESSELS. BUILT IN JAPAN AND NUMBERS PURCHASED ABROAD Year. Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Totals. Number. Tons. Number. Tons. Number, Tons. Built in Japan. Purchased abroad. 1870 35 15,198 11.. 2,454 46 17,952 Year. Steamers: Sailing Vessels. Steamers. Sailing Vessels. 1892 642 122,300 780 46,065 1,422 168,365 1898 479 1301 194 9 1899 554 Nevertheless, only 23% of the exports and imports was transported 2771 199 12 1900 653 in Japanese bottoms in 1892, whercas foreign steamers took 77%. 3302 206 This discrepancy was one of the subjects discussed in the first session 1901 754 3559 215 813 1902 3585 220 of the diet, but a bill presented by the government for encouraging 1903 855 navigation failed to obtain parliamentary consent, and in 1893 the 5304 233 1904 947 3324 Japan Mail SS. Company, without waiting for state assistance, 277 1905 1028 357 opened a regular service to Bombay mainly for the purpose of carrying 1906 I100 3859 387 raw cotton from India to supply the spinning industry which had now II 1907 1150 4033 419 assumed great importance in Japan. Thus the rising sun fag flew 12 for the first time outside Far-Eastern waters. Almost immediately after the establishment of this line, Japan had to engage in war with In the building of iron and steel ships the Japanese are obliged China, which entailed the despatch of some two hundred thousand to import much of the inaterial used, but a large steel-foundry has men to the neighbouring continent and their maintenance there been established under government auspices at Wakamatsu in for more than a year. All the country's available shipping resources Kiūshiū, that position having been chosen on account of comparative did not suffice for this task. Additional vessels had to be purchased proximity to the Taiya iron mine in China, where the greater part or chartered, and thus, by the beginning of 1896, the mercantile of the iron ore used for the foundry is procured. marine of Japan had grown to 899 steamers of 373,588 tons, while Simultaneously with the growth of the mercantile marine there the sailing vessels had diminished to 644 of 44,000 tons. has been a marked development in the number of licensed mariners; In 1897 there occurred an event destined to cxercise a potent that is to say, seamen registered by the government Seamen. influence on the fortunes not only of Japan herself but also of her as having passed the examination prescribed by law. mercantile marine. No sooner had she exchanged with China In 1876 there were only, 4 Japanese subjects who satisfied that ratifications of a treaty of peace which seemed to prelude a long definition as against 74, duly qualified foreigners holding responsible period of tranquillity, than Russia, Germany and France ordered her positions. In 1895 the numbers were 4135 Japanese and 835 to restore all the continental territory ceded to her by China. Japan foreigners, and ten years later the corresponding figures were 16,886 then recognized that her hope of peace was delusive, and that she and 349. respectively. In 1904 the ordinary scamen of the mercan- must be prepared to engage in a struggle incomparably more serious tile marine totalled 202,710. than the one from which she had just emerged. Determined that There are in Japan various institutions where the theory and when the crucial moment came she should not be found without ample practice of navigation are taught. The principal of these is the means for transporting her armies, the government, under the Tokyo şhosen gakko (Tokyo mercantile marine college, Education of leadership of Prince Ito and with the consent of the diet, enacted, established in 1875), where some 600 of the men now Mariners. in March 1896 laws liberally encouraging ship-building and naviga- serving as officers and engineers have graduated. Well tion. Under the navigation law "any Japanese subject or any equipped colleges cxist also in seven other places, all having been commercial company whose partners or shareholders were all Japan- established with official co-operation. Mention must be made of ese subjects, engaged in carrying passengers and cargo between a mariners' assistance association (kaiin ekizai-kai, established in Japan and foreign countries or between foreign ports, in their own 1800) which acts as a kind of agency for supplying mariners to ship- vessels, which must be of at least 1000 tons and registered in the owners, and of a distressed mariners' relief association (suinan shipping list of the Empire, became entitled to subsidies propor- kyūsai-kai) which has succoured about a hundred thousand seamen tionate to the distance run and the tonnage of the vessels"; and since its establishment in 1899. under the ship-building law, bounties were granted for the construc- The duty of overseeing all matters relating to the maritime ţion of iron or steel vessels of not less than 700 tons gross by any carrying trade devolves on the department of state for communica- Japanese subject or any commercial company whose partners and tions, and is delegated by the latter to one of its Maritime shareholders were all Japanese. The effect of this legislation bureaus (the Kwansen-kyoku, or ships superintendence Administra was marked. In the period of six years ended 1902, no less than 835 bureau), which, again, is divided into three sections: vessels of 455,000 tons were added to the mercantile marine, and the one for inspecting vessels, one for examining mariners, treasury found itself paying cncouragement money which totalled and one for the general control of all shipping in Japanese waters. six hundred thousand pounds annually. Ship-building underwent For the better discharge of its duties this bureau parcels out the remarkable development. Thus, while in 1870 only 2 steamers empire into 4 districts, having their headquarters at Tokyo, Osaka, 4 aggregating 57 tons had been constructed in Japanese yards, 53 Nagasaki and Hakodate; and these four districts are in turn sub- steamers totalling 5380 tons and 193 sailing vessels of 17,873 tons divided into 18 sections, each having an office of marine affairs were launched in 1900. By the year 1907 Japan had 216 private (kwaiji-kyoku). ship yards and 42 private docks, and while the government yards Competition between Japanese and foreign ships in the carriage were able to build first-class line-of-battle ships of the largest size, of the country's over-sea trade soon began to assume appreciable the private docks were turning out steamers of 9000 tons burden. dimensions. Thus, whereas in 1891 the portion carried When war broke out with Russia in 1904, Japan had 567,000 tons in Japanese bottoms was only if millions sterling Competition between of stcam shipping, but that stupendous struggle obliged her to against 12 millions carried by foreign vessels, the Japanese materially augment even this great total. In operations connected corresponding figures in 1902 were 20 millions against and Foreigo with the war she lost 71,000 tons, but on the other hand, she built | 32 millions. In other words, Japanese steamers carried Ships. The largest is the mitsubishi at Nagasaki. It has a length of only!!,% of the total trade in 1891, but their share rose to 39% in . The prospect suggested by this record caused 722 ft. Next stands the kawasaki at Kobe, and in the third place some uneasiness, which was not allayed by observing that while is the uraga. the tonnage of Japanese vessels in Chinese ports was only 2% tion. POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS) JAPAN 195 456 211 188 do. in 1896 as compared with foreign vessels, the former figure grew to Number in Number in 16% in 1902; while in Korean ports japanese steamers almost Place. 1904. 1906. monopolized the carrying trade, leaving only 18% to their foreign rivals, and even in Hong-Kong the tonnage of Japanese ships United States of America 33,849 130,228 increased from 3% in 1896 to 13% in 1900. In 1898 Japan stood Canada 3,838 5,088 eleventh on the list of the thirteen principal maritime countries of the Mexico 1,294 world, but in 1907 she rose to the fifth place. Her principal company, $. America 1,496 2,500 the Nippon yusen kaisha, though established as lately as 1885, now ranks ninth in point of tonnage among the żi leading maritime Philippines 2,652 2,185 companies of the world. This company was able to supply 55 out of Hawaii 65,008 64,319 a total fleet of 207 transports furnished by all the steamship com- Australasia 71,129 3,274 panies of Japan for military and naval purposes during the war with Russia in 1904-5. It may be noted in conclusion that the Foreign Residents.-The number of foreigners residing in development of Japan's steam-shipping during the five decades Japan and their nationalities in 1889, 1899 and 1906, respec- ended 1907 was as follows: tively, were as follow:- Tons. At the end of 1868. 17,952 1889. 1899. 1906. At the end of 1878. 63,468 Americans 899 1,296 1,650 At the end of 1888: 197,365 British 1,701 2,013 2,155 At the end of 1898. 648,324 Russians 63 134 At the end of 1907. 1,115,880 French 335 463 540 Portuguese 108 158 165 There are 33 ports in Japan open as places of call for foreign Germans 550 532 670 steamers. Their names with the dates of their open- Open Ports. Chinese 4,975 6,372 12,425 ing are as follow: Koreans 8 254 Name. Date of Opening. Situation. Yokohama 1859 Main Island. There are also small numbers of Dutch, Peruvians, Belgians, Kobe 1868 do. Swiss, Italians, Danes, Swedes, Austrians, Hungarians, &c. Niigata 1867 do. This slow growth of the foreign residents is remarkable when Osaka 1899 do. Yokkaichi contrasted with the fact that the volume of the country's foreign do. do. Shimonoseki do. do. trade, which constitutes their main business, grew in the same Itozaki do. period from 131 millions sterling to 92 millions. Taketoyo do. do. Posts and Telegraphs.-The government of the Restoration Shimizu do. do. Tsuruga did not wait for the complete abolition of feudalism before do. do. Nanao do. do. organizing a new system of posts in accordance with modern Fushiki do. do. needs. At first, letters only were carried, but before the close Sakai do. do. of 1871 the service was extended so as to include newspapers, Hamada do. do. Miyazu do. do. printed matter, books and commercial samples, while the area Aomori 1906 do. was extended so as to embrace all important towns between Nagasaki, 1859 Kiūshiū. Hakodate in the northern island of Yezo and Nagasaki in the Moji 1899 do. southern island of Kiūshiū. Two years later this field was Hakata do. do. Karatsu do. do. closed to private enterprise, the state assuming sole charge of Kuchinotsu do. do. the business. A few years later saw Japan in possession of an Misumi do. do. organization comparable in every respect with the systems Suminoye 1906 do. existing in Europe. In 1892 a foreign service was added. Izuhara 1899 Tsushima. Whereas in 1871 the number of post-offices throughout the Sasuna do. do. Shikami do. do. empire was only 179, it had grown to 6449 in 1907, while the Nafa do. Riūkių. mail matter sent during the latter year totalled 1254 millions Otaru do. Yezo. (including 15 millions of parcels), and 67,000 persons were en- Kushiro do. do. Mororan gaged in handling it. Japan labours under special difficulties do. do. Hakodate 1865 do. for postal purposes, owing to the great number of islands included Kelung, 1899 Formosa in the empire, the exceptionally mountainous nature of the Tamsui do. do. country, and the wide areas covered by the cities in proportion Takow do. do. to the number of their inhabitants. It is not surprising to find, Anping do. do. therefore, that the means of distribution are varied. The state Emigration.-Characteristic of the Japanese is a spirit of derives a net revenue of 5 million yen approximately from its adventure: they readily emigrate to foreign countries if any postal service. It need scarcely be added that the system of inducement offers. A strong disposition to exclude them has postal money-orders was developed pari passu with that of displayed itself in the United States of America, in Australasia ordinary correspɔndence, but in this context one interesting fact and in British Columbia, and it is evident that, since one nation may be noted, namely, that while Japan sends abroad only some cannot force its society on another at the point of the sword, £25,000 annually to foreign countries through the post, she this anti-Asiatic prejudice will have to be respected, though it receives over £450,000 from her over-sea emigrants. has its origin in nothing more respectable than the jealousy of Japan at the time of the Restoration (1867) was not entirely with- the labouring classes. One result is an increase in the number out experience which prepared her for the postal money.order of Japanese emigrating to Korea, Manchuria and S. America. system. Some 600 years ago the idea of the bill of Postal exchange was born in the little town of Totsugawa The following table shows the numbers residing at various places (Yamato province), though it did not obtain much Savings Baoks. outside Japan in 1904 and 1906 respectively:- development before the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in the 17th century: The feudal chieſs, having then to Number Number in transmit large sums to Yedo for the purposes of their compulsory Place. 1904. 1906. residence there, availed themselves of bills of exchange, and the China 9,417 27,126 shogun's government, which received considerable amounts in Osaka, selected ten brokers to whom the duty of effecting the transfer Korea 31,093 100,000 of these funds was entrusted. Subsequently the 10 chosen brokers Manchuria 43,823 were permitted to extend their services to the general public, and a Hong-Kong 600 recent Japanese historian notes that Osaka thus became the birth- Şingapore 1,292 1,428 place of banking business in Japan. Postal money-orders were therefore easily appreciated at the time of their introduction in British India 413 1875. This was not true of the postal savings bank, however, an Europe 183 697 institution which came into existence in the same year. It was 756 530 196 (AGRICULTURE JAPAN . altogether a novel idea that the public at large, especially the lower | under water to a depth of a few inches while the crops are young, sections of it, should entrust their savings to the government for but are drained immediately before harvesting. They are then dug saſe keeping, especially as the minimum and maximum deposited up, and again ſooded before the second crop is planted out. The at one time were fixed at such petty sums as 10 sen (2 d.) and 50 sen rising grounds which skirt the rice-land are tilled by the hoe, and (Is.), respectively. Indeed, in the circumstances, the fact that produce Indian corn, millet and edible roots. The well-wooded £1500 was deposited in the first year must be regarded as notable. slopes supply the peasants with timber and firewood. Thirty-six Subsequently deposits were taken in postage stamps, and arrange- per cent. of the rice fields yield two crops yearly. The seed is sown ments were effected for enabling depositors to pay money to distant in small beds, and the seedlings are planted out in the fields after creditors through the bank by merely stating the destination and attaining the height of about 4 in. The finest rice is produced in the the amount of the nearest post office. In 1908 the number of fertile plains watered by the Tonegawa in the province of Shimõsa, depositors in the post office savings bank was 8217, and their but the grain of Kaga and of the two central provinces of Settsu deposits exceeded 10 millions sterling. Thirty per cent. of the and Harima is also very good. depositors belonged to the agricultural classes, 13 to the commercial Not only does rice form the chief food of the Japanese but also and only 6 to the industrial. the national beverage, called sake, is brewed from it. In colour Rapid communication by means of beacons was not unknown the best sake resembles very pale sherry; the taste Sake. in ancient Japan, but code-signalling by the aid of flags was not is rather acid. None but the finest grain is used in Telegraphis. introduced until the 17th century and was probably its manufacture. Of sake there are many varieties, from the best suggested by observing the practice of foreign mer quality down to shiro-zake or white sake," and the turbid sort, chantmen. Its use, however, was peculiar. The central office stood drunk only in the poorer districts, known as nigori-zake; there is at Osaka, between which city and many of the principal provincial also a sweet sort, called mirin. towns rudely constructed towers were placed at long distances, and The various cereal and other crops cultivated in Japan, the areas from one to another of these intelligence as to the market price of devoted to them and the annual production are shown in the rice was flashed by flag-shaking, the signals being read with tele- following table:- scopes. The Japanese saw a telegraph for the first time in 1854, 1898. 1902. 1906. when Commodore Perry presented a set of apparatus to the shogun, Acres. Acres. Acres. and four years later the feudal chief of Satsuma (Shimazu Nariakira) Rice caused wires to be erected within the enclosure of his castle. The 7,044,060 7,117,990 7,246,982 Barley 1,649,240 1,613,270 true value of electric telegraphy was first demonstrated to the 1,674,595 Rye 1,703,410 1,688,635 1,752,095 Japanese in connexion with an insurrection in 1877, under the leader- Wheat ship of Saigo, the favourite of this same Shimazu Nariakira. Before 1,164,020 1,210,435 1,107,967 Millet 693,812 652,492 that time, however, a line of telegraph had been put up between 594,280 Beans 1,503,395 1,488,600 1,478,345 Tokyo and Yokohama (18 m.) and a code of regulations had been Buckwheat enacted. Sudden introduction to such a mysterious product of 450,100 414,375 402,575 Rape-seed 377,070 392,612 foreign science created superstitious dread in the minds of a few of 352,807 Potatoes 92,297 105,350 140,197 the lower orders, and occasional attempts were made at the outset Sweet Potatoes 668,130 693,427 717,620 to wreck the wires. In 1886 the postal and telegraph offices were Cotton 100,720 amalgamated and both systems underwent large development. 51,750 24,165 Hemp 62,970 42,227 Whereas the length of wires at the end of the fourth year after the 34,845 Indigo (leaf) 122,180 92,982 40,910 introduction of the system was only 53 m., and the number of messages 20,000, these figures had grown in 1907 to 95,623 and 1903. 1905. 1906. 25 millions, respectively. Several cables are included in these latter Sugar Cane 41,750 43,308 45,087 figures, the longest being that to Formosa (1229 m.). Wireless telegraphy began to come into general use in 1908, when several It is observable that no marked increase is taking place in the vessels belonging to the principal stcamship, companies were area under cultivation, and that the business of growing cotton, equipped with the apparatus. It had already been employed for hemp and indigo is gradually diminishing, these staples being sup- some years by the army and navy, especially during the war with plied from abroad. "In Germany and Italy the annual additions Russia, when the latter service installed a new system, the joint made to the arable area average 8% whereas in Japan the figure is invention of Captain Tonami of the navy, Professor S. Kimura of only 5%. Moreover, of the latter amount the rate for paddy fields the naval college and Mr M. Matsushiro of the department of com- is only 3.3 % against 7:9% in the case of upland farms. "This means munications. The telegraph service in Japan barely pays the cost that the population is rapidly outgrowing its supply of home, of operating and maintenance. produced rice, the great food-stuff of the nation, and the price of The introduction of the telephone into Japan took place in 1877, ihat cereal consequently shows a steady tendency to appreciate. but it served official purposes solely during 13 years, and even when Thus whereas the market value was 5s. 5d. per bushel in 1901, Telephones, .(1890) it was placed at the disposal of the general it rose to 6$. 9d. in 1906. public its utilities found at first few appreciators. Scarcely less important to Japan than the cereals she raises are her But this apathy soon yielded to a mood of eager employment, and silk and tea, both of which find markets abroad. Her production of the resources of the government (which monopolized the enterprise) the latter staple does not show any sign of marked Silk and proved inadequate to satisfy public demand. Automatic telephones development, for though tea is almost as essential an Tea. were ultimately set up at many places in the principal towns and article of diet in Japan as rice, its foreign consumers are along the most frequented highways. The longest distance practically limited to the United States and their demand does not covered was from Tōkyō to Osaka (348 m.). In 1907 Japan had increase. The figures for the 10-year period ended 1906 are as 140,440 m. of telephone wires, 262 exchanges, 159 automatic follow: telephones, and the approximate number of messages sent was Area under cultiva. Tea produced 160 millions. The telephone service pays a net revenue of about tion (acres). (Ib av.). £100,000 annually. 1897 147,230 70,063,076 · Agriculture.-The gross area of land in Japan-excluding 1901 122,120 57,975,486 Formosa and Sakhalin-is 89,167,880 acres, of which 53,487,022 1906 126,125 58,279,286 acres represent the property of the crown, the state and the Sericulture, on the contrary, shows steady development year by communes, the rest (35,680,868 acres) being owned by private year. The demand of European and American markets has very persons. Of the grand total the arable lands represent 15,301,297 elastic limits, and if Japanese growers are content with moderate, but still substantial, gains they can find an almost unrestricted sale acres. With regard to the immense expanse remaining unpro- in the West. The development from 1886 to 1906 was as follows:- ductive, experts calculate that if all lands inclined at less than 15° be considered cultivable, an area of 10,684,517 acres Raw silk produced remains to be reclaimed, though whether the result would repay yearly (lb). Average from 1886 to 1889 8,739,273 the cost is a question hitherto unanswered. The cultivated 1895 19,087,310 lands are thus classified, namely, wet fields (called also paddy 1900 20,705,644 fields or rice lands), 6,871,437 acres; dry fields (or upland farms), 1905 21,630,829 5,741,745 acres, and others, 2,688,115 acres. 1906 24,215,324 Paddy fields are to be seen in every valley or dell where farming The chief silk-producing prefectures in Japan, according to the order is practicable; they are divided into square, oblong or triangular of production, are Nagano, Gumma, Yamanashi, Fukushima, Rice. plots by grass-grown ridges a few inches in height Aichi and Saitama. At the close of 1906 there were 3843 filatures and on an average a foot in breadth-the rice being throughout the country, and the number of families engaged in planted in the soft mud thus enclosed. Narrow pathways intersect sericulture was 397,885. these rice-valleys at intervals, and rivulets (generally Rowing Lacquer, vegetable wax and tobacco are also important staples between low banks covered with clumps of bamboo) feed ditches of production. The figures for the ten-year period, 1897 to 1906, cut for purposes of irrigation. The fields are generally kept I are as follow:- MINERALS) JAPAN 197 . weats. 100 121 I 22 Lacquer Vegetable Tobacco re-planting of denuded areas. A plan was also elaborated for (lb). wax (lb). (lb). systematically turning the state forests to valuable account, while, 1897 344,267 25,850,790 110,572,925 at the same time, providing for their conservation. 1906 · 668,266 39,714,661 101,718,592 Fisheries.-From ancient times the Japanese have been great While the quantity of certain products incrcases, the number of fishermen. The seas that encircle their many-coasted islands teem filatures and factories diminishes, the inference being that industries with fish and aquatic products, which have always constituted an are coming to be conducted on a larger scale than was formerly the essential article of diet. Early in the 18th century, the Tokugawa case. Thus in sericulture the filatures diminished from 4723 in administration, in pursuance of a policy of isolation, interdicted the 1897 to 3843 in 1906; the number of lacquer factories from 1637 to construction of ocean-going ships, and the people's enterprise in the 1123 at the same dates, and the number of wax factories from 2619 matter of deep-sea fishing suffered a severe check. But shortly after to 1929. the Restoration in 1867, not only, was this veto rescinded, but also It is generally said that whereas more than 60% of Japan's the government, organizing a marine bureau and a marine products entire population is engaged in agriculture, she remains far behind examination office, took vigorous measures to promote pelagic the progressive nations of Europe in the application industry. Then followed the formation of the marine products Agricultural of scientific principles to farming. Nevertheless if we association under the presidency of an imperial prince. Fishery, Improve- take for unit' the average value of the yield per hectare training schools were the next step; then periodical exhibitions of in Italy, we obtain the following figures: fishery and marine products; then the introduction and improvement of fishing implements; and then by rapid strides the area of opera. Yield per hectare tions widened until Japanese fishing boats of improved types came Italy to be seen in Australasia, in Canada, in the seas of Sakhalin, the India 51 Maritime Province, Korea and China; in the waters of Kamchatka Germany and in the Sea of Okhotsk. No less than 9000 fishermen with 2000 France boats capture yearly about £300,000 worth of fish in Korean waters; Egypt 153 at least 8000 find á plentiful livelihood off the coasts of Sakhalin Japan 213 and Siberia, and 200 Japanese boats engage in the salmon-fishing In the realm of agriculture, as in all departments of modern of the Fraser River. In 1893, the total value of Japanese marine Japan's material development, abundant traces are found of official products and fish captured did not exceed 1 millions sterling, activity. Thus, in the year 1900, the government enacted laws whereas in 1906 the figure had grown to 51 millions, to which must designed to correct the excessive subdivision of farmers' holdings; be added 31 millions of manufactured marine products. Fourteen to utilize unproductive areas lying between cultivated fields; to kinds of fish represent more than 50% of the whole catch, namely, straighten roads; to facilitate irrigation; to promote the use of in the order of their importance) bonito (katsuo), sardines (iwashi), machinery; to make known the value of artiſcial fertilizers; to pagrus (tai), cuttle-fish and squid (tako and iká), mackerel (saba), conserve streams and to prevent inundations. Further, in order yellow tail (buri), tunny-fish (maguro), prawns (ebi), sole (karei), to furnish capital for the purposes of farming, 46 agricultural grey mullet (bora), eels (unagi), salmon (shake), sea-ear (awabi) and and commercial banks-one in each prefecture-were established carp (koi). Altogether 700 kinds of aquatic products are known in with a central institution called the hypothec bank which Japan, and 400 of them constitute articles of diet. Among manu- assists them to collect funds. A Hokkaido colonial bank and factured aquatic products the chief are (in the order of their impor. subsequently a bank of Formosa were also organized, and a law tance) dried bonito, fish guano, dried cuttle-fish, dried and boiled was framed to encourage the formation of co-operative societies sardines, dried herring and dried prawns. The export of marine which should develop a system of credit, assist the business of products amounted to £900,000 in 1906 against £400,000 ten years sale and purchase and concentrate small capitals. Experimental previously; China is the chief market. As for imports, they were stations were another official creation. Their functions were to insignificant at the beginning of the Meiji era, but by degrees a carry on investigations relating to seeds, diseases of cereals, insect demand was created for salted fish, dried sardines (for fertilizing), pests, stock-breeding, the use of implements, the manufacture of edible sea-weed, canned fish and turtle-shell, so that whereas the agricultural products and cognate matters. Encouragement by total imports were only £1600 in 1868, they grew to over £400,000 grants in aid was also given to the establishment of similar experi. in 1906. mental farms by private persons in the various prefectures, and such Minerals.-Crystalline schists form the axis of Japan. They farms are now to be found everywhere. This official initiative, with run in a general direction from south-west to north-east, with chains equally successful results, extended to the domain of sericulture and starting east and west from Shikoku. On these schists rocks of tea-growing. There are two state sericultural training institutions every age are superimposed, and amid these somewhat complicated where not only the rearing of silk-worms and the management of geological conditions numerous minerals occur. Precious stones, filatures are taught, but also experiments are made; and these however, are not found, though crystals of quartz and antimony institutions, like the state agricultural stations, have served as models as well as good specimens of topaz and agate are not infrequent. for institutes on the same lines under private auspices. A silk- Gold occurs in quartz veins among schists, paleozoic or volcanic conditioning house at Yokohama; experimental tea-farms; laws rocks and in placers. The quantity obtained is not large, but it to prevent and remove diseases of plants, cereals, silkworms shows tolerably steady development, and may possibly and cattle, and regulations to check dishonesty in the matter of be much increased by more generous use of capital and Gold. fertilizers, complete the record of official efforts in the realm of larger recourse to modern methods. agriculture during the Meiji era. The value of the silver mined is approximately equal to that of One of the problems of modern Japan is the supply of cattle. the gold. It is found chiefly in volcanic rocks (especially tuff), in With a rapidly growing taste for beef-which, in former days, was the form of sulphide, and it is usually associated with Silver. not an article of diet-there is a slow but steady gold, copper, lead or zinc. Stock diminution in the stock of cattle. Thus while the num. Much more important in Japan's economics than either of the breeding ber of the latter in 1897 was 1,214,163, out of which precious metals is copper. Veins often showing a thickness of from total 158,504 were slaughtered, the corresponding figures in 1906 70 to 80 ft., though of poor quality (2 to 8 %), are found Copper. were 1,190,373 and 167,458, respectively. The stock of sheep bedded in crystalline schists or paleozoic sedimentary (3500 in 1906) increases slowly, and the stocks of goats (58,694 in rocks, but the richest (10 to 30%) occur in tuff and other volcanic 1897 and 74.750 in 1906) and swine (206,217 in 1897 and 284,708 in rocks. 1906) grow with somewhat greater rapidity, but mutton and pork There have not yet been found any evidences that Japan is rich do not suit Japanese taste, and goats are kept mainly for the sake of in iron ores. Her largest known deposit (magnetite) occurs at their milk. The government has done much towards the improve- Kamaishi in Iwate prefecture, but the quantity of pig; Iroa. ment of cattle and horses by importing bulls and sires, but, on the iron produced from the ore mined there does not exceed whole, the mixed breed is not a success, and the war with Russia 37,000 tons annually, and Japan is obliged to import from the in 1904-5 having clearly disclosed a pressing need of heavier horses neighbouring continent the greater part of the iron needed by her for artillery and cavalry purposes, large importations of Australian, for ship-building and armaments. American and European cattle are now made, and the organization Considerable deposits of coal exist, both anthracite and bituminous. of race-clubs has been encouraged throughout the country. The former, found chiefly at Amakusa, is not greatly inferior to the Forests.-Forests occupy an area of 55 millions of acres, or 60% Cardiff mineral; and the latter-obtained in abundance Coal. of the total superficies of Japan, and one-third of that expanse, in Kiūshiū and Yezo-is a brown coal of good medium namely, 18 million acres, approximately, is the property of the state. quality. Altogether there are 29 coal-fields now actually worked It cannot be said that any very practical attempt has yet been made in Japan, and she obtained an important addition to her sources of to develop this source of wealth. The receipts from forests stood supply in the sequel to the war with Russia, when the Fushun mines at only 13 million yen in the budget for 1907-1908, and even that near Mukden, Manchuria, were transferred to her. During the 10 figure compares favourably with the revenue of only 3 millions years ending in 1906, the market value of the coal mined in Japan derived from the same source in the fiscal year 1904-1905. This grew from less than 2 millions sterling to over 6 millions. failure to utilize a valuable asset is chiefly due to defective communi- Petroleum also has of late sprung into prominence on the list of cations, but the demand for timber has already begun to increase. her mineral products. The oil-bearing strata-which occur mainly In 1907 a revised forestry law was promulgated, according to which in tertiary rocks-extend from Yezo to Formosa, but Petroleum the administration is competent to prevent the destruction of the principal are in Echigo, which yields the greater forests and to cause the planting of plains and waste-lands, or the part of the petroleum now obtained, the Yezo and Formosa wells 1 198 JAPAN (INDUSTRIES oz. OZ. . being still little exploited. The quantity of petroleum obtained century luxurious habits prevailed in Kioto under the sway of in Japan in 1897 was 9 million gallons, whereas the quantity the Fujiwara regents, and the imperial city's munificent patron- obtained in 1906 was 55 millions. Japanese mining enterprise was more than trebled during the age drew to its precincts a crowd of artisans. But these were decade 1897 to 1906, for the value of the minerals taken out in the not industrials, in the Western sense of the term, and, further, former year was only 3} millions sterling, whereas the corresponding their organization was essentially domestic, each family select- figure for 1906 was ii millions. The earliest mention of gold- mining in Japan takes us back to the year A.D. 696, and by the clothing its own pursuit and following it from generation to genera- century the country had acquired the reputation of being rich in tion without co-operation or partnership with any outsider. gold. During the days of her medieval intercourse with the outer The establishment of military feudalism in the 12th century world, her stores of the precious metals were largely reduced, for brought a reaction from the effeminate luxury of the metropolis, between the years 1602 and 1766, Holland, Spain, Portugal and and during nearly 300 years no industry enjoyed large popularity China took from her 313,800 lb (troy) of gold and 11,230,000 lb of silver. except that of the armourer and the sword-smith. No sooner, Copper occupied a scarcely less important place in Old Japan. however, did the prowess of Oda Nobunaga and, above all, of From a period long anterior to historic times this metal was Hideyoshi, the taiko, bring within sight a cessation of civil war employed to manufacture mirrors and swords, and the introduction and the unification of the country, than the taste for beautiful of Buddhism in the 6th century was quickly followed by the casting of sacred images, many of which still survive. Finding in objects and artistic utensils recovered vitality. By degrees there the 18th century that her foreign intercourse not only had largely grew up among the feudal barons a keen rivalry in art industry, denuded her of gold and silver, but also threatened to denude her and the shogun's court in Yedo set a standard which the feuda- of copper, Japan set a limit (3415 tons) to the yearly export of the tories constantly strove to attain. Ultimately, in the days latter metal. After the resumption of administrative power by the emperor in 1867, attention was quickly directed to the question of immediately antecedent to its fall, the shögun's administration mineral resources; several Western experts were employed to sought to induce a more logical system by, encouraging local conduct surveys and introduce Occidental mining methods, and ten manufacturers to supply local needs only, leaving to Kioto and of the most important mines were worked under the direct auspices | Yedo the duty of catering to general wants. of the state in order to serve as object lessons. Subsequently these But before this reform had approached maturity, the second mines were all transferred to private hands, and the government now retains possession of only a few iron and coal mines whose advent of Western nations introduced to Japan the products of products are needed for dockyard and arsenal purposes. The an industrial civilization centuries in advance of her own from following table shows the recent progress and present condition of the point of view of utility, though nowise superior in the mining industry in Japan:- application of art. Immediately GOLD SILVER Copper LEAD the nation became alive to the Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value, Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. necessity of correcting its own in- £ £ Tons. £ Tons. £ feriority in this respect. But the 1897 34,553 136,834 1,809,805 208,200 19,722 869,266 746 10,343 people being entirely without 1901 82,517 330,076 1,824,842 211,682 26,495 1,625,244 1,744 24,640 1906 90,842 363,715 2,623,212 243,914 37,254 3,007,992 2,721. 49,690 models for organization, without IRON COAL PETROLEUM financial machinery and with- SULPHUR Quantity. Quantity. Value. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. out the idea of joint stock Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ Gallons. £ Tons. € enterprise, the government had 1897 : 35,178 103,559 5,229,662 1,899,592 9,248,800 44,389 13,138 33,588 to choose between entering the 1901 46,456 123,701 9,025,325 3,060,931 39.351.960 227,841 16,007 38,612 field as an instructor, and leaving 1906 85,203 268,911 12,980,103 6,314,400 55,135,880 314.550 27,406 61,386 the nation to struggle along an ANTIMONY MANGANESE OTHERS arduous and expensive way Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Value. Total Values. to tardy development. There Tons. £ Tons. £ £ £ could be no question as to which 1897 1,133 27.362 13,175 8,758 3,863 3,345,662 course would conduce more to 1901 529 13,481 15.738 10,846 3,450 5,670,508 1906 293 22,862 12,322 51,365 41,338 10,839.783 the general advantage, and thus, in days immediately subse- • The number of mine employees in 1907 was 190,000, in round quent to the resumption of administrative power by the emperor, numbers; the number of mining companies, 189; and the aggregate paid-up capital, 10 millions sterling. the spectacle was seen of official excursions into the domains of silk-reeling, cement-making, cotton and silk spinning, brick- Industries.-In the beginning of the Meiji era Japan was burning, printing and book-binding, soap-boiling, type-casting practically without any manufacturing industries, as the term and ceramic decoration, to say nothing of their establishing is understood in the Occident, and she had not so much as one colleges and schools where all branches of applied science were joint-stock company. At the end of 1906, her joint-stock com- taught. Domestic exhibitions also were organized, and speci- panies and partnerships totalled 9329, their paid up capital mens cf the country's products and manufactures were sent exceeded 100 millions sterling, and their reserves totalled 26 under government auspices to exhibitions abroad. On the other millions. It is not to be inferred, however, from the absence hand, the effect of this new departure along Western lines could of manufacturing organizations 50 years ago that such pursuits not but be injurious to the old domestic industries of the country, were deliberately eschewed or despised in Japan. On the con especially to those which owed their existence to tastes and tra- trary, at the very dawn of the historical epoch we find that sec- ditions now regarded as obsolete. Here again the government tions of the people took their names from the work carried on by came to the rescue by establishing a firm whose functions were them, and that specimens of expert industry were preserved to familiarize foreign markets with the products of Japanese the sovereign's palace side by side with the imperial insignia. artisans, and to instruct the latter in adaptations likely to appeal Further, skilled artisans from the neighbouring continent to Occidental taste. Steps were also taken for training women always found a welcome in Japan, and when Korea was success- as artisans, and the government printing bureau set the example fully invaded in early times, one of the uses which the victors of employing female labour, an innovation which soon developed made of their conquest was to import Korean weavers and dyers. large dimensions. In short, the authorities applied themselves Subsequently the advent of Buddhism, with its demand for to educate an industrial disposition throughout the country, and images, temples, gorgeous vestments and rich paraphernalia, as soon as success seemed to be in sight, they gradually trans- gave a marked impulse to the development of artistic industry, ferred from official to private direction the various model enter- which at the outset took its models from China, India and Greece, prises, retaining only such as were required to supply the needs but gradually, while assimilating many of the best features of of the state. the continental schools, subjected them to such great modifi- The result of all this effort was that whereas, in the beginning of cations in accordance with Japanese genius that they ceased to retain more than a trace of their originals. From the oth I she possessed in 1896—that is to say, after an interval of 25 years the Meiji era, Japan had virtually no industries worthy of the name, . COMMERCE) JAPAN 199 . 12 24 of effort--no less than 4595 industrial and commercial companies, America. Japan seems to have one great advantage over Occidental joint stock or partnership, with a paid-up capital of 40 millions countries: she possesses an abundance of dexterous and exception- sterling. Her development during the decade ending in 1906 is ally cheap labour. It has been said, indeed, that this latter advan- shown in the following table: tage is not likely to be permanent, since the wages of labour and the Reserves cost of living are fast increasing. The average cost of labour doubled Number of Paid-up capital (millions in the interval between 1895 and 1906, but, on the other hand, the companies. (millions sterling). sterling). number of manufacturing organizations doubled in the same time, 1897 6,113 while the amount of their paid-up capital nearly trebled. As to the 53 6 necessaries of life, if those specially affected by government mono- 1901 8,602 83 polies be excluded, the rate of appreciation between 1900 and 1906 1906 9,329 107 26 averaged about 30 %, and it thus appears that the cost of living is What effect this development exercised upon the country's over-sea not increasing with the same rapidity as the remuneration earned trade may be inferred from the fact that, whereas the manufactured by labour. The manufacturing progress of the nation seems, there- goods exported in 1870 were nil, their value in 1901 was 8 millions fore, to have a bright future, the only serious impediment being sterling, and in 1906 the figure rose to over 20 millions. In the deficient capital. There is abundance of coal, and steps have been following table are given some facts relating to the principal in- taken on a large scale to utilize the many excellent opportunities dustries in which foreign markets are interested: which the country offers for developing electricity by water-power. The fact that Japan's exports of raw silk amount to more than COTTON YARNS 12 millions sterling, while she sends over-sea only 3} millions' worth of silk fabrics, suggests some marked inferiority Silk. Operatives. on the part of her weavers. But the true explanation weaviog. Spindles. Quantity Remarks. seems to be that her distance from the Occident handicaps her Male. Female. produced. in catering for the changing fashions of the West. There cannot be any doubt that the skill of Japanese weavers was at one time. Ib This is a wholly eminent. The sun goddess herself, the predominant figure in 1897 768,328 9.933 35,059 216,913,196 new industry in the Japanese pantheon, is said to have practised weaving; the 1901 1,181,762 13,481 49,540 274,861,380 Japan. It had names of four varieties of woven fabrics were known in pre- 1906 1,425,406 13,032 59,281 383,359,113 no existence be- historic times; the 3rd century of the Christian era saw the arrival fore the Meiji era of a Korean maker of clota; after him came an influx of Chinese who were distributed throughout the country to improve the arts Woven GOODS of sericulture and silk-weaving; a sovereign (Yuriaku) of the 5th century employed 92 groups of naturalized Chinese for similar pur. Operatives. poses; in 421 the same emperor issued a decree encouraging the cul. Market value Looms. Remarks. ture of mulberry trees and calling for taxes on silk and cotton; Male. Female. of products. the manufacture of textiles was directly supervised by the consort of this sovereign; in 645 a bureau of weaving was established; many other evidences are conclusive as to the great antiquity of the Millions sterling. It is observable art of silk and cotton weaving in Japan. 1897 947,134 54,119 987,110 that a decrease 19 The coming of Buddhism in the 6th century contributed not a little 1901 719.550 43,172 747,946 in the number of 1906:36,828 40,886 751,605 to the development of the art, since not only did the priests require 36 operativesiscon- current with an for their own vestments and for the decoration of temples silken increase of pro- fabrics of more and more gorgeous description, but also these holy duction. men themselves, careful always to keep touch with the continental developments of their faith, made frequent voyages to China, MATCHES whence they brought back to Japan a knowledge of whatever technical or artistic improvements the Middle Kingdom could show. When Kioto became the permanent metropolis of the empire, at Operatives. Quantity the close of the 8th century, a bureau was established for weaving Value. Remarks produced. brocades and rich silk stuffs to be used in the palace. This preluded Male. Female. an era of some three centuries of steadily developing luxury in Kioto; an era when an essential part of every aristocratic mansion's furni- ture was a collection of magnificent silk robes for use in thesumptuous Gross. £ This is an No. Then, in the 15th century came the “ Tea Ceremonial," when 1897 269 21,447 26,277 24,038,960 654,849 altogether the brocade mountings of a picture or the wrapper of a tiny tea-jar 1901 261 5,656 16,504 32,901,319 926,689 new indus- possessed an almost incredible value, and such skill was attained by 1906 250 5,468 18,721 54,802,293 1,551,698 try. Japan- weavers and dyers that even fragments of the fabrics produced by ese matches them command extravagant prices to-day. Kióto always remained, now hold the and still remains, the chief producing centre, and to such a degree leading place has the science of colour been developed there that no less than 4000 in all Far. varieties of tint are distinguished. The sense of colour, indeed, seems Easternmar. to have been a special endowment of the Japanese people from the kets. earliest times, and some of the combinations handed down from medieval times are treasured as incomparable examples. During FOREIGN PAPER (as distinguished from Japanese) the long era of peace under the Tokugawa administration the cos- tumes of men and women showed an increasing tendency to richness and beauty. This culminated in the Genroku epoch (1688–1700). Operatives. and the aristocracy of the present day delight in viewing histrionic Quantity Value. Remarks. produced. performances where the costumes of that age and of its rival, the Male. Female. Momoyama (end of the 16th century) are reproduced. It would be possible to draw up a formidable catalogue of the various kinds of silk fabrics manufactured in Japan before the open. It £ Had ing of the Meiji era, and the signal ability of her weavers has derived 1897 9 164 109 46,256,649 300,662 Japanese fac- a new impulse from contact with the Occident. Machinery has 1901 13 2 635 1.397 113,348,340 714,094 tories been been largely introduced, and though the products of hand-looms 1906 22 3,774 1,778 218,022,434 1,415,778 established all still enjoy the reputation of greater durability, there has unquestion. this paper must ably been a marked development of producing power. Japanese have been im looms now turn out about 17 millions sterling of silk textiles, of ported. which less than 4 millions go abroad. Nor is increased quantity alone to be noted, for at the factory of Kawashima in Kioto Gobelins are produced such as have never been rivalled elsewhere. In the field of what may be called minor manufactures-as ceramic wares, lacquers, straw.plaits, &c.-there has been corresponding growth, for the value of these productions increased from 1 millions Commerce in Tokugawa Times.—The conditions existing in sterling in 1897 to 34 millions in 1906. But as these manufactures Japan during the two hundred and fifty years prefatory to the do not enter into competition with foreign goods in either Eastern modern opening of the country were unfavourable to the develop- or Western markets, they are interesting only as showing the ment alike of national and of international trade. As to the development of Japan's producing power. They contribute nothing to the solution of the problem whether Japanese industries former, the system of feudal government exercised a crippling are destined ultimately to drive their foreign rivals from the markets influence, for each feudal chief endeavoured to check the exit of Asia, if not to compete injuriously with them even in Europe and I of any kind of property from his fief, and free interchange of Families engaged. Factories. not 200 JAPAN (COMMERCE 1) commodities was thus prevented so effectually that cases are granted to fishermen to buy boats and nets they were required to recorded of one feudatory's subjects dying of starvation while give every fish they caught to the wholesale merchant from whom they had received the advance; and the latter, on his side, had to those of an adjoining fief enjoyed abundance. International sell’in the open market at prices fixed by the confederation. A commerce, on the other hand, lay under the veto of the central somewhat similar system applied to vegetables, though in this case government, which punished with death anyone attempting the monopoly was never so close. to hold intercourse with foreigners. Thus the fiefs practised a It will be observed that this federation of fishmongers approxi- mated closely to a trust, as the term is now understood; that is to policy of mutual seclusion at home, and united to maintain a say, an association of merchants engaged in the same branch of policy of general seclusion abroad. Yet it was under the feudal trade and pledged to observe certain rules in the conduct of their The idea was extended system that the most signal development of Japanese trade took business as well as to adhere to fixed rates. place, and since the processes of that development have much to nearly every trade, 10 monster conſederations being organized in Yedo and 24 in Osaka. These received official recognition, historical interest they invite close attention. and contributed a sum to the exchequer under the euphonious As the bulk of a feudal chief's income was paid in rice, arrange- | They attained a high state of prosperity, the whole of the cities' name of " benefit money," amounting to nearly £20,000 annually, ments had to be made for sending the grain to market and trans- mitting its proceeds. This was effected originally by establishing tion was permitted to dispose of his licence except to a near relative, No member of a confedera- supplies passing through their hands.2 in Osaka stores (kura-yashiki), under the charge of samurai, who received the rice, sold it to merchants in that city and remitted the business he became liable to punishment at the hands of the officials. and if anyone not on the roll of a confederation engaged in the same proceeds by official carriers. But from the middle of the 7th In spite of the limits thus imposed on the transfer of licences, one century these stores were placed in the charge of tradesmen to whom of these documents commanded from £80 to £6,400, and in the products entrusted to them by a fief and held the money, sending increased to 68 in Yedo, comprising 1195 merchants. "The gild was given the name of kake-ya (agent). They disposed sendihe beginning of the 19th century the confederations, or gilds, had it by monthly instalments to an appointed place, rendering yearly system extended to maritime enterprise also. accounts and receiving commission at the rate of from 2 to 4%. In the beginning of They had no special licence, but they were honourably regarded and junk service between Osaka and Yedo, but this kind of business did the 17th century a merchant of Sakai (near Osaka) established a often distinguished by an official title or an hereditary pension. not attain any considerable development until the close of that In fact a kake-ya, of such standing as the Mitsui and the Konoike families, was, in effect, a banker charged with the finances of several century, when 10 gilds of Yedo and 24 of Osaka combined to fiefs. In Osaka the method of sale was uniform. Tenders were organize a marine-transport company for the purpose of conveying invited, and these having been opened in the presence of all the store strictly observed, no goods being shipped for unaffiliated merchants. their own merchandise. Here also the principle of monopoly was officials and kake-ya, the successful tenderers had to deposit bargain. This carrying trade rapidly assumed large dimensions. The number money, paying the remainder within ten days, and thereafter becom- of junks entering Yedo rose to over 1500 yearly. They raced from ing, entitled to take delivery of the rice in whole or by instalments within a certain time, no fee being charged for storage. A similar port to port, just as tea-clippers from China to Europe used to race in recent times, and troubles incidental to their rivalry became so system existed in Yedo, the shogun's capital. Out of the custom of Each serious that it was found necessary to enact stringent rules. deferred delivery developed the establishment of exchanges where junk-master had to subscribe a written oath that he would comply advances were made against sale certificates, and purely speculative strictly with the regulations and observe the sequence of sailing as transactions came into vogue. There followed an experience determined by lot. The junks had to call en route at Uraga for the common enough in the West at one time: public opinion rebelled against these transactions in margins on the ground that they tended purpose of undergoing official examination. The order of their arrival there was duly registered, and the master making the best to enhance the priee of rice. Several of the brokers were arrested record throughout the year received a present in money as well as a and brought to trial; marginal dealings were thenceforth forbidden, and a system of licences was inaugurated in Yedo, the number of complimentary garment, and became the shippers' favourite next licensed dealers being restricted to 108. Operations relating to the currency also were brought under the The system of organized trading companies had its origin in the control of gilds. The business of money-changing seems to have been 12th century, when, the number of merchants admitted within the confines of Yedo being restricted, it became necessary for those not taken up as a profession from the beginning of the 15th century, obtaining that privilege to establish some mode of co-operation, cash which they exchanged for gold or silver coins, then in rare but it was then in the hands of pedlars who carried strings of copper and there resulted the formation of companies with representatives circulation, or for parcels of gold dust. From the early part of the stationed in the feudal capital and share holding members in the provinces. The Ashikaga shöguns developed this restriction by engaged in this business formed a gild after the fashion of the time. 17th century exchanges were opened in Yedo, and in 1718 the men selling to the highest bidder the exclusive right of engaging in a Six hundred of these received licences, and no unlicensed person particular trade, and the Tokugawa administration had recourse to the same practice. But whereas the monopolies instituted by of the chief exchange met daily and fixed the ratio between gold was permitted to purchase the avocation. Four representatives the Ashikaga had for sole object the enrichment of the exchequer, and silver, the figure being then communicated to the various the Tokugawa regarded it chiefly as a means of obtaining worthy exchanges and to the shogun's officials. As for the prices of gold or representatives in each branch of trade. The first licences were issued in Yedo to keepers of bath-houses in the middle of the 17th exchanges met every evening, and, in the presence of an official silver in terms of copper or bank-notes, 24 representatives of the century. As the city grew in dimensions these licences increased in value, so that pawnbrokers willingly accepted them in pledge amount of transactions during the past 24 hours, full information censor, settled the figure for the following day and recorded the for loans. Subsequently almanack-sellers were obliged to take out licences, and the system was afterwards extended to money- on these points being at once sent to the city governors and the street elders. changers. The exchanges in their ultimate form approximated very closely It was to the fishmongers, however, that the advantages of commercial organization first presented themselves vividly. The and copper coins, but they also received money on deposit, made to the Occidental idea of banks. They not only bought gold, silver greatest fish-market in Japan is at Nihon-bashi in Tokyo (formerly | loans and issued vouchers which played a very important part in Yedo). It had its origin in the needs of the Tokugawa court. commercial transactions. The voucher seems to have come into When Iyeyasu (founder of the Tokugawa dynasty) entered Yedo existence in Japan in the 14th century. It originated in the Yoshino in 1590, his train was followed by some fishermen of Settsu, to whom he granted the privilege of plying their trade in the adjacent rendered the carriage of copper money so arduous that rich mer- market of Yamato province, where the hilly nature of the district seas, on condition that they furnished a supply of their best fish chants began to substitute written receipts and engagements for the use of the garrison. The remainder they offered for sale which quickly became current. Among these documents there at Nihon-bashi. Early in the 17th century one Sukegoro of Yamato joint voucher (kumiai-fuda), signed by several persons, province (hence called 'Yamato-ya) went to Yedo and organized the any one of whom might be held responsible for its redemption. fishmongers into a great gild. Nothing is recorded about this This had large vogue, but it did not obtain official recognition until man's antecedents; though his mercantile genius entitles him to 1636, when the third Tokugawa shogun selected 30 substantial historical notice. He contracted for the sale of all the fish obtained merchants and divided them into 3 gilds, each authorized to issue in the neighbouring seas, advanced money to the fishermen on the vouchers, provided that a certain sum was deposited by way of security of their catch, constructed preserves for keeping the fish alive until they were exposed in the market, and enrolled all the security. Such youchers were obviously a form of bank-note. Their circulation by exchange came about in a similar manner. dealers in a confederation which ultimately consisted of 397 whole- sale merchants and 246 brokers. The main purpose of Sukegoro's During many years the treasure of the shögun and of the feudal system was to prevent the consumer from dealing direct with the ? In 1725, when the population of Yedo was about three-quarters producer. Thus in return for the pecuniary accommodation of a million, the merchandise that entered the city was 861,893 bags of rice; 795,856 casks of sake; 132,892 casks of soy (fish-sauce): 1 They were called fuda-sashi (ticket-holders), a term derived 18,209,987 bundles of fire-wood; 809,790 bags of charcoal; 90,811 from the fact that rice-vouchers were usually held in a split bamboo tubs of oil; 1,670,850 bags of salt and 3,613,500 pieces of cotton which was thrust into a pile of rice-bags to indicate their buyer. cloth. season. was a 1 COMMERCE) JAPAN 201 chiefs was carried to Yedo by, pack-horses and coolies of the regular established, licence fees, however, being abolished, and no limit postal service. But the costliness of such a method led to the selec- set to the number of firms in a gild. Things remained thus until tion in 1691 of 10 exchange agents who were appointed bankers to the the beginning of the Meiji era (1867), when the gilds shared the Tokugawa government and were required to furnish money within cataclysm that overtook all the country's old institutions. 30 days of the date of an order drawn on them. These agents went Japanese commercial and industrial life presents another feature by the name of the “ ten-men gild." Subsequently the firm of which seems to suggest special aptitude for combination. In mercan. Mitsui was added, but it enjoyed the special privilege of being allowed tile or manufacturing families, while the eldest son always succeeded 150 days to collect a specified amount. The gild received moneys to his father's business, not only the younger sons but also the appren- on account of the Tokugawa or the feudal chiefs. at provincial tices and employees, after they had served faithfully for a number centres, and then made its own arrangements for cashing the of years, expected to be set up as branch houses under the auspices cheques drawn upon it by the shögun or the daimyo in Yedo. If of the principal family, receiving a place of business, a certain amount coin happened to be immediately available, it was employed to cash of capital and the privilege of using the original house-name. Many the cheques; otherwise the vouchers of the gild served instead. It an old-established firm thus came to have a plexus of branches all was in Osaka, however, that the functions of the exchanges acquired serving to extend its business and strengthen its credit, so that the fullest development. That city has exhibited, in all eras, a remark- group held a commanding position in the business world. It will able aptitude for trade. Its merchants, as already shown, were not be apparent from the above that commercial transactions on a large only entrusted with the duty of selling the rice and other products scale in pre-Meiji days were practically limited to the two great of the surrounding fiefs, but also they became depositories of the cities of Yedo and Osaka, the people in the provincial fiefs having proceeds, which they paid out on account of the owners in whatever no direct association with the gild system, confining themselves, for sums the latter desired. Such an evidence of official confidence the most part, to domestic industries on a small scale, and not being greatly strengthened their credit, and they received further en- allowed to extend their business beyond the boundaries of the fief couragement from the second Tokugawa shogun (1605–1623) and from to which they belonged. Ishimaru Sadatsugu, governor of the city in 1661. He fostered wholesale transactions, sought to introduce a large element of credit Foreign Commerce during the Meiji Era.- If Japan's industrial into commerce by instituting a system of credit sales; took measures development in modern times has been remarkable, the same to promote the circulation of cheques; inaugurated market sales of gold and silver and appointed ten chiefs of exchange.who were may be said even more emphatically about the development empowered to oversee the business of money-exchanging it general. of her over-sea commerce. This was checked at first not These ten received exemption from municipal taxation and were only by the unpopularity attaching to all intercourse with out- permitted to wear swords. Under them were 22 exchanges forming side nations, but also by embarrassments resulting from the a gild, whose members agreed to honour one another's vouchers and mutually to facilitate business. Gradually they elaborated a regular difference between the silver price of gold in Japan and its silver system of banking, so that, in the middle of the 18th century, they price in Europe, the precious metals being connected in Japan by issued various descriptions of paper-orders for fixed sums payable at a ratio of 1 to 8, and in Europe by a ratio of 1 to 15. This certain places within fixed periods; deposit notes redeemable on latter fact was the cause of a sudden and violent appreciation of the demand of an indicated person or his order; bills of exchange values; for the government, seeing the country threatened with drawn by. A upon B in favour of C (a common form for use in monthly or annual settlements); promissory notes to be paid at a loss of all its gold, tried to avert the catastrophe by altering and future time, or cheques payable at sight, for goods purchased; and reducing the weights of the silver coins without altering their storage orders engaging to deliver goods on account of which earnest denominations, and a corresponding difference exhibited itself, money had been paid. These last, much employed in transactions relating to rice and sugar, were generally valid for a period of 3 years as a matter of course, in the silver quotations of commodities. and 3 months, were signed by a confederation of exchanges or mer. Another difficulty was the attitude of officialdom. During several chants on joint responsibility, and guaranteed the delivery of centuries Japan's over-sea trade had been under the control of the indicated merchandise independently of all accidents. They officialdom, to whose coffers it contributed a substantial revenue. passed current as readily as coin, and advances could always be obtained against them from pawnbrokers. But when the foreign exporter entered the field under the con- All these documents, indicating a well-developed system of ditions created by the new system, he diverted to his own pocket credit, were duly protected by law, severe penalties being inflicted the handsome profit previously accruing to the government; and for any failure to implement the pledges they embodied. The since the latter could not easily become reconciled to this loss of merchants of Yedo and Osaka, working on the system of trusts here described, gradually acquired great wealth and fell into habits of revenue, or wean itself from its traditional habit of interference marked luxury. It is recorded that they did not hesitate to pay in affairs of foreign commerce, and since the foreigner, on his £5 for the first bonito of the season and £11 for the first egg-fruit. side, not only desired secrecy in order to prevent competition, Naturally the spectacle of such extravagance excited popular dis, but was also tormented by inveterate suspicions of Oriental content. Men began to grumble against the so-called official espionage, not a little friction occurred from time to time. merchants" who, under government auspices, monopolized every branch of trade; and this feeling grew almost uncontrollable in 1836, Thus the scanty records of that early epoch suggest that trade when rice rose to an unprecedented price owing to crop failure. was beset with great difficulties, and that the foreigner had to Men loudly ascribed that state of affairs to regrating on the part of contend against most adverse circumstances, though in truth his the wholesale companies, and murmurs similar to those raised at gains amounted to 40 or 50%. the close of the 19th century in America against the trust system began to reach the ears of the authorities perpetually. The cele- The chief staples of the early trade were tea and silk. It brated Fujita Toko of Mito took up the question. He argued that happened that just before Japan's raw silk became available for the monopoly system, since it included Osaka, exposed the Yedo export, the production of that article in France and Tea and market to all the vicissitudes of the former city, which had then Italy had been largely curtailed owing to a novel Silk. lost much of its old prosperity: Finally, in 1841, the shogun's chief minister, Mizuno Echizen-no-disease of the silkworm. Thus, when the first bales of Japanese Kami, withdrew all trading licences, dissolved the gilds and pro- silk appeared in London, and when it was found to possess claimed that every person should thenceforth be free to engage in qualities entitling it to the highest rank, a keen demand sprang any commerce without let or hindrance. This recklessly drastic measure, vividly illustrating the arbitrariness of feudal officialdom, up. Japanese green tea also, differing radically in flavour and not only included the commercial gilds, the shipping gilds, the bouquet from the black tea of China, appealed quickly to exchange gilds and the land transport gilds, but was also carried to American taste, so that by the year 1907 Japan found herself the length of forbidding any company to confine itself to wholesale selling to foreign countries tea to the extent of 11 millions ster- dealings. The authorities further declared that in times of scarcity ling, and raw silk to the extent of 12 millions. This remarkable wholesale transactions must be abandoned altogether and retail business alone carried on, their purpose being to bring retail and development is typical of the general history of Japan's foreign wholesale prices to the same level. The custom of advancing money trade in modern times. Omitting the first decade and a half, to fishermen or to producers in the provincial districts was inter- the statistics for which are imperfect, the volume of the trade dicted; even the fuda-sashi might no longer ply their calling, and neither bath-house keepers nor hairdressers were allowed to combine grew from 5 millions sterling in 1873—3 shillings per head of the for the purpose of adopting uniform rates of charges. But this ill-. population-to 93 millions in 1907-or 38 shillings per head. It judged interference produced evils greater than those it was intended was not a uniform growth. The period of 35 years divides itself to remedy. The gilds had not really been exacting. Their organi conspicuously into two eras: the first, of 15 years (1873–1887), zation had reduced the cost of distribution, and they had provided during which the development was from 5 millions to 9.7 mil- facilities of transport which brought produce within quick and cheap lions, a ratio of 1 to 2, approximately; the second, of 20 years reach of central markets. Ten years' experience showed that a modified form of the old (1887-1907), during which the development was from 9.7 3ystem would conduce to public interests. The gilds were re- millions to 93 millions, a ratio of 1 to io. 202 JAPAN (GOVERNMENT 22 133 8 2 8 6 II 7 6 5 sumers. That a commerce which scarcely doubled itself in the first when the figures are added, it is found that the excesses of exports fifteen years should have grown nearly tenfold in the next aggregated only II millions sterling, whereas the excesses of imports totalled twenty is a fact inviting attention. There are two principal balance” of 60 millions over all.” The movements of specie do not ,71 millions, there being thus a so-called “unfavourable causes: one general, the other special. The general cause was throw much light upon this subject, for they are complicated by that several years necessarily elapsed before the nation's materiallarge imports of gold resulting from war indemnities and foreign condition began to respond perceptibly to the improvements expenditures of the foreign communities in the former settlements, loans. Undoubtedly the balance is materially, redressed by the effected by the Meiji government in matters of administration, of foreign tourists visiting Japan and of foreign vessels engaged in taxation and transport facilities. Fiscal burdens had been the carrying trade, as well as by the earnings of Japanese vessels reduced and security of life and property obtained, but railway and the interest on investments made by foreigners. Nevertheless building and road-making, harbour construction, the growth of there remains an appreciable margin against Japan, and it is probably to be accounted for by the consideration that she is still engaged posts, telegraphs, exchanges and banks, and the development equipping herself for the industrial career evidently lying before her. of a mercantile marine did not exercise a sensible influence on The manner in which Japan's over-sea trade was divided the nation's prosperity until 1884 or 1885. From that time the in 1907 among the seven foreign countries princi- Trade with country entered a period of steadily growing prosperity, and from pally engaged in it may be seen from the following Various table: that time private enterprise may be said to have finally started Countries. Exports to Imports from Total upon a career of independent activity. The special cause which, £ (millions) £ (millions). £ (millions). from 1885, contributed to a marked growth of trade was the United States resumption of specie payments. Up to that time the treasury's China 15 fiat notes had suffered such marked fluctuations of specie Great Britain 14 British India value that sound or successful commerce became very difficult. Germany Against the importing merchant the currency trouble worked France with double potency. Not only did the gold with which he Korea. 5 purchased goods appreciate constantly in terms of the silver Among the 33 open ports of Japan, the first place belongs to for which he sold them, but the silver itself appreciated sharply Yokohama in the matter of foreign trade, and Kobe ranks second. The former far outstrips the latter in exports, but the case is reversed and rapidly in terms of the fiat notes paid by Japanese con- when imports are considered. As to the percentages of the whole Cursory reflection may suggest that these factors trade standing to the credit of the five principal ports, the following should have stimulated exports as much as they depressed figures may be consulted :-Yokohama, 40 %; Kobe, 35.6; Osaka, imports. But such was not altogether the case in practice. 10; Moji. 5; and Nagasaki, 2. For the exporter's transactions were hampered by the possibility VI.-GOVERNMENT, ADMINISTRATION, &c. that a delay of a week or even a day might increase the pur- chasing power of his silver in Japanese markets by bringing Emperor and Princes. At the head of the Japanese State about a further depreciation of paper, so that he worked timidly stands the emperor, generally spoken of by foreigners as the and hesitatingly, dividing his operations as minutely as possible mikado (honourable gate'), a title comparable with sublime in order to take advantage of the downward tendency of the fiat porte and by his own subjects as tenshi (son of heaven) or notes. Not till this element of. pernicious disturbance was tennő (heavenly king). The emperor Mutou Hito (q.v.) was the removed did the trade recover a healthy tone and grow so 121st of his line, according to Japanese history, which reckons lustily as to tread closely on the heels of the foreign commerce from 660 B.C., when Jimmu ascended the throne. But as written of China, with her 300 million inhabitants and long-established records do not carry us back farther than A.D. 712, the reigns international relations. and periods of the very early monarchs are more or less apocry- Japan's trade with the outer world was built up chiefly by the phal. Still the fact remains that Japan has been ruled by an energy and enterprise of the foreign middleman. He acted the unbroken dynasty ever since the dawn of her history, in which The Foreign part of an almost ideal agent. As an exporter, respect she is unique among all the nations in the world. There Middleman. his command of cheap capital, his experience, his are four families of princes of the blood, from any one of which a knowledge of foreign markets, and his connexions enabled him successor to the throne may be taken in default of a direct heir: to secure sales such as must have been beyond reach of the Princes Arisugawa, Fushimi, Kanin and Higashi Fushimi. Japanese working independently. Moreover, he paid to native These families are all direct descendants of emperors, and their consumers ready cash for their staples, taking upon his own heads have the title of shinno (prince of the blood), whereas the shoulders all the risks of finding markets abroad. As an importer, other imperial princes, of whom there are ten, have only the he enjoyed, in centres of supply, credit which the Japanese second syllable of shinno (pronounced wo when separated from lacked, and he offered to native consumers foreign produce shin). Second and younger sons of a shinnõ are all wo, and eldest brought to their doors with a minimum of responsibility on their sons lose the title shin and become wo from the fifth generation. part. Finally, whether as exporters or importers, foreign The Peerage.-In former times there were no Japanese titles middlemen always competed with each other so keenly that their of nobility, as the term is understood in the Occident. Nobles Japanese clients obtained the best possible terms from them. there were, however, namely, kuge, or court nobles, descendants Yet the ambition of the Japanese to oust them cannot be re- of younger sons of emperors, and daimyo (great name), some of garded as unnatural. Every nation must desire to carry on its whom could trace their lineage to mikados; but all owed their own commerce independently of alien assistance; and moreover, exalted position as feudal chiefs to military prowess. The the foreign middleman's residence during many years within Meiji restoration of 1867 led to the abolition of the daimyös as Japanese territory, but without the pale of Japanese sovereignty, feudal chiefs, and they, together with the kuge, were merged invested him with an aggressive character which the anti- into one class called kwazoku (flower families), a term correspond- Oriental exclusiveness of certain Occidental nations helped to ing to aristocracy, all inferior persons being heimin (ordinary accentuate. Thus from the point of view of the average Japan- folk). In 1884, however, the five Chinese titles of ki (prince), ese there are several reasons for wishing to dispense with alien ko (marquis), haku (count), shi (viscount) and dan (baron) were middlemen, and it is plain that these reasons are operative; for introduced, and patents were not only granted to the ancient whereas, in 1888, native merchants carried on only 12% of the nobility but also conferred on men who had rendered conspicuous country's over-sea trade without the intervention of the foreign public service. The titles are all hereditary, but they descend middlemen, their share rose to 35% in 1899 and has since been to the firstborn only, younger children having no distinguishing slowly increasing. appellation. The first list in 1884 showed u princes, 24 mar- Analysis of Japan's foreign trade during the Meiji era shows that quises, 76 counts, 324 viscounts and 74 barons. After the war during the 35-year period ending in 1907, imports exceeded with China (1894-95) the total grew to 716, and the war with exports in 21 years and exports exceeded imports in 14 years. This does not suggest a very badly balanced Some derive this term from mika, an ancient Japanese term for trade. But closer examination accentuates the difference, for great," and to, “place." Balance of Trade. 10 LEGISLATURE) JAPAN 203 Russia (1904-5) increased the number to 912, namely, 15 princes, government), but in 1900 the law of election was amended, and 39 marquises, 100 counts, 376 viscounts and 382 barons. the property qualification for electors is now a payment of £1 Household Department. - The Imperial household department is in direct taxes, while for candidates no qualification is required completely differentiated from the administration of state affairs. either as to property or as to locality. Members are of two It includes bureaux of treasury, forests, peerage and hunting, as well as boards of ceremonies and chamberlains, officials of the kinds, namely, those returned by incorporated cities and those empress's household and officials of the crown prince's household. returned by prefectures. In each case the ratio is one member The annual allowance made to the throne is £300,000, and the for every 130,000 electors, and the electoral district is the city Imperial estate comprises some 12,000 acres of building land, 3,850,000 acres of forests, and 300,000 acres of miscellaneous lands, or prefecture. the whole valued at some 19 millions sterling, but probably not Voting is by ballot, one man one vote, and a general election yielding an income of more than £200,000 yearly. Further, the must take place once in 4 years for the house of represen- household owns about 3 millions sterling (face value) of bonds and tatives, and once in 7 years for the house of peers. The house of the whole income amounts to three-quarters of a million sterling the sovereign as a disciplinary measure, in which event a general shares, from which a revenue of some £250,000 is derived, so that representatives, however, is liable to be dissolved by order of approximately. Out of this the households of the crown prince and all the Imperial princes are supported; allowances are granted at the election must be held within 5 months from the date of disso- time of conferring titles of nobility; a long list of charities receive lution, whereas the house of peers is not liable to any such treat- liberal contributions, and considerable sums are paid to encourage art and education. The emperor himself is probably one of the most leges, except that the budget must first be submitted to the ment. Otherwise the two houses enjoy equal rights and privi- frugal sovereigns that ever occupied a throne. Departments of State. There are nine departments of state representatives. Each member receives a salary of £200; the presided over by ministers-foreign affairs, home affairs, finance, president receives £500, and the vice-president £300. The war, navy, justice, education, agriculture and commerce, compresidents are nominated by the sovereign from three names munications. These ministers form the cabinet, which is submitted by each house, but the appointment of a vice-presi- presided over by the minister president of state, so that its dent is within the independent right of each chamber. The members number ten in all. Ministers of state are appointed by lower house consists of 379 members, of whom 75 arc returned by the emperor and are responsible to him alone. But between the the urban population and 304 by the rural. Under the original cabinet and the crown stand a small body of men, the survivors property qualification the number of franchise-holders was only of those by whose genius modern Japan was raised to her present 453,474, or 11.5 to every 1000 of the nation, but it is now high position among the nations. They are known as “elder 1,676,007, or 15.77 to every 1000. By the constitution which statesmen " (genrā). Their proved ability constitutes an invalu- created the diet freedom of conscience, of speech and of public able asset, and in the solution of serious problems their voice meeting, inviolability of domicile and correspondence, security may be said to be final. At the end of 1909 four of these from arrest or punishment except by due process of law, perma- renowned statesmen remained-Prince Yamagata, Marquises nence of judicial appointments and all the other essential ele- Inouye and Matsukata and Count Okuma. There is also a privy ments of civil liberty were granted. In the diet full legislative council, which consists of a variable number of distinguished authority is vested: without its consent no tax can be imposed, men--in 1909 there were 29, the president being Field-Marshal increased or remitted; nor can any public money be paid out Prince Yamagata. Their duty is to debate and advise upon all except the salaries of officials, which the sovereign reserves the matters referred to them by the emperor, who sometimes attends right to fix at will. In the emperor are vested the prerogatives their meetings in person. of declaring war and making peace, of concluding treaties, of Civil Officials.--The total number of civil officials was 137,819 appointing and dismissing officials, of approving and promul- in 1906. "It had been only 68,876 in 1898, from which time it grew gating laws, of issuing urgent ordinances to take the temporary regularly year by year. The salaries and allowances paid out of place of laws, and of conferring titles of nobility. the treasury every year on account of the civil service are 4 millions sterling, approximately, and the annual emoluments of the principal • Procedure of the Diet.-It could scarcely have been expected officials are as follow:--Prime minister, £960; minister of a depart-that neither tumult nor intemperance would disfigure the proceed- ment, £600; ambassador, £500, with allowances varying from ings of a diet whose members were entirely without parliamentary £2200 to £3000; president of privy council, £500; resident-general experience, but not without grievances to ventilate, wrongs (real or in Seoul, £600; governor-general of Formosa, £600; vice-minister, fancied) to avenge, and abuses to redress. On the whole, however, £400; minister plenipotentiary, £400, with allowances from £1000 there has been a remarkable absence of anything like disgraceful to £1700; governor of prefecture, £300 to £360; judge of the court licence. The politeness, the good temper, and the sense of dignity of cassation, £200 to £500; other judges, £60 to £400; professor of which characterize the Japanese, generally saved the situation when imperial university, from £80 to £160, with allowances from £40 to it threatened to degenerate into a Foreigners entering £120; privy councillor, £400; director of a bureau, £300; &c. the house of representatives in Tokyo for the first time might easily Legislature. The first Japanese Diet was convoked the 29th member. It is painted in white on a wooden indicator, the latter misinterpret some of its habits. A number distinguishes each of November, 1890. There are two chambers, a house of being fastened by a hinge to the face of the member's desk. When peers (kizoku-in) and a house of representatives (shugi-in). Present he sets the indicator standing upright, and lowers it when Each is invested with the same legislative power. leaving the house. Permission to speak is not obtained by catching The upper chamber consists of four classes of members. the president's eye, but by calling out the aspirant's number, and as members often emphasize their calls by hammering their desks with They are, first; hereditary members, namely, princes and mar- the indicators, there are moments of decided din. "But, for the rest, quises, who are entitled to sit when they reach the age of 25; orderliness and decorum habitually prevail. Speeches have to be secondly, counts, viscounts and barons, elected-after they have made from a rostrum. There are few displays of oratory or eloquence. attained their 25th year-by their respective orders in the maxi, absolutely free from gaucherie or self-consciousness when speaking The Japanese formulates his views with remarkable facility.' He is mum ratio of one member to every five peers; thirdly, men of in public he can think on his feet. But his mind does not usually education or distinguished service who are nominated by the busy itself with abstract ideas and subtleties of philosophical or emperor; and, fourthly, representatives of the highest tax- religious thought. Flights of fancy, impassioned bursts of sentiment, payers, elected, one for each prefecture, by their own class. appeals to the heart rather than to the reason of an audience, are devices strange to his mental habit. He can be rhetorical, but not The minimum age limit for non-titled members is 30, and it is cloquent. Among all the speeches hitherto delivered in the Japanese provided that their total number must not exceed that of the diet it would be difficult to find a passage deserving the latter epithet. titled members. The house was composed in 1909 of 14 princes From the first the debates were recorded verbatim. Years before of the blood, 15 princes, 39 marquises, 17 counts, 69 viscounts, the date fixed for the promulgation of the constitution, a little band 56 barons, 124 Imperial nominees, and 45 representatives of the the Japanese syllabary. Their labours remained almost without of students elaborated a system of stenography and adapted it to highest tax-payers--that is to say, 210 titled members and 169 recognition or remuneration until the diet was on the eve of meeting, non-titled. when it was discovered that a competent staff of shorti and reporters The lower house consists of elected members only. Origin, alone among the countries of the world, she possesses an exact record could be organized at an hour's notice. Japan can thus boast that, ally the property qualification was fixed at a minimum annual of the proceedings of her Diet from the moment when the first word payment of 30s. in direct taxes (i.e. taxes imposed by the central | was spoken within its walls. scene.' 204 JAPAN (DIVISIONS 06 or or or 60 or ) 1) " 1) 64 or 02 A special feature of the Diet's procedure helps to discourage 7. The Saikaidő, or western-sea circuit," which comprised oratorical displays. Each measure of importance has to be submitted nine provinces, viz:-- to a committee, and not until the latter's report has been received Chikuzen Chikushū Higo Hishū does serious debate take place. But in ninety-nine cases out of Chikugo Chikushū Hiuga Nisshū every hundred the committee's report determines the attitude of the Buzen Hoshũ Osumi Gūshū house, and speeches are felt to be more or less superfluous. One Bungo Hoshu Satsuma Sasshū result of this system is that business is done with a degree of celerity Hizen Hishū scarcely known in Occidental legislatures. For example, the meetings III. The two islands, viz. :- of the house of representatives during the session 1896-1897 were 32, and the number of hours occupied by the sittings aggregated 116. 1. Tsushima or Taishů | 2. Iki Ishu Yet the result was 55 bills debated and passed, several of them Upon comparing the above list with a map of Japan, it will be measures of prime importance, such as the gold standard bill, the seen that the main island contains the Go-kinai, Tõkaido, Tozando, budget and a statutory tariff law. It must be remembered that Hokurikudo, Sanindo, Sanyōdō, and one province (Kishu) of the although actual sittings of the houses are comparatively few and Nankaido. Omitting also the island of Awaji, the remaining brief, the committees remain almost constantly at work from morning provinces of the Nankaido give the name Shikoku (the four to evening throughout the twelve weeks of the session's duration provinces.") to the island in which they lie; while Saikaido coincides Divisions of the Empire.—The earliest traditional divisions of exactly with the large island Kiūshių (the nine provinces "'). Japan into provinces was made by the emperor Seimu (131-190), In 1868, when the rebellious nobles of Oshū and Dewa, in the in whose time the sway of the throne did not extend farther north Tozando, had submitted to the emperor, those two provinces were than a line curving from Sendai Bay, on the north-east coast of the subdivided, Dewa into Uzen and Ugo, and Oshū into Iwaki, Iwashiro, main island, to the vicinity of Niigata (one of the treaty ports), Rikuzen, Rikuchū and Michinoku (usually called Mutsu). This on the north-west coast. The region northward of this line was then increased the old number of provinces from sixty-six to seventy-one. occupied by barbarous tribes, of whom the Ainų (still to be found At the same time there was created a new circuit, called the Hokkaido, in Yezo) are probably the remaining descendants. The whole northern-sea circuit,", which comprised the eleven provinces country was then divided into thirty two provinces. In the 3rd into which the large island of Yezo was then divided (viz. Oshima, century the empress Jingõ, on her return from her victorious expedi- Shiribeshi, Ishikari, Teshibo, Kitami, Iburi, Hiaka, Tokachi, Kushiro, tion against Korea, portioned out the empire into five home provinces and Nemuro) and the Kurile Islands (Chishima). and seven circuits, in imitation of the Korean system. By the Another division of the old sixty-six provinces was made by emperor Mommu (696-707) some of the provinces were subdivided taking as a central point the ancient barrier of Osaka on the frontier so as to increase the whole number to sixty-six, and the boundaries of Omi and Yamashiro,—the region lying on the east, which consisted then fixed by him were re-surveyed in the reign of the emperor barrier, the remaining thirty-three provinces on the west being of thirty-three provinces, being called Kwanto, or "east of the Shõmu (723-756). The old division is as follows :- 1. The Go-kinai or “five home provinces " i.e. those lying imme- styled Kwansei, or west of the barrier.' At the present time, diately around Kyoto, the capital, viz. :- however, the term Kwanto is applied to only the eight provinces of Musashi, Sagami, Közuke, Shimotsuke, Kazusa, Shimõsa, Awa Yamashiro, also called Joshū Izumi, also called Senshū and Hitachi,--all lying immediately to the east of the old barrier of Yamato Washū Settsu Sesshū Hakone, in Sagami. Kawachi Kashū Chū-goku, or central provinces," is a name in common use for II. The seven circuits, as follow:- the Sanindo and Sanyōdō taken together. Saikoku, or " western 1. The Tokaido, or eastern-sea circuit,” which comprised provinces,” is another name for Kiūshiū, which in books again is fifteen provinces, viz. :-- frequently called Chinsei. Local Administrative Divisions. For purposes of local admin- Iga Ishū Kai or Koshyų istration Japan is divided into 3 urban prefectures (fu),_43 rural I sé Seishū Sagami Soshyu prefectures (ken), and 3. special dominions (cho), namely Formosa, Shima Shinshū Musashi Bushyū Hokkaido and South Sakhalin. Formosa and Sakhalin not having Owari Bishū Awa Boshū been included in Japan's territories until 1895 and 1905, respectively, Mika wa Sanshū Kazusa Sõshū are still under the military control of a governor-general, and belong, Tötomi Enshū Shimosa Soshū therefore, to an administrative system different from that prevailing Suruga Sunshū Hitachi Jūshū throughout the rest of the country. The prefectures and Hokkaido Isu Dzushu are divided again into 638 sub-prefectures (gun or kori);. 60 towns 2. The Tozando, or "eastern-mountain circuit,” which com- (shi);, 125 urban districts (cho) and 12,274 rural districts (son). prised eight provinces, viz.:- The three urban prefectures are Tōkyo, Osaka and Kioto, and the Omi Göshū Közuke urban and rural districts are distinguished according to the number Joshu of houses they contain. Each prefecture is named after its chief Mino Noshu Shimotsuke Yashū town, with the exception of Okinawa, which is the appellation of a Hida Hishū Mutsu Oshū group of islands called also Riūkiū (Luchu). The following table Shinano Shinshū Dewa Ushū shows the names of the prefectures, their areas, populations, number 3. The Hokurikudo, or northern-land circuit," which com- of sub-prefectures, towns and urban and rural divisions :- prised seven provinces, viz. :- Wakasa Jakushū Etchiu Esshū Echizen Esshū Echigo Esshū Kaga Kashū Sado (island), Sashū Area in Noto Nöshũ Prefecture. Population. 4. The Sanindo, or mountain-back circuit,” which com- Tokyo . 749.76 1,795,128 ? 157 prised eight provinces, viz. :- Kanagawa. 927.79 776,642 19 202 Tamba Tanshū Höki Hakushū Saitama 1,585.30 1,174,094 42 343 Tango Tanshū Izumo Unshū Chiba 1,943.85 1,273,387 69 286 Tajima Tanshū Iwami Sekishū Ibaraki 2,235.67 1,131,556 14 45 335 Inaba Inshū Oki (group of islands) Tochigi 2,854.14 788,324: 1 30 145 Gumma " 5. The Sanyōdō, or mountain-front circuit," which com- 2,427.21 774,654 38 169 Nagano 5,088.41 1,237,584 16 371 prised eight provinces, viz. :- Yamanashi 1,727.50 498,539 9 235 Harima Banshū Bingo or Bishū Shizuoka 3,002.76 1,199,805 13 306 Mimasaka Sakushu Aki Geishu Aichi 1,864.17 1,591,357 19 592 Bizen Bishū Suwo Boshū Miye 2,196.56 495,389 15 19 325 Bitcniu Bishū Nagato Choshū Gifu 4,001.84 996,062 18 299 6. The Nankaidő, or southern-sea circuit," which com- Shiga. 1,540.30 712,024 190 prised six provinces, viz. :- Fukui 1,621.50 633,840 171 Kii Kishū Sanuki Sanshū Ishikawa 1,611.59 392,905 8 259 Tanshū. Awaji (island) Іyo Yoshū Toyama 8 1,587.80 785,554 31 239 Awa Ashū Tosa Toshū The above 17 prefectures form Central Japan. Niigata 4.914.55 1,812,289 16 47 Fukushima 1 The names given in italics are those more commonly used. 5,042:57 1.057,971 17 37 Those in the first column are generally of Miyagi. 3,223.11 16 835,830 31 172 pure 3,576.89 those in the second column are composed of the Chinese word shū, 829,210 24 206 Akita 4,493.84 province," added to the Chinese pronunciation of one of the 775,077 9 42 197 characters with which the native name is written. In a few cases : This is not the population of the city proper, but that of the both names are used. urban prefecture. 12 . 97 19 or or . 1) 91 91 or or prefectures. Sub Districts. Urban 12 Rural 99 sq. m. Il win Towns. 40 20 or or 92 . i92 48 H6 I 11 9 11 8949仍​9827849229g以 ​or 38 2 I 1 I 1 2 I 1 I I 2 . 2 17 40 12 I2 II 16 or or 1 401 388 native derivation; Yamagata I I 1 2 1 II a ARMY] JAPAN 205 prefectures. Towns. Districts. Urban Districts. Rural coco Sub- . 13 20 . 10 18 I 2 I I 2 I 25 16 II I I I . Oto 14 276 6 10 I 2 I 1 2 12 18 12 . 2 1 38 12 331 I2 I 2 company that contracts for the execution of public works or the supply of articles to a local administration, as well as from persons unable to write their own names and the name of the candidate for whom they vote. Members of assembly are not paid. Area in Prefecture. Population. sq. m. For prefectural and sub-prefectural assemblies the term is four Iwate 5,359.17 726,380 23 217 years; for town and district assemblies, six years, with the pro- Aomori 3,617.89 612,171 2 9 159 vision that one-half of the members must be elected every third The above 7 prefectures form Northern Japan. year. The prefectural assemblies hold one session of 30 days Kioto 1,767.43 931,5761 18 260 yearly; the sub-prefectural assemblies, one session of not more Osaka 689.69 1,311,9091 9 13 289 | than 14 days. The town and district assemblies have no fixed Nara 1,200.46 538,507 142 Wakayama 1,851.29 681,572 7 16 215 session; they are summoned by the mayor or the head-man when Hiögo 3,318.31 1,667,226 29 403 their deliberations appear necessary, and they continue in session Okayama 2,509.04 1,132,000 19 29 383 till their business is concluded. Hiroshima 3,103.84 1,436,415 3 27 420 Yamaguchi The chief function of the assemblies is to deal with all questions 1,324.34 986,161 215 Shimane of local finance. They discuss and vote the yearly budgets; they 721,448 2,597.48 16 Tottori 1,335.99 418,929 pass the settled accounts; they fix the local taxes within a maximum 227 limit which bears a certain ratio to the national taxes; they make The above 10 prefectures forın Southern Japan. representations to the minister for home affairs; they deal with the Tokushima. 1,616.82 699,398 137 fixed property of the locality; they raise loans, and so on. It is Kagawa 976.46 700,462 7 166 necessary, however, that they should obtain the consent of the Ehime 2,033.57 997,481 283 minister for home affairs, and sometimes of the minister of finance Kochi 2,720.13 616,549 6 14 183 also, before disturbing any objects of scientific, artistic or historical The above 4 prefectures form the island of Shikoku, importance; before contracting loans; before imposing special taxes Nagasaki 1,401.49 821,323 15 288 or passing the normal limits of taxation; before enacting new local Saga 984.07 621,011 7 127 regulations or changing the old; before dealing with grants in aid Fukuoka 1,894.14 1,362,743 19 made by the central treasury, &c. The governor of a prefecture, 340 Kumamoto 2,774.20 1,151,401 who is appointed by the central administration, is invested with Oita. 2,400.27 839,485 12 considerable power. 251 He oversees the carrying out of all works Miyazaki 2,904.54 454,707 8 91 undertaken at the public expense; he causes bills to be drafted for Kagoshima. 3,589.76 1,104,631 380 discussion by an assembly; he is responsible for the administration Okinawa 935.18 469,203 5 52 of the funds and property of the prefecture; he orders payments The above 8 prefectures form Kiūshiū. and receipts; he directs the machinery for collecting taxes and fees; Hokkaido , 36,328.34 610,155 88 he summons a prefectural assembly, opens it and closes it, and has 3 19 456 competence to suspend its session should such a course seem Local Administrative System.-In the system of local necessary. Many of the functions performed by the governor with administration full effect is given to the principle of popular (gun-chô) in the case of sub-prefectural assemblies. This head-man regard to prefectural assemblies are discharged by a head-man representation. Each prefecture (urban or rural), each sub- is a salaried official appointed by the central administration. He prefecture, each town and each district (urban or rural) has its convenes, opens and closes the sub-prefectural assembly; he may local assembly, the number of members being fixed in proportion require it to reconsider any of its financial decisions that seem to the population. There is no superior limit of number in the assembly' adhere to its original view, he may refer the matter to improper, explaining his reasons for doing so," and should the case of a prefectural assembly, but the inferior limit is 30. the governor of the prefecture. On the other hand, the assembly For a town assembly, however, the superior limit is 60 and the is competent to appeal to the home minister from the governor's inferior 30; for a sub-prefectural assembly the corresponding decision. The sub-prefectural head-man may also take upon him- figures are 40 and 15, and for a district assembly, 30 and 8. self , in case of emergency, any of the functions falling within the competence of the sub-prefectural assembly, provided that he These bodies are all elective. The property qualification for reports the fact to the assembly and seeks its sanction at the earliest the franchise in the case of prefectural and sub-prefectural possible opportunity. In each district also there is a head-man, assemblies is an annual payment of direct national taxes to the but his post is always elective and generally non-salaried. He amount of 3 yen; and in the case of town and district assem- occupies towards a district assembly the same position that the sub- prefecture head-man holds towards a sub-prefectural assembly. blies, 2 yen; while to be eligible for election to a prefectural | Over the governors stands the minister for home affairs, who dis- assembly a yearly payment of 1o yen of direct national taxes charges general duties of superintendence and sanction, has com- is necessary; to a sub-prefectural assembly, 5 yen, and to a town petence to delete any item of a local budget, and may, with the or district assembly, 2 yen. Under these qualifications the emperor's consent, order the dissolution of a local assembly, provided that steps are taken to elect and convene another within three electors aggregate 2,009,745, and those eligible for election total months. 919,507. In towns and districts franchise-holders are further The machinery of local administration is completed by councils, divided into classes with regard to their payment of local taxes. of which the governor of a prefecture, the mayor? of a town, or Thus for town electors there are three classes, differentiated by and the councillors are partly elective, partly nominated by the the head-man of a sub-prefecture or district, is ex officio president, the following process: On the list of ratepayers the highest are central government. The councils may be said to stand in an checked off until their aggregate payments are equal to one- executive position towards the local legislatures, namely, the third of the total taxes. These persons form the first class. assemblies, for the former give effect to the measures voted by the Next below them the persons whose aggregate payments repre-submitted by them. This system of local government has now been latter, take their place in case of emergency and consider questions sent one-third of the total amount are checked off to form the in operation since 1885, and has been found to work well. It con- second class, and all the remainder form the third class. stitutes a thorough method of political education for the people. Each class elects one-third of the members of assembly. In feudal days popular representation had no existence, but a very In the districts there are only two classes, namely, those effective chain of local responsibility, was manufactured by dividing the people-apart from the samurai-into groups of five families, whose payments, in order from the highest, aggregate one- which were held jointly liable for any offence committed by one half of the total, the remaining names on the list being placed of their members. Thus it cannot be said that the people were in the second class. Each class elects one-half of the members. altogether unprepared for this new system. This is called the system of o-jinushi (large landowners) and is The Army.-The Japanese-as distinguished from the abori- found to work satisfactorily as a device for conferring represen- ginal inhabitants of Japan-having fought their way into the tative rights in proportion to property. The franchise is with country, are naturally described in their annals as The Ancient held from all salaried local officials, from judicial officials, from a nation of soldiers. The sovereign is said to have System. ministers of religion, from persons who, not being barristers by been the commander-in-chief and his captains were known as profession, assist the people in affairs connected with law courtso-omi and o-muraji, while the duty of serving in the ranks or official bureaux, and from every individual or member of a devolved on all subjects alike. This information is indeed 1 This is not the population of the city proper, but that of the : The mayor of a town (shicho) is nominated by the minister for urban prefecture. home affairs from three men chosen by the town assembly. 206 JAPAN (ARMY derived from tradition only, since the first written record goes | wind; how Mutsuru, ordered by an emperor to rescue a fish from the back no further than 712. We are justified, however, in believing feet with a crescent-headed arrow so that the fish dropped into the talons of an osprey without killing bird or fish, cut off the osprey's that at the close of the 7th century of the Christian era, when the palace lake and the bird continued its flight; and there are many empress Jito sat upon the throne, the social system of the Tang similar records of Japanese skill with the weapon. Still better dynasty of China commended itself for adoption; the distinc- authenticated were the feats performed at the "thirty-three-span tion of civil and military is said to have been then established halls " in Kioto and Yedo, where the archer had to shoot an arrow for the first time, though it probably concerned officials only. Cers through the whole length of a corridor 128 yards long and only 16 ft. high. Wada Daihachi, in the 17th century, succeeded in sending tain officers received definitely military commissions, as generals, 8133 arrows from end to end of the corridor in 24 consecutive hours, brigadiers, captains and so on; a military office (hyõbu-sho) was being an average of over 5 shafts per minute; and Masatoki, in 1852, organized, and each important district throughout the empire made 5383 successful shots in 20 hours, more than 4 a minute. The had its military division (gundan). One-third-some say one-capacity of the archer. lengths of the bow and arrow were determined with reference to the In the case of the bow, the unit of measure- fourth-of the nation's able-bodied males constituted the army. ment was the distance between the tips of the thumb and the little Tactically there was a complete organization, from the squad of finger with the hand fully stretched. Fifteen of these units gave the 5 men to the division of 600 horse and 400 foot. Service was for length of the bow—the maximum being about 7) ft. The unit for à defined period, during which taxes were remitted, so that Originally the bow was of unvarnished boxwood or zelkowa; but the arrow was from 12 to 15 hand-breadths, or from 3 ft. to 31 ft. military duties always found men ready to discharge them. subsequently bamboo alone came to be employed. Binding with Thus the hereditary soldier-afterwards known as the samurai or cord or rattan served to strengthen the bow, and for precision of bushi-did not yet exist, nor was there any such thing as an fight the arrow had three feathers, an eagle's wing being most exclusive right to carry arms. Weapons of war, the property esteemed for that purpose, and after it, in order, that of the copper of the state, were served out when required for fighting or for pheasant, the crane, the adjutant and the snipe. Next in importance to the bow came the sword, which is often training purposes. spoken of as the samurai's chief weapon, though there can be no At the close of the 8th century stubborn insurrections on the doubt that during long ages it ranked after the bow. It was a part of the aborigines gave new importance to the soldier. single-edged weapon remarkable for its three exactly similar curves-- edge, face-line and back; its almost imperceptibly convexed blade; The conscription list had to be greatly increased, and it came to its admirable tempering; its consummately skilled forging; its be a recognized principle that every stalwart man should bear razor-like sharpness; its cunning distribution of weight, giving a arms, every weakling become a bread-winner. Thus, for the maximum efficiency of stroke. The roth century saw this weapon first time, the distinction between “soldier and working carried to perfection, and it has been inferred that only from that man ”l received official recognition, and in consequence of the epoch did the samurai begin to esteem his sword as the greatest treasure he possessed, and to rely on it as his best instrument of circumstances attending the distinction a measure of contempt attack and defence. But it is evident that the evolution of such attached to the latter. The next stage of development had its a blade must have been due to an urgent, long-existing demand, and origin in the assumption of high offices of state by great families, that the katana came as the sequel of innumerable efforts on the part of the sword-smith and generous encouragement on that of the who encroached upon the imperial prerogatives, and appropri- soldier. Many pages of Japanese annals and household traditions ated as hereditary perquisites posts which should have remained are associated with its use. In every age numbers of men devoted in the gift of the sovereign. The Fujiwara clan, taking all the their whole lives to acquiring novel skill in swordsmanship. Many civil offices, resided in the capital, whereas the military posts fell of them invented systems of their own, differing from one another to the lot of the Taira and the Minamoto, who, settling in the his favourite pupils. Not merely the method of handling the weapon in some subtle details unknown to any save the master himself and provinces and being thus required to guard and police the out- had to be studied. Associated with sword-play was an art variously lying districts, found it expedient to surround themselves with known as shinobi, yawara, and jujutsu, names which imply the men who made soldiering a profession. These latter, in their exertion of muscular force in such a manner as to produce a maximum turn, transmitted their functions to their sons, so that there strength so as to become auxiliary to one's own. of effect with a minimum of effort, by directing an adversary's It was an essential grew up in the shadow of the great houses a number of military element of the expert's art not only that he should be competent families devoted to maintaining the power and promoting the to defend himself with any object that happened to be within reach, interests of their masters, from whom they derived their own but also that without an orthodox weapon he should be capable of inflicting fatal or disabling injury on an assailant. In the many privileges and emoluments. records of great swordsmen instances are related of men seizing a From the middle of the 10th century, therefore, the terms piece of firewood, a brazier-iron, or a druggist's pestle as a weapon samurai and bushi acquired a special significance, being applied of offence, while, on the other side, an umbrella, an iron fan or even to themselves and their followers by the local magnates, whose a pot-lid served for protection. The samurai had to be prepared for every emergency. power tended more and more to eclipse even that of the throne, | assailants, his art of yawara was supposed to supply him with Were he caught weaponless by a number of and finally, in the 12th century, when the Minamoto brought the expedients for emerging unscathed. "Nothing counted save the whole country under the sway of military organization, the issue.. The methods of gaining victory or the circumstances attenda privilege of bearing arms was restricted to the samurai. Thence-ing defeat were scarcely taken into consideration. The true samurai forth the military class entered upon a period of administrative had to rise superior to all contingencies. Out of this perpetual on the part of hundreds of experts to discover and perfect and social superiority which lasted, without serious interruption, novel developments of swordsmanship, there grew a habit which until the middle of the 19th century. But it is to be observed held its yogue down to modern times, namely, that when a man had that the distinction between soldier and civilian, samurai and mastered one style of sword-play in the school of a teacher, he set commoner, was not of ancient existence, nor did it arise from any throughout the provinces, challenging every expert, and, in the event himself to stu ly all others, and for that purpose undertook a tour question of race or caste, victor or vanquished, as is often of defeat, constituting himself the victor's pupil. The sword supposed and stated. It was an outcome wholly of ambitious exercised a potent influence on the life of the Japanese nation. The usurpations, which, relying for success on force of arms, gave distinction of wearing it, the rights that it conferred, the deeds practical importance to the soldier, and invested his profession wrought with it, the fame attaching to special skill in its use, the superstitions connected with it, the incredible value set upon a fine with factitious honour. blade, the honours bestowed on an expert sword-smith, the tradi. The bow was always the chief weapon of the fighting-man in tions that had grown up around celebrated weapons, the profound Japan. “War" and bow-and-arrow were synonymous terms. study needed to be a competent judge of a sword's qualities-all Weapons. Tradition tells how Tametomo shot an arrow through these things conspired to give the katana an importance beyond the the crest of his brother's helmet, in order to recall limits of ordinary comprehension. A samurai carried at least two the youth's allegiance without injuring him; how Nasuno Michitaka swords, a long and a short. Their scabbards of lacquered wood discharged a shaft that severed the stem of a fan swayed by the place by cords of plaited silk. Sometimes he increased the number were thrust into his girdle, not slung from it, being fastened in their of swords to three, four or even five, before going into battle, and 1 The term hyaku-sho, here translated "working man,' this array was supplemented by a dagger carried in the bosom. The literally “one engaged in any of the various callings" apart from short sword was not employed in the actual combat. Its use was military service. "In a later age a further distinction was established to cut off an enemy's head after overthrowing him, and it also served between the agriculturist, the artisan, and the trader, and the word a defeated soldier in his last resort-suicide. In general the long kyaku-sho then came to carry the signification of " husbandman" sword did not measure more than 3 ft., including the hilt; but some were 5 ft. long, and some 7. Considering that the scabbard, being means only: WEAPONSI JAPAN 207 Armour, fastened to the girdle, had no play, the feat of drawing one of these the assaulting army, taking the word from its commander, raised very long swords demanded extraordinary aptitude. Spear and glaive were also ancient Japanese weapons. The oldest a shout of “ Eil Eil” to which the other side replied, and the form of spear was derived from China. Its handle measured about formalities having been thus satisfied, the fight commenced. 6 ft. and its blade 8 in., and it had sickle-shaped horns at the junction In early medieval days tactics were of the crudest descrip. of blade and hilt (somewhat resembling a European ranseur). This tion. An army consisted of a congeries of little bands, each weapon served almost exclusively for guarding palisades and gates. In the 14th century a true lance came into use. Its length varied under the order of a chief who considered himself independent, greatly, and it had a hog-backed blade tempered almost as finely and instead of subordinating his movements to a general plan, as the sword itself. This, too, was a Chinese type, as was also the struck a blow wherever he pleased. From time immemorial glaive. The glaive (naginata, long sword) was a scimitar-like blade, a romantic value has attached in Japan to the first of anything: some 3 ft. in length, fixed on a slightly longer haft. Originally the the first snow of winter; the first water drawn from the well on warlike monks alone employed this weapon, but from the 12th century it found much favour among military men. Ultimately, New Year's Day; the first blossom of the spring; the first note however, its use may be said to have been limited to women and of the nightingale. So in war the first to ride up to the foe or priests. The spear, however, formed a useful adjunct of the sword, the wielder of the first spear was held in high honour, and a for whereas the latter could not be used except by troops in very samurai strove for that distinction as his principal duty. It loose formation, the former served for close-order fighting. Japanese armour (gusoku) may be broadly described as plate necessarily resulted, too, not only from the nature of the weapons armour, but the essential difference between it and the European employed, but also from the immense labour devoted by the type was that, whereas the latter took its shape from the true samurai to perfecting himself in their use, that displays of body, the former neither resembled nor was intended to individual prowess were deemed the chief object in a battle. resemble ordinary garments. Hence the only changes that occurred in Japanese armour from generation to generation had their origin Some tactical formations borrowed from China were familiar in in improved methods of construction. In general appearance it Japan, but their intelligent use and their modification to suit the differed from the panoply of all other nations, so that, although to circumstances of the time were inaugurated only by the great its essential parts we may apply with propriety the European terms captains of the 15th and 16th centuries. Prior to that epoch a -helmet, corselet, &c.- individually and in combination these parts were not at all like the originals of those names. Perhaps the battle resembled a gigantic fencing match. Men fought as easiest way of describing the difference is to say that whereas a individuals, not as units of a tactical formation, and the engage- European knight seemed to be clad in a suit of metal clothes, a ment consisted of a number of personal duels, all in simultaneous Japanese samurai looked as if he wore protective curtains. The Japanese armour was, in fact, suspended from, rather than fitted progress. It was the samurai's habit to proclaim his name and to, the person. Only one of its elements found a counterpart in the titles in the presence of the enemy, sometimes adding from his European suit, namely, a tabard, which, in the case of men of rank, own record or his father's any details that might tend to was made of the richest brocade. Iron and leather were the chief dispirit his hearers. Then some one advancing to cross weapons materials, and as the laminae were strung together with a vast number of coloured cords-silk or leather-an appearance of con- with him would perform the same ceremony of self-introduction, siderable brilliancy. was produced. Ornamentation did not stop and if either found anything to upbraid in the others ante- there. Plating and inlaying with gold and silver, and finely wrought cedents or family history, he did not fail to make loud reference decoration in chiselled, inlaid and repoussé work were freely applied. to it, such a device being counted efficacious as a means of dis- On the whole, however, despite the highly artistic character of its turbing an adversary's sang-froid, though the principle under- ornamentation, the loose, pendulous nature of Japanese armour detracted greatly from its workmanlike aspect, especially when the lying the mutual introduction was courtesy. The duellists horo was added a curious appendage in the shape of a curtain of could reckon on finishing their fight undisturbed, but the victor fine transparent silk, which was either stretched in front between the frequently had to endure the combined assault of a number of horns of the helmet and the tip of the bow, or worn on the shoulders and back, the purpose in either case being to turn the point of an the comrades or retainers of the vanquished. Of course a A true samurai observed strict rules of etiquette with skilled swordsman did not necessarily seek a single combat; he regard even to the garments worn under his armour, and it was part was equally ready to ride into the thick of the fight without dis- of his soldierly capacity to be able to bear the great weight of the crimination, and a group of common soldiers never hesitated whole without loss of activity, a feat impossible to any untrained man of modern days. Common soldiers were generally content disengaged. But the general feature of a battle was individual to make a united attack upon a mounted officer if they found him with a comparatively light helmet and a corselet. The Japanese never had a war-horse worthy to be so called. The contests, and when the fighting had ceased, each samurai pro- mis-shapen ponies which carried them to battle showed qualities of ceeded to the tent of the commanding officer and submitted War horses. hardiness and endurance, but were SO deficient in stature and massiveness that when mounted by a man for inspection the heads of those whom he had killed. in voluminous armour they looked painfully puny. Nothing is The disadvantage of such a mode of fighting was demonstrated known of the early Japanese saddle, but at the beginning of for the first time when the Mongols invaded Japan in 1274. historic times it approximated closely to the Chinese type. Subse- The invaders moved in phalanx, guarding themselves quently a purely Japanese shape was designed. It consisted of a Change of wooden frame so constructed that a padded numnah could be with pavises, and covering their advance with a Tactics. fastened to it. Galled backs or withers were unknown with such a host of archers shooting clouds of poisoned arrows. saddle: it fitted any horse. The stirrup, originally a simple affair When a Japanese samurai advanced singly and challenged one resembling that of China and Europe, afterwards took the form of a of them to combat, they opened their ranks, enclosed the chal- shoe-sole with upturned toe. Both stirrups and saddle-frame were often of beautiful workmanship, the former covered with rich gold lenger and cut him to pieces. Many Japanese were thus slain, lacquer, the latter inlaid with gold or silver. In the latter part of and it was not until they made a concerted movement of attack the military epoch chain-armour was adopted for the horse, and its that they produced any effect upon the enemy. But although head was protected by a monster-faced mask of iron. the advantage of massing strength seems to have been recognized, Flags were used in battle as well as on ceremonial occasions. the Japanese themselves did not adopt the formation which the Some were monochrome, as the red and white flags of the Taira Mongols had shown to be so formidable. Individual prowess Barly and the Minamoto clans in their celebrated struggle continued to be the prominent factor in battles down to a com- Strategy during the 12th century; and some were streamers paratively recent period. The great captains Takeda Shingen and Tactics.emblazoned with figures of the sun, the moon, a dragon, and Uyesugi Kenshin are supposed to have been Japan's pioneer a tiger and so forth, or with religious legends. Fans with iron tacticians. They certainly appreciated the value of a formation ribs were carried by commanding officers, and signals to advance in which the action of the individual should be subordinated to or retreat were given by beating drums and metal gongs and blow. the unity of the whole. But when it is remembered that fire- ing conches. During the military epoch a campaign was opened arms had already been in the hands of the Japanese for several or a contest preluded by a human sacrifice to the god of war, the years, and that they had means of acquainting themselves with victim at this rite of blood (chi-matsuri) being generally a prisoner or a condemned criminal. Although ambuscades and surprises 1 A tent was simply a space enclosed with strips of cloth or silk, played a large part in all strategy, pitched battles were the on which was emblazoned the crest of the commander. It had no covering: general rule, and it was essential that notice of an intention to The Japanese never at any time of their history used poisoned attack should be given by discharging a singing arrow. Thereafter I arrows; they despised them as depraved and inhuman weapons. arrow. a 208 (SAMURAI JAPAN Ethics of the the tactics of Europe through their intercourse with the Dutch, a phalanx of complicated organization, difficult to manœuvre it is remarkable that the changes attributed to Takeda and and liable to be easily thrown into confusion. Yet when Yamaga Uyesugi were not more drastic. Speaking broadly, what they in the 17th century interpreted these ancient Chinese treatises, did was to organize a column with the musqueteers and archers he detected in them suggestions for a very shrewd use of in front; the spearmen and swordsmen in the second line; the the principle of échelon, and applied it to devise formations cavalry in the third line; the commanding officer in the rear, which combined much of the frontal expansion of the line with and the drums and standards in the centre. At close quarters the solidity of the column. More than that cannot be said for the spear proved a highly effective weapon, and in the days of Japanese tactical genius. The samurai was the best fighting Hideyoshi (1536–1598) combined flank .and front attacks by unit in the Orient-probably one of the best fighting units the bands of spearmen became a favourite device. The importance world ever produced. It was perhaps because of that excellence of a strong reserve also received recognition, and in theory, at all that his captains remained indifferent tacticians. events, à tolerably intelligent system of tactics was adopted. In estimating the military capacity of the Japanese, it is But not until the close of the 17th century did the doctrine of essential to know something of the ethical code of the samurai, strictly disciplined action obtain practical vogue. Yamaga the bushido (way of the warrior) as it was called. A Soko is said to have been the successful inculcator of this prin- typical example of the rules of conduct prescribed ciple, and from his time the most approved tactical formation by feudal chieftains is furnished in the code of Kato Samurail. was known as the Yamagaryū (Yamaga style), though it showed Kiyomasa, a celebrated general of the 16th century:- no other innovation than strict subordination of each unit to the Regulations for Samurai of every Rank; the Highest and Lowest alike. general plan. Although, tactically speaking, the samurai was everything and 6 a.m. military exercises shall be practised. Archery, gunnery and 1. The routine of service must be strictly observed. From the system nothing before the second half of the 17th century, horsemanship must not be neglected. If any man shows excep- and although strategy was chiefly a matter of deceptional proficiency he shall receive extra pay. Military 2. Those that desire recreation may engage in hawking, deer- Principles. tion, surprises and ambushes, it must not be supposed that there were no classical principles. The student hunting or wrestling. 3. With regard to dress, garments of cotton or pongee shall be of European military history searches in vain for the rules and worn.. Any man incurring debts owing to extravagance of costume maxims of war so often invoked by glib critics, but the student or living shall be considered a law-breaker. If, however, being of Japanese history is more successful. Here, as in virtually zealous in the practice of military arts suitable to his rank, he desires every field of things Japanese, retrospect discovers the ubi- to hire instructors, an allowance may be granted to him for that purpose. quitous Chinaman. The treatises of Sung and 'Ng (called in Japan 4. The staple of diet shall be unhulled rice. At social entertain. Son and Go) Chinese generals of the third century after Christ, ments one guest for one host is the proper limit. Only when men were the classics of Far-Eastern captains through all generations. are assembled for military exercises shall many dine together. (See The Book of War, tr. E. F. Calthrop, 1908.) Yoshitsunē, in 5. It is the duty of every samurai to make himself acquainted the 12th century, deceived a loving girl to obtain a copy of with the principles of his craft. Extravagant displays of adornment Sung's work which her father had in his possession, and Yamaga, 6. Dancing or organizing dances is unlawful; it is likely to betray in the 17th century, when he set himself to compose a book on sword-carrying men into acts of violence. Whatever a man does tactics, derived his materials almost entirely from the two should be done with his heart. Therefore for the soldier military Chinese monographs. These treatises came into the hands of amusements alone are suitable. The penalty for violating this provision is death by suicide. the Japanese in the 8th century, when the celebrated Kibi no 7. Learning shall be encouraged. Military books must be read. Mabi went to study civilization in China, just as his successors The spirit of loyalty and filial piety must be educated before all of the 19th century went to study a new civilization in Europe things.. Poem-composing, pastimes are not to be engaged in by samurai. To be addicted to such amusements is to resemble a and America. Thenceforth Son and Go became household A man born a samurai should live and die sword in hand. words among Japanese soldiers. Their volumes were to the Unless he is thus trained in time of peace, he will be useless in the samurai what the Mahayana was to the Buddhist. They were hour of stress. To be brave and warlike must be his invariable believed to have collected whatever of good had preceded them, condition. 8. Whosoever finds these rules too severe shall be relieved from and to have forecast whatever of good the future might produce. service. Should investigation show that any one is so unfortunate The character of their strategic methods, somewhat analogous as to lack manly qualities, he shall be singled out and dismissed to those of 18th-century Europe, may be gathered from the forthwith. The imperative character of these instructions must not be doubted. following: " An army undertaking an offensive campaign must be twice as The plainly paramount purpose of these rules was to draw a numerous as the enemy. A force investing a fortress should be sharp line of demarcation between the samurai and the courtiers numerically ten times the garrison... When the adversary holds living in Kioto. The dancing, the couplet-composing, the sump- high ground, turn his flank; do not deliver a frontal attack. When he has a mountain or a river behind him, cut his lines of communica. tuous living and the fine costumes of the officials frequenting tion. If he deliberately assumes a position from which victory is the imperial capital were strictly interdicted by the feudatories. his only escape, hold him there, but do not molest him. If you can | Frugality, fealty and filial piety-these may be called the funda- surround him, leave one route open for his escape, since desperate mental virtues of the samurai. Owing to the circumstances out men fight fiercely. When you have to cross a river, put your advance- guard and your rear-guard at a distance from the banks. When of which his caste had grown, he regarded all bread-winning the enemy has to cross a river, let him get well engaged in the pursuits with contempt, and despised money. To be swayed in operation before you strike at him. In a march, make celerity your the smallest degree by mercenary motives was despicable in his first object. Pass no copse, enter no ravine, nor approach any eyes. Essentially a stoic, he made self-control the ideal of his thicket until your scouts have explored it fully." existence, and practised the courageous endurance of suffering Such precepts are multiplied; but when these ancient authors so thoroughly that he could without hesitation inflict on his own discuss tactical formations, they do not seem to have contem-body pain of the most horrible description. Nor can the courage plated anything like rapid, well-ordered changes of mobile, of the samurai justly be ascribed to bluntness of moral sensibility highly trained masses of men from one formation to another, resulting from semi-savage conditions of life. From the 8th or their quick transfer from point to point of a battlefield. The century onwards the current of existence in Japan set with basis of their tactics is The Book of Changes. Here again is general steadiness in the direction of artistic refinement and encountered the superstition that underlies nearly all Chinese voluptuous luxury, amidst which men could scarcely fail to and Japanese institutions: the superstition that took captive acquire habits and tastes inconsistent with acts of high courage even the great mind of Confucius. The positive and the nega- and great endurance. The samurai's mood was not a product tive principles; the sympathetic and the antipathetic elements; of semi-barbarism, but rather a protest against emasculating cosmos growing out of chaos; chaos re-absorbing cosmos-on civilization. He schooled himself to regard death by his own such fancies they founded their tactical system. The result was / hand as a normal eventuality. The story.of other nations shows woman. SAMURAI JAPAN 209 Abolition of tbe Samural. epochs when death was welcomed as a relief and deliberately prepared to meet every fate with indifference. The attainment invited as a reſuġe from the mere weariness of living. But of that state seems to have been a fact in the case both of the wherever there has been liberty to choose, and leisure to employ, samurai of the military epoch and of the Japanese soldier to-day. a painless mode of exit from the world, men have invariably The policy of seclusion adopted by the Tokugawa adminis- selected it. The samurai, however, adopted in harakiri (dis-tration after the Shimabara insurrection included an order thạt embowelment) a mode of suicide so painful and so shocking no samurai should acquire foreign learning. that to school the mind to regard it with indifference and Nevertheless some knowledge could not fail to perform it without flinching was a feat not easy to conceive. filter in through the Dutch factory at Deshima, and thus, a few Assistance was often rendered by a friend who stood ready to years before the advent of the American ships, Takashima decapitate the victim immediately after the stomach had been Shūhan, governor of Nagasaki, becoming persuaded of the fate gashed; but there were innumerable examples of men who con- his country must invite if she remained oblivious of the world's summated the tragedy without aid, especially when the sacrifice progress, memorialized the Yedo governnient in the sense that, of life was by way of protest against the excesses of a feudal unless Japan improved her weapons of war and reformed her chief or the crimes of a ruler, or when some motive for secrecy military system, she could not escape humiliation such as had existed. It must be observed that the suicide of the samurai just overtaken China. He obtained small arms and field-guns was never inspired by •any doctrine like that of Hegesias. of modern type from Holland, and, repairing to Yedo with a Death did not present itself to him as a legitimate means of company of men trained according to the new, tactics, he offered escaping from the cares and disappointments of life. Self- an object lesson for the consideration of the conservative destruction had only one consolatory aspect, that it was the officials. They answered by throwing him into prison. But soldier's privilege to expiate a crime with his own sword, not Egawa, one of his retainers, proved a still more zealous reformer, under the hand of the executioner. It rested with his feudal and his foresight being vindicated by the appearance of the chief to determine his guilt, and his peremptory duty was never American war-vessels in 1853, he won the government's confi- to question the justice of an order to commit suicide, but to. dence and was entrusted with the work of planning and building obey without murmur or protest. For the rest, the general forts at Shinagawa and Shimoda. At Egawa's instance rifles motives for suicide were to escape falling into the hands of a and cannon were imported largely from Europe, and their manu- victorious enemy, to remonstrate against some official abuse facture was commenced in Japan, a powder-mill also being estab- which no ordinary complaint could reach, or, by means of a lished with machinery obtained from Holland. Finally, in dying protest, to turn a liege lord from pursuing courses injurious 1862, the shogun's government adopted the military system of to his reputation and his fortune. This last was the noblest the West, and organized three divisions of all arms, with a total and by no means the most infrequent reason for suicide. Scores strength of 13,600 officers and men. Disbanded at the fall of of examples are recorded of men who, with everything to make the shogunate in 1867, this force nevertheless served as a model existence desirable, deliberately laid down their lives at the for a similar organization under the imperial government, and prompting of loyalty. Thus the samurai rose to a remarkable in the meanwhile the principal fiefs had not been idle, some-as height of moral nobility. He had no assurance that his death Satsuma-adopting English tactics, others following France or might not be wholly fruitless, as indeed it often proved. If the Germany, and a few choosing Dutch. There appeared upon the sacrifice achieved its purpose, if it turned a liege lord from evil stage at this juncture a great figure in the person of Omura courses, the samurai could hope that his memory would be Masujiro, a samurai of the Choshū clan. He established Japan's honoured. But if the lord resented such a violent and con- first military school at Kióto in 1868; he attempted to substitute spicuous mode of reproving his excesses, then the faithful vassal's for the hereditary soldier conscripts taken from all classes of the retribution would be an execrated memory and, perhaps, people, and he conceived the plan of dividing the whole empire suffering for his family and relatives. Yet the deed was per into six military districts. An assassin's dagger removed him formed again and again. It remains to be noted that the on the threshold of these great reforms, but his statue now samurai cntertained a high respect for the obligations of truth; stands in Tokyo and his name is spoken with reverence by all “A bushi has no second word,” was one of his favourite mottoes. his countrymen. In 1870 Yamagata Aritomo (afterwards However, a reservation is necessary here. The samurai's Field-Marshal Prince Yamagata) and Saigo Tsugumichi (after- doctrine was not truth for truth's sake, but truth for the sake wards Field-Marshal Marquis Saigo) returned from a tour of of the spirit of uncompromising manliness on which he based all military inspection in Europe, and in 1872 they organized a his code of morality. A pledge or a promise must never be corps of Imperial guards, taken from the three clans which had broken, but the duty of veracity did not override the interests been conspicuous in the work of restoring the administrative or the welfare of others. Generosity to a defeated foe was also power to the sovereign, namely, the clans of Satsuma, Choshū one of the tenets of the samurai's ethics. History contains and Tosa. They also established garrisons in Tokyo, Sendai, many instand of the cxercise of that quality. Osaka and Kumamoto, thus placing the military authority in Something more, however, than a profound conception of the hands of the central government. Reforms followed quickly. duty was needed to nerve the samurai for sacrifices such as he In 1872, the hyõbusho, an office which controlled all matters seems to have been always ready to make. It is true relating to war, was replaced by two departments, one of war Religious lafluence. that Japanese parents of the military class took pains and one of the navy, and, in 1873, an imperial decree substituted to familiarize their children of both sexes from very universal conscription for the system of hereditary militarism. tender years with the idea of self-destruction at any time. Many persons viewed this experiment with deep misgiving. But superadded to the force of education and the incentive of They feared that it would not only alienate the samurai, but also tradition there was a transcendental influence. Buddhism entrust the duty of defending the country to men unfitted by supplied it. The tenets of that creed divided themselves, tradition and custom for such a task, namely, the farmers, broadly speaking, into two doctrines, salvation by faith and artisans and tradespeople, who, after centuries of exclusion from salvation by works, and the chief exponent of the latter prin- the military pale, might be expected to have lost all martial spirit. ciple is the sect which prescribes meditation as the vehicle of The government, however, was not deterred by these appre- enlightenment. Whatever be the mental processes induced by hensions. It argued that since the distinction of samurai and this rite, those who have practised it insist that it leads finally commoner had not originally existed, and since the former was to a state of absorption, in which the mind is flooded by an illu- à product simply of accidental conditions, there was no valid mination revealing the universe in a new aspect, absolutely free reason to doubt the military capacity of the people at large. from all traces of passion, interest or affection, and showing, The justice of this reasoning was put to a conclusive test a few written across everything in flaming letters, the truth that for years later. Originally the period of service with the colours him who has found Buddha there is neither birth nor death, was fixed at 3 years, that of service with the first and second growth nor decay. Lifted high above his surroundings, he is reserves being 2 years each. One of the serious difficulties XV 4* 210 JAPAN (ARMY encountered at the outset was that samurai conscripts were too men;and lastly, sanitary arrangements underwent much modification. proud to stand in the ranks with common rustics or artisans, An arsenal had been established in Tokyo, in 1868, for the manufac and above all to obey the commands of plebeian officers. But by an arsenal in Osaka for the manufacture of guns and gun-ammuni- ture of small arms and small-arm ammunition; this was followed patriotism soon overcame this obstacle. The whole country-tion, four powder factories were opened, and in later years big-gun with the exception of the northern island, Yezo was parcelled factories at Kure and Mororan. Japan was able to make 12-inch out into six military districts (headquarters Tokyo, Osaka, guns in 1902, and her capacity for this kind of work was in 1909 second to none. She has her own patterns of rifle and field gun, Nagoya, Sendai, Hiroshima and Kumamoto) each furnishing a so that she is independent of foreign aid so far as armaments are division of all arms and services. There was also from 1876 a concerned. In 1900, she sent a force to North China to assist in guards division in Tokyo. The total strength on a peace footing the campaign for the relief of the foreign legations in Peking, and was 31,680 of all arms, and on a war footing, 46,350. The defence on that occasion her troops were able to observe at first hand the of Yezo was entrusted to a colonial militia.' It may well be qualities and methods of European soldiers. In 1904 took place the great war with Russia (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WÁR). After the supposed that to find competent officers for this army greatly war important changes were made in the direction of augmenting perplexed its organizers. The military school-now in Tokyo and improving the armed forces. The number of divisions was but originally founded by Omura in Kioto-had to turn out increased to 19 (including the guards), of which one division is for graduates at high pressure, and private soldiers who showed any corps were organized, as well as horse artillery, heavy field artillery service in Korea and one for service in Manchuria. Various technical special aptitude were rapidly promoted to positions of command. and machine-gun units. The field-gun was replaced by a quick- French military instructors were engaged, and the work of firer manufactured at Osaka, and much attention was given to the translating manuals was carried out with all celerity. In 1877, question of remounts-for, both in the war with China and in that with this new army of conscripts had to endure a crucial test: it had far-reaching change in all armies of late years is the shortening Russia, the horsing of the cavalry had been poor. Perhaps the most to take the field against the Satsuma samurai, the very flower of the term of service with the colours to 2 years for the infantry, of their class, who in that year openly rebelled against the Tokyo 3 years remaining the rule for other arms. This was adopted by government. The campaign lasted eight months; as there had Japan after the war, the infantry period of service with the reserves not yet been time to form the reserves, the Imperial forces were augmenting the potential war strength. As to this, figures are kept being extended to 141 years, and of course has the effect of greatly soon seriously reduced in number by casualties in the field and secret, nor can any accurate approximation be attempted without by disease, the latter claiming many victims owing to defective danger of error. Rough estimates of Japan's war strength have, how- commissariat. It thus became necessary to have recourse to ever, been made, giving 550,000 as the war strength of the first line volunteers, but as these were for the most part samurai, the | (hojú): 370,000 second line or köbi, and 110,000 for the fully trained army, plus 34,000 for garrisons overseas and 150,000 special reserves expectation was that their hereditary instinct of fighting would portion of the territorial forces, or Kokumin-hei. All these branches compensate for lack of training. That expectation was not can further draw upon half-trained elements to the number of about fulfilled. Serving side by side in the field, the samurai volun- 800,000 to replace losses. Japan's available strength in the last teer and the heimin? regular were found to differ by precisely resort for home defence was recently (1909), stated by the Russian Novoye Vremya at 3,000,000. In 20 years, when the present system the degree of their respective training. The fact' was thus has produced its full effect, the first line should be 740,000 strong, finally established that the fighting qualities of the farmer and the second line 780,000, and the third line about 3,850,000 (3,000,000 artisan reached as high a standard as those of the bushi. untrained and 850,000 partly trained). Details can be found in Journal of the R. United Service Institution, Dec. 1909-Jan. 1910. Thenceforth the story of the Japanese army is one of steady pro- At 20 years of age every Japanese subject, of whatever status, gress and development. In 1878, the military duties of the empire becomes liable for military service. But the difficulty of making were divided among three offices: namely, the army department, service universal in the case of a growing population is the general staff and the inspection department, while the six felt here as in Europe, and practically the system has Recruiting. divisions of troops were organized into three army corps. elements of the old-fashioned conscription. The minimum height is In 1879, the total period of colour and reserve service became 10 5:2 ft. (artillery and engineers, 5.4ft.). There are four principal kinds years. In 1883 the period was extended to 12 years, the list of of service, namely, service with the colours (genyeki), for two years; exemptions was abbreviated, and above all substitution was no service with the first reserves (yobi), for 7 years; service with the longer allowed. Great care was devoted to the training of officers; second reserves (kõbi), for 7 years; and service with the territorial promotion went by merit, and at least ten of the most promising troops (ko kumin-hei) up to the age of 40. Special reserve (hojů) officers were sent abroad every year to study. A comprehensive takes up men who, though liable for conscription and medically quali- system of education for the rank and file was organized. Great fied, have escaped the lot for service with the colours. It consists of difficulty was experienced in procuring horses suitable for cavalry, two classes, one of men remaining in the category of hojū for 71 and indeed the Japanese army long remained weak in this arm. years, the other for 1 year, before passing into the territorial army. In 1886, the whole littoral of the empire was divided into five Their purpose is similar to that of special or ersatz reserves elsewhere. districts, each with its admiralty and its naval port, and the army The first class receives the usual short initial training: Men of the being made responsible for coast defence, a battery construction second class, in ordinary, circumstances, pass, after their i} year's corps was formed. Moreover, an exhaustive scheme was elaborated inability, to the territorial army untrained. As for the first and to secure full co-operation between the army and navy. In 1888 second general reserves (yobi and kõbi), each is called out twice during the seven divisions of the army first found themselves prepared to its full term for short refresher After reaching the take the field, and, in 1893, a revised system of mobilization was territorial army a man is relieved from all further training. The sanctioned, to be put into operation the following year, for the Chino- total number of youths eligible for conscription each year is about Japanese War (q.v.). At this period the division, mobilized for 435,000, but the annual contingent for full service is not much more service in the field, consisted of i2 battalions of infantry, 3 troops of than 100,000. Conscripts in the active army may be discharged cavalry, 4 batteries of field and 2 of mountain artillery, 2 companies before the expiration of two years if their conduct and aptitude are of sappers and train, totalling 18,492 of all arms with 5633, horses. exceptional. The guards had only 8 battalions and 4 batteries (field). The A youth is exempted if it be clearly established ? that his family field army aggregated over 120,000, with 168 field and 72 mountain is dependent upon his earnings., Except for permanent deformities guns, and the total of all forces, field, garrison and dépôt, was 220,580 men are put back for one year before being finally rejected on medical of all arms, with 47,220 horses and 294 guns. Owing, however, to grounds. Men who have been convicted of crime are disqualified, various modifications necessitated by circumstances, the numbers but those who have been temporarily deprived of civil rights must actually on duty were over 240,000, with 6495 non-combatant present themselves for conscription at the termination of their employees and about 100,000 coolies who acted as carriers. The sentence. Educated men may enrol themselves as one-year volun- infantry, were armed with the Murata single-loader rifle, but the teers instead of drawing lots, this privilege of entry enduring up to field artillery was inferior, and the only two divisions equipped with the age of 28, after which, service for the full term without drawing magazine rifles and smokeless powder never came into action. lots is imposed. Residence in a foreign country secures exemption The experiences gained in this war bore large fruit. The total term up to the age of 32-provided that official permission to go abroad of service with the colours and the reserves was slightly increased; has been obtained. Å man returning after the age of 32 is drafted the col militia of Yezo (Hokkaido) was organized as a seventh into the territorial army, but if he returns before age he must line division; 5 new divisions were added, bringing the whole number volunteer to receive training, otherwise he is taken without lot for of divisions to 13 (including the guards); a mixed brigade was service with the colours. The system of volunteering is largely stationed in Formosa (then newly added to Japan's dominions): resorted to by persons of the better classes. Any youth who a high military council composed of field-marshals was created; the cavalry was brigaded; the garrison artillery was increased * The privilege at first led to great abuses. It became a common strenuous efforts were made to improve the education of officers and thing to employ some aged and indigent person, set him up as the head of a branch family," and give him for adopted son a youth · The general term for commoners as distinguished from samurai. I liable to conscription. courses. 63 ARMY JAPAN 211 Service. Schools. possesses certain educational qualifications is entitled to volunteer on foreign service, but their recruiting areas in Japan are maintained. for training: If accepted after medical inspection, he serves with There are also four cavalry brigades, and a number of unassigned the colours for one year, during three months of which time he must regiments of field and mountain artillery, as well as garrison artillery live in barracks-unless a special permit be granted by his com- and army technical troops. The organization of the active army by manding officer. A volunteer has to contribute to his maintenance regiments is 176. infantry regiments of 3, battalions; 27 cavalry and equipment, although youths who cannot afford the full expense, regiments; 30 field artillery regiments each of 6 and 3 mountain if otherwise qualified, are assisted by the state. At the conclusion of artillery regiments each of 3 batteries; 6 regiments and 6 battalions a year's training the volunteer is drafted into the first reserve for of siege, heavy field and fortress artillery; 20 battalions engineers; 61 years, and then into the second reserve for 5 years, so that his 19 supply and transport battalions. total period (124 years) of service before passing into the territorial The medical service is exceptionally well organized. It received army is the same as that of an ordinary conscript. The main purpose unstinted praise from European and American experts who observed of the one-year voluntariat, as in Germany, is to provide officers for it closely during the wars of 1900 and 1904-5. The the reserves to territorial oop Qualified teachers in the public establishment of surgeons to each division is approxi- Medical service are only liable to a very short initial training, after which they mately 100, and arrangements complete in every detail pass at once into the territorial army. But if a teacher abandons are made for all lines of medical assistance. Much help is rendered that calling before the age of 28, he becomes liable, without lot,' to by the red cross society of Japan, which has an income of 2,000,000 two years with the colours, unless he adopts the, alternative of yen annually, a fine hospital in Tokyo, a large nursing staff and two volunteering specially built and equipped hospital ships. During the carly part Officers are obtained in two ways. There are six local preparatory of the campaign in Pechili, in 1900, the French column entrusted its cadet schools (yonen-gakko) in various parts of the empire, for wounded to the care of the Japanese. boys of from 13 to 15. After 3 years at one of The staple article of commissariat for a Japanese army in the field Officers. these schools a graduate spends 21 months at the is hoshii (dried rice), of which three days' supply can easily be carried central preparatory school (chuo-yonen-gakko), Tōkyō, and if he in a bag by the soldier. When required for use the rice, graduates with sufficient credit at the latter institution, he becomes being placed in water, swells to its original bulk, and is Supply. eligible for admission to the officers' college (shikan-gakko) without eaten with a relish of salted fish, dried sea-weed or pickled plums. further test of proficiency. The second method of obtaining officers The task of provisioning an army on these lines is comparatively is by competitive examination for direct admission to the officers' simple. The Japanese soldier, though low in stature, is well set college. In either case the cadet is sent to serve with the colours up, muscular and hardy. He has great powers of endurance, and for 6 to 12 months as a private and non-commissioned officer, before manæuvres with remarkable celerity, doing everything at the run, commencing his course at the officers' college. The period of study if necessary, and continuing to run without distress for a length of at the officers' college is one year, and after graduating successfully time astonishing to European observers. He is greatly subject, the cadet serves with troops for 6 months on probation. If at the however, to attacks of kakke (beri-beri), and if he has recourse to end of that time he is favourably reported on, he is commissioned meat diet, which appears to be the best preventive, he will probably as a sub-lieutenant. Young officers of engineers and artillery lose something of his capacity for prolonged rapid movement. He receive a year's further training at a special college. Officers' ranks attacks with apparent indifference to danger, preserves his cheerful- are the same as in the British army, but thc nomenclature is more ness amid hardships, is splendidly patriotic and has always shown simple. The terms, with their English equivalents, are shoi (second himself thoroughly amenable to discipline. lieutenant), chùi (first lieutenant), tai (captain), shosa (major), of the many educational and training establishments, the most chūsa (lieut.-colonel), taisa (colonel), shosho (major-general), chūjā important is the rikugun daigakkö, or army college, where officers, (lieut.-general), taisho (general), gensui (field-marshal). All these (generally subalterns), are prepared for service in the Military except the last apply to the same relative ranks in the navy. Pro- upper ranks and for staff appointments, the course of motion of officers in the junior grades is by seniority or merit, but study extending over three years. The Toyama school after the rank of captain all promotion is by, merit, and thus many stands next in importance. The courses pursued there are attended officers never rise higher than captain, in which case retirement is chiefly by subaltern officers of dismounted branches, non-commis- compulsory at the age of 48. Except in the highest ranks, a certain sioned officers also being allowed to take the musketry course. The minimum period has to be spent in each rank before promotion to term of training is five months. Young officers of the scientific the next. branches are instruct d at the hōkōgakko (school of artillery and There are three grades of privates: upper soldiers (jölb-hei), first- engineers). There are, further, two special schools of gunnery-one class soldiers (illo-sotsu), and second-class soldiers (nito-sotsu). A for field, the other for garrison artillery, attended chicfly by captains private on joining is a second-class soldier. Soldiers. For and senior subalterns of the two branches. There is an inspection proficiency and good conduct he is raised to the rank department of military education, the inspector-general being a of first-class soldier, and ultimately to that of upper soldier. Non- lieutenant-general, under whom are fifteen field and general officers, commissioned officers are obtained from the ranks, or from those who act as inspectors of the various schools and colleges and of who wish to make soldiering a profession, as in European armies.military educational matters in general. The grades are corporal (gocho), scrgcant (gunso), sergeant-major The Japanese officer's pay is small and his mode of life frugal. He (socho) and special sergeant-major (tokumu-socho). lives out of barracks, frequently with his own family. His uniform The pay of the conscript is, as it is everywhere, a trifle (is. Jod. is plain and inexpensive, and he has no desire to exchange it for 35. old. per month). The professional non-commissioned officers mufti. He has no mess expenses, contribution to a band, or luxuries are better paid, the lowest grade receiving three times as much as of any kind, and as he is nearly always without private means to an upper soldier. Officers' pay is roughly at about three-quarters of supplement his pay, his habits are thoroughly economical. He the rates prevailing in Germany, sub-licutenants receiving about devotes himself absolutely to his profession, living for nothing else, £34, captains £71, colonels £238 per annum, &c. Pensions for officers and since he is strongly imbued with an effective conception of the and non-commissioned officers, according to scale, can be claimed honour of his cloth, instances of his incurring disgrace by debt or after 11 years' colour service. dissipation are exceptional. The samurai may be said to have been The emperor is the commander-in-chief of the army, and theoretic revived in the officers of the modern army, who preserve and act cally the sole source of military authority, which he exercises through up to all the old traditions. The system of promotion has evidently a general staff and a war department, with the assistance of a board much to do with this good result, for no Japanese officer can hope to of field-marshals (gensuifu).. The general staff has for chief a field rise above the rank of captain unless, by showing himself really marshal, and for vice-chief a general or lieutenant-general. It zealous and capable, he obtains from his commanding officer the includes besides the usual general staff departments, various survey recommendation without which all higher educational opportunities and topographical officers, and the military college is under its direc- are closed to him. Yet promotion by merit has not degenerated tion. The war department is presided over by a general officeron the into promotion by favour, and corruption appears to be virtually active list, who is a member of the cabinet without being necessarily absent. In the stormiest days of parliamentary warfare, when affected by ministerial changes. There are, further, artillery and charges of dishonesty were freely preferred by party politicians engineer committees, and a remount bureau. The headquarters of against all departments of officialdom, no whisper' ever impeached coast defences under general officers are Tōkyō, Yokohama, Shimono- the integrity of army officers. scki and Yura. The whole empire is divided into three military The training of the troops is thorough and strictly progressive, districts-eastern, central and western-each under the command the responsibility of the company, squadron and battery commanders of a general or lieutenant-general. The divisional headquarters are for the training of their commands, and the latitude granted as follows:-Guard Tokyo, I. Tokyo, II. Sendai, III. Nagoya, them in choice of means being, as in Germany, the keystone of the IV. Wakayama, V. Hiroshima, VI. Kumamoto, VII. Asa hikawa, system. VIII. Hirosaki, IX. Kasanava, X. Himeji. XI. Senzui, XII. Kokura, Originally the government engaged French officers to assist in XIII. Takata, XIV. Utsonomia, XV. Fushimi, XVI. Kioto, XVII. Okayama, XVIII, Kurume. Some of these divisionsare permanently Uniform does not vary according to regiments or divisions. There is only one type for the whole of the infantry, one for the · Conscription without lot is thus the punishment for all failures cavalry, and so on (see UNIFORMS, NAVAL AND MILITARY), to comply with and attempts to evade tlie military laws. Officers largely obtain their uniforms and equipment, as well as Sons of officers' widows, or of officers in reduced circumstances, their books and technical literature through the Kai-ko-sha, which are educated at these schools either free or at reduced charges, is a combined officers' club, benefit society and co-operative trading but are required to complete the course and to graduate. association to which nearly all belong. 2 1 2 JAPAN INAVY 1. Finance. 0 organizing the army and elaborating its system of tactics and school was organized at Tsukiji in Yedo, a war-ship the strategy, and during several years a military mission of French “Kwanko Maru ”Lpresented by the Dutch to the shögun's Foreiga officers resided in Tokyo and rendered valuable aid to the Assistance. Japanese. Afterwards German officers were employed, government-being used for exercising the cadets. To this with Jakob Meckel at their head, and they left a vessel two others, purchased from the Dutch, were added in perpetually grateful memory. But ultimately, the services of 1857 and 1858, and these, with one given by Queen Victoria, foreigners were dispensed with altogether, and Japan now adopts formed the nucleus of Japan's navy. In 1860, we find the the plan of sending picked men to complete their studies in Europe. Up to 1904 she followed Germany in military matters Pacific crossed for the first time by a Japanese war-ship-the almost implicitly, but since then, having the experience of her “Kwanrin Maru "--and subsequently some young officers were own great war to guide her, she has, instead of modelling herself sent to Holland for instruction in naval science. In fact the on any one foreign system, chosen from each whatever seemed most Tokugawa statesmen had now thoroughly appreciated the im- desirable, and also, in many points, taken the initiative herself. When the power of the sword was nominally restored to the perative need of a navy. Thus, in spite of domestic unrest Imperial government in 1868, the latter planned to devote one-fourth which menaced the very existence of the Yedo government, a of the state's ordinary revenue to the army, and navy. dock-yard was established and fully equipped, the place chosen Military Had the estimated revenue accrued, this would have given as its site being, by a strange coincidence, the village of Yoko- a sum of about 3 millions sterling for the two services. But not until 1871, when the troops of the fiefs were finally dis- suka where Japan's first foreign ship-builder, Will Adams, had banded, did the government find itself in a position to include in the lived and died 250 years previously. This dockyard was planned annual budgets an adequate appropriation on account of armaments. and its construction superintended by a Frenchman, M. Bertin. Thenceforth, from 1872 to 1896, the ordinary expenditures of the But although the Dutch had been the first to advise Japan's army varied from three-quarters of a million sterling to 1 millions, and the extraordinary outlays ranged from a few thousands of pounds acquisition of a navy, and although French aid was sought in the to a quarter of a million. Not once in the whole period of 25 years case of the important and costly work at Yokosuka, the shögun's -il 1877 (the year of the Satsuma rebellion) be excepted-did the government turned to England for teachers of the art of mari- state's total expenditures on account of the army exceed 1 millions time warfare. Captain Tracey, R.N., and other British officers sterling, and it redounds to the credit of Japan's financial manage- ment that she was able to organize, equip and maintain such a and warrant-officers were engaged to organize and superintend force at such a small cost. In 1896, as shown above, she virtually the school at Tsukiji. They arrived, however, on the eve of the doubled her army, and a proportionate increase of expenditure fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, and as the new administra- ensued, the outlays for maintenance jumping at once from an average of about 1} millions sterling to 2 millions, and growing thenceforth tion was not prepared to utilize their services immediately, they with the organization of the new army, until in the year (1903) returned to England. It is not to be inferred that the Im- preceding the outbreak of war with Russia, they reached the figure perial government underrated the importance of organizing a of 4 millions. Then again, in 1906, six divisions were added, and naval force. One of the earliest Imperial rescripts ranked a additional expenses had to be incurred on account of the new over- seas garrisons, so that, in 1909, the ordinary outlays reached a total of navy among the country's most urgent needs " and ordered Z millions, or about one-seventh of the ordinary revenue of the state. that it should be “at once placed on a firm foundation." But This takes no account of extraordinary outlays incurred for building during the four years immediately subsequent to the restoration, forts and barracks, providing new patterns of equipment, &c. In a semi-interregnum existed in military affairs, the power of the 1909 the latter, owing to the necessity of replacing the weapons sword being partly transferred to the hands of the sovereign and used in the Russian War, and in particular the field artillery gun partly retained by the feudal chiefs. Ultimately, not only the (which was in 1905 only a semi-quickfirer), involved a relatively Vessels which had been in the possession of the shogunate but large outlay. The Navy.—The traditions of Japan suggest that the art of also several obtained from Europe by the great feudatories had navigation was not unfamiliar to the inhabitants of a country to be taken over by the Imperial government, which, on reviewing Early consisting of hundreds of islands and abounding in the situation, found itself owner of a motley squadron of 17 war- Japanese bays and inlets. Some interpreters of her cosmo- ships aggregating 13,812 tons displacement, of which two were graphy discover a great ship in the “floating bridge armoured, one was a composite ship, and the rest were of wood. of heaven” from which the divine procreators of the Steps were now taken to establish and equip a suitable naval islands commenced their work, and construe in a similar sense college in Tsukiji, and application having been made to the other poetically named vehicles of that remote age. But though British government for instructors, a second naval mission was the seas were certainly traversed by the early invaders of Japan, sent from England in 1873, consisting of 30 officers and warrant- and though there is plenty of proof that in medieval times the officers under Commander (afterwards Vice-Admiral Sir) Archi- Japanese flag floated over merchantmen which voyaged as far as bald Douglas. At the very outset occasions for active service Siam and India, and over piratical craft which harassed the afloat presented themselves. In 1868, the year after the fall of coasts of Korea and China, it is unquestionable that in the the shogunate, such ships as could be assembled had to be sent matter of naval architecture Japan fell behind even her next- to Yezo to attack the main part of the Tokugawa squadron door neighbours. Thus, when a Mongol fleet came to Kiūshiữ in which had raised the flag of revolt and retired to Hakodate the 13th century, Japan had no vessels capable of contending under the command of the shögun's admiral, Enomoto. Then against the invaders, and when, at the close of the 16th century, in 1874 the duty of convoying a fleet of transports to Formosa a Japanese army was fighting in Korea, repeated defeats of had to be undertaken; and in 1877 sea power played its part in Japan's squadrons by Korean war-junks decided the fate of the crushing the formidable rebellion in Satsuma. Meanwhile the campaign on shore as well as on sea. It seems strange that an work of increasing and organizing the navy went on steadily. enterprising nation like the Japanese should not have taken for The first steam war-ship constructed in Japan had been a gun- models the great galleons which visited the Far East in the second boat (138 tons) launched in 1866 from a building-yard estab- half of the 16th century under the flags of Spain, Portugal, lished at Ishikawajima, an island near the mouth of the Sumida Holland and England. With the exception, however, of two river on which Tōkyō stands. At this yard and at Yokosuka ships built by a castaway English pilot to order of Iyeyasu, no two vessels of 897 tons and 1450 tons, respectively, were effort in that direction appears to have been made, and when launched in 1875 and 1876, and Japan now found herself com- an edict vetoing the construction of sea-going vessels was issued petent not only to execute all repairs but also to build ships of in 1636 as part of the Tokugawa policy of isolation, it can considerable size. An order was placed in England in 1875, scarcely be said to have checked the growth of Japan's navy, which produced, three years later, the “ Fuso," Japan's first for she possessed nothing worthy of the name. It was to the ironclad (3717 tons) and the Kongo and “Hiei,” steel. object lesson furnished by the American ships which visited frame sister-cruisers of 2248 ton's. Meanwhile training, prac- Yedo bay in 1853 and to the urgent counsels of the Dutch tical and theoretical, in seamanship, gunnery, torpedo-practice that Japan owed the inception of a naval policy. A seamen's and naval architecture went on vigorously, and in 1878 the training station was opened under Dutch instructors in 1855 Japanese flag was for the first time seen in European waters, at Nagasaki, a building-slip was constructed and an iron factory The term maru subsequently became applicable to merchantmen established at the same place, and shortly afterwards a naval I only, war-ships being distinguished as kar. War- vessels. NAVY] JAPAN 213 floating over the cruiser“ Seiki" (1897 tons) built in Japan and To the foregoing must be added two armoured cruisers-the navigated solely by Japanese. The government, constantly " Kurama " (14.000) launched at Yokosuka in October 1907, and the solicitous of increasing the fleet, inaugurated, in 1882, a pro- battleships or cruisers were laid down in Japan or ordered abroad up " Ibuki " (14,700) launched at Kure in November 1997, but no other " gramme of 30 cruisers and 12 torpedo-boats, and in 1886 this to the close of 1908. was extended, funds being obtained by an issue of naval loan- There are four naval dockyards, namely, at Yokosuka, Kure, bonds. But the fleet did not yet include a single battleship. Sasebo, and Maizuru. Twenty-one vessels built at Yokosuka since 1876 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and When the diet opened for the first time in 1890, a plan for the an armoured cruiser (14,000 tons); seven built at Kure Naval Dockyards. construction of two battleships encountered stubborn opposition since 1898 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and an in the lower house, where the majority attached much less im- armoured cruiser (14,000 tons). The yards at Sasebo and Maizuru portance to voting money for war-ships than to reducing the private yards—the Mitsubishi at Nagasaki and Kobe, and the Kawa- had not yet been used in 909 for constructing large vessels., Two land tax. Not until 1892 was this opposition overcome in saki at the latter place-have built several cruisers, gunboats and deference to an order from the throne that thirty thousand torpedo craft, and are competent to undertake more important work. pounds sterling should be contributed yearly from the privy Nevertheless in 1909 Japan did not yet possess complete independ- purse and that a tithe of all official salaries should be devotedence in this matter, for she was obliged to have recourse to foreign during the same interval to naval needs. Had the house been factures practically all the steel it requires, and there is a government countries for a part of the steel used in ship-building. Kure manu- more prescient, Japan's position at the outbreak of war with steel-foundry at Wakamatsu on which more than 3 millions sterling China in 1894 would have been very different. She entered the had been spent in 1909, but it did not yet keep pace with the country's contest with 28 fighting craft, aggregating 57,600 tons, and 24 needs. When this independence has been attained, it is hoped to torpedo-boats, but among them the most powerful was a belted tion, owing to the cheapness of manual labour and the disappearance effect an economy of about 18 % on the outlay for naval construc- cruiser of 4300 tons. Not one battleship was included, whereas both of the manufacturer's profit and of the expenses of transfer China had two ironclads of nearly 8000 tons each. Under these from Europe to Japan. conditions the result of the naval conflict was awaited with much There are five admiralties-Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru and anxiety in Japan. But the Chinese suffered signal defeats (see Mekong (in 'the Pescadores), Ominato and Chinhai (in southern Port Arthur; and four naval stations—Takeshiki (in Tsushima), CHINO-JAPANESE WAR) off the Yalu and at Wei-hai-wei, Korea). and the victors took possession of 17 Chinese craft, including one The navy is manned partly by conscripts and partly by volunteers. About battleship. The resulting addition to Japan's fighting force 5500 are taken every year, and the ratio is, approximately, was, however, insignificant. But the naval strength of Japan of active service is 4 years and that of service with the % of volunteers and 45% of conscripts. The period Personnel. did not depend on prizes. Battleships and cruisers were ordered reserve 7 years. On the average 200 cadets are admitted yearly, of and launched in Europe one after the other, and when the Russo whom 50 are engineers, and in 1906 the personnel of the navy con- Japanese War (q.v.) came, the fleet promptly asserted its physical sisted of the following:- and moral superiority in the surprise of Port Arthur, the battle of Admirals, combative and non-combative 77 the roth of August 1904, and the crowning victory of Tsushima. Officers, combative and non-combative, below the rank of admiral 2,867 As to the development of the navy from 1903 onwards, it is not Warrant officers 9,075 possible to detail with absolute accuracy the plans laid down by the Bluejackets 29,667 admiralty in Tokyo, but the actual state of the feet in the year Cadets 1909 will be apparent from the figures given below. Japan's naval strength at the outbreak of the war with Russia Total . 42,407 in 1904 was:- Number. Displacement. Tons. The highest educational institution for the navy is the naval staff college, in which there are five courses for officers alone. The Battleships 84,652 Armoured cruisers 73,982 gunnery and torpedo schools are attended by officers, and also by selected warrant-officers and bluejackets, Other cruisers 44 I11,470 Education. who consent to extend their service. There is also Destroyers 19 .6,519 a mechanical school for junior engineers, warrant-officers and ordi- Torpedo-boats 80 7,119 nary artificers. Totals At the naval cadet academy-originally situated in Tkoyo but 157 283,742 now at Etajima near Kure-aspirants for service as naval officers Losses during the war were: receive a 3 years' academical course and I year's training at sea; Battleships 27.300 and, finally, there is a naval engineering college collateral to the Cruisers (second and smaller naval cadet academy. classes) 18,009 Since 1882, foreign instruction has been wholly dispensed with in Destroyers 705 the Japanese navy; since 1886. she has manufactured her own Torpedo-boats 557 prismatic powder; since 1891 she has been able to make quick-firing guns and Schwartzkopf torpedoes, and in 1892 one of her officers Totals 19 46,571 invented a particularly potent explosive, called (after its inventor) The captured vessels repaired and added to the fee Shimose powder. Battleships 5 62,524 Cruisers 71,276 Finance. -Under the feudal system of the Tokugawa (1603– Destroyers .5 1,740 1871), all land in Japan was regarded as state property, and Totals 135,530 parcelled out into 276 fiefs, great and small, which were The vessels built or purchased after the war and up to the close assigned to as many feudatories. These were em- Period The Feudal of 1908 were: powered to raise revenue for the support of their Battleships 4 71,500 households, for administrative purposes, and for the maintenance Armoured cruisers 56,700 Other cruisers 7,000 of troops. The basis of taxation varied greatly in different dis- Destroyers 33 12,573 tricts, but, at the time of the Restoration in 1867, the general Torpedo-boats 5 760 principle was that four-tenths of the gross produce should go to the feudatory, six-tenths to the farmer. In practice this rule Totals 51 148,533 Some of the above have been superannuated, and the serviceable kinds of produce being levied partly in money and partly in was applied to the rice crop only, the assessments for other Neet in 1909 was Battleships 13 191,380 manufactured goods. Forced labour also was exacted, and arti- Armoured cruisers 130,683 sans and tradesmen were subjected to pecuniary levies. The Other cruisers, coast-defence yield of rice in 1867 was about 154 million bushels, of which ships and gun-boats 47 165,253 Destroyers the market value at prices then ruling was £24,000,000, or 55 20,508 Torpedo-boats 77 7,258 1 The reader should be warned that absolute accuracy cannot be Totals 515,082 claimed for statistics compiled before the Meiji era. 721 6 8 Naval 2 8 2 7 were: 11 . 21 5 :: 9 12 204 214 JAPAN (FINANCE a Baoks. 240,000,000 yen.' Hence the grain tax represented, at the lowest revenue of the state rose from 24,500,000 yen to 70,500,000 yen. calculation, 96,000,000 yen. When the administration reverted But seven millions sterling is a small income for a country to the emperor in 1867 the central treasury was empty, and the confronted by such problems as Japan had to solve. State funds hitherto employed for governmental purposes in the fiefs She had to build railways; to create an army and Revenue. continued to be devoted to the support of the feudatories, to the navy; to organize posts, telegraphs, prisons, payment of the samurai, and to defraying the expenses of local police and education; to construct roads, improve harbours, administration, the central treasury receiving only whatever light and buoy the coasts; to create a mercantile marine; to might remain after these various outlays. start under official auspices numerous industrial enterprises The shögun himself, whose income amounted to about which should serve as object lessons to the people, as well as £3,500,000, did not, on abdicating, hand over to the sovereign to lend to private persons large sums in aid of similar projects. either the contents of-his treasury or the lands from which he Thus, living of necessity beyond its income, the government derived his revenues. He contended that funds for the govern- had recourse to further issues of fiduciary notes, and in propor- ment of the nation as a whole should be levied from the people tion as the volume of the latter exceeded actual currency at large. Not until 1871 did the feudal system cease to exist. requirements their specie value depreciated. The fiefs being then converted into prefectures, their revenues This question of paper currency inaugurates the story of bank- became an asset of the central treasury, less 10 % allotted for ing; a story on almost every page of which are to be found the support of the former feudatories.? inscribed the names of Prince Ito, Marquis Inouye, But during the interval between 1867 and 1871, the men on Marquis Matsukata, Count Okuma and Baron whom had devolved the direction of national affairs saw no relief Shibusawa, the fathers of their country's economic and financial from crippling impecuniosity except an issue of paper progress in modern times. The only substitutes for banks in Paper Money, money. This was not a novelty in Japan. Paper | feudal days were a few private firms—"households ” would, money had been known to the people since the middle perhaps, be a more correct expression-which received local of the 17th century, and in the era of which we are now writing taxes in kind, converted them into money, paid the proceeds to no less than 1694 varieties of notes were in circulation. There the central government or to the feudatories, gave accommo- were gold notes, silver notes, cash-notes, rice-notes, umbrella- dation to officials, did some exchange business, and occasionally, notes, ribbon-notes, lathe-article-notes, and so on through an extended accommodation to private individuals. They were interminable list, the circulation of each kind being limited to not banks in the Occidental sense, for they neither collected the issuing fief. Many of these notes had almost ceased to have funds by receiving deposits nor distributed capital by making any purchasing power, and nearly all were regarded by the loans. The various fiefs were so isolated that neither social people as evidences of official greed. The first duty of a nor financial intercourse was possible, and moreover the mercan- centralized progressive administration should have been tile and manufacturing classes were regarded with some disdain to reform the currency. The political leaders of the time by the gentry. The people had never been familiarized with appreciated that duty, but saw themselves compelled by stress combinations of capital for productive purposes, and such a of circumstances to adopt the very device which in the hands thing as a joint-stock company was unknown. In these circum- of the feudal chiefs had produced such deplorable results. The stances, when the administration of state affairs fell into the hands ordinary revenue amounted to only 3,000,000 yen, while of the men who had made the restoration, they not only lacked the extraordinary aggregated 29,000,000, and was derived the first essential of rule, money, but were also without means, wholly from issues of paper money or other equally unsound of obtaining any, for they could not collect taxes in the fiefs, these being still under the control of the feudal barons; and in Even on the abolition of feudalism in 1871 the situation was the absence of widely organized commerce or finance, no access not immediately relieved. The land tax, which constituted to funds presented itself. Doubtless the minds of these men nine-tenths of the feudal revenues, had been as- were sharpened by the necessities confronting them, yet it speaks Land Tax. sessed by varying methods and at various rates by eloquently for their discernment that, samurai as they were, the different feudatories, and re-assessment of all the land without any business training whatever, one of their first essays became a preliminary essential to establishing a uniform system. was to establish organizations which should take charge of the Such a task, on the basis of accurate surveys, would have involved national revenue, encourage industry and promote trade and years of work, whereas the financial needs of the state had to be production by lending money at comparatively low rates of met immediately. Under the pressure of this imperative interest. The tentative character of these attempts is evidenced necessity a re-assessment was roughly made in two years, and by frequent changes. There was first a business bureau, then a being continued thereafter with greater accuracy, was completed trade bureau, then commercial companies, and then exchange in 1881. This survey, eminently liberal to the agriculturists, companies, these last being established in the principal cities assigned a value of 1,200,000,000 yen to the whole of the arable and at the open ports, their personnel consisting of the three land, and the treasury fixed the tax at 3 % of the assessed value great families—Mitsui, Shimada and Ono-houses of ancient of the land, which was about one-half of the real market value. repute, as well as other wealthy merchants in Kioto, Osaka and Moreover, the government contemplated a gradual reduction elsewhere. These exchange companies were partnerships, of this already low impost until it should ultimately fall to 1 %. though not strictly of the joint-stock kind. They formed the Circumstances prevented the consummation of that purpose. nucleus of banks in Japan, and their functions included, for the The rate underwent only one reduction of } %, and thereafter first time, the receiving of deposits and the lending of money to had to be raised on account of war expenditures. On the whole, merchants and manufacturers. They had power to issue notes, however, no class benefited more conspicuously from the change and, at the same time, the government issued notes on its own of administration than the peasants, since not only was their account. Indeed, in this latter fact is to be found one of the burden of taxation light, but also they were converted from mere motives for organizing the exchange companies, the idea being tenants into actual proprietors. In brief, they acquired the that if the state's notes were lent to the companies, the people fee-simple of their farms in consideration of paying an annual would become familiarized with the use of such currency, and rent equal to about one sixty-sixth of the market value of the the companies would find them convenient capital. But this land. system was essentially unsound: the notes, alike of the treasury In 1873, when these changes were effected, the ordinary and of the companies, though nominally convertible, were not · The yen is a silver coin worth about 2s.:10 yen=£1. .' secured by any fixed stock of specie. Four years sufficed to ? In addition to the above grant, the feudatories were allowed to prove the unpracticality of such an arrangement, and in 1872 the retain the reserves in their treasuries; thus many of the feudal nobles found themselves possessed of substantial fortunes, a consider. exchange companies were swept away, to be succeeded in July able part of which they generally devoted to the support of their 1873 by the establishment of national banks on a system which former vassals. combined some of the features of English banking with the general sources. FINANCE) JAPAN 215 bases of American. Each bank had to pay into the treasury issues. The result was that by 1881, fourteen years after the Restor- 60 % of its capital in government notes. It was credited in ation, notes whose face valué aggregated 164,000,000 yen had been return with interest-bearing bonds, which bonds were to be left put into circulation: the treasury possessed specie amounting to only 8,000,000 yen, and 18 paper yen could be purchased with in the treasury as security for the issue of bank-notes to an equal 10 silver ones. amount, the banks being required to keep in gold the remaining Up to 1881 fitful efforts had been made to strengthen the specie 40 % of their capital as a fund for converting the notes, which value of fiat paper by throwing quantities of gold and silver upon the market from time to time, and 23,000,000 yen had conversion must always be effected on application. The elabora- been devoted to the promotion of industries whose Resumpo tion of tors of this programme were Ito, Inouye, Okuma and Shibusawa. products, it was hoped, would go to swell the list of Specie They added a provision designed to prevent the establishment exports, and thus draw specie to the country. But of too small banks, namely, that the capital of each bank must these devices were now finally abandoned, and the Payments. bear a fixed ratio to the population of its place of business. government applied itself steadfastly to reducing the volume of the hduciary currency on the one hand, and accumulating a specie Evidently the main object of the treasury was gradually to reserve on the other. The steps of the programme were simple. replace its own fiat paper with convertible bank-notes. But By cutting down administrative expenditure; by transferring experience quickly proved that the scheme was unworkable. certain charges from the treasury to the local communes; by sus- The treasury notes had been issued in such large volume that enterprises, and by a moderate increase of the tax on alcohol, an pending all grants in aid of provincial public works and private sharp depreciation had ensued; gold could not be procured annual surplus of revenue, totalling 7,500,000 yen, was secured. except at a heavy cost, and the balance of foreign trade being This was applied to reducing the volume of the notes in circulation. against Japan, some 300,000,000 yen in specie flowed out of the industrial and agricultural works should be sold since their purpose At the same time, it was resolved that all officially conducted country between 1872 and 1874. of instruction and example seemed now to have been sufficiently It should be noted that at this time foreign trade was still invested achieved--and the proceeds, together with various securities (aggre- with a perilous character in Japanese eyes. In early days, while gating 26,000,000 yen in face value) held by the treasury, were the Dutch had free access to her ports, they sold her so much and applied to the purchase of specie. Had the government entered the bought so little in return that an immense quantity of the precious market openly as a seller of its own fiduciary notes, its credit must metals flowed out of her coffers. Again, when over-sea trade was have suffered. There were also ample reasons to doubt whether any renewed in modern times, Japan's exceptional financial condition available stores of precious metal remained in the country. In presented to foreigners an opportunity of which they did not fail obedience to elementary economical laws, the cheap money had to take full advantage. For, during her long centuries of seclusion, steadily driven out the dear, and although the government mint at gold had come to hold to silver in her coinage a ratio of 1 to 8, so Osaka, founded in 1871, had struck gold and silver coins worth that gold cost, in terms of silver, only one-half of what it cost in 80,000,000 yen between that date and 1881, the customs returns the West. On the other hand, the treaty gave foreign traders the showed that a great part of this metallic currency had flowed out right to exchange their own silver coins against Japanese, weight of the country. In these circumstances Japanese financiers decided for weight, and thus it fell out that the foreigner, going to Japan that only one course remained; the treasury must play the part of with a supply of Mexican dollars, could buy with them twice as much national banker. Produce and manufactures destined for export gold as they had cost in Mexico. Japan lost very heavily by this must be purchased by the state with fiduciary notes, and the system, and its effects accentuated the dread with which her medieval metallic proceeds of their sales abroad must be collected and stored experience had invested, foreign commerce. Thus, when the in the treasury. This programme required the establishment of balance of trade swayed heavily in the wrong direction between consulates in the chief marts of the Occident, and the organization 1872 and 1874, the fact created undue consternation, and moreover of a great central bank-the present Bank of Japan--as well as of a there can be no doubt that the drafters of the bank regulations had secondary bank—the present Specie Bank of Yokohama—the former over-estimated the quantity of available gold in the country. to conduct transactions with native producers and manufacturers, All these things made it impossible to keep the bank-notes long the latter to finance the business of exportation. The outcome of in circulation. They were speedily returned for conversion; no these various arrangements was that, by the middle of 1885, the deposits came to the aid of the banks, nor did the public make any volume of fiduciary notes had been reduced to 119,000,000 yen, use of them. Disaster became inevitable. The two great forms of their depreciation had fallen to 3%, and the metallic reserve of the Ono and Shimada, which had stood high in the nation's estimation treasury had increased to 45,000,000 yen. The resumption of specie alike in feudal and in imperial days, closed their doors in 1874; a payments was then announced, and became, in the autumn of that panic ensued, and the circulation of money ceased almost entirely. year, an'accomplished fact. From the time when this programme Evidently the banking system must be changed. The government began to be effective, Japan entered a period of favourable balance bowed to necessity. They issued a revised code of banking regula- of trade. According to accepted economic theories, the influence of tions which substituted treasury notes in the place of an appreciating currency should be to encourage imports; but the Change specie. Each bank was thenceforth required to invest converse was seen in Japan's case, for from 1882 her exports annually of the Baokiog 80% of its capital in 6% state bonds, and these exceeded her imports, the maximum excess being reached in 1886, System. being lodged with the treasury, the bank became the very year after the resumption of specie payments. competent to issue an equal quantity of its own notes, The above facts deserve to figure largely in a retrospect of Japanese forming with the remainder of its capital à reserve of treasury notes finance, not merely because they set forth a fine economic feat, for purposes of redemption. This was a complete subversion of the indicating clear insight, good organizing capacity, and courageous government's original scheme. But no alternative offered. Besides, energy, but also because volumes of adverse foreign criticism were the situation presented a new feature. The hereditary pensions written in the margin of the story during the course of the incidents of the feudatories had been commuted with bonds aggregating it embodies. Now Japan was charged with robbing her own people 174,000,000 yen. Were this large volume of bonds issued at once, because she bought their goods with paper money and sold them for their heavy depreciation would be likely to follow, and moreover specie; again, she was accused of an official conspiracy to ruin the their holders, unaccustomed to dealing with financial problems, foreign local banks because she purchased exporters' bills on Europe might dispose of the bonds and invest the proceeds in hazardous and America at rates that defied ordinary competition; and while enterprises. To devise some opportunity for the safe and profitable some declared that she was plainly without any understanding of employment of these bonds seemed, therefore, a pressing necessity, her own doings, others predicted that her heroic method of dealing and the newly organized national banks offered such an opportunity with the problem would paralyze industry, interrupt trade and For bond-holders, combining to form a bank, continued to draw produce widespread suffering. Undoubtedly, to carry the currency from the treasury 6% on their bonds, while they acquired power to of a nation from a discount of 70 or 80% to par in the course of issue a corresponding amount of notes which could be lent at profit. four years, reducing its volume at the same time from 160 to 119 able rates. The programme worked well. Whereas, up to 1876, million yen, was a financial enterprise violent and daring almost to only five banks were established under the original regulations, the rashness. The gentler, expedient of a foreign loan would have number under the new rule was 151 in 1879, their aggregate capital commended itself to the majority of economists. But it may be having grown in the same interval from 2,000,000 yen to 40,000,000 here stated, once for all, that until her final adoption of a gold yen, and their note issues from less than 1,000,000 to over 34,000,000. standard in 1897, the foreign money market was practically closed Here, then, was a rapidly growing system resting wholly on state to Japan. Had she borrowed abroad it must have been on a sterling credit. Something like a mania for bank-organizing declared itself, basis. Receiving a fixed sum in silver, she would have had to dis- and in 1878 the government deemed it necessary to legislate charge her debt in rapidly appreciating gold. Twice, indeed, she against the establishment of any more national banks, and to had recourse to London for small sums, but when she came to cast limit to 34,000,000 yen the aggregate note issues of those already in up her accounts the cost of the accommodation stood out in deterrent existence. proportions.. A 9% loan, placed in England in 1868 and paid off It is possible that the conditions which prevailed immediately in 1889, produced 3.750,000 yen, and cost altogether 1.1,750,000 yen after the establishment of the national banks might have developed in round higures; and a 7% loan, made in 1872 and paid off in 1897, some permanency had not the Satsuma rebellion broken out in 1877. produced 10,750,000 yen, and cost 36,000,000 yen. These consider- Increased taxation to meet military outlay being impossible in such ations were supplemented by a strong aversion from incurring circumstances, nothing offered except recourse to further note pecuniary obligations to Western states before the latter had consented 216 JAPAN (FINANCE yen. to restore Japan's judicial and tariff autonomy. The example of there was not one savings bank in 1867, there were 487 in Egypt showed what kind of late might overtake a semi-independent 1906 with deposits of over £50,000,000. The average yearly state falling into the clutches of foreign bond-holders. Japan did dividends of these banks in the ten years ending 1906 varied between not wish to fetter herself with foreign debts while struggling to 9.1 and 9.9% emerge from the rank of Oriental powers. Necessarily the movement of industrial expansion was accom- After the revision of the national bank regulations, semi-official pa nied by a development of insurance business. The beginnings banking enterprise won such favour in public eyes that the govern- of this kind of enterprise did not become visible, how- ment found it necessary to impose limits. This ever, until 1881, and even at that comparatively Insurance. Closing of conservative policy proved an incentive to private recent date no Japanese laws had yet been enacted for the control the National banks and banking companies, so that, by the year of such operations. The commercial code, published in March 1890, Baaks. 1883, no less than 1093 banking institutions were in was the carliest legislation which met the need, and from that time existence throughout Japan with an aggregate capital of 900,000,000 the number of insurance companies and the volume of their trans- But these were entirely lacking in arrangements for com- actions grew rapidly. In 1897, there were 35 companies with a total bination or for equalizing rates of interest, and to correct such paid-up capital of 7,000,000 yen and policies aggregating 971,000,000 defects, no less than ultimately to constitute the sole note-issuing yen, and in 1906 the corresponding figures were 65 companies, instituticn, a central bank (the Bank of Japan) was organized on 22,000,000 yen paid up and policies of 4,149,000,000 yen. The the model of the Bank of Belgium, with due regard to correspond- premium reserves grew in the same period Trom 7,000,000 to ing institutions in other Western countries and to the conditions 108,000,000. The net profits of these companies in 1906 were (in existing in Japan. Established in 1882 with a capital of 4,000,000 round numbers) 10,000,000 yen. yen, this bank has now a capital of 30 millions, a security reserve of The origin of clearing houses preceded that of insurance companies 206 millions, a note-issue of 266 millions, a specie reserve of 160 in Japan by only two years (1879). Osaka set the example, which millions, and loans of 525 millions. was quickly followed by Tokyo, Kobe, Yokohama, Clearing The banking machinery of the country being now complete, in Kioto and Nagoya. In 1898 the bills handled at a general sense, steps were taken in 1883 for converting the national these institutions amounted to 1,186,000,000 yen, and Houses, banks into ordinary joint-stock concerns and for the redemption of in 1907 to 7,484,000,000 yen. Japanese clearing houses are modelled all their note-issues. Each national bank was required to deposit after those of London and New York. with the treasury the government paper kept in its strong room as Exchanges existed in Japan as far back as the close of the 17th security for its own notes, and further to take from its annual century. At that time the income of the feudal chiefs consisted profits and hand to the treasury a sum equal to 23 % of its notes almost entirely of rice, and as this was sold to brokers, Bourses. in circulation. With these funds the central bank was to purchase the latter found it convenient to meet at fixed times state bonds, devoting the interest to redeeming the notes of the and places for conducting their business. Originally their trans- national banks. Formed with the object of disturbing the money actions were all for cash, but afterwards they devised time bargains market as little as possible, this programme encountered two which ultimately developed into a definite form of exchange. The obstacles. The first was that, in view of the Bank of Japan's pur- reform of abuses incidental to this system attracted the early chases, the market price of state bonds rose rapidly, so that, whereas attention of the Meiji government, and in 1893 a law was promul. official financiers had not expected them to reach par before 1897: gated for the control of exchanges, which then numbered 146. they were quoted at a considerable premium in 1886. The second Under this law the minimum share capital of a bourse consti- was that the treasury having in 1886 initiated the policy of con- tuted as a joint-stock company was fixed at 100,000 yen, and the verting its 6 % bonds into 5 % consols, the former no longer produced whole of its property became liable for failure on the part of its interest at the rate estimated for the purposes of the banking scheme. brokers to implement their contracts. There were 51 bourses in The national banks thus found themselves in an embarrassing 1908. situation and began to clamour for a revision of the programme. Not less remarkable than this economic development was the But the government, seeing compensations for them in other large part acted in it by officialdom. There were two reasons for directions, adhered firmly to its scheme. Few problems have this. One was that a majority of the men gifted with caused greater controversy in modern Japan than this question of originality and foresight were drawn into the ranks of the Govera. · the ultimate fate of the national banks. Not until 1896 could the the administration by the great current of the revolu- ment and diet be induced to pass a bill providing for their dissolution at the tion; the other, that the feudal system had tended to Economic close of their charter terms, or their conversion into ordinary joint-check rather than to encourage material development, Development. stock concerns without any note-issuing power, and not until 1899 since the limits of cach fief were also the limits of did their notes cease to be legal tender. Out of a total of 153 of economical and industrial enterprise. Ideas for combination and these banks, 132 continued business as private institutions, and the co-operation had been confined to a few families, and there was rest were absorbed or dissolved. Already (1890 and 1893) minute nothing to suggest the organization of companies nor any law to regulations had been enacted bringing all the banks and banking protect them iſ organized. Thus the opening of the Meiji era found institutions-except the special banks to be presently described the Japanese nation wholly, unqualified for the commercial and within one system of semi-annual balance-sheets and official auditing, manufacturing competition in which it was thenceforth required while in the case of savings banks the directors' responsibility was to engage, and therefore upon those who had brought the country declared unlimited and these banks were required to lodge security out of its isolation there devolved the responsibility of speedily with the treasury for the protection of their depositors. preparing their fellow countrymen for the new situation. To these Just as the ordinary banks were all centred on the Bank of Japan! | leaders banking facilities seemed to be the first need, and steps were and more or less connected with it, so in 1895, a group of special accordingly taken in the manner already described. But how to Special institutions, called agricultural and commercial banks, cducate men of affairs at a moment's notice? How to replace by a were organized and centred on a hypothec bank, the spirit of intelligent progress the ignorance and conservatism of the Baoks. object of this system being to supply cheap capital hitherto despised traders and artisans? When the first bank was to farmers and manufacturers on the security of real estate. The organized, its two founders-men who had been urged, nay almost hypothec bank had its head in Tokyo and was authorized to compelled, by officialdom to make the essay—were obliged to raise obtain funds by issuing premium-bearing bonds, while an agricul. four.fifths of the capital themselves, the general public not being tural and industrial bank was established in each prefecture and willing to subscribe more than one-fifth-a petty sum of 500,000 received assistance from the hypothec bank. Two years later yen-and when its staff commenced their duties, they had not the (1900), an industrial bank-sometimes spoken of as the crédit most shadowy conception of what to do. That was a faithful mobilier of Japan--was brought into existence under official auspices, reflection of the condition of the business world at large. If the its purpose being to lend money against bonds, debentures and shares, initiative of the people themselves had been awaited, Japan's career as well as to public corporations. These various institutions, must have been slow indeed. together with clearing houses, bankers' associations, the Hokkaido Only one course offered, namely, that the government itself colonial bank, the bank of Formosa, savings banks (including a should organize a number of productive enterprises on modern lines, post-office savings bank), and a mint complete the financial machi- so that they might serve as schools and also as models. Such, as nery of modern Japan. already noted under Industries, was the programme adopted, Reviewing this chapter of Japan's material development, we find It provoked much hostile criticism from foreign onlookers, who had Review of that whereas, at the beginning of the Meiji era (1867), learned to decry all official incursions into trade and industry, but Banking the nation did not possess so much as one banking had not properly appreciated the special conditions existing in Japan. Develop- institution worthy of the name, forty years later it The end justified the means. At the outset of its administration we ment. had 2211 banks, with a paid-up capital of £40,000,000, find the Meiji government not only forming plans for the circulation reserves of £12,000,000, and deposits of £147,000,000; and whereas of money, building railways and organizing posts and telegraphs, but also establishing dockyårds, spinning mills, printing-houses, · The Bank of Japan was established as a joint-stock company in silk-rceling filatures, paper-making factories and so forth, thus by 1882. The capital in 1909 was 30,000,000 yen. In it alone is example encouraging these kinds of enterprise and by legislation vested note-issuing power. There is no limit to its issues against providing for their safe, prosecution. Yet progress was slow. One gold or silver coins and bullion, but on other securities (state bonds, by, one and at long intervals joint-stock companies came into treasury bills and other negotiable bonds or commercial paper) its existence, nor was it until the resumption of specie payments in issues are limited to 120 millions, any excess over that figure being 1886 that a really effective spirit of enterprise manifested itself subject to a tax of 5% per annum. among the people. Railways, harbours, mincs, spinning, weaving, FINANCEJ JAPAN 217 of yen. of yen. 8.15 paper-making, oil-refining, brick-making, leather-tanning, glass- The sources from which revenue is obtained are as follow: making and other industries attracted cager attention, and whereas the capital subscribed for such works aggregated only 50,000,000 yen ORDINARY REVENUE in 1886, it exceeded 1,000,000,000 yen in 1906. 1894-5. 1898-9. When specie payments were resumed in 1885, the notes issued 1903-4. 1908-9. by the Bank of Japan were convertible into silver on demand, the millions millions millions silver standard being thus definitely adopted, a com- millions Adoption of of yen. of plete, reversal of the system inaugurated at the yen. the Gold establishment of the national banks on Prince Ito's Standard Taxes return from the United States. Japanese financiers 70.50 96-20 146.10 299-61 believed from the outset in gold monometallism. But, in the first Receipts from stamps place, the country's stock of gold was soon driven out by her depre- and Public Under- ciated fiat currency; and, in the second, not only were all other takings 14.75 33.00 96.87 164.66 Oriental nations silver-using, but also the Mexican silver dollar had Various Receipts. 4:58 3.67 11.48 long been the unit of account in Far-Eastern trade. Thus Japan It appears from the above that during 15 years the weight of taxation ultimately drifted into silver monometallism, the silver yen becoming increased fourfold. But a correction has to be applied, first, on her unit of currency. So soon, however, as the indemnity that she account of the tax on alcoholic liquors and, secondly, on account of received from China after the war of 1894-95 had placed her in possession of a stock of gold, she determined to revert to the gold The former grew from 16 millions in 1894–1895 to 72 millions in customs dues, neither of which can properly be called general imposts. standard. Mechanically speaking, the operation was very easy; 1908-1909, and the latter from 51 millions to 41millions. If these Gold having appreciated so that its value in terms of silver had increases be deducted, it is found that taxes, properly so called, exactly doubled during the first 30 years of the Meiji era, nothing was necessary except to double the denominations of the gold coins grew from 70-5 millions in 1894–1895 to 207.86 millions in 1908-1909, an increase of somewhat less than three-fold. Otherwise stated, in terms of yen, leaving the silver subsidiary coins unchanged the burden per unit of population in 1894-1895 was 3s. 6d., whereas Thus the old 5-yen gold piece, weighing 2.22221 momme of 900 fine- in 1908-1909. it was 8s. 4d. To understand the principle of Japanese ness, became a 10-yen piece in the new currency, and a new s-yen taxation and the manner in which the above development took piece of half the weight was coined. required in the reckonings of the people. The yen continued to be place, it is necessary to glance briefly at the chief taxes separately. The land tax is the principal source of revenue. It was originally their coin of account, with a fixed sterling value of a small fraction fixed at 3% of the assessed value of the land, but in 1877 this ratio over two shillings, and the denominations of the gold coins were doubled. Gold, however, is little seen in Japan; the whole duty from 37 to 38 million yen annually. After the war with was reduced to 2} %, on which basis the tax yiel Land Tax. of currency is done by notes. China (1894–1895) the government proposed to increase this impost It is not to be supposed that all this economic and financial in order to obtain funds for an extensive programme of useful development was unchequered by periods of depression and severe panic. There were in fact six such seasons: in 1874, 1881, 1889. public works and expanded armaments (known subsequently as the 1897, 1900 and 1907: But no year throughout the whole period of agricultural land had largely appreciated owing to improved " first post bellum programme "). By that time the market value failed to witness an increase in the number of Japan's industrial communications, and urban land commanded greatly enhanced and commercial companies, and in the amount of capital thus prices. But the lower house of the diet, considering itself guardian invested. of the farmers' interests, refused to endorse any increase of the tax. To obtain a comprehensive idea of Japan's state finance, the Not until 1889 could this resistance be overcome, and then only on simplest method is to set down the annual revenue at quinquennial condition that the change should not be operative for more than periods, commencing with the year 1878-1879, because State 5 years. The amended rates were 3.3% on rural lands and 5% on it was not until 1876 that the system of duly compiled urban building sites. Thus altered, the tax produced 46,000,000 Revenue. and published budgets came into existence. yen, but at the end of the five-year period it would have reverted to its old figure, had not war with Russia broken out. An increase REVENUE (omitting fractions) was then made so that the impost varied from 3% to 171 % accord. ing to the class of land, and under this new system the tax yielded 85 millions. Thus the exigencies of two wars had augmented it Year. Ordinary Revenue Extraordinary Revenue Total Revenue (millions of yen). from 38 millions in 1889 to 85 millions in 1907. (millions of yen). (millions of yen). The income tax was introduced in 1887. It was on a graduated scale, varying from 1% on incomes of not less than 300 yen, to 3% 1878-9 53 9 62 on incomes of 30,000 yen and upwards. At these 1883-4 76 7 83 lacome Tax. rates the tax yielded an insignificant revenue of about' 1888-9 74 92 2,000,000 yen. In 1899, a revision was effected for the purposes of 1893-4 86 28 114 the first post bellum programme. This revision increased the number 1898-9 133 87 of classes from five to ten, incomes of 300 yen standing at the bottom 1903-4 224 36 260 and incomes of 100,000 yen or upwards at the top, the minimum and 1908-9 144 620 maximum rates being 1% and 51%. The tax now produced approximately. 8,000,000 yen. Finally in 1904, when war broke The most striking feature of the above table is the rapid growth out with Russia, these rates were again revised, the minimum now of revenue during the last three periods. So signal was the growth becoming 2%, and the maximum 8:2%. Thus revised, the tax that the revenue may be said to have sextupled in the 15 years yields a revenue of 27,000,000 yen. ended 1909. This was the result of the two great wars in which The business tax was instituted in 1896, after the war with China, and the rates have remained unchanged. For the purposes of the Japan was involved, that with China in 1894-95 and that with Russia in 1904-5. The details will be presently shown. tax all kinds of business are divided into nine classes, Business Turning now to the expenditure and pursuing the same plan, we and the tax is levied on the amounts of sales (wholesale have the following figures:- and retail), on rental value of buildings, on number of employees and on amount of capital. The yield from the tax grows steadily. It was only. 4,500,000 yen in 1897, but it figured at EXPENDITURE (omitting fractions) 22,000,000 yen in the budget for 1908-1909. The above three imposts constitute the only direct taxes in Japan. Ordinary Extraordinary Total Among indirect taxes the most important is that upon alcoholic Year. Expenditures Expenditures Expenditures liquors. It was inaugurated in 1871; doubled, roughly Tax on (millions of yen). (millions of yen). (millions of yen). speaking, in 1878; still further increased thenceforth at Alcoholic intervals of about 3 years, until it is now approximately Liquors. 1878-9 56 twenty times as heavy as it was originally. The liquor 5 61 1883-4 taxed is mainly sake; the rate is about so sen (one shilling) per 68 15 83 gallon, and the annual yield is 72,000,000 yen. 1888-9 66 15 81 1893-4 In 1859, when Japan re-opened her ports to foreign commerce, 64 84 the customs dues were fixed on a basis of 10% ad valorem, but this 1898-9 119 IOI 1903-4 170 80 was almost immediately changed to a nominal 5% 250 Customs and a real 3%. The customs then yielded a very 1908-9 427 193 620 Duties. petty return-not more than three or four million yen --and the Japanese government had no discretionary power to It may be here stated that, with three exceptions, the working of the alter the rates. Strenuous efforts to change this system were at budget showed a surplus in every one of the 41 years between 1867 | length successful, and, in 1899, the tariff was divided into two and 1908. 'sections, conventional and statutory; the rates in the former being governed by a treaty valid for 12 years; those in the latter being fixed 1 The Japanese fiscal year is from April i to March 31. at Japan's will. Things remained thus until the war with Russia 18 220 476 Tax. 20 220 218 (FINANCE JAPAN 2 . 24 . compelled a revision of the statutory tariff. Under this system ments to double her army and navy and to develop her material the ratio of the duties to the value of the dutiable goods was about resources. The government drafted for the year 1907-1908 a budget 15.65 %. The customs yield a revenue of about 42,000,000 yen. with three salient features. First, instead of proceeding to deal in a In addition to the above there are eleven taxes, some in existence leisurely manner with the greatly increased national debt, Japan's before the war of 1904-5, and some created for the purpose financiers made dispositions to pay it off completely in the space of Other of carrying on the war or to meet the expenses of a post 30 years. Secondly, a total outlay of 422,000,000 yen was set down Taxes. bellum programme. for improving and expanding the army and the navy. Thirdly, Taxes in existence before 1904-1905:- expenditures aggregating 304,000,000 yen were estimated for produc- Yield tive purposes. All these outlays, included in the extraordinary Name. (millions of yer). section of the budget, were spread over a series of years commencing Tax on soy in 1907 and ending in 1913, so that the disbursements would reach Tax on sugar 181 their maximum in the fiscal year 1908-1909 and would thenceforth Mining tax decline with growing rapidity. To finance this programme three Tax on bourses constant sources of annual revenue were provided, namely, increased Tax on issue of bank-notes taxation, yielding some 30 millions yearly; domestic loans, varying from 30 to 40 millions each year; and surpluses of ordinary revenue Tonnage dues amounting to from 45 to 75 millions.. There were also some excep- Taxes created on account of the war (1904-5) or in its immediate tional and temporary assets: such as 100,000,000 yen remaining sequel: over from the war fund; 50 millions paid by Russia for the main Yield tenance of her officers and soldiers during their imprisonment in Name. (millions of yen). Japan; occasional sales of state properties and so forth. But the Consumption tax on textile fabrics 193 backbone of the scheme was the continuing revenue detailed above. Tax on dealers in patent medicines The house of representatives unanimously approved this pro- Tax on communications gramme. By the bulk of the nation, however, it was regarded with Consumption tax on kerosene something like consternation, and a very short time sufticed to Succession tax demonstrate its impracticability. From the beginning of 1907 a Also, as shown above, the land tax was increased by 39 millions; cloud of commercial and industrial depression settled down upon the income tax by 19 millions; the business tax by 15 millions; and Japan, partly because of so colossal a programme of taxes and the tax on alcoholic liquors by 13 millions. On the whole, if taxes expenditures, and partly owing to excessive speculation during the of general incidence and those of special incidence be lumped to- year 1906 and to unfavourable financial conditions abroad. To gether, it appears that the burden swelled from 160,000,000 yen float domestic loans became a hopeless task, and thus one of the three before the war to 320,000,000 after it. sources of extraordinary revenue ceased to be available. There The government of Japan carries on many manufacturing under remained no alternative but to modify the programme, and this was takings for purposes of military and naval equipment, for ship- accomplished by extending the original period of years so as cor- building, for the construction of railway rolling stock, respondingly to reduce the annual outlays. The nation, however, as State for the manufacture of telegraph and light-house represented by its leading men of affairs, clamoured for stil more Monopolies materials, for iron-founding and steel-making, for printing. drastic measures, and it became evident that the government and Manue for paper-making and so forth. There are 48 of these must study retrenchment, not expansion, eschewing above all things factures. institutions, giving employment to 108,000 male opera any increase of the country's indebtedness. A change of ministry tives and 23,000 female, together with 63,000 labourers. But the took place, and the new cabinet drafted a programme on five bases: financial results do not appear independently in the general budget. first, that all expenditures should be brought within the margin of Three other government undertakings, however, constitute important actual visible revenue, loans being wholly abstained from; secondly, budgetary items: they are, the profits derived from the postal that the estimates should not include any anticipated surpluses of and telegraph services, 39,000,000 yen; secondly, from forests, yearly revenue; thirdly, that appropriations of at least 50,000,000 yen 13,000,000 yen; and thirdly, from railways, 37,000,000 yen. The should be annually set aside to form a sinking fund, the whole of government further exercises a monopoly of three important staples, the foreign debt being thus extinguished in 27 years; fourthly, tobacco, salt and camphor. In each case the crude article is pro- that the state railways should be placed in a separate account, all duced by private individuals from whom it is taken over at a fair their profits being devoted to extensions and repairs; and price by the government, and, having been manufactured (if neces. that the period for completing the post tellum programme should be sary), it is resold by government agents at fixed prices. The tobacco extended from 6 years to it. This scheme had the effect of restoring monopoly yields a profit of some 33,000,000 yen; the salt monopoly confidence in the soundness of the national finances. a profit of 12,000,000 yen, and the camphor monopoly a profit of National Debt.-When the fiefs were surrendered to the sovereign 1,000,000 yen. Thus the ordinary revenue of the state consisted at the beginning of the Meiji era, it was decided to provide for the in 1908-1909 of : feudal nobles and the samurai by the payment of lump sums in Yen. commutation, or by handing to them public bonds, the interest on Proceeds of taxes which should constitute a source of income. The result of this trans- 320,000,000 Proceeds of state enterprises (posts and tele- action was that bonds having a total face value of 191,500,000 yen graphs, forests and railways). 89,000,000 were issued, and ready-money payments were made aggregating Proceeds of monopolies 56,000,000 21,250,000 yen. This was the foundation of Japan's national debt. Sundries 11,000,000 Indeed, these public bonds may be said to have represented the bulk of the state's liabilities during the first 25 years of the Total 476,000,000 Meiji period. The government had also to take over the debts The ordinary expenditures of the nine departments of state aggre- of the fiefs, amounting to 41,000,000 yen, of which 21,500,000 yen gated-in 1908-1909--427,000,000 yen, so that there was a surplus money. If to the above figures be added two foreign loans aggregating were paid with interest-bearing bonds, the remainder with ready revenue of 49,000,000 yen. 16,500,000 yen (completely repaid by the year 1897): a loan of Japanese budgets have long included an extraordinary section, so called because it embodies outlays of a special and terminable 15,000,000 yen incurred on account of the Satsuma revolt of 1877, character as distinguished from ordinary and perpetu- construction, and 14,500,000 yen 2 in connexion with the fiat currency, loans of 33,000,000 yen for public works, 13,000,000 yen for naval Extraordinary ally recurring expenditures. The items in this extra- Expenditures. we have a total of 305,000,000 yen, being the whole national debt ordinary section possessed deep interest in the years 1896 and 1907, because they disclosed the special programmes mapped administration. of Japan during the first 28 years of her new era under Imperial out by Japanese financiers and statesmen after the wars with China The second epoch dates from the war with China in 1894-95. and Russia. Both programmes had the same bases-expansion of armaments and development of the country's material resources. The direct expenditures on account of the waraggregated 200,000,000 After her war with China, Japan received a plain intimation that she 1 The amounts include the payments made in connexion with what must either fight again after a few years or resign herself to a carcer may be called the disestablishment of the Church. There were of insignificance on the confines of the Far East. No other inter- 29,805 endowed temples and shrines throughout the empire, and their pretation could be assigned to the action of Russia, Germany and estates aggregated 354,481 acres, together with i million bushels France in requiring her to retrocede the territory which she had of rice (representing 2,500,000 yen). The government resumed acquired by right of conquest. Japan therefore made provision possession of all these lands and revenues at a total cost to the state for the doubling of her army and her navy, for the growth of a of a little less than 2,500,000 yen, paid out in pensions spread over a mercantile marine qualified to supply a sufficiency of troop-ships, period of fourteen years. The measure sounds like wholesale con. and for the development of resources which should lighten the burden fiscation. But some extenuation is found in the fact that the of these outlays. temples and shrines held their lands and revenues under titles which, The war with Russia ensued nine years after these preparations being derived from the feudal chiefs, depended for their validity had begun, and Japan emerged victorious. It then seemed to the on the maintenance of feudalism. onlooking nations that she would rest from her warlike efforts. ? This sum represents interest-bearing bonds issued in exchange On the contrary, just as she had behaved after her war with China, for fiat notes, with the idea of reducing the volume of the latter. So she now behaved after her war with Russia---made arrange- It was a tentative measure, and proved of no value. . FINANCEJ? JAPAN 219 10 12 ness yen, of which 135,000,000 yen were added to the national debt, the In the same years the total indebtedness of the corporations was :- remainder being defrayed with accumulations of surplus revenue, Debts with a part of the indemnity received from China, and with voluntary Year. (millions of yen). contributions from patriotic subjects. As the immediate sequel of 1890. the war, the government elaborated a large programme of armaments 1894 and public works. The expenditure for these unproductive purposes, 1899. 32 as well as for coast fortifications, dockyards, and so on, came to 1904 65 314,000,000 yen, and the total of the productive expenditures 1907 898 included in the programme was 190,000,000 yen-namely, 120 millions for railways, telegraphs and telephones; 20 millions for The chief purposes to which the proceeds of these loans were applied riparian improvements; 20 millions in aid of industrial and agri- are as follow: cultural banks and so forth--the whole programme thus involving Millions of yen. an outlay of 504,000,000 yen. To meet this large figure, the Chinese Education 5 indemnity, surpluses of annual revenue and other assets, furnished Sanitation 300 millions; and it was decided that the remaining 204 millions Industries 13 should be obtained by domestic loans, the programme to be carried Public works 52 completely into operation-with trifling exceptions... by the year Local corporations are not competent to incur unrestricted indebted- 1905. In practice, however, it was found impossible to obtain money at home without paying a high rate of interest. The govern redemption must commence within 3 years after the date of issue The endorsement of the local assembly must be secured; ment, therefore, had recourse to the London market in 1899, raising a loan of £10,000,000 at 4%, and selling the £100 bonds at 90. In and be completed within 30 years; and, except in the case of very 1902, it was not expected that Japan would need any further small loans. the sanction of the minister of home affairs must be obtained. immediate recourse to foreign borrowing.. According to her finan- ciers' forecast at that tiine, her national indebtedness would reach Wealth of Japan.-With reference to the wealth of Japan, there is no official census. So far as can be estimated from statistics its maximum, namely, ,575,000,000 yen, in the year, 1903, and would thenceforward diminish steadily: All Japan's domestic for the year 1904-1905, the wealth of Japan proper, excluding loans were by that time placed on a uniform basis. They carried Formosa, Sakhalin and some rights in Manchuria, amounts to about 5% interest, ran for a period of 5 years without redemption, and 19,896,000,000 yen, the items of which are as follow: were then to be redeemed within 50 years at latest. The treasury Yen (10 yen = £1). had power to expedite the operation of redemption according to Lands 12,301,000,000 financial convenience, but the sum expended on amortization each Buildings 2,331,000,000 year must receive the previous consent of the diet. Within the limit Furniture and fittings 1,080,000,000 of that sum redemption was effected either by purchasing the stock Live stock 109,000,000 of the loans in the open market or by drawing lots to determine the bonds to be paid off. During the first two periods (1867 to Railways, telegraphs and telephones. 707,000,000 Shipping 376,000,000 1897) of the Meiji era, owing to the processes of conversion, consolida- Merchandise tion, &c., and to the various requirements of the state's progress, 873,000,000 twenty-two different kinds of national bonds were issued; they Specic and bullion 310,000,000 Miscellaneous 1,809,000,000 aggregated 673,215,500 yen; 269,042,198 yen of that total had been paid off at the close of 1897, and the remainder was to be redeemed Grand total by 1946, according to these programmes. 19,896,000,000 But at this point the empire became involved in war with Russia, Education. There is no room to doubt that the literature and and the enormous resulting outlays caused a signal change in the learning of China and Korea were transported to Japan in very financial situation. Before peace was restored in the autumn of 1905, Japan had been obliged to borrow 405,000,000 yen at home ancient times, but tradition is the sole authority Early and 1,054,000,000 abroad, so that she found herself in 1908 with a for current statements that in the 3rd century a Education. total debt of 2,276,000,000 yen, of which aggregate her domestic Korean immigrant was appointed historiographer to the Imperial indebtedness stood for 1,110,000,000 and her foreign borrowings court of Japan and another learned man from the same country amounted to 1,166,000,000. This meant that her debt had from 561,000,000 yen in 1904 to 2,276,000,000 yen' in 1908; or from introduced the Japanese to the treasures of Chinese literature. 11.3 yen to 43-8 yen per head of the population. Further, out of About the end of the 6th century the Japanese court began to the grand total, the sum actually spent on account of war and arma. send civilians and religionists direct to China, there to study Con- ments represented 1,357,000,000 yen. The debt carried interest fucianism and Buddhism, and among these travellers there were varying from 4 to 5%. It will be observed that the country's indebtedness grow by some who passed as much as 25 or 30 years beyond the sea. 1,700,000,000 yen, in round numbers, owing to the war with Russia. The knowledge acquired by these students was crystallized into This added obligation the government resolved to discharge within a body of laws and ordinances based on the administrative and the space of 30 years, for which purpose the diet was asked to legal systems of the Sui dynasty in China, and in the middle of approve the establishment of a national debt consolidation fund, the 7th century the first Japanese school seems to have been which should be kept distinct from the general accounts of revenue and expenditure, and specially applied to payment of interest and established by the emperor Tenchi, followed some 50 years later redemption of principal. The amount of this fund was never to fall by the first university. Nara was the site of the latter, and the below 110,000,000 yen annually. Immediately after the war, the subjects of study were ethics, law, history and mathematics. diet approved a cabinet proposal for the nationalization of 17 private railways, at a cost of 500,000,000 yen, and this brought the state's Not until 794, the date of the transfer of the capital to Kioto, debts to 2,776,000,000 yen in all. The people becoming impatient however, is there any evidence of educational organization on of this large burden, a scheme was finally adopted in 1908 for à considerable scate. A university was then opened in the appropriating, a sum of at least 50,000,000 yen annually to the capital, with affiliated colleges; and local schools were built and purpose of redemption. Local Finance. --Between 1878 and 1888 a system of local auto- endowed by noble families, to whose scions admittance was re- nomy in matters of finance was fully established. Under this system stricted, but for general education one institution only appears the total expenditures of the various corporations in the last year to have been provided. - In this Kioto university the curriculum of cach quinquennial period commencing from the fiscal year 1889. | included the Chinese classics, calligraphy, history, law, etiquette, 1890 were as follow: Total Expenditure arithmetic and composition; while in the affiliated colleges Year. (millions of yen). special subjects were taught, as medicine, herbalism, acupunc- 1889-1890 ture, shampooing, divination, the almanac and languages. 1893-1894 52 Admission was limited to youths of high social grade; the stu- 1898–1899 97 dents aggregated some 400, from 13 to 16 years of age; the faculty 1903-19042 1907-1908 included professors and teachers, who were known by the same In this is included a sum of 110,000,000 yen distributed in the form and the government supplied food and clothing as well as books. titles (hakase and shi) as those applied to their successors to-day; of loan-bonds among the officers and men of the army and navy by way of reward for their services during the war of 1904-5. The family schools numbered five, and their patrons were the 'When war broke out in 1904 the local administrative districts Wage, the Fujiwara, the Tachibana (one school each) and the took steps to reduce their outlays, so that whereas the expenditures Minamoto (two). At the one institution-opened in 828- totalled 158,000,000 yen in 1903-1904, they fell to 122,000,000 and where youths in general might receive instruction, the course 126,000,000 in 1904-1905 and 1905-1906 respectively. however, they expanded once more. * This includes 221 millions of loans raised abroad. 22 158 167 220 JAPAN (EDUCATION tion of Elemeat. sense. era. embraced only calligraphy and the precepts of Buddhism and in reading and expounding rare books to audiences of feudatories Confucianism. and their vassals produced something like a inania for erudition, The above retrospect suggests that Japan, in those early so that feudal chiefs competed in engaging teachers and founding days, borrowed her educational system and its subjects of schools. The eighth shogun, Yoshimunē (1716–1749), was an even Combina- study entirely from China. But closer scrutiny shows more enlightened ruler. He caused a geography to be compiled that the national factor was carefully preserved. and an astronomical observatory to be constructed; he revoked Native and The ethics of administration required a combination the veto on the study of foreign books; he conceived and carried Foreign of two elements, wakon, or the soul of Japan, and out the idea of imparting moral education through the medium kwunsai, or the ability of China; so that, while adopt- of calligraphy by preparing ethical primers whose precepts were ing from Confucianism the doctrine of filial piety, the Japanese embodied in the head-lines of copy-books, and he encouraged grafted on it a spirit of unswerving loyalty and patriotism; and private schools. Iyenari (1787–1838), the eleventh shogun, while accepting Buddha's teaching as to three states of existence, and his immediate successor, Iyeyoshi (1838–1853), patronized they supplemented it by a belief that in the life beyond the grave learning no less ardently, and it was under the auspices of the the duty of guarding his country would devolve on every man, latter that Japan acquired her five classics, the primers of Great academic importance attached to proficiency in literary True Words, of Great Learning, of Lesser Learning, of Female composition, which demanded close study of the ideographic | Ethics and of Women's Filial Piety. script, endlessly perplexing in form and infinitely delicate in Thus it may be said that the system of education progressed To be able to compose and indite graceful couplets steadily throughout the Tokugawa era. From the days of constituted a passport to high office as well as to the favour of Tsunayoshi the number of fief schools steadily increased, and great ladies, for women vied with men in this accomplishment. | as students were admitted free of all charges, a duty of grateful The early years of the with century saw, grouped about the fealty as well as the impulse of interfief competition drew thither empress Aki, a galaxy of female authors whose writings are the sons of all samurai. Ultimately the number of such schools still accounted their country's classics-Murasaki no Shikibu, rose to over 240, and being supported entirely at the expense Akazome Emon, Izumi Shikibu, Ise Taiyu and several lesser of the feudal chiefs, they did no little honour to the spirit of the lights. To the first two Japan owes the Genji monogatari and From 7 to 15 years of age lads attended as day scholars, the Eiga monogatari, respectively, and from the Imperial court being thereafter admitted as boarders, and twice a year exami- of those remote ages she inherited admirable models of paint nations were held in the presence of high officials of the fief. ing, calligraphy, poetry, music, song and dance. But it is There were also several private schools where the curriculum to be observed that all this refinement was limited virtually consisted chiefly of moral philosophy, and there were many to the noble families residing in Kioto, and that the first temple schools, where ethics, calligraphy, arithmetic, etiquette object of education in that era was to fit men for office and for and, sometimes, commercial matters were taught. A prominent society. feature of the system was the bond of reverential affection Meanwhile, beyond the precincts of the capital there were uniting teacher and student. Before entering school a boy rapidly growing to maturity numerous powerful military mag- was conducted by his father or elder brother to the home of his Education nates who despised every form of learning that did future teacher, and there the visitors, kneeling before the teacher, not contribute to martial excellence. An illiterate era pledged themselves to obey him in all things and to submit ensued which reached its climax with the establish- unquestioningly to any discipline he might impose. Thus the Ages. ment of feudalism at the close of the 12th century. teacher came to be regarded as a parent, and the veneration paid It is recorded that, about that time, only one man out of a force to him was embodied in a precept:" Let not a pupil tread within of five thousand could decipher an Imperial mandate addressed three feet of his teacher's shadow.” In the case of the temple to them. Kamakura, then the seat of feudal government, was schools the priestly instructor had full cognisance of each at first distinguished for absence of all intellectual training, but student's domestic circumstances and was guided by that know- subsequently the course of political events brought thither from ledge in shaping the course of instruction. The universally Kioto a number of court nobles whose erudition and refine- underlying principle was, serve the country and be diligent ment acted as a potent leaven. Buddhism, too, had been from in your respective avocations.” Sons of samurai were trained the outset a strong educating influence. Under its auspices in military arts, and on attaining proficiency many of them the first great public library was established (1270) at the temple travelled about the country, inuring their bodies to every kind Shomyo-ji in Kanazawa. It is said to have contained practi- of hardship and challenging all experts of local fame. cally all the Chinese and Japanese books then existing, and they Unfortunately, however, the policy of national seclusion pre- were open for perusal by every class of reader. To Buddhist vented for a long time all access to the stores of European know- priests, also, Japan owed during many years all the machinery ledge. Not until the beginning of the 18th century did any she possessed for popular education. They organized schools authorized account of the great world of the West pass into the at the temples scattered about in almost every part of the hands of the people. A celebrated scholar (Arai Hakuseki) empire, and at these tera-koya, as they were called, lessons then compiled two works-Saiyo kibun (Record of Occidental in ethics, calligraphy, reading and etiquette were given to the Hearsay), and Sairan igen (Renderings of Foreign Languages) sons of samurai and even to youths of the mercantile and manu- which embodied much information, obtained from Dutch sources, facturing classes. about Europe, its conditions and its customs. But of course When, at the beginning of the 17th century, administrative the light thus furnished had very restricted influence. It was supremacy fell into the hands of the Tokugawa, the illustrious not extinguished, however. Thenceforth men's interest centred Education founder of that dynasty of shöguns, lyeyasu, more and more on the astronomical, geographical and medical la the pre• showed himself an earnest promoter of erudition. sciences of the West, though such subjects were not included in Meiji Era. He employed a number of priests to make copies academical studies until the renewal of foreign intercourse in of Chinese and Japanese books; he patronized men of learning modern times. Then (1857), almost immediately, the nation and he endowed schools. It does not appear to have occurred turned to Western learning, as it had turned to Chinese thirteen to him, however, that the spread of knowledge was hampered centuries earlier. The Tokugawa government established in by a restriction which, emanating originally from the Imperial Yedo an institution called Bansho-shirabe-dokoro (place for court in Kioto, forbade any one outside the ranks of the Buddhist studying foreign books), where Occidental languages were learned priesthood to become a public teacher. To his fifth successor and Occidental works translated. Simultaneously a school for Tsunayoshi (1680–1709) was reserved the honour of abolishing acquiring foreign medical art (Seiyo igaku-sho) was opened, and, this veto. Tsunayoshi, whatever his faults, was profoundly a little later (1862), the Kaisei-jo (place of liberal culture), a: attached to literature. By his command a pocket edition of the college for studying European sciences, was added to the list of Chinese classics was prepared, and the example he himself set new institutions. Thus the eve of the Restoration saw the in the Middle 66 EDUCATION) JAPAN 221 . Times. Japanese people already appreciative of the stores of learning of proficiency contemplated, and the maximum fees are 15d. per rendered accessible to them by contact with the Occident. month in urban districts and one-half of that amount in rural dis- tricts. Commercial education was comparatively neglected in the There are also 294 kindergartens, with an attendance of 26,000 schools. Sons of merchants occasionally attended the tera-koya, infants, whose parents pay 3d. per month on the average for each Commercial but the instruction they received there had seldom child. In general the kindergartens are connected with elementary Education in any bearing upon the conduct of trade. Mercan schools or with normal schools. Tokugawa tilé knowledge had to be acquired by a system of desires to extend its education, it passes into a common middle If a child, after graduation at a common elementary school, apprenticeship. A boy of 9 or 10 was apprenticed school, where training is given for practical pursuits or for admission for a period of 8 or 9 years to a merchant, who undertook to to higher educational institutions. The ordinary_curriculum at a support him and teach him a trade. Generally this young history, geography, mathematics, natural history, natural philosophy, common middle school includes moral philosophy, English language, apprentice could not even read or write. He passed through all chemistry, drawing and the Japanese language. Five years are the stages of shop menial, errand boy, petty clerk, salesman and required to graduate, and from the fourth year the student may take senior clerk, and in the evenings he received instruction from a up a special technical course as well as the main course; or, in teacher, who used for textbooks the manual of letter-writing accordance with local requirements, technical subjects may be (Shosoku orai) and the manual of commerce (Shõbai orai). time. The law provides that there must be at least one common taught conjointly with the regular curriculum throughout the whole The latter contained much useful information, and a youth middle school in each prefecture. The actual number in 1909 was 216. thoroughly versed in its contents was competent to discharge Great inducements attract attendance at a common middle responsible duties. When an apprentice, having attained the school. Not only does the graduation certificate carry considerable position of senior clerk, had given proof of practical ability, he weight, as a general qualification, but it also entitles a young man to volunteer for one year's service with the colours, thús escaping was often assisted by his master to start business independently, one of the two years he would have to serve as an ordinary conscript. but under the same firm-name, for which purpose a sum of The graduate of a common middle school can claim admittance, capital was given to him or a section of his master's customers preparing to pass to a university, or four years studying a special without examination, to a high school, where he spends three years were assigned. subject, as law, engineering or medicine. By following the course When the government of the Restoration came into power, the in a high school, a youth obtains exemption from conscription until emperor solemnly announced that the administration should be the age of 28, when one year as a volunteer will free him from all Education conducted on the principle of employing men of capa- service with the colours. A high-school certificate of graduation in Modern city wherever they could be found. This amounted qualifies him for all public posts. entitles its holder to enter a university without examination, and Japan. to a declaration that in choosing officials scholastic For girls also high schools are provided, the object being to give acquirements would thenceforth take precedence of the claims a general education of higher standard. Candidates for admission of birth, and thus unprecedented importance was seen to attach must be over 12 years of age, and must have completed the second- to education. But so long as the feudal system survived, even in year course of a higher elementary school. The regular course of study requires 4 years, and supplementary courses as well as special part, no general scheme of education could be thoroughly enforced, art courses may be taken. and thus it was not until the conversion of the fiefs into prefec- In addition to the schools already enumerated, which may be tures in 1871 that the government saw itself in a position to take said to constitute the machinery of general education, there are drastic steps. · A commission of investigation was sent to Europe few private), where instruction is given in medicine and surgery, special schools, generally private, and technical schools (including a and America, and on its return a very elaborate and extensive agriculture, commerce, mechanics, applied chemistry, navigation, plan was drawn up in accordance with French models, which the electrical engineering, art (pictorial and applied), veterinary science, commissioners had found conspicuously complete and sym- apprentices” schools, classed under the heading of elementary, sericulture and various other branches of industry. There are also metrical. This plan subsequently underwent great modifica where a course of not less than six months, and not more than four tions. It will be sufficient to say that in consideration of the years, may be taken in dyeing and weaving, embroidery, the making free education hitherto provided by the feudatories in their of artificial flowers, tobacco manufacture, sericulture, reeling silk, various fiefs, the government of the restoration resolved not only pottery, lacquer, woodwork, metal work or brewing. There are that the state should henceforth shoulder the main part of this blind and the dumb. also schools--nearly all supported by private enterprise--for the burden, but also that the benefits of the system should be Normal schools are maintained for the purpose of training teachers, extended equally to all classes of the population, and that the a class of persons not plentiful in Japan, doubtless because of an attendance at primary schools should be compulsory. At the exceptionally low scale of emoluments, the yearly pay not exceeding £60 and often falling as low as £15. outset the sum to be paid by the treasury was fixed at 2,000,000 There are two Imperial universities, one in Tokyo and one in yen, that having been approximately the expenditure incurred by Kioto. In 1909 the former had about 220 professors and instructors the feudatories. But the financial arrangements suffered many and 2880 students. Its colleges number six: law, medicine, changes from time to time, and finally, in 1877, the cost of main-engineering, literature, science and agriculture. It has a university taining the schools became a charge on the local taxes, the central quarterly journal giving accounts of scientific researches, which hall where post-graduate courses are studied, and it publishes a treasury granting only sums in aid. indicate not only large erudition, bu original talent. The Every child, on attaining the age of six, must attend a common university of Kioto is a comparatively new-institution and has not elementary school, where, during a six-years' course, instruction is given any signs of great vitality. In 1909. its colleges numbered given in morals, reading, arithmetic, the rudiments of technical work, four: law, medicine, literature and science; its faculty consisted of gymnastics and poetry. Year by year the attendance at these about 60 professors with 70 assistants, and its students aggregated schools has increased. Thus, whereas in the year 1900, only 81.67% about 1100. of the school-age children of both sexes received the prescribed Except in the cases specially indicated, all the figures given above elementary instruction, the figure in 1905 was 94.93 %. The desire are independent of private educational institutions. The system for instruction used to be keener among boys than among girls, as pursued by the state does not tend to encourage private education, was natural in view of the difference of inducement; but ultimately for unless a private school brings its curriculum into exact accord this discrepancy disappeared almost completely. Thus, whereas with that prescribed for public institutions of corresponding grade, the percentage of girls attending school was 75.90 in 1900, it rose its students are denied the valuable privilege of partial exemption to 91.46 in 1905, and the corresponding figures for boys were 90-55 from conscription, as well as other advantages attaching to state and 97.10 respectively... The tuition fee paid at a common elemen- recognition. Thus the quality of the instruction being nominally tary school in the rural districts must not exceed 55. yearly, and in the the same, the rate of fees must also be similar, and no margin offers urban districts, sos.; but in practice it is much smaller, for these to tempt private enterprise. elementary schools form part of the communal system, and such Public education in Japan is strictly secular: no religious teaching portion of their expenses as is not covered by tụition fees, income of any kind is per ted in the schools. There are about 100 libraries. from school property and miscellaneous sources, must be defrayed Progress is marked in this branch, the rate of growth having been out of the proceeds of local taxation. In 1909 there were 18,160 from 43 to 100 in the five-year period ended 1905. The largest common elementary schools, and also 9105 schools classed as library is the Imperial, in Tokyo. It had about half a million elementary but having sections where, subsequently to the comple- volumes in 1909, and the daily average of visitors was about 430. tion of the regular curriculum, a special supplementary course of Apart from the universities, the public educational institutions study, might be pursued in agriculture, commerce or industry in Japan involve an annual expenditure of 31 millions sterling, out (needle-work in the case of girls). The time devoted to these of which total a little more than half a million is met by students' special courses is two, three or four years, according to the degree fees; 21 millions are paid by the communes, and the remainder is a 222 (RELIGION JAPAN Shiato. term defrayed from various sources, the central government contributing Shinto is thus a mixture of ancestor-worship and of nature- only some £28,000. It is estimated that public school property worship without any explicit code of morals. It regards human in land, buildings, books, furniture, &c., aggregates is millions beings as virtuous by nature; assumes that each man's conscience sterling. is his best guide; and while believing in a continued existence VII.-RELIGION beyond the grave, entertains no theory as to its pleasures or pains. Those that pass away become disembodied spirits, The primitive religion of Japan is known by the name inhabiting the world of darkness (yomi-no-yo) and possessing of Shintő; which signifies“ the divine way,” but the Japanese power to bring sorrow or joy into the lives of their survivors, on maintain that this term is of comparatively which account they are worshipped and propitiated. Purity modern application. The Shinto being and simplicity being essential characteristics of the cult, its obviously of Chinese origin, cannot have been used in Japan shrines are built of white wood, absolutely without decorative before she became acquainted with the Chinese language. features of any kind, and fashioned as were the original huts of Now Buddhism did not reach Japan until the 6th century, and the first Japanese settlers. There are no graven images-a fact a knowledge of the Chinese language had preceded it by only a attributed by some critics to ignorance of the glyptic art on the hundred years. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the part of the original worshippers--but there is an emblem of the primitive religion of Japan had no name, and that it did not deity, which generally takes the form of a sword, a mirror or a begin to be called Shinto until Buddhism had entered the field. so-called jewel, these being the insignia handed by the sun god The two creeds remained distinct, though not implacably antago-dess to her grandson, the first ruler of Japan. This emblem is nistic, until the beginning of the 9th century, when they were not exposed to public view: it is enveloped in silk and brocade welded together into a system of doctrine to which the name and enclosed in a box at the back of the shrine. The mirror Ryōbu-Shinto (dual Shinto) was given. In this new creed the sometimes prominent is a Buddhist innovation and has nothing Shinto deities were regarded as avatars of Buddhist divinities, to do with the true emblem of the creed. and thus it may be said that Shinto was absorbed into Buddhism. From the 9th century, when Buddhism absorbed Shinto, the Probably that would have been the fate of the indigenous creed two grew together so intimately that their differentiation seemed in any circumstances, for a religion without a theory as to a future hopeless. But in the middle of the 17th century a strong revival state and without any code of moral duties could scarcely hope to of the indigenous faith was effected by the efforts of a group of survive contact with a faith so well equipped as Buddhism in illustrious scholars and politicians, at whose head stood Mabuchi, these respects. But Shinto, though absorbed, was not obliterated. Motoori and Hirata. These men applied themselves with great Its beliefs survived; its shrines survived; its festivals survived, diligence and acumen to reproduce the pure Shinto of the Kojiki and something of its rites survived also. and to restore it to its old place in the nation's reverence, their Shinto, indeed, may be said to be entwined about the roots political purpose being to educate a spirit of revolt against the of Japan's national existence. Its scripture-as the Kojiki feudal system which deprived the emperor of administrative must be considered-resembles the Bible in that both begin with power. The principles thus revived became the basis of the the cosmogony. But it represents the gods as peopling the newly restoration of 1867, Shinto rites and Shinto rituals were re- created earth with their own offspring instead of with human adopted, and Buddhism fell for a season into comparative beings expressly made for the purpose. The actual work of disfavour, Shinto being regarded as the national religion. But creation was done by a male deity, Izanagi, and a female deity, Buddhism had twined its roots too deeply around the heart of Izanami. From the right eye of the former was born Amaterasu, the people to be thus easily torn up. It gradually recovered who became goddess of the sun; from his left eye, the god of the its old place, though not its old magnificence, for its disestablish- moon; and from his nose, a species of Lucifer. The grandson of ment at the hands of the Meiji government robbed it of a large the sun goddess was the first sovereign of Japan, and his descen- part of its revenues. dants have ruled the land in unbroken succession ever since, Buddhism entered China at the beginning of the Christian era, the 12 ist being on the throne in 1909. Thus it is to Amaterasu but not until the 4th century did it obtain any strong footing. (the heaven-illuminating goddess) that the Japanese pay Thence, two centuries later (522), it reached Japan Buddhism. reverence above all other deities, and it is to her shrine at Ise through Korea. The reception extended to it was that pilgrims chiefly flock. not encouraging at first. Its images and its brilliant appur- The story of creation, as related in the Kojiki, is obviously tenances might well deter a nation which had never seen an idol based on a belief that force is indestructible, and that every nor ever worshipped in a decorated temple. But the ethical exercise of it is productive of some permanent result. Thus by teachings and the positive doctrines of the foreign faith presented the motions of the creative spirit there spring into existence all an attractive contrast to the colourless Shinto. After a struggle, the elements that go to make up the universe, and these, being not without bloodshed, Buddhism won its way. It owed much of divine origin, are worshipped and propitiated. Their number to the active patronage of Shotoku taishi, prince-regent during becomes immense when we add the deified ghosts of ancestors the reign of the empress Suiko (593-621). At his command many who were descended from the gods and whose names are asso- new temples were built; the country was divided into dioceses ciated with great deeds. These ancestors are often regarded as under Buddhist prelates; priests were encouraged to teach the the tutelary deities of districts, where they receive special homage arts of road-making and bridge-building, and students were and where shrines are erected to them. The method of worship sent to China to investigate the mysteries of the faith at its consists in making offerings and in the recital of rituals (norito). supposed fountain-head. Between the middle of the 7th century Twenty-seven of these rituals were reduced to writing and em- and that of the 8th, six sects were introduced from China, all bodied in a work called Engishiki (927). Couched in antique imperfect and all based on the teachings of the Hinayana system. language, these liturgies are designed for the dedication of Up to this time the propagandists of the creed had been chiefly shrines, for propitiating evil, for entreating blessings on the Chinese and Korean teachers. But from the 8th century on- harvest, for purification, for obtaining household security, for wards, when Kioto became the permanent capital of the empire, bespeaking protection during a journey, and so forth. Nowhere Japanese priests of lofty intelligence and profound piety began. is any reference found to a future state of reward or punishment, to repair to China and bring thence modified forms of the to deliverance from evil, to assistance in the path of virtue. doctrines current there. was thus that Dengyo daishi (c. 800) One ceremonial only is designed to avert the consequences of became the founder of the Tendai (heavenly tranquillity) sect sin or crime; namely, the rite of purification, which, by washing and Köbo daishi (774-834) the apostle of the Shingon (true with water and by the sacrifice of valuables, removes the pollu- word). Other sects followed, until the country possessed six tion resulting from all wrong-doing. Originally performed on principal sects in all with thirty-seven sub-sects. It must be behalf of individuals, this o-barai ultimately came to be a semi- remembered that Buddhism offers an almost limitless field for annual ceremony for sweeping away the sins of all the people. , eclecticism. There is not in the world any literary production RELIGION) JAPAN 223 ia Modern of such magnitude as the Chinese scriptures of the Mahayana. heavens--the other Buddhas being like the moon reflected in " The canon is seven hundred times the amount of the New the waters, transient, shadowy reflections of the Buddha of Testament. Hsuan Tsang's translation of the Prajna paramita truth. It is this being who is the source of all phenomenal is twenty-five times as large as the whole Christian Bible.” existence, and in whom all phenomenal existence has its being. It is natural that out of such a mass of doctrine different The imperfect Buddhism teaches a chain of cause and effect; systems should be elaborated. The Buddhism that came to true Buddhism teaches that the first link in this chain of cause Japan prior to the days of Dengyo daishi was that of the Vai- and effect is the Buddha of original enlightenment. When this pulya school, which seems to have been accepted in its entirety: point has been reached true wisdom has at length been attained. But the Tendai doctrines, introduced by Dengyö, likaku and Thus the monotheistic faith of Christianity was virtually reached other fellow-thinkers, though founded mainly on the Saddharma in one God in whom all creatures “live, move and have their pundariku, were subjected the process of eclecticism which being.” It will readily be conceived that these varied doctrines all foreign institutions undergo at Japanese hands. Dengyo caused dissension and strife among the sects professing them. studied it in the monastery of Tientai which“ had been founded Sectarian controversies and squabbles were nearly as prominent towards the close of the 6th century of our era on a lofty range among Japanese Buddhists as they were among European of mountains in the province of Chehkiang by the celebrated Christians, but to the credit of Buddhism it has to be recorded preacher Chikai” (Lloyd, “ Developments of Japanese Budd- that the stake and the rack never found a place among its instru- hism," Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxii.), ments of self-assertion. On the other hand, during the wars and carrying it to Japan he fitted its disciplinary and meditative that devastated Japan from the 12th to the end of the 16th methods to the foundations of the sects already existing there. century, many of the monasteries became military camps, and This eclecticism was even more marked in the case of the the monks, wearing armour and wielding glaives, fought in Shingon (true word) doctrines, taught by Dengyo's illustrious secular as well as religious causes. contemporary, Köbo daishi, who was regarded as the incarnation of Vairocana. He led his countrymen, by a path almost wholly where (see. VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE). Their work suffered an The story of the first Christian missionaries to Japan is told else. his own, from the comparatively low platform of Hinayana interruption for more than 200 years until, in 1858, Christianity Buddhism, whose sole aim is individual salvation, to the Maha- almost simultaneously with the conclusion of the yana doctrine, which teaches its devotee to strive after perfect treaties, a small band of Catholic fathers entered Japan Japan. enlightenment, not for his own sake alone, but also that he may their ministrations since 1'846. They found that, in the neighbour- from the Riūkiū islands, where they had carried on help his fellows and intercede for them. Then followed the hood of Nagasaki, there were some small communities where Jõdo (Pure Land) sect, introduced in 1953 by a priest, Senku, Christian worship was still carried on. It would seem that these who is remembered by later generations as Hõnen shōnin. communities had not been subjected to any severe official scrutiny. He taught salvation by faith ritualistically expressed. The native Christians, or such of them as refused to apostatize, were But the arrival of the fathers revived the old question, and the virtue that saves comes, not from imitation of and conformity to removed from their homes and sent into banishment. This was the the person and character of the saviour Amida, but from blind last example of religious intolerance in Japan. At the instance of trust in his efforts and ceaseless repetition of pious formulae. It the foreign representatives in Tokyo the exiles were set at liberty in 1873, and from that time complete freedom of conscience existed is really a religion of despair rather than of hope, and in that in fact,'though it was not declared by law until the promulgation of respect it reflects the profound sympathy awakened in the bosom the constitution in 1889: In 1905 there were 60,000 Roman Catholic of its teacher by the sorrows and sufferings of the troublous converts in Japan forming 360 congregations, with 130 missionaries times in which he lived. and 215 teachers, including 145 nuns. These were all European. A favourite pupil of Hõnen shônin was Shinran (1173-1262). They were assisted by 32 Japanese priests, 52 Japanese nuns, 280 male catechists and 265 female catechists and nurses. Three semi- He founded the Jodo Shinshū (true sect of jõdo), commonly naries for native pricsts existed, together with 58 schools and orphan- called simply Shinshū and sometimes Monto, which subsé- ages and two lepers' homes. The whole was presided over by an quently became the most influential of Japanese sects, with its archbishop and three bishops. splendid monasteries, the two Hongwana-ji in Kioto. The American clergymen who settled in Nagasaki, and now, in con. The Anglican Church was established in Japan in 1859 by two differences between the doctrines of this sect and those of its junction with the Episcopal Churches of America and Canada, it predecessors were that the former “divested itself of all meta- has missions collectively designated Nihon Sei-Kōkai. There are physics ”; knew nothing of a philosophy of religion, dispensed bishops-2 American and 4 English-with about 60 foreign and with a multiplicity of acts of devotion and the keeping of many of both sexes and Japanese catechists and school teachers. The 50 Japanese priests and deacons, besides many foreign lay workers commandments; did not impose any vows of celibacy or any converts number 11,000. The Protestant missions include Presby. renunciation of the world, and simply made faith in Amida the terian (Nihon Kirisuto Kyokai), Congregational (Kumi-ai), Metho- all in all. In modern days the Shinshū sect has been the most dist, Baptist and the Salvation Army (Kyusei-gun). The pioneer Protestant mission was founded in 1859 by representatives of the progressive of all Buddhist sects and has freely sent forth its | American Presbyterian and Dutch Reformed Churches. To this promising priests to study in Europe and America. Its devotees mission belongs the credit of having published, in 1880, the first make no use of charms or spells, which are common among the complete Japanese version of the New Testament, followed by the followers of other sects. - Old Testament in 1887, The Presbyterians, representing 7 religious societies, have over a hundred missionaries; 12,400 converts; a Anterior by a few years to that introduction of the Shinshū number of boarding schools for boys and girls and day schools. was the Zen sect, which has three main divisions, the Rinzai | The Congregational churches are associated exclusively with the (1168), the Soto (1223) and the Obaku (1650). This is essentially mission of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions. à contemplative sect. Truth is reached by pure contemplation, tional institution in Japan, namely, the Dōshisha in Kioto. The They have about 11,400 converts, and the largest Christian educa. and knowledge can be transmitted from heart to heart without Methodists represent 6 American societies and i Canadian. They the use of words. In that simple form the doctrine, was accepted have 130 missionaries and 10,000 converts; boarding schools, day by the Rinzai believers. But the founders of the Soto branch-schools, and the most important Christian college in Tokyo, namely, Shoyo taishi and Butsuji zenshi-added scholarship and re- the Awoyama Gaku-in. The Baptists represent 4 American societies; have 60 missionaries, a theological seminary, an academy search to contemplation, and taught that the highest wisdom for boys, boarding schools for girls, day schools and 3500 converts. and the most perfect enlightenment are attained when all the The Salvation Army, which did not enter Japan until 1895, has elements of phenomenal existence are recognized as empty, vain organized 15 corps, and publishes ten thousand copies of a fort- and unreal.” This creed played an important part in the nightly magazine, the War Cry (Toki no Koe). Finally, the Society of Friends, the American and London Religious Tract Societies and development of Bushido, and its priests have always been dis- the Young Men's Christian Association have a number of missions. tinguished for erudition and indifference to worldly possessions. It will be seen from the above that the missionaries in Japan, in the Last but not least important among Japanese sects of Buddhism space of half a century (1858 to 1908), had won 110,000 converts, is the Nichiren or Hokke, called after its founder, Nichiren Church, which has a fine cathedral in Tōkyō, a staff of about 40 in round numbers. To these must be added the Orthodox Russian (1222-1282). It was based on the Saddharma pundarika, and Japanese priests and deacons and 27,000 converts, the whole it taught that there was only one true Buddha-the moon in the presided over by a bishop. Thus the total number of converts 224 JAPAN [FOREIGN INTERCOURSE With becomes 137,000. In spite of the numerous sects represented in | 16th century these tribute-bearing missions came to an end Japan there has been virtually no sectarian strife, and it may be with the ruin of the Ouchi family and the overthrow of the said of the Japanese converts that they concern themselves scarcely at all about the subtleties of dogma which divide European Chris. Ashikaga shöguns, and they were never renewed. tianity. Their tendency is to consider only the practical aspects of Japan's medieval commerce with Korea was less ceremonious the faith as a moral and ethical guide. They are disposed, also, to than that with China. No passports had to be obtained from adapt the creed to their own requirements just as they adapted the Korean government. A trader was sufficiently Buddhism, and this is a disposition which promises to grow. equipped when he carried a permit from the So Korea, VIII.-FOREIGN INTERCOURSE family, which held the island of Tsushima in fief. Fifty vessels were allowed to pass yearly from ports in Foreign Intercourse in Ecrly and Medieval Times.—There can Japan to the three Japanese settlements in Korea. Little is be no doubt that commerce was carried on by Japan with recorded about the nature this trade, but it was rudely inter- China and Korea earlier that the 8th century of the Christian rupted by the Japanese settlers, who, offended at some arbitrary era. It would appear that from the very outset over-sea procedure on the part of the local Korean authorities, trade was regarded as a government monopoly. Foreigners took up arms (A.D. 1510) and at first signally routed the were allowed to travel freely in the interior of the country Koreans. An army from Seoul turned the tables, and the provided that they submitted their baggage for official in Japanese were compelled to abandon the three settlements. spection and made no purchases of weapons of war, but all Subsequently the shögun's government-which had not been imported goods were bought in the first place by official ap- concerned in the struggle-approached Korea with amicable praisers who subsequently sold them to the people at arbitrarily proposals, and it was agreed that the ringleaders of the raiders fixed prices. Greater importance attached to the trade with should be decapitated and their heads sent to Seoul, Japan's China under the Ashikaga shöguns (14th, 15th and 16th centuries), compliance with this condition affording, perhaps, a measure of who were in constant need of funds to defray the cost of inter- the value she attached to neighbourly friendship. Thenceforth minable military operations caused by civil disturbances. In the number of vessels was limited to 25 annually and the settle- this distress they turned to the neighbouring empire as a source ments were abolished. Some years later, the Japanese again from which money might be obtained. This idea seems to have resorted to violent acts of self-assertion, and on this occasion, been suggested to the shögun Takauji by a Buddhist priest, although the offenders were arrested by order of the shogun when he undertook the construction of the temple Tenryū-ji. Yoshiharu, and handed over to Korea for punishment, the Two ships laden with goods were fitted out, and it was decided Seoul court persisted in declining to restore the system of that the enterprise should be repeated annually. Within a few settlements or to allow the trade to be resumed on its former years after this development of commercial relations between basis. Fifty years afterwards the taiko's armies invaded Korea, the two empires, an interruption occurred owing partly to the overrunning it for seven years, and leaving, when they retired overthrow of the Yuen Mongols by the Chinese Ming, and partly in 1598, a country so impoverished that it no longer offered to the activity of Japanese pirates and adventurers who raided any attraction to commercial enterprise from beyond the sea. the coasts of China. The shöguit Yoshimitsu (1368–1394), The Portuguese discovered Japan by accident in 1542 or 1543 however, succeeded in restoring commercial intercourse, though the exact date is uncertain. On a voyage to Macao from Siam, in order to effect his object he consented that goods sent from a junk carrying three Portuguese was blown from with Japan should bear the character of tribute and that he himself her course and fetched Tanegashima, a small Occidental should receive investiture at the hands of the Chinese emperor's island lying south of the province of Satsuma. Nations." ambassador. The Nanking government granted a certain The Japanese, always hospitable and inquisitive, welcomed the number of commercial passports, and these were given by the newcomers and showed special curiosity about the arquebuses shögun to Ouchi, feudal chief of Cho-shu, which had long been carried by the Portuguese, fire-arms being then a novelty in the principal port for trade with the neighbouring empire. Japan and all weapons of war being in great request. Conversa- Tribute goods formed only a small fraction of a vessel's cargo: tion was impossible, of course, but, by tracing ideographs upon the bulk consisted of articles which were delivered into the govern- the sand, a Chinese member of the crew succeeded in explaining ment's stores in China, payment being received in copper cash. the cause of the junk's arrival. She was then piloted to a more It was from this transaction that the shögun derived a consider-commodious harbour, and the Portuguese sold two arque- able part of his profits, for the articles did not cost him anything buses to the local feudatory, who immediately ordered his originally, being either presents from the great temples and pro- armourer to manufacture similar weapons. Very soon the news vincial governors or compulsory contributions from the house of of the discovery reached all the Portuguese settlements in the Ouchi. As for the gifts by the Chinese government and the goods East, and.at least seven expeditions were fitted out during the shipped in China, they were arbitrarily distributed among the next few years to exploit this new market. Their objective noble families in Japan at prices fixed by the shogun's assessor. points were all in the island of Kiūshiū—the principal stage where Thus, so far as the shögun was concerned, these enterprises the drama-ultimately converted into a tragedy—of Christian could not fail to be lucrative. They also brought large profits propagandism and European commercial intercourse was acted to the Ouchi family, for, in the absence of competition, the pro- in the interval between 1542 and 1637. ducts and manufactures of each country found ready sale in It does not appear that the Jesuits at Macao, Goa or other the markets of the other. The articles found most suitable in centres of Portuguese influence in the East took immediate China were swords, fans, screens, lacquer wares, copper and advantage of the discovery of Japan. The pioneer Arrival of agate, and the goods brought back to Japan were brocade and propagandist was Francis Xavier, who landed at the Jesuits. other silk fabrics, ceramic productions, jade and fragrant woods. Kagoshima on the 15th of August 1549. During the interval The Chinese seem to have had a just appreciation of the wonder- of six (or seven) years that separated this event from the drifting ful swords of Japan. At first they were willing to pay the of the junk to Tanegashima, the Portuguese had traded freely equivalent of 12 guineas for a pair of blades, but by degrees, as in the ports of Kiūshiū, had visited Kioto, and had reported the Japanese began to increase the supply, the price fell, and at the Japanese capital to be a city of 96,000 houses, therefore the beginning of the 16th century all the diplomacy of the Japan- larger than Lisbon. Xavier would certainly have gone to Japan ese envoys was needed to obtain good figures for the large and even though he had not been specially encouraged, for the constantly growing quantity of goods that they took over by reports of his countrymen depicted the Japanese as very way of supplement to the tribute. Buddhist priests generally desirous of being instructed," and he longed to find a field more enjoyed the distinction of being selected as envoys, for experi- promising than that inhabited by "all these Indian nations, ence showed that their subtle reasoning invariably overcame barbarous, vicious and without inclination to virtue.” There the economical scruples of the Chinese authorities and secured were, however, two special determinants. One was a request a fine profit for their master, the shögun. In the middle of the addressed by a feudatory, supposed to have been the chief of the 66 FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 225 Bungo fief, to the viceroy of the Indies at Goa; the other, an no special cordiality towards humble missionaries unconnected appeal made in person by a Japanese named Yajiro, whom the with commerce, and the work of proselytizing made no progress, fathers spoke of as Anjiro, and who subsequently attained so that Xavier and his companion, Fernandez, pushed celebrity under his baptismal name, Paul of the holy faith. No on to Kioto. The time was mid-winter; the two fathers credible reason is historically assigned for the action of the suffered terrible privations during their journey of two Japanese feudatory. Probably his curiosity had been excited months on foot, and on reaching Kioto they found a city which by accounts which the Portuguese traders gave of the noble had been almost wholly reduced to ruins by internecine war. devotion of their country's missionaries, and being entirely Necessarily they failed to obtain audience of either emperor or without bigotry, as nearly all Japanese were at that epoch, he shogun, at that time the most inaccessible potentates in the issued the invitation partly out of curiosity and partly from a world, the Chinese “son of heaven” excepted, and nothing sincere desire for progress. An case was very different. remained but street preaching, a strange resource, seeing that Labouring ‘under stress of repentant zeal, and fearful that his Xavier, constitutionally a bad linguist, had only a most rudimen- evil acts might entail murderous consequences, he sought an tary acquaintance with the profoundly difficult tongue in which asylum abroad, and was taken away in 1548 by a Portuguese he attempted to expound the mysteries of a novel creed. A vessel whose master advised him to repair to Malacca for the fortnight sufficed to convince him that Kioto was unfruitful purpose of confessing to Xavier. This might well have seemed soil. He therefore returned to Yamaguchi. But he had now to the Jesuits a providential dispensation, for Anjiro, already learned a lesson. He saw that propagandism without scrip or able to speak Portuguese, soon mastered it sufficiently to inter- staff and without the countenance of those sitting in the seats of pret for Xavier and his fellow-missionaries (without which aid power would be futile in Japan. So he obtained from Hirado they must have remained long helpless in the face of the immense his canonicals, together with a clock and other novel products difficulty of the Japanese language), and to this linguistic skill he of European skill, which, as well as credentials from the viceroy added extraordinary gifts of intelligence and mernory. Xavier, of India, the governor of Malacca and the bishop of Goa, he- with two Portuguese companions and Anjiro, were excellently presented to the Choshũ chief. His prayer for permission to received by the feudal chiefs of Satsuma and obtained permission preach Christianity was now readily granted, and Ouchi issued to preach their doctrine in any part of the fief. This permit a proclamation announcing his approval of the introduction of not to be construed as an evidence of official sympathy with the the new religion and according perfect liberty to embrace it. foreign creed. Commercial considerations alone were in ques. Xavier and Fernandez now made many converts. They also tion. A Japanese feudal chief in that era had sedulously to gained the valuable knowledge that the road to success in Japan foster every source of wealth or strength, and as the newly lay in associating themselves with over-sea commerce and its opened trade with the outer world seemed full of golden promise, directors, and in thus winning the co-operation of the feudal each feudatory was not less anxious to secure a monopoly of itchiefs, in the 16th century than the Ashikaga shōguns had been in the Nearly ten years had now elapsed since the first Portuguese 15th. The Satsuma daimyo was led to believe that the presence landed in Kagoshima, and during that time trade had gone on of the Jesuits in Kagoshima would certainly prelude the advent steadily and prosperously. No attempt was made Christian of trading vessels. But within a few months one of the expected to find markets in the main island: the Portuguese Propagandists. merchantmen sailed to Hirado without touching at Kagoshima, confined themselves to Kiūshiū for two reasons: one, that having and her example was followed by two others in the following no knowledge of the coasts, they hesitated to risk their ships and year, so that the Satsuma chief saw himself flouted for the sake their lives in unsurveyed waters; the other, that whereas the of a petty rival, Matsudaira of Hirado. This fact could not fail main island, almost from end to end, was seething with inter- to provoke his resentment. But there was another influence at necine war, Kiūshiū remained beyond the pale of disturbance work. Buddhism has always been a tolerant religion, eclectic and enjoyed comparative tranquillity. At the time of Xavier's rather than exclusive. Xavier, however, had all the bigoted second sojourn in Yamaguchi, a Portuguese ship happened to be intolerance of his time. The Buddhist priests in Kagoshima visiting Bungo, and at its master's suggestion the great mission- received him with courtesy and listened respectfully to the doc- ary proceeded thither, with the intention of returning tempo- trines he expounded through the mouth of Anjiro. Xavier rarily to the Indies. At Bungo there was then ruling Otomo, rejoined with a display of aggressive intolerance which shocked second in power to only the Satsuma chief among the feuda- and alienated the Buddhists. They represented to the Satsumatories of Kiūshiū. By him the Jesuit father. was received with chief that peace and good order were inconsistent with such a all honour. Xavier did not now neglect the lesson he had learned display of militant propagandism, and he, already profoundly in Yamaguchi. He repaired to the Bungo chieftain's court, chagrined by his commercial disappointment, issued in 1550 an escorted by nearly the whole of the Portuguese crew, gorgeously edict making it a capital offence for any of his vassals to embrace bedizened, carrying their arms and with banners flying. Otomo, Christianity. Xavier, or, more correctly speaking, Anjiro, had a young and ambitious ruler, was keenly anxious to attract won 150 converts, who remained without molestation, but foreign traders with their rich cargoes and puissant weapons of Xavier himself took ship for Hirado. There he was received war. Witnessing the reverence paid to Xavier by the Portu- with salvoes of artillery by the Portuguese merchantmen lying guese traders, he appreciated the importance of gaining the in the harbour and with marks of profound respect by the goodwill of the Jesuits, and accordingly not only granted them Portuguese traders, a display which induced the local chief full freedom to teach and preach, but also enjoined upon his to issue orders that courteous attention should be paid to the younger brother, who, in the sequel of a sudden rebellion, had teaching of the foreign missionaries. In ten days a hundred succeeded to the lordship of Yamaguchi, the advisability of baptisms took place; another significant index of the mood of the extending protection to Torres and Fernandez, then sojourning Japanese in the early era of Occidental intercourse: the men there. After some four months' stay in Bungo, Xavier set sail in authority always showed a complaisant attitude towards for Goa in February 1552. Death overtook him in the last Christianity where trade could be fostered by so doing, and month of the same year. wherever the men in authority showed such an attitude, con- Xavier's departure from Japan marked the conclusion of siderable numbers of the lower orders embraced the foreign the first epoch of Christian propagandism. His sojourn in faith. Thus, in considering the commercial history of the era, the Japan extended 27 months. In that time he and his element of religion constantly thrusts itself into the foreground. coadjutors won about 760 converts. In Satsuma more than a Xavier next resolved to visit Kioto. The first town of impor- year's labour produced 150 believers. There Xavier had the tance he reached on the way was Yamaguchi, capital assistance of Anjiro to expound his doctrines. No language of Europeans of the Choshū fief, situated on the northern shore lends itself with greater difficulty than Japanese to the dis- of the Shimonoseki Strait. There the feudal chief, cussion of theological questions. The terms necessary for such Duchi, though sufficiently courteous and inquisitive, showed l a purpose are not current among laymen, and only by special Pirst Visit to Kloto. 226 [FOREIGN INTERCOURSE JAPAN C Second study, which, it need scarcely be said, must be preluded by Christian ministrations, so in 1557 two of the fathers repaired an accurate acquaintance with the tongue itself, can a man to Hirado in obedience to the solicitations of Portuguese sailors. hope to become duly equipped for the task of exposition There the fathers, under the guidance of Vilela, sent brothers to and dissertation. It is open to grave doubt whether any parade the streets ringing bells and chaunting litanies; they foreigner has ever attained the requisite proficiency. Leaving organized bands of boys for the same purpose; they caused the Anjiro in Kagoshima to care for the converts made there, converts, and even children, to flagellate themselves at a model Xavier pushed on to Hirado, where he baptized a hundred of Mount Calvary, and they worked miracles, healing the sick Japanese in a few days. Now we have it on the authority of by contact with scourges or with a booklet in which Xavier had. Xavier himself that in this Hirado campaign “none of us knew written litanies and prayers. It may well be imagined that such Japanese.” How then did they proceed? “By reciting a semi-doings attracted surprised attention in Japan. They were Japanese volume" (a translation made by Anjiro of a treatise supplemented by even more striking practices. For a sub- from Xavier's pen) “and by delivering sermons, we brought feudatory of the Hirado chief, having been converted, showed several over to the Christian cult.” Sermons preached in Por- his zeal by destroying Buddhist temples and throwing down the tuguese or Latin to a Japanese audience on the island of Hirado idols, thus inaugurating a campaign of violence destined to in the year 1550 can scarcely have attracted intelligent interest. mark the progress of Christianity throughout the greater part On his first visit to Yamaguchi, Xavier's means of access to the of its history in Japan. There followed the overthrowing of a understanding of his hearers was confined tn the rudimentary cross in the Christian cemetery, the burning of a temple in the knowledge of Japanese which Fernandez had been able to town of Hirado, and a street riot, the sequel being that the acquire in 14 months, a period of study which, in modern times, Jesuit fathers were compelled to return once more to Bungo. with all the aids now procurable, would not suffice to carry a It is essential to follow all these events, for not otherwise can a student beyond the margin of the colloquial. No converts were clear understanding be reached as to the aspects under which won. The people of Yamaguchi probably admired the splendid Christianity presented itself originally to the Japanese. The faith and devotion of these over-sea philosophers, but as for their Portuguese -traders, reverent as was their demeanour towards doctrine, it was unintelligible. In Kiūto the same experience Christianity, did not allow their commerce to be interrupted was repeated, with an addition of much physical hardship. by vicissitudes of propagandism. They still repaired to Hirado, But when the Jésuits returned to Yamaguchi in the early and rumours of the wealih-begetting effects of their presence autumn of 1551, they baptized 500 persons, including several having reached the neighbouring fief of Omura, its chief, Sumi- members of the military class. Still Fernandez with his broken tada, made overtures to the Jesuits in Bungo, offering a port Japanese was the only medium for communicating the profound free from all dues for ten years, a large tract of land, a residence doctrines of Christianity. It must be concluded that the for the missionaries and other privileges. The Jesuits hastened teachings of the missionaries produced much less effect than to take advantage of this proposal, and no sooner did the news the attitude of the local chieftain. reach Hirado than the feudatory of that island repented of having Only two missionaries, Torres and Fernandez, remained in expelled the fathers and invited them to return. But while they Japan after the departure of Xavier, but they were soon joined hesitated, a Portuguese vessel arrived at Hirado, and the feudal by three others. These newcomers landed at Kago-chief declared publicly that no need existed to conciliate the Period of shima and found that, in spite of the official veto missionaries, since trade went on without them. When this Christian against the adoption of Christianity, the feudal chief became known in Bungo, Torres hastened to Hirado, was re- Propa. had lost nothing of his desire to foster foreign trade.ceived with extraordinary honours by the crew of the vessel, gandism. Two years later, all the Jesuits in Japan were and at his instance she left the port, her master declaring that assembled in Bungo. Their only church stood there; and they “ he could not remain in a country where they maltreated those had also built two hospitals. Local disturbances had compelled who professed the same religion as himself.” Hirado remained them to withdraw from Yamaguchi, not, however, before their a closed port for some years, but ultimately the advent of three violent disputes with the Buddhist priests in that town had merchantmen, which intimated their determination not to put induced the feudatory to proscribe the foreign religion, as had in unless the anti-Christian ban was removed, induced the feudal previously been done in Kagoshima. From Funai, the chief chief to receive the Jesuits once more. This incident was town of Bungo, the Jesuits began in 1579 to send yearly reports paralleled a few years later in the island of Amakusa, where a to their Generals in Rome. These reports, known as the Annual petty feudatory, in order to attract foreign trade, as the mission- Letters, comprise some of the most valuable information available aries themselves frankly explain, embraced Christianity and about the conditions then existing in Japan. They describe a ordered all his vassals to follow his example; but when no Portu- state of abject poverty among the lower orders; poverty so cruel guese ship appeared, he apostatized, required his subjects to that the destruction of children by their famishing parents revert to Buddhism and made the missionaries withdraw. In was an everyday occurrence, and in some instances choice had fact, the competition for the patronage of Portuguese traders to be made between cannibalism and starvation. Such suffer- was so keen that the Hirado feudatory attempted to burn several ing becomes easily intelligible when the fact is recalled that of their vessels because they frequented the territorial waters Japan had been racked by civil war during more than 200 of his neighbour and rival, Sumitada. The latter became years, each feudal chief fighting for his own hand, to save a most stalwart Christian when his wish was gratified. He set or to extend his territorial possessions. From these Annual himself to eradicate idolatry throughout his fief with the strong Letters it is possible also to gather a tolerably clear idea of arm, and his fierce intolerance provoked results which ended in the course of events during the years immediately subsequent the destruction of the Christian town at the newly opened free to Xavier's departure. There was no break in the continuity of port. Sumitada, however, quickly reasserted his authority, the newly inaugurated foreign trade. Portuguese ships visited and five years later (1567), he took a step which had far-reaching Hirado as well as Bungo, and in those days their masters and consequences, namely, the building of a church at Nagasaki, in crews not only attended scrupulously to their religious duties, order that Portuguese commerce might have a centre and the but also showed such profound respect for the missionaries that Christians an assured asylum. Nagasaki was then a little the Japanese received constant object lessons in the influence fishing village. In five years it grew to be a town of thirty wielded over the traders by the Jesuits. Thirty years later, thousand inhabitants, and Sumitada became one of the richest this orderly and reverential demeanour was exchanged for riotous of the Kiūshiū feudatories. When in 1573 successful conflicts excesses such as had already made the Portuguese sailor a by- with the neighbouring fiefs brought him an access of territory, word in China. But in the early days of intercourse with Japan he declared that he owed these victories to the influence of the the crews of the merchant vessels seem to have preached Chris-Christian God, and shortly afterwards he publicly proclaimed tianity by their exemplary conduct. Just as Xavier had been banishment for all who would not accept the foreign faith. induced to visit Bungo by the anxiety of a ship-captain for 1 There were then no Jesuits by his side, but immediately two FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 227 ) hastened to join him, and " these, accompanied by a strong Christian propagandism had now made substantial progress. guard, but yet not without danger of their lives, went round The Annual Letter of 1582 recorded that at the close of 1581, causing the churches of the Gentiles, with their idols, to be thrown thirty-two years after the landing of Xavier in Japan, there were to the ground, while three Japanese Christians went preaching about 150,000 converts, of whom some 125,000 were in Kiūshiữ the law of God everywhere. Three of us who were in the neigh- and the remainder in Yamaguchi, Kioto and the neighbourhood bouring kingdoms all withdrew therefrom to work in this abun- of the latter city. - The Jesuits in the empire then numbered 75, dant harvest, and in the space of seven months twenty thousand but down to the year 1563 there had never been more than 9, persons were baptized, including the bonzes of about sixty and down to 1577, not more than 18. The harvest was certainly monasteries, except a few who quitted the State." In Bungo, great in proportion to the number of sowers. But it was a har- however, where the Jesuits were originally so well received, vest mainly of artificial growth; forced by the despotic insistence it is doubtful whether Christian propagandism would not of feudal chiefs who ossessed the power of life and death over have ended in failure but for an event which occurred in 1576; their vassals, and were influenced by a desire to attract foreign namely, the conversion of the chieftain's son, a youth of some trade. To the Buddhist priests this movement of Christian 16 years. Two years later Otomo himself. came over to the propagandism had brought an experience hitherto unknown to Christian faith. He rendered inestimable aid, not merely them, persecution on account of creed. They had suffered for within his own fief, but also by the influence he exercised on interfering in politics, but the fierce cruelty of the Christian others. His intervention, supported by recourse to arms, fanatic now became known for the first time to men themselves obtained for the Jesuits a footing on the island of Amakusa, conspicuous for tolerance of heresy and receptivity of instruc- where one of the feudatories gave his vassals the choice of con- tion. They had had no previous experience of humanity version or exile, and announced to the Buddhist priests that in the garb of an Otomo of Bungo, who, in the words of Crasset, unless they accepted Christianity their property would be " went to the chase of the bonzes as to that of wild beasts, and confiscated and they themselves banished. Nearly the whole made it his singular pleasure to exterminate them from his population of the fief did violence to their conscience for the states." sake of their homes. Christianity was then becoming estab- In 1982 the first Japanese envoys sailed from Nagasaki for lished in Kiūshiū by methods similar to those of Islam and the Europe. The embassy consisted of four youths, the oldest not inquisition. Another notable - illustration is furnished by the more than 16, representing the fiefs of Arima, Omura First story of the Arima fief, adjoining that of Sumitada (Omura), and Bungo. They visited Lisbon, Madrid and Rome, Japanese where such resolute means had been adopted to force Christianity and in all these cities they were received with Embassy upon the vassals. Moreover, the heads of the two fiefs were displays of magnificence such as 16th century to Europe, brothers. Accordingly, at the time of Sumitada's very dramatic Europe delighted to make. That, indeed, had been the motive conversion, the Jesuits were invited to Arima and encouraged of Valegnani in organizing the mission: he desired to let the to form settlements at the ports of Kuchinotsu and Shimabara, Japanese see with their own eyes how great were the riches and which thenceforth began to be frequented by Portuguese mer- might of Western states. chantmen. The fief naturally became involved in the turmoil In the above statistics of converts at the close of 1581 mention resulting from Sumitada's iconoclastic methods of propagandism; is made of Christians in Kioto, though we have already seen that but, in 1576, the then ruling feudatory, influenced largely by the the visit by Xavier and Fernandez to that city was object lesson of Sumitada's prosperity and puissance, which wholly barren of results. A second visit, however, that chieftain openly ascribed to the tutelary aid of the Christian made by Vilela in 1559, proved more successful. to Kloto, deity, accepted baptism and became the “ Prince Andrew” of He carried letters of recommendation from the missionary records. It is written in those records that “ the first Bungo chieftain, and the proximate cause of his journey was an thing Prince Andrew did after his baptism was to convert the invitation from a Buddhist priest in the celebrated monastery chief temple of his capital into a church, its revenues being of Hiei-zan, who sought information about Christianity. This assigned for the maintenance of the building and the support of was before the razing of temples and the overthrow of idols had the missionaries. He then took measures to have the same thing commenced in Kiūshiū. On arrival at Hiei-zan, Vilela found done in the other towns of his fief, and he seconded the preachers that the Buddhist prior who had invited him was dead and that of the gospel so well in everything else that he could flatter only a portion of the old man's authority had descended to his himself that he soon would not have one single idolater in his successor. Nevertheless the Jesuit obtained an opportunity to states. Thus in the two years that separated his baptism expound his doctrines to a party of bonzes at the monastery, from his death, twenty thousand converts were won in Arima. Subsequently, through the good offices of a priest, described as But his successor was an enemy of the alien creed. He ordered one of the most respected men in the city," and with the assist, the Jesuits to quit his dominions, required the converts to return ance of the Bungo feudatory's letter, Vilela enjoyed the rare to their ancestral faith, and caused" the holy places to be honour of being received by the shögun in Kiolo, who treated destroyed and the crosses to be thrown down." Nearly one-half him with all consideration and assigned a house for his residence. of the converts apostatized under this pressure, but others had It may be imagined that, owing such a debt of gratitude to recourse to a device of proved potency. They threatened to Buddhist priests, Vilela would have behaved towards them and leave Kuchinotsu en masse, and as that would have involved their creed with courtesy. But the Jesuit fathers were proof the loss of foreign trade, the hostile edict was materially modified against all influences calculated to impair their stern sense of To this same weapon the Christians owed a still more signal duty.. Speaking through the mouth of a Japanese convert, victory. For just at that time the great ship from Macao, now Vilela attacked the bonzes in unmeasured terms and denounced an annual visitor, arrived in Japanese waters carrying the their faith. Soon the bonzes, on their side, were seeking the visitor-general, Valegnani. She put into Kuchinotsu, and her destruction of these uncompromising assailants with insistence presence, with its suggested eventualities, gave such satisfaction inferior only to that which the Jesuits themselves would have that the feudatory offered to accept baptism and to sanction shown in similar circumstances. Against these perils Vilela its acceptance by his vassals. This did not satisfy Valegnani, was protected by the goodwill of the shogun, who had already a man of profound political sagacity. He saw that the fief was issued a decree threatening with death any one who injured the menaced by serious dangers at the hands of its neighbours, and missionaries or obstructed their work. In spite of all difficulties seizing the psychological moment of its extreme peril, he used and dangers these wonderful missionaries, whose courage, zeal the secular arm so adroitly that the fief's chance of survival and devotion are beyond all eulogy, toiled on resolutely and even seemed to be limited to the unreserved adoption of Christianity. recklessly, and such success attended their efforts that by 1564 Thus, in 1580, the chieftain and his wife were baptized; “ all the many converts had been won and churches had been established city was made Christian; they burned their idols and destroyed in five walled towns within a distance of 50 miles from Kioto. 40 temples, reserving some materials to build churches." Among the converts were two Buddhist priests, notoriously Second Visit of Jesuits " 228 (FOREIGN INTERCOURSE JAPAN and the Jesuits. hostile at the outset, who had been nominated as official moment induce him to sacrifice them. His last act, too, proved commissioners to investigate and report upon the doctrine of that sacrilege was of no account in his eyes, for he took steps to Christianity. The first conversion en masse was due to pressure have himself apotheosized at Azuchi with the utmost pomp and from above. A petty feudatory, Takayama, whose fief lay at circumstance. Still nothing can obscure the benefits he heaped Takatsuki in the neighbourhood of the capital, challenged Vilela upon the propagandists of Christianity. to a public controversy, the result of which was that the Japanese The terrible tumult of domestic war through which Japan acknowledged himself vanquished, embraced Christianity and passed in the 15th and 16th centuries brought to her ser- invited his vassals as well as his family to follow his example. vice three of the greatest men ever produced in Hideyoshi This man's son-Takayama Yūshomproved one of the stanch- Occident or Orient. They were Oda Nobunaga, and the est supporters of Christianity in all Japan, and has been immor- Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Iyeyasu. Christians. talized by the Jesuits under the name of Don Justo Ucondono. Hideyoshi, as Nobunaga's lieutenant, contributed largely to the Incidentally this event furnishes an index to the character building of the latter's fortunes, and, succeeding him in 1582, of the Japanese samurai: he accepted the consequences of brought the whole 66 provinces of the empire under his defeat as frankly as he dared it. In the same year (1564) the own administrative sway. For the Jesuits now the absorbing feudatory of Sawa, a brother of Takayama, became a Christian question was, what attitude Hideyoshi would assume towards and imposed the faith on all his vassals, just as Sumitada and their propagandism. His power was virtually limitless. With other feudal chiefs had done in Kiūshiū. But the Kioto record a word he could have overthrown the whole edifice created by differs from that of Kiūshlū in one important respect-the former them at the cost of so much splendid effort and noble devotion. is free from any intrusion of commercial motives. They were very quickly reassured. In this matter Hideyoshi Kioto was at that time the scene of sanguinary tumults, which walked in Nobunaga's footsteps. He not only accorded a culminated in the murder of the shogun (1565), and led to friendly audience to Father Organtino, who waited on him as Nobunaga the issue of a decree by the emperor proscribing representative of the Jesuits, but also he went in person to assign Christianity. In Japanese medieval history this to the company a site for a church and a residence in Osaka, is one of the only two instances of Imperial inter- where there was presently to rise the most massive fortress ference with Christian propagandism. There is evidence that the ever built in the East. At that time many Christian converts edict was obtained at the instance of one of the shogun's assassins were serving in high positions, and in 1584 the Jesuits placed it and certain Buddhist priests. The Jesuits-their number had on record that“ Hideyoshi was not only not opposed to the things been increased to three-were obliged to take refuge in Sakai, of God, but he even showed that he made much account of them now little more than a suburb of Osaka, but at that time a great and preferred them to all the sects of the bonzes. He is and wealthy mart, and the only town in Japan which did not entrusting to Christians his treasures, his secrets and his for- acknowledge the sway of any feudal chief. Three years later tresses of most importance, and shows himself well pleased that they were summoned thence to be presented to Oda Nobunaga, the sons of the great lords about him should adopt our customs one of the greatest captains Japan has ever produced. In the and our law." Two years later in Osaka he received with every very year of Xavier's landing at Kagoshima, Nobunaga had mark of cordiality and favour a Jesuit mission which had come succeeded to his father's fief, a comparatively petty estate in from Nagasaki seeking audience, and on that occasion his the province of Owari. In 1568 he was seated in Kioto, a visitor recorded that he spoke of an intention of christianizing maker of shöguns and acknowledged ruler of 30 among the one half of Japan. Nor did Hideyoshi confine himself to words. 66 provinces of Japan. Had Nobunaga, wielding such immense He actually signed a patent licensing the missionaries to preach power, adopted a hostile attitude towards Christianity, the fires throughout all Japan, and exempting not only their houses and fit by the Jesuits in Japan must soon have been extinguished. churches from the billeting of soldiers but also the priests them- Nobunaga, however, to great breadth and liberality of view selves from local burdens. This was in 1586, on the eve of added strong animosity towards Buddhist priests. Many of the Hideyoshi's greatest military enterprise, the invasion of Kiūshiū great monasteries had become armed camps, their inmates and its complete reduction. He carried that difficult campaign skilled equally in field-attacks and in the defence of ramparts. to completion by the middle of 1587, and throughout its course One sect (the Nichiren), which was specially affected by the he maintained a uniformly friendly demeanour towards the samurai, had lent powerful aid to the murderers of the shogun Jesuits. But suddenly, when on the return journey he reached three years before Nobunaga's victories carried him to Kioto, Hakata in the north of the island, his policy underwent a radical and the armed monasteries constituted imperia in imperio which metamorphosis. Five questions were by his order propounded assorted ill with his ambition of complete supremacy. He to the vice-provincial of the Jesuits: “ Why and by what autho- therefore welcomed Christianity for the sake of its opposition rity he and his fellow-propagandists had constrained Japanese to Buddhism, and when Takayama conducted Froez from Sakai subjects to become Christians? Why they had induced their to Nobunaga's presence, the reception accorded to the Jesuit disciples and their sectaries to overthrow temples? Why was of the most cordial character. Throughout the fourteen they persecuted the bonzes? Why they and other Portuguese years of life that remained to him, Nobunaga continued to be ate animals useful to men, such as oxen and cows? Why the the constant friend of the missionaries in particular and of vice-provincial allowed merchants of his nation to buy Japanese foreigners visiting Japan in general. He stood between the to make slaves of them in the Indies ?” To these queries Jesuits and the Throne when, in reply to an appeal from the Coelho, the vice-provincial, made answer that the missionaries Buddhist priests, the emperor, for the second time, issued an had never themselves resorted, or incited, to violence in their anti-Christian decree (1568); he granted a site for a church and propagandism or persecuted bonzes; that if their eating of beef residence at Azuchi on Lake Biwa, where his new fortress stood; were considered inadvisable, they would give up the practice; he addressed to various powerful feudatories letters signifying and that they were powerless to prevent.or restrain the outrages a desire for the spread of Christianity; he frequently made perpetrated by their countrymen. Hideyoshi read the vice- handsome presents to the fathers, and whenever they visited provincial's reply and, without comment, sent him word to him he showed a degree of accessibility and graciousness very retire to Hirado, assemble all his followers there, and quit the foreign to his usually haughty and imperious demeanour. The country within six months. On the next day (July 25, 1587) Jesuits themselves said of him:" This man seems to have been the following edict was published:- chosen by God to open and prepare the way for our faith.” Nevertheless they do not appear to have entertained much hope 1 The problem was to induce the co-operation of a feudatory at any time of converting Nobunaga. They must have under- whose castle served for frontier guard to the fiet of a powerful chief, stood that their doctrines had not made any profound impression the Jesuits in Kioto, and threatened to suppress their religion his suzerain. The feudatory was a Christian. Nobunaga seized on a man who could treat them as this potentate did in 1579, altogether unless they persuaded the feudatory to abandon the when he plainly showed that political exigencies might at any cause of his suzerain. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 229 00 done to them. towards · Having learned from our faithful councillors that foreign priests | set great store by foreign trade' and would even have sacri. have come into our estates, where they preach a law contrary to ficed to its maintenance and expansion something of the aversion that of Japan, and that they even had the audacity to destroy he had conceived for Christianity. He did indeed make one temples dedicated to our Kami and Hotoke; although the outrage merits the most extreme punishment, wishing nevertheless, to show very large concession. For on being assured that Portuguese them mercy, we order them under pain of death to quit Japan traders could not frequent Japan unless they found Christian within twenty days. During that spacc no harm or hurt will be But at the expiration of that term, we order that priests there to minister to them, he consented to sanction the if any of them be found in our states, they should be seized and presence of a limited number of Jesuits. The statistics of 1595 punished as the greatest criminals. As for the Portuguese mer. show how Christianity fared under even this partial tolerance, chants, we permit them to enter our ports, there to continue their for there were then 137 Jesuits in Japan with 300,000 converts, accustomed trade, and to remain in our states provided our affairs need this. But we forbid them to bring any foreign priests into the among whom were 17 feudal chiefs, to say nothing of many men country, under the penalty of the confiscation of their ships and, of lesser though still considerable note, and even not a few goods. bonzes. For ten years after his unlooked-for order of expulsion, Hide- How are we to account for this apparently rapid change of yoshi preserved a tolerant mien. But in 1597 his forbearance mood on the part of Hideyoshi? Some historians insist that gave place to a mood of uncompromising severity. Hideyoshi's from the very outset he conceived the resolve of suppressing The reasons of this second change are very clear, Flaal Christianity and expelling its propagandists, but that he con- though diverse accounts have been transmitted. Attitude cealed his design pending the subjugation of Kiūshiū, lest, by Up to 1593 the Portuguese had possessed a monopoly premature action, he might weaken his hand for that enterprise. of religious propagandism and over-sea commerce in Christianity, This hypothesis rests mainly on conjecture. Its formulators Japan. The privilege was secured to them by agreement found it easier to believe in a hidden purpose than to attribute to between Spain and Portugal and by a papal bull. But a statesman so shrewd and far-seeing a sudden change of mind. the Spaniards in Manila had long looked with somewhat A more reasonable theory is that, shortly before leaving Osaka jealous eyes on this Jesuit reservation, and when news of for Kiūshiū, Hideyoshi began to entertain doubts as to the the disaster of 1587 reached the Philippines, the Dominicans expediency of tolerating Christian propagandism, and that his and Franciscans residing there were fired with zeal to enter doubts were signally strengthened by direct observation of the an arena where the crown of martyrdom seemed to be state of affairs in Kiūshiū. While still in Osaka, he one day the least reward within reach. The papal bull, however, remarked publicly that “ he feared much that all the virtue of demanded obedience, and to overcome that difficulty å ruse was the European priests served only to conceal pernicious designs necessary: the governor of Manila agreed to send a party of against the empire.". There had been no demolishing of temples Franciscans as ambassadors to Hideyoshi. In that guise the or overthrowing of images at Christian instance in the metro- friars, being neither traders nor propagandists, considered that politan provinces. In Kiūshiū, however, very different condi: they did not violate either the treaty or the bull. It was a tions prevailed. There Christianity may be said to have been technical subterfuge very unworthy of the object contemplated, preached at the point of the sword. Temples and images had and the friars supplemented it by swearing to Hideyoshi that been destroyed wholesale; vassals in thousands had been com- the Philippines would submit to his sway. Thus they obtained pelled to embrace the foreign faith; and the missionaries them- permission to visit Kioto, Osaka and Fushimi, but with the selves had come to be treated as demi-gods whose nod was explicit proviso that they must not preach. Very soon they worth conciliating at any cost of self-abasement. Brought into had built a church in Kioto, consecrated it with th utmost direct contact with these evidences of the growth of a new power, pomp, and were preaching sermons and chaunting litanies there temporal as well as spiritual, Hideyoshi may well have reached in ilagrant defiance of Hideyoshi's veto. Presently their number the conclusion that a choice had to be finally made between his received an access of three friars who came bearing gifts from own supremacy and that of the alien creed, if not between the the governor at Manila, and now they not only established a independence of Japan and the yoke of the great Christian convent in Osaka, but also seized a Jesuit church in Nagasaki states of Europe. and converted the circumspect worship hitherto conducted Hideyoshi gauged the character of the medieval Christians there by the fathers into services of the most public character. with sufficient accuracy to know that for the sake of their Officially checked in Nagasaki, they charged the Jesuits in Kioto Sequel of faith they would at any time defy the laws of with having intrigued to impede them, and they further vaunted the island. His estimate received immediate veri- the courageous openness of their own ministrations as compared of Baoish. fication, for when the Jesuits, numbering 120, with the clandestine timidity of the methods which wise pru- asse mbled at Hirado and received his order to dence had induced the Jesuits to adopt. Retribution would embark at once they decided that only those should sail whose have followed quickly had not Hideyoshi's attention been services were needed in China. The others remained and engrossed by an attempt to invade China through Korea. At went about their duties as usual, under the protection this stage, however, a memorable incident occurred. Driven of the converted feudatories. Hideyoshi, however, saw out of her course by a storm, a great and richly laden Spanish reason to wink at this disregard of his authority. At first galleon, bound for Acapulco from Manila, drifted to the coast he showed uncompromising resolution. All the churches in of Tosa province, and running-or being purposely run-on a Kioto, Osaka and Sakai were demolished, while troops were sent sand-bank as she was being towed into port by Japanese boats, to raze the Christian places of worship in Kiūshiū and seize the broke her back. She carried goods to the value of some 600,000 port of Nagasaki. These troops were munificently dissuaded crowns, and certain officials urged Hideyoshi to confiscate her from their purpose by the Christian feudatories. But Hide- as derelict, conveying to him at the same time a detailed account yoshi did not protest, and in 1588 he allowed himself to be con- of the doings of the Franciscans and their open flouting of his vinced by a Portuguese envoy that in the absence of missionaries orders. Hideyoshi, much incensed, commanded the arrest of foreign trade must cease, since without the intervention of the the Franciscans and despatched officers to Tosa to confiscate fathers peace and good order could not be maintained among the the" San Felipe.” The pilot of the galleon sought to intimidate merchants. Rather than suffer the trade to be interrupted these officers by showing them on a map of the world the vast Hideyoshi agreed to the coming of priests, and thenceforth, extent of Spain's dominions, and being asked how one country during some years, Christianity not only continued to flourish had acquired such extended sway, replied: "Our kings begin and grow in Kiūshiū but also found a favourable field of opera- by sending into the countries they wish to conquer missionaries tions in Kioto itself. Care was taken that Hideyoshi's attention who induce the people to embrace our religion, and when they should not be attracted by any salient evidences of what he had have made considerable progress, troops are sent who combine called a " diabolical religion," and thus for a time all went well., with the new Christians; and then our kings have not much There is evidence that like the feudal chiefs in Kiūshiū, Hideyoshi | trouble in accomplishing the rest." the Edict 230 JAPAN [FOREIGN INTERCOURSE The First On learning of this speech Hideyoshi was overcome with fury. | Manila at a time when death seemed to be the certain penalty of He condemned the Franciscans to have their noses and cars remaining. But no sooner had he been landed at Manila than he cut off, to be promenaded through Kioto, Osaka took passage in a Chinese junk, and, returning to Nagasaki, made Execution of and Sakai, and to be crucified at Nagasaki. “I his way secretly from the far south of Japan to the province of Christians. have ordered these foreigners to be treated thus, Kii. There arrested, he was brought into the presence of because they have come from the Philippines to Japan, calling Iyeyasu, and his own record of what ensued is given in a letter themselves ambassadors, although they were not so; because subsequently sent to Manila:- they have remained here far too long without my permission; because, in defiance of my prohibition, they have built churches, the previous persecution. I answered him that at that date God had When the Prince saw me he asked how I had managed to escape preached their religion and caused disorders.” Twenty-six delivered me in order that I might go to Manila and bring back new suffered under this sentence-six Franciscans, three Japanese colleagues from there--preachers of the divine law-and that I had Jesuits and seventeen native Christians, chiefly domestic ser- returned from Manila io encourage the Christians, cherishing the desire to die on the cross in order to go to enjoy eternal glory like vants of the Franciscans. They met their fate with noble my former colleagues... On hearing these words the Emperor began fortitude. Hideyoshi further issued a special injunction against to smile, whether in his quality of a pagan of the sect of Shaka, the adoption of Christianity by a feudal chief, and took steps to which reaches that there is no future life, or whether from the thought give practical effect to his expulsion edict of 1587. The governor that I was frightened at having to be put to death. Then, looking of Nagasaki received instructions to send away all the Jesuits, yourself, and no longer change your habit, for I wish you well; and at me kindly, he said, 'Be no longer afraid and no longer conccal permitting only two or three to remain for the service of the as for the Christians who every year pass within sight of the Kwanto Portuguese merchants. But the Jesuits were not the kind of where my domains are, when they go to Mexico with their ships, men who, to escape personal peril, turn their back upon an I have a keen desire for them to visit the harbours of this island, to refresh themselves there, and to take what they wish, to trade with unaccomplished work of grace. There were 125 of them in Japan my vassals and to teach them how to develop silver mines; and that at that time. In October 1597 a junk sailed out of Nagasaki my intentions may be accomplished before my death, I wish you to harbour, her decks crowded with seeming Jesuits. In reality indicate to me the means to take to realize them. I answered that she carried 11 of the company, the apparent Jesuits being dis- it was necessary that Spanish pilots should take the soundings of his harbours, so that ships might not be lost in as the 'San guised sailors. It is not to be supposed that such a manæuvre Felipe' had been, and that he should solicit this service from the could be hidden from the local authorities. They winked at it, governor of the Philippines. The Prince approved of my advice, until rumour became insistent that Hideyoshi'was about to visit and accordingly he has sent a Japanese gentleman, a native of Sakai, Kiūshiū in person, and all Japanese in administrative posts the bearer of this message.... It is essential to oppose no obstacle to the complete liberty offered by the Emperor to the Spaniards and knew how Hideyoshi visited disobedience and how hopeless was to our holy order, for the preaching of the holy gospel. ... The any attempt to deceive him. Therefore, early in 1598, really same Prince (who is about to visit the Kwanto) invites me to accom- drastic steps were taken. Churches to the number of 137 were pany him to make choice of a house, and to visit the harbour which demolished in Kiūshiū, seminaries and residences fell, and the he promises to open to us; his desires in this respect are keener than I can express. governor of Nagasaki assembled there all the fathers of the company for deportation to Macao by the great ship in 'the The above version of the Tokugawa chief's mood is confirmed following year. But while they waited, Hideyoshi died. It is by events, for not only did he allow the contumelious Franciscan not on record that the Jesuits openly declared his removal from to build a church-lhe first-in Yedo and to celebrate Mass there, the earth to have been a special dispensation in their favour. but also he sent three embassies to the Philippines, proposing But they pronounced him an execrable tyrant and consigned his reciprocal freedom of commerce, offering to open ports in “soul to hell for all eternity." Yet no impartial reader of the Kwanto and asking for competent naval architects. He history can pretend to think that a 16th-century Jesuit general never obtained the architects, and though the trade came, its in Hideyoshi's place would have shown towards an alien creed volume was small in comparison with the abundance of friars and its propagandists even a small measure of the tolerance that accompanied it. There is just a possibility that Iyeyasu exercised by the Japanese statesman towards Christianity and saw in these Spanish monks an instrument of counteracting the Jesuits. the influence of the Jesuits, for he must have known that the Hideyoshi's death occurred in 1598. Two years later, his Franciscans opened their mission in Ycdo by“ declaiming with authority as administrative ruler of all Japan had passed into violence against the fathers of the company of Jesus." In Foreigo the hands of Iyeyasu, the Tokugawa chief, and thirty- short, the Spanish monks assumed towards the Jesuits in Japan Policy of the nine years later the Tokugawa potentates had not the same intolerant and abusive tone that the Jesuits themselves Tokugawa only exterminated Christianity in Japan but had had previously assumed towards Buddhism. also condemned their country to a period of interna- At that time there appeared upon the scene another factor tional isolation which continued unbroken until 1853, an inter- destined greatly to complicate events. It was a Dutch merchant val of 214 years. It has been shown that even when they were ship, the “ Liefde.” Until the Netherlands revolted from most incensed against Christianity, Japanese administrators Spain, the Dutch had been the principal distributors of all goods sought to foster and preserve foreign trade. Why then did they arriving at Lisbon from the Far East; bui in 1594 Philip II. closed close the country's doors to the outside world and suspend a the port of Lisbon to these rebels, and the Dutch met the situar commerce once so much esteemed? To answer that question tion by turning their prows to the Orient to invade the sources some retrospect is needed. Certain historians allege that from of Portuguese commerce. One of the first expeditions despatched the outset Iyeyasu shared Hideyoshi's misgivings about the real for that purpose set out in 1598, and of the five vessels composing designs of Christian potentates and Christian propagandists. it one only was ever heard of again. This was the “Liefde.", But that verdict is not supported by facts. The first occasion She 'reached Japan during the spring of 1600, with only four: of the Tokugawa chief's recorded contact with a Christian propa- and-twenty alive out of her original crew of 110. Towed into gandist was less than three months after Hideyoshi's death. the harbour at Funai, the “ Liefde” was visited by Jesuits, who, There was then led into his presence a Franciscan, by name on discovering her nationality, denounced her to the local Jerome de Jesus, originally a member of the fictitious embassy authorities as a pirate and endeavoured to incense the Japanese from Manila. This man's conduct constitutes an example of against them. The “ Liefde” had on board in the capacity of. the invincible zeal and courage inspiring a Christian priest in pilot major" an Englishman, Will Adams of Gillingham in those days. Barely escaping the doom of crucifixion which Kent, whom Iyeyasu summoned to Osaka, where there com, overtook his companions, he had been deported from Japan to menced between the rough British sailor and the Tokugawa chief: 1 The mutilation was confined to the lobe of one ear. Crucifixion, the death of Adams twenty years later. The Englishman became a curiously friendly intercourse which was not interrupted until according to the Japanese method, consisted in tying to a cross and piercing the heart with two sharp spears driven from either side. master ship-builder to the Yedo government; was employed as Death was always instantaneous. diplomatic agent when other traders from his own country 6 FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 231 and from Holland arrived in Japan, received in perpetual gift | tarian quarrels among Christians. These experiences, predis. a substantial estate, and from first to last possessed the implicit posing Iyeyasu to dislike Christianity as a creed and to distrust confidence of the shogun. Iyeyasu quickly discerned the man's it as a political influence, were soon supplemented by incidents honesty, perceived that whatever benefits foreign commerce of an immediately determinative character. The first was an might confer would be increased by encouraging competition act of fraud and forgery committed in the interests of a Christian among the foreigners, and realized that English and Dutch feudatory by a trusted official, himself a Christian. Thereupon trade presented the wholesome feature of complete dissociation Iyeyasu, conceiving it unsafe that Christians should fill offices from religious propagandism. On the other hand, he showed at his court, dismissed all those so employed, banished them from no intolerance to either Spaniards or Portuguese. He issued Yedo and forbade any feudal chief to harbour them. The second (1601) two official patents sanctioning the residence of the fathers incident was an attempted survey of the coast of Japan by a in Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki; he employed Father Rodriguez as Spanish mariner and a Franciscan friar. Permission to take interpreter to the court at Yedo; and in 1603 he gave munificent this step had been obtained by an envoy from New Spain, but succour to the Jesuits who were reduced to dire straits owing to no deep consideration of reasons seems to have preluded the per- the capture of the great ship from Macao by the Dutch and mission on Japan's side, and when the mariner (Sebastian) and the consequent loss of several years' supplies for the mission in the friar (Sotelo) hastened to carry out the project, Iyeyasu, Japan. asked Will Adams to explain this display of industry. The It is thus seen that each of the great trio of Japan's 16th-cen- Englishman replied that such a proceeding would be regarded tury statesmen-Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu-adopted in Europe as an act of hostility, especially on the part of the at the outset a most tolerant demeanour towards Christianity. Spaniards or Portuguese, whose aggressions were notorious. He The reasons of Hideyoshi's change of mood have been set forth. added, in reply to further questions, that “the Roman priest- We have now to examine the reasons that produced a similar hood had been expelled from many parts of Germany, from metamorphosis in the case of Iyeyasu. Two causes present Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland and England, and that themselves immediately. The first is that, while tolerating although his own country preserved the pure form of the Christianity, Iyeyasu did not approve of it as a creed; the second, Christian faith from which Spain and Portugal had deviated, that he himself, whether from state policy or genuine piety, yet neither English nor Dutch considered that that fact afforded strongly encouraged Buddhism. Proof of the former proposi-them any reason to war with, or to annex, States which were tion is found in an order issued by him in 1602 to insure the not Christian solely for the reason that they were non-Christian.” safety of foreign merchanımen entering Japanese ports: it Iyeyasu reposed entire confidence in Adams. Hearing the concluded with the reservation, “but wc rigorously forbid Englishman's testimony, he is said to have exclaimed, “If them " (foreigners coming in such ships) “ to promulgate their the sovereigns of Europe do not tolerate these priests, I do faith” Proof of the latter is furnished by the facts that he them no wrong if I refuse to tolerate them.” Japanese invariably carried about with him a miniature Buddhist image historians add that Iyeyasu discovered a conspiracy on the which he regarded as his tutelary deity, and that he fostered part of some Japanese Christians to overthrow his government the creed of Shaka as zealously as Oda Nobunaga had suppressed by the aid of foreign troops. It was not a widely ramified it. There is much difficulty in tracing the exact sequence of plot, but it lent additional importance to the fact that the events which gradually educated a strong antipathy to the sympathy of the fathers and their converts was plainly with Christian faith in the mind of the Tokugawa chief. He must the only magnate in the empire who continued to dispute the have been influenced in some degree by the views of his great Tokugawa supremacy, Hideyori, the son of Hideyoshi. Never- predecessor, Hideyoshi, But he did not accept those views theless Iyeyasu shrank from proceeding to extremities in the implicitly. At the end of the 16th century he sent a trusted case of any foreign priest, and this attitude he maintained until emissary to Europe for the purpose of directly observing the his death (1616). Possibly he might have been not less tolerant conditions in the home of Christianity, and this man, the better towards native Christians also had not the Tokugawa authority to achieve his aim, embraced the foreign faith, and studied it been openly defied by a Franciscan father--the Sotelo mentioned from within as well as from without. The story that he had 10 above-in Yedo itself. Then (1613) the first execution of Japan. tell on his return could not fail to shock the ruler of a country ese converts took place, though the monk himself was released where freedom of conscience had existed from time immemorial. after a short incarceration. At that time, as is still the case It was a story of the inquisition and of the stake, of unlimited even in these more enlightened days, insignificant differences of aggression in the name of the cross; of the pope's overlordship custom sometimes induced serious misconceptions. A Christian which entitled him to confiscate the realm of heretical sovereigns; who had violated the secular law was crucified in Nagasaki. of religious wars and of wellnigh incredible fanaticism. Iyeyasu Many of his fellow-believers kneeled around his cross and prayed must have received an evil impression while he listened to his for the peace of his soui. A party of converts were afterwards emissary's statements. Under his own eyes, too, were abundant burned to death in the same place for refusing to apostatize, evidences of the spirit of striſe that Christian dogma engendered and their Christian friends crowded to carry off portions of their in those times. From the moment when the Franciscans and bodies as holy relics. When these things were reported to Dominicans arrived in Japan, a fierce quarrel began between Iyeyasu, he said, “ Without doubt that must be a diabolic faith them and the Jesuits; a quarrel which even community of which persuades people not only to worship criminals condemned suffering could not compose. Not less repellent was an attempt to death for their crimes , but also to honour those who have on the part of the Spaniards to dictate to Iyeyasu the expulsion been burned or cut in pieces by the order of their lord ” (feudal of all Hollanders from Japan, and on the part of the Jesuits to chief). dictate the expulsion of the Spaniards. The former proposal, The fateful edict ordering that all foreign priests should be couched almost in the form of a demand, was twice formulated, collected in Nagasaki preparatory to removal from Japan, that and accompanied on the second occasion by a scarcely less all churches should be demolished, and that the Suppression insulting offer, namely, that Spanish men-of-war would be sent converts should be compelled to abjure Christianity, of to Japan to burn all Dutch ships found in the ports of the empire. was issued on the 27th of January 1614. There were Christianity. If in the face of proposals so contumelious of his sovereign then in Japan 122 Jesuits, 14 Franciscans, 9 Dominicans, authority Iyeyasu preserved a calm and dignified mien, merely 4 Augustins and 7 secular priests. Had these men obeyed the replying that his country was open to all comers, and that, if orders of the Japanese authorities by leaving the country finally, other nations had quarrels among themselves, they must not not one foreigner would have suffered for his faith in Japan, take Japan for battle-ground, it is nevertheless unimaginable except the 6 Franciscans executed at Nagasaki by order of that he did not strongly resent such interference with his own Hideyoshi in 1597. But suffering and death counted for nothing independent foreign policy, and that he did not interpret with the missionaries as against the possibility of winning or it as foreshadowing a disturbance of the realm's peace by sec- I keeping even one convert. Forty-seven of them evaded the 232 [FOREIGN INTERCOURSE JAPAN measures. edict, some by concealing themselves at the time of its issue, the In the midst of all this, Navarette, the vice-provincial of the rest by leaving their ships when the latter had passed out of sight Dominicans, and Ayala, the vice-provincial of the Augustins, of the shore of Japan, and returning by boats to the scene of came out of their retreat, and in full priestly garb started upon their former labours. Moreover, in a few months, those that an open propaganda. The two fanatics—for so even Charlevoix had actually crossed the sea re-crossed it in various disguises, considers them to have been-were secretly conveyed to the and soon the Japanese government had to consider whether it island Takashima and there decapitated, while their coffins would suffer its authority to be thus flouted or resort to extreme were weighted with big stones and sunk in the sea. Even more directly defiant was the attitude of the next martyred priest, During two years immediately following the issue of the anti- an old Franciscan monk, Juan de Santa Martha. He had for Christian decree, the attention of the Tokugawa chief and in-three years suffered all the horrors of a medieval Japanese deed of all Japan was concentrated on the closing episode of prison, when it was proposed to release him and deport him to the great struggle which assured to Iyeyasu final supremacy as New Spain. His answer was that, if released, he would stay in administrative ruler of the empire. That episode was a terrible Japan and preach there. He laid his head on the block in battle under the walls of Osaka castle between the adherents August 1618. But from that time until 1622 no other foreign of the Tokugawa and the supporters of Hideyori. In this missionary suffered capital punishment in Japan, though many struggle fresh fuel was added to the fire of anti-Christian resent- of them arrived in the country and continued their propa- ment, for many Christian converts threw in their lot with Hide- gandism there. During that interval, also, there occurred yori, and in one part of the field the Tokugawa troops found another incident eminently calculated to fix upon the Christians themselves fighting against a foe whose banners were emblazoned still deeper suspicion of political designs. In a Portuguese ship with the cross and with images of the Saviour and St James, the captured by the Dutch a letter was found instigating the Japan- patron saint of Spain. But the Christians had protectors. ese converts to revolt, and promising that, when the number of Many of the feudatories showed themselves strongly averse from these disaffected Christians was sufficient, men-of-war would be inflicting the extreme penalty on men and women whose adop- sent to aid them. Not the least potent of the influences operat- tion of an alien religion had been partly forced by the feudatories ing against the Christians was that pamphlets were written by themselves. As for the people at large, their liberal spirit is apostates attributing the zeal of the foreign propagandists attested by the fact that five fathers who were in Osaka castle solely to political motives. Yet another indictment of Spanish at the time of its capture made their way to distant refuges and Portuguese propagandists was contained in a despatch without encountering any risk of betrayal. During these events addressed to Hidctada in 1620 by the admiral in command of the death of Iyeyasu took place (June 1, 1616), and pending the the British and Dutch fleet then cruising in Far-Eastern waters. dedication of his mausoleum the anti-Christian crusade was In that document the friars were flatly accused of treacherous .virtually suspended. practices, and the Japanese ruler was warned against the aggres- In September 1616 a new anti-Christian edict was promulgated sive designs of Philip of Spain. In the face of all this evidence by Hidetada, son and successor of Iyeyasu. It pronounced the Japanese ceased to hesitate, and a time of terror ensued for sentence of exile against all Christian priests, including even the fathers and their converts. The measures adopted towards those whose presence had been sanctioned for ministering to the the missionaries gradually increased in severity. In 1617 the Portuguese merchants: it forbade the Japanese, under the first two fathers put to death (De l'Assumpcion and Machado) penalty of being burned alive and of having all their property were beheaded, “not by the common executioner, but by one confiscated, to have any connexion with the ministers of religion of the first officers of the prince." Subsequently Navarette and or to give them hospitality. It was forbidden to any prince or Ayala were decapitated by the executioner. Then, in 1618, lord to keep Christians in his service or even on his estates, and Juan de Santa Martha was executed like a common criminal, the edict was promulgated with more than usual solemnity, his body being dismembered and his head exposed. Finally, though its enforcement was deferred until the next year on in 1622, Zuñiga and Flores were burnt alive. The same year account of the obsequies of Iyeyasu. This edict of 1616 differed was marked by the “ great martyrdom at Nagasaki when from that issued by Iyeyasu in 1614, since the latter did not 9 foreign priests went to the stake with 19 Japanese converts. prescribe the death penalty for converts refusing to apostatize. The shögun seems to have been now labouring under vivid fear But both agreed in indicating expulsion as the sole manner of of a foreign invasion. An emissary sent by him to Europe had dealing with the foreign priests. As for the shogun and his returned on the eve of the “great martyrdom ”after seven years advisers, it is reasonable to assume that they did not anticipate abroad, and had made a report more than ever unfavourable to much necessity for recourse to violence. They must have known Christianity.. Therefore Hidetada deemed it necessary to refuse that a great majority of the converts had joined the Christian audience, to a Philippine enibassy in 1624 and to deport all church at the instance or by the command of their local rulers, Spaniards from Japan. Further, it was decreed that no Japanese and nothing can have seemed less likely than that a cre thus Christian should thenceforth be sufferod to go abroad for com- lightly embraced would be adhered to in defiance of torture and merce, and that though non-Christians or men who had aposta- death. It is moreover morally certain that had the foreign tized might travel freely, they must not visit the Philippines. propagandists obeyed the Government's edict and left the Thus ended all intercourse between Japan and Spain. It had country, not one would have been put to death. They suffered continued for 32 years and had engendered a widespread because they defied the laws of the land. Some fifty mission conviction that Christianity was an instrument of Spanish aries happened to be in Nagasaki when Hidetada's edict was aggression. issued. A number of these were apprehended and deported, Iyemitsu, son of Hidetada, now ruled in Yedo, though Hide. but several of them returned almost immediately. This hap-tada himself remained the power behind the throne. The year pened under the jurisdiction of Omura, who had been specially (1623) of the former's accession to power had been marked by charged with the duty of sending away the bateren (padres). He the re-issue of anti-Christian decrees, and by the martyrdom of appears to have concluded that a striking example must be fur- some 500 Christians within the Tokugawa domains, whither the nished, and he therefore ordered the seizure and decapitation tide of persecution now flowed for the first time. Thenceforth of two fathers, De l'Assumpcion and Machado. The result the campaign was continuous. The men most active and most completely falsified his calculations, and presaged the cruel relentless in carrying on the persecution were Mizuno and struggle now destined to begin. Takenaka, governors of Nagasaki, and Matsukura, feudatory of The bodies, placed in different coffins, were interred in the same Shimabara. By the latter were invented the punishment of grave. Guards were placed over it, but the concourse was immense. throwing converts into the solſalaras at Unzen and the torture The sick were carried io the sepulchre to be restored to health. The Christians ſound new strength in this martyrdom; the pagans them. of the fosse, which consisted in suspension by the feet, head selves were full of admiration for it. Numerous conversions and downwards, in a pit until blood oozed from the mouth, nose and numerous returns of apostates took place everywhere. ears. Many endured this latter torture for days, until death > > FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 233 7 Trade lo the 17th came to their relief, but a few-notably the Jesuit provincial of the dilapidated castle of Hara, which stood on a plateau Ferreyra-apostatized, Matsukura and Takenaka wete so with three sides descending perpendicularly to the sea, a hundred strongly obsessed by the Spanish menace that they contemplated feet beneath, and with a swamp on its fourth front. There the the conquest of the Philippines in order to deprive the Spaniards insurgents, who fought under flags with red crosses and whose of a Far-Eastern base. But timid counsels then prevailed in battle cries were“ Jesus,”“ Maria "and“ St Iago," successfully Yedo, where the spirit of a Nobunaga, a Hideyoshi or an Iyeyasu maintained themselves against the repeated assaults of strong no longer presided. Of course the measures of repression grew forces until the 12th of April, when, their ammunition and their in severity as the fortitude of the Christians became more ob- provisions alike exhausted, they were overwhelmed and put to durate. It is not possible to state the exact number of victims. the sword, with the exception of 105 prisoners. During the Some historians say that, down to 1635, no fewer than 280,000 siege thc Dutch were enabled to furnish a vivid proof of enmity were punished, but that figure is probably exaggerated, for the to the Christianity of the Spaniards and the Portuguese. For most trustworthy records indicate that the converts never aggre- the guns in possession of the besiegers being too light to accom- gated more than 300,000, and many of these, if not a great plish anything, Koeckebacker, the factor at Hïrado, was invited majority, having accepted the foreign faith very lightly, doubt- to send ships carrying heavier metal. He replied with the less discarded it readily under menace of destruction, Every “de Ryp” of 20 guns, which threw 426 shot into the castle opportunity was given for apostatizing and for escaping death. in 15 days. Probably the great bulk of the remaining Japanese Immunity could be secured by pointing out a fellow-convert, and Christians perished at the massacre of Hara. Thenceforth there when it is observed that among the seven or eight feudatories were few martyrs.' who embraced Christianity only two or three died in that faith, It has been clearly shown that Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and we must conclude that not a few cases of recanting occurred Iyeyasu were all in favour of foreign intercourse and trade, and among the commoners. Remarkable fortitude, however, is that the Tokugawa chief, even more than his prede- Foreign said to have been displayed. If the converts were intrepid cessor Hideyoshi, made strenuous efforts to differ- their teachers showed no ļess courage. Again and again the entiate between Christianity and commerce, so that Century. latter defied the Japanese authorities by coming to the country the latter might not be involved in the former's fate.', or returning thither after having been deported. Ignoring the In fact the three objects which Iyeyasu desired most earnestly to orders of the governors of Macao and Manila and even of the compass were the development of foreign commerce, the acqui- king of Spain himself, they arrived, year after year, to be cer- sition of a mercantile marine and the exploitation of Japan's tainly apprehended and sent to the stake after brief periods of mines. He offered the Spaniards, Portuguese, English and Dutch propagandism. In 1626 they actually baptized over 3000 a site for a settlement in Yedo, and had they accepted the offer converts. Large rewards were paid to anyone denouncing a the country might never have been closed. In his time Japan propagandist, and as for the people, they had to trample was virtually a free-trade country. Importers had not to pay upon a picture of Christ in order to prove that they were not any duties. It was expected, however, that they should make Christians. presents to the feudatory into whose port they carried their Meanwhile the feuds between the Dutch, the Spaniards and goods, and these presents were often very valuable. Naturally the Portuguese never ceased. In 1636, the Dutch found on a the Tokugawa chief desired to attract such a source of wealth captured Portuguese vessel a report of the governor of Macao to his own domains. He sent more than one envoy to Manila describing a two days' festival which had been held there in to urge the opening of commerce direct with the regions about honour of Vięyra, the vice-provincial whose martyrdom had Yedo, and to ask the Spaniards for competent naval architects. just taken place in Japan. This report the Dutch handed to the Perhaps the truest exposition of his attitude is given in a law Japanese authorities “in order that his majesty may see more enacted in 1002:- clearly what great honour the Portuguese pay to those he has " If any foreign vessel by stress of weather is obliged to touch at forbidden his realm as traitors to the state and to his crown.' any principality or to put into any harbour of Japan, we order that, Probably the accusation added little to the resentment and dis belongs to them or that they may have brought in their ship, shall whoever these foreigners may be, absolutely nothing whatever that trust already harboured by the Japanese against the Portuguese. be taken from them. Likewise we rigorously prohibit the use of At all events the Yedo government took no step distinctly hostile any violence in the purchase or the sale of any of the commodities to Portuguese laymen until 1637, when an edict was issued for- brought by their ship, and if it is not convenient for the merchants bidding any foreigners to travel in the empire, lest Portuguese of the ship to remain in the port they have entered, they may pass with passports bearing Dutch names might enter it. This full freedom. Likewise we order in a general manner that foreigners to any other port that may suit them, and therein buy and sell in was the beginning of the end. In the last month of 1637 a may freely reside in any part of Japan they choose but we rigorously rebellion broke out, commonly called the " Christian revolt of forbid them to promulgate their faith." Shimabara," which sealed the fate of Japan's foreign intercourse for over 200 years. It was in that mood that he granted (1605) a licence to the The promontory of Shimabara and the island of Amakusa Dutch to trade in Japan, his expectation doubtless being that enclose the gulf of Nagasaki on the west. Among all the fiefs in the ships which they promised to send every year would make Japan, Shimabara and Amakusa had been the two their dépôt at Uraga or in some other place near Yedo. But The Shima- bara Revok. most thoroughly christianized in the early years of things were ordered differently. The first Hollanders that set Jesuit propagandism. Hence in later days they were foot in Japan were the survivors of the wrecked “Liefde.” naturally the scene of the severest persecutions. Still the people Thrown into prison for a time, they were approached by emis- would probably have suffered in silence had they not been taxed saries from the feudatory of Hirado, who engaged some of them beyond all endurance to supply funds for an extravagant chief to teach the art of casting guns and the science of gunnery to his who employed savage methods of extortion. Japanese annals, vassals, and when two of them were allowed to leave Japan, he however, relegate the taxation grievance to an altogether furnished them with the means of doing so, at the same time secondary place, and attribute the revolt solely to the instigation making promises which invested Hirado with attractions as a of five samurai who led a roving life to avoid persecution for port of trade, though it was then and always remained an insig- their adherence to Christianity. Whichever version be correct, nificant fishing village. The Dutch possessed precisely the it is certain that the outbreak ultimately attracted all the Chris qualifications suited to the situation then existing in Japan: tians from the surrounding regions, and was regarded by the they had commercial potentialities without any religious asso- authorities as in effect Christian rising. The Amakusa in- ciations. Fully appreciating that fact, the shrewd feudatory of surgents passed over to Shimabara, and on the 27th of January Hirado laid himself out to entice the Dutchmen to his fief, and 1638 the whole body--numbering, according to some authorities, clearly betrayed the strength of the Tokugawa chief's desire to he succeeded. Shortly afterwards, an incident occurred which 20,000 fighting men with 17,000 women and children; according to inthers, little more than one-half of these figures-took possession See A History of Christianity in Japan (1910), by Otis Cary. ܙܙ 234 JAPAN [FOREIGN INTERCOURSE Trade, exploit Japan's mines. The governor-general of the Philippines | so, he would have been free from all competition, would have had (Don Rodrigo Vivero y Velasco), his ship being cast away on the an immense market at his very doors, would have economized Japanese coast on a voyage to Acapulco, was received by lyeyasu, the expense of numerous overland journeys to the Tokugawa and in response to the latter's request for fifty miners, the court, and would have saved the payment of many considera- Spaniard formulated terms to which lyeyasu actually agreed: tions.” The result of his mistaken choice and subsequent bad that half the produce of the mines should go to the miners; that management was that, ten years later (1623), the English factory the other half should be divided between Iyeyasu and the king at Hirado had to be closed, having incurred a total loss of about of Spain; that the latter might send commissioners to Japan to £2000. In condonation of this failure it must be noted that à look after his mining interests, and that these commissioners few months after the death of lyeyasu, the charter he had granted might be accompanied by priests who would be entitled to to Saris underwent serious modification. The original document have public churches for holding services. This was in 1609, threw open to the English every port in Japan; the revised when the Tokugawa chief had again and again imposed the document limited them 10 Hirado. But this restriction may be strictest veto on Christian propagandism. There can be little indirectly traced to the blunder of not accepting a settlement in doubt that he understood the concession made to Don Rodrigo Yedo and a port at Uraga. For the Tokugawa's foreign policy in the sense of Hideyoshi's mandate to the Jesuits in Nagasaki, was largely swayed by an apprehension lest the Kiūshiù feuda- namely, that a sufficient number might remain to minister totories, over whom the authority of Yedo had never been fully the Portuguese traders frequenting the port. Iyeyasu had established, might, by the presence of foreign traders, come into confidence in himself and in his countrymen. He knew that possession of such a fleet and such an armament as would ulti- emergencies could be dealt with when they arose and he sacrificed mately enable them to wrest the administration of the empire nothing to timidity. But his courageous policy died with him from Tokugawa hands. Hence the precaution of confining the and the miners did not come. Neither did the Spaniards ever English and the Dutch to Hirado, the fief of a daimyo 100 petty devote any successful efforts to establishing trade with Japan. to become formidable, and to Nagasaki which was an imperial Their vessels paid fitful visits to Uraga, but the Portuguese city.' But evidently an English factory in Yedo and English continued to monopolize the commerce. ships at Uraga would have strengthened the Tokugawa ruler's In 1611 a Dutch merchantman (the “ Brach ") reached Hirado hand instead of supplying engines of war to his political foes. It with a cargo of pepper, cloth, ivory, silk and lead. She carried must also be noted that the question of locality had another Opeolog of two envoys, Spex and Segerszoon, and in the very injurious outcome. It exposed the English-and the Dutch Dutch and face of a Spanish embassy which had just arrived also-to crippling competition at the hands of a company of rich Eoglish from Manila expressly for the purpose of “settling Osaka monopolists, who, as representing an Imperial city and the matter regarding the Hollanders,” the Dutchmen therefore being pledged to the Tokugawa interests, enjoyed obtained a liberal patent from Iyeyasu. Twelve years pre- Yedo's favour and took full advantage of it. These shrewd viously, the merchants of London, stimulated generally by the traders not only drew a ring round Hirado, but also sent vessels success of the Dutch in trade with the East, and specially by the on their own account to Cochin China, Siam, Tonkin, Cambodia fact that “these Hollanders had raised the price of pepper and other places, where they obtained many of the staples in against us from 3 shillings per pound to 6 shillings and 8 shillings," which the English and the Dutch dealt. Still the closure of the organized the East India Company which immediately began English factory at Hirado was purely voluntary. From first to to send ships eastward. Of course the news that the Durch last there had been no serious friction between the English and were about to establish a trading station in Japan reached the Japanese. The company's houses and godowns were not London speedily, and the East India Company losi no time in sold. These as well as the charter were left in the hands of the ordering one of their vessels, the “ Clove,” under Captain Saris, daimyo of Hirado, who promised to restore them should the to proceed to the Far-Eastern islands. She carried a quantity English re-open business in Japan. The company did think of of pepper, and on the voyage she endeavoured to procure some doing so on more than one occasion, but no practical step was spices at the Moluccas. But the Dutch would not suffer any taken until the year 1673, when a merchantman, aptly named poaching on their valuable monopoly. The “ Clove "entered the “Return,” was sent to seek permission. The Japanese, Hirado on the uth of June 1613. Saris seems to have been aſter mature reflection, made answer that as the king of England a man self-opinionated, of shallow judgment and suspicious. was married to a Portuguese princess, British subjects could not Though strongly urged by Will Adams to make Uraga the seat be permitted to visit Japan. That this reply was suggested by of the new trade, though convinced of the excellence of the har- the Dutch is very probable; that it truly reflected the feeling bour there, and though instructed as to the great advantage of of the Japanese government towards Roman Catholics is certain. proximity to the shogun's capital, he appears to have conceived The Spaniards were expelled from Japan in 1624, the Portu- some distrust of Adams, for he chose Hirado. From Iyeyasu guese in 1638. Two years before the latter event, the Yedo Captain Saris received a most liberal charter, which plainly dis-government took a signally retrogressive step. They The Last played the mood of the Tokugawa shogun towards foreign ordained that no Japanese vessel should go abroad; Days of the trade:- Portuguese that no Japanese subject should leave the country, in Japan. 1. The ship that has now come for the first time from England and that, if detected attempting to do so, he over the sea to Japan may carry on trade of all kinds without should be put to death, the vessel that carried him and her hindrance. With regard to future visits (of English ships) permis- crew being seized “to await our pleasure”; that any Japanese sion will be given in regard to all matters. 2. With regard to the cargoes of ships, requisition will be made resident abroad should be executed if he returned; that the by list according to the requirements of the shogunate. children and descendants of Spaniards together with those who 3. English ships are free to visit any port in Japan. . If disabled | had adopted such children should not be allowed to remain by storms they may put into any harbour. on pain of death; and that no ship of ocean-going dimensions 4. Ground in Yedo in the place which they may desire shall be should be built in Japan. Thus not only were the very children given to the English, and they may erect houses and reside and trade there. They shall be at liberty to return to their country whenever of the Christian propagandists driven completely from the land, they wish to do so, and to dispose as they like of the houses they but the Japanese people also were sentenced to imprisonment have erected. within the limits of their islands, and the country was deprived 5. If an Englishman dies in Japan of disease, or any other cause, of all hope of acquiring a mercantile marine. The descendants his effects shall be handed over without fail. 6. Forced sales of cargo, and violence, shall not take place. of the Spaniards, banished by the edict, were taken to Macao in 7. If one of the English should commit an offence, he should be two Portuguese galleons. They numbered 287 and the property sentenced by the English General according to the gravity of his 1 The Imperial cities were Yedo, Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki. offence. (Translated by Professor Riess.) To this last the English were subsequently admitted. They were The terms of the 4th article show that the shögun expected their experience at Hirado proved so deterrent, they mnight have also invited to Kagoshima by the Shimazú chieſtain, and, had not the English to make Yedo their headquarters. Had Saris done l established a factory at Kagoshima. + FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 235 a they carried with them aggregated 6,697,500 florins. But if the should be under the protection of international law, the sentence Portuguese derived any gratification from this sweeping out of written in Yedo 13 days previously was read to them. The their much-abused rivals, the feeling was destined to be short. following morning the Portuguese were offered their lives if they lived. Already they were subjected to humiliating restrictions. would apostatize. Every one rejected the offer, and being then "From 1623 the galleons and their cargoes were liable to be burnt led out to the martyrs' mount, the heads of the envoys and of 57 and their crews executed į any foreign priest was found on board of their companions fell. Thirteen were saved to carry the news of them. An official of the Japanese government was stationed in to Macao. Macao for the purpose of inspecting all intending passengers, and of These thirteen, after witnessing the burning of the preventing any one that looked at all suspicious from proceeding galleon, were conducted to the governor's residence who gave to Japan. A complete list and personal description of every one them this message: on board was drawn up by this officer, a copy of it was handed to “: Do not fail to inform the inhabitants of Macao that the Japanese the captain and by him it had to be delivered to the authorities who wish to receive from them neither gold nor silver, nor any kind of met him at Nagasaki before he was allowed to anchor. If in the presents or merchandise; in a word, absolutely nothing which comes subsequent inspection any discrepancy between the list and the from them. You are witnesses that I have caused even the clothes persons actually carried by the vessel appeared, it would prove very of those who were executed yesterday to be burned. Let them do awkward for the captain. Then in the inspection of the vessel the same with respect to us if they find occasion to do so: we consent letters were opened, trunks and boxes ransacked, and all crosses, to it without difficulty. Let them think no more of us, just as if rosaries or objects of religion of any kind had to be thrown over- we were no longer in the world." board. In 1635 Portuguese were forbidden to employ Japanese to carry their umbrellas or their shoes, and only their chief men Finally the thirteen were taken to the martyrs' mount where, were allowed to bear arms, while they had to hire fresh servants set up above the heads of the victims, a tablet recounted the every year. It was in the following year (1636) that the artificial story of the embassy and the reasons for the execution, and islet of Deshima was constructed for their special reception, or rather concluded with the words:- imprisonment. It lay in front of the former Portuguese factory, with which it was connected by a bridge, and henceforth the Portu- “So long as the sun warms the earth, let no Christian be so bold guese were to be allowed to cross this bridge only twice a year—at as to come to Japan, and let all know that if King Philip himself, or their arrival and at their departure. Furthermore, all their cargoes even the very God of the Christians, or the great Shaka contravene had to be sold at a fixed price during their fifty days' stay to a ring this prohibition, they shall pay for it with their heads." of licensed merchants from the imperial towns."! Had the ministers of the shogun in Yedo desired to make clear The imposition of such irksome conditions did not deter the to future ages that to Christianity alone was due the expulsion Portuguese, who continued to send merchandise-laden galleons of Spaniards and Portuguese from Japan and her adoption of to Nagasaki. But in 1638 the bolt fell. The Shimabara rebellion the policy of seclusion they could not have placed on record was directly responsible. Probably the fact of a revolt of more conclusive testimony. Macao received the news with Christian converts, in such numbers and fighting with such rejoicing in that its“ earthly ambassadors had been made ambas- resolution, would alone have sufficed to induce the weak govern- sadors of heaven," but it did not abandon all hope of over- ment in Yedo to get rid of the Portuguese altogether. But the coming Japan's obduracy. When Portugal recovered her Portuguese were suspected of having instigated the Shimabara independence in 1640, the people of Macao requested Lisbon insurrection, and the Japanese authorities believed that they to send an ambassador to Japan, and on the 16th of July 1647 had proof of the fact. Hence, in 1638, an edict was issued pro- Don Gonzalo de Siqueira arrived in Nagasaki with two vessels. claiming that as, in defiance of the government's order, the He carried a letter from King John IV., setting forth the Portuguese had continued to bring missionaries to Japan; as severance of all connexion between Portugal and Spain, which they had supplied these missionaries with provisions and other countries were now actually at war, and urging that commercial necessaries, and as they had fomented the Shimabara rebellion, relations should be re-established. The Portuguese, having thenceforth any Portuguese ship coming to Japan should be refused to give up their rudders and arms, soon found themselves burned, together with her cargo, and every one on board of her menaced by a force of fifty thousand samurai, and were glad to should be executed. Ample time was allowed before enforcing put out of port quietly on the 4th of September. This was the this edict. Not only were the Portuguese ships then at Nagasaki last episode in the medieval history of Portugal's intercourse permitted to close up their commercial transactions and leave the with Japan. port, but also in the following year when two galleons arrived When (1609) the Dutch contemplated forming a settlement from Macao, they were merely sent away with a copy of the edict in Japan, Iyeyasu gave them a written promise that “no man and a stern warning. But the Portuguese could not easily should do them any wrong and that he would become reconciled to abandon a commerce from which they had maintain and defend them as his own subjects.” at Deshima. derived splendid profits prior to the intrusion of the Spaniards, Moreover, the charter granted to them contained the Dutch and the English, and from which they might now hope a clause providing that, into whatever ports their ships put, they further gains, since, although the Dutch continued to be formid- were not to be molested or hindered in any way, but, “ on the able rivals, the Spaniards had been excluded, the English had contrary, must be shown all manner of help, favour and assist- withdrawn, and the Japanese, by the suicidal policy of their own ance." They might then have chosen any port in Japan for rulers, were no longer able to send ships to China. Therefore iheir headquarters, but they had the misfortune to choose they took a step which resulted in one of the saddest episodes of Hirado. For many years they had no cause to regret the choice. the whole story. Four aged men, the most respected citizens Their exclusive possession of the Spice Islands and their own of Macao, were despatched (1640) to Nagasaki as ambassadors in enterprise and command of capital gave them the leading place a ship carrying no cargo but only rich presents. They bore a in Japan's over-sea trade, Even when things had changed petition declaring that for a long time no missionaries had greatly for the worse and when the English closed their books entered Japan from Macao, that the Portuguese had not been in with a large loss, it is on record that the Dutch were reaping a any way connected with the Shimabará revolt, and that inter-profit of 76% annually. Their doings at Hirado were not of a tuption of trade would injure Japan as much as Portugal. purely commercial character. The Anglo-Dutch “ fleet of These envoys arrived at Nagasaki on the ist of July 1640, and defence ” made that port its basis of operations against the 24 days sufficed to bring from Yedo, whither their petition had Spaniards and the Portuguese. It brought its prizes into been sent, peremptory orders for their execution as well as Hirado, the profits to be equally divided between the fleet and executioners to carry out the orders. There was no possibility the factories, Dutch and English, which arrangement involved of resistance. The Japanese had removed the ship's rudder, a sum of a hundred thousand pounds in 1622. But after the sails, guns and ammunition, and had placed the envoys, their death of Iyeyasu there grew up at the Tokugawa court a party suite and the crews under guard in Deshima. On the 2nd of which advocated the expulsion of all foreigners on the ground August they were all summoned to the governor's hall of audi- that, though some professed a different form of Christianity from ence, where, after their protest had been heard that ambassadors that of the Castilians and Portuguese, it was nevertheless one A History of Japan (Murdoch and Yamagata). and the same creed. This policy was not definitely adopted, The Dutch 236 JAPAN (FOREIGN INTERCOURSE men but it made itself felt in a discourteous reception accorded to or visit them in their houses. The creatures of the governor had the the commandant of Fort Zelandia when he visited Tökyo in warehouses under key and the Dutch traders ceased to be masters of their property.' 1627. He attempted to retaliate upon the Japanese vessels There were worse indignities to be endured. No Dutchman which put into Zelandia in the following year, but the Japanese might be buried in Japanese soil: the dead had to be committed managed to seize his person, exact reparation for loss of time and to the deep. Every Dutch ship, her rudder, guns and ammuni- obtain five hostages whom they carried to prison in Japan. tion removed and her sails sealed, was subjected to the strictest The Japanese government of that time was wholly intolerant search. No religious service could be held. No one was suffered of any injury done to its subjects by foreigners. When news to pass from one Dutch ship to another without the governor's of the Zelandia affair reached Yedo, orders were immediately permit. Sometimes the officers and were wantonly issued for the sequestration of certain Dutch vessels and for the cudgelled by petty Japanese officials. They led, in short, a suspension of the Hirado factory, which veto was not removed life of extreme abasement. Some relaxation of this extreme for four years. Commercial arrangements, also, became less severity was afterwards obtained, but at no time of their sojourn favourable. The Dutch, instead of selling their silk-which in Deshima, a period of 217 years, were the Dutch relieved from generally formed the principal staple of import—in the open irksome and humiliating restraints. Eleven years after their market, were required to send it to the Osaka gild of licensed removal thither, the expediency of consulting the national merchants at Nagasaki, by which means, Nagasaki and Osaka honour by finally abandoning an enterprise so derogatory was being Imperial cities, the Yedo government derived advantage gravely discussed, but hopes of improvement supplementing from the transaction. An attempt to evade this onerous natural reluctance to surrender a monopoly which still brought system provoked a very stern rebuke from Yedo, and shortly large gains, induced them to persevere. At that time this afterwards all Japanese subjects were forbidden to act as ser- Nagasaki over-sea trade was considerable. From 7 to 10 vants to the Dutch outside the latter's dwellings. The co- Dutch ships used to enter the port annually, carrying cargo operation of the Hollanders in bombarding the castle of Hara during the Shimabara rebellion (1638) gave them some claim on being silk and piece-goods, and the government levying 5% valued at some 80,000 lb of silver, the chief staples of import the shögun's government, but in the same year the Dutch by way of customs dues. But this did not represent the whole received an imperious warning that the severest penalties would of the charges imposed. A rent of 459 tb of silver had to be be inflicted if their ships carried priests or any religious objects paid each year for the little island of Deshima and the houses or books. So profound was the dislike of everything relating standing on it; and, further, every spring, the Hollanders were to Christianity that the Dutch nearly caused the ruin of their required to send to Yedo a mission bearing for the shögun, the factory and probably their own destruction by inscribing on some heir-apparent and the court officials presents representing an newly erected warehouses the date according to the Christian era. The factory happened to be then presided over by Caron, aggregate value of about 550 lb of silver. They found their a man of extraordinary penetration. Without a moment's account, nevertheless, in buying gold and copper-especially hesitation he set 400 men to pull down the warehouses, thus becoming alarmed at the great quantity of copper thus carried the latter-for exportation, until the Japanese authorities, depriving the Japanese of all pretext for recourse to violence. away, adopted the policy of limiting the number of vessels, as He was compelled, however, to promise that there should be no well as their inward and outward cargoes, so that, in 1790, only observance of the Sabbath hereafter and that time should no one ship might enter annually, nor could she carry away more longer be reckoned by the Christian era. In a few months, than 350 tons of copper. On the other hand, the formal visits further evidence of Yedo's ill will was furnished. An edict appeared ordering the Dutch to dispose of all their imports fifth year, and the value of the presents carried by him was cut of the captain of the factory to Yedo were reduced to one every during the year of their arrival, without any opticn of carrying down to one half. them away should prices be low. They were thus placed at the Well-informed historians have contended that, by thus mercy of the Osaka gild. Further, they were forbidden to segregating herself from contact with the West, Japan's direct slaughter cattle or carry arms, and altogether it seemed as losses were small. Certainly it is true that she could, though the situation was to be rendered impossible for them. Loss to not have learned much from European nations in An envoy despatched from Batavia to remonstrate could not Japan by obtain audience of the shogun, and though he presented, by the 17th century. They had little to teach her in adoptiog the way of religious tolerance; in the way of inter-the Policy of way of remonstrance, the charter originally granted by Iyeyasu, national morality; in the way of social amenities the reply he received was:- and etiquette; in the way of artistic conception and execution; “ His Majesty charges us to inform you that it is of but slight or in the way of that notable shibboleth of modern civilization, importance to the Empire of Japan whether foreigners come or do not come to trade. But in consideration of the charter granted to the open door and equal opportunities. Yet when all this is them by Iyeyasu, he is pleased to allow the Hollanders to continue admitted, there remains the vital fact that Japan was thus shut their operations, and to leave them their commercial and other off from the atmosphere of competition, and that for nearly two privileges, on the condition that they evacuate Hirado and establish centuries and a half she never had an opportunity of warming her themselves with their vessels in the port of Nagasaki." intelligence at the fire of international rivalry or deriving in- The Dutch did not at first regard this as a calamity. During their residence of 31 years at Hirado they had enjoyed full free still while the world went on, and the interval between ber and She stood comparatively spiration from an exchange of ideas. dom, had been on excellent terms with the feudatory and his the leading peoples of the Occident in matters of material civili- samurai, and had prospered in their business. But the pettiness zation had become very wide before she awoke to a sense of of the place and the inconvenience of the anchorage having its existence. The sequel of this page of her history has been always been recognized, transfer to Nagasaki promised a splen- faithfully summarized by a modern writer:- did harbour and much larger custom. Bitter, therefore, was their disappointment when they found that they were to be “A more complete metamorphosis of a nation's policy could scarcely be conceived. In 1541 we find the Japanese celebrated, imprisoned in Deshima, a quadrangular island whose longest or notorious, throughout the whole of the Far East for exploits face did not measure 300 yds., and that, so far from living in abroad; we find them known as the 'kings of the sea '; we find them the town of Nagasaki, they would not be allowed even to enter welcoming foreigners with cordiality and opposing no obstacles to it. Siebold writes: foreign commerce or even to the propagandism of foreign creeds; we find them so quick to recognize the benefits of foreign trade and so A guard at the gate prevented all communications with the city apt to pursue them that, in the space of a few years, they establish of Nagasaki; no Dutchman without weighty reasons and without commercial relations with no less than twenty over-sea markets; we the permission of the governor might pass the gate; no Japanese find them authorizing the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English (unless public women) might live in a Dutchman's house. As if to trade at every port in the empire; we find, in short, all the elements this were not enough, even within Deshima itself our state prisoners requisite for a career of commercial enterprise, ocean-going adven- were keenly watched. No Japanese might speak with them in his ture and industrial liberality. In 1641 everything is reversed. own language unless in the presence of a witness (a government spy) Trade is interdicted to all Western peoples except the Dutch, and Exclusioa. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 237 > . : Russian Influence. Great scene. they are confined to a little island 200 yards in length by 80 in width; | easy sight of Japan's northern island, Yezo, so that the aspect of the least symptom of predilection for any alien creed exposes a foreign ships became quite familiar. From time to time Ameri- Japanese subject to be punished with awful rigour; any attempt to leave the limits of the realm involves decapitation; not a ship large can schooners were cast away on Japan's shores. Generally the enough to pass beyond the shadow of the coast may be built. How- survivors were treated with tolerable consideration and ulti- ever unwelcome the admission, it is apparent that for all these mately sent to Deshima for shipment to Batavia. Japanese changes Christian propagandism was responsible. The policy of seclusion adopted by Japan in the early part of the 17th century and sailors, too, driven out of their route by hurricanes and caught resolutely pursued until the middle of the 19th, was anti-Christian, in the stream of the “ Black Current," were occasionally carried not anti-foreign. The fact cannot be too clearly recognized. It is to the Aleutian Islands, to Oregon or California, and in several the chief lesson taught by the events outlined above. Throughout instances these shipwrecked mariners were taken back to Japan the whole of that period of isolation, Occidentals were not known to with all kindness by American vessels. On such an errand of the Japanese by any of the terms now in common use, as gwaikoku-jin, seiyo-jin, or i-jin, which embody the simple meanings foreigner, mercy the “Morrison ” entered Yedo Bay in 1837, proceeding Westerner or alien': they were popularly called bateren (padres). thence to Kagoshima, only to be driven away by cannon shot; Thus completely had foreign intercourse and Christian propagandism and on such an errand the “ Manhattan " in 1845 lay for four become identified in the eyes of the people. And when it is remem- days at Uraga while her master (Mercater Cooper) collected bered that foreign intercourse, associated with Christianity, had come to be synonymous in Japanese ears with foreign aggression, with the books and charts. It would seem that his experience induced subversal of the mikado's ancient dynasty, and with the loss of the in the Washington government to attempt the opening of Japan. dependence of the country of the gods,'there is no difficulty in under-A ninety-gun ship and a sloop were sent on the errand. They standing the attitude of the nation's mind towards this question." anchored off Uraga (July 1846) and Commodore Biddle made Foreign Intercourse in Modern Times. From the middle of due application for trade. But he received a positive refusal, the 17th century to the beginning of the 19th, Japan succeeded and having been instructed by his government to abstain from Dutch and in rigorously enforcing her policy of seclusion. But any act calculated to excite hostility or distrust, he quietly in the concluding days of this epoch two influences weighed anchor and sailed away. began to disturb her self-sufficiency. One was the In this same year (1846) a French ship touched at the Riukiu gradual infiltration of light from the outer world through (Luchu) archipelago and sought to persuade the islanders that the narrow window of the Dutch prison at Deshima; the other, their only security against British aggression was to frequent apparitions of Russian vessels on her northern coasts. place themselves under the protection of France. In Britain The former was a slow process. It materialized first in the study fact Great Britain was now beginning to interest herself reappears of anatomy by a little group of youths who had acquired acci- in south China, and more than one warning reached upon the. dental knowledge of the radical difference between Dutch and Yedo from Deshima that English war-ships might at Japanese conceptions as to the structure of the human body. any moment visit Japanese waters. The Dutch have been much The work of these students reads like a page of romance. With- blamed for thus attempting to prejudice Japan against the Occi- out any appreciable knowledge of the Dutch language, they set dent, but if the dictates of commercial rivalry, as it was then themselves to decipher a Dutch medical book, obtained at enor- practised, do not constitute an ample explanation, it should be mous cost, and from this small beginning they passed to a vague remembered that England and Holland had recently been but firm conviction that their country had fallen far behind the enemies, and that the last British vessel,' seen at Nagasaki had material and intellectual progress of the Occident. They gone there hoping to capture the annual Dutch trading-ship from laboured in secret, for the study of foreign books was then a Batavia. Deshima's warnings, however, remained unfulfilled, criminal offence; yet the patriotism of one of their number out-though they doubtless contributed to Japan's feeling of uneasi- weighed his prudence, and he boldly published a brochure ness. Then, in 1847, the king of Holland himself intervened. advocating the construction of a navy and predicting a descent He sent to Yedo various books, together with a map of the world by the Russians on the northern borders of the empire. Before and a despatch advising Japan to abandon her policy of isolation. this prescient man had lain five months in prison, his foresight Within a few months (1849) of the receipt of his Dutch was verified by events. The Russians simulated at the outset majesty's recommendation, an American brig, the " Preble," a desire to establish commercial relations by peaceful means. under Commander J. Glynn, anchored in Nagasaki harbour and Had the Japanese been better acquainted with the history of threatened to bombard the town unless immediate delivery were nations, they would have known how to interpret the idea of a made of 18 seamen who, having been wrecked in northern waters, Russian quest for commercial connexions in the Far East a were held by the Japanese preparatory to shipment for Batavia. hundred years ago. But they dealt with the question on its In 1849 another despatch reached Yedo from the king of Holland superficial merits, and, after imposing on the tsar's envoys a announcing that an American fleet might be expected in wearisome delay of several months at Nagasaki, addressed to Japanese waters a year later, and that, unless Japan agreed to them a peremptory refusal together with an order to leave that enter into friendly commercial relations, war must ensue. port forthwith. Incensed by such treatment, and by the sub-Appended to this despatch was an approximate draft of the sequent imprisonment of a number of their fellow countrymen treaty which would be presented for signature, together with a who had landed on the island of Etorofu in the Kuriles, the copy of a memorandum addressed by the Washington govern- Russians resorted to armed reprisals. The Japanese settle- ment to European nations, justifying the contemplated expedi- ments in Sakhalin and Etorofu were raided and burned, other tion on the ground that it would inure to the advantage of Japan places were menaced and several Japanese vessels were de- as well as to that of the Occident. stroyed. The lesson sank deep into the minds of the Yedo officials. In 1853, Commodore Perry, with a squadron of four ships-of- They withdrew their veto against the study of foreign books, war and 560 men, entered Uraga Bay. So formidable a foreign and they arrived in part at the reluctant conclusion that to offer force had not been seen in Japanese waters since the Commodore armed opposition to the coming of foreign ships was a task coming of the Mongol Armada. A panic cnsued among Perry. somewhat beyond Japan's capacity. Japan ceased, however, to the people—the same people who, in the days of attract European attention amid the absorbing interest of the Hideyoshi or Iyeyasu, would have gone out to encounter ihese Napoleonic era, and the shögun's government, misinterpreting ships with assured confidence of victory. The contrast did not this respite, reverted to their old policy of stalwart resistance to stop there. The shögun, whose ancestors had administered the foreign intercourse. country's affairs with absolutely autocratic authority, now sum- Meanwhile another power was beginning to establish close moned a council of the feudatories to consider the situation; and contact with Japan. The whaling industry in Russian waters off the Imperial court in Kioto, which never appealed for heaven's aid the coast of Alaska and in the seas of China and Japan except in a national emergency such as had never been witnessed Eaterprise. had attracted large investments of American capital since the creation of the shogunate, now directed that at and was pursued yearly by thousands of American the seven principal shrines and at all the great temples special citizens. In one season 86 of these whaling vessels passed within IH.M.S. “ Phaeton," which entered that port in 1808. American 238 (FOREIGN INTERCOURSE JAPAN was prayers should be offered for the safety of the land and for the of government that of the mikado in Kioto and that of the destruction of the aliens. Thus the appearance of the American shogun in Yedo-had been still further discredited by its own squadron awoke in the cause of the country as a whole a spirit of tímid policy as compared with the stalwart mien of the throne patriotism hitherto confined to feudal interests. The shogun towards the question of foreign intercourse. Openly to sanction does not seem to have had any thought of invoking that spirit; commercial relations at such a time would have been little short his part in raising it was involuntary and his ministers behaved of reckless. The Perry convention and the first Harris conven- with perplexed vacillation. The infirmity of the Yedo Adminis- tion could be construed, and were purposely construed, as mere tration's purpose presented such a strong contrast to the single acts of benevolence towards strangers; but a commercial treaty minded resolution of the Imperial court that the prestige of the would not have lent itself to any such construction, and naturally one was largely impaired and that of the other correspondingly the shögun's ministers hesitated to agree to an apparently enhanced. Perry, however, was without authority to support suicidal step. Harris carried his point, however. He his proposals by any recourse to violence. The United States received by the shögun in Yedo in November 1857, and on government had relied solely on the moral effect of his display of the 29th of July 1858 a treaty was signed in Yedo, engaging force, and his countrymen had supplied him with a large collec- that Yokohama should be opened on the 4th of July 1859 and tion of the products of peaceful progress, from sewing machines that commerce between the United States and Japan should to miniature railways. He did not unduly press for a treaty, but thereafter be freely carried on there. This treaty was actually after lying at anchor off Uraga during a period of ten days and concluded by the shögun's Ministers in defiance of their failure after transmitting the president's letter to the sovereign of Japan, to obtain the sanction of the sovereign in Kioto. Foreign he steamed away on the 17th of July, announcing his return in historians have found much to say about Japanese duplicity in the ensuing spring. The conduct of the Japanese subsequently concealing the subordinate position occupied by the Yedo to his departure showed how fully and rapidly they had acquired administration towards the Kioto court. Such condemnation is the conviction that the appliances of their old civilization were not consistent with fuller knowledge. The Yedo authorities powerless to resist the resources of the new. Orders were had power to solve all problems of foreign intercourse without issued rescinding the long-enforced veto against the construction reference to Kioto. Iyeyasu had not seen any occasion to of sea-going ships; the feudal chiefs were invited to build and arm seek imperial assent w he granted unrestricted liberty of large vessels; the Dutch were commissioned to furnish a ship of trade to the representatives of the East India Company, nor had war and to procure from Europe all the best works on modern Iyemitsu asked for Kioto's sanction when he issued his decree for military science; every one who had acquired any expert know-the expulsion of all foreigners. If, in the 19th century, Yedo ledge through the medium of Deshima was taken into official shrank from a responsibility which it had unhesitatingly assumed favour; forts were built; cannon were cast and troops were in the 17th, the cause was to be found, not in the shogun's drilled. But from all this effort there resulted only fresh simulation of autonomy, but in his desire to associate the throne evidence of the country's inability to defy foreign insistence, and with a policy which, while recognizing it to be unavoidable, he on the 2nd of December 1853, instructions were issued that if the distrusted his own ability to make the nation accept. But his Americans returned, they were to be dealt with peacefully. The ministers had promised Harris that the treaty should be sight of Perry's steam-propelled ships, their powerful guns and signed, and they kept their word, at a risk of which the United all the specimens they carried of western wonders, had practically States' consul-general had no conception. Throughout these broken down the barriers of Japan's isolation without any need negotiations Harris spared no pains to create in the minds of of treaties or conventions. Perry returned in the following the Japanese an intelligent conviction that the world could no February, and after an interchange of courtesies and formalities longer be kept at arm's length, and though it is extremely prob- extending over six weeks, obtained a treaty pledging Japan to lematical whether he would have succeeded had not the Japan- accord kind treatment to shipwrecked sailors; to permit foreign cse themselves already arrived at that very conviction, his vessels to obtain stores and provisions within her territory, and patient and lucid expositions coupled with a winning personality, to allow American ships to anchor in the ports at Shimoda and undoubtedly produced much impression. He was largely Hakodate. On this second occasion Perry had 10 ships with assisted, too, by recent events in China, where the Peiho forts crews numbering two thousand, and when he landed to sign the had been captured and the Chinese forced to sign a treaty at treaty, he was escorted by a guard of honour mustering 500 Tientsin. Harris warned the Japanese that the British fleet, strong in 27 boats. Much has been written about his judicious might be expected at any moment in Yedo Bay, and that the display of force and his sagacious tact in dealing with the best way to avert irksome demands at the hands of the English Japanese, but it may be doubted whether the consequences of his was to establish a comparatively moderate precedent by yielding exploit have not invested its methods with extravagant lustre. to America's proposals. Standing on the threshold of modern Japan's wonderful career, This treaty could not be represented, as previous conventions his figure shines by the reflected light of its surroundings. had been, in the light of a purely benevolent concession. It Russia, Holland and England speedily secured for themselves definitely provided for the trade and residence of treaties similar to that concluded by Commodore Perry in 1854. foreign merchants, and thus finally terminated the Treaty. First But Japan's doors still remained closed to foreign Japan's traditional isolation. Moreover, it had been Treaty of commerce, and it was reserved for another citizen concluded in defiance of the Throne's refusal to sanction anything Commerce. of the great republic to open them. This was Town- of the kind. Much excitement resulted. The nation ranged send Harris (1803-1878), the first U.S. consul-general in Japan. itself into three parties. One comprised the advocates of free Arriving in August 1856, he concluded, in June of the following intercourse and progressive liberality; another, while insisting year, a treaty securing to American citizens the privilege of per- that only the most limited privileges should be accorded to manent residence. at Shimoda and Hakodate, the opening of aliens, was of two minds as to the advisability of offering armed Nagasaki, the right of consular jurisdiction and certain minor resistance at once or temporizing so as to gain time for prepara- concessions. Still, however, permission for commercial inter- tion; the third advocated uncompromising seclusion. Once course was withheld, and Harris, convinced that this great goal again the shogun convoked a meeting of the feudal barons, could not be reached unless he made his way to Yedo and con- hoping to secure their co-operation. But with hardly an excep- ferred direct with the shogun's ministers, pressed persistently tion they pronounced against yielding. Thus the shogunate for leave to do so. Ten months elapsed before he succeeded, and saw itself compelled to adopt a resolutely liberal policy: it such a display of reluctance on the Japanese side was very issued a decree in that sense, and thenceforth the administrative unfavourably criticized in the years immediately subsequent court at Yedo and the Imperial court in Kioto stood in unequivo- Ignorance of the country's domestic politics inspired the critics. cal opposition to each other, the Conservatives ranging theme The Yedo administration, already weakened by the growth of a selves on the side of the latter, the Liberals on that of the former. strong public sentiment in favour of abolishing the dual system l It was a situation full of perplexity to outsiders, and the foreign Effects of FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN 239 representatives misinterpreted it. They imagined that the f Again the shögun's administrative competence proved inade- shogun's ministers sought only to evade their treaty obligations quate to exact reparation, and a squadron, composed chiefly and to render the situation intolerable for foreign residents, of British men-of-war, proceeding to Shimonoseki, demolished whereas in truth the situation threatened to become intolerable Choshū's forts, destroyed his ships and scattered his samurai. for the shogunate itself. Nevertheless the Yedo officials can- In the face of the Kagoshima bombardment and the Shimono- not be entirely acquitted of duplicity. Under pressure of the seki expedition, no Japanese subject could retain any faith in necessity of self-preservation they effected with Kioto a com- his country's ability to oppose Occidentals by force. Thus the promise which assigned to foreign intercourse a temporary year 1863 was memorable in Japan's history. It saw the character. The threatened political crisis was thus averted, “barbarian-expelling” agitation deprived of the emperor's but the enemies of the dual system of government gained sanction; it saw the two principal clans, Satsuma and Choshū, strength daily. One of their devices was to assassinate foreigners convinced of their country's impotence to defy the Occident; in the hope of embroiling the shogunate with Western powers and it saw the nation almost fully roused to the disintegrating and thus either forcing its hand or precipitating, its downfall. It is weakening effects of the feudal system; and it saw the tradi- not wonderful, perhaps, that foreigners were deceived, especially tional antipathy to foreigners beginning to be exchanged for a as they approached the solution of Japanese problems with desire to study their civilization and to adopt its best features. all the Occidental's habitual suspicion of everything Oriental. The treaty concluded between the shogun's government and Thus when the Yedo government, cognisant that serious dangers the United States in 1858 was of course followed by similar menaced the Yokohama settlement, took precautions to guard compacts: with the principal European powers. Ratification it, the foreign ministers convinced themselves that a deliberate From the outset these states agreed to co-operate of the Treaties. piece of chicanery was being practised at their expense; that for the assertion of their conventional privileges, statecraft rather than truth had dictated the representations and they naturally took Great Britain for leader, though such made to them by the Japanese authorities; and that the alarm a relation was never openly announced. The treaties, however, of the latter was simulated for the purpose of finding a pretext continued during several years to lack imperial ratification, to curtail the liberty enjoyed by foreigners. Therefore a sugges-and, as time went by, that defect obtruded itself more and tion that the inmates of the legations should show themselves as more upon the attention of their foreign signatories. The year little as possible in the streets of the capital, where at any 1865 saw British interests entrusted to the charge of Sir Harry moment a desperado might cut them down, was treated almost as Parkes, a man of keen insight, indomitable courage and some- an insult. Then the Japanese authorities saw no recourse except what peremptory methods, learned during a long period of to attach an armed escort to the person of every foreigner when service in China. It happened that the post of Japanese secre- he moved about the city. But even this precaution, which tary at the British legation in Yedo was then held by a remark- certainly was not adopted out of mere caprice or with any ably gifted young Englishman, who, in a comparatively brief sinister design, excited fresh suspicions. The British representa- interval, had acquired a good working knowledge of the Japanese tive, in reporting the event to his government, said that the language, and it happened also that the British legation in Japanese had taken the opportunity to graft upon the establish- Yedo was already--as it has always been ever since the best ment of spies, watchmen and police officers at the several equipped institution of its class in Japan. Aided by these legations, a mounted escort to accompany the members whenever facilities and by the researches of Mr Satow (afterwards Sir they moved about. Ernest Satow) Parkes arrived at the conclusions that the Just at this time (1861) the Yedo statesmen, in order to Yedo government was tottering to its fall; that the resumption reconcile the divergent views of the two courts, negotiated a of administrative authority by the Kioto court would make for marriage between the emperor's sister and the shögun. the interests not only of the West but also of Japan; and that Attacks But in order to bring the union about, they had to the ratification of the treaties by the mikado would elucidate Foreigners placate the Kioto Conservatives by a promise to expel the situation for foreigners while being, at the same time, and their foreigners from the country within ten years. When essential to the validity of the documents. Two other objects this became known, it strengthened the hands of the also presented themselves, namely, that the import duties que ces. reactionaries, and furnished a new weapon to Yedo's fixed by the conventions should be reduced from 15. to 5% enemies, who interpreted the marriage as the beginning of a plot ad valorem, and that the ports of Hiõgõ and Osaka should be to dethrone the mikado. Murderous attacks upon foreigners opened at once, instead of at the expiration of two years as became more frequent. Two of these assaults had momentous originally fixed. It was not proposed that these concessions consequences. Three British subjects attempted to force their should be entirely gratuitous. When the four-power flotilla way through the cortège of the Satsuma feudal chief on the destroyed the Shimonoseki batteries and sank the vessels highway between Yokohama and Yedo. One of them was lying there, a fine of .three million dollars (some £750,000) had killed and the other two wounded. This outrage was not in- been imposed upon the daimyo of Choshū by way of ransom for spired by the“ barbarian-expelling" sentiment: to any Japanese his capital, which lay at the mercy of the invaders. The daimyo subject violating the rules of etiquette as these Englishmen of Choshū, however, was in open rebellion against the shogun, had violated them, the same fate would have been meted and as the latter could not collect the debt from the recalcitrant oạt. Nevertheless, as the Satsuma daimyo refused to surrender clansmen, while the four powers insisted on being paid by his implicated vassals, and as the shogun's arm was not long some one, the Yedo treasury was finally compelled to shoulder enough to reach the most powerful feudatory in Japan, the the obligation. Two out of the three millions were still due, British government sent a squadron to bombard his capital, and Parkes conceived the idea of remitting this debt in exchange Kagoshima. It was not a brilliant exploit in any sense, but its for the ratification of the treaties, the reduction of the customs results were invaluable; for the operations of the British ships tariff from 15 to 5% ad valorem and the immediate opening of finally convinced the Satsuma men of their impotence in the Hiogo and Osaka. He took with him to the place of negotia- face of Western armaments, and converted them into advocates tion (Hiögo) a fleet of British, French and Dutch war-ships, of liberal progress. Three months previously to this bombard-for, while announcing peaceful intentions, he had accustomed ment of Kagoshima another puissant feudatory had thrown himself to think that a display of force should occupy the fore- down the gauntlet. The Choshũ chief, whose batteries com- ground in all negotiations with. Oriental states. This coup manded the entrance to the inland sea at Shimonoseki, opened may be said to have sealed the fate of the shogunate. For fire upon ships flying the flags of the United States, of France here again was produced in a highly aggravated form the drama and of Holland. In thus acting he obeyed an edict obtained by which had so greatly startled the nation eight years previously. the extremists from the mikado without the knowledge of the Perry had come with his war-ships to the portals of Yedo, and shögun, which edict fixed the 11th of May 1863 as the date now a foreign fleet, twice as strong as Perry's, had anchored for practically inaugurating the foreigners-expulsion policy. I at the vestibule of the Imperial city itself. No rational Japanese ороо Conse: 240 JAPAN [FOREIGN INTERCOURSE tion of could suppose that this parade of force was for purely peaceful to allow foreigners to have free access to districts remote from purposes, or that rejection of the amicable bargain proposed by the only tribunals competent to control them. The Japanese Great Britain's representative would be followed by the quiet raised no objection to the embodiment of this system in the withdrawal of the menacing fileet, whose terrible potentialities treaties. They recognized its necessity and even its expediency, had been demonstrated at Kagoshima' and Shimonoseki. The for if, on the one hand, it infringed their country's sovereign seclusionists, whose voices had been nearly silenced, raised them rights, on the other, it prevented complications which must in renewed denunciation of the shogun's incompetence to have ensued had they been entrusted with jurisdiction which guarantee the sacred city of Kioto against such trespasses, they were not prepared to discharge satisfactorily. But the and the emperor, brought once more under the influence of the consular courts were not free from defects. A few of the anti-foreign party, inflicted a heavy disgrace on the shögun powers organized competent tribunals presided over by judicial by dismissing and punishing the officials to whom the latter experts, but a majority of the treaty states, not having suffi- bad entrusted the conduct of negotiations at Hiūgo. Such ciently large interests at stake, were content to delegate consular procedure on the part of the throne amounted to withdrawing duties to merchants, not only deficient in legal training, but also the administrative commission held by the Tokugawa family themselves engaged in the very commercial transactions upon since the days of Iyeyasu. The shögun resigned. But his which they might at any moment be required to adjudicate in adversaries not being yet ready to replace him, he was induced a magisterial capacity. In any circumstances the dual functions to resume office, with, however, fatally damaged prestige. As of consul and judge could not be discharged without anomaly by for the three-power squadron, it steamed away successful. the same official, for he was obliged to act as advocate in the Parkes had come prepared to write off the indemnity in exchange preliminary stages of complications about which, in his position for three concessions. He obtained two of the concessions as judge, he might ultimately have to deliver an impartial without remitting a dollar of the debt. verdict. In practice, however, the system worked with tolerable The shögun did not long survive the humiliation thus smoothness, and might have remained long in force had not the inflicted on him. He died in the following year (1866), and patriotism of the Japanese rebelled bitterly against the implica- Final Adopo was succeeded by Keiki, destined to be the last of|tion that their country was unfit to exercise one of the funda- the Tokugawa: rulers. Nine years previously this mental attributes of every sovereign state, judicial autonomy, Western same Keiki had been put forward by the seclusionists From the very outset they spared no effort to qualify for the Civilization, as candidate for the shogunate. Yet no sooner did recovery of this attribute. Revision of the country's laws and he attain that distinction in 1866 than he remodelled the army re-organization of its law courts would nécessarily have been on French lines, engaged English officers to organize a navy, an essential feature of the general reforms suggested by contact sent his brother to the Paris Exhibition, and altered many of with the Occident, but the question of consular jurisdiction the forms and ceremonies of his court so as to bring them into certainly constituted a special incentive. Expert assistance accord with Occidental fashions. The contrast between the was obtained from France and Germany; the best features of politics he represented when a candidate for office in 1857 and European jurisprudence were adapted to the conditions and the practice he adopted on succeeding to power in 1866 furnished usages of Japan; the law.courts were remodelled, and steps an apt illustration of the change that had come over the spirit were taken to educate a competent judiciary. In criminal law of the time. The most bigoted of the exclusionists were now the example of France was chiefly followed; in commercial law beginning to abandon all idea of expelling foreigners and to that of Germany; and in civil law that of the Occident generally, think mainly of acquiring the best elements of their civilization. with due regard to the customs of the country. The jury The Japanese are slow to reach a decision but very quick to act system was not adopted, collegiate courts being regarded as upon it when reached. From 1866 onwards the new spirit more conducive to justice, and the order of procedure went rapidly permeated the whole nation; progress became the aim from tribunals of first instance to appeal courts and finally to of all classes, and the country entered upon a career of intelli- the court of cassation. Schools of law were quickly opened, and gent assimilation which, in forty years, won for Japan a uni- a well-equipped bar soon came into existence. Twelve years versally accorded place in the ranks of the great Occidental after the inception of these great works, Japan made formal powers. application for revision of the treaties on the basis of abolishing After the abolition of the shogunate and the resumption of consular jurisdiction. She had asked for revision in 1871, administrative functions by the Throne, one of the first acts sending to Europe and America an important embassy to raise Japan's of the newly organized government was to invite the question. But at that time the conditions originally calling Claim for the foreign representatives to Kioto, where they for consular jurisdiction had not undergone any change such had audience of the mikado,' Subsequently a as would have justified its abolition, and the Japanese govern. was issued, announcing the emperor's ment, though very anxious to recover tariff autonomy as well resolve to establish amicable relations with foreign countries, as judicial, shrank from separating the two questions, lest by and “declaring that any Japanese subject thereafter guilty of prematurely solving one the solution of the other might be violent behaviour towards a foreigner would not only act in unduly déferred. Thus the embassy failed, and though the opposition to the Imperial command, but would also be guilty problem attracted great academical interest from the first, it of impairing the dignity and good faith of the nation in the eyes did not re-enter the field of practical politics until 1883. The of the powers with which his majesty had pledged himself to negotiations were long protracted. Never previously had an maintain friendship.” From that time the relations between Oriental state received at the hands of the Occident recognition Japan and foreign states grew yearly more amicable; the nation such as that now demanded by Japan, and the West naturally adopted the products of Western civilization with notable felt .deep reluctance to try a wholly novel experiment. The thoroughness, and the provisions of the treaties were carefully United States had set a generous example by concluding a new observed. Those treaties, however, presented one feature treaty (1878) on the lines desired by Japan. But its operation which very soon became exceedingly irksome to Japan. They was conditional on a similar act of compliance by the other exempted foreigners residing within her borders from the treaty powers. Ill-informed European, publicists ridiculed the operation of her criminal laws, and secured to them the privilege Washington statesmen's attitude on this occasion, claiming that of being arraigned solely before tribunals of their own nation-what had been given with one hand was taken back with the ality. That system had always been considered necessary other. The truth is that the conditional provision was inserted where the subjects of Christian states visited or sojourned in at the request of Japan herself, who appreciated her own unpre- non-Christian countries, and, for the purpose of giving effect to paredness for the concession. From 1883, however, she was it, consular courts were established. This necessitated the ready to accept full responsibility, and she therefore asked that confinement of foreign residents to settlements in the neighbour-all foreigners within her borders should thenceforth be subject to hood of the consular courts, since it would have been imprudent l her laws and judiciable by her law-courts, supplementing her Judicial Autonomy. decree ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE) JAPAN 241 errors. application by promising that its favourable reception should exists, opportunities to discover causes of complaint cannot be followed by the complete opening of the country and the be wanting. But at the eleventh hour this unfavourable removal of all restrictions hitherto imposed on foreign trade, demeanour underwent a marked change. So soon as it became travel and residence in her realm. “From the first it had been evident that the old system was hopelessly doomed, the sound the habit of Occidental peoples to upbraid Japan on account of common sense of the European and American business man the barriers opposed by her to full and free foreign intercourse, asserted itself. The foreign residents let it be seen that they and she was now able to claim that these barriers were no longer intended to bow cheerfully to the inevitable, and that no obstacles maintained by her desire, but that they existed because of a would be willingly placed by them in the path of Japanese juris- system which theoretically proclaimed her unfitness for free diction. The Japanese, on their side, took some promising steps. association with Western nations, and practically made it An Imperial rescript declared in unequivocal terms that it was impossible for her throw open her territories completely the sovereign's policy and desire abolish all distinctions for the ingress of foreigners." She had a strong case, but on between natives and foreigners, and that by fully carrying out the side of the European powers extreme reluctance was mani- the friendly purpose of the treaties his people would best consult fested to try the unprecedented experiment of placing their his wishes, maintain the character of the nation, and promote people under the jurisdiction of an Oriental country. Still its prestige. The premier and other ministers of state issued greater was the reluctance of those upon whom the experiment instructions to the effect that the responsibility now devolved would be tried. Foreigners residing in Japan naturally clung on the government, and the duty on the people, of enabling to consular jurisdiction as a privilege of inestimable value. foreigners to reside confidently and contentedly in every part of They saw, indeed, that such a system could not be permanently the country. Even the chief Buddhist prelates addressed to the imposed on a country where the conditions justifying it had priests and parishioners in their dioceses injunctions pointing nominally disappeared. But they saw, also, that the legal and out that, freedom of conscience being now guaranteed by the judicial reforms effected by Japan had been crowded into an constitution, men professing alien creeds must be treated as extraordinarily brief period, and that, as tyros experimenting courteously as the followers of Buddhism, and must enjoy the with alien systems, the Japanese might be betrayed into many same rights and privileges. Thus the great change was effected in circumstances of happy The negotiations lasted for eleven years. They were begun inaugury. Its results were successful on the whole. Foreigners 1883 and a solution was not reached until 1894. Finally European residing in Japan now enjoy immunity of domicile, personal Recognition governments conceded the justice of Japan's case, and religious liberty, freedom from official interference, and by the and it was agreed that from July 1899 Japanese security of life and property as fully as though they were living Powers. tribunals should assume jurisdiction over every in their own countries, and they have gradually learned to look person, of whatever nationality, within the confines of Japan, with greatly increased respect upon Japanese law and 'its and the whole country should be thrown open to foreigners, all administrators. limitations upon trade, travel and residence being removed. Next to the revision of the treaties and to the result of the Great Britain took the lead in thus releasing Japan from great wars waged by Japan since the resumption of foreign inter- the fetters of the old system. The initiative came from course, the most memorable incident in her modern Anglo- her with special grace, for the system and all its irksome career was the conclusion, first, of an entente, and, Japanese consequences had been originally imposed on Japan by a secondly, of an offensive and defensive alliance Alliance., combination of powers with Great Britain in the van. with Great Britain in January 1902 and September 1905, matter of historical sequence the United States dictated the respectively. The entente set out by disavowing on the part of terms of the first treaty providing for consular jurisdiction. But each of the contracting parties any aggressive tendency in either from a very early period the Washington government showed China or Korea, the independence of which two countries was its willingness to remove all limitations of Japan's sovereignty, explicitly recognized; and went on to declare that Great Britain whereas Europe, headed by Great Britain, whose preponderating in China and Japan in China and Korea might take indispensable interests entitled her to lead, resolutely refused to make any means to safeguard their interests; while, if such measures substantial concession. In Japanese eyes, therefore, British involved one of the signatories in war with a third power, the conservatism seemed to be the one serious obstacle, and since other signatory would not only remain neutral but would also the British residents in the settlements far outnumbered all other endeavour to prevent other powers from joining in hostilities nationalities, and since they alone had newspaper organs to against its ally, and would come to the assistance of the latter in ventilate their grievances-it was certainly fortunate for the the event of its being faced by two or more powers. The entenle popularity of her people in the Far East that Great Britain saw further recognized that Japan possessed, in a peculiar degree, her way finally to set a liberal example. Nearly five years were political, commercial and industrial interests in Korea. This required to bring the other Occidental powers into line with Great agreement, equally novel for each of the contracting parties, Britain and America. It should be stated, however, that neither evidently tended to the benefit of Japan more than to that of reluctance to make the necessary concessions nor want of sym- Great Britain, inasmuch as the interests in question were vital pathy with Japan caused the delay. The explanation is, first, from the former power's point of view but merely local from the that each set of negotiators sought to improve either the terms latter's. The inequality was corrected by an offensive and or the terminology of the treaties already concluded, and, defensive alliance in 1905. For the scope of the agreement was secondly, that the tariff arrangements for the different countries then extended to India and eastern Asia generally, and while the required elaborate discussion. signatories pledged themselves, on the one hand, to preserve the Until the last of the revised treaties was ratified, voices of common interests of all powers in China by insuring her integrity protest against revision continued to be vehemently raised by a and independence as well as the principle of equal opportunities Reception large section of the foreign community in the settle for the commerce and industry of all nations within her borders, given to the ments. Some were honestly apprehensive as to the they agreed, on the other, to maintain their own territorial rights issue of the experiment. Others were swayed by in eastern Asia and India, and to come to each other's armed racial prejudice. A few had fallen into an insuper- assistance in the event of those rights being assailed by any other able habit of grumbling, or found their account in advocating power or powers. These agreements have, of course, a close conservatism under pretence of championing foreign interests; relation to the events which accompanied or immediately and all were naturally reluctant to forfeit the immunity from preceded them, but they also present a vivid and radical con- taxation hitherto enjoyed. It seemed as though the inaugura- trast between a country which, less than half a century previ- tion of the new system would find the foreign community ously, had struggled vehemently to remain secluded from the in a mood which must greatly diminish the chances of a world, and a country which now allied itself with one of the happy result, for where a captious and aggrieved disposition / most liberal and progressive nations for the purposes of a policy XV 5 2a As a Revised Treaties. 242 JAPAN [FOREIGN WARS War with 1 The of the extending over the whole of eastern Asia and India. This coast. - In later ages Japanese armies' were destined to move contrast was accentuated two years later (1907) when France twice over these same regions, once to the invasion of China; once and Russia concluded ententes with Japan, recognizing the in- to the attack of Russia, and they adopted almost the same dependence and integrity of the Chinese Empire, as well as the strategical plan as that mapped out by Hideyoshi in the year principle of equal opportunity for all nations in that country, 1592. The forecast was that the Koreans would offer their chief and engaging to support each other for assuring peace and resistance, first, at the capital, Seoul; next at Phyong-yang, security there. Japan thus became a world power in the most and finally at the Yalu, as the approaches to all these places unequivocal sense. offered positions capable of being utilized to great advantage for Japan's Foreign Wars and Complications.-The earliest foreign defensive purposes. war conducted by Japan is said to have taken place at the On the 24th of May 1592 the first army corps, under the beginning of the 3rd century, when the empress Jingo command of Konishi Yukinaga, crossed unmolested the Korea, led an army to the conquest of Korea. But as the peninsula; next day the castle of Fusan was carried Landing la event is supposed to have happened more than 500 by storm, which same fate befell, on the 27th, Korea and years before the first Japanese record was written, its traditional another and stronger fortress lying 3 miles inland Advance details cannot be seriously discussed. There is, however, no and garrisoned by 20,000 picked soldiers. lavaders. room to doubt that from time to time in early ages Japanese invaders were irresistible. From the landing-place troops were seen in Korea, though they made no permanent at Fusan to the gates of Seoul the distance is 267 miles. impression on the country. It was reserved for Hideyoshi, the Konishi’s corps covered that interval in 19 days, storming two taiko, to make the Korean peninsula the scene of a great forts, carrying two positions and fighting one pitched battle en over-sea campaign. Hideyoshi, the Napoleon of Japan; having route. On the 12th of June the Korean capital was in Japanese brought the whole empire under his sway as the sequel of many hands, and by the 16th four army corps had assembled there, years of incomparable generalship and statecraft, conceived the while four others had effected a landing at Fusan. After a rest project of subjugating China. By some historians his motive has of 15 days the northward advance was resumed, and July 15th been described as a desire to find employment for the immense saw Phyong-yang in Japanese possession. The distance of 130 mob of armed men whom four centuries of almost continuous miles from Seoul to the Taidong had been traversed in 18 days, fighting had called into existence in Japan: he felt that domestic 10 having been occupied in forcing the passage of a river which, peace could not be permanently restored unless these restless if held with moderate resolution and skill, should have stopped spirits were occupied abroad. But although that object may the Japanese altogether. At this point, however, the invasion have reinforced his purpose, his ambition aimed at nothing less suffered a check owing to a cause which in modern times has than the conquest of China, and he regarded Korea merely as a received much attention, though in Hideyoshi's days it had been stepping-stone to that aim. Had Korea consented to be put to little considered; the Japanese lost the command of the sea. such a use, she need not have fought or suffered. The Koreans, The Japanese idea of sea-fighting in those times was to use however, counted China invincible. They considered that Japan open boats propelled chiefly by oars. They closed as quickly as would be shattered by the first contact with the great empire, possible with the enemy, and then fell on with the Fighting and therefore although, in the 13th century, they had given the trenchant swords which they used so skilfully. use of their harbours to the Mongol invaders of Japan, they flatly Now during the 15th century and part of the 16th refused in the 16th to allow their territory to be used for a the Chinese had been so harassed by Japanese piratical raids that Japanese invasion of China. On the 24th of May 1592 the wave their inventive genius, quickened by suffering, suggested a of invasion rolled against Korea's southern coast. Hideyoshi device for coping with these formidable adversaries. Once had chosen Nagoya in the province of Hizen as the home-base allow the Japanese swordsman to come to close quarters and he of his operations. There the sea separating Japan from the carried all before him. To keep him at a distance, then, was the Korean peninsula narrows to a strait divided into two channels great desideratum, and the Chinese compassed this in maritime of almost equal width by the island of Tsushima. To reach this warfare by completely covering their boats with roofs of solid island from the Japanese side was an easy and safe task, but in timber, so that those within were protected against missiles, the 56-mile channel that separated Tsushima from the peninsula while loop-holes and ports enabled them to pour bullets and an invading flotilla had to run the risk of attack by Korean war- arrows on a foe. The Koreans learned this device from the ships. At Nagoya Hideyoshi assembled an army of over 300,000 Chinese and were the first to employ it in actual warfare. Their men, of whom some 70,000 constituted the first fighting line, own history alleges that they improved upon the Chinese model 87,000 the second, and the remainder formed a reserve to be by nailing sheet iron over the roofs and sides of the “ turtle-shell” subsequently drawn on as occasion demanded. The question craft and studding the whole surface with chevaux de frise, but of transport presented some difficulty, but it was solved by the Japanese annals indicate that in the great majority of cases solid simple expedient of ordering every feudatory to furnish two ships timber alone was used. It seems strange that the Japanese for each 100,000 koku of his fief's revenue. These were not should have been without any clear perception of the immense fighting vessels but mere transports. As for the plan of cam fighting superiority possessed by such protected war-vessels over paign, it was precisely in accord with modern principles of small open boats. But certainly they were either ignorant or strategy, and bore witness to the daring genius of Hideyoshi. The indifferent. The fleet which they provided to hold the command van, consisting of three army corps and mustering in all 51,000 of Korean waters did not include one vessel of any magnitude: men, was to cross rapidly to Fusan, on the south coast of the it consisted simply of some hundreds of row-boats manned by? peninsula, and immediately commence a movement northward 7000 men, Hideyoshi himself was perhaps not without mis- towards the capital, Seoul, one corps moving by the eastern givings. Six years previously he had endeavoured to obtain two coast-road, one by the central route, and one by the western coast-war-galleons from the Portuguese, and had he succeeded, the line. Thereafter the other four corps, which formed the first history of the Far East might have been radically different. fighting line, together with the corps under the direct orders of Evidently, however, he committed a blunder which his country. the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, were to cross, for the men in modern times have conspicuously avoided; he drew the purpose of effectually subduing the regions through which the sword without having fully investigated his adversary's resources. van had passed; and, finally, the two remaining corps of the Just about the time when the van of the Japanese army was second line were to be transported by sea up the west coast of entering Seoul, the Korean admiral, Yi Sun-sin, at the head of a the peninsula, to form a junction with the van which, by that fleet of 80 vessels, attacked the Japanese squadron which lay at time, should be preparing to pass into China over the northern anchor near the entrance to Fusan harbour, set 26 of the vessels boundary of Korea, namely, the Yalu River. For the landing on fire and dispersed the rest. Four other engagements ensued place of these reinforcements the town of Phyong-yang was in rapid succession. The last and most important took place adopted, being easily accessible by the Taidong River from the shortly after the Japanese troops had seized Phyong-yang. It at Sea. " FOREIGN WARS) JAPAN 243 between and Modern tioa. resulted in the sinking of over 70 Japanese vessels, transports | ear-mound) near the temple of Daibutsu in Kidto. Thereafter and fighting ships combined, which formed the main part of a the statesmen to whom the regent on his death-bed had entrusted flotilla carrying reinforcements by sea to the van of the invading the duty of terminating the struggle and recalling the troops, army. This despatch of troops and supplies by water had been intimated to the enemy that the evacuation of the peninsula a leading feature of Hideyoshi's plan of campaign, and the might be obtained if a Korean prince repaired to Japan as envoy, destruction of the flotilla to which the duty was entrusted may and if some tiger-skins and ginseng were sent to Kioto in token be said to have sealed the fate of the war by isolating the army of amity. So ended one of the greatest over-sea campaigns in Korea from its home base. It is true that Konishi Yukinaga, recorded in history. It had lasted 67 years, had seen 200,000 who commanded the first division, would have continued his Japanese troops at one time on Korean soil, and had cost some- northward march from Phyong-yang without delay. He argued thing like a quarter of a million lives. that China was wholly unprepared, and that the best hope of From the recall of the Korea expedition in 1598 to the resump- ultimate victory lay in not giving her time to collect her forces. tion of intercourse with the Occident in modern times, Japan But the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, refused to endorse enjoyed uninterrupted peace with foreign nations. Contrast this plan. He took the view that since the Korean provinces Thereafter she had to engage in four wars. It is a were still offering desperate resistance, supplies could not be striking, contrast. During the first eleven centuries Foreiga drawn from them, neither could the troops engaged in subju- of her historical existence she was involved in only Relations in gating them be freed for service at the front. Therefore it was one contest abroad; during the next half century she Medieval. essential to await the consummation of the second phase of fought four times beyond the sea and was confronted Times. Hideyoshi's plan, namely, the despatch of reinforcements and by many complications. Whatever material or moral munitions by water to Phyong-yang. The reader has seen how advantages her association with the West conferred on her, it that second phase fared. The Japanese commander at Phyong- did not bring peace. yang never received any accession of strength. His force The first menacing foreign complication with which the suffered constant diminution from casualties, and the question Japanese government of the Meiji era had to deal was connected of commissariat became daily more difficult. It is further plain with the traffic in Chinese labour, an abuse not yet The Maria to any reader of history-and Japanese historians themselves wholly eradicated. In 1872, a Peruvian ship, the Luz" Com. admit the fact--that no wise effort was made to conciliate the "Maria Luz," put into port at Yokohama, carrying plication. Korean people. They were treated so harshly that even the 200 contract labourers. One of the unfortunate men succeeded humble peasant took up arms, and thus the peninsula, instead in reaching the shore and made a piteous appeal to the Japanese of serving as a basis of supplies, had to be garrisoned perpetually authorities, who at once seized the vessel and released her freight by a strong army. of slaves, for they were little better. The Japanese had not The Koreans, having suffered for their loyalty to China, always been so particular. In the days of early foreign inter- naturally looked to her for succour. Again and again appeals course, before England's attitude towards slavery had established Chlaese were made to Peking, and at length a force of 5000 a new code of ethics, Portuguese ships had been permitted to Interveg- men, which had been mobilized in the Liaotung carry away from Hirado, as they did from Macao, cargoes of men peninsula, crossed the Valu and moved south to and women, doomed to a life of enforced toil if they survived the Phyong-yang, where the Japanese van had been lying idle for horrors of the voyage. But modern Japan followed the tenets over two months. This was early in October 1592. Memorable of modern morality in such matters. Of course the Peruvian as the first encounter between Japanese and Chinese, the incident government protested, and for a time relations were strained also illustrated China's supreme confidence in her own ineffable almost to the point of rupture; but it was finally agreed that the superiority. The whole of the Korean forces had been driven question should be submitted to the arbitration of the tsar, who northward throughout the entire length of the peninsula. by the decided in Japan's favour. Japan's attitude in this affair Japanese armies, yet Peking considered that 5000 Chinese elicited applause, not merely from the point of view of humanity, braves ” would suffice to roll back this tide of invasion. Three but also because of the confidence she showed in Occidental thousand of the Chinese were killed and the remainder fled justice. pell-mell across the Valu. China now began to be seriously Another complication which occupied the attention of the alarmed. She collected an army variously estimated-at from Tōkyō government from the beginning of the Meiji era was in 51,000 to 200,000 men, and marching it across Manchuria in the truth a legacy from the days of feudalism. In dead of winter, hurled it against Phyong-yang during the first those days the island of Yezo, as well as Sakhalin Sakhalin week of February 1593. The Japanese garrison did not exceed on its north-west and the Kurile group on its north, Complica- 20,000, nearly one-half of its original number having been de- could scarcely be said to be in effective Japanese tached to hold a line of forts which guarded the communications occupation. It is true that the feudal chief of Matsumae (now with Seoul. Moreover, the Chinese, though their swords were Fuku-yama), the remains of whose castle may still be seen on the much inferior to the Japanese weapon, possessed great superiority coast at the southern extremity of the island of Yezo, exercised in artillery and cavalry, as well as in the fact that their troopers nominal jurisdiction; but his functions did not greatly exceed wore iron mail which defied the keenest blade. Thus, after a the levying of taxes on the aboriginal inhabitants of Yezo, the severe fight, the Japanese had to evacuate Phyong-yang and fall Kuriles and southern Sakhalin. Thus from the beginning of the back upon Seoul. But this one victory alone stands to China's 18th century Russian fishermen began to settle in the Kuriles credit. In all subsequent encounters of any magnitude her army and Russian ships menaced Sakhalin. There can be no doubt suffered heavy defeats, losing on one occasion some 10,000 men, that the first explorers of Sakhalin were Japanese, As early as on another 4000, and on a third 39,000. But the presence of her 1620, some vassals of the feudal chief of Matsumae visited the forces and the determined resistance offered by the Koreans effec- place and passed a winter there. It was then supposed to be a tually saved China from invasion. Indeed, after the evacuation peninsula forming part of the Asiatic mainland, but in 1806 a of Seoul, on the 9th of May 1593, Hideyoshi abandoned all idea of daring Japanese traveller, by name Mamiya Rinzo, made his way carrying the war into Chinese territory, and devoted his attention to Manchuria, voyaged up and down the Amur, and, crossing to to obtaining honourable terms of peace, the Japanese troops Sakhalin, discovered that a narrow strait separated it from the meanwhile holding a line of forts along the southern coast of mainland. There still prevails in the minds of many Occidentals Korea. He died before that end had been accomplished. a belief that the discovery of Sakhalin's insular character was Had he lived a few days longer, he would have learned reserved for Captain Nevelskoy, a Russian, who visited the place of a crushing defeat inflicted on the Chinese forces (at Sö-chhön, in 1849, but in Japan the fact had then been known for 43 years. October 30, 1598), when the Satsuma men under Shimazu Muravief, the great Russian empire-builder in East Asia, under Yoshihiro took 38,700 Chinese heads and sent the noses and ears whose orders Nevelskoy acted, quickly appreciated the necessity to Japan, where they now lie buried under a tumulus (mimizuka, 1 of acquiring Sakhalin, which commands the estuary of the Amur. CC The tion. 244 JAPAN (FOREIGN WARS a 1 tion. an After the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun (1857) he visited seem reducible to a working theory. So long as her own advan- Japan with a squadron, and required that the strait of La tage could be promoted, she regarded as a token of vassalage the Pérouse, which separates Sakhalin from Yezo, should be regarded presents periodically carried to her court from neighbouring as the frontier between Russia and Japan. This would have states. So soon, however, as there arose any question of dis- given the whole of Sakhalin to Russia. Japan refused, and charging a suzerain's duties, she classed these offerings as insigni- Nuravief immediately resorted to the policy he had already ficant interchanges of neighbourly courtesy. It was true that pursued with signal success in the Usuri region: he sent emigrants Riūkiū had, followed the custom of despatching gift-bearing to settle in Sakhalin. Twice the shogunate attempted to envoys to China from time to time, just as Japan herself had írustrate this process of gradual absorption by proposing a done, though with less regularity. But it was also true that division of the island along the soth parallel of north latitude, Riūkiū had been subdued by Satsuma without China stretching and finally, in 1872, the Meiji government offered to purchase the out a hand to help her; that for two centuries the islands had Russian portion for 2,000,000 dollars (then equivalent to about been included in the Satsuma fief, and that China, in the sequel £400,000). St Petersburg, having by that time discovered the to the Formosan affair, had made a practical acknowledgment comparative worthlessness of the island as a wealth-earning of Japan's superior title to protect the islanders. Each empire possession, showed some signs of acquiescence, and possibly an positively asserted its claims; but whereas Japan put hers into agreement might have been reached had not a leading Japanese practice, China confined herself to remonstrances. Things statesman--afterwards Count Kuroda-opposed the bargain as remained in that state until 1880, when General Grant, visiting disadvantageous to Japan. Finally St Petersburg's perseve- the East, suggested the advisability of a compromise. A con- rance won the day. In 1875 Japan agreed to recognize Russia's ference met in Peking, and the plenipotentiaries agreed that the title to the whole island on condition that Russia similarly islands should be divided, Japan taking the northern group, recognized Japan's title to the Kuriles. It was a singular com- China the southern. But on the eve of signature the Chinese pact. Russia purchased a Japanese property and paid for it plenipotentiary drew back, pleading that he had no authority with a part of Japan's belongings. These details form a curious to conclude an agreement without previously referring it to preface to the fact that Sakhalin was destined, 30 years later, to certain other dignitaries. Japan, sensible that she had been be the scene of a Japanese invasion, in the sequel of which it was flouted, retired from the discussion and retained the islands, divided along the soth parallel as the shögun's administration China's share in them being reduced to a grievance. had originally proposed. From the 16th century, when the Korean peninsula was over. The first of Japan's four conflicts was an expedition to run by Japanese troops, its rulers made a habit of sending a Formosa in 1874. Insignificant from a military point of present-bearing embassy to Japan to felicitate the The Korean Military view, this affair derives vicarious interest from its accession of each shogun. But after the fall of Complica- Expedition effect upon the relations between China and Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate, the Korean court de- to Formosa and upon the question of the ownership of the sisted from this custom, declared a determination to have no Riūkiū islands. These islands, which lie at a little distance further relations with a country embracing Western civilization, south of Japan, had for centuries been regarded as and refused even to receive a Japanese embassy. This conduct apanage of the Satsuma fief. The language and customs of caused deep umbrage in Japan. Several prominent politicians their inhabitants showed unmistakable traces of relationship cast their votes for war, and undoubtedly the sword would have to the Japanese, and the possibility of the islands being included been drawn had not the leading statesmen felt that a struggle among the dominions of China had probably never occurred to with Korea, involving probably a rupture with China, must any Japanese statesman. When therefore, in 1873, the crew fatally check the progress of the administrative reforms then of a wrecked Riūkiūan junk were barbarously treated by the (1873) in their infancy. Two years later, however, the Koreans inhabitants of northern Formosa, the Japanese government crowned their defiance by firing on the boats of a Japanese war- unhesitatingly assumed the responsibility of seeking redress for vessel engaged in the operation of coast-surveying. No choice their outrage. Formosa being a part of the Chinese Empire, now remained except to despatch an armed expedition against complaint was duly preferred in Peking. But the Chinese the truculent kingdom. But Japan did not want to fight. . In authorities showed such resolute indifference to Japan's repre- this matter she showed herself an apt pupil of Occidental methods sentations that the latter finally took the law into her own such as had been practised against herself in former years. She hands, and sent a small force to punish the Formosan murderers, assembled an imposing force of war-ships and transports, but who, of course, were found quite unable to offer any serious instead of proceeding to extremities, she employed the squadron resistance. The Chinese government, now recognizing the fact -which was by no means so strong as it seemed to intimidate that its territories had been invaded, lodged a protest which, Korea into signing a treaty of amity and commerce, and opening but for the intervention of the British minister in Peking, three ports to foreign trade (1876). That was the beginning of might have involved the two empires in war. The final terms Korea's friendly relations with the outer world, and Japan of arrangement were that, in consideration of Japan withdraw- naturally took credit for the fact that, thus early in her new ing her troops from Formosa, China should indemnify her to the career, she had become an instrument for extending the principle extent of the expenses of the expedition. In sending this of universal intercourse opposed so strenuously by herself in the expedition to Formosa the government sought to placate the past. Satsuma samurai, who were beginning to show much opposition From time immemorial China's policy towards the petty states to certain features of the administrative reforms just inaugu- on her frontiers had been to utilize them as buffers for softening rated, and who claimed special interest in the affairs of the the shock of foreign contact, while contriving, at Warwith Riūkiū islands. the same time, that her relations with them should Chioa. Had Japan needed any confirmation of her belief that the involve no inconvenient responsibilities for herself. Riūkiū islands belonged to her, the incidents and settlement of The aggressive impulses of the outside world were to be checked The Rlüklü the Formosan complication would have constituted by an unproclaimed understanding that the territories of these Complica• conclusive evidence. Thus in 1876 she did not states partook of the inviolability of China, while the states, on tion. hesitate to extend her newly organized system of their side, must never expect their suzerain to bear the conse- prefectural government to Riūkiū, which thenceforth became quences of their acts. This arrangement, depending largely on the Okinawa prefecture, the former ruler of the islands being sentiment and prestige, retained its validity in the atmosphere pensioned, according to the system followed in the case of of Oriental seclusion, but quickly failed to endure the test of the feudal chiefs in Japan proper. China at once entered modern Occidental practicality. Tongking, Annam, Siam and an objection. She claimed that Riūkiū had always been a Burma were withdrawn, one by one, from the fiction of depen. tributary of her empire, and she was doubtless perfectly sincere dence on China and independence towards all other countries. in the contention. But China's interpretation of tribute did not | But with regard to Korea, China proved more tenacious. The FOREIGN WARS) JAPAN 245 ture with Chiaa. possession of the peninsula by a foreign power would have negotiations she acquired conventional titles that touched the threatened the maritime route to the Chinese capital and given core of China's alleged suzerainty. In 1882 her right to main- easy access to Manchuria, the cradle of the dynasty which ruled tain troops in Seoul for the protection of her legation was China. Therefore Peking statesmen endeavoured to preserve admitted; in 1885 she concluded with China a convention by the old-time relations with the little kingdom. But they could which each power pledged itself not to send troops to Korea never persuade themselves to modify the indirect methods without notifying the other. sanctioned by tradition. Instead of boldly declaring Korea a In the spring of 1894 a serious insurrection broke out in Korea, dependency of China, they sought to keep up the romance of and the Min family appealed for China's aid. On the 6th of ultimate dependency and intermediate sovereignty. Thus in July 2500 Chinese troops embarked at Tientsin and The Rup- 1876 Korea was suffered to conclude with Japan a treaty of were transported to the peninsula, where they went which the first article declared her“ an independent state into camp at Ya-shan (Asan), on the south-west enjoying the same rights as Japan," and subsequently to make coast, notice of the measure being given by the Chinese govern- with the United States (1882), Great Britain (1883) and other ment to the Japanese representative at Peking, according to powers, treaties in which her independence was constructively treaty. During the interval immediately preceding these events, admitted. China, however, did not intend that Korea should Japan had been rendered acutely sensible of China's arbitrary exercise the independence thus conventionally recognized. A and unfriendly interference in Korea. Twice the efforts of the Chinese resident was placed in Seoul, and a system of steady Japanese government to obtain redress for unlawful and ruinous though covert interference in Korea's affairs was inaugurated. commercial prohibitions had been thwarted by the Chinese The chief sufferer from these anomalous conditions was Japan. representative in Seoul; and an ultimatum addressed from Tokyo In all her dealings with Korea, in all complications that arose to the Korean government had elicited from the viceroy Li out of her comparatively large trade with the peninsula, in all in Tientsin a thinly veiled threat of Chinese armed opposition. questions connected with her numerous settlers there she found Still more provocative of national indignation was China's herself negotiating with a dependency of China, and with procedure with regard to the murder of Kim Ok-kyun, the leader officials who took their orders from the Chinese representative. of progress in Korea, who had been for some years a refugee in China had long entertained a rooted apprehension of Japanese Japan. Inveigled from Japan to China by a fellow-countryman aggression in Korea—an apprehension not unwarranted by sent from Seoul to assassinate him, Kim was shot in a Japanese history-and that distrust tinged all the influence exerted by her hotel in Shanghai; and China, instead of punishing the murderer, agents there. On many occasions Japan was made sensible of conveyed him in a war-ship of her own to Korea to be publicly the discrimination thus exercised against her. Little by little honoured. When, therefore, the Korean insurrection of 1894 the consciousness roused her indignation, and although no induced the Min family again to solicit China's armed interven- single instance constituted a ground for strong international tion, the Tokyo government concluded that, in the interests of protest, the Japanese people gradually acquired a sense of being Japan's security and of civilization in the Orient, steps must be perpetually baffled, thwarted and humiliated by China's inter- taken to put an end to the misrule which offered incessant invi- ference in Korean affairs. For thirty years China had treated tations to foreign aggression, and checked Korea's capacity to Japan as a contemptible deserter from the Oriental standard, maintain its own independence. Japan did not claim for herself and had regarded her progressive efforts with openly disdainful any rights or interests in the peninsula superior to those possessed aversion; while Japan, on her side, had chafed more and more there by China. But there was not the remotest probability to furnish some striking evidence of the wisdom of her preference that China, whose face had been contemptuously set against all for Western civilization. Even more serious were the conse- the progressive measures adopted by Japan during the preced- quences of Chinese interference from the point of view of Korean ing twenty-five years, would join in forcing upon a neighbouring administration. The rulers of the country lost all sense of kingdom the very reforms she herself despised, were her co- national responsibility, and gave unrestrained sway to selfish operation invited through ordinary diplomatic channels only. ambition. The functions of the judiciary and of the executive It was necessary to contrive a situation which would not only alike came to be discharged by bribery only. Family interests furnish clear proof of Japan's resolution, but also enable her to predominated over those of the state. Taxes were imposed in pursue her programme independently of Chinese endorsement, proportion to the greed of local officials. No thought whatever should the latter be finally unobtainable. She therefore met was taken for the welfare of the people or for the development China's notice of a despatch of troops with a corresponding of the country's resources. Personal responsibility was unknown notice of her own, and the month of July 1894 found a Chinese . among officials. To be a member of the Min family, to which force assembled at Asan and a Japanese force occupying positions the queen belonged, was to possess a passport to office and an in the neighbourhood of Seoul. China's motive for sending indemnity against the consequences of abuse of power. From troops was nominally to quell the Tonghak insurrection, but time to time the advocates of progress or the victims of oppres- really to re-affirm her own domination in the peninsula. Japan's sion rose in arms. They effected nothing except to recall to the motive was to secure such a position as would enable her to world's recollection the miserable condition into which Korea insist upon the radically curative treatment of Korea's malady. had fallen. Chinese military aid was always furnished readily Up to this point the two empires were strictly within their con- for the suppression of these risings, and thus the Min family ventional rights. Each was entitled by treaty to send troops learned to base its tenure of power on ability to conciliate China to Korea, provided that notice was given to the other. But and on readiness to obey Chinese dictation, while the people China, in giving notice, described Korea as her “tributary state,” at large fell into the apathetic condition of men who possess thus thrusting into the forefront of the discussion a contention neither security of property nor national ambition. which Japan, from conciliatory motives, would have kept out of As a matter of state policy the Korean problem caused much sight. Once formally advanced, however, the claim had to be anxiety to Japan. Her own security being deeply concerned challenged. In the treaty of amity and commerce concluded in in preserving Korea from the grasp of a Western power, she could 1876 between Japan and Korea, the two high contracting parties not suffer the little kingdom to drift into a condition of such were explicitly declared to possess the same national status. administrative incompetence and national debility that a strong Japan could not agree that a power which for nearly two decades aggressor might find at any moment a pretext for interference. she had acknowledged and treated as her equal should be openly On two occasions (1882 and 1884) when China's armed interven- classed as a tributary of China. She protested, but the Chinese tion was employed in the interests of the Min to suppress move- statesmen took no notice of her protest. They continued to ments of reform, the partisans of the victors, regarding Japan apply the disputed appellation to Korea, and they further as the fountain of progressive tendencies, destroyed her legation asserted their assumption of sovereignty in the peninsula by seek- in Seoul and compelled its inmates to fly from the city. Japan ing to set limits to the number of troops sent by Japan, as well as behaved with forbearance at these crises, but in the consequent I to the sphere of their employment. Japan then proposed that . 246 JAPAN [FOREIGN WARS ties. suc- the two empires should unite their efforts for the suppression of with Chinese troops in 1592. There the Chinese assembled a force disturbances in Korea, and for the subsequent improvement of of 17,000 men, and made leisurely preparations for a decisive that kingdom's administration, the latter purpose to be pursued contest. Forty days elapsed before the Japanese columns con- by the despatch of a joint commission of investigation. But verged upon Phyong-yang, and that interval was utilized by the China refused everything. Ready at all times to interfere by Chinese to throw up parapets, mount Krupp guns and otherwise force of arms between the Korean people and the dominant strengthen their position. Moreover, they were armed with political faction, she declined to interfere in any way for the repeating rifles, whereas the Japanese had only single-loaders, promotion of reform. She even expressed supercilious surprise and the ground offered little cover for an attacking force. In that Japan, while asserting Korea's independence, should suggest such circumstances, the advantages possessed by the defence the idea of peremptorily reforming its administration. In short, ought to have been wellnigh insuperable; yet a day's fighting for Chinese purposes the king statesmen pen declared sufficed to carry all the positions, the assailants' casualties Korea a tributary state; but for Japanese purposes they insisted amounting to less than 700 and the defenders losing 6000 in that it must be held independent. They believed that their killed and wounded. This brilliant victory was the prelude to island neighbour aimed at the absorption of Korea into the an equally conspicuous success at sea. For on the 17th of Japanese empire. Viewed in the light of that suspicion, September, the very day after the battle at Phyong-yang, a great China's attitude became comprehensible, but her procedure was naval fight took place near the mouth of the Yalu River, which inconsistent, illogical and unpractical. The Tōkyō cabinet now forms the northern boundary of Korea. Fourteen Chinese war- declared its resolve not to withdraw the Japanese troops without ships and six torpedo-boats were returning to home ports after “some understanding that would guarantee the future peace, convoying a fleet of transports to the Yalu, when they order, and good government of Korea," and since China still encountered eleven Japanese men-of-war cruising in the declined to come to such an understanding, Japan undertook Yellow Sea. Hitherto the Chinese had sedulously avoided a the work of reform single-handed. contest at sea. Their fleet included two armoured battleships The Chinese representative in Seoul threw his whole weight of over 7000 tons displacement, whereas the biggest vessels into the scale against the success of these reforms. But.the de- on the Japanese side were belted cruisers of only 4000 Outbreak termining cause of rupture was in itself a belligerent tons. In the hands of an admiral appreciating the value of of Hostili operation. China's troops had been sent originally for sea power, China's naval force would certainly have been the purpose of quelling the Tonghak rebellion. But led against Japan's maritime communications, for a the rebellion having died of inanition before the landing of the cessful blow struck there must have put an end to the Korean troops, their services were not required. Nevertheless China campaign. The Chinese, however, failed to read history. kept them in Korea, her declared reason for doing so being the They employed their war-vessels as convoys only, and, when not presence of a Japanese military force. Throughout the subse- using them for that purpose, hid them in port. Everything goes quent negotiations the Chinese forces lay in an entrenched camp to show that they would have avoided the battle off the Yalu at Asan, while the Japanese occupied Seoul. An attempt on had choice been possible, though when forced to fight they fought China's part to send reinforcements could be construed only as an bravely. Four of their ships were sunk, and the remainder unequivocal declaration of resolve to oppose Japan's proceedings escaped to Wei-hai-wei, the vigour of the Japanese pursuit by force of arms. Nevertheless, China not only despatched being greatly impaired by the presence of torpedo-boats in the troops by sea to strengthen the camp at Asan, but also sent an retreating squadron. army overland across Korea's northern frontier. At this stage The Yalu victory opened the over-sea route to China. Japan an act of war occurred. Three Chinese men-of-war, convoying could now strike at Talien, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei, naval a transport with 1200 men encountered and fired on three stations on the Liaotung and Shantung peninsulas, where power- Japanese cruisers. One of the Chinese ships was taken; ful permanent fortifications, built after plans prepared by another was so shattered that she had to be beached and European experts and armed with the best modern weapons, were abandoned; the third escaped in a dilapidated condition; and regarded as almost impregnable. They fell before the assaults the transport, refusing to surrender, was sunk. This happened of the Japanese troops as easily as the comparatively rude forti- on the 25th of July 1894, and an open declaration of war was fications at Phyong-yang had fallen. The only resistance of made by each empire six days later. a stubborn character was made by the Chinese fleet at Wei-hai- From the moment when Japan applied herself to break away wei; but after the whole squadron of torpedo-craft had been from Oriental traditions, and to remove from her limbs the destroyed or captured as they attempted to escape, and after Remote fetters of Eastern conservatism, it was inevitable three of the largest vessels had been sunk at their moorings by Origia that a widening gulf should gradually grow between Japanese torpedoes, and one by gun-fire, the remaining ships herself and China. The war of 1894 was really surrendered, and their brave commander, Admiral Ting, com- Conflict. a contest between Japanese progress and Chinese mitted suicide. This ended the war. It had lasted seven and a stagnation. To secure Korean immunity from foreign-espe- half months, during which time Japan put into the field five cially Russian-aggression was of capital importance to both columns, aggregating about 120,000 of all arms. One of these empires. Japan believed that such security could be attained columns marched northward from Seoul, won the battle of by introducing into Korea the civilization which had con- Phyong-yang, advanced to the Yalu, forced its way into Man- tributed so signally to the development of her own strength churia, and moved towards Mukden by Feng-hwang, fighting and resources. China thought that she could guarantee it several minor engagements, and conducting the greater part of without any departure from old-fashioned methods, and by the its operations amid deep snow in midwinter. The second same process of capricious protection which had failed so signally column diverged westwards from the Yalu, and, marching in the cases of Annam, Tongking, Burma and Siam. The issue through southern Manchuria, reached Hai-cheng, whence it really at stake was whether Japan should be suffered to act as advanced to the capture of Niuchwang and Ying-tse-kow. The the Eastern propagandist of Western progress, or whether her third landed on the Liaotung peninsula, and, turning southwards, efforts in that cause should be held in check by Chinese carried Talien and Port Arthur by assault. The fourth moved conservatism. up the Liaot ung peninsula, and, having seized Kaiping, advanced The war itself was a succession of triumphs for Japan. Four against Ying-tse-kow, where it joined hands with the second days after the first naval encounter she sent from Seoul a column column. The fifth crossed from Port Arthur to Wei-hai-wei, of troops who routed the Chinese entrenched at and captured the latter. In all these operations the total Events of the War. Asan. Many of the fugitives effected their escape to Japanese casualties were 1005 killed and 4922. wounded- Phyong-yang, a town on the Taidong River, offering figures which sufficiently indicate the inefficiency of the Chinese excellent facilities for defence, and historically interesting as the fighting. The deaths from disease totalled 16,866, and the place where a Japanese army of invasion had its first encounter I total monetary expenditure was £20,000,000 sterling. of the FOREIGN WARS) JAPAN 247 of Peace. War with loter- ference. The Chinese government sent Li Hung-chang, viceroy of siveness in the society of strangers. Not until Europe and America Pechili and senior grand secretary of state, and Li Ching-fong, to made it quite plain that they nceded and desired her aid did she Conclusion discuss terms of peace with Japan, the latter being send a division (21,000) men to Pechili. Her troops played a represented by Marquis (afterwards Prince) Ito and fine part in the subsequent expedition for the relief of Peking, Count Mutsu, prime minister and minister for foreign which had to be approached in midsummer under very trying affairs, respectively. A treaty was signed at Shimonoseki on conditions. Fighting side by side with European and American the 17th of April 1895, and subsequently ratified by the sove- soldiers, and under the eyes of competent military critics, the reigns of the two empires. It declared the absolute independence Japanese acquitted themselves in such a manner as to establish of Korea; ceded to Japan the part of Manchuria lying south of a high military reputation. Further, after the relief of Peking a line drawn from the mouth of the river Anping to the mouth they withdrew a moiety of their forces, and that step, as well as of the Liao, through Feng-hwang, Hai-cheng and Ying-tse-kow, their unequivocal co-operation with Western powers in the sub- as well as the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores; pledged sequent negotiations, helped to show the injustice of the China to pay an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels; provided for suspicions with which they had been regarded. the occupation of Wei-hai-wei by Japan pending payment of From the time (1895) when Russia, with the co-operation of the indemnity; secured some additional commercial privileges, Germany and France, dictated to Japan a cardinal alteration such as the opening of four new places to foreign trade and the of the Shimonoseki treaty, Japanese statesmen seem right of foreigners to engage in manufacturing enterprises in to have concluded that their country must one day Russia. China, and provided for the conclusion of a treaty of commerce cross swords with the great northern power. Not a and amity between the two empires, based on the lines of China's few European and American publicists shared that view. But treaties with Occidental powers. the vast majority, arguing that the little Eastern empire would No sooner was this agreement ratified than Russia, Germany never invite annihilation by such an encounter, believed that and France presented a joint note to the Tokyo government, sufficient forbearance to avert serious trouble would always be Foreigo recommending that the territories ceded to Japan on forthcoming on Japan's side. Yet when the geographical and the mainland of China should not be permanently historical situation was carefully considered, little hope of an occupied, as such a proceeding would be detrimental ultimately peaceful settlement presented itself. to peace. The recommendation was couched in the usual terms of Japan along its western shore, Korea along its southern and diplomatic courtesy, but everything indicated that its signatories eastern, and Russia along the eastern coast of its maritime were prepared to enforce their advice by an appeal to arms. province, are washed by the Sea of Japan. The communica- Japan found herself compelled to comply.' Exhausted by the tions between the sea and the Pacific Ocean are practically two Chinese campaign, which had drained her treasury, consumed only. One is on the north-east, namely, Tsugaru Strait; the her supplies of warlike material, and kept her squadrons con- other is on the south, namely, the channel between the extremity stantly at sea for eight months, she had no residue of strength of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese island of the nine to oppose such a coalition. Her resolve was quickly taken. provinces. Tsugaru Strait is entirely under Japan's control. The day that saw the publication of the ratified treaty saw also it is between her main island and her island of Yezo, and in case the issue of an Imperial rescript in which the mikado, avowing of need she can close it with mines. The channel between the his unalterable devotion to the cause of peace, and recognizing southern extremity of Korea and Japan has a width of 102 m. that the counsel offered by the European states was prompted and would therefore be a fine open sea-way were it free from by the same sentiment, “yielded to the dictates of magnanimity, islands. But almost mid-way in this channel lie the twin and accepted the advice of the three Powers." The Japanese islands of Tsushima, and the space of 56 m. that separates them people were shocked by this incident. They could understand from Japan is narrowed by another island, Iki. Tsushima and the motives influencing Russia and France, for it was evidently Iki belong to the Japanese empire. The former has some ex- natural that the former should desire to exclude warlike and ceptionally good harbours, constituting a naval base from which progressive people like the Japanese from territories contiguous the channel on either side could easily be sealed. Thus the to her borders, and it was also natural that France should remain avenues from the Pacific Ocean to the Sea of Japan are con- true to her alliance with Russia. But Germany, wholly unin-trolled by the Japanese empire. In other words, access to the terested in the ownership of Manchuria, and by profession a Pacific from Korea's eastern and southern coasts and access warm friend of Japan, seemed to have joined in robbing the to the Pacific from Russia's maritime province depend upon latter of the fruits of her victory simply for the sake of estab- Japan's goodwill. So far as Korea was concerned this ques- lishing some shadowy title to Russia's goodwill. It was not tion mattered little, it being her fate to depend upon the good- known until a later period that the German emperor enter- will of Japan in affairs of much greater importance. But tained profound apprehensions about the “ yellow peril,” an with Russia the case was different. Vladivostok, which until irruption of Oriental hordes into the Occident, and held it a recent times was her principal port in the Far East, lies at the sacred duty to prevent Japan from gaining a position which southern extremity of the maritime province; that is to say, on might enable her to construct an immense military machine the north-western shore of the Japan Sea. It was therefore out of the countless millions of China. necessary for Russia that freedom of passage by the Tsushima Japan's third expedition over-sea in the Meiji era had its channel should be secured, and to secure it one of two things origin in causes which belong to the history of China (q.0.). was essential, namely, either that she herself should possess a In the second half of 1900 an anti-foreign and anti- fortified port on the Korean side, or that Japan should be bound dynastic rebellion, breaking out in Shantung, spread neither to acquire such a port nor to impose any restriction upon to the metropolitan province of Pechili, and resulted the navigation of the strait. To put the matter briefly, Russia in a situation of extreme peril for the foreign communities of must either acquire a strong foothold for herself in southern Tientsin and Peking. It was impossible for any European Korea, or contrive that Japan should not acquire one. There power, or for the United States, to organize sufficiently prompt was here a strong inducement for Russian aggression in Korea. measures of relief. Thus the eyes of the world turned to Japan, Russia's eastward movement through Asia has been strikingly whose proximity to the scene of disturbance rendered interven- illustrative of her strong craving for free access to southern seas tion comparatively easy for her. But Japan hesitated. Know- and of the impediments she had experienced in gratifying that ing now with what suspicion and distrust the development of her wish. An irresistible impulse had driven her oceanward. Tesources and the growth of her military strength were regarded Checked again and again in her attempts to reach the Mediter- by some European peoples, and aware that she had been ranean, she set out on a five-thousand-miles march of conquest admitted to the comity of Western nations on sufferance, she right across the vast Asiatic continent towards the Pacific. shrank, on the one hand, from seeming to grasp at an opportunity Eastward of Lake Baikal she found her line of least resistance for armed display, and, on the other, from the solecism of obtru- | along the Amur, and when, owing to the restless perseverance Chinese Crisis of 1900. a 248 JAPAN (FOREIGN WARS a of Muravief, she reached the mouth of that great river, the many engineering and economic obstacles presented themselves. acquisition of Nikolayevsk for a naval basis was her immediate Besides, the river, from an early stage in its course, makes a reward. But Nikolayevsk could not possibly satisfy her. huge semicircular sweep northward, and a railway following its Situated in an inhospitable region far away from all the main bank to Vladivostok must make the same détour. If, on the con- routes of the world's commerce, it offered itself only as a stepping- trary, the road could be carried over the diameter of the semi- stone to further acquisitions. To push southward from this circle, it would be a straight and therefore shorter line, technically new port became an immediate object to Russia. There lay an easier and economically better. The diameter, however, passed obstacle in the way, however; the long strip of sea-coast from the through Chinese territory, and an excuse for extorting China's mouth of the Amur to the Korean frontier-an area then called permission was not in sight. Russia therefore proceeded to the Usuri region because the Usuri forms its western boundary~ build each end of the road, deferring the construction of the belonged to China, and she, -having conceded much to Russia | Amur section for the moment. She had not waited long when, in the matter of the Amur, showed no disposition to make fur- in 1894, war broke out between China and Japan, and the latter, ther concessions in the matter of the Usuri. In the presence of completely victorious, demanded as the price of peace the menaces, however, she agreed that the region should be regarded southern littoral of Manchuria from the Korean boundary to the as common property pending a convenient opportunity for clear Liaotung peninsula at the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili. This delimitation. That opportunity came very soon. Seizing the was a crisis in Russia's career. She saw that her maritime moment (1860) when China had been beaten to her knees by extension could never get nearer to the Pacific than Vladivostok England and France, Russia secured final cession of the Usuri were this claim of Japan's established. For the proposed region, which now became the maritime province of Siberia. arrangement would place the littoral of Manchuria in Japan's Then Russia shifted her naval base on the Pacific from Nikola- direct occupation and the littoral of Korea in her constructive yevsk to Vladivostok. She gained ten degrees in a southerly control, since not only had she fought to rescue Korea from direction. Chinese suzerainty, but also her object in demanding a slice of From the mouth of the Amur, where Nikolayevsk is situated, the Manchurian coast-line was to protect Korea against aggres- to the southern shore of Korea there rests on the coast of sion from the north; that is to say, against aggression from eastern Asia an arch of islands having at its northern point Russia. Muravief's enterprise had carried his country first to the Sakhalin and at its southern Tsushima, the keystone of the arch mouth of the Amur and thence southward along the coast being the main island of Japan. This arch embraces the Sea to Vladivostok and to Possiet Bay at the north-eastern extremity of Japan and is washed on its convex side by the Pacific Ocean. of Korea. But it had not given to Russia free access to the Immediately after the transfer of Russia's naval base from Pacific, and now she was menaced with a perpetual barrier to Nikolayevsk to Vladivostok, an attempt was made to obtain that access, since the whole remaining coast of east Asia as far possession of the southern point of the arch, namely, Tsushima. as the Gulf of Pechili was about to pass into Japan's possession A Russian man-of-war proceeded thither and quietly began to or under her domination. establish a settlement, which would soon have constituted a Then Russia took an extraordinary step. She persuaded title of ownership had not Great Britain interfered. The Germany and France to force Japan out of Manchuria. It is Russians saw that Vladivostok; acquired at the cost of so much not to be supposed that she frankly exposed her own aggressive toil, would be comparatively useless unless from the sea on whose designs and asked for assistance to prosecute them. Neither shore it was situated an avenue to the Pacific could be opened, is it to be supposed that France and Germany were so curiously and they therefore tried to obtain command of the Tsushima deficient in perspicacity as to overlook those designs. At all channel. Immediately after reaching the mouth of the Amur events these three great powers served on Japan a notice to quit, the same instinct had led them to begin the colonization of and Japan, exhausted by her struggle with China, had no choice Sakhalin. The axis of this long narrow island is inclined at a but to obey. very acute angle to the Usuri region, which its northern extre- The notice was accompanied by an exposé of reasons. Its mity almost touches, while its southern is separated from Yezo signatories said that Japan's tenure of the Manchurian littoral by the strait of La Pérouse. But in Sakhalin the Russians would menace the security of the Chinese capital, would render found Japanese subjects. In fact the island was a part of the the independence of Korea illusory, and would constitute an Japanese empire. Resorting, however, to the Usuri fiction of obstacle to the peace of the Orient. joint occupation, they succeeded by 1875 in transferring the whole By way of saving the situation in some slight degree Japan of Sakhalin to Russia's dominion. Further encroachments upon sought from China a guarantee that no portion of Manchuria Japanese territory could not be lightly essayed, and the Russians should thereafter .be leased or ceded to a foreign state. But held their hands. They had been trebly checked: checked in France warned Japan that to press such a demand would offend trying to push southward along the coast of the mainland; Russia, and Russia declared that, for her part, she had no inten- checked in trying to secure an avenue from Vladivostok to the tion of trespassing in Manchuria. Japan, had she been in a Pacific; and checked in their search for an ice-free port, which position to insist on the guarantee, would also have been in a definition Vladivostok did not fulfil. Enterprise in the direction position to disobey the mandate of the three powers. Unable of Korea seemed to be the only hope of saving the maritime to do either the one or the other, she quietly stepped out of results of the great Trans-Asian march. Manchuria, and proceeded to double her army and treble her Was Korea within safe range of such enterprises? Everything navy. seemed to answer in the affirmative. Korea had all the quali- As a reward for the assistance nominally rendered to China in fications desired by an aggressor. Her people were unprogres- this matter, Russia obtained permission in Peking to divert her sive, her resources undeveloped, her self-defensive capacities Trans-Asian railway from the huge bend of the Amur to the insignificant, her government corrupt. But she was a tributary straight line through Manchuria. Neither Germany nor France of China, and China had begun to show some tenacity in pro-received any immediate recompense. Three years later, by tecting the integrity of her buffer states. Besides, Japan was way of indemnity for the murder of two missionaries by a mob, understood to have pretensions with regard to Korea. On the Germany seized a portion of the province of Shantung. Imme- whole, therefore, the problem of carrying to full fruition the diately, on the principle that two wrongs make a right, Russia work of Muravief and his lieutenants demanded strength greater obtained a lease of the Liaotung peninsula, from which she than Russia could exercise without some line of communications had driven Japan in 1895. This act she followed by extorting supplementing the Amur waterway and the long ocean route. from China permission to construct a branch of the Trans-Asian Therefore she set about the construction of a, railway, across railway through Manchuria from north to south. Asia. Russia's maritime aspirations had now assumed a radically The. Amur being the boundary of Russia's east Asian terri- altered phase. Instead of pushing southward from Vladivostok tory, this railway had to be carried along its northern bank where I and Possiet Bay along the coast of Korea, she had suddenly FOREIGN WARS) JAPAN 249 leaped the Korean peninsula and found access to the Pacific ('trade at those marts would be impossible, and thus Russia had in Liaotung. Nothing was wanting to establish her as practical constructively announced that there should be no trade but mistress of Manchuria except a plausible excuse for garrisoning Russian, if she could prevent it. the place. Such an excuse was furnished by the Boxer rising in Against such dangers Japan would have been justified in 1900. Its conclusion saw her in military occupation of the adopting any measure of self-protection. She had foreseen them whole region, and she might easily have made her occupation for six years, and had been strengthening herself to avert them. permanent by prolonging it until peace and order should have But she wanted peace. She wanted to develop her material been fully restored. But here she fell into an error of judgment. resources and to accumulate some measure of wealth, without Imagining that the Chinese could be persuaded or intimidated to which she must remain insignificant among the nations. Two any concession, she proposed a convention virtually recognizing pacific devices offered, and she adopted them both. Russia, her title to Manchuria. instead of trusting time to consolidate her tenure of Manchuria, Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If had made the mistake of pragmatically importuning China for a there were any reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany, conventional title. If then Peking could be strengthened to and France had declared to be incidental to Japanese occupation resist this demand, some arrangement of a distinctly terminable of a part of Manchuria, the same dangers must be doubly inci- nature might be made. The United States, Great Britain and dental to Russian occupation of the whole of Manchuria-the Japan, joining hands for that purpose, did succeed in so far security of the Chinese capital would be threatened, and an stiffening China's backbone that her show of resolution finally obstacle would be created to the permanent peace of the East. induced Russia to sign a treaty pledging herself to withdraw The independence of Korea was an object of supreme solicitude her troops from Manchuria in three instalments, each step of to Japan. Historically she held towards the little state a evacuation to be accomplished by a fixed date. That was one relation closely resembling that of suzerain, and though of of the pacific devices. The other suggested itself in connexion her ancient conquests nothing remained except a settlement with the new commercial treaties which China had promised to at Fusan on the southern coast, her national sentiment would negotiate in the sequel of the Boxer troubles. In these docu- have been deeply wounded by any foreign aggression in the ments clauses provided for the opening of three places in Man- peninsula. It was to establish Korean independence that she churia to foreign trade. It seemed a reasonable hope that, waged war with China in 1894; and her annexation of the Man- having secured commercial access to Manchuria by covenant churian littoral adjacent to the Korean frontier, after the war, with its sovereign, China, the powers would not allow Russia was designed to secure that independence, not to menace it as arbitrarily to restrict their privileges. It seemed also a reason- the triple alliance professed to think. But if Russia came into able hope that Russia, having solemnly promised to evacuate possession of all Manchuria, her subsequent absorption of Korea Manchuria at fixed dates, would fulfil her engagement. would be almost inevitable. For the consideration set forth The latter hope was signally disappointed. When the time above as to Vladivostok's maritime avenues would then acquire came for evacuation, Russia behaved as though no promise absolute cogency. Manchuria is larger than France and the had ever been given. She proposed wholly new conditions, United Kingdom lumped together. The addition of such an which would have strengthened her grasp of Manchuria instead immense area to Russia's east Asiatic dominions, together with of loosening it. China being powerless to offer any practical its littoral on the Gulf of Pechili and the Yellow Sea, would neces: protest, and Japan's interests ranking next in order of impor- sitate a corresponding expansion of her naval forces in the Far tance, the Tokyo government approached Russia direct. They East. With the one exception of Port Arthur, however, the did not ask for anything that could hurt her pride or injure Manchurian coast does not offer any convenient naval base. It her position. Appreciating fully the economical status she had is only in the splendid harbours of southern Korea that such acquired in Manchuria by large outlays of capital, they offered bases can be found. Moreover, there would be an even stronger to recognize that status, provided that Russia would extend motive impelling Russia towards Korea. Neither the Usuri similar recognition to Japan's status in Korea, would promise, region nor the Manchurian littoral possesses so much as one in common with Japan, to respect the sovereignty and the port qualified to satisfy her perennial longing for free access to territorial integrity of China and Korea, and would be a party the ocean in a temperate zone. Without Korea, then, Russia's to a mutual engagement that all nations should have equal east Asian expansion, though it added huge blocks of territory industrial and commercial opportunities in Manchuria and the to her dominions, would have been commercially incomplete and Korean peninsula. In a word, they invited Russia to subscribe strategically defective. the policy enunciated by the United States and Great Britain, If it be asked why, apart from history and national sentiment, the policy of the open door and of the integrity of the Chinese Japan should object to a Russian Korea, the answer is, first, and Korean empires. because there would thus be planted almost within cannon- Thus commenced a negotiation which lasted five and a half shot of her shores a power of enormous strength and insatiable months. Japan gradually reduced her demands to a minimum. ambition; secondly, because, whatever voice in Manchuria's Russia never made the smallest appreciable concession. She destiny Russia derived from her railway, the same voice in refused to listen to Japan for one moment about Manchuría. Korea's destiny was possessed by Japan as the sole owner of Eight years previously Japan had been in military possession of railways in the peninsula; thirdly, that whereas Russia had an Manchuria, and Russia with the assistance of Germany and altogether insignificant share in the foreign commerce of Korea France had expelled her for reasons which concerned Japan and scarcely ten bona-fide settlers, Japan did the greater part of incomparably more than they concerned any of the three the over-sea trade and had tens of thousands of settlers; fourthly, powers--the security of the Chinese capital, the independence of that if Russia's dominions stretched uninterruptedly from the Korea, the peace of the East. Now, Russia had the splendid Sea of Okhotsk to the Gulf of Pechili, her ultimate absorption of assurance to declare by implication that none of these things north China would be as certain as sunrise; and fifthly, that concerned Japan at all. The utmost she would admit was such domination and such absorption would involve the practical Japan's partial right to be heard about Korea. And at the same closure of all that immense region to Japanese commerce and time she herself commenced in northern Korea a series of aggres- industry as well as to the commerce and industry of every sions, partly perhaps to show her potentialities, partly by way Western nation except Russia. This last proposition did not of counter-irritant. That was not all. Whilst she studiously rest solely on the fact that to oppose artificial barriers to free deferred her answers to Japan's proposals and protracted the competition is Russia's sole hope of utilizing to her own benefit negotiations to an extent which was actually contumelious, any commercial opportunities brought within her reach. It she håstened to send eastward a big fleet of war-ships and a new rested also on the fact that Russia had objected to foreign army of soldiers. It was impossible for the dullest politician settlements at the marts recently opened by treaty with China to mistake her purpose. She intended to yield nothing, but to American and Japanese subjects. Without settlements, I to prepare such a parade of force that her obduracy would > 250 JAPAN (FOREIGN WARS The command submission. The only alternatives for Japan were war of Manchuria by the contracting parties; transferred to Japan or total and permanent effacement in Asia. She chose war, the lease of the Liaotung peninsula held by Russia from China and in fighting it she fought the battle of free and equal oppor- together with the Russian railways south of Kwang-Cheng-tsze tunities for all without undue encroachment upon the sovereign and all collateral mining or other privileges; ceded to Japan rights or territorial integrity of China or Korea, against a military the southern half of Sakhalin, the 50th parallel of latitude dictatorship, a programme of ruthless territorial aggrandize-to be the boundary between the two parts; secured fishing ment and a policy of selfish restrictions. rights for Japanese subjects along the coasts of the seas of The details of the great struggle that ensued are given else- Japan, Okhotsk and Bering; laid down that the expenses where (see Russo-JAPANESE War). After the battle of Mukden incurred by the Japanese for the maintenance of the Russian the belligerents found themselves in a position which prisoners during the war should be reimbursed by Russia, must either prelude another stupendous effort on less the outlays made by the latter on account of Japanese Results of the War. both sides or be utilized for the purpose of peace prisoners-by which arrangement Japan obtained a payment negotiations. At this point the president of the of some 4 millions sterling--and provided that the contracting United States of America intervened in the interests of parties, while withdrawing their military forces from Manchuria, humanity, and on the oth of June 1905 instructed the might maintain guards to protect their respective railways, United States' representative in. Tokyo to urge that the the number of such guards nol to exceed 15 per kilometre of Japanese government should open direct negotiations with line. There were other important restrictions: first, the con- Russia, an exactly corresponding note being simultaneously tracting parties were to abstain from taking, on the Russo- sent to the Russian government through the United States' Korean frontier, any military measures which might menace representative in St Petersburg. Japan's reply was made on the security of Russian or Korean territory; secondly, the two the 10th of June. It intimated frank acquiescence, and Russia powers pledged themselves not to exploit the Manchurian lost no time in taking similar step. Nevertheless two railways for strategic purposes; and thirdiy, they promised months elapsed before the plenipotentiaries of the belligerents not to build on Sakhalin or its adjacent islands any fortifications met, on the roth of August, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, or other similar military works, or to take any military measures U.S.A. Russia sent M. (afterwards Count) de Witte and which might impede the free navigation of the straits of La Baron Rosen; Japan, Baron (afterwards Count) Komura, Pérouse and the Gulf of Tartary. The above provisions con- who had held the portfolio of foreign affairs throughout the cerned the two contracting parties only. But China's interests war, and Mr. (afterwards Baron) Takahira. In entering also were considered. Thus it was agreed to “restore entirely this conference, Japanese statesmen, as was subsequently and completely to her exclusive administration ” all portions of known, saw clearly that a great part of the credit accruing Manchuria then in the occupation, or under the control, of to them for their successful conduct of the war would be Japanese or Russian troops, except the leased territory; that her forfeited in the sequel of the negotiations. For the people consent must be obtained for the transfer to Japan of the leases of Japan had accustomed themselves to expect that Russia and concessions held by the Russians in Manchuria; that the would assuredly recoup the expenses incurred by their country in Russian government would disavow the possession of " any the contest, whereas the cabinet in Tokyo understood well that to territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive concessions look for payment of indemnity by a great state whose territory in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with the had not been invaded effectively nor its existence menaced principle of equal opportunity in Manchuria”; and that Japan must be futile. Nevertheless, diplomacy required that this and Russia “engaged reciprocally not to obstruct any general conviction should be concealed, and thus Russia carried to the measures common to all countries which China might take conference a belief that the financial phase of the discussion for the development of the commerce and industry of Man- would be crucial, while, at the same time, the Japanese nationchuria.” This distinction between the special interests of the reckoned fully on an indemnity of 150 millions sterling. Baron contracting parties and the interests of China herself as well Komura's mandate was, however, that the only radically as of foreign nations generally is essential to clear understanding essential terms were those formulated by Japan prior to the war. of a situation which subsequently attracted much attention. She must insist on securing the ends for which she had fought, From the time of the opium war (1857) to the Boxer rising (1900) since she believed them to be indispensable to the peace of the each of the great Western powers struggled for its own hand in Far East, but she would not demand anything more. The China, and each sought to gain for itself exclusive concessions Japanese plenipotentiary, therefore, judged it wise to marshal and privileges with comparatively little regard for the interests his terms in the order of their importance, leaving his Russian of others, and with no regard whatever for China's sovereign colleague to imagine, as he probably would, that the converse rights. The fruits of this period were: permanently ceded terri- method had been adopted, and that everything preliminary tories (Hong-Kong and Macao); leases temporarily establishing to the questions of finance and territory was of minor conse- foreign sovereignty in various districts (Kiaochow, Wei-hai-wei quence. The negotiations, commencing on the roth of August, and Kwang-chow); railway and mining concessions; and the were not concluded until the 5th of September, when a treaty of establishment of settlements at open port's where foreign peace was signed. There had been a moment when the onlooking jurisdiction was supreme. But when, in 1900; the Boxer rising world believed that unless Russia agreed to ransom the island forced all the powers into a common camp, they awoke to full of Sakhalin by paying to Japan a sum of 120 millions sterling, appreciation of a principle which had been growing current the conference would be broken off; nor did such an exchange for the past two or three years, namely, that concerted action seem unreasonable, for were Russia expelled from the northern on the lines of maintaining China's integrity and securing to part of Sakhalin, which commands the estuary of the Amur all alike equality of opportunity and a similarly open door, River, her position in Siberia would have been compromised. was the only feasible method of preventing the partition of But the statesmen who directed Japan's affairs were not dis- the Chinese Empire and averting a clash of rival interests which posed to make any display of earth-hunger. The southern half might have disastrous results. This, of course, did not mean of Sakhalin had originally belonged to Japan and had passed that there was to be any abandonment of special privileges into Russia's possession by an arrangement which the Japanese already acquired or any surrender of existing concessions. nation strongly resented. To recover that portion of the The arrangement was not to be retrospective in any sense. island seemed, therefore, a legitimate ambition. Japan did Vested interests were to be strictly guarded until the lapse not contemplate any larger demand, nor did she seriously insist of the periods for which they had been granted, or until the an indemnity. Therefore the negotiations were never maturity of China's competence to be really autonomous. А in real danger of failure. The treaty of Portsmouth recog. curious situation was thus created. International professions of nized Japan's “paramount political, military and economic respect for China's sovereignty, for the integrity of her empire interests” in Korea; provided for the simultaneous evacuation and for the enforcement of the open door and equal opportunity, " on FOREIGN WÄRS) JAPAN 251 with coexisted with legacies from an entirely different past. Russia Having waged two wars on account of Korea, Japan emerged endorsed this new policy, but not unnaturally declined to from the second conflict with the conviction that the policy of abate any of the advantages previously enjoyed by her maintaining the independence of Korea must be Japan in in Manchuria. Those advantages were very substantial.modified, and that since the identity of Korean and Korea after They included a twenty-five years' lease_with provision for Japanese, interests in the Far East and the paramount the War renewal of the Liaotung peninsula, within which area of character of Japanese interests in Korea would not Russia. 1220 sq. m. Chinese troops might not penetrate, whereas permit Japan to leave Korea to the care of any third Russia would not only exercise full administrative authority, power, she must assume the charge herself. Europe and but also take military and naval action of any kind; they America also recognized that view of the situation, and consented included the creation of a neutral territory in the immediate to withdraw their legations from Seoul, thus leaving the control north of the former and still more extensive, which should remain of Korean foreign affairs entirely in the hands of Japan, who under Chinese administration, but where neither Chinese nor further undertook to assume military direction in the event of Russian troops might enter, nor might China, without Russia's aggression from without or disturbance from within. But in consent, cede land, open trading marts or grant concessions to the matter of internal administration she continued to limit any third nationality; and they included the right to build herself to advisory supervision. Thus, though a Japanese some 1600 m. of railway (which China would have the oppor- resident-general in Seoul, with subordinate residents throughout tunity of purchasing at cost price in the year 1938 and would be the provinces, assumed the functions hitherto discharged by entitled to receive gratis in 1982), as well as the right to hold foreign representatives and consuls, the Korean government was extensive zones on either side of the railway, to administer these merely asked to employ Japanese experts in the position of zones in the fullest sense, and to work all mines lying along the counsellors, the right to accept or reject their counsels being left lines. Under the Portsmouth treaty these advantages were to their employers. Once again, however, the futility of looking transferred to Japan by Russia, the railway, however, being for any real reforms under this optional system was demon- divided so that only the portion (521} m.) to the south of strated. Japan sent her most renowned statesman, Prince Ito, Kwang-Cheng-tsze fell to Japan's share, while the portion to discharge the duties of resident-general; but even he, in spite (1077 m.) to the north of that place remained in Russia's of profound patience and tact, found that some less optional hands. China's consent to the above transfers and assignments methods must be resorted to. Hence on the 24th of July 1907 was obtained in a treaty signed at Peking on the 22nd of a new agreement was signed, by which the resident-general December 1905. Thus Japan came to hold in Manchuria a acquired initiative as well as consultative competence to enact position somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, she figured and enforce laws and ordinances, to appoint and remove Korean as the champion of the Chinese Empire's integrity and as an officials, and to place capable Japanese subjects in the ranks of exponent of the new principle of equal opportunity and the the administration. That this constituted a heavy blow to open door. On the other, she appeared as the legatec of many Korea's independence could not be gainsaid. That it was in- privileges more or less inconsistent with that principle. But, evitable seemed to be equally obvious. For there existed in at the same time, nearly all the great powers of Europe were Korea nearly all the worst abuses of medieval systems. The similarly circumstanced. In their cases also the same in- administration of justice depended solely on favour or interest. congruity was observable between the newly professed policy The police contributed by corruption and incompetence to the and the aftermath of the old practice. It was scarcely to be insecurity of life and property. The troops were a body of use- expected that Japan alone should make a large sacrifice on the less mercenaries. Offices being allotted by sale, thousands of altar of a theory to which no other state thought of yielding incapables thronged the ranks of the executive. The emperor's any retrospective obedience whatever. She did, indeed, court was crowded by diviners and plotters of all kinds, male furnish a clear proof of deference to the open-door doctrine, and female. The finances of the throne and those of the state for instead of reserving the railway zones to her own exclusive were hopelessly confused. There was nothing like an organized use, as she was fully entitled to do, she sought and obtained judiciary. A witness was in many cases considered particeps from China a pledge to open to foreign trade 16 places within criminis; torture was commonly employed to obtain evidence, those zones. For the rest, however, the inconsistency between and defendants in civil cases were placed under arrest. Im. the past and the present, though existing throughout the prisonment meant death or permanent disablement for a man of whole of China, was nowhere so conspicuous as in the three small means. Flogging so severe as to cripple, if not to kill, eastern provinces (Manchuria); not because there was any real was a common punishment; every major offence from robbery difference of degree, but because Manchuria had been the scene upward was capital, and female criminals were frequently exe- of the greatest war of modern times; because that war had been cuted by administering shockingly painful poisons. The currency fought by Japan in the cause of the new policy, and because was in a state of the utmost confusion. Extreme corruption the principles of the equally open door and of China's integrity and extortion were practised in connexion with taxation. had been the main bases of the Portsmouth treaty, of the Anglo- Finally, while nothing showed that the average Korean lacked Japanese alliance, and of the suhsequently concluded ententes the elementary virtue of patriotism, there had been repeated with France and Russia. In short, the world's eyes were fixed proofs that the safety and independence of the empire counted on Manchuria and diverted from China proper, so that every act for little in the estimates of political intriguers. Japan must of Japan was subjected to an exceptionally rigorous scrutiny, either step out of Korea altogether or effect drastic reforms and the nations behaved as though they expected her to live up there. She necessarily chose the latter alternative, and the to a standard of almost ideal altitude. China's mood, too, things which she accomplished between the beginning of 1906 greatly complicated the situation. She had the choice between and the close of 1908 may be briefly described as the elaboration two moderate and natural courses: either to wait quietly until of a proper system of taxation; the organization of a staff to the various concessions granted by her to foreign powers in administer annual budgets; the re-assessment of taxable pro- the evil past should lapse by maturity, or to qualify herself by perty; the floating of public loans for productive enterprises; earnest reforms and industrious development for their earlier the reform of the currency; the establishment of banks of recovery. Nominally she adopted the latter course, but in various kinds, including agricultural and commercial; the reality she fell into a mood of much impatience. Under the name creation of associations for putting bank-notes into circulation; of a “rights-recovery campaign " her people began to protest the introduction of a warehousing system to supply capital to vehemently against the continuance of any conditions which farmers; the lighting and buoying of the coasts; the provision impaired her sovereignty, and as this temper coloured her of posts, telegraphs, roads and railways; the erection of public attitude towards the various questions which inevitably grew buildings; the starting of various industrial enterprises (such as out of the situation in Manchuria, her relations with Japan printing, brick-making, forestry and coal-mining); the laying became somewhat strained in the early part of 1909. out of model farms; the beginning of cotton cultivation; the 254 (DOMESTIC HISTORY JAPAN Jingo's reign are in the main an account of intercourse, some- “ The Japanese of the mythical period, as pictured in the legends times peaceful, sometimes stormy, between the neighbouring preserved by the compiler of the Records of Ancient Matters, were a countries. Only one other episode occupies a prominent to a high level of barbaric skill. The Stone Age was forgotten by race who had long emerged from the savage stage and had attained place: it is an attempt on the part of Jingo's step-brothers to them-or nearly so-and the evidence points to their never having oppose her return to Yamato and to prevent the accession of passed through a genuine Bronze Age, though the knowledge of her son to the throne. It should be noted here that all such bronze was at a later period introduced from the neighbouring continent. They used iron for manufacturing spears, swords and names as Jimmu, Sūjin, Chūai, &c., are posthumous, and were knives of various shapes, and likewise for the niore peaceful purpose invented in the reign of Kwammu (782-806), the fashion being of making hooks wherewith to angle or to fasten the doors of their taken from China and the names themselves being purely Chinese huts. Their other warlike and hunting implements (besides traps translations of the qualities assigned to the respective monarchs. and gins, which appear to have been used equally for catching Thus Jimmu signifies“ divine valour "; Sūjin, “ deity-honour-beasts and birds and for destroying human enemies) were bows and arrows, spears and elbow-pads--the latter seemingly of skin, while ing"; and Chūai, “sad middle son.” The names of these special allusion is made to the fact that the arrows were feathered. rulers during life were wholly different from their posthumous Perhaps clubs should be added to the list. Of the bows and arrows, appellations. swords and knives, there is perpetual mention, but nowhere do we Chinese history, which is incomparably older and more precise bear of the tools with which they were manufactured, and there is the same remarkable silence regarding such widely spread domestic than Korean, is by no means silent about Japan. Long notices implements as the saw and the axe. We hear, however, of the pestle Earliest occur in the later Han and Wei records (25 to 265). and mortar, of the fire-drill, of the wedge, of the sickle, and of the Notices in The Japanese are spoken of as dwarfs (Wa), and shuttle used in wcaying. Navigation seems to have been in a very Chinese their islands, frequently called the queen country, are elementary state. Indeed the art of sailing was but little practised History. in Japan even so late as the middle of the roth century of our era, said to be mountainous, with soil suitable for growing subsequent to the general diffusion of Chinese civilization, though grain, hemp, and the silk-worm mulberry. The climate is so mild rowing and punting are often mentioned by the carly poets. To that vegetables can be grown in winter and summer; there are what we should call towns or villages very little reference is made neither oxen, horses, tigers, nor leopards; the people understand anywhere in the Records or in that part of the Chronicles which con- tain the account of the so-called Divine Age. But from what we the art of weaving; the men tattoo their faces and bodies in pat- learn incidentally it would seem that the scanty population was terns indicating differences of rank; male attire consists of a single chiefly distributed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings along the piece of cloth; females wear a gown passed over the head, and tie coast and up the course of the larger streams. Of house-building their hair in a bow; soldiers are armed with spears and shields. there is frequent mention. Fences were in use. Rugs of skins and and also with bows, from which they discharge arrows tipped with hear once or twice of silk rugs being used for the same purpose by rush-matting were occasionally brought in to sit on, and we even bone or iron; the sovereign resides in Yamato; there are stockaded the noble and wealthy. The habits of personal cleanliness which so ſorts and houses; food is taken with the fingers but is served on pleasantly distinguish the modern Japanese from their neighbours, bamboo trays and wooden trenchers; foot-gear is not worn; when in continental Asia, though less fully developed than at present would seem to have existed in the germ in early times, as we read men of the lower classes meet a man of rank, they leave the road more than once of bathing in rivers, and are told of bathing women and retire to the grass, squatting or kneeling with both hands on being specially attached to the person of a certain Imperial infant. the ground when they address him; intoxicating liquor is much Lustrations, too, formed part of the religious practices of the race. used; the people are long-lived, many reaching the age of 100; | Latrines are mentioned several times. They would appear to have women are more numerous than men; there is no theft, and liti- been situated away from the houses and to have been generally gation is infrequent; the women are faithful and not jealous; placed over a running stream, whence doubtless the name for latring in the archaic dialect--kawaya (river-house). A peculiar sort of all men of high rank have four or five wives, others two or three; dwelling-place which the two old histories bring prominently under wives and children of law-breakers are confiscated, and for grave our notice is the so-called parturition house-a one-roomed hut crimes the offender's family is extirpated; divination is practised without windows, which a woman was expected to build and retire into for the purpose of being delivered unseen. Castles are not by burning bones; mourning lasts for some ten days and the distinctly spoken of until a time which coincides, according to the rites are performed by a mourning-keeper"; after a funeral received chronology, with the first century B.C. We then first meet the whole family perform ablutions; fishing is much practised, with the curious term rice-castle, whose precise signification is a and the fishermen are skilled divers; there are distinctions of matter of dispute among the native commentators, but which, on rank and some are vassals to others; each province has a market comparison with Chinese descriptions of the early Japanese, should probably be understood to mean a kind of palisade serving the pur. where goods are exchanged; the country is divided into more pose of a redoubt, behind which the warriors could ensconce them. than 100 provinces, and among its products are white pearls, selves. The food of the early Japanese consisted of fish and of the green jade and cinnabar. These annals go on to say that flesh of the wild creatures which fell by the hunter's arrow or were taken in the trapper's snare. Rice is the only cereal of which there between 147 and 190 civil war prevailed for several years, and is such mention made as to place it beyond a doubt that its cultiva- order was finally restored by a female sovereign, who is described tion dates back to time immemorial. Beans, millet and barley are as having been old and unmarried; much addicted to magic arts; indecd named once, together with silkworms, in the account of the attended by a thousand females; dwelling in a palace with lofty Divine Age. But the passage has every aspect of an interpolation pavilions surrounded by a stockade and guarded by soldiers; eighth-century compiler. A few unimportant vegetables and fruits, in the legend, perhaps not dating back long before the time of the but leading such a secluded life that few saw her face except one of most of which there is but a single mention, are found. The man who served her meals and acted as a medium of communica- intoxicating liquor called sake was known in Japan during the mythi. tion. There can be little question that this queen was the cal period, and so were chopsticks for eating food with. Cooking pots and cups and dishes-the latter both of earthenware and of empress Jingo who, according to Japanese annals, came to the leaves of trees--are also mentioned; but of the use of fire for warming throne in the year A.D. 200, and whose every public act had its purposes we hear nothing. Tables are named several times, but inception or promotion in some alleged divine interposition. never in connexion with food: they would seem to have been used In one point, however, the Chinese historians are certainly exclusively for the purpose of presenting offerings on, and were incorrect. They represent tattooing as universal in ancient probabiy quite small and low-in fact, rather trays than tables, Japan, whereas it was confined to criminals, in whose case it specialization of garments the early Japanese had reached a high according to European ideas. In the use of clothing and the played the part that branding does elsewhere. Centuries later, level. We read in the most ancient legends of upper garments, in feudal days, the habit came to be practised by men of the skirts, trowsers, girdles, veils and hats, while both sexes adorned lower orders whose avocations involved baring the body, but themselves with necklaces, bracelets and head ornaments of stones it never acquired vogue among educated people. In other considered precious-in this respect offering a striking contrast to their descendants in modern times, of whose attire jewelry forms respects these ancient Chinese annals must be credited with no part. The material of their clothes was hempen cloth and paper remarkable accuracy in their description of Japan and the --mulberry bark, coloured by being rubbed with madder, and prob- Japanese. Their account may be advantageously compared ably with woad and other tinctorial plants. All the garments, so with Professor Chamberlain's analysis of the manners and far as we may judge, were woven, sewing being nowhere mentioned. From the great place which the chase occupied in daily life, we are customs of the early Japanese, in the preface to his translation led to suppose that skins also were used to make garments of. There of the Kojiki. is in the Records at least one passage which favours this supposition, DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN 255 and the Chronicles in one place mention the straw rain-coat and when he sought to introduce another beauty into the inner broad-brimmed hat, which stiu form the Japanese peasant's effectual protection against the inclemencies of the weather. The tendrils chamber, his own half-brother, who carried his proposals, won of creeping plants served the purposes of strings, and bound the the girl for himself. One other fact deserves to be remembered warrior's sword round his waist. Combs are mentioned, and it is in connexion with Nintoku's reign: Ki-no-tsuno, representative evident that much attention was devoted to the dressing of the hair. of a great family which had filled the highest administrative The men scem to have bound up their hair in two bunches, one on each side of the head, while the young boys tied theirs in a top-knot, and military posts under several sovereigns, is mentioned as the unmarried girls let their locks hang down over their necks, and “the first to commit to writing in detail the productions of the the married women dressed theirs after a fashion which apparently soil in each locality.” This was in 353 (probably 473). We combined the two last-named methods. There is no mention in shall err little if we date the commencement of Japanese written any of the old books of cutting the hair or beard except in token of disgrace; neither do we gather that the sexes, but for the matter of annals from this time, though no compilation earlier than the the head-dress, were distinguished by a diversity of apparel and Kojiki has survived. ornamentation. With regard to the precious stones mentioned Early Historical Period. With the emperor Richū, who came above as having been used as ornaments for the head, neck and arms, to the throne A.D. 400, the historical period may be said to we know from the specimens which have rewarded the labours of archaeological research in Japan that agate, crystal, glass, jade, commence; for though the chronology of the records is still serpentine and steatite were the most used materials, and carved questionable, the facts are generally accepted as credible. and pierced cylindrical shapes the commonest forms. The horse-Conspicuous loyalty towards the sovereign was not an attribute which was ridden, but not driven--the barn-door fowl and the cor- of the Japanese Imperial family in early times. Attempts morant used for fishing, are the only domesticated creatures men- tioned in the earlier traditions, with the doubtful exception of the to usurp the throne were not uncommon, though there are very silkworm. In the later portions of the Records and Chronicles few instances of such essays on the part of a subject. Love or dogs and cattle are alluded to, but sheep, swine and even cats were lust played no insignificant part in the drama, and a common apparently not yet introduced." method of placating an irate sovereign was to present a beautiful As the prehistoric era draws to its end the above analyses of damsel for his delectation. The veto of consanguinity did not Japanese civilization have to be modified. Thus, towards the receive very strict respect in these matters. Children of the close of the 3rd century, ship-building made great progress, and same father might intermarry, but not those of the same mother; instead of the small boats hitherto in use, a vessel 100 ft. long a canon which becomes explicable on observing that as wives was constructed. Notable above all is the fact that Japan's usually lived apart from their husbands and had the sole custody turbulent relations with Korea were replaced by friendly inter- of their offspring, two or more families often remained to course, so that she began to receive from her neighbour instruc- the end unconscious of the fact that they had a common sire. tion in the art of writing. The date assigned by the Chronicles There was a remarkable tendency to organize the nation into for this important event is A.D. 285, but it has been proved groups of persons following the same pursuit or charged with almost conclusively that Japanese annals relating to this period the same functions. A group thus composed was called be. are in error to the extent of 120 years. Hence the introduction The heads of the great families had titles—as omi, muraji, of calligraphy must be placed in 405. Chinese history shows miakko, wake, &c.-and affairs of state were administered that between 57 and 247 Japan sent four embassies to the courts by the most renowned of these nobles, wholly subject to the of the Han and the Wei, and this intercourse cannot have failed sovereign's ultimate will. The provincial districts were ruled to disclose the ideograph. But the knowledge appears to have by scions of the Imperial family, who appear to have been, on been confined to a few interpreters, and not until the year 405 the whole, entirely subservient to the Throne. ' There were no were steps taken to extend it, with the aid of a learned Korean, tribunals of justice: the ordeal of boiling water or heated metal Wang-in. Korea herself began to study Chinese learning only was the sole test of guilt or innocence, apart, of course, from a few years before she undertook to impart it to Japan. We now confession, which was often exacted under menace of torture. find a numerous colony of Koreans passing to Japan and settling A celebrated instance of the ordeal of boiling water is recorded there; a large number are also carried over as prisoners of war, in 415, when this device was employed to correct the genealogies and the Japanese obtain seamstresses from both of their conti- of families suspected of falsely claiming descent from emperors nental neighbours. One fact, related with much precision, or divine beings. The test proved efficacious, for men conscious shows that the refinements of life were in an advanced condition: of forgery refused to undergo the ordeal. Deprivation of rank an ice-house is described, and we read that from 374 (? 494) it was the lightest form of punishment; death the commonest, became the fashion to store ice in this manner for use in the hot and occasionally the whole family of an offender became serfs months by placing it in water or sake. The emperor, Nintoku, of the house against which the offence had been committed or to whose time this innovation is attributed, is one of the romantic which had been instrumental in disclosing a crime. There are, figures of Japanese history. He commenced his career by refus- however, frequent examples of wrong-doing expiated by the ing to accept the sovereignty from his younger brother, who voluntary surrender of lands or other property. We find several pressed him earnestly to do so on the ground that the proper instances of that extreme type of loyalty which became habitual order of succession had been disturbed by their father's par- in later ages-suicide in preference to surviving a deceased lord. tiality-though the rights attaching to primogeniture did not On the whole the successive sovereigns of these early times receive. imperative recognition in early Japan. After three appear to have ruled with clemency and consideration for the years of this mutual self-effacement, during which the throne people's welfare. But there were two notable exceptions- remained vacant, the younger brother committed suicide, and Yuriaku (457-479) and Muretsu (499-506). The former slew Nintoku reluctantly became sovereign. He chose Naniwa (the men ruthlessly in fits of passion or resentment, and the latter modern Osaka) for his capital, but he would not take the farmers was the Nero of Japanese history, a man who loved to witness from their work to finish the building of a palace, and subse- the agony of his fellows and knew no sentiment of mercy or quently, inferring from the absence of smoke over the houses of remorse. Yet even Yuriaku did not fail to promote industrial the people that the country was impoverished, he remitted all pursuits. Skilled artisans were obtained from Korea, and it is taxes and suspended forced labour for a term of three years, during related that, in 462, this monarch induced the empress and the which his palace fell into a state of ruin and he himself fared in ladies of the palace to plant mulberry trees with their own hands the coarsest manner. Digging canals, damming rivers, construct- in order to encourage sericulture. Throughout the 5th and 6th ing roads and bridges, and establishing granaries occupied his centuries many instances are recorded of the acquisition of attention when love did not distract it. But in affairs of the landed estates by the Throne, and their occasional bestowal heart he was most unhappy. He figures as the sole wearer of upon princes or Imperial consorts, such gifts being frequently the Japanese crown who was defied by his consort; for when he accompanied by the assignment of bodies of agriculturists who took a concubine in despite of the empress, her jealousy was so seem to have accepted the position of serfs. Meanwhile Chinese bitter that, refusing to be placated by any of his majesty's civilization was gradually becoming known, either by direct verses or other overtures, she left the palace altogether; and contact or through Korea. Several immigrations of Chinese 256 (DOMESTIC HISTORY JAPAN Introduce tion of Buddhism. arms. or Korean settlers are on record. No less than 7053 householders, ment; Prince Shotoku compiled a code, commonly spoken of as of Chinese subjects came, through Korea, in 540, and one of the first written laws of Japan, but in reality a collection of their number received high rank together with the post of director maxims evincing a moral spirit of the highest type. In some of the Imperial treasury. From these facts, and from a national respects, however, there was no improvement. The succession register showing the derivation of all the principal families to the'throne still tended to provoke disputes among the Imperial in Japan, it is clearly established that a considerable strain of princes; the sword constituted the principal weapon of punish- Chinese and Korean blood runs in the veins of many Japanese ment, and torture the chief judicial device. Now, too, for the subjects. first time, a noble family is found seeking to usurp the Imperial The most signal and far-reaching event of this epoch was the authority. The head of the Soga house, Umako, having com- importation of the Buddhist creed, which took place in 552. passed the murder of the emperor Sujun and placed on the throne A Korean monarch acted as propagandist, sending a his own niece (Suiko), swept away all opposition to the latter's special envoy with a bronze image of the Buddha and successor, Jomei, and controlled the administration of state with several volumes of the Sutras. Unfortunately affairs throughout two reigns. In all this he was strongly the coming of the foreign faith happened to synchronize with an seconded by his son, Iruka, who even surpassed him in contu- epidemic of plague, and conservatives at the Imperial court were melious assumption of power and parade of dignity. Iruka was easily able to attribute this visitation to resentment on the part slain in the presence of the empress Kogyoku by Prince Naka of the ancestral deities against the invasion of Japan by an alien with the assistance of the minister of the interior, Kamako, and creed. Thus the spread of Buddhism was checked; but only for it is not surprising to find the empress (Kogyoku) abdicating a time. Thirty-five years after the coming of the Sutras, the immediately afterwards in favour of Kamako's protégé, Prince first temple was erected to enshrine a wooden image of the Buddha Karu, who is known in history as Kotoku. This Kamako, 16 ft. high. It has often been alleged that the question between planner and leader of the conspiracy which overthrew the Soga, the imported and the indigenous cults had to be decided by the is remembered by posterity under the name of Kamatari and sword. The statement is misleading. That the final adoption as the founder of the most illustrious of Japan's noble houses, of Buddhism resulted from a war is true, but its adoption or the Fujiwara. At this time (645), a habit which afterwards rejection did not constitute the motive of the combat. A con- contributed materially to the effacement of the Throne's practical test for the succession to the throne at the opening of Sujun's authority was inaugurated. Prince Furubito, pressed by his reign (588-592) found the partisans of the Indian faith ranged brother, Prince Karu, to assume the sceptre in accordance with on one side, its opponents on the other, and in a moment of his right of primogeniture, made his refusal peremptory by aban- stress the leaders of the former, Soma and Prince Umayado, doning the world and taking the tonsure. This retirement to a vowed to erect Buddhist temples should victory rest on their monastery was afterwards dictated to several sovereigns by From that time the future of Buddhism was assured. ministers who found that an active occupant of the throne In 588 Korea sent Buddhist relics, Buddhist priests, Buddhist impeded their own exercise of administrative autocracy. Furu- ascetics, architects of Buddhist temples, and casters of Buddhist bito's recourse to the tonsure proved, however, to be merely a images. She had already sent men learned in divination, in cloak for ambitious designs. Before a year had passed he con- medicine, and in the calendar. The building of temples began spired to usurp the throne and was put to death with his chil. to be fashionable in the closing years of the 6th century, as did dren, his consorts strangling themselves. Suicide to escape the also abdication of the world by people of both sexes; and a disgrace of defeat had now become a common practice. Another census taken in 623, during the reign of the empress Suiko prominent feature of this epoch was the prevalence of supersti- (583-628), showed that there were then 46 temples, 816 priests tion. The smallest incidents—the growing of two lotus flowers and 569 nuns in the empire. This rapid growth of the alien on one stem; a popular ballad; the reputed song of a sleeping faith was due mainly to two causes: first, that the empress monkey; the condition of the water in a pond; rain without Suiko, being of the Soga family, naturally favoured a creed clouds—all these and cognate trifles were regarded as omens; which had found its earliest Japanese patron in the great states- wizards and witches deluded the common people; a strange form man and general, Soga no Umako; secondly, that one of the most of caterpillar was worshipped as the god of the everlasting illustrious scholars and philosophers ever possessed by Japan, world, and the peasants impoverished themselves by making Prince Shotoku, devoted all his energies to fostering Buddhism. sacrifices to it. ? The adoption of Buddhism meant to the Japanese much more An interesting epoch is now reached, the first legislative era than the acquisition of a practical religion with a code of clearly of early Japanese-history. It commenced with the reign of the defined morality in place of the amorphous and jejune cult of emperor Kötoku (645), of whom the Chronicles say First Shinto. It meant the introduction of Chinese civilization. that he “honoured the religion of Buddha and de- Legislative Priests and scholars crossed in numbers from China, and men spised Shinto”; that "he was of gentle disposition; Epoch. passed over from Japan to study the Sutras at what was then loved men of earning; made no distinction of noble and mean, regarded as the fountain-head of Buddhism. There was also and continually dispensed beneficent edicts." The customs a constant stream of immigrants from China and Korea, and the calling most loudly for reform in his time were abuse of the result may be gathered from the fact that a census taken of the system of forced labour; corrupt administration of justice; Japanese nobility in 814 indicated 382 Korean and Chinese spoliation of the peasant class; assumption of spurious titles to families against only 796 of pure Japanese origin. The records justiſy oppression; indiscriminate distribution of the families show that in costume and customs a signal advance was made of slaves and serfs; diversion of taxes to the pockets of collectors; towards refinement. Hair-ornaments of gold or silver chiselled formation of great estates, and a general lack of administrative in the form of flowers; caps of sarcenet in twelve special tints, centralization. The first step of reform consisted in ordering each indicating a different grade; garments of brocade and the governors of provinces to prepare registers showing the embroidery with figured thin silks of various colours—all these numbers of freemen and serfs within their jurisdiction as well as were worn on ceremonial occasions; the art of painting was the area of cultivated land. It was further ordained that the introduced; a recorder's office was established; perfumes were advantages of irrigation should be shared equally with the common largely employed; court picnics to gather medicinal herbs were people; that no local governor might try and decide criminal instituted, princes and princesses attending in brilliant raiment; cases while in his province; that any one convicted of accepting Chinese music and dancing were introduced; cross bows and bribes should be liable to a fine of double the amount as well as catapults were added to the weapons of war; domestic architec to other punishment; that in the Imperial court a box should ture made signal strides in obcdience to the examples of Buddhist be placed for receiving petitions and a bell hung to be sounded in sacred edifices, which, from the first, showed magnificence of the event of delay in answering them or unfairness in dealing dimension and decoration hitherto unconceived in Japan; the with them; that all absorption of land into great estates should arts of metal-casting and sculpture underwent great improve- I cease; that barriers, outposts, guards and post-horses should be DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN 257 provided; that high officials should be dowered with hereditary copper, iron, jewelled shirts, jade armour or silk brocade. It estates by way of emolument, the largest of such grants being appears that the custom of suicide or sacrifice at the tomb of 3000 homesteads; that men of unblemished character and grandees still survived, and that people sometimes cut off their proved capacity should be appointed aldermen for adjudicating hair or stabbed their thighs preparatory to declaiming å threnody. criminal matters; that there should be chosen as clerks for gover- All these practices were vetoed. Abuses had grown up even in nors and vice-governors of provinces men of solid competence connexion with the Shinto rite of purgation. This rite required “ skilled in writing and arithmetic "; that the land should be not only the reading of rituals but also the offering of food and parcelled out in fixed proportions to every adult unit of the popu- fruits. For the sake of these edibles the rite was often harshly lation with right of tenure for a term of six years; that forced enforced, especially in connexion with pollution from contact labour should be commuted for taxes of silk and cloth; and that with corpses; and thus it fell out that when of two brothers, for fiscal and administrative purposes households should be returning from a scéne of forced labour, one lay down upon the organized in groups of five, each group under an elder, and ten road and died, the other, dreading the cost of compulsory purga- groups forming a township, which, again, should be governed tion, refused to take up the body. Many other evil customs by an elder. Incidentally to these reforms many of the evil came into existence in connexion with this rite, and all' were customs of the time are exposed. Thus provincial governors dealt with in the new laws. Not the least important of the when they visited the capital were accustomed to travel with reforms then introduced was the organization of the ministry great retinues who appear to have constituted a charge on the after the model of the Tang dynasty of China. Eight depart- regions through which they passed. The law now limited the ments of state were created, and several of them received names number of a chief governor's attendants to nine, and forbade which are similarly used to this day. Not only the institutions him to use official houses or to fare at public cost unless journey of China were borrowed but also her official costumes. During ing on public business. Again, men who had acquired some local Kötoku's reign 19 grades of head-gear were instituted, and in distinction, though they did not belong to noble families, took the time of Tenchi (668–671) the number was increased to 26, advantage of the absence of historical records or official registers, with corresponding robes. Throughout this era intercourse was and, representing themselves as descendants of magnates to frequent with China, and the spread of Buddhism continued whom the charge of public granaries had been entrusted, suc- steadily. The empress Saimei (655-661), who succeeded Kötoku, ceeded in usurping valuable privileges. The office of provincial was an earnest patron of the faith. By her command several governor had in many cases become hereditary, and not only public expositions of the Sutras were given, and the building of were governors largely independent of Imperial control, but also, temples went on in many districts, estates being liberally granted since every free man carried arms, there had grown up about for the maintenance of these places of worship. these officials a population relying largely on the law of force. The Fujiwara Era.-In the Chronicles of Japan the year Kötoku's reforms sought to institute a system of temporary 672 is treated as a kind of interregnum. It was in truth a governors, and directed that all arms and armour should be year of something like anarchy. a great part of it being occupied stored in arsenals built in waste places, except in the case of by a conflict of unparalleled magnitude between Prince Otomo provinces adjoining lands where unsubdued aborigines (Yemishi) | (called in history Emperor Kõbun) and Prince Öama, who dwelt. Punishments were drastic, and in the case of a man con- emerged victorious and is historically entitled Temmu(673-686). victed of treason, all his children were executed with him, his The four centuries that followed are conveniently designated wives and consorts committing suicide. From a much earlier the Fujiwara era, because throughout that long interval affairs age suicide had been freely resorted to as the most honourable of state were controlled by the Fujiwara family, whose daughters exit from pending disgrace, but as yet the samurai's method of were given as consorts to successive sovereigns and whose sons disembowelment was not employed, strangulation or cutting filled all the high administrative posts. It has been related the throat being the regular practice. Torture was freely above that Kamako, chief of the Shinto officials, inspired the employed and men often died under it. Signal abuses prevailed assassination of the Soga chief, Iruka, and thus defeated the in regions beyond the immediate range of the central govern- latter's designs upon the throne in the days of the empress ment's observation. It has been shown that from early days Kõgyoku. Kamako, better known to subsequent generations the numerous scions of the Imperial family had generally been as Kamatari, was thenceforth regarded with unlimited favour by provided for by grants of provincial estates. Gradually the successive sovereigns, and just before his death in 670, the descendants of these men, and the representatives of great family name of Fujiwara was bestowed on him by the emperor families who held hereditary rank, extended their domains Tenchi. Kamatari himself deserved all the honour he received, unscrupulously, employing forced labour to reclaim lands, but his descendants abused the high trust reposed in them, which they let to the peasants, not hesitating to appropriate reduced the sovereign to a mere puppet, and exercised Imperial large slices of public property, and remitting to the central authority without openly usurping it. Much of this was due to treasury only such fractions of the taxes as they found con- the adoption of Chinese administrative systems, a process which venient. So prevalent had the exaction of forced labour become may be said to have commenced during the reign of Kotoku that country-folk, repairing to the capital to seek redress of (645-654) and to have continued almost uninterruptedly until the grievances, were often compelled to remain there for the purpose 11th century. Under these systems the emperor ceased directly of carrying out some work in which dignitaries of state were to exercise supreme civil or military power: he became merely interested. The removal of the capital to a new site on each the source of authority, not its wielder, the civil functions being change of sovereign involved a vast quantity of unproductive delegated to a bureaucracy and the military to a soldier class. toil. It is recorded that in 656, when the empress Saimei occu- Possibly had the custom held of transferring the capital to a new pied the throne, a canal was dug which required the work of site on each change of sovereign; and had the growth of luxuri- 30,000 men and a wall was built which had employed 70,000 men ous habits been thus checked, the comparatively simple life of before its completion. The construction of tombs for grandees early times might have held the throne and the people in closer was another heavy drain on the people's labour. Some of these contact. But from the beginning of the 8th century a strong sepulchres attained enormous dimensions—that of the emperor tendency to avoid these costly migrations developed itself. In Ojin (270-310) measures 2312 yds. round the outer moat and 709 the court took up its residence at Nara, remaining there until is some 60 ft. high; the emperor Nintoku's (313-399) is still 784; ten years after the latter date Kioto became the permanent larger, and there is a tumulus in Kawachi on the flank of which a metropolis. The capital at Nara-established during the reign good-sized village has been built. Kötoku's laws provided that of the empress Gemmyo (708–715)—was built on the plan of the the tomb of a prince should not be so large as to require the work Chinese metropolis. It had nine gates and nine avenues, the of more than 1000 men for seven days, and that the grave of a palace being situated in the northern section and approached by petty official must be completed by 50 men in one day. More- a broad, straight avenue, which divided the city into two perfectly over, it was forbidden to bury with the body gold, silver, l' equal halves, all the other streets running parallel to this main a 258 JAPAN (DOMESTIC HISTORY avenue or at right angles to it. Seven sovereigns reigned at consort for the sovereign should be legally limited to Heijó (castle of peace), as Nara is historically called, and, a daughter of their family, five branches of which were during this period of 75 years, seven of the grandest temples specially designated to that honour through all ages. When a ever seen in Japan were erected; a multitude of idols were cast, son was born to an emperor, the Fujiwara took the child into among them a colossal bronze Daibutsu 534. ft. high; large one of their palaces, and on his accession to the throne, the temple-bells were founded, and all the best artists and artisans particular Fujiwara noble that happened to be his maternal of the era devoted their services to these works. This religious grandfather became regent of the empire. This office of regent, mania reached its acme in the reign of the emperor Shomu (724- created towards the close of the 9th century, was part of the 748), a man equally superstitious and addicted to display. In scheme; for the Fujiwara did not allow the purple to be worn by Temmu's time the custom had been introduced of compelling a sovereign after he had attained his majority, or, if they suffered large numbers of persons to enter the Buddhist priesthood with him to wield the ceptre during a few years of manhood, they the object of propitiating heaven's aid to heal the illness of an compelled him to 'abdicate so soon as any independent aspira- illustrious personage. In Shõmu's day every natural calamity tions began to impair his docility; and since for the purposes of or abnormal phenomenon was regarded as calling for religious administration in these constantly recurring minorities an office services on a large scale, and the great expense involved in all more powerful than that of prime minister (dajo daijin) was these buildings and ceremonials, supplemented by lavish outlays needed, they created that of regént (kwambaku), making it on court pageants, was severely felt by the nation. The con- hereditary in their own family. In fact the histcry of Japan dition of the agricultural class, who were the chief tax-payers, from the 9th to the 19th century may be described as the history was further aggravated by the operation of the emperor Kotoku's of four families, the Fujiwara, the Taira, the Minamoto and the land system, which rendered tenure so uncertain as to deter Tokugawa. The Fujiwara governed through the emperor; the improvements. Therefore, in the Nara epoch, the principle of Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa governed in spite of the private ownership of land began to be recognized. Attention emperor. The Fujiwara based their power on matrinionial alli- was also paid to road-making, bridge-building, river control and ances with the Throne; the Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa house construction, a special feature of this last being the use based theirs on the possession of armed strength which the throne of tiles for roofing purposes in place of the shingles or thatch ad no competence to control. There another broad line of cleav- hitherto employed. In all these steps of progress Buddhist age is seen. Throughout the Fujiwara era the centre of political priests took an active part. Costumes were now governed by gravity remained always in the court Throughout the era of purely Chinese fashions. This change had been gradually intro- the Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa the centre of political duced from the time of Kotoku's legislative measures--generally gravity was transferred to a point outside the court, the head. called the Taikwa reforms after the name of the era (645-650) of quarters of a military feudalism" The process of transfer was their adoption-and was rendered more thorough by supplemen- of course gradual. It commenced with the granting of large tary enactments in the period 701-703 while Mommu occupied tracts of tax-free lands to noblemen who had wrested them from the throne. Ladies seem by this time to have abandoned the the aborigines (Yemishi) or had reclaimed them by means of serf- strings of beads worn in early eras round the neck, wrists and labour. These tracts lay for the most part in the northern and ankles. They used ornaments of gold, silver or jade in their eastern parts of the main island, at such a distance from the hair, but in other respects their habiliments closely resembled capital that the writ of the central government did not run there, those of men, and to make the difference still less conspicuous and since such lands could be rented at rates considerably less they straddled their horses when riding. Attempts were made than the tax levied on farms belonging to the state, the peasants to facilitate travel by establishing stores of grain along the by degrees abandoned the latter and settled on the former, principal highways, but as yet there were no hostelries, and if with the result that the revenues of the Throne steadily dimin- a wayfarer did not find shelter in the house of a friend, he had to ished, while those of the provincial magnates correspondingly bivouac as best he could. Such a state of affairs in the provinces increased. Moreover, in the 7th century, at the time of the offered a marked contrast to the luxurious indulgence which had adoption of Chinese models of administration and organization, now begun to prevail in the capital. There festivals of various the court began to rely for military protection on the services of kinds, dancing, verse-composing, flower picnics, archery, polo, guards temporarily drafted from the provincial troops, and, football-of a very refined nature-hawking, hunting and gam- during the protracted struggle against the Yemishi in the north bling absorbed the attention of the aristocracy. Nothing dis- and east in the 8th century, the fact that the power of the sword turbed the serenity of the epoch except a revolt of the northern lay with the provinces began to be noted. Yemishi, which was temporarily subdued by a Fujiwara general, Kioto remained the source of authority But with the growth for the Fujiwara had not yet laid aside the martial habits of of luxury and effeminacy in the capital the Fujiwara became their ancestors. In 794 the Imperial capital was transferred more and more averse from the hardships of campaign- The Taira from Nara to Kioto by order of the emperor Kwammu, one of ing, and in the gth and 10th centuries, respectively, and the the greatest of Japanese sovereigns. Education, the organiza- the Taira and the Minamoto' families came into promi- Minamoto. tion of the civil service, riparian works, irrigation improvements, nence as military leaders, the field of the Taira operations being the separation of religion from politics, the abolition of sinecure the south and west, that of the Minamoto the north and east offices, devices for encouraging and assisting agriculture, all Had the court reserved to itself and munificently exercised the received attention from him. But a twenty-two years' campaign privilege of rewarding these services, it might still have retained against the northern Yemishi; the building of numerous temples; power and wealth. But by a niggardly and contemptuous policy the indulgence of such a passionate love of the chase that he on the part of Kioto not only were the Minamoto leaders estranged organized 140 hunting excursions during his reign of 25 years; but also they assumed the right of recompensing their followers profuse extravagance on the part of the aristocracy in Kioto with tax-free estates, an example which the Taira leaders quickly and the exactions of provincial nobles, conspired to sink the followed. By the early years of the 12th century these estates working classes into greater depths of hardship than ever. had attracted the great majority of the farming class, whereas the Farmers had to borrow money and seed-rice from local officials public land was left wild and uncultivated. In a word, the court or Buddhist temples, hypothecating their land as security; thus and the Fujiwara found themselves without revenue, while the the temples and the nobles extended their already great estates, coffers of the Taira and the Minamoto were full. the power of whilst the agricultural population gradually fell into a position the purse and the power of the sword had passed effectually to the of practical serfdom. two military families. Prominent features of the moral condi- Meanwhile the Fujiwara family were steadily developing their tion of the capital at this era (12th century) were superstition, re- Rise of the influence in Kioto. Their methods were simple but finement and effeminacy. A belief was widely held that calamity Fujiwara. thoroughly effective. “ * By progressive exercises of 1 The Taira and the Minamoto both traced their descent from arbitrariness they gradually contrived that the choice of a l imperial princes; the Tokugawa were a branch of the Minamoto. DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN 259 could not be averted or success insured without recourse to The Feudal Ero.-Yoritomo, acting largely under the advice Buddhist priests. Thus, during a reign of only 13 years at the of an astute counsellor, Oye no Hiromoto, established his seat close of the 11th century, the emperor Shirakawa caused 5420 of power at Kamakura, 300 m. from Kioto. He saw that, religious pictures to be painted, ordered the casting of 127 statues effectively to utilize the strength of the military class, propin- of Buddha, each 11 ft. high, of 3150 life-sized images and of quity to the military centres in the provinces was essential. At 2930 smaller idols, and constructed 21 large temples as well as Kamakura he organized an administrative body similarin mechan- 446,630 religious edifices of various kinds. Side by side with this ism to that of the metropolitan government but studiously dif- faith in the supernatural, sexual immorality prevailed widely, ferentiated in the matter of bomenclature. As to the country never accompanied, however, by immodesty. Literary profi- at large, he brought it effectually under the sway of Kamakura ciency ranked as the be-all and end-all of existence. "A man by placing the provinces under the direct control of military estimated the conjugal qualities of a young lady by her skill governors, chosen and appointed by himself. No attempt was in finding scholarly similes and by her perception of the made, however, to interfere in any way with the polity in Kioto: cadence of words. If a woman was so fortunate as to acquire a it was left intact, and the nobles about the Throne-kuge (courtly reputation for learning, she possessed a certificate of universal houses), as they came to be called in contradistinction to the virtue and amiability.” All the pastimes of the Nara epoch buke (military houses)—were placated by renewal of their were pursued with increased fervour and elaboration in the Heian property titles. The Buddhist priests, also, who had been (Kioto) era. The building of fine dwelling-houses and the laying treated most harshly during the Taira tenure of power, found out of landscape gardens took place on a considerable scale, their fortunes restored under Kamakura's sway. Subsequently though in these respects the ideals of later ages were not yet Yoritomo obtained for himself the title of sei-itai-shögun reached. As to costume, the close-fitting, business-like and (barbarian-subduing generalissimo), and just as the office of comparatively simple dress of the 8th century was exchanged regent (kwambaku) had long been hereditary in the Fujiwara for a much more elaborate style. During the Nara epoch the family, so the office of shögun became thenceforth hereditary many-hued hats of China had been abandoned for a sober head in that of the Minamoto. These changes were radical. They gear of silk gauze covered with black lacquer, but in the Heian signified a complete shifting of the centre of power. During era this was replaced by an imposing structure glistening with eighteen centuries from the time of Jimmu's invasion-aş jewels: the sleeves of the tunic grew so long that they hung to the Japanese historians reckon-the country had been ruled from knees when a man's arms were crossed, and the trowsers •were the south; now the north became supreme, and for a civilian made so full and baggy that they resembled a divided skirt. administration a purely military was substituted. But there From this era may be said to have commenced the manufacture was no contumely towards the court in Kiöto. Kamakura made of the tasteful and gorgeous textile fabrics for which Japan after- a show of seeking Imperial sanction for every one of its acts, and wards became famous. “A fop's ideal was to wear several suits, the whole of the military administration was carried on in the one above the other, disposing them so that their various colours name of the emperor by a shogun who called himself the Imperial showed in harmoniously contrasting lines at the folds on the deputy. In this respect things changed materially after the bosom and at the edges of the long sleeves. A successful costume death of Yoritomo (1198). Kamakura then became the scene created a sensation in court circles. Its wearer became the hero of a drama analogous to that acted in Kjöto from tbe roth of the hour, and under the pernicious influence of such ambition century. men began even to powder their faces and rouge their cheeks like The Höjö family, to which belonged Masa, Yoritomo's:consort, women. As for the fair sex, their costume reached the acme of assumed towards the Kamakura shögun an attitude similar to unpracticality and extravagance in this epoch. Long flowing that previously assumed by the Fujiwara family Rule of hair was essential, and what with developing the volume and towards the emperor in Kioto. A child, who on the Hojo. multiplying the number of her robes, and wearing above her state occasions was carried to the council chamber in trowsers a many-plied train, a grand lady of the time always Masa's arms, served as the nominal repository of the shogun's seemed to be struggling to emerge from a cataract of habiliments.” power, the functions of administration being discharged in reality It was fortunate for Japan that circumstances favoured the by the Hõjó family, whose successive heads took the name of growth of a military class in this age of her career, for bad the shikken (constable). At first care was taken to have the shogun's conditions existing in Kioto during the Heian epoch spread office filled by å near relative of Yoritomo; but after the death throughout the whole country, the penalty never escaped by a of that great statesman's two sons and his nephew, the puppet demoralized nation must have overtaken her. But by the shöguns were taken from the ranks of the Fujiwara or of the middle of the 12th century the pernicious influence of the Fuji- Imperial princes, and were deposed so soon as they attempted wara had paled before that of the Taira and the Minamoto, and to assert themselves. What this meant becomes apparent when a question of succession to the throne marshalled the latter two we note that in the interval of 83 years between 1220 and 1308, families in opposite camps, thus inaugurating an era of civil war there were six shoguns whose ages at the time of appointment which held the country in the throes of almost continuous battle ranged from 3 to 16. Whether, if events had not forced their for 450 years, placed it under the administration of a military hands, the Hõjó constables would have maintained towards the feudalism, and educated a nation of warriors. At first the Mina- Throne the reverent demeanour adopted by Yoritomo must moto were vanquished and driven from the capital, Kiyomori, remain a matter of conjecture. What actually happened was the Taira chief, being left complete master of the situation. He that the ex-emperor, Go-Toba, made an ill-judged attempt established his headquarters at Rokuharu, in Kioto, appropriated (1221) to break the power of Kamakura. He issued a call to the revenues of 30 out of the 66 provinces forming the empire, arms which was responded to by some thousands of cenobites and filled all the high offices of state with his own relatives and as many soldiers of Taira extraction. In the brief struggle or connexions. But he made no radical change in the adminis- | that ensued the Imperial partisans were wholly shattered, and trative system, preferring to follow the example of the Fujiwara the direct consequences were the dethronement and exile of the by keeping the throne in the hands of minors. And he com- reigning emperor, the banishment of his predecessor together mitted the blunder of sparing the lives of two youthful sons of with two princes of the blood, and the compulsory adoption of his defeated rival, the Minamoto chief. They were Yoritomo the tonsure by Go-Toba; while the indirect consequence was that and Yoshitsunē; the latter the greatest strategist Japan ever pro- the succession to the throne and the tenure of Imperial power duced, with perhaps one exception; the former, one of her three fell under the dictation of the Hõjó as they had formerly fallen greatest statesmen, the founder of military feudalism. By these under the direction of the Fujiwara. Yoshitoki, then head of two men the Taira were so completely overthrown that they the Höjd family, installed his brother, Tokifusa, as military never raised their heads again, a sea-fight at Dan-no-ura (1155) governor of Kiðto, and confiscating about 3000 estates, the giving tbem the coup de grâce. Their supremacy had lasted property of those who had espoused the Imperial cause, distri- 22 years. buted these lands among the adherents of his own family, thus 260 (DOMESTIC HISTORY JAPAN The greatly strengthening the basis of the feudal system. “It fared | born of the god of war). Both men took the field originally in with the Hōjō as it had fared with all the great families that the cause of the Hôjó, but at heart they desired to be avenged preceded them: their own misrule ultimately wrought their upon the latter for disloyalty to the Minamoto. Nitta Yoshisada ruin. Their first eight representatives were talented and up- marched suddenly against Kamakura, carried it by storm and right administrators. They took justice, simplicity, and truth committed the city to the flames. Ashikaga Takauji occupied for guiding principles; they despised luxury and pomp; they Kioto, and with the suicide of Takatoki the Hõjõ fell finally from never aspired to high official rank, they were content with two rule after 115 years of supremacy (1219-1334). The emperor provinces for estates, and they sternly repelled the effeminate, now returned from exile, and his son, Prince Moriyoshi, having depraved customs of Kioto.” Thus the greater part of the 13th | been appointed to the office of shogun at Kamakura, the century was, on the whole, a golden era for Japan, and the lower restoration of the administrative power to the Throne seemed orders learned to welcome feudalism. Nevertheless no century an accomplished fact. furnished more conspicuous illustrations of the peculiarly Go-Daigo, however, was not in any sense a wise sovereign. Japanese system of vicarious government, Children occupied The extermination of the Hõjā placed wide estates at his disposal, the position of shogun in Kamakura under autbority emanating but instead of rewarding those who had deserved from children on the throne in Kioto; and members of the Hôjö well of him, he used a great part of them to enrich Ashikaga family as shikken administered affairs at the mandate of the his favourites, the companions of his dissipation. Shõguns. child shöguns. Through all three stages in the dignities of Ashikaga Takauji sought just such an opportunity. The follow- mikado, shögun and shikken, the strictly regulated principle of ing year (1335) saw him proclaiming himself shogun at Kama- heredity was maintained, according to which no Hōjō shikken kura, and after a complicated pågeant of incidents, the emperor could ever become shögun; no Minamoto or Fujiwara could Go-Daigo was obliged once more to fly from Kioto. He carried occupy the throne. At the beginning of the 14th century, how the regalia with him, refused to submit to Takauji, and declined ever, several causes combined to shake the supremacy of the to recognize his usurped title of snögun. The Ashikaga chief Hôjö. Under the sway of the ninth shikken (Takatoki), the solved the situation by deposing Go-Daigo and placing upon austere simplicity of life and earnest discharge of executive duties the throne another scion of the imperial family who is known in which had distinguished the early chiefs of the family were history as Kömyo (1336-1348), and who, of course, confirmed exchanged for luxury, debauchery and perfunctory government. Takauji in the office of 'shögun. Thus commenced the Ashikaga Thus the management of fiscal affairs fell into the hands of line of shöguns, and thus commenced also a fifty-six-year period Takasuke, a man of usurious instincts. It had been the wise of divided sovereignty, the emperor Go-Daigo and his descen- custom of the Hōjō constables to store grain in seasons of plenty, dants reigning in Yoshino as the southern court (nancho), and the and distribute it at low prices in times of dearth. There occurred emperor Kömyo and his descendants reigning in Kioto as the at this epoch a succession of bad harvests, but instead of opening northern court (hokucho). It was by the efforts of the shogun the state granaries with benevolent liberality, Takasuke sold Yoshimitsu, one of the greatest of the Ashikaga potentates, that their contents at the highest obtainable rates; and, by way of this quarrel was finally composed, but during its progress the contrast to the prevailing indigence, the people saw the constable country had fallen into a deplorable condition. “The constitu- in Kamakura affecting the pomp and extravagance of a sovereigntional powers had become completely disorganized, especially in waited upon by 37 mistresses, supporting a band of 2000 dancers, regions at a distance from the chief towns. The peasant was and keeping a pack of 5000 fighting dogs. The throne happened impoverished, his spirit broken, his hope of better things com- to be then occupied (1319-1338) by an emperor, Go-Daigo, who pletely gone. He dreamed away his miserable existence and had reached full maturity before his accession, and was cor- left the fields untilled. Bands of robbers followed the armies respondingly averse from acting the puppet part assigned to through the interior of the country, and increased the feeling of the sovereigns of his time. Female influence contributed to his lawlessness and insecurity. The coast population, especially impatience. One of his concubines bore a son for whom he that of the island of Kiūshiū, had given itself up in a great sought to obtain nomination as prince imperial, in defiance of an measure to piracy. Even on the shores of Korea and China arrangement made by the Hōjō that the succession should pass these enterprising Japanese corsairs. made their appearance." alternately to the senior and junior branches of the Imperial | The shogun Yoshimitsu checked piracy, and there ensued family. Kamakura refused to entertain Go-Daigo's project, between Japan and China a renewal of cordial intercourse and thenceforth the child's mother importuned her sovereign which, upon the part of the shögun, developed phases plainly and lover to overthrow the Hõjö. The entourage of the throne suggesting an admission of Chinese' suzerainty. in Kioto at this time was a counterpart of former eras. The For a brief moment during the sway of Yoshimitsu the country Fujiwara, indeed, wielded nothing of their ancient influence. had rest from internecine war, but immediately after his death They had been divided by the Hôjö into five branches, each(1394) the struggle began afresh. Many of the great territorial endowed with an equal right to the office of regent, and their lords had now grown too puissant to concern themselves about strength was thus dissipated in struggling among themselves either mikado or shögun. Each fought for his own hand, think- for the possession of the prize. But what the Fujiwara had done ing only of extending his sway and his territories. By the middle in their days of greatness, what the Taira had done during their of the 16th century Kioto was in ruins, and little vitality re- brief tenure of power, the Saionji were now doing, namely, mained in any trade or industry except those that ministered aspiring to furnish prime ministers and empresses from their own to the wants of the warrior. Again in the case of the Ashikaga family solely. They had already given consorts to five emperors shöguns the political tendency to exercise power vicariously in succession, and jealous rivals were watching keenly to attack was shown, as it had been shown in the case of the mikados in this clan which threatened to usurp the place long held by the Kioto and in the case of the Minamoto in Kamakura. What most illustrious family in the land. A petty incident disturbed the regents had been to the emperors and the constables to the this state of very tender equilibrium before the plan of the Hõjõ's Minamoto shöguns, that the wardens (kwanryo) were to the enemies had fully matured, and the emperor presently found Ashikaga shöguns. Therefore, for possession of this office of himself an exile on the island of Oki. But there now appeared kwanryo vehement conflicts were waged, and at one time five upon the scene three men of great prowess: Kusunoki Masashige, rival shōguns were used as figure-heads by contending factions. Nitta Yoshisada and Ashikaga Takauji. The first espoused Yoshimitsu had apportioned an ample allowance for the support from the outset the cause of the Throne and, though commanding of the Imperial court, but in the continuous warfare following only a small force, held the Hōjō troops in check. The last two his death the estates charged with the duty of paying this were both of Minamoto descent. Their common ancestor was allowance ceased to return any revenue; the court nobles had Minamoto Yoshiiye, whose exploits against the northern Yemishi to seek shelter and sustenance with one or other of the feudal in the second half of the 11th century had so impressed his chiefs in the provinces, and the court itself was reduced 10 such a countrymen that they gave him the title of Hachiman Taro (first- | state of indigence that when the emperor Go-Tsuchi died (1500), DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN 261 his corpse lay for forty days awaiting burial, no funds being Nobunaga to Kioto in obedience to the invitation of the mikado, available for purposes of sepulture. Okimachi, order and tranquillity were quickly restored in the Alone among the vicissitudes of these troublous times the capital and its vicinity. But to extend this blessing to the whole strength and influence of Buddhism grew steadily. The great country, four powerful daimyos as well as the militant monks had monasteries were military strongholds as well as places of worship. still to be dealt with. The monks had from the outset sheltered When the emperor Kwammu chose Kioto for his capital, he and succoured Nobunaga's enemies, and one great prelate, established on the hill of Hiyei-zan, which lay north-east of the Kenryo, hierarch of the Monto sect, whose headquarters were city, a magnificent temple to ward off the evil influences supposed at Osaka, was believed to aspire to the throne itself. In 1571 to emanate from that quarter. Twenty years later, Kōbō, the Nobunaga attacked and gave to the flames the celebrated most famous of all Japanese Buddhist saints, founded on Koya- monastery of Hiyei-zan, established nearly eight centuries pre- san in Yamato a monastery not less important than that of viously; and in 1580 he would have similarly served the splendid Hiyei-zan. These and many other temples had large tax-free temple Hongwan-ji in Osaka, had not the mikado sought and estates, and for the protection of their property they found it obtained grace for it. The task then remained of subduing four expedient to train and arm the cenobites as soldiers. From that powerful daimyos, three in the south and one in the north-east, to taking active part in the political struggles of the time was but who continued to follow the bent of their own warlike ambitions a short step, especially as the great temples often became refuges without paying the least attention to either sovereign or shögun. of sovereigns and princes who, though nominally forsaking the The task was commenced by sending an army under Hideyoshi world, retained all their interest, and even continued to take an against Mõri of Choshū, whose fief lay on the northern shore of active part, in its vicissitudes. It is recorded of the emperor the Shimonoseki strait. This proved to be the last enterprise Shirakawa (1073-1086) that the three things which he declared planned by Nobunaga. On a morning in June 1582 one of the his total inability to control were the waters of the river Kamo, corps intended to reinforce Hideyoshi's army marched out of the fall of the dice, and the monks of Buddha. His successors Kameyama under the command of Akechi Mitsuhide, who either might have confessed equal inability. Kiyomori, the puissant harboured a personal grudge against Nobunaga or was swayed chief of the Taira family, had fruitlessly essayed to defy the by blind ambition. Mitsuhide suddenly changed the route of Buddhists; Yoritomo, in the hour of his most signal triumph, his troops, led them to Kioto, and attacked the temple Honnō-ji thought it wise to placate them. Where these representatives where Nobunaga was sojourning all unsuspicious of treachery. of centralized power found themselves impotent, it may well be Rescue and resistance being alike hopeless, the great soldier supposed that the comparatively petty chieftans who fought committed suicide. Thirteen days later, Hideyoshi, having each for his own hand in the 15th and 16th centuries were in concluded peace with Möri of Chūshū, fell upon Mitsubide's capable of accomplishing anything. In fact, the task of central forces and shattered them, Mitsuhide himself being killed by a izing the administrative power, and thus restoring peace and peasant as he fled from the field. order to the distracted empire, seemed, at the middle of the 16th Nobunaga's removal at once made Hideyoshi the most con- century, a task beyond achievement by human capacity. spicuous figure in the empire, the only man with any claim to But if ever events create the men to deal with them, such was dispute that title being Tokugawa Iyeyasu. These Hideyoshi. the case in the second half of that century. Three of the two had hitherto worked in concert. But the ques- Nobunaga, greatest captains and statesmen in Japanese history tion of the succession to Nobunaga's estates threw the country Hideyoshi appeared upon the stage simultaneously, and more- once more into tumult. He left two grown-up sons and a baby over worked in union, an event altogether incon- grandson, whose father, Nobunaga's first-born, had perished Iyeyasu. sistent with the nature of the age. They were in the holocaust at Honnō-ji. Hideyoshi, not unmindful, it may Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi (the taikā) and Tokugawa Iyeyasu. be assumed, of the privileges of a guardian, espoused the cause Nobunaga belonged to the Taira family and was originally of the infant, and wrested from Nobunaga's three other great ruler of a small fief in the province of Owari. Iyeyasu, a captains a reluctant endorsement of his choice. Nobutaka, third sub-feudatory of Nobunaga's enemy, the powerful daimyol of son of Nobunaga, at once drew the sword, which he presently had Mikawa and two other provinces, was a scion of the Minamoto to turn against his own person; two years later (1584), his elder and therefore eligible for the shogunate. Hideyoshi was a brother, Nobuo, took the field under the aegis of Tokugawa peasant's son, equally lacking in patrons and in personal attrac- Iyeyasu. Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, now pitted against each other tions. No chance seemed more remote than that such men, for the first time, were found to be of equal prowess, and being above all Hideyoshi, could possibly rise to supreme power. On too wise to prolong a useless war, they reverted to their old the other hand, one outcome of the commotion with which the alliance, subsequently confirming it by a family union, the son country had seethed for more than four centuries was to give of Iyeyasu being adopted by Hideyoshi and the latter's daughter special effect to the principle of natural selection. The fittest being given in marriage to Iyeyasu. Hideyoshi had now been alone surviving, the qualities that made for fitness came to take invested by the mikado with the post of regent, and his position precedence of rank or station, and those qualities were prowess in the capital was omnipotent. He organized in Kioto a mag- in the battle-field and wisdom in the statesman's closet. “Any nificent pageant, in which the principal figures were himself, plebeian that would prove himself a first-class fighting man was Iyeyasu; Nobuo and twenty-seven daimyos. The emperor was willingly received into the armed comitatus which every feudal present. Hideyoshi sat on the right of the throne, and all the potentate was eager to attach to himself and his flag." It was, nobles did obeisance to the sovereign. Prior to this event thus that Hideyoshi was originally enrolled in the ranks of Hideyoshi had conducted against the still defiant daimyös of Nobunaga's retainers. Kiūshiū, especially Shimazu of Satsuma, the greatest army ever Nobunaga, succeeding to his small fief in Owari in 1542, added ' massed by any Japanese general, and had reduced the island to it six whole provinces within 25 years of continuous endeavour. of the nine provinces, not by weight of armament only, but also Being finally invited by the emperor to undertake the pacifica- by a signal exercise of the wise clemency which distinguished tion of the country, and appealed to by Yoshiaki, the last of the him from all the statesmen of his era. Ashikaga chiefs, to secure for him the shogunate, he marched into The whole of Japan was now under Hideyoshi's sway except Kioto at the head of a powerful army (1568), and, having accom- the fiefs in the extreme north and those in the region known as plished the latter purpose, was preparing to complete the former the Kwanto, namely, the eight provinces forming the eastern when he fell under the sword of a traitor. Throughout his elbow of the main island. Seven of these provinces were virtu- brilliant career he had the invaluable assistance of Hideyoshi, ally under the sway of Hõjā Ujimasa, fourth representative of a who would have attained immortal fame on any stage in any era. family established in 1476 by a brilliant adventurer of Ise, not Hideyoshi entered Nobunaga's service as a groom and ended related in any way to the great but then extinct house of Kama- by administering the whole empire. When he accompanied kura Höjõs. The daimyos in the north were comparatively i Daimyo ("great name") was the title given to a feudal chief. powerless to resist Hideyoshi, but to reach them the Kwanto had and 262 JAPAN (DOMESTIC HISTORY to be reduced, and not only was its chief, Ujimasa, a formidable Hideyoshi and another Iyeyasu to stem it. Sekigahara, there. foe, but also the topographical features of the district represented fore, may be truly described as a turning point in Japan's fortifications of immense strength. After various unsuccessful career and as one of the decisive battles of the world. As for overtures, having for their purpose to induce Ujimasa to visit the fact that the Tokugawa leader did not at once proceed to the capital and pay homage to the emperor, Hideyoshi marched extremities in the case of the boy Hideyori, though the events from Kioto in the spring of 1590 at the head of 170,000 men, his of the Sekigahara campaign had made it quite plain that such a coileagues Nobuo and Iyeyasu having under their orders. 80,000 course would ultimately be inevitable, we have to remember more. The campaign ended as did all Hideyoshi's enterprises, that only two years had elapsed since Hideyoshi was laid in his except that he treated his vanquished enemies with unusual grave. His memory was still green and the glory of his achieve- severity. During the three months spent investing Odawara, ments still enveloped his family. Iyeyasu foresaw that to carry the northern daimyos surrendered, and thus the autumn of the tragedy to its bitter end at once must have forced into Hide- 1590 saw Hideyoshi master of Japan from end to end, and saw yori's camp many puissant daimyōs whose sense of allegiance Tokugawa Iyeyasu established at Yedo as recognized ruler of would grow less cogent with the lapse of time. When he did lay the eight provinces of the Kwanto. These two facts should be siege to the Osaka castle in 1615, the power of the Tokugawa was bracketed together, because Japan's emergence from the deep wellnigh shattered against its ramparts; had not the onset been gloom of long-continued civil strife was due not more to the aided by treachery, the stronghold would probably have proved brilliant qualities of Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu individually than to impregnable. the fortunate synchronism of their careers, so that the one was But signal as were the triumphs of the Tokugawa chieftain in able to carry the other's work to completion and permanence. the field, what distinguishes him from all his predecessors is the The last eight years of Hideyoshi's life-he died in 1598—were ability he displayed in consolidating his conquests. The im- chiefly remarkable for his attempt to invade China through mense estates that fell into his hands he parcelled out in such a Korea, and for his attitude towards Christianity (see § VIII.: manner that all important strategical positions were held by FOREIGN INTERCOURSE). daimyos whose fidelity could be confidently trusted, and every The Tokugawa Era.-When Hideyoshi died he left a son, feudatory of doubtful loyalty found his fief within touch of a Hideyori, then only six years of age, and the problem of this Tokugawa partisan. This arrangement, supplemented by a child's future had naturally caused supreme solicitude to the system which required all the great daimyos to have mansions in peasant statesman. He finally entrusted the care of the boy the shögun's capital. Yedo, to keep their families there always and the management of state affairs to five regents, five ministers, and to reside there themselves in alternate years, proved so and three intermediary councillors. But he placed chief reliance potent a check to disaffection that from 1615, when the castle of upon Iyeyasu, whom he appointed president of the board of Osaka fell, until 1864, when the Choshū rõnin attacked Kioto, regents. Among the latter was one, Ishida Mitsunari, who to Japan remained entirely free from civil war. insatiable ambition added an extraordinary faculty for intrigue It is possible to form a clear idea of the ethical and adminis- and great personal magnetism. These qualities he utilized with trative principles by which Iyeyasu and the early Tokugawa such success that the dissensions among the daimyos, which had chiefs were guided in elaborating the system which gave to been temporarily composed by Hideyoshi, broke out again, and Japan an unprecedented era of peace and prosperity. Evidence the year 1600 saw Japan divided into two camps, one composed is furnished not only by the system itself but also by the con- of Tokugawa Iyeyasu and his allies, the other of Ishida Mitsunari tents of a document generally called the Testament of Iyeyasu, and his partisans. though probably it was not fully compiled until the time of his The situation of Iyeyasu was eminently perilous. From his grandson, Iyemitsu (1623-1650). The great Tokugawa chief, position in the east of the country, he found himself menaced though he munificently patronized Buddhism and though he lyeyasu. by two powerful enemies on the north and on the carried constantly in his bosom a miniature Buddhist image to south, respectively, the former barely contained by which he ascribed all his success in the field and his safety in a greatly weaker force of his friends, and the latter moving up battle, took his ethical code from Confucius. He held that the in seemingly overwhelming strength from Kioto. He decided basis of all legislation and administration should be the five to hurl himself upon the southern army without awaiting the relations of sovereign and subject, parent and child, husband result of the conflict in the north. The encounter took place and wife, brother and sister, friend and friend. The family at Sekigahara in the province of Mino on the 21st of October was, in his eyes, the essential foundation of society, to be main- 1600. The army of Iyeyasu had to move to the attack in such a tained at all sacrifices. Beyond these broad outlines of moral manner that its left flank and its left rear were threatened by duty it was not deemed necessary to instruct the people. There- divisions of the enemy posted on commanding eminences. But fore out of the hundred chapters forming the Testament only with the leaders of these divisions Iyeyasu had come to an under- 22 contain what can be called legal enactments, while 55 relate standing by which they could be trusted to abide so long as to administration and politics; 16 set forth moral maxims and victory did not declare against him. Such incidents were reflections, and the remainder record illustrative episodes in the naturally common in an era when every man fought for his career of the author. “No distinct line is drawn between law own hand. The southerners suffered a crushing defeat. The and morals, between the duty of a citizen and the virtues of a survivors fied pell-mell to Osaka, where in a colossal fortress, member of a family. Substantive law is entirely wanting, just built by Hideyoshi, his son, Hideyori, and the latter's mother, as it was wanting in the so-called constitution of Prince Shotoku. Yodo, were sheltered behind ramparts held 80,000 men. Custom, as sanctioned by public observance, must be complied Hideyori's cause had been openly put forward by Ishida Mit- with in the civil affairs of life. What required minute exposition sunari and his partisans, but Iyeyasu made no immediate was criminal law, the relations of social classes, etiquette, rank, attempt to visit the sin upon the head of his deceased benefac- precedence, administration and government. tor's child. On the contrary, he sent word to the lady Yodo and Society under feudalism had been moulded into three sharply her little boy that he absolved them of all complicity. The defined groups, namely, first, the Throne and the court nobles battle of Sekigahara is commonly spoken of as having terminated (kuge); secondly, the military class (buke or samurai); Social dis. the civil war which had devastated Japan, with brief intervals, and thirdly, the common people (heimin). These lines tiactions in from the latter half of the 12th century to the beginning of the of cleavage were emphasized as much as possible the Toku- 17th. That is incorrect in view of the fact that Sekigahara was by the Tokugawa rulers. The divine origin of the sawa Era. followed by other fighting, especially by the terrible conflict at mikado was held to separate him from contact with mundane Osaka in 1615 when Yodo and her son perished. But Sekin affairs, and he was therefore strictly secluded in the palace at gahara's importance cannot be over-rated. For had Iyeyasu been Kioto, his main function being to mediate between his heavenly finally crushed there, the wave of internecine striſe must have ancestors and his subjects, entrusting to the shogun and the rolled again over the empire until providence provided another 1 samurai the duty of transacting all worldly business on bebalf DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN 263 of the state. In obedience to this principle the mikado became daimyos from secretly leaving Yedo for their own provinces. a kind of sacrosanct abstraction. No one except his consorts In their journeys to and from Yedo every second year the feudal and his chief ministers ever saw his face. In the rare cases chiefs had to travel by one of two great highways, the Tokaido when he gave audience to a privileged subject, he sat behind a or the Nakasendõ, and as they moved with great retinues, curtain, and when he went abroad, he rode in a closely shut car these roads were provided with a number of inns and tea-houses drawn by oxen. A revenue of ten thousand koku of rice-the equipped in a sumptuous manner, and having an abundance of equivalent of about as many guineas-was apportioned for his female servants. A puissant daimyo's procession often num. support, and the right was reserved to him of conferring empty bered as many as 1000 retainers, and nothing illustrates more titles upon the living and rank upon the dead. His majesty had forcibly the wide interval that separated the soldier and the one wife, the empress (kogo), necessarily taken from one of the plebeian than the fact that at the appearance of the heralds who five chosen families (go-sekke) of the Fujiwara, but he might also preceded these progresses all commoners who happened to be have twelve consorts, and if direct issue failed, the succession abroad had to kneel on the ground with bowed and uncovered passed to one of the two princely families of Arisugawa and heads; all wayside houses had to close the shutters of windows Fushimi, adoption, however, being possible in the last resort. giving on the road, and none might venture to look down from a The kuge constituted the court nobility, consisting of 155 families height on the passing magnate. Any violation of these rules of all of whom traced their lineage to ancient mikados; they ranked etiquette exposed the violator to instant death at the hands of far above the feudal chiefs, not excepting even the shögun; the daimyo's retinue. Moreover, the samurai and the heimin filled by right of heredity nearly all the offices at the court, the lived strictly apart. A feudal chief had a castle which generally emoluments attached being, however, a mere pittance; were occupied a commanding position. It was surrounded by from entirely without the great estates which had belonged to them one to three broad moats, the innermost crowned with a high in ante-feudal times, and lived lives of proud poverty, occupying wall of huge cut stones, its trace arranged so as to give flank themselves with the study of literature and the practice of music defence, which was further provided by pagoda-like towers and art. After the kuge and at a long distance below them in placed at the salient angles. Inside this wall stood the houses theoretical rank came the military families, who, as a class, of the high officials on the outskirts of a park surrounding the were called buke or samurai. They had hereditary revenues, residence of the daimyo himself, and from the scarps of the moats and they filled the administrative posts, these, too, being often or in the intervals between them rose houses for the military hereditary. The third, and by far the most numerous, section retainers, barrack-like structures, provided, whenever possible, of the nation were the commoners (heimin). They had no with small but artistically arranged and carefully tended gardens. social status; were not allowed to carry swords, and possessed All this domain of the military was called yashiki in distinction no income except what they could earn with their hands. to the machi (streets) where the despised commoners had their About 55 in every 1000 units of the nation were samurai, the habitat, latter's wives and children being included in this estimate. The general body of the samurai received stipends and lived Under the Hōjō and the Ashikaga shoguns the holders of frugally. Their pay was not' reckoned in money: it took the the great estates changed frequently according to the vicissi- form of so many rations of rice delivered from Samurai. tudes of those troublesome times, but under the their chief's granaries. A few had landed estates, Daimyös. Tokugawa no change took place, and there thus usually bestowed in recognition of conspicuous merit. They grew up a landed nobility of the most permanent character. were probably the finest type of hereditary soldiers the world Every one of these estates was a feudal kingdom, or small, ever produced. Money and all devices for earning it they pro- with its own usages and its own laws, based on the general foundly despised. The right of wearing a sword was to them principles above indicated and liable to be judged according to the highest conceivable privilege. They counted themselves those principles by the shögun's government (baku-fu) in Yedo. the guardians of their fiefs' honour and of their country's welfare. A daimyo or feudal chief drew from the peasants on his estate At any monient they were prepared cheerfully to sacrifice their the means of subsistence for himself and his retainers. For this lives on the altar of loyalty. Their word, once given, must never purpose the produce of his estate was assessed by the shogun's be violated. The slightest insult to their honour might not be officials in koku (one koku=180-39 litres, worth about £1), and condoned. Stoicism was a quality which they esteemed next about one-half of the assessed amount went to the feudatory, to courage: all outward display of emotion must be suppressed. the other half to the tillers of the soil. The richest daimyo was The sword might never be drawn for a petty cause, but, if once Mayeda of Kaga, whose fief was assessed at a little over a million drawn, must never be returned to its scabbard until it had done koku, his revenue thus being about half a million sterling. Just its duty. Martial exercises occupied much of their attention, as an empress had to be taken from one of five families designated but book learning also they esteemed highly. They were pro- to that distinction for all time, so a successor to the shogunate, foundly courteous towards each other, profoundly contemptuous. ſailing direct heir, had to be selected from three families towards the commoner, whatever his wealth. Filial piety ranked (sanke), namely, those of the daimyos of Owari, Kii and Mito, next to loyalty in their code of ethics. Thus the Confucian whose first representatives were three sons of Iyeyasu. Out maxim, endorsed explicitly in the Testament of Iyeyasu, that a of the total body of 255 daimyos existing in the year 1862, man must not live under the same sky with his father's mur- 141 were specially distinguished as fudai, or hereditary vassals derer or his brother's slayer, received most literal obedience, of the Tokugawa house, and to 18 of these was strictly and many instances occurred of vendettas pursued in the face of limited the perpetual privilege of filling all the high offices apparently insuperable difficulties and consummated after years in the Yedo administration, while to 4 of them was reserved of effort. By the standard of modern morality the Japanese the special honour of supplying a regent (go-tairā) during the samurai would be counted cruel. Holding that death was the minority of the shögun. Moreover, a fudai daimyo was of natural sequel of defeat and the only certain way of avoiding necessity appointed to the command of the fortress of disgrace, he did not seek quarter himself or think of extending it Nijo in Kioto as well as of the great castles of Osaka, and to an enemy. Yet in his treatment of the latter he loved to dis- Fushimi, which Iyeyasu designated the keys of the country. play courtesy until the supreme moment when all considerations No intermarriage might take place between members of the of mercy were laid aside. It cannot be doubted that the prac- court nobility and the feudal houses without the consent of tice of employing torture judicially tended to educate a mood Yedo; no daimyo might apply direct to the emperor for an of callousness towards suffering, or that the many idle hours of a official title, or might put foot within the imperial district of military man's life in time of peace encouraged a measure of Kioto without the shogun's permit, and at all entrances to the dissipation. But there does not seem to be any valid ground for region known as the Kwanto there were established guard- concluding that either of these defects was conspicuous in houses, where every one, of whatever rank, must submit to be the character of the Japanese samurai. Faithlessness towards examined, in order to prevent the wives and children of the women was the greatest fault that can be laid to his door. The 264 JAPAN (DOMESTIC HISTORY sex. samurai lady claimed no privilege of timidity on account of her position of penury'and degradation, began to develop luxurious She knew how to die in the cause of honour just as readily proclivities and to demand corresponding amusements. Thus as her husband, her father or her brother died, and conjugal the theatre came into existence; the dancing girl and the fidelity did not rank as a virtue in her eyes, being regarded as a jester found lucrative employment; a popular school of art simple duty. But her husband held marital faith in small was founded and quickly carried to perfection; the lupanar esteem and ranked his wife far below his sword. It has to be assumed unprecedented dimensions; rich and costly costumes remembered that when we speak of a samurai's suicide, there is acquired wide vogue in despite of sumptuary laws enacted no question of poison, the bullet, drowning or any comparatively from time to time; wrestling became an important institution, painless manner of exit from the world. The invariable method and plutocracy asserted itself in the face of caste distinctions. was to cut open the abdomen (hara-kiri or seppuku) and after- Simultaneously with the change of social conditions thus wards, if strength remained, the sword was turned against the taking place, history repeated itself at the shögun's court. The throat. To such endurance had the samurai trained himself substance of administrative power passed into the hands of a that he went through this cruel ordeal without flinching in the minister, its shadow alone remaining to the shögun. During smallest degree. only two generations were the successors of Iyeyasu able to resist The heimin or commoners were divided into three classes this traditional tendency. The representative of the third- husbandmen, artisans and traders. The farmer, as the nation Iyetsuna (1661-1680) -succumbed to the machinations of an Heimin. lived by his labour, was counted the most respecto ambitious minister, Sakai Takakiyo, and it may be said that from able among the bread-winners, and a cultivator that time the nominal repository of administrative authority in of his own estate might even carry one sword but never two, Yedo was generally a species of magnificent recluse, secluded that privilege being strictly reserved to a samurai. The artisan, from contact with the outer world and seeing and hearing only too, received much consideration, as is easily understood when through the eyes and ears of the ladies of his household. In we remember that included in his ranks were artists, sword- this respect the descendants of the great Tokugawa statesman smiths, armourers, sculptors of sacred images or sword-furniture, found themselves reduced to a position precisely analogous to ceramists and lacquerers. Many artisans were in the permanent that of the emperor in Kioto. Sovereign and shögun were service of feudal chiefs from whom they received fixed salaries. alike mere abstractions so far as the practical work of Tradesmen, however, were regarded with disdain and stood government was concerned. With the great mass of the feudal lowest of all in the social organization. Too much despised to chiefs things fared similarly. These men who, in the days of be even included in that organization were the eta (defiled Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, had directed the policies of folks) and the hinin (outcasts). The exact origin of these latter their fiefs and led their armies in the field, were gradually trans- pariahs is uncertain, but the ancestors of the eta would seem to formed, during the long peace of the Tokugawa era, into volup- have been prisoners of war or the enslaved families of criminals. tuous fainéants or, at best, thoughtless dilettanti, willing to To such people were assigned the defiling duties of tending tombs, abandon the direction of their affairs to seneschals and mayors, disposing of the bodies of the dead, slaughtering animals or who, while on the whole their administration was able and tanning hides. The hinin were mendicants. On them devolved loyal, found their account in contriving and perpetuating the the task of removing and burying the corpses of executed crimi- effacement of their chiefs. Thus, in effect, the government nals. Living in segregated hamlets, forbidden to marry with of the country, taken out of the hands of the shögun and the heimin, still less with samurai, not allowed to eat, drink or feudatories, fell into those of their vassals. There were excep- associate with persons above their own class, the eta remained | tions, of course, but so rare as to be merely accidental. under the ban of ostracism from generation to generation, Another important factor has to be noted. It has been though many of them contrived to amaşs much wealth. They shown above that Iyeyasu bestowed upon his three sons the rich were governed by their own headmen, and they had three fiefs of Owari, Kii (Kishū) and Mito, and that these three chiefs, one residing in each of the cities of Yedo, Osaka and families exclusively enjoyed the privilege of furnishing an heir Kioto. All these members of the submerged classes were to the shogun should the latter be without direct issue. Mito relieved from proscription and admitted to the ranks of the ought therefore to have been a most unlikely place for the commoners under the enlightened system of Meiji. The 12th conception and propagation of principles subversive of the of October 1871 saw their enfranchisement, and at that date shogun's administrative autocracy. Nevertheless, in the 'days the census showed 287,111 eta and 695,689 hinin. of the second of the Mito chiefs at the close of the 17th century, Naturally, as the unbroken peace of the Tokugawa régime there arose in that province a school of thinkers who, revolting became habitual, the mood of the nation underwent a change. against the ascendancy of Chinese literature and of Buddhism, Decline and The samurai, no longer required to lead the frugal devoted themselves to compiling a history such as should recall Fall of the life of camp or barracks, began to live beyond their the attention of the nation to its own annals and revive its Shogunate. incomes. * They found difficulty in meeting the allegiance to Shinto. It would seem that in patronizing the pecuniary engagements of everyday existence, so that money compilation of this great work the Mito chief was swayed by acquired new importance in their eyes, and they gradually the spirit of pure patriotism and studentship, and that he forfeited the respect which their traditional disinterestedness discerned nothing of the goal.to which the new researches must had won for them in the past.” At the same time the lead the litterati of his fief. “He and they, for the sake of abuses of feudalism were thrown into increased salience. A history and without any thought of politics, undertook a retro- large body of hereditary soldiers become an anomaly when spect of their country's annals, and their frank analysis furnished fighting has passed even out of memory. On the other conclusive proof that the emperor was the prime source of hand, the agricultural and commercial classes acquired new administrative authority and that its independent exercise importance. The enormous sums disbursed every year in by a shogun must be regarded as a usurpation. They did not Yedo, for the maintenance of the great establishments attempt to give practical effect to their discoveries; the era was which the feudal chiefs vied with each other in keeping there, essentially academical. But this galaxy of scholars projected enriched the merchants and traders so greatly that their into the future a light which burned with growing force in each scale of living underwent radical change. Buddhism was à succeeding generation and ultimately burst into a flame which potent influence, but its ethical restraints were weakened by consumed feudalism and the shogunate,” fused the nation into the conduct of its priests, who themselves often yielded to the one, and restored the governing authority to the emperor. temptation of the time. The aristocracy adhered to its refined Of course the Mito men were not alone in this matter: many pastimes-performances of the No; tea reunions; poem students subsequently trod in their footsteps and many others composing; polo; football; equestrian archery; fencing and sought to stem the tendency; but the net result was fatal to gambling-but the commoner, being excluded from all this faith in the dual system of government. Possibly had nothing realm and, at the same time, emerging rapidly from his old l occurred to furnish signal proof of the system's practical defects, 66 DOMESTIC HISTORY} JAPAN 265 it might have long survived this theoretical disapproval. , enjoining his destruction. At the same time all officials con- But the crisis caused by the advent of ſoreign ships and by the nected with the Tokugawa or suspected of sympathy with forceful renewal of foreign intercourse in the 19th century them were expelled from office in Kioto, and the shogun's afforded convincing evidence of the shogunate's incapacity to troops were deprived of the custody of the palace gates by protect the state's supposed interests and to enforce the tradi- methods which verged upon the use of armed force. In the tional policy of isolation which the nation had learned to con- face of such provocation Keiki's earnest efforts to restrain sider essential to the empire's integrity. the indignation of his vassals and adherents failed. They Ånother important factor made for the fall of the shogunate.marched against Kioto and were defeated, whereupon Keiki left That factor was the traditional disaffection of the two great his castle at Osaka and retired to Yedo, where he subsequently southern fiefs, Satsuma and Choshū. When Iyeyasu parcelled made unconditional surrender to the Imperial army. There is out the empire, he deemed it the wisest policy to leave these little more to be set down on this page of the history. The chieftains in full possession of their large estates. But this Yedo court consented to lay aside its dignities and be stripped measure, construed as an evidence of weakness rather than of its administrative authority, but all the Tokugawa vassals a token of liberality, neither won the allegiance of the big and adherents did not prove equally placable. There was resist- feudatories nor cooled, their ambition. Thus no sooner did ance in the northern provinces, where the Aizu feudatory the nation divide into two camps over the question of renewed refused to abandon the Tokugawa cause; there was an attempt foreign intercourse than men of the above clans, in concert to set up a rival candidate for the throne in the person of an with representatives of certain of the old court nobles, placed Imperial prince who presided over the Uyeno Monastery in themselves at the head of a movement animated by two loudly Yedo; and there was a wild essay on the part of the admiral proclaimed purposes: restoration of the administration to the of the shögun's fleet to establish a republic in the island of emperor, and expulsion of aliens. This latter aspiration under- Yezo. But these were mere ripples on the surface of the broad went a radical change when the bombardment of the Satsuma stream which set towards the peaceful overthrow of the dual capital, Kagoshima, and the destruction of the Choshū forts system of government and ultimately towards the fall of and ships at Shimonoseki proved conclusively to the Satsuma feudalism itself. That this system, the outcome of five centuries and Choshū clans that Japan in her unequipped and backward of nearly continuous warfare, was swept away in almost as many condition could not hope to stand for a moment against the weeks with little loss of life or destruction of property consti- Occident in arms. But the unwelcome discovery was accom- | tutes; perhaps, the most striking incident, certainly the most panied by a conviction that only a thoroughly united nation momentous, in the history of the Japanese nation. might aspire to preserve its independence, and thus the abolition The Mciji Era.-It must be remembered that when refer- of the dual form of government became more than ever an ence is made to the Japanese nation in connexion with these article of public faith. It is unnecessary to recount the suc- radical changes, only the nobles and the samurai are indicated cessive incidents which conspired to undermine the shogun's -in other words, a section of the population representing about authority, and to destroy the prestige of the Yedo administration. one-sixteenth of the whole. The bulk of the people-the Both had been reduced to vanishing quantities by the year 1866 | agricultural, the industrial and the mercantile classes-remained when Keiki succeeded to the shogunate. outside the sphere of politics, not sharing the anti-foreign preju- 1. Keiki, known historically as Yoshinobu, the last of the dice, or taking any serious interest in the great questions of the shöguns, was a man of matured intellect and high capacities. time. Foreigners often noted with surprise the contrast be- He had been put forward by the anti-foreign Conservatives tween the fierce antipathy displayed towards them by certain for the succession to the shogunate in 1857 when the complica- samurai on the one hand, and the genial, hospitable reception tions of foreign intercourse were in their first stage of acuteness. given to them by the common people on the other. History But, like many other intelligent Japanese, he had learned, teaches that the latter was the natural disposition of the Japanese, in the interval between 1857 and 1866, that to keep her doors the former a mood educated by special experiences. Further, closed was an impossible task for Japan, and very quickly even the comparatively narrow statement that the restoration after taking the reins of office he recognized that national of the administrative power to the emperor was the work of the union could never be achieved while power was divided between nobles and the samurai must be taken with limitations. A Kioto and Yedo. At this juncture there was addressed to majority of the nobles entertained no idea of any necessity for him by Yödo, chief of the great Tosa ficf, a memorial setting change. They were either' held fast in the vice of Tokugawa forth the hopelessness of the position in which the Yedo court authority, or paralyzed by the sensuous seductions of the lives now found itself, and urging that, in the interests of good provided for them by the machinations of their retainers, who government and in order that the nation's united strength transferred the administrative authority of the fiefs to their might be available to meet the exigencies of its new career, own hands, leaving its shadow only to their lords. It was among the administration should be restored to the emperor. Keiki the retainers that longings for a new order of things were gene- received this memorial in Kioto. He immediately summoned rated. Some of these men were sincere disciples of progress-a a council of all the feudatories and high officials then in the small band of students and deep thinkers who, looking through Imperial city, announced to them his intention to lay down his the narrow Dutch window at Deshima, had caught a glimmering office, and, the next day, presented his resignation to the perception of the realities that lay beyond the horizon of their sovereign. This happened on the 14th of October 1867. country's prejudices. But the influence of such Liberals was com- It must be ranked among the signal events of the world's paratively insignificant. Though they showed remarkable moral history, for it signified the voluntary surrender of kingly courage and tenacity of purpose, the age did not furnish any authority wielded uninterruptedly for nearly three centuries. strong object lesson to enforce their propaganda of progress. That the shögun's resignation was tendered in good faith The factors chiefly making for change were, first, the ambition there can be no doubt, and had it been accepted in the same of the southern clans to oust the Tokugawa, and, secondly, the spirit, the great danger involved might have been consum- samurai's loyal instinct, reinforced by the teachings of his mated without bloodshed or disorder. But the clansmen of country's history, by the revival of the Shinto cult, by the Satsuma and Choshū were distrustful. One of the shogun's promptings of national enterprise, and by the object-lessons of first acts after assuming office had been to obtain from the throne foreign intercourse. an edict for imposing penalties on Choshū, and there was a But though essentially imperialistic in its prime purposes, precedent for suspecting that the renunciation of power by the revolution which involved the fall of the shogunate, and the shogun might merely prelude its resumption on a firmer ultimately of feudalism, may be called democratic with Character 'basis. Therefore steps were taken to induce the emperor, regard to the personnel of those who planned and of the Revolution. then a youth of fifteen, to issue a secret rescript to Satsuma directed it. They were, for the most part, men with- and Chösha, denouncing the shögun as the nation's enemy and lout either official rank or social standing. That is a point essential 266 (DOMESTIC HISTORY. JAPAN to a clear understanding of the issue. Fifty-five individuals may been correspondingly costly. But the chiefs of Choshū and Hizen be said to have planned and carried out the overthrow of the obeyed the suggestions of their principal vassals with little, if Yedo administration, and only five of them were territorial | any, sense of the probable cost of obedience. The same remark nobles. Eight, belonging to the court nobility, laboured under applies to all the other feudatories, with exceptions so rare as to the traditional disadvantages of their class, poverty and political emphasize the rule. They had long been accustomed to abandon insignificance; and the remaining forty-two, the hearts and hands the management of their afiairs to their leading clansmen, and of the movement, may be described as ambitious youths, who they allowed themselves to follow the same guidance at this sought to make a career for themselves in the first place, and crisis. Out of more than 250 feudatories, only 17 hesitated to for their country in the second. The average age of the whole imitate the example of the four southern fiefs. did not exceed thirty. There was another element for which An explanation of this remarkable incident has been sought by any student of Japanese history might have been prepared: the supposing that the samurai of the various clans, when they Satsuma samurai aimed originally not merely at overthrowing advised a course so inconsistent with fidelity to Motives the Tokugawa but also at obtaining the shogunate for their own the interests of their feudal chiefs, were influenced of the chief. Possibly it would be unjust to say that all the leaders by motives of personal ambition, imagining that Reformers. of the great southern clan harboured that idea. But some of they themselves might find great opportunities under the new them certainly did, and not until they had consented lo abandon régime. Some hope of that kind may fairly be assumed, and was the project did their union with Choshū, the other great southern certainly realized, in the case of the leading samurai of the four clan, become possible-a union without which the revolution southern clans which headed the movement. But it is plain could scarcely have been accomplished. This ambition of the that no such expectations can have been generally entertained. Satsuma clansmen deserves special mention, because it bore | The simplest explanation seems to be the true one: a certain remarkable fruit; it may be said to have laid the foundation of course, indicated by the action of the four southern clans, was constitutional government in Japan. For, in consequence of conceived to be in accord with the spirit of the Restoration, and the distrust engendered by such aspirations, the authors of the not to adopt it would have been to shrink publicly from a sacrifice Restoration that when the emperor assumed the reins of dictated by the principle of loyalty to the Thronema rinciple power, he should solemnly pledge himself to convene a deliber- which had acquired supreme sanctity in the eyes of the men of ative assembly, to appoint to administrative posts men of that era. There might have been some uncertainty about the intellect and erudition wherever they might be found, and to initial step; but so soon as that was taken by the southern clans decide all measures in accordance with public opinion. This their example acquired compelling force. History shows that promise, referred to frequently in later times as the Imperial in political crises the Japanese samurai is generally ready to pay oath at the Restoration, came to be accounted the basis of repre- deference to certain canons of almost romantic morality. There sentative institutions, though in reality it was intended solely was a fever of loyalty and of patriotism in the air of the year as a guarantee against the political ascendancy of any one clan. 1869. Any one hesitating, for obviously selfish reasons, to adopt At the outset the necessity of abolishing feudalism did not a precedent such as that offered by the procedure of the great present itself clearly to the leaders of the revolution. Their southern clans, would have seemed to forfeit the right of calling sole idea was the unification of the nation. But himself a samurai. But although the leaders of this remarkable when they came to consider closely the practical movement now understood that they must contrive the total side of the problem, they understood how far it abolition of feudalism and build up a new administrative edifice would lead them, Evidently that one homogeneous system on foundations of constitutional monarchy, they appreciated of law should replace the more or less heterogeneous systems the necessity of advancing slowly towards a goal which still lay operative in the various fiefs was essential, and such a beyond the range of their followers' vision. Thus the first steps substitution meant that the feudatories must be deprived taken after the surrender of the fiefs were to appoint the feuda. of their local autonomy and, incidentally, of, their control of tories to the position of governors in the districts over which they local finances. That was a stupendous change. Hitherto each had previously ruled; to confirm the samurai in the possession feudal chief had collected the revenues of his fief and had em- of their incomes and official positions; to put an end to the dis- ployed them at will, subject to the sole condition of maintaining tinction between court nobles and territorial nobles, and to a body of troops proportionate to his income. He had been, and organize in Kioto a cabinet consisting of the leaders of the was still, an autocrat within the limits of his territory. On the restoration. Each new governor received one-tenth of the other hand, the active authors of the revolution were a small income of the fief by way of emoluments; the pay of the officials band of men mainly without prestige or territorial influence. It and the samurai, as well as the administrative expenses of the was impossible that they should dictate any measure sensibly district, was defrayed from the same source, and the residue, if impairing the local and fiscal autonomy of the feudatories. No any, was to pass into the treasury of the central government. power capable of enforcing such a measure existed at the time. The defects of this system from a monarchical point of view All the great political changes in Japan had formerly been soon became evident. It did not give the power of either preceded by wars culminating in the accession of some strong the purse or the sword to the sovereign. The Defects of clan to supreme authority, whereas in this case there had been a revenues of the administrative districts continued the First displacement without a substitution—the Tokugawa had been to be collected and disbursed by the former Measures. overthrown and no new administrators had been set up in their feudatories, who also retained the control of the troops, the stead. It was, moreover, certain that an attempt on the part of right of appointing and dismissing officials, and almost com- any one clan to constitute itself executor of the sovereign's plete local autonomy. A further radical step had to be mandates would have stirred the other clans to vehement resist taken, and the leaders of reform, seeing nothing better than ance. In short, the leaders of the revolution found themselves to continue the method of procedure which had thus far proved pledged to a new theory of government without any machinery so successful, contrived, first, that several of the administrative for carrying it into eſiect, or any means of abolishing the old districts should send in petitions offering to surrender their local practice. An ingenious exit from this curious dilemma was autonomy and be brought under the direct rule of the central devised by the young reformers. They induced the feudal chiefs government; secondly, that a number of samurai should apply of Satsuma, Chūshū, Tosa and Hizen, the four most powerful for permission to lay aside their swords. While the nation was clans in the south, publicly to surrender their fiefs to the digesting the principles embodied in these petitions, the govern. emperor, praying his majesty to reorganize them and to bring ment made preparations for further measures of reform. The them all under the same system of law. In the case of Shimazu, ex-chief of Satsuma, who showed some umbrage because the chief of Satsuma, and Yodo, chief of Tosa, this act must stand to services of his clan in promoting the restoration had not been their credit as a noble sacrifice. To them the exercise of power more fully recognized, was induced to take high ministerial office, had been a reality and the effort of surrendering it must have l as were also the ex-chiefs of Choshū and Tosa. Each of the four The Anti- feudal Idea. DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN 267 Radical great clans had now three representatives in the ministry. samurai at the rate of six years' purchase for hereditary pensions These clans were further persuaded to send to Tokyo-whither and four years for life pensions--one-half of the commutation lo the emperor had moved his court-contingents of troops to be paid in cash, and one-half in bonds bearing interest at the form the nucleus of a national army. Importance attaches to rate of 8%. It will be seen that a perpetual pension of £10 these details because the principle of clan representation, would be exchanged for a payment of £30 in cash, together illustrated in the organization of the cabinet of 1871, continued with securities giving an income of £2, 8s.; and that a £10 life to be approximately observed for many years in forming pensioner received £20 in cash and securities yielding £1, 125. ministries, and ultimately became a target for the attacks of annually. It is scarcely credible that the samurai should have párty politicians. accepted such an arrangement. Something, perhaps, must be On the 29th of August 1871 an Imperial decree announced ascribed to their want of business knowledge, but the general the abolition of the system of local autonomy, and the removal explanation is that they made a large sacrifice in the interests Adoption of of the territorial nobles from the posts of governor. of their country. Nothing in all their career as soldiers became The taxes of the former fiefs were to be paid thence-them better than their manner of abandoning it. They were Measures. forth into the central treasury; all officials were to told that they might lay aside their swords, and many of them be appointed by the Imperial government, and the feudatories, did so, though from time immemorial they had cherished the retaining permanently an income of one-tenth of their original sword as the mark of a gentleman, the most precious possession revenues, were to make Tōkyō their place of residence. As for of a warrior, and the one outward evidence that distinguished the samurai, they remained for the moment in possession of men of their order from common toilers after gain. They saw their hereditary pensions. Radical as these changes seem, the themselves deprived of their military employment, were invited disturbance caused by them was not great, since they left the to surrender more than one-half of the income it brought, and incomes of the military class untouched. Some of the incomes knew that they were unprepared alike by education and by were for life only, but the majority were hereditary, and all had tradition to earn bread in any calling save that of arms. Yet, been granted in consideration of their holders devoting them at the invitation of a government which they had helped to selves to military service. Four hundred thousand men approxi-establish, many of them bowed their heads quietly to this sharp mately were in receipt of such emoluments, and the total amount reverse of fortune. It was certainly a striking instance of the annually taken from the taxpayers for this purpose was about fortitude and resignation which the creed of the samurai required £2,000,000. Plainly the nation would have to be relieved of him to display in the presence of adversity. As yet, however, this burden sooner or later. The samurai were essentially an the government's measures with regard to the samurai were not element of the feudal system, and that they should survive the compulsory. Men laid aside their swords and commuted their latter's fall would have been incongruous. On the other hand, pensions at their own option. suddenly and wholly to deprive these men and their families a Meanwhile differences of opinion began to occur among the total of some two million persons of the means of subsistence on leaders of progress themselves. Coalitions formed for destruc- which they had hitherto relied with absolute confidence, and in tive purposes are often found unable to endure the Saigo return for which they and their forefathers had rendered faithful strain of constructive efforts. Such lack of cohesion Takamori. service, would have been an act of inhumanity. It may easily might easily have been foreseen in the case of the be conceived that this problem caused extreme perplexity to the Japanese reformers. Young men without experience of public administrators of the new Japan. They left it unsolved for the affairs, or special education to fit them for responsible posts, moment, trusting that time and the loyalty of the samurai them- found the duty suddenly imposed on them not only of devising selves would suggest some solution. As for the feudal chiefs, administrative and fiscal systems universally applicable to a who had now been deprived of all official status and reduced to the nation hitherto divided into a congeries of semi-independent prin- position of private gentlemen, without even a patent of nobility cipalities, but also of shaping the country's demeanour towards to distinguish them from ordinary individuals, they did not find novel problems of foreign intercourse and alien civilization. So anything specially irksome or regrettable in their altered long as the heat of their assault upon the shogunate fused them position. No scrutiny had been made into the contents of their into a homogeneous party they worked together successfully. trcasuries. They were allowed to retain unquestioned possession But when they had to build a brand-new edifice on the ruins of of all the accumulated funds of their former fiefs, and they also a still vivid past, it was inevitable that their opinions should became public creditors for annual allowances equal to one-tenth vary as to the nature of the materials to be employed. In this of their feudal revenues. They had never previously been so divergence of views many of the capital incidents of Japan's pleasantly circumstanced. It is true that they were entirely modern history had their origin. Of the fifty-five men whose stripped of all administrative and military authority; but since united efforts had compassed the fall of the shogunate, five their possession of such authority had been in most cases merely stood conspicuous above their colleagues. They were Iwakura nominal, they only felt the change as a relief from responsibility. and Sanjo, court nobles; Saigo and 'Okubo, samurai of Satsuma, By degrees public opinion began to declare itself with regard and Kido, a samurai of Choshū. In the second rank came many to the samurai. If they were to be absorbed into the bulk of men of great gifts, whose youth alone disqualified them for Treatment the people and to lose their fixed revenues, some prominence-Ito, the constructive statesman of the Meiji era, capital must be placed at their disposal to begin who inspired nearly all the important measures of the time, Samural. the world again. The samurai themselves showed a though he did not openly figure as their originator; Inouye, noble faculty of resignation. They had been a privileged class, who never lacked a resource or swerved from the dictates of but they had purchased their privileges with their blood and loyalty; Okuma, a politician of subtle, versatile and vigorous by serving as patterns of all the qualities most prized among intellect; Itagaki, the Rousseau of his era; and a score of others Japanese national characteristics. The record of their acts and created by the extraordinary circumstances with which they had the recognition of the people entitled them to look for munificent to deal. But the five first mentioned were the captains, the rest treatment at the hands of the government which they had been only lieutenants. Among the five, four were sincere reformers the means of setting up. Yet none of these considerations -not free, of course, from selfish motives, but truthfully bent blinded them to the painful fact that the time had passed them upon promoting the interests of their country before all other by; that no place existed for them in the new polity. Many of aims. The fifth, Saigo Takamori, was a man in whom bound- them voluntarily stepped down into the company of the peasant less ambition lay concealed under qualities of the noblest and or the tradesman, and many others signified their willingness to most enduring type. His absolute freedom from every trace join the ranks of common bread-winners if some aid was given of sordidness gave currency to a belief that his aims were of the to equip them for such a career. After two years' consideration simplest; the story of his career satisfied the highest canons the government took action. A decree announced, in 1873, of the samurai; his massive physique, commanding presence and that the treasury was prepared to commute the pensions of the sunny aspect impressed and attracted even those who had no of the 268 [DOMESTIC HISTORY JAPAN run, the fashions, institutions and customs which his former colleagues in the administration were ruthlessly rejecting. Satsuma thus became a centre of conservative influences, among which Saigo and his constantly augmenting band of samurai found a congenial environment. During, four years this breach between the central government and the southern clan grew constantly. Pensions. opportunity of admiring his life of self-sacrificing effort or appre- | province, where the writ of the Yedo government had never ciating the remarkable military talent he possessed. In the first part of his career, the elevation of his clan to supreme power seems to have been his sole motive, but subsequently personal ambition appears to have swayed him. To the consummation of either object the preservation of the military class was essen- tial. By the swords of the samurai alone could a new imperium in imperio be carved out. On the other hand, Saigo's colleagues in the ministry saw clearly not only that the samurai were an unwarrantable burden on the nation, but also that their con- tinued existence after the fall of feudalism would be a menace to public peace as well as an anomaly. Therefore they took the steps already described, and followed them by a conscription law, making every adult male liable for military service without regard to his social standing. It is easy to conceive how pain- fully unwelcome this conscription law proved to the samurai. Many of them were not unwilling to commute their pensions, since their creed had always forbidden them to care for money. Many of them were not unwilling to abandon the habit of carrying swords, since the adoption of foreign costume rendered such a custom incongruous and inconvenient. But very few of them could readily consent to step down from their cherished position as the military class, and relinquish their traditional title to bear the whole responsibility and enjoy the whole honour of fighting their country's battles. They had supposed, not unreasonably, that service in the army and navy would be reserved exclusively for them and their sons, whereas now the commonest rustic, mechanic or tradesman would be equally eligible: In the meanwhile (1876) two extreme measures were adopted by the government: a veto on the wearing of swords, and an edict ordering the compulsory commutation of the Final pensions and allowances received by the nobles and Abolition of the samurai. Three years previously the discarding Sword- of swords had been declared optional,and a scheme of wearing and voluntary commutation had been announced. Many had bowed quietly to the spirit of these enactments. But many still retained their swords and drew their pensions as of old, obstructing, in the former respect, the government's pro- jects for the reorganization of society, and imposing, in the latter, an intolerable burden on the resources of the treasury. The government thought that the time had come, and that its own strength sufficed, to substitute compulsion for persuasion. The financial measure-which was contrived so as to affect the smallest pension-holders least injuriously-evoked no complaint. The samurai remained faithful to the creed which forbade them to be concerned about money. But the veto against sword- wearing overtaxed the patience of the extreme Conservatives. It seemed to them that all the most honoured traditions of their country were being ruthlessly sacrificed on the altar of alien innovations. Armed protests ensued. A few score of samurai, equipping themselves with the hauberks and weapons of old times, fell upon the garrison of a castle, killed or wounded some 300, and then, retiring to an adjacent mountain, died by their own hands. Their example found imitators in two other places, and finally the Satsuma samurai rose in arms under Saigō. Satsuma Insurrec- tion. While the pain of this blow was still fresh there occurred a trouble with Korea. The little state had behaved with insulting Split contumely, and when Japan's course came to be among the debated in Tōkyō, a disruption resulted in the Reformers. ranks of the reformers. Saigo saw in a foreign war the sole remaining chance of achieving his ambition by lawful means. The government's conscription scheme, yet in This was an insurrection very different in dimensions and its infancy, had not produced even the skeleton of an army. If motives from the outbreaks that had preceded it. During four Korea had to be conquered, the samurai must be employed; years the preparations of the Satsuma men had been and their employment would mean, if not their rehabilitation, at unremitting. They were equipped with rifles and least their organization into a force which, under Saigo's leader-cannon; they numbered some 30,000; they were all of ship, might dictate a new policy. Other members of the cabinet the military class, and in addition to high training in western believed that the nation would be disgraced if it tamely endured tactics and in the use of modern arms of precision, they knew Korea's insults. Thus several influential. voices swelled the how to wield that formidable weapon, the Japanese sword, clamour for war. But a peace party offered strenuous opposi of which their opponents were for the most part ignorant. tion. Its members saw the collateral issues of the problem, Ostensibly their object was to restore the samurai to their old and declared that the country must not think of taking up arms supremacy, and to secure for them all the posts in the army, the during a period of radical transition. The final discussion took navy and the administration. But although they doubtless place in the emperor's presence. The advocates of peace under-entertained that intention, it was put forward mainly with the stood the national significance, of the issue and perceived that hope of winning the co-operation of the military class throughout they were debating, not merely whether there should be peace the empire. The real purpose of the revolt was to secure the or war, but whether the country should halt or advance on its governing power for Satsuma. A bitter struggle ensued. newly adopted path of progress. They prevailed, and four Beginning on the 29th of January 1877, it was brought to a close members of the cabinet, including Saigō, resigned. This rupture on the 24th of September by the death, voluntary or in battle, was destined to have far-reaching consequences. One of the of all the rebel leaders. During that period the number of men seceders immediately raised the standard of revolt. Among the engaged on the government's side had been 66,000 and the devices employed by him to win adherents was an attempt to number on the side of the rebels 40,000, out of which total the fan into flame the dying embers of the anti-foreign sentiment. I killed and wounded aggregated 35,000, of 33% of the whole. The government easily crushed the insurrection. Another Had the government's troops been finally defeated, there can be seceder was Itagaki Taisuke. The third and most prominent no doubt that the samurai's exclusive title to man and direct was Saigō, who seems to have concluded from that moment that the army and navy would have been re-established, and Japan he must abandon his aims or achieve them by force. He retired would have found herself permanently saddled with a military to his native province of Satsuma, and applied his whole re- class, heavily burdening her finances, seriously impeding her sources, his great reputation and the devoted loyalty of a number progress towards constitutional government, and perpetuating of able followers to organizing and equipping a strong body of all the abuses incidental to a policy in which the power of the samurai. Matters were facilitated for him by the conservatism sword rests entirely in the hands of one section of the people. of the celebrated Shimazu Saburō, former chief of Satsuma, who, The nation scarcely appreciated the great issues that were at though not opposed to foreign intercourse, had been revolted stake. It found more interest in the struggle as furnishing a by the wholesale iconoclasm of the time, and by the indis- conclusive test of the efficiency of the new military system com- criminate rejection of Japanese customs in favour of foreign.pared with the old. The army sent to quell the insurrection He protested vehemently against what seemed to him a slavish consisted of recruits drawn indiscriminately from every class of abandonment of the nation's individuality, and finding his the people. Viewed in the light of history, it was an army of protest fruitless, he set himself to preserve in his own distant commoners, deficient in the fighting instinct, and traditionally DOMESTIC HISTORY] 269 JAPAN demoralized for all purposes of resistance to the military class. The Satsuma insurgents, on the contrary, represented the flower of the samurai, long trained for this very struggle, and led by men whom the nation regarded as its bravest captains. The result dispelled all doubts about the fighting quality of the people at large. Concurrently with these events the government diligently endeavoured to equip the country with all the paraphernalia of Occidental civilization. It is easy to understand that Steps of the master-minds of the era, who had planned and Progress. carried out the Restoration, continued to take the lead in all paths of progress. Their intellectual superiority entitled them to act as guides; they had enjoyed exceptional opportunities of acquiring enlightenment by visits to Europe and America, and the Japanese people had not yet lost the habit of looking to officialdom for every initiative. But the spectacle thus pre- sented to foreign onlookers was not altogether without dis- quieting suggestions. The government's reforms seemed to outstrip the nation's readiness for them, and the results wore an air of some artificiality and confusion. Englishmen were employed to superintend the building of railways, the erection of telegraphs, the construction of lighthouses and the organiza- tion of a navy. To Frenchmen was entrusted the work of re- casting the laws and training the army in strategy and tactics. Educational affairs, the organization of a postal service, the improvement of agriculture and the work of colonization were supervised by Americans. The teaching of medical science, the compilation of a commercial code, the elaboration of a system of local government, and ultimately the training of military officers were assigned to Germans. For instruction in sculpture and painting Italians were engaged. Was it possible that so many novelties should be successfully assimilated, or that the nation should adapt itself to systems planned by a motley band of aliens who knew nothing of its character and customs? These questions did not trouble the Japanese nearly so much as they troubled strangers. The truth is that conservatism was not really required to make the great sacrifices suggested by appearances. Among all the innovations of the era the only one that a Japanese could not lay aside at will was the new fashion of dressing the hair. He abandoned the queue irrevo- cably. But for the rest he lived a dual life. During hours of duty he wore a fine uniform, shaped and decorated in foreign style. But so soon as he stepped out of office or off parade, he reverted to his own comfortable and picturesque costume. Handsome houses were built and furnished according to Western models. But each had an annex where alcoves, verandas, matted floors and paper sliding doors continued to do traditional | duty. Beefsteaks, beer, "grape-wine," knives and forks came into use on occasion. But rice-bowls and chopsticks held their everyday. place as of old.. In a word, though the Japanese adopted every convenient and serviceable attribute of foreign civilization, such as railways, steamships, telegraphs, post- offices, banks and machinery of all kinds; though they accepted Occidental sciences, and, to a large extent, Occidental philo- sophies; though they recognized the superiority of European jurisprudence and set themselves to bring their laws into accord with it, they nevertheless preserved the essentials of their own mode of life and never lost their individuality. A remarkable spirit of liberalism and a fine eclectic instinct were needed for the part they acted, but they did no radical violence to their own traditions, creeds and conventions. There was indeed a certain element of incongruity and even grotesqueness in the nation's doings. Old people cannot fit their feet to new roads without some clumsiness. The Japanese had grown very old in their special paths, and their novel departure was occasionally dis- figured by solecisms. The refined taste that guided them un- erringly in all the affairs of life as they had been accustomed to live it, seemed to fail them signally when they emerged into an alien atmosphere. They have given their proofs, however. It is now seen that the apparently excessive rapidity of their pro- 'gress did not overtax their capacities; that they have emerged safely from their destructive era and carried their constructive | career within reach of certain success, and that while they have still to develop some of the traits of their new civilization, there is no prospect whatever of its proving ultimately unsuited to them. 1 ment of Repre- sentative Govern- After the Satsuma rebellion, nothing disturbed the even tenor of Japan's domestic politics except an attempt on the part of some of her people to force the growth of parlia- Develop mentary government. It is evident that the united effort made by the fiefs to overthrow the system of dual government and wrest the administrative power from the shōgun could have only one logical ment. outcome: the combined exercise of the recovered power by those who had been instrumental in recovering it. That was the meaning of the oath taken by the emperor at the Restoration, when the youthful sovereign was made to say that wise counsels should be widely sought, and all things determined by public discussion. But the framers of the oath had the samurai alone in view. Into their considera- tion the common people-farmers, mechanics, tradesmen did not enter at all, nor had the common people them- sclves any idea of advancing a claim to be considered. A voice in the administration would have been to them an embar- rassing rather than a pleasing privilege. Thus the first delibera- tive assembly was composed of nobles and samurai only. A mere debating club without any legislative authority, it was permanently dissolved after two sessions. Possibly the problem of a parliament might have been long postponed after that fiasco, had it not found an ardent advocate in Itagaki Taisuke (afterwards Count Itagaki). A Tosa samurai conspicuous as a leader of the restoration movement, Itagaki was among the advo- cates of recourse to strong measures against Korea in 1873, and his failure to carry his point, supplemented by a belief that a large section of public opinion would have supported him had there been any machinery for appealing to it, gave fresh impetus to his faith in constitutional government. Resigning office on account of the Korean question, he became the nucleus of agitation in favour of a parliamentary system, and under his banner were enrolled not only discontented samurai but also many of the young men who, returning from direct observation of the working of constitutional systems in Europe or America, and failing to obtain official posts in Japan, attributed their failure to the oligarchical form of their country's polity. Thus in the interval betweeen 1873 and 1877 there were two centres of disturbance in Japan: one in Satsuma, where Saigō figured as leader; the other in Tosa, under Itagaki's guidance. When the Satsuma men appealed to arms in 1877, a widespread appre- hension prevailed lest the Tosa politicians should throw in their lot with the insurgents. Such a fear had its origin in failure to understand the object of the one side or to appreciate the sin- cerity of the other. Saigō and his adherents fought to sub- stitute a Satsuma clique for the oligarchy already in power, Itagaki and his followers struggled for constitutional institutions. The two could not have anything in common. There was con- 'sequently no coalition. But the Tosa agitators did not neglect to make capital out of the embarrassment caused by the Satsuma rebellion. While the struggle was at its height, they addressed to the government a memorial, charging the administration with oppressive measures to restrain the voice of public opinion, with usurpation of power to the exclusion of the nation at large, and with levelling downwards instead of upwards, since the samurai had been reduced to the rank of commoners, whereas the commoners should have been educated up to the standard of the samurai. This memorial asked for a representative assembly and talked of popular rights. But since the document admitted that the people were uneducated, it is plain that there cannot have been any serious idea of giving them a share in the administration. In fact, the Tosa Liberals were not really con- tending for popular representation in the full sense of the term. What they wanted was the creation of some machinery for securing to the samurai at large a voice in the management of state affairs. They chafed against the fact that, whereas the efforts and sacrifices demanded by the Restoration had fallen ✔ } 270 (DOMESTIC HISTORY JAPAN equally on the whole military class, the official prizes under the taxes, subject to approval by the minister of state for home new system were monopolized by a small coterie of men belonging affairs; to scrutinize the accounts for the previous year, and, if to the four principal clans. It is on record that Itagaki would necessary, to present petitions to the central government. have been content originally with an assembly consisting half Thus the foundations of genuine representative institutions were of officials, half of non-official samurai, and not including any laid. It is true that legislative power was not vested in the popular element whatever. local assemblies, but in all other important respects they dis- But the government did not believe that the time had come charged parliamentary duties. · Their history need not be related even for a measure such as the Tosa Liberals advocated. The at any length. Sometimes they came into violent collision with statesmen in power conceived that the nation must be educated the governor of the prefecture, and unsightly struggles resulted. up to constitutional standards, and that the first step should be The governors were disposed to advocate public works which to provide an official model. Accordingly, in 1874, arrange the people considered extravagant; and further, as years went ments were made for periodically convening an assembly of by, and as political organizations grew stronger, there was found prefectural governors, in order that they might act as channels in each assembly a group of men ready to oppose the governor of communication between the central authorities and the simply because of his official status. But on the whole the provincial population, and mutually exchange ideas as to the system worked well. The local assemblies served as training safest and most effective methods of encouraging progress within schools for the future parliament, and their members showed the limits of their jurisdictions. This was intended to be the devotion to public duty as well as considerable aptitude for embryo of representative institutions. But the governors, debate. being officials appointed by the cabinet, did not bear in any sense This was not what Itagaki and his followers wanted. Their the character of popular nominees, nor could it even be said that purpose was to overthrow the clique of clansmen who, holding they reflected the public feeling of the districts they adminis- the reins of administrative power, monopolized the The Liberal tered, for their habitual and natural tendency was to try, by prizes of officialdom. Towards the consummation Party. means of heroic object lessons, to win the people's allegiance to of such an aim the local assemblies helped little. Itagaki re: the government's progressive policy, rather than to convince doubled his agitation. He organized his fellow-thinkers into the government of the danger of overstepping the people's an association called jiyūlo (Liberals), the first political party in capacities. Japan, to whose ranks there very soon gravitated several men These conventions of local. officials had no legislative power who had been in office and resented the loss of it; many that had whatever. The foundations of a body for discharging that never been in office and desired to be; and a still greater number function were laid in 1875, when a senate (genro-in) was organized. who sincerely believed in the principles of political liberty, but It consisted of official nominces, and its duty was to discuss and had not yet considered the possibility of immediately adapting revise all laws and ordinances prior to their promulgation. It such principles to Japan's case. It was in the nature of things is to be noted, however, that expediency not less than a spirit that an association of this kind, professing such doctrines, of progress presided at the creation of the senate. Into its ranks should present a picturesque aspect to the public, and that its were drafted a number of men for whom no places could be collisions with the authorities should invite popular sympathy, found in the executive, and who, without some official employ- Nor were collisions infrequent. For the government, arguing ment, would have been drawn into the current of disaffection. that if the nation was not ready for representative institutions, From that point of view the senate soon came to be regarded as a neither was it ready for full freedom of speech or of public kind of hospital for administrative invalids, but undoubtedly meeting, legislated consistently with that theory, and entrusted its discharge of quasi-legislative functions proved suggestive, to the police large powers of conrol over the press and the plat- useful and instructive. form. The exercise of these powers often created situations in The second meeting of the provincial governors had just been which the Liberals were able to pose as victims of official tyranny, prorogued when, in the spring of 1878, the great minister, Okubo so that they grew in popularity and the contagion of political Assassina. Toshimitsu, was assassinated. Okubo, uniformly agitation spread. tion of ready to bear the heaviest burden of responsibility Three years later (1881) another split occurred in the ranks in every political complication, bad stood promi- of the ruling oligarchy. Okuma Shigenobu (afterwards Count nently before the nation as Saigo's opponent. He fell under the Okuma) scceded from the administration, and was swords of Saigo's sympathizers. They immediately surrendered followed by a number of able men who had owed gressist themselves to justice, having taken previous care to circulate their appointments to his patronage, or who, during Party. a statement of motives, which showed that they ranked the his tenure of office as minister of, finance, had passed under government's failure to establish representative institutions as a the influence of his powerful personality. If Itagaki be. sin scarcely less heinous than its alleged abuses of power. Well-called the Rousseau of Japan, Okuma may be regarded as the informed followers of Saigo could never have been sincere Peel. To remarkable financial ability and a lucid, vigorous believers in representative institutions. These men belonged to judgment he added the faculty of placing himself on the crest a province far removed from the scene of Saigo's desperate of any wave which a genuine aura popularis had begun to swell. struggle. But the broad fact that they had sealed with their He, too, inscribed on his banner of revolt against the oligarchy life-blood an appeal for a political change indicated the exist, the motto “ constitutional government,” and it might have been ence of a strong public conviction which would derive further expected that his followers would join hands with those of strength from their act. The Japanese are essentially a brave Itagaki, since the avowed political purpose of both was identical. people. Throughout the troublous events that preceded and They did nothing of the kind. Okuma organized an inde- followed the Restoration, it is not possible to point to one man pendent party, calling themselves Progressists (shimpoto), who whose obedience to duty or conviction was visibly weakened not only stood aloof from the Liberals but even assumed an by prospects of personal peril. Okubo's assassination did not attitude hostile to them. This fact is eloquent. It shows that alarm any of his colleagues; but they understood its suggestive Japan's first political parties were grouped, not about principles, ness, and hastened to give effect to a previously formed resolve. but about persons. Hence an inevitable lack of cohesion among Two months after Okubo's death, an edict announced that their elements and a constant tendency to break up into caves elective assemblies should forthwith be established in various and coteries. These are the characteristics that render the story prefectures and cities. These assemblies were to con- of political evolution in Japan so perplexing to a foreign student. sist of members having a high property qualification, He looks for differences of platform and finds none. Just as a elected by voters having one-half of that qualifica- true Liberal must be a Progressist, and a true Progressist a Liberal, tion; the voting to be by signed ballot, and the session to last for so, though each may cast his profession of faith in a mould of one month in the spring of each year. As to their functions, they different phrases, the ultimate shape must be the same.' The were to determine the method of levying and spending local | mainsprings of early political agitation in Japan were personal Okubo. The Pro Local Govero. meot. DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN 271 Govern meot were grievances and a desire to wrest the administrative power from the drafting of the Constitution, to which the Japanese people the hands of the statesmen who had held it so long as to overtax point proudly as the only charter of the kind voluntarily given the patience of their rivals. He that searches for profound by a sovereign to his subjects. In other countries such conces- moral or ethical bases will be disappointed. There were no sions were always the outcome of long struggles between ruler Conservatives. Society was permeated with the spirit of progress. and ruled. In Japan the emperor freely divested himself of a In a comparative sense the epithet“ Conservative” might have portion of his prerogatives and transferred them to the people. been applied to the statesmen who proposed to defer parliamen- That view of the case, as may be seen from the story told above, tary institutions until the people, as distinguished from the is not untinged with romance; but in a general sense it is true. former samurai, had been in some measure prepared for such an No incident in Japan's modern career seemed more hazard- innovation. But since these very statesmen were the guiding ous than this sudden plunge into parliamentary institutions. spirits of the whole Meiji revolution, it was plain that their There had been some preparation. Provincial as- Working convictions must be radical, and that, unless they did violence semblies had partially familiarized the people with of the to their record, they must finally lead the country to representa- the methods of deliberative bodies. But provin- Systed tive institutions, the logical sequel of their own reforms. cial assemblies were at best petty arenas--places where the . Okubo's assassination had been followed, in 1878, by an edict making or mending of roads, and the policing and sanitation of announcing the establishment of local assemblies. Okuma's villages came up for discussion, and where political parties secession in 1881 was followed by an edict announcing that a exercised no legislative function nor found any opportunity to pational assembly would be convened in 1891. attack the government or to debate problems of national interest. The political parties, having now virtually attained their Thus the convening of a diet and the sudden transfer of financial object, might have been expected to desist from further agita- and legislative authority from the throne and its entourage of Anti- tion. But they had another task to perform tried statesmen to the hands of men whose qualifications for that of disseminating anti-official prejudices among public life rested on the verdict of electors, themselves apparently the future electors. They worked diligently, and devoid of all light to guide their choice this sweeping innovation Agitation. they had an undisputed field, for no one was put seemed likely to tax severely, if not to overtax completely, the forward to champion the government's cause. The campaign progressive capacities of the nation. What enhanced the inter- was not always conducted on lawful lines. There were plots to est of the situation was that the oligarchs who held the adminis- assassinate ministers; there was an attempt to employ dynamite, trative power had taken no pains to win a following in the and there was a scheme to foment an insurrection in Korea. political field. Knowing that the opening of the diet would be On the other hand, dispersals of political meetings by order of a veritable letting loose of the dogs of war, an unmuzzling of the police inspectors, and suspension or suppression of newspapers agitators whose mouths had hitherto been partly closed by legal by the unchallengeable verdict of a minister for home affairs, restrictions upon free speech, but who would now enjoy complete common occurrences. The breach widened steadily. immunity within the walls of the assembly whatever the nature It is true that Okuma rejoined the cabinet for å time in 1887, of their utterances—foreseeing all this, the statesmen of the day, but he retired again in circumstances that aggravated his party's nevertheless stood severely aloof from alliances of every kind, hostility to officialdom. In short, during the ten years imme- and discharged their administrative functions with apparent diately prior to the opening of the first parliament, an anti- indifference to the changes that popular representation could not government propaganda was incessantly preached from the fail to induce. This somewhat inexplicable display of unconcern platform and in the press. became partially intelligible when the constitution was promul- Meanwhile the statesmen in power resolutely pursued their gated, for it then appeared that the cabinet's tenure of office was path of progressive reform. They codified the civil and penal to depend solely on the emperor's will; that ministers were to laws, remodelling them on Western bases; they brought a vast take their mandate from the Throne, not from parliament. number of affairs within the scope of minute régulations; they This fact was merely an outcome of the theory underlying every rescued the finances from confusion and restored them to a sound part of the Japanese polity. Laws might be redrafted, institu- condition; they recast the whole framework of local government; tions remodelled, systems recast, but amid all changes and they organized a great national bank, and established a network mutations one steady point must be carefully preserved, the of subordinate institutions throughout the country; they Throne. The makers of new Japan understood that so long as pushed on the work of railway construction, and successfully the sanctity and inviolability of the imperial prerogatives-could enlisted private enterprise in its cause; they steadily extended be preserved, the nation would be held by a strong anchor from the postal and telegraphic services; they economized public drifting into dangerous waters. They laboured under no mis- expenditures so that the state's income always exceeded its apprehension about the inevitable issue of their work in framing outlays; they laid the foundations of a strong mercantile marine; the constitution. They knew very well that party cabinets are they instituted a system of postal savings-banks; they under- an essential outcome of representative institutions, and that to took large schemes of harbour improvement and road-making; some kind of party cabinet Japan must come. But they regarded they planned and put into operation an extensive programme the Imperial mandate as a conservative safeguard, pending of riparian improvement; they made civil service appointments the organization and education of parties competent to form depend on competitive examination; they sent numbers of cabinets. Such parties did not yet exist, and until they came students to Europe and America to complete their studies; and into unequivocal existence, the Restoration statesmen, who had by tactful, persevering diplomacy they gradually introduced so successfully managed the affairs of the nation during a quarter a new tone into the empire's relations with foreign powers. of a century, resolved that the steady point furnished by the Japan's affairs were never better administered. tbrone must not be abảndoned. In 1890 the Constitution was promulgated. Imposing cere- On the other hand, the agitators found here a new platform. monies marked the event. All the nation's notables were They had obtained a constitution and a diet, but they had not The Consti- summoned to the palace to witness the delivery obtained an instrument for pulling down the “clan" adminis- of the important document by the sovereign to the trators, since these stood secure from attack under the aegis prime minister; salvos of artillery were fired; the of the sovereign's mandate. They dared not raise their voices cities were illuminated, and the people kept holiday. Marquis against the unfettered exercise of the mikado's prerogative. (afterwards Prince) Ito directed the framing of the Constitution. The nation, loyal to the core, would not have suffered such a He had visited the Occident for the purpose of investigating protest, nor could the agitators themselves have found heart the development of parliamentary institutions and studying to formulate it. But they could read their own interpretation their practical working. His name is connected with nearly into the text of the Constitution, and they could demonstrate every great work of constructive statesmanship in the history of practically that a cabinet not acknowledging responsibility to the new Japan, and perhaps the crown of his legislative career was I legislature was virtually impotent for law-making purposes, tution of 1890. 272 JAPAN (DOMESTIC HISTORY and tho Govera. meat. a Enrolment These are the broad outlines of the contest that began in the in combination for the destructive purpose of pulling down the first session of the Diet and continued for several years. It is un- so-called “ clan statesmen "; they had now to show whether The Diet necessary to speak of the special points of controversy. they could work in combination for the constructive purposes Just as the political parties had been formed on the of administration. Their heads, Counts Okuma and Itagaki, lines of persons, not principles, so the opposition accepted the Imperial mandate, and the nation watched the in the Diet was directed against men, not measures. result. There was no need to wait long. In less than six The struggle presented varying aspects at different times, but months these new links snapped under the tension of old the fundamental question at issue never changed. Obstruction enmities, and the coalition split up once more into its original was the weapon of the political parties. They sought to render elements. It had demonstrated that the sweets of power, which legislation and finance impossible for any ministry that refused the “clan statesmen ” had been so vehemently accused of covet- to take its mandate from the majority in the lower house, and ing, possessed even greater attractions for their accusers. The they imparted an air of respectability and even patriotism to issue of the experiment was such a palpable fiasco that it effec- their destructive campaign by making " anti-clannism” their tually rehabilitated the “ clan statesmen,” and finally proved, war-cry, and industriously fostering the idea that the struggle what had indeed been long evident to every close observer, that lay between administration guided by public opinion and admin-. without the assistance of those statesmen no political party istration controlled by a clique of clansmen who separated the could hold office successfully. throne from the nation. Had not the House of Peers stood Thenceforth it became the unique aim of Liberals and Pro- stanchly by the government throughout this contest, it is gressists alike to join hands permanently with the men towards possible that the nation might have suffered severely from the whom they had once displayed such implacable rashness of the political parties. hostility. Prince Itő, the leader of the so-called of the Clan There was something melancholy in the spectacle.The Restor- “elder statesmen,” received special solicitations, for Statesmea ation statesmen were the men who had made Modern Japan; it was plain that he would bring to any political io Political the men who had raised her, in the face of immense obstacles, party an overwhelming access of strength alike in Associa. tions. from the position of an insignificant Oriental state to that of a his own person and in the number of friends and formidable unit in the comity of nations; the men, finally, disciples certain to follow him. But Prince Ito declined to who had given to her a constitution and representative institu- be absorbed into any existing party, or to adopt the principle tions. Yet these same men were now fiercely attacked by the of parliamentary cabinets. He would consent to form a new arms which they had themselves nerved; were held up to public association, but it must consist of men sufficiently disciplined obloquy as self-seeking usurpers, and were declared to be im- to obey him implicitly, and sufficiently docile to accept their peding the people's constitutional route to administrative privi- programme from his hand. The Liberals agreed to these terms. leges, when in reality they were only holding the breach until | They dissolved theire party (August 1900) and enrolled them- the people should be able to march into the citadel with some selves in the ranks of a new organization, which did not even call show of orderly and competent organization. That there was itself a party, its designation being rikken seiyū-kai (association no corruption, no abuse of position, is not to be pretended; but of friends of the constitution), and which had for the cardinal on the whole the conservatism of the clan statesmen had only plank in its platform a declaration of ministerial irresponsibility one object--to provide that the newly constructed representa- to the Diet. A singular page was thus added to the story of tive machine should not be set working until its parts were duly Japanese political development; for not merely did the Liberals adjusted and brought into proper gear." On both sides the enlist under the banner of the statesmen whom for twenty leaders understood the situation accurately. The heads of the years they had fought to overthrow, but they also tacitly parties, while publicly clamouring for parliamentary cabinets, consented to erase from their profession of faith its essential privately confessed that they were not yet prepared to assume article, parliamentary cabinets, and, by resigning that article administrative responsibilities;' and the so-called “clan states- to the Progressists, created for the first time an opposition with men,” while refusing before the world to accept the Diet's a solid and intelligible platform. Nevertheless the seiyū-kai mandates, admitted within official circles that the question was grew steadily in strength whereas the number of its opponents one of time only. The situation did not undergo any marked declined correspondingly. At the general elections in May change until, the country becoming engaged in war with China 1908 the former secured 195 seats, the four sections of the (1894-95), domestic squabbles were forgotten in the presence of opposition winning only 184. Thus for the first time in Japanese foreign danger. From that time an era of coalition commenced. parliamentary history a majority of the lower chamber found Both the political parties joined hands to vote funds for the themselves marching under the same banner. Moreover, prosecution of the campaign, and one of them, the Liberals, the four sections of the opposition were independently organized subsequently gave support to a cabinet under the presidency of and differed nearly as much from one another as they all differed Marquis Itā, the purpose of the union being to carry through the from the seiyū-kai. Their impotence to make head against the diet an extensive scheme of enlarged armaments and public solid phalanx of the latter was thus conspicuous, especially works planned in the sequel of the war. The Progressists, how- during the 1908-1909 session of the Diet. Much talk then began ever, remained implacable, continuing their opposition to the to be heard about the necessity of coalition, and that this talk thing called bureaucracy quite irrespective of its measures. will materialize eventually cannot be doubted. Reduction of The next phase (1898) was a fusion of the two parties into one armaments, abolition of taxes specially imposed for belligerent large organization which adopted the name “ Constitutional purposes, and the substitution of a strictly constitutional Fusion of Party” (kensei-lo). By this union the chief ob- system for the existing bureaucracy—these objects constitute stacles to parliamentary cabinets were removed. a sufficiently solid platform, and nothing is wanted except tbat Parties. Not only did the Constitutionalists command a a body of proved administrators should join the opposition large majority in the lower house, but also they possessed a in occupying it. There were in 1909 no signs, however, that sufficiency of men who, although lacking ministerial experience, any such defection from the ranks of officialdom would take might still advance a reasonable title to be entrusted with port- place. Deference is paid to public opinions inasmuch as even a folios. Immediately the emperor, acting on the advice of seiyū-kai ministry will not remain in office after its popularity Marquis Ito, invited Counts Okuma and Itagaki to form a has begun to show signs of waning. But no deference is paid cabinet. It was essentially a trial.'. The party politicians to the doctrine of party cabinets. Prince Ito did not continue were required to demonstrate in practice the justice of the claim to lead the seiyū-kai for more than three years. In July 1903 they had been so long asserting in theory. They had worked he delegated that function to Marquis Saionji, representative Neither the Liberals nor the Progressists had a working majority of one of the very oldest families of the court nobility and a in the house of representatives, nor could the ranks of either have personal friend of the emperor, as also was Prince Ito. The furnished men qualified to fill all the administrative posts. Imperial stamp is thus vicariously set upon the principle of 1) the Two A JAPANESE VIEWJ JAPAN 273 1 political combinations for the better practical conduct of illuminating goddess,” to whom she said, “This land (Japan) parliamentary business, but that the seiyű-kai, founded by is the region over which my descendants shall be the lords. Prince Ito and led by Marquis Saionji, should ever hold office Do thou, my august child, proceed thither and govern it. Go! in defiance of the sovereign's mandate is unthinkable. Con- The prosperity of thy dynasty shall be coeval with heaven and earth.” stitutional institutions in Japan are therefore developing along Thus they call their country the land of kami (ancient gods of lines entirely without precedent. The storm and stress of early tradition). With this spirit, in the old days when China held parliamentary days have given place to comparative calm. the hegemony of the East, and all neighbouring peoples were During the first twelve sessions of the Diet, extending over 8 years, regarded as its tributaries, Japan alone, largely no doubt on there were five dissolutions of the lower house. During the next account of its insular position, held itself quite aloof; it set at thirteen sessions, extending over if years, there were two defiance the power of Kublai and routed utterly the combined dissolutions. During the first 8 years of the Diet's existence there Chinese and Korean fleets with vast forces sent by him to conquer were six changes of cabinet; during the next 11 years there were Japan, this being the only occasion that Japan was threatened five changes. Another healthy sign was that men of affairs with a foreign invasion. were beginning to realize the importance of parliamentary With this spirit, as soon as they perceived the superiority of representation. At first the constituencies were contested the Western civilization, they set to work to introduce it into almost entirely by professional politicians, barristers and their country, just as in the 7th and 8th centuries they had journalists. In 1909 there was a solid body (the boshin club) adopted and adapted the Chinese civilization. In 1868, the first of business men commanding nearly 50 votes in the lower year of the era of Meiji, the emperor swore solemnly the memor- house; and as the upper chamber included 45 representatives able oath of five articles, setting forth the policy that was to be of the highest tax-payers, the interests of commerce and and has been followed thereafter by the government. These industry were intelligently debated. (F. By.) five articles were: 1. Deliberative assemblies shall be established and all measures X.—THE CLAIM OF JAPAN: BY A JAPANESE STATESMAN? of government shall be decided by public opinion. It has been said that it is impossible for an Occidental to 2. All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying understand the Oriental, and vice versa; but, admitting that out the plan of government: the mutual understanding of two different races or peoples far as possible be allowed to fulfil their just desires so that there 3. Officials, civil and military, and all common people shall as is a difficult matter, why should Occidentals and Orientals may not be any discontent among them. be thus set in opposition ? No doubt, different peoples of 4. Uncivilized customs of former times shall be broken through, and Europe understand each other better than they do the Asiatic; everything, shall be based upon just and equitable principles of heaven and earth (nature). but can Asiatic peoples understand each other better than they 5. Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the world, so that the can Europeans or than the Europeans can understand any of welfare of the empire may be promoted. them? Do Japanese understand Persians or even Indians (Translation due to Prof. N. Hozumi of Tokyo Imp. Univ.) better than English or French? It is true perhaps that Japan- It is interesting, as showing the continuity of the policy of the ese can and do understand the Chinese better than Europeans; empire, to place side by side with these articles the words of the but that is due not only to centuries of mutual intercourse, Imperial rescript issued in 1908, which are as follows:- , but to the wonderful and peculiar fact that they have adopted “We are convinced that with the rapid and unceasing advance of the old classical Chinese literature as their own, somewhat in the civilization, the East and West, mutually dependent and helping way, but in a much greater degree, in which the European each other, are bound by common interests. It is our sincere wish nations have adopted the old Greek and Latin literatures. to continue to enjoy for ever its benefits in common with other What is here contended for is that the mutual understanding powers by entering into closer and closer relations and strengthening of two peoples is not so much a matter of race, but of the know- along with the constant progress of the world and to share in the our friendship with them. Now in order to be able to move onward ledge of each other's history, traditions, literature, &c. blessings of civilization, it is obvious that we must develop our The Japanese have, they think, suffered much from the internal resources; our nation, but recently emerged from an ex. misunderstanding of their motives, feelings and ideas; what they of administration. It therefore behoves our people to endeavour hausting war, must put forth increased activity in every branch want is to be understood fully and to be known for what they with one mind, from the highest to the lowest, to pursue their really are, be it good or bad. They desire, above all, not to be callings honestly and earnestly, to be industrious and thrifty, to lumped as Oriental, but to be known and judged on their own abide in faith and righteousness, to be simple and warm-hearted, account. In the latter half of the 19th century, in fact up to to put away ostentation and vanity and strive after the useful and the Chinese War, it irritated Japanese travelling abroad more incessantly to strenuous and arduous tasks ...' solid, to avoid idleness and indulgence, and to apply themselves than anything else to be taken for Chinese. Then, after the Chinese War, the alarm about Japan leading Eastern Asia The ambițion of the Japanese people has been, as already With to make a general attack upon Europe-the so-called Yellow stated, to be recognized as an equal by the Great Powers. Peril-seemed so ridiculous to the Japanese that the bad effects of this object in view, they have spared no efforts to introduce what such wild talk were not quite appreciated by them. The aim of they considered superior in the Western civilization, although it the Japanese nation, ever since, at the time of the Restoration may perhaps be doubted whether in their eagerness they have. (1868), they laid aside definitively all ideas of seclusion and always been wise. They have always resented any discrimination entered into the comity of nations, has been that they should against them as an Asiatic people, not merely protesting against rise above the level of the Eastern peoples to an equality with it, knowing that such would not avail much, but making every the Western and should be in the foremost rank of the brother- endeavour to remove reasons, or excuses for it. Formerly there hood of nations; it was not their ambition at all to be the were troops stationed to guard several legations; foreign postal champion of the East against the West, but rather to beat service was not entirely in the hands of the Japanese government down the barriers between themselves and the West for a long time; these and other indignities against the sove- The intense pride of the Japanese in their nationality, their reignty of the nation were gradually removed by proving that patriotism and loyalty, arise from their history, for what other they were not necessary. Then there was the question of the nation can point to an Imperial family of one unbroken lineage and America as early as 1871 with a view to the revision of extra-territorial jurisdiction; an'embassy was sent to Europe reigning over the land for twenty-five centuries? Is it not a glorious tradition for a nation, that its emperor should be de- treaties in order to do away with this imperium in imperio, that scended directly from that grandson of the great heaven- being the date originally fixed for the revision; the embassy, however, failed in its object but was not altogether fruitless; for 1 The following expression of the Japanese point of view, by a statesman of the writer's authority and experience, may well supple- it was then clearly seen that it would be necessary to revise ment the general account of the progress of Japan and its inclusion thoroughly the system of laws and entirely to reorganize the among the great civilized powers of the world.-(Ed. E. B.) law courts before Occidental nations could be induced to forgo XV5* 274 JAPAN (A JAPANESE VIEW this privilege. These measures were necessary in any case as quoque is never a valid argument, but there are black sheep every- a consequence of the introduction of the Western methods and where, and there were special reasons why foreigners should have ideas, but they were hastened by the fact of their being a necessary come in contact with many such in their dealings with the preliminary to the revision of treaties. When the new code of Japanese. In days before the Restoration, merchants and laws was brought before the Diet at its first session, and there tradesmen were officially classed as the lowest of four classes, was a great opposition against it in the House of Peers on account the samurai, the farmers, the artisans and the merchants; of its many defects and especially of its ignoring many established practically, however, rich merchants serving as bankers and usages, the chief argument in its favour, or at least one that had employers of others were held in high esteem, even by the samurai. a great influence with many who were unacquainted with tech- Yet it cannot be denied that the position of the last three was nical points, was that it was necessary for the revision of treaties low compared with that of the samurai; their education was not and that the defects, if any, could be afterwards amended at so high, and although of course there was the same code of leisure. These preparations on the part of the government, morality for them all, there was no such high standard of honour however, took a long time, and in the meantime the whole nation, as was enjoined upon the samurai by the bushido or “the way or at least the more intelligent part of it, was chafing impatiently of samurai.” Now, when foreign trade was first opened, it was under what was considered a national indignity. The United naturally not firms with long-established credit and methods that States, by being the first to agree to its abandonment, although first ventured upon the new field of business--some few that did this agreement was rendered nugatory by a conditional clause, failed owing to their want of experience it was rather enter- added to the stock of goodwill with which the Japanese have prising and adventurous spirits with little capital or credit who always regarded the Americans on account of their attitude eagerly flocked to the newly opened ports to try their fortune. towards them. When at last the consummation so long and It was not to be expected that all or most of those should ardently desired was attained, great was the joy with which it be very scrupulous in their dealings with the foreigners; the was greeted, for now it was felt that Japan was indeed on terms majority of those adventurers failed, while a few of the abler men, of equality with Occidental nations. Great Britain, by being the generally those who believed in and practised honesty as the first to conclude the revised treaty-an act due to the remarkable best policy, succeeded and came to occupy an honourable posi- foresight of her statesmen in spite of the opposition of their tion as business men. It is also asserted that foreigners, or at countrymen in Japan-did much to bring about the cordial least some of them, did not scruple to take unfair advantage of feeling of the Japanese towards the British, which made them the want of experience on the part of their Japanese customers welcome with such enthusiasm the Anglo-Japanese alliance. to impose upon them methods which they would not have The importance of this last as a powerful instrument for the followed except in the East; it may be that such methods were preservation of peace in the extreme East has been, and always necessary or were deemed so in dealing with those adventurers, will be, appreciated at its full value by the more intelligent and but it is a fact that it afterwards took a long time and great effort thoughtful among the Japanese, but by the mass of the people on the part of Japanese traders to break through some usages it was received with great acclamation, owing partly to the already and customs which were established in earlier days and which existing good feeling towards the British, but also in a large they deemed derogatory to their credit or injurious to their in- measure because it was felt that the fact that Great Britain terests. Infringement of patent rights and fraudulent imitation should leave its “ splendid isolation ” to enter into this alliance of trade-marks have with some truth also been charged against proclaimed in the clearest possible way that Japan had entered the Japanese; about this it is to be remarked that although on terms of full equality among the brotherhood of nationsand the principles of morality cannot change, their applications may that thenceforth there could be no ground for that discrimination be new; patents and trade-marks are something new to the against them as an Asiatic nation which had been so galling to Japanese, and it takes time to teach that their infringement the Japanese people. should be regarded with the same moral censure as stealing. There have been, and there still are being made, many charges The government has done everything to prevent such practices against the Japanese government and people. While admitting by enacting and enforcing laws against them, and nowadays they that some of them may be founded on facts, it is permissible to are not so common. Be that as it may, such a state of affairs point out that traits and acts of a few individuals have often been as that mentioned above is now passing away almost entirely; generalized to be the national characteristic or the result of a commerce and trade are now regarded as highly honourable pro- fixed policy, while in many cases such charges are due to mis- fessions, merchants and business men occupy the highest social understandings arising from want of thorough knowledge of each positions, several of them having been lately raised to the peerage, other's language, customs, usages, ideas, &c. Take the principle and are as honourable a set of men as can be met anywhere. It of “ the open door,” for instance; the Japanese government has is however to be regretted that in introducing Western business been charged in several instances with acting contrary to it. It methods, it has not been quite possible to exclude some of their is natural that where (as in China) competition is very keen evils, such as promotion of swindling companies, tampering with between men of different nationalities, individuals should some- members of legislature, and so forth. times feel aggrieved and make complaints of unfairness against The Japanese have also been considered in some quarters to the government of their competitors; it is also natural that people be a bellicose nation. No sooner was the war with Russia over at home should listen to and believe in those charges made than they were said to be ready and eager to fight with the against the Japanese by their countrymen in the East, while United States. This is another misrepresentation arising from unfortunately the Japanese, being so far away and often unaware want of proper knowledge of Japanese character and feelings. of them, have not a ready means of vindicating themselves; but Although it is true that within the quarter of a century preceding subsequent investigations have always shown those charges to 1909 Japan was engaged in two sanguinary wars, not to mention be either groundless or due to misunderstandings, and it may be the Boxer affair, in which owing to her proximity to the scene asserted that in no case has the charge been substantiated that of the disturbances she had to take a prominent part, yet neither the Japanese government has knowingly, deliberately, of malice of these was of her own seeking; in both cases she had to fight or prepense been guilty of breach of faith in violating the principle else submit to become a mere cipher in the world, if indeed she of "the open door” to which it has solemnly pledged itself. That could have preserved her existence as an independent state. The it has often been accused by the Japanese subjects of weakness Japanese, far from being a bellicose people, deliberately cut off vis-à-vis foreign powers to the detriment of their interests, is all intercourse with the outside world in order to avoid inter- perhaps a good proof of its fairness. national troubles, and remained absolutely secluded from the The Japanese have often been charged with looseness of com- world and at profound peace within their own territory for two mercial morality. This charge is harder to answer than the last, centuries and a half. Besides, the Japanese have always re- for it cannot be denied that there have been many instances of garded the Americans with a special goodwill, due no doubt to dishonesty on the part of Japanese tradesmen or employees; tu I the steady liberal attitude of the American governmeut and JAPANNING275 - —JARGON people towards Japan and Japanese, and they look upon chimneypieces, &c., and in a modified form is employed for the idea of war between Japan and the United States as preparing enamelled, japan or patent leather. ridiculous. JAPHETH (no:), in the Bible, the youngest son of Noah ? Restrictions upon Japanese emigrants to the United States according to the Priestly Code (c. 450 B.C.); but in the earlier and to Australia are irritating to the Japanese, because it is a tradition’ the second son, also the “ father” of one of the three discrimination against them as belonging to the “yellow" race, groups into which the nations of the world are divided. In whereas it has been their ambition to raise themselves above the Gen. ix. 27, Noah pronounces the following blessing on Japheth- level of the Eastern nations to an equality with the Western “God enlarge (Heb. yaphi) Japheth (Heb. yepheth), nations, although they cannot change the colour of their skin. And let him dwell in the tents of Shem; When a Japanese even of the highest rank and standing has to And let Canaan be his servant." obtain a permit from an American immigrant officer before he can This is probably an ancient oracle independent alike of the flood enter American territory, is it not natural that he and his country story and the genealogical scheme in Gen. x. Shem is probably men should resent this discrimination as an indignity? But they Israel; Canaan, of course, the Canaanites; by analogy, Japheth have too much good sense to think or even dream of going to should be some third element of the population of Palestine--the war upon such a matter; on the contrary, the Japanese govern- Philistines or the Phoenicians have been suggested. The sense ment agreed in 1908 to limit the number of emigrants in order of the second line is doubtful, it may be “ let God dwell ” or “ let to avoid complications. Japheth dwell "'; on the latter view Japheth appears to be in It may be repeated that it has ever been the ambition of the friendly alliance with Shem. The words might mean that Japanese people to take rank with the Great Powers of the world, Japheth was an intruding invader, but this is not consonant with and to have a voice in the council of nations; they demand that the tone of the oracle. Possibly Japheth is only present in they shall not be discriminated against because of the colour of Gen. ix. 20-27 through corruption of the text, Japheth may their skin, but that they shall rather be judged by their deeds. be an accidental repetition of yapht“may he enlarge,” misread With this aim, they have made great efforts: where charges as a proper name. brought against them have any foundation in fact, they have In Gen. x. Japheth is the northern and western division of the endeavoured to make reforms; where they are false or due to nations; being perhaps used as a convenient title under which to misunderstandings they have tried to live them down, trusting group the more remote peoples who were not thought of as stand- to time for their vindication. They are willing to be judged by ing in ethnic or political connexion with Israel or Egypt. Thus the intelligent and impartial world: a fair field and no favour is of his descendants, Gomer, Magog," Tubal, Meshech, Ashkenaz, what they claim, and think they have a right to claim, from Riphath and Togarmah are peoples who are located with more the world. (K.) or less certainty in N.E. Asia Minor, Armenia and the lands to BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The latest edition of von Wemckstern's the N.E. of the Black Sea; Javan is the Ionians, used loosely for Bibliography of the Japanese Empire contains the names of all important books and publications relating to Japan, which have the seafaring peoples of the West, including Tarshish (Tartessus now become very numerous. A general reference must suffice | in Spain), Kittim (Cyprus), Rodanim (Rhodes). There is no here to Captain F. Brinkley's Japan (12 vols., 1904); the works of certain identification of Tiras and Elishah. B. H. Chamberlain, Things Japanese (5th ed., 1905, &c.); W. G. Aston, Hist. of Jap. Literature, &c., and Lafcadio Hearn, Japan: an The similarity of the name Japheth to the Titan Iapetos of Greek Interpretation (1904), &c., as the European authors with intimate mythology is probably a mere accident. A place Japheth is men- knowledge of the country who have done most to give accurate and tioned in Judith ii. 25, but it is quite unknown. illuminating expression to its development. See also Fifty Years In addition to commentaries and dictionary articles, see E. Meyer, of New Japan, an encyclopaedic account of the national development Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme, pp. 219 sqq. (W. H. Be.) in all its aspects, compiled by Count Shigenobu Okuma (2 vols., JAR, a vessel of simple. form, made of earthenware, glass, &c., 1907, 1908; Eng. ed. by Marcus B. Huish, 1909). with a spoutless mouth, and usually without handles. The JAPANNING, the art of coating surfaces of metal, wood, &c., word came into English through Fr. jarre or Span. jarra, from with a variety of varnishes, which are dried and hardened on in Arab. jarrah, the earthenware vessel of Eastern countries, used stoves or hot chambers. These drying processes constitute the to contain water, oil, wine, &c. The simple electrical condenser main distinguishing features of the art. The trade owes its known as a Leyden Jar (q.v.) was so called because of the early name to the fact that it is an imitation of the famous lacquering experiments made in the science of electricity at Leiden. In the of Japan (see JAPAN: Art), which, however, is prepared with sense of a harsh vibrating sound, a sudden shock or vibrating entirely different materials and processes, and is in all respects movement, hence dissensión, quarrel or petty strife,“ jar”. is much more brilliant, durable and beautiful than any ordinary onomatopoeic in origin; it is also seen in the name of the bird japan work. Japanning is done in clear transparent varnishes, night-jar (also known as the goat-sucker). In the expression in black and in body colours; but black japan is the most on the jar” or “ajar,” of a door or window partly open, the characteristic and common style of work. The varnish for black word is another form of chare or char, meaning turn or turning, japan consists essentially of pure natural asphaltum with a pro- which survives in charwoman, one who works at a turn, a job portion of gum animé dissolved in linseed oil and thinned with and chore, a job, spell of work. turpentine. In thin layers such a japan has a rich dark brown JARGON, in its earliest use a term applied to the chirping and colour; it only shows a brilliant black in thicker coatings. For twittering of birds, but since the 15th century mainly confined to fine work, which has to be smoothed and polished, several coats any language, spoken or written, which is either unintelligible of black are applied in succession, each being separately dried in to the user or to the hearer. It is particularly applied by unin- the stove at a heat which may rise to about 300° F. Body structed hearers' or readers to the language full of technical colours consist of a basis of transparent varnish mixed with the terminology used by scientific, philosophic and other writers. special mineral paints of the desired colours or with bronze The word is 0. Fr., and Cotgrave defines it as gibridge powders. The transparent varnish used by japanners is a copal (gibberish), fustian language.” It is cognate with Span. geri- varnish which contains less drying oil and morc turpentine than gonza, and Ital. gergo, gergone, and probably related to the is contained in ordinary painters' oil varnish. Japanning pro- onomatopoeic O. Fr. jargouiller, to chatter. The root is probably duces a brilliant polished surface which is much more durable and seen in Lat. garrire, to chatter. less easily affected by heat, moisture or other influences than any ordinary painted and varnished work. It may be regarded as a 1 Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, x. 1; cf, 1 Chron. i. 4. process intermediate between ordinary painting and enamelling. : Gen. ix. 27, X. 2, J. C. 850–750 B.C. In ix. 18 Ham is an It is very extensively applied in the finishing of ordinary iron- editorial addition. mongery goods and domestic iron-work, deed boxes, clock dials 3 Gen. x. 1-5; cf. i Chron. i. 5-7. For the significance of the and papier mâché articles. The process is also applied to blocks genealogies in Gen. x. see HAM. * See GOMER, Gog. of slate for making imitation of black and other marbles for So we should read with 1 Chron. i. 7 (LXX.) for Dodanim. 64 276 JARGOON—JARVIS JARGOON, or JARGON (occasionally in old writings jargounce | indistinct crystals with a yellowish-brown colour and brilliant and jacounce), a name applied by modern mineralogists to those lustre. Hardness 3; sp. gr. 3.15. The best specimens, con: zircons which are fine enough to be cut as gem-siones, but are sisting of crystalline crusts on limonite, are from the Jaroso not of the red colour which characterizes the hyacinth or jacinth. ravine in the Sierra Almagrera, province of Almeria, Spain, from The word is related to Arab sargun (zircon). Some of the finest which locality the mineral receives its name. It has been also jargoons are green, others brown and yellow, whilst some are found, often in association with iron ores, at a few other localities. colourless. The colourless jargoon may be obtained by heating | A variety occurring as concretionary or mulberry-like forms is certain coloured stones. When zircon is heated it sometimes known as moronolite (from Gr. jūpov, “mulberry," and Nidos, changes in colour, or altogether loses it, and at the same time stone "); it is found at Monroe in Orange county, New York. usually increases in density and brilliancy. The so-called The recently discovered species natrojarosite and plumbojarosite Matura diamonds, formerly sent from Matara (or Matura), in occur as yellowish-brown glistening powders consisting wholly Ceylon, were decolorized zircons. The zircon has strong re- of minute crystals, and are from Nevada and New Mexico fractive power, and its lustre is almost adamantine, but it lacks respectively. (L. J. S.) the fire of the diamond. The specific gravity of zircon is subject JARRAH WOOD (an adaptation of the native name Jerryhl), to considerable variation in different varieties; thus Sir A. H. the product of a large tree (Eucalyptus marginata) found in Church found the sp. gr. of a fine leaf-green jargoon to be as low south-western Australia, where it is said to cover an area of as 3.982, and that of a pure white jargoon as high as 4.705. 14,000 sq.m. The trees grow straight in the stem to a great size, Jargoon and tourmaline, when cut as gems, are sometimes mis- and yield squared timber up to 40 ft. length and 24 in. diameter, taken for each other, but the sp. gr. is distinctive, since that of The wood is very hard, heavy (sp. gr. 1.010) and close-grained, tourmaline is only 3 to 3.2. Moreover, in tourmaline the dichro- with a mahogany-red colour, and sometimes sufficient figure' ism is strongly marked, whereas in jargoon it is remarkably to render it suitable for cabinet-makers' use. The timber feeble. The refractive indices of jargoon are much higher than possesses several useful characteristics; and great expectations those of tourmaline (see ZIRCON). (F. W. R. *) were at first formed as to its value for shipbuilding and general JARĪR IBN 'ATIYYA UL-KHATFI (d. 728), Arabian poet, constructive purposes. These expectations have not, however, was born in the reign of the caliph 'Ali, was a member of the been realized, and the exclusive possession of the tree has not tribe Kulaib, a part of the Tamim, and lived in Irak. Of his proved that source of wealth to western Australia which was at early life little is known, but he succeeded in winning the favour one time expected. Its greatest merit for shipbuilding and of Hajjāj, the governor of Irak (see CALIPHATE). Already famous marine purposes is due to the fact that it resists, better than for his verse, he became more widely known by his feud with any other timber, the attacks of the Teredo navalis and other Farazdaq and Akhtal. Later he went to Damascus and visited marine borers, and on land it is equally exempt, in tropical the court of Abdalmalik (‘Abd ul-Malik) and that of his successor, countries, from the ravages of white ants. When felled with the Walid. From neither of these did he receive a warm welcome. sap at its lowest point and well seasoned, the wood stands He was, however, more successful with Omar II., and was the exposure in the air, earth or sea remarkably well, on which only poet received by the pious caliph. account it is in request for railway sleepers, telegraph poles and His verse, which, like that of his contemporaries, is largely satire piles in the British colonies and India. The wood, however, and eulogy, was published in 2 vols. (Cairo, 1896). (G. W. T.) frequently shows longitudinal blisters, or lacunae, filled with JARKENT, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of resin, the same as may be observed in spruce fir timber; and Semiryechensk, 70 m. W.N.W. of Kulja and near to the Ili river. comparatively moderate pressure. It has been classed at it is deficient in fibre, breaking with a short fracture under Pop. (1897), 16,372. JARNAC, a town of western France in the department of Lloyds for ship-building purposes in line three, table A, of the Charente, on the right bank of the river Charente, and on the rail- registry rules. way 23 m. W. of Angoulême, between that city and Cognac. parliamentary division of Durham, England, on the right bank JARROW, a port and municipal borough in the Jarrow Pop. (1906), 4493. The town is well built; and an avenue, planted with poplar trees, leads to a handsome suspension of the Tyne, 61 m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the bridge. The church contains an interesting ogival crypt. church of St Paul was founded in 685, and retains portions of North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 34,295. The parish There are communal colleges for both sexes. Brandy, wine and wine-casks are made in the town. Jarnac was in 1569 pre-Norman work. The central tower is Norman, and there the scene of a battle in which the Catholics defeated the Protes- church. Close by are the scattered ruins of the monastery are good Decorated and Perpendicular details in the body of the tants. A pyramid marks the spot where Louis , Prince de Condé, begun by the pious Biscop in 681, and consecrated with the one of the Protestant generals , was slain. Jarnac gave its church by Ceolfrid in 685.' Within the walls of this monastery name to an old French family, of which the best known member the Venerable Bede spent his life from childhood; and his body is Gui Chabot, comte de Jarnac (d. c. 1575), whose lucky back- was at first buried within the church, whither, until it was stroke in his famous duel with Châteigneraie gave rise to the proverbial phrase coup de jornac, signifying an unexpected removed under Edward the Confessor to Durham, it attracted blow. many pilgrims. The town is wholly industrial, devoted to JARO, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine ship-building, chemical works, paper mills and the neighbouring Islands, on the Jaro river, 2 m. N.W. of the town of Iloilo, the collieries. It owes its development from a mere pit village capital. Pop. (1903), 10,681. It lies on a plain in the midst of very largely to the enterprise of Sir Charles Mark Palmer (q.v.). a rich agricultural district , has several fine residences, a cathedral, Jarrow Slake, a river bay, 1 m. long by į m. broad, contains a curious three-tiered tower, a semi-weekly paper and a monthly the Tyne docks of the North-Eastern railway company. A periodical. Jaro was founded by the Spanish in 1584. From great quantity of coal is shipped. Jarrow was incorporated in 1903 until February 1908 it was part of the town or municipality 1875, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 783 acres. of Iloilo. JAROSITE, a rare mineral species consisting of hydrous French calligraphers. He was born at Paris about 1620, and JARRY, NICOLAS, one of the best-known 17th century potassium and aluminium sulphate, and belonging to the group of isomorphous rhombohedral minerals enumerated below:- is the Guirlande de Julie (1641). He died some time before was officially employed by Louis XIV. His most famous work Alunite. K2 (Al(OH)236 (SOx) 1674. Jarosite. K2 [Fe(OH)21 (SO )4 JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY (1780-1840), American artist, Natrojarosite Naz (Fe(OH)276 (SO), riephew of the great John Wesley, was born at South Shields, Plumbojarosite Pb, (Fe(OH)27 (SOx). England, and was taken to the United States at the age of Jarosite usually occurs as drusy incrustations of minute five. He was one of the earliest American painters to give JASHAR, BOOK OF_JASMINE 277 9 (6 serious attention to the study of anatomy. He lived at first in JASMIN, JACQUES (1798-1864), Provençal poet, was born at Philadelphia, afterwards establishing himself in New York, Agen on the 6th of March 1798, his family name being Boé. His where he enjoyed great popularity, though his conviviality and father, who was a tailor, had a certain facility for making doggerel eccentric mode of life affected his work. He visited Baltimore, verses, which he sang or recited at fairs and such-like popular Charleston and New Orleans, entertaining much and painting gatherings; and Jacques, who used generally to accompany him, portraits of prominent people, particularly in New Orleans, was thus early familiarized with the part which he afterwards so where General Andrew Jackson was one of his sitters. He had successfully filled himself. When sixteen years of age he found for assistants at different times both Sully and Inman. He employment at a hairdresser's shop, and subsequently started affected singularity in dress and manners, and his mots were a similar business of his own on the Gravier at Agen. In 1825 the talk of the day. But his work deteriorated, and he died he published his first volume of Papillotos (“ Curl Papers "), in great poverty in New York City. Examples of his painting containing poems in French (a language he used with a certain are in the collection of the New York Historical Society. sense of restraint), and in the familiar Agen patois—the popular JASHAR, BOOK OF, in Hebrew Sepher ha-yashar, a Hebrew speech of the working classes—in which he was to achieve all composition mentioned as though well-known in Josh. X. 13 his literary triumphs. Jasmin was the most famous forerunner and 2 Sam. i. 18. From these two passages it seems to have in Provençal literature (9.0.) of Mistral and the Félibrige. His been a book of songs relating to important events, but no early influence in rehabilitating, for literary purposes, his native dialect, collection of the kind is now extant, nor is anything, known of it. was particularly exercised in the public recitals of his poems to Various speculations have been put forward as to the name: (1) which he devoted himself. His poetic gift, and his flexible voice that it means the book of the upright, i.e. Israel or distinguished and action, fitted him admirably for this double rôle of trouba- Israelites, the root being the same as in Jeshurun; (2) that dour and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his “Blind Girl of Castel- Jashar (***) is a transposition of shir (90, song); (3) that it Cuillé" at Bordeaux, in 1836 at Toulouse; and he met with an should be pointed Yashir (777, sing; cf. Exod. xv. 1) and was enthusiastic reception in both those important cities. Most of so called after its first word. None of these is very convincing, his public recitations were given for benevolent purposes, the though support may be found for them all in the versions. The proceeds being contributed by him to the restoration of the church Septuagint favours (1) by its rendering énè Bibliov toù eúdolls of Vergt and other good works. Four successive volumes of in Samuel (it omits the words in Joshua); the Vulgate has in Papillotos were published during his lifetime, and contained libro justorum in both places; the Syriac in Samuel has Ashir, amongst others the following remarkable poems, quoted in order: which suggests a Hebrew reading ho-shir (the song), and in “ The Charivari,” “My Recollections” (supplemented after an Joshua it translates“ book of praises.” The Targum on both interval of many years), “The Blind Girl," “ Françounetto,” passages has “ book of the law," an explanation which is fol- “ Martha the Simple,” and “ The Twin Brothers,” With the lowed by the chief Jewish commentators, making the incidents exception of “The Charivari,” these are all touching pictures of the fulfilment of passages in the Pentateuch. Since it con- humble life-in, most cases real episodes-carefully elaborated tained the lament of David (2 Sam. i. 18) it cannot have been by the poet till the graphic descriptions, full of light and colour, completed till after his time. If Wellhausen's restoration of and the admirably varied and melodious verse, seem too sponta- i Kings viii. 12 be accepted (from Septuagint 1 Kings viii. 53, neous and easy to have cost an effort. Jasmin was not a prolific év BiBaiw tîs wons) where the reference is to the building writer, and, in spite of his impetuous nature, would work a long of the Temple, the book must have been growing in the time of time at one poem, striving to realize every feeling he wished to Solomon. The attempt Donaldson' to reconstruct it is describe, and give it.its most lucid and natural expression. A largely subjective and uncritical. verse from his spirited poem, “The Third of May," written in In later times when it became customary to compose midrashic honour of Henry IV., and published in the first volume of Papil- works under well-known names, a book of Jashar naturally made lotos, is engraved on the base of the statue erected to that king its appearance. It need hardly be remarloed that this has nothing at Nérac. In 1852 Jasmin's works were crowned by the Acadé- whatever to do with the older book. It is an anonymous elaboration mie Française, and a pension was awarded him. The medal in Hebrew of the early part of the biblical narrative, probably com. struck on the occasion bore the inscription: Au poële moral et posed in the 12th century. The fact that its legendary material is drawn from Arabic sources, as well as from Talmud, Midrash populaire. His title of “Maistre ès Jeux” is a distinction only and later Jewish works, would seem to show that the writer lived in conferred by the academy of Toulouse on illustrious writers. Spain, or, according to others, in south Italy. The first edition Pius IX. sent him the insignia of a knight of St Gregory the appeared at Venice in 1625, and it has been frequently, printed Great, and he was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He It was translated into English by (or for) M. M. Noah (New York, 1840). A work called The Book of ... Jasher, trans- spent the latter years of his life on a small estate which he had lated ... by Alcuin (1751; 2nd ed., Bristol, 1829), has nothing to bought near Agen and named Papillotos," and which he do with this or with any Hebrew original, but is a mere fabrication describes in Ma Bigno (“ My Vine "). Though invited to repre- by the printer, Jaco Ilive, who put it forward as the book sent his native city, he refused to do so, preferring the pleasures "mentioned in Holy Scripture.” and leisure of a country life, and wisely judging that he was no BIBLIOGRAPHY..-M. Heilprin, Historical Poetry, of the Ancient really eligible candidate for electoral honours. He died on the Hebrews (New York, 1879), i. 128-131; Mercati, Una congettura sopra il libro del Giusto," in Studi e l'esti (5, Roma, 19015. on the 4th of October 1864. His last poem, an answer to Renan, was medieval work see Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden (Frank- placed between his folded hands in his coffin. furt a. M., 1892), 2nd ed., p. 162. JASMINE, or JESSAMINE, botanically Jasminum, a genus of shrubs or climbers constituting the principal part of the tribe JASHPUR, a tributary state of India, in the Central Provinces, Jasminoideae of the natural order Oleaceae, and comprising having been transferred from Bengal in 1905. The country is about 150 species, of which 40 or more occur in the gardens of divided almost equally into high and low lands. The Uparghat Britain. The plants of the genus are mostly natives of the plateau on the east rises 2200 ft. above sea-level, and the hills above it reach their highest point in Ranijula (3527 ft.). The species. The leaves are pinnate or ternate, or sometimes appa- warmer regions of the Old World; there is one South American only river of importance is the Ib, in the bed of which diamonds rently simple, consisting of one leaflet, articulated to the petiole. are found, while from time immemorial its sands have been the flowers, usually white or yellow, are arranged in terminal or washed for gold. Jashpur iron, smelted by the Kols, is highly axillary panicles, and have a tubular 5- or 8-cleft calyx, a cylin- prized. Jungles of sál forests abound, harbouring elephant, drical corolla-tube, with a spreading limb, two included stamens bison and other wild beasts. Jungle products include lac, and a two-celled ovary. silk cocoons and beeswax, which are exported. Area 1948 The name is derived from the Persian yasmin. Linnaeus sq. m.; pop. (1901), 132,114; estimated revenue £8000. obtained a fancied etymology from ťa, violets, and oopý, smell, 1 Jaskcr: fragmenta archetypa carminum Hebraicorum (Berlin, but the odour of its flowers bears no resemblance to that of the 1854). Cí. Perowne's Remarks on it (Lond. 1855). violet. The common white jasmine, Jasminum officinale, one a since. 278 JASON of the best known and most highly esteemed of British hardy 1 glass, melted at as low a temperature as possible, and strained. ligneous climbers, is a native of northern India and Persia, intro- viously saturated with the finest olive oil are laid on wire-gauze When oil is employed as the absorbent, coarse cotton cloths pre- duced about the middle of the 16th century. In the centre and frames, and repeatedly covered in the same manner with fresh south of Europe it is thoroughly acclimatized. Although it Aowers; they are then squeezed under a press, yielding what is termed grows to the height of 12 and sometimes 20 ft., its stem is feeble huile antique au jasmin. Three pounds of Mowers will perfume i Ib of and requires support; its leaves are opposite, pinnate and dark grease--this is exhausted by maceration in 1 pt. of rectified spirit to form the “ extract." An essential oil is distilled from jasmine in green, the leaflets are in three pairs, with an odd one, and are Tunis and Algeria, but its high price prevents its being used to any pointed, the terminal one larger and with a tapering point. The extent. The East Indian oil of jasmine is a compound largely fragrant white flowers bloom from June to October; and, as they contaminated with sandalwood-oil. are found chiefly on the young shoots, the plant should only be Canary Islands and Madeira, consist principally in the alternate, The distinguishing characters of J. odoratissimum, a native of the pruned in the autumn. Varieties with golden and silver-edged obtuse, ternate and pinnate leaves, the 3-powered terminal peduncles leaves and one with double flowers are known. and the 5-cleft yellow corolla with obtuse segments. The flowers have the advantage of retaining when dry their natural perfume, The zambak or Arabian jasmine, J. Sambac, is an evergreen white- which is suggestive of a mixture of jasmine, jonquil and orange- flowered climber, 6 or 8 ft. high, introduced into Britain in the latter blossom. In China J. paniculatum is cultivated as an erect shrub, part of the 17th century: Two varieties introduced somewhat later known as sieu-hing-hwa; it is valued for its flowers, which are used are respectively 3-leaved and double-flowered, and these, as well as with those of J. Sambac, in the proportion of 10 lb of the former to that with normal flowers, bloom throughout the greater part of the 30 lb of the latter, for scenting tea-40 lb of the mixture being re- quired for 100 tb of tea. J. angustifolium is a beautiful evergreen climber 10 to 12 ft. high, found in the Coromandel forests, and intro- duced into Britain during the present century. Its leaves are of a bright shining green; its large terminal flowers are white with a faint tinge of red, fragrant and blooming throughout the year. In Cochin China a decoction of the leaves and branches of J. nervosum is taken as a blood-purifier; and the bitter leaves of J. floribundum (called in Abyssinia habbez-zelim) mixed with kousso is considered a powerful anthelmintic, especially for tapeworm; the leaves and branches are added to some fermented liquors to increase their intoxicating quality. In Catalonia and in Turkey the wood of the jasmine is made into long, slender pipe-stems, highly prized by the Moors and Turks. Syrup of jasmine is made by placing in a jar alternate layers of the flowers and sugar, covering the whole with wet cloths and standing it in a cool place; the perfume is absorbed by the sugar, which is converted into a very palatable syrup. The important medicinal plant known in America as the “ Carolina jasmine" is not a true jasmine (see GELSEMIUM). Other hardy species commonly cultivated in gardens are the low or Italian yellow-flowered jasmine, J. humile, an East Indian species introduced and now found wild in the south of Europe, an erect shrub 3 or 4 ſt. high, with angular branches, alternate and mostly ternate leaves, blossoming from June to September; the common yellow jasmine, J. fruticans, a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean region, a hardy evergreen shrub, 10 to 12 ft. high, with weak, slender stems requiring support, and bearing yellow, odourless flowers from spring to autumn; and I. nudifloruni (China), which bears its bright yellow flowers in winter before the leaves appear. It thrives in almost any situation and grows rapidly. JASON ('Ikowv), in Greek legend, son of Aeson, king of Iolcus in Thessaly. He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition (see ARGONAUTS). After he returned from it he lived at Corinth with his wife Medea (9.0.) for many years. At last he put away Medea, in order to marry Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of the Corinthian king Creon. To avenge herself, Medea presented the new bride with a robe and head-dress, by whose magic pro- Jasminum grandiflorum; flower, natural size. perties the wearer was burnt to death, and slew her children by Jason with her own hand. A later story represents Jason as year. On account of their exquisite fragrance the flowers are reconciled to Medea (Justin, xlii. 2). His death was said to have highly esteemed in the East, and are frequently referred to by the been due to suicide through grief, caused by Medea's vengeance Persian and Arabian poets. An oil obtained by boiling the leaves is (Diod. Sic. iv. 55); or he was crushed by the fall of the poop of used to anoint the head for complaints of the eye, and an oil obtained from the roots is used medicinally to arrest the secretion of milk. the ship“ Argo," under which, on the advice of Medea, he had The flowers of one of the double varieties are held sacred to Vishnu, laid himself down to sleep (argument of. Euripides' Medea). and used as votive offerings in Hindu religious ceremonies. The The name (more correctly Iason) means “ healer," and Jason is Spanish, or Catalonian jasmine, J. grandiflorum, a native of the possibly a local hero of Iolcus to whom healing powers were north-west Himalaya, and cultivated both in the old and new world, is very like . officinale, but differs in the size of the leaflets; attributed. The ancients regarded him as the oldest navigator, the branches are shorter and stouter, and the flowers very much and the patron of navigation. By the moderns he has been larger, and reddish underneath. By grafting it on two-year-old variously explained as a solar deity; a god of summer; a god of plants of J. officinale, an erect bush about 3 ft. high is obtained; storm; á god of rain, who carries off the rain-giving cloud (the requiring no supports. In this way it is very extensively cultivated at Cannes and "Grasse, in the south of France; the plants are set in golden fleece) to refresh the earth after a long period of drought. rows, fully exposed to the sun; they come into full bearing the second Some regard the legend as a chthonian myth, Aea (Colchis) year after grafting; the blossoms, which are very large and intensely being the under-world in the Aeolic religious system from which fragrant, are produced from July till the end of October, but those Jason liberates himself and his betrothed; others, in view of of August and September are the most odoriferous. The aroma is extracted by the process known as enfleurage, certain resemblances between the story of Jason and that of i.e. absorption by a fatty body, such as purified lard or olive oil. Cadmus (the ploughing of the field, the sowing of the dragon's Square glass trays framed with wood about 3 in. deep are spread teeth, the fight with the Sparti, who are finally set fighting with over with grease about half an inch thick, in which ridges are made one another by a stone hurled into their midst), associate both to facilitate absorption, and sprinkled with freshly gathered flowers, which are renewed every morning during the whole time the plant with Demeter the corn-goddess, and refer certain episodes to remains in blossom; the trays are piled up in stacks to prevent the practices in use at country festivals, e.g. the stone throwing, evaporation of the aroma; and finally the pomade is scraped off the which, like the Balantús at the Eleusinia and the dedopolia at as JASON OF CYRENE=JĀTAKA 279 14 Troezen (Pausanias ii. 30, 4 with Frazer's note) was probably between. Its primitive houses of timber and plaster were mostly intended to secure a good harvest by driving away the evil swept away after 1860, when brick or stone came into general rise, spirits of unfruitfulness. and good streets were cut among the network of narrow, insani- See articles by C. Seeliger in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and tary lanes. . Jassy is the seat of the metropolitan of Moldavia, by F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des anti- and of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Synagogues and churches quités; H. D. Müller,. Mythologie der griechischen Stämme (1861), abound. The two oldest churches date from the reign of Stephen ii. 328, who explains the name Jason as wanderer W. Mann- hardt, Mythologische Forschungen (1884), pp. 75, 130; 0. Crusius, the Great (1458-1504); perhaps the finest, however, are the 17th. Beiträge zur griechischen Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte (Leipzig, century metropolitan, St Spiridion and Trei Erarchi, the last a 1886). curious example of Byzantine art, erected in 1639 or 1640 by Later Versions of the Legend.- Les fais. et prouesses du noble et Basil the Wolf, and adorned with countless gild carvings on vaillant chevalier Jason was composed in the middle of the 15th its outer walls and twin towers. The St Spiridion Foundation century by Raoul Lefèvre on the basis of Benoit's Roman de (due to the liberality of Prince Gregory Ghika in 1727, and avail- Trois, and presented to Philip of Burgundy, founder of the order able for the sick of all countries and creeds) has an annual income of the Golden Fleece. The manners and sentiments of the 15th of over £80,000, and maintains hospitals and churches in several century are made to harmonize with the classical legends after towns of Moldavia, besides the baths at Slanic in Walachia. The the fashion of the Italian pre-Raphaelite painters, who equipped main hospital in Jassy is a large building, and possesses a mater. Jewish warriors with knightly lance and armour. The story is nity institution, a midwifery school, a chemical institute, an well told; the digressions are few; and there are many touches of inoculating establishment, &c. A society of physicians and domestic life and natural sympathy. The first edition is believed natựralists has existed in Jassy since the early part of the 19th to have been printed at Bruges in 1474. century, and a number of periodicals are published. Besides the Caxton translated the book under the title of A Boke of the hoole university, founded by Prince Cuza in 1864, with faculties of Lyf of Jason, at the command of the duchess of Burgundy. A literature, philosophy, law, science and medicine, there are Flemish translation appeared at Haarlem in 1495. The Benedictine a military academy and schools of art, music and commerce; Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-174!) refers to a MS. by Guido delle a museum, a fine hall and a theatre; the state library, where Colonne, Historia Medeae et Jasonis (unpublished). the chief records of Rumanian history are preserved; an appeal The Histoire de la Thorson d'Or (Paris, 1516) by Guillaume Fillastre (1400-147,3), written about 1440-1450, is an historical compilation court, a chamber of commerce and several banks. The city is dealing with the exploits of the très chrétiennes maisons of France, the headquarters of the 4th army corps. It has an active trade Burgundy and Flanders. in petroleum, salt, metals, timber, cereals, fruit, wine, spirits, JASON OF CYRENE, a Hellenistic Jew, who lived about preserved meat, textiles, clothing, leather, cardboard and 100 B.C. and wrote a history of the times of the Maccabees down cigarette paper. to the victory over Nicanor (175-161 B.c.). This work is said The inscription by which the existence of a Jassiorum munia to have been in five books and formed the basis of the present cipium in the time of the Roman Empire is sought to be proved, 2 Macc. (see ch. ii. 19-32). lies open to grave suspicion; but the city is mentioned as early JASPER, an opaque compact variety of quartz, variously as the 14th century, and probably does derive .its name from coloured and often containing argillaceous matter. The the Jassians, or Jazygians, who accompanied the Cumanian colours are usually red, brown, yellow or green, and are due to invaders. It was often visited by the Moldavian court. About admixture with compounds of iron, either oxides or silicates. 1564, Prince Alexander Lapusneanu, after whom one of the chief Although the term jasper is now restricted to opaque quartz it is streets is named, chose Jassy for the Moldavian capital, instead certain that the ancient jaspis or ikonis was a stone of con- of Suceava (now Suczawa, in Bukowina). It was already siderable translucency. The jasper of antiquity was in many famous as a centre of culture. Between 1561 and 1563 an ex- cases distinctly green, for it is often compared with the emerald cellent school and a Lutheran church were founded by the Greek and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the Niebelungen- adventurer, Jacob Basilicus (see RUMANIA: History). In 1643 lied as being clear and green. Probably the jasper of the the first printed book published in Moldavia was issued from a .ancients included stones which would now be classed as chal- press established by Basil the Wolf. He also founded a school, the cedony, and the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to our first in which the mother-tongue took the place of Greek. Jassy chrysoprase. The Hebrew word yashefeh may have designated a was burned by the Tatars in 1513, by the Turks in 1538, and by green jasper (cf. Assyrian yashpu). Professor Flinders Petrie has the Russians in 1686. By the Peace of Jassy the second Russo- suggested that the odem, the first stone on the High Priest's Turkish War was brought to a close in 1792. A Greek insurrec- breastplate, translated " sard,” was a red jasper, whilst tarshish, tion under Ypsilanti in 1821 led to the storming of the city by the the tenth stone, may have been a yellow jasper (Hastings's Dict: Turks in 1822. In 1844 there was a severe conflagration. For Bible, 1902). the loss caused to the city in 1861 by the removal of the seat Many varieties of jasper are recognized. Riband jasper is a form of government to Bucharest the constituent assembly voted in which the colours are disposed in bands, as in the well-known £148,150, to be paid in ten annual instalments, but no payment ornamental stone from Siberia, which shows a regular alternation was ever made. of dark red and green stripes. Egyptian jasper is a brown jasper, JATAKA, the technical name, in Buddhist literature, for a occurring as nodules in the Lybian desert and in the Nile valley, and story of one or other of the previous births of the Buddha. The characterized by a zonal arrangement of light and dark shades of word is also used for the name of a collection of 547 of such colour. Agate-jasper is a variety intermediate between true jasper and chalcedony. Basanite, lydite, or Lydian stone, is a velvet- stories included, by a most fortunate conjuncture of circum- black flinty jasper, used as a touchstone for testing the purity of stances, in the Buddhist canon. This is the most ancient and the precious metals by their streak. Porcelain jasper is a clay indurated most complete collection of folk-lore now extant in any literature by natural calcination. (F. W. R.*) in the world. As it was made at latest in the 3rd century B.C., JASSY (Iaşit), also written Jasii, JASCHI and YASSY, the capital it can be trusted not to give any of that modern or European of the department of Jassy, Rumania; situated on the left bank colouring which renders suspect much of the folk-lore collected of the river Bahlui, an affluent of the Jijia, about 10 m. W. of the by modern travellers. Pruth and the Russian frontier. Pop. (1900), 78,067. Jassy Already in the oldest documents, drawn up by the disciples communicates by rail with Galatz on the Danube, Kishinev in soon after the Buddha's death, he is identified with certain Bessarabia, and Czernowitz in Bukowina. The surrounding ancient sages of renown. That a religious teacher should claim country is one of uplands and woods, among which rise the to be successor of the prophets of old is not uncommon in the monasteries of Cetatuia, Frumoasa, and Galata with its mineral history of religions. But the current belief in mnetempsychosis Springs, the water-cure establishment of Rapide and the great led, or enabled, the early Buddhists to make a much wider claim. seminary of Socola. Jassy itself stands pleasantly amid vine- It was not very long before they gradually identified their master yards and gardens. partly on two hills, partly in the hollow I will the hero of each of the popular fables and stories of which 9) 280 JATH–JĀTS they were so fond. The process must have been complete by the Society (London, 1882); H. Kern, Jätaka-mālā, Sanskrit text (Cam- middle of the 3rd century B.C.; for we find at that date illustra-bridge, Mass., 1891), (Eng: trans. by J. S. Speyer, Oxford, 1895); tions of the Jātakas in the bas-reliefs on the railing round the tables) (London, 1880); Buddhist India (chap. xi. on the Jataka Book) Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories (with full bibliographical Bharahat tope with the titles of the Jātaka stories inscribed (London, 1903); E. Kuhn, Barlaam und Joasaph (Munich, 1893): above them in the characters of that period. The hero of each A. Cunningham, The Stupa of Bharhut (London, 1879) story is made into a Bodhisatta; that is, a being who is destined, (T. W. R. D.) after a number of subsequent births, to become a Buddha. This JATH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of rapid development of the Bodhisatta theory is the distinguishing Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta jagirs. With feature in the early history of Buddhism, and was both cause and the small state of Daphlapur, which is an integral part of it, it effect of the simultaneous growth of the Jātaka book. In forms the Bijapur Agency, under the collector of Bijapur district. adopting the folk-lore and fables already current in India, the Area, including Daphlapur, 980 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 68,665, Buddhists did not change them very much. The stories as showing a decline of 14% in the decade. Estimated revenue preserved to us, are for the most part Indian rather than Bud- £24,000; tribute £700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are dhist. The ethics they inculcate or suggest are milk for babes; carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief, very simple in character and referring almost exclusively to whose title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family. matters common to all schools of thought in India, and indeed | The town of Jath is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1901), 5404. elsewhere. Kindness, purity, honesty, generosity, worldly JÁTIVA (formerly written Xativa), or SAN FELIPE DE JÁTIVA, wiudom, perseverance, are the usual virtues praised; the higher a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, on the right ethics of the Path are scarcely mentioned. These stories, popular bank of the river Albaida, a tributary of the Júcar, and at the with all, were especially appreciated by that school of Buddhists junction of the Valencia-Murcia and Valencia-Albacete railways. that laid stress on the Bodhisatta theory-a school that obtained Pop. (1900), 12,600. Játiva is built on the margin of a fertile its chief support, and probably had its origin, in the extreme and beautiful plain, and on the southern slopes of the Monte north-west of India and in the highlands of Asia. That school Bernisa, a hill with two peaks, each surmounted by a castle. adopted, from the early centuries of our era, the use of Sanskrit, With its numerous fountain and spacious avenues shaded instead of Pali, as the means of literary expression. It is almost with elms or cypresses, the town has a clean and attractive impossible, therefore, that they would have carried the canonical appearance. Its collegiate church, dating from 1414, but rebuilt Pali book, voluminous as it is, into Central Asia. Sivorter col- about a century later in the Renaissance style, was formerly a lections of the original stories, written in Sanskrit, were in vogue cathedral, and is the chief among many churches and convents. among them. One such collection, the Jātaka-mālā by Arya | The town hall and a church on the castle hill are partly con- Sūra (6th century), is still extant. Of the existence of another structed of inscribed Roman masonry, and several houses date collection, though the Sanskrit original has not yet been found, from the Moorish occupation. There is a brisk local trade in we have curious evidence. In the 6th century a book of Sanskrit grain, fruit, wine, oil and rice. fables was translated into Pahlavi, that is, old Persian (see Játiva was the Roman Saetabis, afterwards Valeria Augusta, BIDPAI). In succeeding centuries this work was retranslated into of Carthaginian or Iberian origin. Pliny (23–79) and Martial Arabic and Hebrew, thence into Latin and Greek and all the (c. 40-102) mention the excellence of its linen cloth. Under the modern languages of Europe. The book bears a close resem- Visigoths (c. 483-711) it became an episcopal see; but early in blance to the earlier chapters of a late Sanskrit fable book the 8th century it was captured by the Moors, under whom it called, from its having five chapters, the Pancha tantra, or attained great prosperity, and received its present name. It was Pentateuch. reconquered by James I. of Aragon (1213-1 276). During the 15th The introduction to the old Jātaka book gives the life of the and 16th centuries, Játiva was the home of many members of historical Buddha. That introduction must also have reached the princely house of Borgia or Borja, who migrated hither from Persia by the same route. For in the 8th century St John of the town of Borja in the province of Saragossa. Alphonso Damascus put the story into Greek under the title of Barlaam Borgia, afterwards Pope Calixtus III., and Rodrigo Borgia, and Josaphat. This story became very popular in the West. It afterwards Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Játiva, born was translated into Latin, into seven European languages, and respectively in 1378 and 1431. The painter Jusepe Ribera was even into Icelandic and the dialect of the Philippine Islands. also born here in 1588. Owing to its gallant defence against the Its hero, that is the Buddha, was canonized as a Christian saint; troops of the Archduke Charles in the war of the Spanish succes- and the 27th of November was officially fixed as the date for sion, Játiva received the additional name of San Felipe from his adoration as such. Philip V. (1700-1746). The book popularly known in Europe as Aesop's Fables was not altogether more than 7 millions in 1901. They form a considerable JĀTS, or Juts, a people of north-western India, who numbered written by Aesop. It was put togeth in the 14th century at Constantinople by a monk named Planudes, and he drew largely for proportion of the population in the Punjab, Räjputana and the his stories upon those in the Jātaka book that had reached Europe adjoining districts of the United Provinces, and are also widely along various channels. The fables of Babrius and Phaedrus, scattered through Sind and Baluchistan. Some writers have iden- written respectively in the ist century before, and in the ist century aſter, the Christian era, also contain Jātaka stories known in India tified the Jāts with the ancient Getae, and there is strong reason in the 4th century B.C. A great deal has been written on this to believe them a degraded tribe of Rājputs, whose Scythic origin curious question of the migration of fables. . But we are still very has also been maintained. Hindu legends point to a prehistoric far from being able to trace the complete history of each story in occupation of the Indus valley by this people, and at the time the Jātaka book, or in any one of the later collections. For India itself the record is most incomplete. We have the original Jataka of the Mahommedan conquest of Sind (712) they, with a cognate book in text and translation. The history of the text of the Pancha tribe called Meds, constituted the bulk of the population. They taritra, about a thousand years later, has been fairly well traced out. enlisted under the banner of Mahommed bin Kāsim, but at a But for the intervening centuries scarcely anything has been done. There are illustrations, in the bas-reliefs of the 3rd century B.C., of later date offered a vigorous resistance to the Arab invaders. Jātakas not contained in the Jātaka book. Another collection, In 836 they were overthrown by Amran, who imposed on them the Cariyê pitaka, of about the same date, has been edited, but not a tribute of dogs, and used their arms to vanquish the Meds. In translated. Other collections both in Pali and Sanskri are known 1025, however, they had gathered audacity, not only to invade to be extant in MS,; and a large number of Jātaka stories, not Mansura, and compel the abjuration of the Mussulman amir, but included in any formal collection, are mentioned, or told in full, in other works. to attack the victorious army of Mahmūd, laden with the spoil of AUTHORITIES.–V. Faushöll, The Jataka, Pali text (7 vols., London, Somnāth. Chastisement duly ensued: a formidable flotilla, 1877-1897), (Eng: trans., edited by E. B. Cowell, 6 vols., Cambridge, collected at Mūltān, shattered in thousands the comparatively 1895-1907); Cariya piļaka, edited by R. Morris for the Pali Text defenceless Jāt boats on the Indus, and annihilated their national 'A complete list of these inscriptions will be found in Rhys pretensions. It is not until the decay of the Mogul Empire that Davids's Buddhist India, p. 209. the Jāts again appear in history. One branch of them, settled JAUBERT-JAUNDICE 281 south of Agra, mainly by bold plundering raids founded two to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris dynasties which still exist at Bharatpur (q.v.) and Dholpur (9.0.). on the 5th of February 1852. Another branch, settled north-west of Delhi,who adopted the Sikh JAUER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of religion, ultimately made themselves dominant throughout the Silesia, 13 m. by rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wüthende Neisse. Punjab (q.v.) under Ranjit Singh, and are now represented in their Pop. (1900), 13,024. St Martin's (Roman Catholic) church original home by the Phulkian houses of Patiala (g.v.), Jind (q.v.) dates from 1267-1290, and the Evangelical church from 1655. and Nabha (9.v.). It is from this latter branch that the Sikh A new town-hall was erected in 1895-1898. Jauer manu- regiments of the Indian army are recruited. The Jāts are mainly factures leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and is agriculturists and cattle breeders. In their settlements on the specially famous for its sausages. The town was first mentioned Ganges and Jumna, extending as far east as Bareilly, they are in 1242, and was formerly the capital of a principality em- divided into two great clans, the Dhe and the Hele; while in the bracing about 1200 sq. m., now occupied by the circles Punjab there are said to be one hundred different sections. of Jauer, Bunzlau, Löweberg, Hirschberg and Schönau. From Their religion varies with locality. In the Punjab they have 1392 to 1741 it belonged to the kings of Bohemia, being largely embraced Sikh tenets, while in Sind and Baluchistan taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer they are Mahommedans. In appearance they are not ill-favoured was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade, though extremely dark; they have good teeth, and large beards, but the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, in the course of sometimes stained with indigo. Their inferiority of sociał posi- which it was burned down three times, permanently injured tion, however, to some extent betrays itself in their aspect, and this. tends to be perpetuated by their intellectual apathy. See Schönaich, Die alte Fürstentumshauplstadt Jauer (Jauer, 1903). JAUBERT, PIERRE ÁMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE (1779- JAUHARI (ABU NASR ISMA®IL IBN ĦAMMAD UL-JAUHARI) 1847), French Orientalist, was born at Aix in Provence on the (d. 1002 or 1010), Arabian lexicographer, was born at Fārāb on 3rd of June 1779. He was one of the most distinguished the borders of Turkestan. He studied language in Fārāb and pupils of Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral Discours he pro- Bagdad, and later among the Arabs of the desert. He then nounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as interpreter to Napoleon in settled in Damghan and afterwards at Nīshapūr, where he died Egypt in 1798-1799, and on his return to Paris held various posts by a fall from the roof of a house. His great work is the Kitāb under government. In 1802 he accompanied Sebastiani on his us-Şaḥīḥ fil-Lugha, an Arabic dictionary, in which the words Eastern mission; and in 1804 he was at Constantinople. Next are arranged alphabetically according to the last letter of the year he was despatched to Persia to arrange an alliance with root. He himself had only partially finished the last recension, the shah; but on the way he was seized and imprisoned in a dry but the work was completed by his pupil, Abû Isḥaq Ibrāhim ibn cistern for four months by the pasha of Bayazid. The pasha's Şāliḥ ul-Warrãq. death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished his mission, and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of An edition was begun by E. Scheidius with a Latin translation, þut one part only appeared at Harderwijk (1776). The whole has Napoleon's downfall he was appointed chargé d'affaires at been published at Tebriz (1854) and at Cairo (1865), and many Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career, abridgments and Persian translations have appeared; cf. C. Brockel- but in 1818 he undertook a journey with government aid to mann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur (Weimar, 1898), i. 128 seq. Tibet, whence he succeeded in introducing into France 400 (G. W.T.) Kashmir goats. The rest of his life Jaubert spent in study, in JAUNDICE (Fr. jaunisse, from jaune, yellow), or ICTERUS writing and in teaching. He became professor of ersian in (from its resemblance to the colour of the golden oriole, of which the collège de France, and director of the école des langues Pliny relates that if a jaundiced person looks upon it he recovers orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Académie but the bird dies), a term in medicine applied to a yellow colora- de. Inscriptions. In 1841 he was made a peer of France and tion of the skin and other parts of the body, depending in most councillor of state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January, instances on some derangement affecting the liver. This yellow 1847. colour is due to the presence in the blood of bile or of some of the Besides articles in the Journal asiatique, he published Voyage en elements of that secretion. Jaundice, however, must be re- Arménie et en Perse (1821; the edition of 1860 has a notice of Jaubert, garded more as a symptom of some morbid condition previously by M. Sédillot) and Éléments de la grammaire turque (1823-1834). existing than as a disease per se. See notices in the Journal asiatique, Jan. 1847, and the Journal des Cases with jaundice may be divided into three groups. . débats, Jan. 30, 1847. 1. Obstructive Jaundice.-Any obstruction of the passage JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1852), of bile from the liver into the intestinal canal is sooner or later French politician, was born on the 14th of November 1757 at followed by the appearance of jaundice, which in such cir- Tournon (Seine-et-Marne) of a Protestant family, protected by cumstances is due to the absorption of bile into the blood. the prince de Condé, whose. regiment he entered. He adopted The obstruction is due to one of the following causes: (1) revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his regiment. In Obstruction by foreign bodies within the bile duct, e.g. gallstones the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the depart- or parasites; (2) inflammation of the duodenum or the lining ment of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority, membrane of the duct; (3) stricture or obliteration of the duct; and his views being obviously' too moderate for his colleagues (4) a tumour growing from the duct; (5) pressure on the duct he resigned in 1792 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of from without, from the liver or other organ, or tumours arising being a reactionary. Mme de Staël procured his release from from them. Obstructions from these causes may be partial or P. L. Manuel just before the September massacres. He accom- complete, and the degree of jaundice will vary accordingly, but panied Talleyrand on his mission to England, returning to it is to be noted that extensive organic disease of the liver France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived in retirement may exist without the evidence of obstructive jaundice. until the establishment of the Consulate, when he entered the The effect upon the liver of impediments to the outflow of tribunate, of which he was for some time president. In 1803 he bile such as those above indicated is in the first place an increase entered the senate, and next year became attached to the house in its size, the whole biliary passages and the liver cells being hold of Joseph Bonaparte. Presently his imperialist views distended with retained bile. This enlargement, however, cooled, and at the Restoration he became minister of state and a speedily subsides when the obstruction is removed, but should it pcer of France. At the second Restoration he was for a brief persist the liver ultimately shrinks and undergoes atrophy in its period minister of marine, but held no further office. He whole texture. The bile thus retained is absorbed into the devoted himself to the support of the Protestant interest in system, and shows itself by the yellow staining seen to a greater France. A member of the upper house throughout the reign of or less extent in all the tissues and many of the fluids of the Louis Philippe, he was driven into private life by the establish- body. The kidneys, which in such circumstances act in some ment of the Second Republic, but lived to see the Coup d'état and measure vicariously to the liver and excrete a portion of the 282 JAUNPUR retained bile, are apt to become affected in their structure of snake bites. Jaundice of this kind is almost always slight, by the long continuance of jaundice. and neither the urine nor the discharges from the bowels exhibit The symptoms of obstructive jaundice necessarily vary changes in appearance to such a degree as in the obstructive according to the nature of the exciting cause, but there generally variety. Grave constitutional symptoms are often present, but exists evidence of some morbid condition before the yellow they are less to be ascribed to the jaundice than to the disease coloration appears. Thus, if the obstruction be due to an with which it is associated. impacted gallstone in the common or hepatic duct, there will 3. Heredilary Jaundice. -Under this group there are the probably be the symptoms of intense suffering characterizing jaundice of new-born infants, which varies enormously in hepatic colic (see Colic). In the cases most frequently seen-severity; the cases in which a slight form of jaundice obtains in those, namely, arising from simple catarrh of the bile ducts due to several members of the same family, without other symptoms, gastro-duodenal irritation spreading through the common duct, and which may persist for years; and lastly the group of cases the first sign to attract attention is the yellow appearance of with hypertrophic cirrhosis. the white of the eye, which is speedily followed by a similar The name malignant jaundice is sometimes applied to that very colour on the skin over the body generally. The yellow tinge fatal form of discase otherwise termed acute yellow atrophy of the is most distinct where the skin is thin, as on the forehead, liver (see ATROPHY). breast, elbows, &c. It may be also well seen in the roof of the JAUNPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Benares mouth, but in the lips and gums the colour is not observed till division of the United Provinces. The city is on the left bank of the blood is first pressed from them. The tint varies, being in the river Gumti, 34 m. N.W. from Benares by rail. Pop. (1901), the milder cases faint, in the more severe a deep saffron yellow, 42,771. Jaunpur is a very ancient city, the former capital of a while in extreme degrees of obstruction it may be of dark brown Mahommedan kingdom which once extended from Budaun and or greenish hue. The colour can scarcely, if at all, be observed Etawah to Behär. It abounds in splendid architectural monu- in artificial light. ments, most of which belong to the period when the rulers of The urine exhibits well marked and characteristic changes in Jaunpur were independent of Delhi. The fort of Feroz Shah jaundice which exist even before any evidence can be detected is in great part completely ruined, but there remain a fine gateway on the skin or elsewhere. It is always of dark brown colour of the 16th century, a mosque dating from 1376, and the ham- resembling porter, but after standing in the air it acquires a mams or baths of Ibrahim Shah. Among other buildings may be greenish tint. Its froth is greenish-yellow, and it stains with mentioned the Atala Masjid (1408) and theruined Jinjiri Masjid, this colour any white substance. It contains not only the bile mosques built by Ibrahim, the first of which has a great clois- colouring matter but also the bile acids. The former is detected lered court and a magnificent façade; the Dariba mosque con- by the play of colours yielded on the addition of nitric acid, the structed by two of Ibrahim's governors; the Lal Darwaza erected latter by the purple colour, produced by placing a piece of lump by the queen of Mahmud, the Jama Masjid (1438-1478) or great sugar in the urine tested, and adding thereto a few drops of mosque of Husain, with court and cloisters, standing on a raised strong sulphuric acid. terrace, and in part restored in modern times; and finally the The contents of the bowels also undergo changes, being splendid bridge over the Gumti, erected by Munim Khan, Mogul characterized chiefly by their pale clay colour, which is in propor- governor in 1569–1573. During the Mutiny of 1857 Jaunpur tion to the amount of hepatic obstruction, and to their consequent formed a centre of disaffection. The city has now lost its im- want of admixture with bile. For the same reason they contain portance, the only industries surviving being the manufacture a large amount of unabsorbed fatty matter, and have an of perfumes and papier-mâché articles. extremely offensive odour. The DISTRICT OF JAUNPUR has an area of 1551 sq. m. It forms Constitutional symptoms always attend jaundice with obstruc- part of the wide Gangetic plain, and its surface is accordingly tion. The patient becomes languid, drowsy and irritable, and composed of a thick alluvial deposit. The whole country is has generally a slow pulse. The appetite is usually but not closely tilled, and no waste lands break the continuous prospect always diminished, a bitter taste in the mouth is complained of, of cultivated fields. It is divided into two unequal parts by the while flatulent eructations arise from the stomach. Intolerable sinuous channel of the Gumti, a tributary of the Ganges, which itching of the skin is a common accompaniment of jaundice, and flows past the city of Jaunpur. Its total course within the cutaneous eruptions or boils are occasionally seen. Yellow district is about 90 m., and it is nowhere fordable. It is crossed vision appears to be present in some very rare cases. Should by two bridges, one at Jaunpur and the other 2 m. lower down. the jaundice depend on advancing organic disease of the liver, The Gumtiis liable to sudden inundations during the rainy season, such as cancer, the tinge becomes gradually decper, and the owing to the high banks it has piled up at its entrance into the emaciation and debility more marked towards the fatal termina- Ganges, which act as dams to prevent the prompt outflow of its tion, which in such cases is seldom long postponed. Apart from flooded waters. These inundations extend to its tributary the this, however, jaundice from obstruction may exist for many Sai. Much damage was thus effected in 1774; but the greatest years, as in those instances where the walls of the bile ducts are recorded flood took place in September 1871, when 4000 houses thickened from chronic catarrh, but where they are only partially in the city were swept away, besides 9000 more in villages occluded. In the common cases of acute catarrhal jaundice along its banks. The other rivers are the Sai, Barna, Pili recovery usually takes place in two or three weeks. and Basohi. Lakes are numerous in the north and south; the The treatment of this form of jaundice bears reference to the largest has a length of 8 m. Pop. (1901), 1,202,920, showing cause giving rise to the obstruction. In the ordinary cases of a decrease of 5% in the decade. Sugar-refining is the principal simple catarrhal jaundice, or that following the passing of gall- | industry. The district is served by the line of the Oudh & stones, a light nutritious diet (milk, soups, &c., avoiding sac- Rohilkhand railway from Benares to Fyzabad, and by branches charine and farinaceous substances and alcoholic stimulants), of this and of the Bengal & North-Western systems. along with counter-irritation applied over the right side and the In prehistoric times Jaunpur seems to have formed a portion use of laxatives and cholagogues, will be found to be advanta- of the Ajodhya principality, and when it first makes an appear- gcous. Diaphoretics and diuretics to promote the action of the ance in authentic history it was subject to the rulers of Benares. skin and kidneys are useful in jaundice. In the more chronic With the rest of their dominions it fell under the yoke of the forms, besides the remedies above named, the waters of Carlsbad Mussulman invaders in 1194. From that time the district are of special efficacy. In cases other than acute catarrhal, appears to have been ruled by a prince of the Kanauj dynasty, operative interference is often called for, to remove the gallo as a tributary of the Mahommedan suzerain. In 1388 Mālik stones, tumour, &c., causing the obstruction. Sarwar Khwāja was sent by Mahommed Tughlak to govern the 2. Toxaemic Jaundice is observed to occur as a symptom in eastern province. He fixed his residence at Jaunpur, made certain fevers, e.g. yellow fever, ague, and in pyaemia also as himself independent of the Delhi court, and assumed the title of the effect of certain poisons, such as phosphorus, and the venom I Sultan-us-Shark, or “eastern emperor." For nearly a century JAUNTING-CAR-JAURÈS 283 9) the Sharki dynasty ruled at Jaunpur, and proved formidable | the navy in the Waddington cabinet, and on the 27th of May rivals to the sovereigns of Delhi. The last of the dynasty was following was elected a senator for life. He was again minister Sultan Husain, who passed his life in a fierce and chequered of the navy in the Freycinet cabinet in 1880. A fine example of struggle for supremacy with Bahlol Lodi, then actual emperor the fighting French seaman of his time, Jaureguiberry died at at Delhi. At length, in 1478, Bahlol succeeded in defcating his Paris on the 21st of October 1887. rival in a series of decisive engagements. He took the city of JAUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTÍNEZ DE (1583–1641), Jaunpur, but permitted the conquered Husain to reside there, and Spanish poet, was baptized at Seville on the 24th of November to complete the building of his great mosque, the Jama Masjid, 1583. In due course he studied at Rome, returning to Spain which now forms the chief ornament of the town. Many other shortly before 1610 with a double reputation as a painter and a architectural works in the district still bear witness to its great- poet. A reference in the preface to the Novelas exemplares has ness under its independent Mussulman rulers. In 1775 the been taken to mean that he painted the portrait of Cervantes, district was made over to the British by the Treaty of Lucknow. who, in the second part of Don Quixote, praises the translation From that time nothing occurred which calls for notice till the of Tasso's Aminta published at Rome in 1607. Jáuregui's Mutiny. On the 5th of June 1857, when the news of the Benares Rimas (1618), a collection of graceful lyrics, is preceded by a revolt reached Jaunpur, the sepoys mutinied. The district controversial preface which attracted much attention on account continued in a state of complete anarchy till the arrival of the of its outspoken declaration against culleranismo. Througl. the Gurkha force from Azamgarh in September. In November the influence of Olivares, he was appointed groom of the chamber surrounding country was lost again, and it was not till May 1858 to Philip IV., and gave an elaborate exposition of his artistic that the last smouldering embers of disaffection were stifled by doctrines in the Discurso poélico contra el hablar cullo y oscuro the repulse of the insurgent leader at the hands of the people (1624), a skilful attack on the new theories, which procured for themselves. its author the order of Calatrava. It is plain, however, that the See A. Führer, The Shargi Architecture of Jaunpur (1889). shock of controversy had shaken Jáuregui's convictions, and JAUNTING-CAR, a light two-wheeled carriage for a single his poem Orfeo (1624) is visibly influenced by Góngora. Jáuregui horse, in its commonest form with seats for four persons placed died at Madrid on the 11th of January 1641, leaving behind him back to back, with the foot-boards projecting over the wheels. a translation of the Pharsalia which was not published till 1684. It is the typical conveyance for persons in Ireland (see Car). This rendering reveals Jáuregui as a complete convert to the The first part of the word is generally taken to be identical with new school, and it has been argued that, exaggerating the the verb “to jaunt," now only used in the sense of to go on a affinities between Lucan and Góngora-both of Cordovan short pleasure excursion, but in its earliest uses meaning to make descent-he deliberately translated the thought of the earlier a horse caracole or prance, hence to jolt or bump up and down. poet into the vocabulary of the later master. This is possible; It would apparently be a variant of “ jaunce," of the same mean- but it is at least as likely that Jáuregui unconsciously yielded to ing, which is supposed to be taken from 0. Fr. jancer. Skeat the current of popular taste, with no other intention than that takes the origin of jaunt and jaunce to be Scandinavian, and of conciliating the public of his own day. connects them with the Swedish dialect word ganta, to romp; JAURÈS, JEAN LÉON (1859– ), French Socialist leader, and he finds cognate bases in such words as “jump," " high was born at Castres (Tarn) on the 3rd of September 1859. He jinks.” The word “jaunty,” sprightly, especially used of any. was educated at the lycée Louis-le-Grand and the école normale thing done with an easy nonchalanť air, is a corruption of supérieure, and took his degree as associate in philosophy in " janty,” due to confusion with“ jaunt.” “ Janty," often spelt 1881. After teaching philosophy for two years at the lycée of in the 17th and 18th centuries “janté” or “jantee,” repre- Albi (Tarn), he lectured at the university of Toulouse. He was sents the English pronunciation of Fr. gentil, well-bred, neat, elected republican deputy for the department of Tarn in 1885. spruce. In 1889, after unsuccessfully contesting Castres, he returned to JAUREGUI, JUAN (1562-1582), a Biscayan by birth, was in his professional duties at Toulouse, where he took an active 1582 in the service of a Spanish merchant, Gaspar d'Anastro, interest in municipal affairs, and helped to found the medical who was resident at Antwerp. Tempted by the reward of faculty of the university. He also prepared two theses for his 80,000 ducats offered by Philip II. of Spain for the assassination doctorate in philosophy, De primis socialismi germanici linea- of William the Silent, prince of Orange, but being himself with mentis apud Lutherum, Kant, Fichte et Hegel (1891), and De la out courage to undertake the task, d’Anastro, with the help of réalité du monde sensible. In 1902 he gave energetic support to his cashier Venero, persuaded Jauregui to attempt the murder the miners of Carmaux who went out on strike in consequence for the sum of 2877 crowns. On Sunday the 18th of March of the dismissal of a socialist workman, Calvignac; and in the 1582, as the prince came out of his dining-room Jauregui offered next year he was re-elected to the chamber as deputy for Albi. him a petition, and William had no sooner taken it into his hand | Although he was defeated at the elections of 1898 and was for than Jauregui fired a pistol at his head. The ball pierced the four years outside the chamber, bis eloquent speeches made him neck below the right ear and passed out at the left jaw-bone; a force in politics as an intellectual champion of socialism. He but William ultimately recovered. The assassin was killed on edited the Petite République, and was one of the most energetic defenders of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. He approved of the JAURÉGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD (1815-1887), French inclusion of M. Millerand, the socialist, in the Waldeck-Rousseau admiral, was born at Bayonne on the 26th of August 1815. He ministry, though this led to a split with the more revolutionary entered the navy in 1831, was made a lieutenant in 1845, com- section led by M. Guesde. In 1902 he was again returned as mander in 1856, and captain in 1860. After serving in the deputy for Albi, and during the Combes administration his in. Crimea and in China, and being governor of Senegal, he was fluence secured the coherence of the radical-socialist coalition promoted to rear-admiral in 1869. He served on land during i known as the bloc. In 1904 he founded the socialist paper, the second part of the Franco-German War of 1870–71, in the L'Humanité. The French socialist groups held a congress at rank of auxiliary general of division. He was present at Coul- Rouen in March 1905, which resulted in a new consolidation; miers, Villépion and Loigny-Poupry, in command of a division, the new party, headed by MM. Jaurès and Guesde, ceased 10 and in Chanzy's retreat upon Le Mans and the battle at that co-operate with the radicals and radical-socialists, and became place in command of a corps. He was the most distinguished known as the unified socialists, pledged to advance a collectivist of the many naval officers who did good service in the military programme. At the general elections of 1906 M Jaurès was operations. On the 9th of December he had been made vice- again elected for the Tarn. His ability and vigour were now admiral, and in 1871 he commanded the fleet at Toulon, in 1875, generally recognized; but the strength of the socialist party, and he was a member of the council of admiralty; and in October the practical activity of its leader, still had to reckon with the 1876 he was appointed to command the evolutionary squadron equally practical and vigorous liberalism of M. Clemenceau. in the Mediterranean. In February 1879 he became minister of the latter was able to appeal to his countrymen (in a notable the spot. 284 JAVA speech in the spring of 1906) to rally to a radical programme From Sumatra on the W., Java is separated by the Sunda which had no socialist Utopia in view; and the appearance in Strait, which at the narrowest is only 14 m. broad, but widens him of a strong and practical radical leader had the result of elsewhere to about 50 m. On the E. the strait of Bali, which considerably diminishing the effect of the socialist propaganda. parts it from the island of that name, is at the northern end not M. Jaurès, in addition to his daily journalistic activity, published more than 1} m. across. Through the former strong currents Les preuves; affaire Dreyfus (1900); Action socialiste (1899); run for the greater part of the day throughout the year, outwards Études socialistes (1902), and, with other collaborators, Hisloire from the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. In the strait of Bali socialiste (1901), &c. the currents are perhaps even stronger and are extremely JAVA, one of the larger islands of that portion of the Malay | irregular. Pilots with local knowledge are absolutely necessary Archipelago which is distinguished as the Sunda Islands. It for vessels attempting either passage. In spite of the strength lies between 105° 12' 40" (St Nicholas Point) and 114° 35' 38" E.] of the currents the Sunda Strait is steadily being diminished in (Cape Seloko) and between 5° 52' 34" and 8° 46' 46" S. It has width, and the process if continued must result in a restoration a total length of 622 m. from Pepper Bay in the west to Banyu- of that junction of Sumatra and Java which according to some wangi in the east, and an extreme breadth of 121 m. from Cape , authorities formerly existed.? Bugel in Japara to the coast of Jokjakarta, narrowing towards In general terms Java may be described as one of the break- the middle to about 55 m. Politically and commercially it is water islands of the Indian Ocean-part of the mountainous important as the seat of the colonial government of the Dutch rim (continuous more or less completely with Sumatra) of the East Indies, all other parts of the Dutch territory being partially submerged plateau which lies between the ocean on distinguished as the Outer Possessions (Buitenbezillungens). the S. and the Chinese Sea on the N., and has the massive According to the triangulation survey (report published in 1901) island of Borneo as its chief subaerial portion. While the waves the area of Java proper is 48,504 sq. m.; of Madura, the large and currents of the ocean sweep away most of the products of adjacent and associated island, 1732; and of the smaller islands denudation along the south coast or throw a small percentage administratively included with Java and Madura 1416, thus | back in the shape of sandy downs, the Java Sea on the north- 106 108° с 110° D 112° E 114° F A Şamatra Nicholas . Thousand Islands V Karimon Java serang sa sunda se Archipelago A S Bavian E Sangkapura ܠܝܗ 6 Dymrs-in-den-Weg Krakatoa 0 Aner Batavichi Tarum Hook of Pamanukan Seite Pandering Che Manua Pepper de Meester Corneitt Kinoramayu Pulau Panaitan c.Tanan Cheribon poset) Mandalida C. Bupal Taju Halimton e Pemalang Seelcasendah Behouden Red Pekalongan Pass. Sirego C. Awerewer Irudan Schenep putareni. asidayu Bantalang Tereleng Klapperto Trouwerslide Purwa Japaras MIS Chaniu Salak Sedan umedang kisukabumi Bandung Chiclalerek of Balapyling Semarans Pagelaras Chibaty Slametis Deng Chiamis Purbalingga Ambarawan osalta Tasikmalaya Banjarpes Ruryakarta COS Banykas >11 Fukara Sporo Budu Prambana Jokiakai garu ord Lo Chichiurus Polando, ante c. Ungkatkater Wijnkoopers Madura Sapudi 12 Archipelago Surabaya Sidoano Strait of Madura ombang Pasuruan situbondo Heta Probolings O Rondawid. Sedano S Brand lepi Pamerasa coato fentang Mera 8 2 Magelang INT c. Centeng Chi Bum Sincang barang ay USA eratzen Pagar 8 JAVA fameungpeuk 2 ngan Chijuana Pananjung Buwis *Kebumen C. Xarangdoto Chi! ngopuro Sprays Purwort Bali Vonds are R.Bochorego Banyuwangi Bali Strait Pachitan Sempu Wonochoyo 3 English Miles 인 ​30 40 bo 85 TOO Railways....... In cases where a residercy and its chief town have the same name, that of the residency is underined. Other residencies:- 1. Bantam 11. Preanger TII. Kedu IV. Besuki A 106 C.dembuwur Gemch Bay Nusa Barung N 1 c. Seloko! N DI Α Ν 0 E A Grajagan B 108° с 110° D 112° E Emcy Waiket sc making a total of 50,970 sq. m. · The more important of these not more than 50 fathoms deep-allows them to settle and to islands are the following: Pulau Panaitan or Princes Island form sometimes with extraordinary rapidity broad alluvial (Prinseneiland), 47 sq. m., lies in the Sunda Strait, off the south-tracts.3 western peninsula of the main island, from which it is separated by the Behouden Passage. The Thousand Islands are situated the middle part of the island narrowing into a kind of isthmus, It is customary and obvious to divide Java into three divisions, almost due N. of Batavia. Of these five were inhabited in 1906 and cach of the divisions thus indicated having certain structural by about 1280 seafarers from all parts and their descendants. characteristics of its own. West Java, which consists of Bantam, The Karimon Java archipelago, to the north of Semarang, Krawang and the Preanger. Regencies, has an area of upwards of 18,000 sq. m. numbers twenty-seven islands with an area of 16 sq. m. and a In this division the highlands lie for the most part in a compact mass to the south and the lowlands form a continuous population of about 850 (having one considerable village on the tract to the north. The main portion of the uplands consists of the main island). Bavian' (Bawian), 100 m. N. of Surabaya, is a Prcanger. Mountains, with the plateaus of Bandong, Pekalongan, ruined volcano with an area of 73 sq. 'm. and a population of Tegal, Badung and Gurut, encircled with volcanic summits. On the about 44,000. About a third of the men are generally absent as borders of the Preanger, Batavia and Bantam are the Halimon Mountains (the Blue Mountains of the older travellers), reaching traders or coolies. In Singapore and Sumatra they are known as their greatest altitudes in the volcanic summits of Gedeh and Salak. Boyans. They are devout Mahommedans and many of them To the west lie the highlands of Bantam, which extending northward make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sapudi and Kangean cut off the northern lowlands from the Sunda Strait. Middle Java archipelagoes are eastward continuations of Madura. The former, is the smallest of the three divisions, having an area of not much more thirteen in all, with an area of 58 sq. m. and 53,000 inhabitants, Bagelen. Kedu. Jokjakarta, Surakarta, and thus not only takes in than 13,200 sq. m. It comprises Tegal, Pekalongan, Banyumas, export cattle, dried fish and trepang; and many of the male popu- the whole of the isthmus but encroaches on the broad eastern portion lation work as day labourers in Java or as lumbermen in Sum of the island. In the isthmus mountains are not so closely massed bawa, Flores, &c. The main island of the Kangians has an area ? H. B. Guppy (R. S. G. Soc. Magazine, 1889) holds that there is of 19 sq. m.; the whole group 23 sq. m. It is best known for no sufficient proof of this connexion but gives interesting details its limestone caves and its buffaloes. Along the south coast the of the present movement. islands are few and small-Klapper or Deli, Trouwers or Tingal, 3 See G. F. Tijdeman's map of the depths of the sea in the eastern Nusa Kembangan, Sempu and Nusa Barung. part of the Indian archipelago in M. Weber's Siboga Expedition, 1903. The details of the coast forms of the island have been studied by "It must be observed that Bavian, &c., are mere conventional J. F Snelleman and J. F. Niermeyer in a paper in the Veth Feest. appendices to Java. bundel, utilizing inter alia Guppy's observations. JAVA 285 in the south nor the plains so continuous on the north. The water- tion from tides and the east monsoon, oppose everywhere, also in shed culminating in Slamet lies almost midway between the ocean Preanger and Besuki, a barrier to the discharge of the rivers and the and the Java Sea, and there are somewhat extensive lowlands in drainage of the coast-lands. They assist the formation of lagoons the south. In that part of middle Java which physically belongs and morasses. At intervals in the dune coast, running in the to eastern Java there is a remarkable series of lowlands stretching direction of the limestone mountains, there tower up steep inacces- almost right across the island from Semarang in the north to Jokjakarta sible masses of land, showing neither ports nor bays, hollowed out by in the south. Eastern Java comprises Rembang, Madiun, Kediri, Sura- the sea, rising in perpendicular walls to a height of 160'ft. above baya, Pasuruan and Besuki, and has an area of about 17,500 sq. m. sea-level.. Sometimes two branches project at right angles from In this division lowlands and highlands are intermingled in the chain on to the coast, forming a low bay between the capes endless variety except along the south coast, where the watershed- or ends of the projecting branches, from 1000 to 1600 ft. high. range forms a continuous breakwater from Jokjakarta to Besuki. Such a formation occurs frequently along the coast of Besuki, The volcanic eminences, instead of rising in lines or groups, are presenting a very irregular coast-line. Of course the north coast is isolated.' of much greater commercial importance than the south coast. For its area Java is one of the most distinctly volcanic regions of Geology.-With the exception of a few small patches of schist, the world. Volcanic forces made it, and volcanic forces have con- supposed to be Cretaceous, the whole island, so far as is known, is tinued to devastate and fertilize it. According to R. D. M. Verbeek covered by deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age. The ancient about 125 volcanic centres can be distinguished, a number which “schist formation," which occurs in Sumatra, Borneo, &c., does not may be increased or diminished by different methods of classi- rise to the surface anywhere in Java itself, but it is visible in the fication. It is usual to arrange the volcanoes in the following island of Karimon Java off the north coast. The Cretaceous schists groups: westernmost Java 11 (all extinct); Preanger 50 (5 active); have yielded fossils only at Banjarnegara, where a limestone with Cheribon 2 (both extinct); Slamet 2 (1 active); middle Java 16 Orbitolina is interstratified with them. They are succeeded un- (2 active); Murio 2 (both extinct); Lavu 2 (extinct); Wilis 2 (extinct); conformably by. Eocene deposits, consisting of sandstones with east Java 21 (5 active). The active volcanoes of the present time coal-seams and limestones containing Nummulites, Alveolina and are Gedeh, Tangkuban, Prahu, Gutar, Papandayan, Galung-gung, Orthophragmina; and these beds are as limited in extent as the Cre. Slamet, Sendor, Merapi, Kalut (or Klut), Bromo, Semeru, Lamongan, taceous schists themselves. Sedimentary deposits of Upper Tertiary Raung, but the activity of many of these is trifling, consisting of age are widely spread, covering about 38% of the surface. They slight ejections of steam and scoriae. consist of breccias, marls and limestones containing numerous The plains differ in surface and fertility, according to their geologi- fossils, and are for the most part Miocene but probably include a cal formation. Built up of alluvium and diluvium, the plains of the part of the Pliocene also. They were laid down beneath the sea, north coast-lands in western and middle Java are at their lowest but have since been folded and elevated to considerable heights. levels, near the mouths of rivers and the sea, in many cases marshy Fluviatile deposits of late Pliocene age have been found in the east and abounding in lakes and coral remains, but for the rest they are of Java, and it was in these that the remarkable anthropoid ape or fertile and available for culture. The plains, too, along the south ape-like man, Pilhecanthropus erectus of Dubois, was discovered. coast of middle Java-of Banyumas and Bagelen contain many The Quaternary deposits lie horizontally upon the upturned edges morasses as well as sandy stretches and dunes impeding the outlet of the Tertiary beds. They are partly marine and partly fluviatile, of the rivers. They are, nevertheless, available for the cultivation the marine deposits reaching to a height of some 350 ft. above the more particularly of rice, and are thickly peopled.. In eastern sea and thus indicating a considerable elevation of the island in Java, again, the narrow coast plains are to be distinguished from the recent times.. wider plains lying between the parallel chains of limestone and be- The volcanic rocks of Java are of great importance and cover about. tween the volcanoes. The narrow plains of the north coast are 28% of the island. The eruptions began in the middle of the constituted of yellow clay and tuffs containing chalk, washed down Tertiary period, but did not attain their maximum until Quaternary by the rivers from the mountain chains and volcanoes. Like the times, and many of the volcanoes are still active. Most of the western plains, they, too, are in many cases low and marshy, and cones seem to lie along faults parallel to the axis of the island, or on fringed with sand and dunes. The plains, on the other hand, at short cross fractures. The lavas and ashes are almost everywhere some distance from the sea, or lying in the interior of eastern Java, andesites and basalts, with a little obsidian. Some of the volcanoes, such as Surakarta, Madiun, Kediri, Pasuruan, Probolinggo and however, have erupted leucite rocks. Similar rocks, together with Besuki, owe their formation to the volcanoes at whose bases they phonolite, occur in the island of Bavian.? lie, occupying levels as high as 1640 ft. down to 328 ft. above the Climate.-Our knowledge of the climate of Batavia, and thus of sea, whence they decline to the lower plains of the coast. Lastly, that of the lowlands of western Java, is almost perfect; bụt, rainfall the plains of Lusi, Solo and Brantas, lying between the parallel excepted, our information as to the climate of Java as a whole is chains in Japara, Rembang and Surabaya, are in part the product extremely defective. The dominant meteorological facts are simple of rivers formerly flowing at a higher level of 30 to 60 or 70 ft., in and obvious: Java lies in the tropics, under an almost vertical part the product of the sea, dating from a time when the northern sun, and thus has a day of almost uniform length throughout part of the above-named residencies was an island, such as Madura, the year. It is also within the perpetual influence of the great the mountains of which are the continuation of the north parallel atmospheric movements passing between Asia and Australia; and chain, is still. is affected by the neighbourhood of vast expanses of sea and land The considerable rivers of western Java all have their outlets on (Borneo and Sumatra). There are no such maxima of temperature the north coast, the chief among them being the Chi (Dutch Tji) as are recorded from the continents. The highest known at Batavia Tarum and the Chi Manuk. They are navigable for native boats and was 96° F. in 1877 and the lowest 66° in the same year. The mean rafts, and are used for the transport of coffee and salt. On the south annual temperature is 790 The warmest months are May and coast the Chi Tanduwi, on the east of the Preanger, is the only October, registering 79.50 and 79:46° respectively; the coldest stream available as a waterway, and this only for a few miles above its January and February with 77.639 and 77.7° respectively. The mouth. In middle Java, also, the rivers discharging at the north daily range is much greater; at one o'clock the thermometer has a coast-the Pamali, Chomal, &c.-are serviceable for the purposes mean height of 84°; after two o'clock it declines to about 73° at six of irrigation and cultivation, but are navigable only near their o'clock; the greatest daily amplitude is in August and the least in mouths. The rivers of the south coast-Progo, Serayu, Bogowonto, January and February. Eastern Java and the inland plains of and Upak, enriched by rills from the volcanoes-serve abundantly middle Java are said to be hotter, but scientific data are few. A to irrigate the plains of Bagelen, Banyumas, &c. Their stony beds, very slight degree of elevation above the seaboard plains produces shallows and rapids, and the condition of their mouths lessen, a remarkable difference in the climate, not so much in its mere however, their value as waterways. More navigable are the larger temperature as in its influence on health. The dwellers in the coast rivers of eastern Java. The Solo is navigable for large praus, or towns are surprised at the invigorating effects of a change to health native boats, as far up as Surakarta, and above that town for lighter resorts from 300 to 1200 ſt. above sea-level; and at greater eleva- boats, as is also its affluent the Gentung. The canal constructed tions it may be uncomfortably cold at night, with chilly mists and in 1893 at the lower part of this river, and alterations effected at occasional frosts. The year is divided into two seasons by the pre- its mouth, have proved of important service both in irrigating the vailing winds: the rainy season, that of the west monsoon, lasting plain and facilitating the river's outlet into the sea. The Brantas from November to March, and the dry season, that of the east mone is also navigable in several parts. The smaller rivers of eastern soon, during the rest of the year; the transition from one monsoon Java are, however, much in the condition of those of western Java. to another-the canting." of the monsoons--being marked by They serve less as waterways than as reservoirs for the irrigation of the fertile plains through which they flow. 2 R. D. M. Verbeek and R. Fennema, Description géologique de Java The north coast of Java presents everywhere a low strand covered et Madoura (2 vols. and atlas, Amsterdam, 1896; also published in with nipa or mangrove, morasses and fishponds, sandy stretches and Dutch)--a summary with map was published by Verbeek in Peterm. low dunes, shifting river-mouths and coast-lines, ports and roads, Mitt. xliv. (1898), 24-33, pl. 3. Also K. Martin, Die Eintheilung der demanding continual attention and regulation. The south coast versteinerungsführenden Sedimente von Java, Samml. Geol. Reichsmus. is of a different make. The dunes of Banyumas, Bagelen, and Jokja- Leiden, ser. i., vol. vi. (1899-1902), 135-245. karta, ranged in three ridges, rising to 50 ft. high, and varying in 3 On the 16th of November the sun rises at 5.32 and sets at 5.57; breadth from 300 to over 1600 ft., liable, moreover, to transforma- on the 16th of July it rises at 6.12 and sets at 5.57. The longest day is in December and the shortest in June, while on the other hand This Merapi must be carefully distinguished from Merapi the thesun is highest in February and October and lowest in June and Fire Mountain of Sumatra. December, 286 JAVA irregularities. On the whole, the east monsoon blows, steadily for rembak, or wild cat (Felis minula), about the size of a common cat. a longer period than the west. The velocity of the wind is much less The dog tribe is represented by the fox-like adjag (Cuon or Canis than in Europe--not more in the annual mean at Batavia than 3. ſt. sutilans) which hunts in ferocious packs; and by a wild dog, Canis per second, against 12 to 18 ft. in Europe. The highest velocity tenggeranus, if this is not now exterminated. The Cheiroptera hold ever observed at Batavia was 25 ft. Wind-storms are rare and a prominent place in the fauna, the principal genera being Pteropus, hardly ever cyclonic. There are as a matter of course a large number Cynon ycteris, Cynopterus and Macroglossus. Remarkable espe- of purely local winds, some of them of a very peculiar kind, but few cially for size is the kalong, or flying fox, Pteropus edulis, a fruit- of these have been scientifically dealt with. Thunder storms are eating bat, which may be seen hanging during the day in black extremely frequent; but the loss of life from lightning is probably clusters asleep on the trees, and in the evening hastening in long diminished by the fact that the palm-trees are excellent conductors. lines to the favourite feeding grounds in the forest. The damage At night the air is almost invariably still. The average rainfall at these do to the young coco-nut trces, the maize and the sugar-palms Batavia is 72:28 in. per annum, of which 51.49 in. are contributed leads the natives to snare and shoot them; and their hesh is a by the west monsoon. The amount varies considerably from year favourite food with Europeans, who prefer to shoot them by night to year: in 1889, 1891 and 1897 there were about 47.24 in.; in 1868 as, if shot by day, they often cling after death to the branches. and 1877 nearly 51:17, and in 1872 and 1882 no less than 94.8. Smaller kinds of bats are most abundant, perhaps the commonest There are no long tracts of unbroken rainfall and no long periods of being Scolophilus Temminckii. In certain places they congregate continuous drought. The rainfall is heaviest in January, but it in myriads, like sea-fowl on the cliffs, and their excrement produces rains only for about one-seventh of the time.. Next in order come extensive guano deposits utilized by the people of Surakarta and February, March and December. ‘August, the driest month, has Madiun. The creature known to the Europeans as the flying-cat from three to five days of rain, though the amount is usually less and to the natives as the kubin is the Galeopithecus volans or varia- than an inch and not more than one and a half inches. The popu- galus-a sort of transition from the bats to the lemuroids. Of these lar description of the rain falling not in drops but streams was proved last Java has several species held in awe by the natives for their erroneous by J. Wiesner's careful observations (see Kais. Akad. d. supposed power of fascination. The apes are represented by the Wiss. Math. Naturw. CI. Bd. xiv., Vienna, 1895), which have been wou-wou (Hylobates leuciscus), the lutung, and kowi (Semnopithecus confirmed by A. Woeikof (“ Regensintensität und Regendauer in maurus and pyrrhus), the surili (Semnopithecus mitratus), and the Batavia in 2. für Met., 1997). The greatest rainfall recorded in munyuk (Cercocebus, or Macacus, cynamolgos), the most generally an hour (4.5 in.) is enormously exceeded by records even in Europe. distributed of all. From sunrise to sunset the wou-wou makes it's From observations taken for the meteorological authorities at a very presence known, especially in the second zone where it congregates considerable number of stations, J. H. Boeseken constructed a map in the trees, by its strange cry, at times harsh and cacophonous, at in 1990 (Tijdschr. v. h. Kon. Ned. Aardr. Gen., 1900; reproduced times weird and pathetic. The lutung or black ape also prefers the in Veth, Java, iii. 1903). Among the outstanding facts are the temperate region, though it is met with as high as 7000 ft. above following. The south coasts of both eastern and middle Java have the sea and as low as 2000. The Cercocebus or grey ape keeps for a much heavier rainfall than the north. Majalenka has an annual the most part to the warm coast lands. Rats (including the brown fall of 175 in. In western Java the maximal district consists of a Norway rat, often called Mus javanicus, as if it were a native; a great ring of mountains from Salak and Gedeh in the west to Galung- great plague); mice in great variety; porcupines (Acanthion gung in the east, while theenclosed plateau-region of Chanjur Bandung javanicumi); squirrels (five species) and flying squirrels (four species) and Garut are not much different from the sea-board. The whole represent the rodents. A hare, Lepus nigricollis, originally from of middle Java, with the exception of the north coast, has a heavy Ceylon, has a very limited habitat; the Insectivora comprise a rainfall. At Chilachap the annual rainfall is 151.43 in., 87.8 in. of shrew-mouse (Rachyura indica), two species of tupaya and Hylomys which is brought by the south-east monsoon. The great belt which in- suillus peculiar to Java and Sumatra. The nearest relation to the cludes the Slamet and the Dieng, and the country on the south coast bears is Arctictis binturong. AI ydaus meliceps and Helictis orientalis between Chilachap and Parigi, are maximale in comparison the represent the badgers. In the upper part of the mountains occurs whole of eastern Java, with the exception of the mountains from Mustela Henrici, and an otter (A onyx leplonyx) in the streams of the Wilis eastward to Ijen, has a low record which reaches its lowest hot zone. The coffee rat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), a civet cat along the north coast.1 (Viverricula indica), the Javanese ichneumon (Herpestes javanicus), Fauna.-In respect of its fauna Java differs from Borneo, Sumatra and Priodon gracilis may also be mentioned. and the Malay Peninsula far more than these differ among them- In 1820, 176 species of birds were known in Java; by 1900 Vorder- selves; and, at the same time, it shows a close resemblance to the man and O. Finsch knew.410. Many of these are, of course, rare Malay Peninsula, on the one hand, and to the Himalayas on the and occupy a limited habitat far from the haunts of man. Others other. Of the 176 mammals of the whole Indo-Malayan region exist in myriads and are characteristic features in the landscape. the greater number occur in Java. Of these 41 are found on Water-fowl of many kinds, ducks, geese, storks, pelicans, &c., give the continent of Asia, 8 are common to Java and Borneo, and 6 are life to sea-shore and lake, river and marsh. Snipe-shooting is a common to Java and Sumatra (see M. Weber, Das Indo-Malay favourtie sport. Common night-birds are the owl (Ştrix flammea) Archipelago und die Geschichte seiner Thierwelt, Jena, 1902)., No and the goatsucker (Caprimulgus affinis). Three species of hornbill, genus and only a few species are confined to the island. of the land- the year-bird of the older travellers (Buceros plicatus, lunalus and birds only a small proportion are peculiar. The elephant, the tapir, albirostris) live in the tall trees of the forest zone. The Javanese the bear, and various other genera found in the rest of the region are peacock is a distinct species (Pavo muticus or spiciferus), and even altogether absent. The Javanese rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sundaicus; exceeds the well-known Indian species in the splendour of its sarak in Javanese, badak in Sundanese), the largest of the mammals plumage. Gallus Bankiva is famous as the repụted parent of all on the island, differs from that of Sumatra in having one horn barndoor fowls; Gallus furcatus is an exquisitely beautiful bird and instead of two. It ranges over the highest mountains, and its can be trained for cock-fighting. Of parrots two species only are regular paths, worn into deep. channels, may be traced up the known: Palaeornis Alexandri or javanicus and the pretty little steepest slopes and round the rims of even active volcanoes. "Two grass-green Curyllis pusilla, peculiar to Java. As talkers and mimics species of wild swine, Șus vitlatus and Sus verrucosus, are exceedingly they are beaten by the Gracula javanensis, a favourite cage-bird abundant; the former in the hot, the latter in the temperate, regi with the natives. A cuckoo, Chrysococcyx basalis, may be heard in and their depredations are the cause of much loss to the natives, the second zone. The grass-fields are the foraging-grounds of who, however, being Mahommedans, to whom pork is abhorrent, do swarms of weaver-birds (Plocula javanensis and Ploccus baya). They not hunt them for the sake of their fesh. Not much less than the lay nearly as heavy a toll on the rice-fields as the gelatiks (Munia rhinoceros is the banteng (Bibos banteng or sundaicus) found in all oryzivora), which are everywhere the rice-growers' principal foe. the uninhabited districts between 2000 and 7000 ft. of elevation. Hawks and falcons make both an easy prey. The Nictuarinas or The kidang or muntjak (Cervulus muntjac) and the rusa or russa honey-birds (eight species) take the place of the humming bird, (Rusa hippelaphus or Russa russa) are the representatives of the which they rival in beauty and diminutiveness, ranging from the deer kind. The former is a delicate little creature occurring singly | lowlands to an altitude of 4000 ft. In the upper regions the birds, or in pairs both in the mountains and in the coast districts; the latter like the plants, are more like those of Europe, and some of them lives in herds of fifty to a hundred in the gặassy opens, giving notably the kanchilan (Hyloterpe Philomela)--are remarkable for excellent sport to the native hunters. Another species (Russa their song. The edible-nest swallow (Collocalia fuciphaga) builds kuhlii) exists in Bayian. The kantjil (Tragulus javanicus) is a small in caves in many parts of the island.? creature allied to the musk-deer but forming a genus by itself. It As far back as 1859 P. Bleeker credited Java with eleven hundred lives in the high woods, for the most part singly, seldom in pairs. species of fish; and naturalists are perpetually adding to the number. It is one of the most peculiar of the Javanese mammals. The royal In splendour and grotesqueness of colouring many kinds, as is well tiger, the same species as that of India, is still common enough to known, look rather like birds than fish. In the neighbourhood of make a tiger-hunt a characteristic Javanese scene. The leopard Batavia about three hundred and eighty species are used as food by (Felis pardus) is frequent in the warm regions and often ascends to the natives and the Chinese, who have added to the number by the considerable 'altitudes. Black specimens occasionally occur, but introduction of the goldfish, which reaches a great size. The sea the spots are visible on inspection; and the fact that in the Amsterdam fish most prized by Europeans is Lates calcarifer (a perch). Of more zoological gardens a black leopard had one of its cubs black and the than one hundred species of snakes about twenty-four species other normally spotted shows that this is only a case of melanism. In the tree-tops the birds find a dangerous enemy in the matjan betukenis,“: Med. int. S. Lands Plantentuin, ? See J. C. Konigsberger, “ De vogels Java en hunne oeconomische 1S. Figei, Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch Indië (1902). 3 See especially M. Weber, Siboga Expedition. JAVA 287 1 summer. (including the cobra di capella) are poisonous and these are respon- the eye for very different reasons. Farther inland along the sea. sible for the deaths of between one hundred and two hundred persons board appear the nipa dwarf palm (Nipa frulicans), the Alsbonia per annum. Adders and lizards are abundant. Geckos are familiar scholaris (the wood of which is lighter than cork), Cycadacea, visitants in the houses of the natives. There are two species of tree-ferns, screw pines (Pandanus), &c. In west Java the gebang crocodiles. palm (Corypha gebanga) grows in clumps and belts not far from As in other tropical-rain forest lands the variety and abundance but never quite close to the coast; and in east Java a similar position of insects are amazing. At sundown the air becomes resonant for is occupied by the lontar (Borassus flabelliformis), valuable for its hours with their myriad voices. The Coleoptera and the Lepidoptera timber, its sago and its sugar, and in former times for its leaves, form the glory of all great collections for their size and magnificence. which were used as a writing-material. The fresh-water lakes and Of butterflies proper five hundred species are known. Of the beetles ponds of this region are richly covered with Utricularia and various one of the largest and handsomest is Chalcosoma atlas. . Among the kinds of lotus (Nymphaea lotus, N. stellata, Nelumbium speciosum, spiders (a numerously represented order) the most notable is a bird. &c.) interspersed with Pista stratiotes and other floating plants. killing species, Selené scomia javanensis. In many parts the island Vast prairics are covered with the silvery alang-alang grass broken is plagued with ants, termites and mosquitoes. Crops of all kinds by bamboo thickets, clusters of trees and shrubs (Butea frondosa, are subject to disastrous attacks of creeping and winged foes-- Emblica officinalis, &c.) and islands of the taller erigedeh or glagah many still unidentified (see especially, Snellen van Hollenhoven, (Saccharum spontaneum). Alang-alang (Imperala arundinacea, Cyr. Essai d'une faune entomologique de l'Archipel Indo-néerlandais). var. Bentham) grows from to 4 ſt. in height. It springs up Of still lower forms of life the profusion is no less perplexing. Among wherever the ground is cleared of trees and is a perfect plague to the the worms the Perichaeta musica reaches a length of about twenty cultivator. It cannot hold its own, however, with the ananas, the inches and produces musical sounds. The shell of the Tridacna kratok (Phaseolus lunatus) or the lantana; and, in the natural gigas is the largest anywhere known. progress of events, the forest resumes its sway except where the Flora.—For the botanist Java is a natural paradise, affording him natives encourage the young growth of the grass by annually setting the means of studying the effects of moisture and heat, of air- the prairies on fire. The true forest, which occupies a great part of currents and altitudes, without the interference of superincumbent this region, changes its character as we proceed from west to east. arctic conditions. The botanic gardens of Buitenzorg have long In west Java it is a dense rain-forest in which the struggle of exist, been famous for their wealth of material, the ability with which ence is maintained at high pressure by a host of lofty trees and their treasures have been accumulated and displayed, their value parasitic plants in bewildering profusion. The preponderance of in connexion with the economic development of the island and the certain types is remarkable. Thus of the Moraceae there are in extensive scientific literature published by their directors. There Java (and mostly here) seven genera with ninety-five species, is a special establishment at Chibodas open to students of all natiens eighty-three of which are Ficus (see S. H. Koorders and T. Valeton. for the investigation on the spot of the conditions of the primeval "Boomsoorten op Java " in Bijdr. Mede. Dep. Landbower (1906). forest. Hardly any similar area in the world has a flora of richer These include the so-called waringin, several kinds of figs planted as variety than Java. It is estimated that the total number of the shade-trees in the parks of the nobles and officials. The Magno species of plants is about 5000; but this is probably under the mark liaceae and Anonaceae are both numerously represented. In middle (De Candolle knew of 2605 phanerogamous spccies), and new genera Java the variety of trees is less, a large area being occupied by teak. and species of an unexpected character are from time to time In eastern Java the character of the forest is mainly determined discovered. The lower parts of the island are always in the height of the abundance of the Casuarina or Chimoro (C. montana and [. by The villages and even the smaller towns are in great Junghuhniana). Another species, C. equisetifolia, is planted in west measure'concealed by the abundant and abiding verdure; and their Java as an ornamental tree. These trees are not crowded together position in the landscape is to be recognized mainly by their groves, and encumbered with the heavy parasitic growths of the rain-lorest; orchards and cultivated fields. The amount and distribution of but their tall stems are often covered with multitudes of small heat and moisture at the various seasons of the year form the domi. vermilion fungi. Wherever the local climate has sufficient humidity, nant factors in determining the character of the vegetation. Thus the true rain-forest claims its own. The second of Junghuhn's trees which are evergreen in west Java are deciduous in the east of zones is the region of, more especially, tea, cinchona and coffee the island, some dropping their leaves (e.g. Tetrameles nudiflora) plantations, of maize and the sugar palm (areng). In the forest at the very time they are in bloom or ripening their fruit. This and the trees are richly clad with ferns and enormous fungi; there is a other contrasts are graphically described from personal observation profusion of underwood (Pavelta macrophylla Javanica and salici. by A. F. W. Schimper in his Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer folia; several species of Lasianthus, Boehmarias, Strobilanthus, &c.), Grundlage (Jena, 1898). The abundance of epiphytes, orchids, of woody lianas and ratans, of tree ferns (especially Alsophila). pitcher-plants, mosses and fungi is a striking result of the preva- Between the bushes the ground is covered with ferns, lycopods, lent humidity; and many trces and plants indeed, which in drier tradescantias, Bignoniaceae, species of Aeschynanthus. Of the cliniates root in the soil, derive sufficient moisture from their lianas the largest is Plectocornia elongata; one specimen of which stronger neighbours. Of orchids J. J. Smith records 562 species was found to have a length of nearly 790 ft. One of the fungi, (100 genera), but the flowers of all except about a score are incon- Telephora princeps, is more than a yard in diameter. The trees are spicuous. This last fact is the more remarkable because, taken of different species from those of the hot zone even when belonging generally, the Javanese vegetation differs from that of many other to the same genus; and new types appear mostly in limited areas. tropical countries by being abundantly and often gorgeously The third zone, which consists mainly of the upper slopes of volcanic floriferous. Many of the loftiest trees crown themselves with mountains, but also comprises several plateaus (the Dieng, parts of blossoms and require no assistance from the climbing plants that the Tengger, the Ijen) is a region of clouds and mists. There are à seek, as it were, to rival them in their display of colour. Shrubs, too, considerable number of lakes and swamps in several parts of the and herbaceous plants often give brilliant effects in the savannahs, region, and these have a luxuriant environment of grasses, Cyper- the deserted clearings, the edges of the forest and the sides of the accae, Characeae and similar forms. The taller trees of the region- highways. The lantana, a verbenaccous alien introduced, it is oaks, chestnuts, various Lauraceae, and four or five species of said, from Jamaica by Lady Raffles, has made itself aggressively Podocarpus-with some striking exceptions, A stronia spectabilis, conspicuous in many parts of the island, more especially in the &c., are less floriferous than those of the lower zones; but the shrubs Preanger and middle Java, where it occupies areas of hundreds of (Rhododendron javanicum, Ardisia javanica, &c.), herbs and parasites more than make up for this defect. There is little cultivation, The effect of mere altitude in the distribution of the flora was except in the Tengger, where the natives grow maize, rye and long ago emphasized by Friedrich Junghuhn, the Humboldt of tobacco, and various European vegetables (cabbage, potatoes, &c.), Java, who divided the island into four vertical botanical zones- with which they supply the lowland markets. In western Java one à division which has generally, been accepted by his successors, of the most striking features of the upper parts of this temperate though, like all such divisions, it is subject to many modifications region is what Schimper calls the "absolute dominion of mosses,' and exceptions. The forest, or hot zone, extends to a height of associated with the "elfin forest," as he quaintly calls it, a perfect 2000 ft. above the sea; the second, that of moderate heat, has its tangle of " low, thick, oblique or even horizontal stems," almost upper limit at about 4500; the third, or cool, zone reaches 7500; choked to leaflessness by their grey and ghostly burden. Much of and the fourth, or coldest, comprises all that lies beyond. The the lower vegetation begins to have a European aspect; violets, lowest zone has, of course, the most extensive area; the second is primulas, thalictrums, ranunculus, vacciniums, equisetums, rhodo- only a fiſtieth and the third a five-thousandth of the first; and the dendrons (Rhod. retusum). The Primula imperialis, found only fourth is an insignificant remainder. The lowest is the region of on thc Pangerango, is a handsome species, prized by specialists. the true tropical forest, of rice-fields and sugar-plantations, of coco- In the fourth or alpine zone occur such distinctly European forms as nut palms, cotton, sesamum, cinnamon and tobacco (though Artemisia vulgaris, Plantago major, Solanum nigrum, Siellaria media; this last has a wide altitudinal range). Many parts of the coast and altogether the alpine flora contains representatives of no fewer (especially on the north) are fringed with mangrove (Rhizophora than thirty-three families. A characteristic shrub is Anaphalis mucronata), &c., and species of Bruguiera; the downs have their javanica, popularly called the Javanese edelweiss, which often characteristic Aora-convolvulus and Spinifex squarrosus catching entirely excludes all other woody plants." The tallest and noblest The Annales de Buitenzorg, with their Icones bogorienses, are ? Bertha Hoola van Nooten published Fleurs, fruits et feuillages de universally known; the Teysmannia is named after a former la flore et de la-pomone de l'ile de Java in 1863, but the book is difficult director. A history of the gardens was published by Dr Treub, of access. Excellent views of characteristic aspects of the vegeta- Festboek van's Lands Plantentuin (1891). tion will be found in Karsten and Schenck, Vegetationsbilder (1903). acres. ) "2 288 JAVA of all the trees in the island is the rasamala or liquid-ambar (Altingia | proper, being little over 5 ft. in average height, whereas the excelsa), which, rising with a straight clean trunk, sometimes 6 ft. in diameter at the base, to a height of 100 to 130 ft., spreads out into Javanese is nearly si ft.; at the same time the Sundanese is more a magnificent crown of branches and foliage. When by chance a stoutly built. The Madurese is as tall as the Javanese, and as climbing plant has joined partnership with it, the combination of stout as the Sundanese. The eye is usually set straight in the blossoms at the top is one of the finest colour effects of the forest. head in the Javanese and Madurese; among the Sundanese it is The rasamala, however, occurs only in the Preanger and in the often oblique. The nose is generally flat and small, with wide neighbouring parts of Bantam and Buitenzorg. Of the other trees that may be classified as timber-from 300 to 400 species-many nostrils, although among the Javanese it not infrequently be- attain noble proportions. It is sufficient to mention Calophyllum comes aquiline. The lips are thick, yet well formed; the teeth inophyllum, which forms fine woods in the south of Bantam, Mimus- are naturally white, but often filed and stained. The cheek-bones ops acuminata, Irna glabra, Dalbergia latifolia (sun wood English are well developed, more particularly with the Madurese. In black-wood) in middle and east Java; the rare but splendid Pithe- colobium Junghuhnianum; Schima Noronhae, Bischofia javanica, expressiveness of countenance the Javanese and Madurese are Pterospermum javanicum (greatly prized for ship-building), and the far in advance of the Sundanese. The women are not so well upas-tree. From the economic point of view all these hundreds of made as the men, and among the lower classes especially soon trees are of less importance than Tectona grandis, the jati or teak, which, almost to the exclusion of all others, occupies about a third grow absolutely ugly. In the eyes of the Javanese a golden of the government forest-lands. It grows best in middle and yellow complexion is the perfection of female beauty. To judge eastern Java, preferring the comparatively dry and hot climate of by their early history, the Javanese must have been a warlike the plains and lower hills to a height of about 2000 ft. above the and vigorous people, but now they are peaceable, docile, sober, sea, and thriving best in more or less calciferous soils. In June it sheds its leaves and begins to bud again in October. Full-grown simple and industrious. trees reach a height of 100 to 150 ft. In 1895 teak (with a very One million only out of the twenty-six millions of natives are limited quantity of other timber) was felled to the value of about concentrated in towns, a fact readily explained by their sources £101,800, and in 1904, the corresponding figure was about £119,935. of livelihood. The great bulk of the population is distributed That an island which has for so long maintained a dense and grow- ing population in its more cultivable regions should have such over the country in villages usually called by Europeans dessas, extensive tracts of primeval or quasi-primeval forest as have been from the Low Javanese word déså (High Javanese dusun). Every above indicated would be matter of surprise to one who did not dessa, however small (and those containing from 100 to 1000 consider the simplicity of the life of the Javanese. They require families are exceptionally large), forms an independent commu- but little fuel; and both their dwellings and their furniture are mostly constructed of bamboo supplemented with a palm or two. nity; and no sooner does it attain to any considerable size than They destroy the forest mainly to get room for their rice-fields and it sends off a score of families or so to form a new dessa. Each pasture for their cattle. In doing this, however, they are often lies in the midst of its own area of cultivation. The general extremely reckless and wasteful; and if it had not been for the enceinte is formed by an impervious hedge of bamboos 40 to unusual 'humidity of the climate their annual fires would have resulted in widespread confiagrations. As it is, many mountains 70 ft. high. Within this lie the houses, each with its own en- are now bare which within historic times were forested to the top; closure, which, even when the fields are the communal property, but the Dutch government has proved fully alive to the danger of belongs to the individual householder. The capital of a district. denudation. The state has control of all the woods and forests of is only a larger dessa, and that of a regency has the same general the island with the exception of those of the Preanger, the particu- type, but includes several kampongs or villages. lar.lands," and Madura; and it has long been engaged in replanting The bamboo with native trees and experimenting with aliens from other parts houses in the strictly Javanese districts are always built on the of the world-Eucalyptus globulus, the juar, Cassia florida from ground; in the Sunda lands they are raised on piles. Some of Sumatra, the surian (Cedrela febrifuga), &c. The greatest success the well-to-do, however, have stone houses. The principal has been with cinchona. article of food is rice; a considerable quantity of fish is eaten, Left to itself Java would soon clothe itself again with even a richer natural vegetation than it had when it was first occupied by but little meat. Family life is usually well ordered. The upper The open space left by the demolition of the fortifications on class practise polygamy, but among the common people a man Nusa Kambangan was in twenty-eight years densely covered by has generally only one wife. The Javanese are nominally thousands of shrubs and trees of about twenty varieties, many of the Mahommedans, as in former times they were Buddhists and latter 80 ft. high. Resident Snijthoff succeeded about the close Brahmins; but in reality, not only such exceptional groups as of the 19th century in re-afforesting a large part of Mount Muriả by the simple expedient of protecting the territory he had to deal the Kalangs of Surakarta and Jokjakarta and the Baduwis or with from all encroachments by natives.' nomad tribes of Bantam, but the great mass of the people must Population. The population of Java (including Madura, &c.) be considered as believers rather in the primitive animism of was 30,098,008 in 1905. In 1900 it was 28,746,688; in 1890, their ancestors, for their belief in Islam is overlaid with super- 23,912,564; and in 1880, 19,794,505. The natives consist of the stition. As we ascend in the social scale, however, we find the Javanese proper, the Sundanese and the Madurese. All three name of Mahommedan more and more applicable; and conse- belong to the Malay stock. Between Javanese and Sundanese quently in spite of the paganism of the populace the influence of the distinction is mainly due to the influence of the Hindus the Mahommedan“ priests” (this is their official title in Dutch) on the former and the osence of this on the latter. Between is widespread and real. Great prestige attaches to the pilgrim- Javanese and Madurese the distinction is rather to be ascribed age to Mecca, which was made by 5068 persons from Java in to difference of natural environment. The Sundanese have best 1900. In every considerable town there is a mosque. Christian retained the Malay type, both in physique and fashion of life. missionary work is not very widely spread. They occupy the west of the island. The Madurese area, Languages.-In spite of Sundanese, Madurese and the intrusive besides the island of Madura and neighbouring isles, includes the Malay, Javanese has a right to the name. It is a rich and cultivated eastern part of Java itself. The residencies of Tegal, Pekalon- language which has passed through many stages of development gan, Banyumas, Bagelen, Kedu, Semarang, Japara, Surakarta, of an almost unique kind. Though it is customary and convenient and, under peculiar influences, has become a linguistic' complex Jokjakarta, Rembang, Madiun, Kediri and Surabaya have an to distinguish New Javanese from Kavi or Old Javanese, just as it almost purely Javanese population. The Javanese are the most was customary to distinguish English from Anglo-Saxon, there is no numerous and civilized of the three peoples. break of historical continuity. Kavi (Basa Kavi, i.e. the language The colour of the skin in all three cases presents various founding of Majapahit; and middle Javanese, still represented by of poetry) may be defined as the form spoken and written before the shades of yellowish-brown; and it is observed that, owing per- the dialect of Banyumas, north Cheribon, north Krawang and haps to the Hindu strain, the Javanese are generally darker than north Bantam, as the form the language assumed under the Maja- the Sundanese. The eyes are always brown or black, the hair of pahit court influence; while New Javanese is the language as it has the head black, long, lank and coarse. Neither breast nor limbs developed since the fall of that kingdom. Kavi continued to be a literary language long after it had become archaic. It contains are provided with hair, and there is hardly even the suggestion more Sanskrit than any other language of the archipelago. New of a beard. In stature the Sundanese is less than the Javanese Javanese breaks up into two great varieties, so different that some. times they are regarded as two distinct languages. The nobility ! It is interesting to compare this with the natural " refioriza- use one form, Kråmå; the common people another, Ngoko, the tion" of Krakatoa. See Penzig, Ann. jard. de Buitenzorg, vol. viii. “thouing " language (cf. Fr. tutoyant, Geri dutzend); but each class (1902); and W. Botting in Nature (1903). understands the language of the other class. The aristocrat speaks man. 6 JAVA 289 to the commonalty in the language of the commoner; the commoner and the potter. Their skill in the working of the metals is the more speaks to the aristocracy in the language of the aristocrat; and, noteworthy as they have to import the raw materials. The most according to clearly recognized etiquette, every Javanese plays the esteemed product of the blacksmith's skill is the kris; every man and part of aristocrat or commoner towards those whom he addresses. boy above the age of fourteen wears one at least as part of his ordi- To speak Ngoko to a superior is to insult him; to speak Kråmå to an nary dress, and men of rank two and sometimes four. In the finish. equal or inferior is a mark of respect. In this way Dipa Negårå ing and adornment of the finer weapons no expense is spared; showed his contempt for the Dutch General de Kock. The ordinary and ancient krises of good workmanship sometimes fetch enormous Javanese thinks in Ngoko; the children use it to each other, and so on. prices. The Javanese gold and silver work possesses considerable Between the two forms there is a kind of compromise, the Madya, beauty, but there is nothing equal to the filigree of Sumatra; the or middle form of speech, employed by those who stand to each brass musical instruments are of exceptional excellence. Both other on equal or friendly footing or by those who feel littleconstraint bricks and tiles are largely made, as well as a coarse unglazed of etiquette. For every idea expressed in the language Kråmå has pottery similar to that of Hindustan; but all the finer wares are one vocable, the Ngoko another, the two words being sometimes imported from China. Cotton spinning, weaving and dyeing are completely different and sometimes differing only in the termination, carried on for the most part as purely domestic operations by the the beginning or the middle. Thus every Javanese uses, as it were, women. The usual mode of giving variety of colour is by weaving two or even three languages delicately differentiated from each in stripes with a succession of different coloured yarns, but another other. How this state of affairs came about is matter of speculation mode is to cover with melted wax or damar the part of the cloth not Almost certainly the existence side by side of two peoples, speaking intended to receive the dye. This process is naturally a slow one, each its own tongue, and occupying towards each other the position and has to be repeated according to the number of colours required. intellectually and politically of superior and inferior, had much to As a consequence the battiks, as the cloths thus treated are called, do with it. But Professor Kern thinks that some influence must are in request by the wealthier classes. For the most part quiet also be assigned to pamela or pantang, word-taboo-certain words colours are preferred. To the Javanese of the present day the ancient being in certain circumstances regarded as of evil omen-a super-buildings of the Hindu periods are the work of supernatural power. stition still lingering, e.g. even among the Shetland fishermen (see Except when employed by his European master he seldom builds G. A. F. Hazeu, De taal pantangs). It has sometimes been asserted anything more substantial than a bamboo or timber framework; that Kråmå contains more Sanskrit words than Ngoko does; but but in the details of such erections he exhibits both skill and taste. the total number in Kråmå does not exceed 20; and sometimes When Europeans first came to the island they found native vessels there is a Sanskrit word in Ngoko which is not in Kråmå. There of large size well entitled to the name of ships; and, though ship- is a village Kråmå which is not recognized by the educated classés: building proper is now carried on only under the direction of Euro- Kråmå inggil , with a vocabulary of about 300 words, is used in peans, boat-building is a very extensive native industry along the addressing the deity or persons of exalted rank. The Basa Kedaton whole of the north coast-the boats sometimes reaching a burden or court language is a dialect used by all living at court except of 50 tons. The only one of the higher arts which the Javanese royalties, who use Ngoko. Among themselves the women of the have carried to any degree of perfection is music; and in regard court employ Kråmå or Madya, but they address the men in Basa to the value of their efforts in this direction Europeans differ Kedaton. greatly. The orchestra (gamelan) consists of wind, string and Literature.-Though a considerable body of Kavi literature is still percussion instruments, the latter being in preponderancy to the extant, nothing like a history of it is possible. The date and author- other two. (Details of the instruments will be found in Raffles' ship of most of the works are totally unknown. The first place may Java, and a description of a performance in the Tour du monde, be assigned to the Brata Yuda (Sansk., Bharata Yudha, the conflict 1880.) of the Bharatas), an epic poem dealing with the struggle between the Chief Towns and Places of Note.--The capital of Java and of the Pandåwås and the Korawas for the throne of Ngastina celebrated Dutch East India possessions is Batavia (q.v.), pop. 115,567. At in parwas 5-10 of the Mahābhārata. To the conception, however, of Meester Cornelis (pop. 33,119), between 6 and 7 m. from Batavia the modern Javanese it is a purely native poem; its kings and heroes on the railway to Buitenzorg, the battle was fought in 1811 which find their place in the native history and serve as ancestors to placed Java in the hands of the British. In the vicinity lies Depok, their noble families. (Cohen Stuart published the modern Javanese originally a Christian settlement of freed slaves. but now with about version with a Dutch translation and notes, Brålå- Joedå, &c., 3000 Mahommedan inhabitants and only 500 Christians. The Samarang, 1877. The Kavi text was lithographed at the Hague other chief towns, from west to east through the island, are as by S. Lankhout.). Of greater antiquity probably is the Ardjună follows: Serang (pop. 5600) bears the same relation to Bantam, about Wiwaha (or marriage festival of Ardjuna), which Professor Kern 6. m. distant, which New Batavia bears to Old Batavia, its slight thinks may be assigned to the first half of the nth century of the elevation of 100 ſt. above the sea making it fitter for European Christian era. The name indicates its Mahābhārata origin. (Frie- occupation. Anjer (Angerlor, Anger) lies 96 m. from Batavia by derich published the Kavi text from a Bali MS., and Wiwåhå Djarwa rail on the coast at the narrowest part of the Sunda Strait; formerly en Brålå Joedo Kawi, lithographed facsimiles of two palm-leaf MSS., European vessels were wont to call there for fresh provisions and Batavia, 1878. Djarwa is the name of the poetic diction of modern water. Pandeglang (pop. 3644), 787 ft. above sea-level, is known Java nese.). The oldest poem of which any trace is preserved is for its hot and cold sulphur springs. About 17 m. west of Batavia probably the mythological Kanda (i.e. tradition); the contents are lies. Tangerang (pop. 13.535), a busy place with about 2800 or 3000 to some extent known from the modern Javanese version. In the Chinese among its inhabitants. Buitenzorg (q.v.) is the country- literature of modern Javanese there exists a great variety of so- seat of the governor-general, and its botanic gardens are famous. called babads or chronicles. It is sufficient to mention the "history" Krawang, formerly chief town of the residency of that name-the of Baron Sakender, which appears to give an account-often hardly least populous of all-has lost its importance since Purwakerta recognizable -of the settlement of Europeans in Java (Cohen (pop. 6862) was made the administrative centre. At Wanyasa in Stuart published text and translation, Batavia, 1851;J. Veth gives an the neighbourhood the first tea plantations were attempted on a analysis of the contents), and the Babad Tanah Djawi (the Hague, large scale. 1874, 1877), giving the history of the island to 1647 of the Javanese The Preanger regencies–Bandung, Chanjur, Sukabumi, Sumedang, Even more numerous are the wayangs or puppet-plays w Garut and Tasikmalaya-constitute the most important of all usually take their subjects from the Hindu legends or from those residencies, though owing to their lack of harbour on the south and relating to the kingdoms of Majapahit and Pajajaram (see e.g. H. C. the intractable nature of much of their soil they have not shared Humme, Abidså, een Javaansche toneelstuk, the Hague, 1878). In in the prosperity enjoyed by many other parts of the island. Ban- these plays grotesque figures of gilded leather are moved by the dung, the chief town since 1864, lies 2300 ft. above sea-level, 109 m. performer, who recites the appropriate speeches and, as occasion south of Batavia by rail; it is a well-built and fourishing place demands, plays the part of chorus. (pop. 28,965; Europeans 1522, Chinese 2650) with a handsome Several Javanese specimens are also known of the beast fable, resident's house (1867), a large mosque (1867), a school for the sons which plays so important a part in Sanskrit literature (W. Palmer of native men of rank, the most important quinine factory in the van den Broek, Javaansche Vertellingen, bevattende de lotgevallen island, and a race-course where in July a good opportunity is afforded van een kantjil, een reebok, &c., the Hague, 1878). To the Hindu- of seeing both the life of fashionable and official Java and the Javanese literature there naturally succeeded a Mahommedan. customs and costumes of the common people. The district is Javanese literature consisting largely of translations or imitations famous for its waterfalls, one of the most remarkable of which is of Arabic originals; it comprises religious romances, moral exhorta- where the Chi Tarum rushes through a narrow gully, to leap down tions and mystical treatises in great variety? from the Bandung platcau. In the neighbourhood is the great Arts.-In mechanic arts the Javanese are in advance of the other military camp of Chimahi. Chanjur, formerly, the chief town, in peoples of the archipelago. Of thirty different crafts practised among spite of its loss of administrative position still has a population of them, the most important are those of the blacksmith or cutler, the 13.599. From Sukabumi (pop. 12,112; 569 Europeans), a pleasant carpenter, the kris-sheath maker, the coppersmith, the goldsmith health resort among the hills at an altitude of 1965 ft., tourists are accustomed to visit Wijnkoopers Bay for the sake of the picturesque 1 See Walbreken, De Taalsvorten in het Javaansh; and G. A. shore scenery. Chichalengka became after 1870 one of the centres Wilken, Handboek voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Neder- of the coffee industry. Sumedang has only 8013 inhabitants, landsch Indie, edited by C. M. Pleyte (1893). having declined since the railway took away the highway traffic: it * See Van den Berg's account of the MSS. of the Batavian Society is exceeded both by Garut (10,647) and by Tasikmalaya (9196), but (the Hague, 1877); and a series of papers by C. Poensen in Meded. van it is a beautiful place well known to sportsmen for its proximity to wege hel Ned. Zendelinggenootschap (1880). the Rancha Ekek swamp, where great snipe-shooting matches are era. 290 JAVA held every year. For natural beauty few parts of Java can compare known throughout the island and the success of their enterprise is with the plain of Tasikmalaya, itself remarkable, in a country of evident in the style of their houses. A good trade is also carried on trees, for its magnificent avenues. N.E. of the Preanger lies the in cattle, kapok, copra, pottery and all sorts of small wares. The residency of Cheribon' (properly Chi Rebon, the shrimp river). mosque in the old town has interesting remains of Majapahit The chief town (pop. 24,564 is one of the most important places architecture; and the tomb of Pangeran Kudus is a noted Mahom- on the north coast, though the unhealthiness of the site has medan sanctuary, A steam tramway leads northward towards, but caused Europeans to settle at Tangkil, 2 m. distant. The church does not reach, Japara, which in the 17th century was the chief (1842), the regent's residence, and the great prison are among the port of the kingdom of Mataram and retained its commercial principal buildings; there are also extensive salt warehouses. The importance till the Dutch Company removed its establishment to native part of the town is laid out more regularly than is usual, and Semarang. In 1818 Daendels transferred its resident to Pati. the Chinese quarter (pop. 3352) has the finest Chinese temple in Ungaran, 1026 ft. above the sea, was a place of importance as early Java. The palaces of the old sultans of Cheribon are less extensive as the !7th century, and in modern times has become known as a than those of Surakarta and Jokjakarta. Though the harbour has sanatorium. Rembang, a well-built coast town and the seat of a to be kept open by constant dredging the roadstcad is good all the resident, has growri rapidly to have a population of 29.538 with 210 year round." A strange pleasure palace of Sultan Supeh, often Europeans. Very similar to each other are Surakarta or Solo and described by travellers, lies about 2 m. off near Sunya Raja. Jokjakarta, the chief towns of the quasi-independent states or Mundu, a village 4 m. south-east of Cheribon, is remarkable as the Vorstenlanden. Surakarta (pop. 109,459, Chinese 5959, Europeans only spot on the north coast of the island visited by the ikan prut or 1913) contains the palace (Kraton, locally called the Bata bumi) belly-ish, a species about as large as a cod, caught in thousands and of the susuhunan (which the Dutch translated as emperor), the salted by the local fishermen. Indramayu, which lies on both banks dalem of Prince Mangku Negårå, the residences of the Solo nobles, m. from , is ), the name of Dermayo as a port for the rice of the district and the settlement, and a Protestant church. Here the susuhunan lives in coffee of the Preanger. The coffee trade is extinct but the rice Oriental pomp and state. To visitors there are few more interesting trade is more flourishing than ever, and the town has 13,400 inhabi- entertainments than those afforded by the celebration of the 31st tants, of whom 2200 are Chinese. It might have a great commercial of August (the birthday of the queen of the Netherlands) or of the future iſ monev could be found for the works necessary to overcome New Year and the Puasa festivals, with their wayungs, ballet- the disadvantage of its position--the roads being safe only during dancers, and so on. Jokjakarta (35 m. S.) has been a great city the east monsoon and the river requiring to be deepened and regu- since Mangku Bumi settled there in 1755. The Kraton has a circuit lated. Tegal has long been one of the chief towns of Java: com- of 3 m., and is a little town in itself with the palace proper, the merce, native trade and industry, and fisheries are all well repre- residences of the ladies of the court and kampongs for the hereditary sented and the sugar factories give abundant employment to the smiths, carpenters, sculptors, .masons, payong-makers, musical inhabitants. The harbour has been the object of various improve instrument makers, &c., &c., of his highness. The independent Prince ments since 1871. The whole district is densely populated (3100 Paku Alam has a palace of his own. As in Surakarta there are an to the sq. m.) and the town proper with its 16,665 inhabitants is old Dutch town and a fort. The Jogka market is one of the most surrounded by extensive kampongs (Bala pulang, Lebaksiu, &c.). important of all Java, especially for jewelry, The total population !n Pekalongan (pop. 38,211) and Batang (21,286) the most important is 22,235 with 1424 Europeans. To the south-east lies Pasar Gedeh, industry is the production of battiks and stamped cloths; there a former capital of Mataram, with tombs of the ancient princes in are also iron-works and sugar factories. The two towns are only the Kraton, a favourite residence of wealthy Javanese traders. some 5 m. apart. The former has a large mosque, a Protestant Surabaya (q.v), on the strait of Madura, is the largest commercial church, an old fort and a large number of European houses. The town in Java." Its population increased from 118,000 in 1890 to Chinese quarters consist of neat stone or brick buildings. Peka-146,944, in 1900 (8906 Europeans). To the north lies Grissce or longan smoked ducks are well known. Brebes (13,474) on the Gresih (25,688 inhabitants) with a fairly good harbour and of special Pamali is an important trade centre. Banyumas (5000) is the seat interest in the early, European history of Java. Inland is the of a resident; it is exceeded by Purwokerto (12,610), Purbalinggo considerable town of Lamorgan (12,485 inhabitants). Fiſteen m. (12,094) and Chilachap (12,000). This last possesses the best S. by rail lies Sidoarjo (10,207; 185 Europeans), the centre of one of harbour on the south coast, and but for malaria would have been the most densely populated districts and important as a railway an important place. It was chosen as the seat of a great military junction. In the neighbourhood is the populous village of Mojosari, establishment but had to be abandoned, the fort being blown up Pasuruan was until modern times one of the chief commercial in 1893. Semarang (pop. 89,286, of whom 4800 are Europeans towns in Java, the staple being sugar. Since the opening of the and 12,372 Chinese) lics on the Kali Ngaran near the centre of the railway to Surabaya it has greatly declined, and its warehouses and north coast. Up to 1824 the old European town was surrounded dwelling-houses are largely deserted. The population is 27,152 by a wall and ditch. It was almost the exact reproduction of a with 663 Europeans. Probolinggo (called by the natives Banger) Dutch town without the slightest accommodation to the exigencies is a place of 13,240 inhabitants. The swampy tracts in the vicinity of the climate, the streets narrow and irregular. The modern town are full of fishponds. The baths of Banyubiru (blue water) to the is well laid out. Among the more noteworthy buildings of Sema- south have Hindu remains much visited by devotees. Pasirian in rang are the old Prince of Orange fort, the resident's house, the the far south of the residency is a considerable market town and the Roman Catholic church, the Protestant church, the mosque, the terminus of a branch railway. Besuki, the easternmost of all the military hospital. A new impulse to the growth of the town was residencies, contains several places of some importance; the chief given by the opening of the railway to Surakarta and Jokjakarta town Bondowoso (8289.); Besuki, about the same size, but with no in 1875. As a scaport the place is unfortunately situated. The foreign trade; Jember, a small but rapidly increasing place, and river has long been silted up; the roadstead is insecure in the west Banyuwangi (17,559). This last was at one time the seat of the monsoon. After many delays an artificial canal, begun in 1858, resident, now the eastern terminus of the railway system, and is a became available as a substitute for the river; but further works seaport on the Bali Strait with an important office of the telegraph are necessary. A second great canal to the east, begun in 1896, company controlling communication with Port Darwin and Singa. helps to prevent inundations and thus improve the healthiness of It has a very mingled population, besides Javanese and the town. Demak, 13 m. N.E. of Semarang, though situated in a Madurese, Chinese and Arabs, Balinese, Buginese and Europeans. wretched region of swamps and having only 5000 inhabitants, is The chief town of Kediri (10,489) is the only residency town in the famous in ancient Javanese history. The mosque, erected by the interior traversed by a navigable river, and is exceeded by Tulunga. first sultan of Demak, was rebuilt in 1845; only a small part of the gung; and the residency of Madiun has two considerable centres of old structure has been preserved, but as a sanctuary it attracts population: Madiun (21,168) and Ponorogo (16,765). 6000 or 7000 pilgrims annually. To visit Demak seven times has Agriculture.—About 40% of the soil of Java is under cultivation. the same ceremonial value as the pilgrimage to Mecca. The tombs Bantam and Besuki have each 16% of land under cultivation; of several of the sultans are still extant. Salatiga (“ three stones, Krawang, 21% Preanger, 23%; Rembang, 30%: Japara, 62%; with allusion to three temples now destroyed) was in early times one Surabaya, 65%; Kedu, 66%; Samarang, 67 %. Proceeding along of the resting places of ambassadors proceeding to the court of Mat- the south coast from its west end, we find that in Bantam all the aram, and in the European history of Java its name is associated land cultivated on its south shore amounts to at most but 5% of with the peace of 1755 and the capitulation of 1811. It is the seat that regency; in Prcanger and Banyumas, as far as Chilachap, the of a cavalry and artillery camp. Its population, about 10,000, land under cultivation amounts at a maximum to 20%. East of seems to be declining. Ambarawa with its railway station is, on Surakarta the percentages of land on the south coast under cultiva. the other hand, rapidly increasing.. Its population of 14,745 tion decline from 30 to 20 and 10. East of the residency of Pro- includes 459 Europeans. About a mile to the N. lies the fortress bolinggo the percentage of land cultivated on the south coast sinks of Willem 1. which Van den Bosch meant to make the centre of the to as low as 2. On the north coast, in Krawang and Rembang, with Javanese system of defensive works; the Banyubiru military camp their morasses and double chains of chalk, there are districts with is in the neighbourhood. Kendal (15,000) is a centre of the sugar only 20% and 10% of the soil under cultivation. In the residencies, industry. Kudus (31,000; 4300 Chinese) has grown to be one of on the other hand, of Batavia, Cheribon, Tegal, Samarang, Japara, the most important inland towns. Its cloth and battik pedlars are Surabaya and Pasuruan, there are districts having 80% to 90% of soil, and even more, under cultivation. 1 Cheribon is the form employed by the Dutch: an exception to The agricultural products of Java must be distinguished into their usual system, in which 'Tj. takes the place of the Ch- used in those raised by the natives for their own use and those raised for this article. the government and private proprietors. The land assigned to the pore. JAVA 291 natives for their own culture and use amounts to about 9,625,000 of the Nederlandsch Handel Maatschappij, who introduced not only acres. In western Java the prevailing crop is rice, less prominently fresh stock, but expert growers from China in 1852-1853. The tea- cultivated in middle Java, while in eastern Java and Madura other planters (often taking possession of the abandoned coffee-planta- articles of food take the first rank. - The Javanese tell strange tions) have greatly improved the quality of their products. Assam legends concerning the introduction of rice, and observe various tea was introduced in 1878, and this has rapidly extended its area. ceremonies in connexion with its planting, paying more regard to The exports increased from 12,110,724 lb in 1898 to 25,772,564 in them than to the proper cultivation of the cereal. The agricultural 1905. More than half the total goes to the Netherlands; the United produce grown on the lands of the government and private pro. Kingdom ranks next, and, far behind both, Russia. prietors, comprising an area of about 31 million acres, consists of In 1854 the government introduced the culture of cinchona with sugar, cinchona, coffee, tobacco, tea, indigo, &c. The Javanese free labour, and it had considerable success under F. Junghuhn and possess buffaloes, ordinary cattle, horses, dogs and cats. The his successors, though the varieties grown were of inferior quality. buffalo was probably introduced by the Hindus. As in agricultural | Later seed of the best cinchona was obtained, and under skilful prcducts, so also in cattle-rearing, western Java is distinguished management Java has become the chief producer of quinine in the from middle and eastern Java. The average distribution of buffa- world. Cacao is produced in the Preanger regencies, Pekalongan, loes is 106 per 1000 inhabitants, but it varies considerably in different Semarang, Pasuruan, Besuki, Kediri and Surakarta. In 1903, a districts, being greatest in western Java. The fact that rice is the record year, 1,101,835 piculs (about 6540 tons) were produced. prevailing culture in the west, while in eastern Java other plants Broussonelia papyriferą iş grown for the sake of its bark, so well constitute the chief produce, explains the larger number of buffaloes known in Japan (Jap. kodsu) as a paper material. The ground-nut found in western Java, these animals being more in requisition in (the widely spread Arachis hypogaea from South America), locally the culture of rice. The ordinary cattle are of mixed race; the Indian known as kachang china or tanah, is somewhat extensively grown. zebu having been crossed with the banting and with European cattle The oil is exported to Holland, where it is sold as Delft salad oil. of miscellaneous origin. The horses, though small, are of excellent Tapioca has long been cultivated, especially in the Preanger. The character, and their masters, according to their own ideas, are industry is mainly in the hands of the Chinese, and the principal extremely particular in regard to purity of race. Riding comes forcign purchasers are English biscuit manufacturers. The kapok is a naturally to the Javanese; horse-races and tournays have been in tree from tropical America which, growing freely in any soil, is ex- vogue among them from early times. tensively used throughout Java along the highways as a support for Coffee is an alien in Java. Specimens brought in 1696 from telegraph and telephone wires, and planted as a prop in pepper and Cannanore on the Malabar coast perished in an earthquake and cubeb plantations, The silky fibre contained in its long capsuloid Aoods in 1699; the effective introduction of the precious shrub was fruits is known as cotton wool; and among other uses it due to Hendrik Zwaardekron (see N. P. van den Berg, "Voortbreng- serves almost as well as cork for filling liſe-belts; and the oil from its ing en verbruck van koffie," Tijdschrift v. Nijverh. en Landb. 1879; seed is employed to adulterate ground-nut oil. The quantity of and the article" Koffie" in Encyc. Ned. Ind. Wiji kawih is mentioned in wool exported nearly trebled between 1890 and 1896, in the latter a Kavi inscription of A.D. 856, and the bean-broth in David Tappen's year the total sent to Holland, Australia, Singapore, &c., amounting list of Javanese beverages, 1667-1682, may have been coffee). The to 38,586 bales. The rapid exhaustion of the natural supply of first consignment of coffee (894 lb) to the Netherlands was made in india-rubber and gutta-percha began to attract the attention of 1711-1712, but it was not till after 1721 that the yearly exports reached government in the latter decades of the 19th century. Extensive any considerable amount. The aggregate quantity sold in the experiments have been made in the cultivation of Ficus elastica home market from 1711 to 1791 was 2,036,437 piculs, or on an average (the karet of the natives), Castilloa elastica, and Ilevea brasiliensis. about 143 tons per annum; and this probably represented nearly | The planting of gutta-percha trecs was begun about 1886, and a the whole production of the island. By the beginning of the 19th regular system introduced in the Preanger in 1901. The Palaquium century the annual production was about 7143 tons and after the oblongifolium plantations at Blavan, Kemutuk and Sewang in introduction of the Van den Bosch system of forced culture a further Banyumas have also been brought under official control. Java augmentation was effected. The forced culture system was, in tobacco, amounting to about 35,200,000 lb a year, is cultivated 1909, however, of little importance. Official reports show that almost exclusively in eastern Java. Among other products which from 1840 to 1873 the amount ranged from 5226 tons to 7354. are of some importance as articles of export may be mentioned During the ten years 1869 to 1878 the average crop of the planta nutmegs, mace, pepper, hides, arrack and copra. tions under state control was 5226 tons, that of the private planters Particular Lands.-At different times down to 1830 the govern. about 810. The government has shown a strange reluctance to ment disposed of its lands in full property to individuals who, surrender the old-fashioned monopoly, but the spirit of private acquiring complete control of the inhabitants as well as of the soil, enterprise has slowly gained the day. Though the appearance of continued down to the 19th century to act as if they were indepen. the coffee blight (Hemileia vastatrix) almost ruined the industry, the dent of all superior authority. In this way more than Iį millions planters did not give in. An immune variety, was introduced from of the people were subject not to the state but to “stock companies, Liberia, and scientific methods of treatment' have been adopted in absentee landlords and Chinese." According to the Regeerings dealing with the plantations. In 1887, a record year, the value of Almanak (1906) these “ particular lands,' as they are called, were the coffee crop reached £3,083,333, and at its average it was about distributed as follows: Bantam 21, Batavia 36, Meester Cornelis £1,750,000 between 1886 and 1895. The value was only £1,166,666 163, Tangerang 80, Buitenzorg 61, Semarang 32, Surabaya 46; in 1896. The greatest difficulties are the uncertainties both of the Krawang and Demak 3 each, Cheribon 2, and Pekalongan, Kendal crop and of its marketable value. The former is well shown in and Pasuruan i each. In Meester Cornelis no fewer than 297.912 the figures for 1903 to 1905; government 17,900, 3949 and 3511 persons were returned in 1905 as living on these lands. Of the 168 tons, and private planters 22,395, 15.311 and 21,395 tons. Liberia estates there are not 20 that grow anything but grass, rice and coco- coffee is still produced in much smaller quantity than Jaya coffee; nuts. In Buitenzorg (thanks probably to the Botanic Gardens) the latter on an average of these three years 21,360 tons; the former matters are better: tea, coffee, cinchona and india-rubber appearing 7409. amongst the objects of cultivation; and, in general, it must be noted The cultivation of sugar has been long carricd on in Java, and that these estates have often natural difficulties to contend against since the decline of the coffee plantations it has developed into the far beyond their financial strength. leading industry of the island. There are experimental stations at Minerals.-Of all the great islands of the archipelago Java is the Pasuruan, Pekalongan and elsewhere, where attempts are made to poorest in metallic ores. Gold and silver are practically non- overcome the many diseases to which the cane is subject. Many of existent. Manganese is found in Jokjakarta and various other the mills are equipped with high-class machinery and produce parts. A concession for working the magnetic iron sands in the sugar of excellent colour and grain. In 1853-1857 the average crop neighbourhood of Chilachap was granted in 1904. Coal occurs in was 98.094 tons; in 1869–1873, 170,831, and in 1875-1880, 204,678. thin strata and small pockets in many parts (Bantam, Rembang, By 1899-1900 the average had risen to 787,673 tons; and the crops Jokjakarta, &c.); and in 1905 a concession was granted to a company for 1904 and 1905 were respectively 1,064,935 and 1,028,357 tons, to work the coal-beds at Bajah close to the harbour of Wijnkoopers Prices fluctuate, but the value of the harvest of 1905 was estimated Bay, a port of call of the Koninklijk Paketvaart Maatschappij. at about £15,000,000, The discovery by De Groot in 1863 of petroleum added a most The cultivation of indigo shows a strange vitality. Under the important industry to the list of the resources of ļava. The great culture system the natives found this the most oppressive of all the Dort Petroleum Company, now centred at Amsterdam, was founded state crops. The modern chemist at one time seemed to have in 1887. The production of this company alone rose from 79,179 killed the industry by his synthetic substitute, but in every year kisten or cases (each 8.14 gall.) in 1891 to 1,642,780 in 1890, and between 1899 and 1904 Java exported between one million and one to 1,967,124 in 1905. In 1904 there were no fewer than 36 conces- and a half million pounds of the natural product. Japan and Russia sions for petroleum. At the same time there is a larger importation were the largest buyers. As blue is a favourite colour with the of oil from Sumatra as well as from America and Russia. Sulphur Javanese proper a large quantity is used at home. is regularly worked in the Gunong Slamet, G. Sindoro, G. Sumbing, Tea was first introduced to Java by the Japanese scholar von and in the crater of the Tangkuban Prahu as well as in other places Siebold in 1826. The culture was undertaken by the state in 1829 in the Preanger regencies and in Pasuruan. Brine-wells exist in with plants from China, but in 1842 they handed it over to con- various parts: The bledegs (salt-mud wells) of Grobogan in the tractors, whose attempts to increase their profits by delivering an Solo Valley, Semarang, are best known. They rise from Miocene inferior article ultimately led to the abandonment of the contract strata and yield iodine and bromine products as well as common system in 1860. In the meantime the basis of a better state of the salt. The natives of the district are allowed to extract the salt for industry had been laid by the Dutch tea-taster J. J. L. L. Jacobsen I their own use, but elsewhere (except in Jokjakarta) the manufacture 292 JAVA are seventeen. of salt is a government monopoly and confined to the districts of was Mataram, which had in the 16th century succeeded to the Sumenep, Panekasan and Sampang in Madura, where from 3000 to overlordship possessed by the house of Demak--one of the 4000 people are hereditarily engaged in extracting salt from sea water, delivering it to the government at the rate of 10 A. (nearly states that rose after the fall of Majapahit. The emperors of 178.) per koyang (3700 tb). The distribution of this salt (rough. Java, as the princes of Mataram are called in the early accounts, grained, greyish and highly hygroscopic) is extremely unsatisfactory: had their capital at Kartasura, now an almost deserted place, The waste was so great that in 1901 the government paid a prize of 6 m. west of Surakarta. At first and for long the company had about £835 (10,000 A.) to Karl Boltz von Bolzberg for an improved method of packing. 'Between 1888 and 1892 the annual amount only forts and little fragments of territory at Jakatra (Batavia), delivered was 71,405 tons; in the next five years it rose to 89,932; &c.; but in 1705 it obtained definite possession of the Preanger and between 1898 and 1902 sank again to 88,856. The evil effects by treaty with Mataram; and in 1745 its authority was extended of this monopoly have been investigated by J. E. de Meyer, " Zout als middel van belasting," De Ind. Gids. (1905). The scarcity of salt over the whole north-east coast, from Cheribon to Banyuwangi. has led to a great importation of salted fish from Siam (upwards of In 1755 the kingdom of Mataram was divided into the two states 6600 tons in 1902). of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, which still retain a shadow of Communications.-Roads and railways for the most part follow independence. The kingdom of Bantam was finally subjugated the fertile plains and table-lands along the coast and between the volcanic areas. The principal railways are the Semarang-Jokja- in 1808. By the English occupation of the island (1811-1818) karta and Batavia-Buitenzorg lines of the Netherlands-Indian the European ascendancy was rather strengthened than weak. railway company, and the Surabaya-Pasuruan, Bangil-Mulang, ened; the great Java war (1825-1830), in which Dipå Negårå, Sidoarjo-Paron, Kertosono-Tulung Agung, Buitenzorg.Chianjur, the last Javanese prince, a clever, bold and unscrupulous leader, Surakarta-Madiun, Pasuruan-Probolinggo, Jokjakarta-Chilachapand other lines of the government. The earliest lines, between Batavia struggled to maintain his claim to the whole island, resulted in and Buitenzorg and between Semarang and the capitals of the the complete success of the Dutch. To subduc him and his sultanates, were built about 1870 by a private company with a state following, however, taxed all the resources of the Dutch Indian guarantee. Since 1875, when Dr’ van Goltstein, then a cabinet army for a period of five years, and cost it the loss of 15,000 minister and afterwards Dutch minister in London, had an act passed officers and soldiers, besides millions of guilders. Nor did his for the construction of state railways in Java, their progress has become much more rapid. In addition, several private companies great influence die with him when his adventurous career came have built either light railways or tramways, such as that between to a close in 1855 at Macassar. Many Javanese, who dream of a Semarang and Joana, and the total length of all lines was 2460 in restoration of their ancient empire, do not believe even yet that 1905. There are some 3500 miles of telegraph line, and cables Dipå Negårå is dead. They are readily persuaded by fanatical connect Java with Madura, Bali and Sumatra, and Port Darwin in Australia. Material welfare was promoted by the establishment hadjis that their hero will suddenly appear to drive away the of lines of steamships between Java and the other islands, all Dutch and claim his rightful heritage. Several times there belonging to a Royal Packet Company, established in 1888 under a have been political troubles in the native states of central Java, special statute, and virtually possessing a monopoly on account of in which Dipå Negårå's name was used, notably in 1883, when the government mail contracts. Administration. Each village (dessa) forms an independent many rebellious chieftains were exiled. Similar attempts at community, a group of dessas forms a district, a group of districts a revolt had been made before, mainly in 1865 and 1870, but none department and a group of departments a residency, of which there so serious perhaps as that in 1849, in which a son and a brother At the head of each residency is a resident, with an of Dipå Negårå were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate assistant resident and a controller, all Dutch officials. The officials of the departments and districts are natives appointed by the him. All such attempts proved as futile there as others in government; those of the dessa are also natives, elected by the different parts of Java, especialiy in Bantam, where the trouble inhabitants and approved by the resident. In the two sultanates of 1850 and 1888 had a religious origin, and in the end they of Surakarta and Jokjakarta the native sultans govern under the directly contributed to the consolidation of Dutch sway. Being supervision of the residents. (For the colonial administration of the principal Dutch colony in the Malay Archipelago, Java was Netherlands India see MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.) the first to benefit from the material change which resulted from History.-The origin of the name Java is very doubtful. It the introduciion of the Grondwet or Fundamental Law of 1848 is not improbable that it was first applied either to Sumatra or in Holland. The main changes were of an economical character, to what was known of the Indian Archipelago—the insular but the political developments were also important. Since 1850 character of the several parts not being at once recognized. Dutch authority has steadily advanced, principally at the ex- Jawa Dwipa, or“ land of millet,” may have been the original pense of the semi-independent sultanates in central Java, which form and have given rise both to the Jaba diu of Ptolemy and to had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of Dipa the Je-pho-thi of Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim of the 4th-5th Negårå. The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Sura- century. The oldest form of the name in Arabic is apparently karta has diminished; in 1863 Dutch authority was strengthened Zábej. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscrip- in the neighbouring island of Madura, and Bantam has lost every tion of 1343. In Marco Polo the name is the common appella- vestige of independence. The strengthening of the Dutch power tion of all the Sunda islands. The Jawa of Ibn Batuta is Sumatra; has largely resulted from a more statesmanlike and more generous Java is his Mul Jáwa (i.e. possibly “ original Java ”). Jåwå treatment of the natives, who have been educated to regard the is the modern Javanese name (in the court speech Jawi), some- orang blanda, or white man, as their protector against the native times with Nusa, “island,” or Tanah, “ country,” prefixed. rulers. Thus, in 1866, passports for natives travelling in Java It is impossible to extract a rational historical narrative from were abolished by the then governor-general, Dr Sloet van de the earlier babads or native chronicles, and even the later are Beele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the corvée in destitute of any satisfactory chronology. The first great era the government plantations to a minimum, and doing away with in the history is the ascendancy of the Hindus, and that breaks the monopoly of fisheries. Six years later a primary education up into three periods—a period of Buddhism, a period of system for the natives, and a penal code, whose liberal provi- aggressive Sivaism, and a period of apparent compromise. Of sions seemed framed for Europeans, were introduced. the various Hindu states that were established in the island, Antiquities.-Ordinary traces of early human occupation are few that of Majapahit was the most widely dominant down to the in Java. The native bamboo buildings speedily perish. Stone end of the 15th century; its tributaries were many, and it even weapons are occasionally found. But remains of the temples and monastic buildings of the Hindu period are numerous and splendid, extended its sway into other parts of the archipelago. The and are remarkable as representing architecture which reached a second era of Javanese history is the invasion of Islam in the high standard without the use of mortar, supporting columns or beginning of the 15th century; and the third is the establishment arches. Chandis (i.e. temples, though the word originally meant a of European and more particularly of Dutch influence and They exist in two great zones: one in middle Java, one in eastern depository for the ashes of a saint) are not found in western Java. authority in the island. About 1520 the Portuguese entered Java, each with its own distinguishing characteristics, both archi- into commercial relationship with the natives, but at the close tectural and religious. The former begins in the Dyeng plateau, of the same century the Dutch began to establish themselves. in the east of Banyumas, and extends into the east of Bagelen, At the time when the Dutch East India company began to fix karta, and the western corner of Surakarta. The latter lies mainly Kedu and the neighbouring districts of Semarang, northern Jokja. its trading factories on the coast towns, the chief native state in Surabaya, Kediri and Pasuruan. A considerable number of 1 293 JAVA. as ruins also exist in Probolinggo. Farther east they grow scarce. capped by a dagoba." It was discovered by the engineer J. W. There is none in Madura. The remains of Macham Putih in Ijzerman in 1885 that the basement of the structure had been earthed Banyuwangi are possibly of non-Hindu origin. In the regency, of up before the building was finished, and that the lowest retaining Kendal (Semarang), to the north of Kedu, the place-names show that wall was completely concealed by the embankment. The architects temples once existed. Some of them are Sivaite, some Buddhist, had evidently found that their temple was threatened with a de- some astoundingly composite. 'None of the Buddhist buildings structive subsidence; and, while the sculptors were still busy with shows traces of the older Himaryana form of the creed. The greatest the decoration of the lower façades, they had to abandon their work. of all is a perfect sculptural exposition of the Mahayana doctrine. But the unfinished bas-reliefs were carefully protected by clay and As to the period during which these temples were erected, authorities blocks of stone and left in position; and since 1896 they are gradually are not agreed. Ijzerman assigns the central Java groups to between but systematically being exhumed and photographed by the Dutch the 8th and the roth centuries. The seven-storeyed vihara (monas- archaeologists, who, however, have to proceed with caution, filling tery) mentioned in the famous Menang-Kabu inscription (Sumatra) up one portion of the embankment before they go on to deal with ounded by Maharaja Dhiraya Adityadharma in A.D. 656 is by another. The subjects treated in this lowest enceinte are of the some supposed to be Boro-Budur. A copper plate of 840 refers to most varied description, forming a picture-gallery of landscapes, Dyeng (Dehyang) as one of the sacred mountains of Java. One scenes of outdoor and domestic life, mingled with mythological and thing seems certain, that the temples of the eastern zone are of religious designs. Among the genre class appear men shooting birds much more recent origin than most, at least, of the central zone. with blow-pipe or bow and arrow, fishermen with rod or net, a man They are generally distinguished by the characteristics of a decadent playing a bagpipe, and so on. It would seem as if the architect had and more voluptuous age, and show that the art of the time had intended gradually to wean the devotees from the things of this become less Indian and more Javanese, with traces of influences world. When once they began to ascend from stage to stage of the derived from the more eastern East. At the same time it must be temple-hill they were introduced to the realities of religion; and, by noted that even in Boro Budur there are non-Indian elements in the the time they reached the dagoba they had passed through a process decoration, indicating that the Hindu architect employed native of instruction and were ready, with enlightened eyes, to enter and artists and to some extent left them a free hand. behold the image of Buddha, symbolically left imperfect, as beyond In his standard work on Indian and Eastern Architecture (London, the power of human art to realize or portray. From basement to 1876), James Fergusson asserted that the Javanese temples are in summit the whole hill is a great picture bible of the Mahayana the Chalukyan style. But J. W. Ijzerman in an elaborate paper creed. in the Album-Kern contends that the learned historian of architec- If the statues and bas-reliefs of Boro-Budur were placed side ture was misled by basing his opinion mainly on inaccurate drawings by side they would extend for 3 m. The eye of the spectator, reproduced by Raffles.. The Javanese temples, with the solitary looking from the present ground-level, is caught, says Mr Sewell, exception of Chandi Bima in the Dyeng, are Dravidian and not by the rows of life-size Buddhas that adorn the retaining walls of Chalukyan. The very temples quoted by Fergusson, when more the several terraces and the cage-like shrines on the circular plat. carefully examined, disprove his statement: a fact not without its forms. All the great figures on the east side represent Akshobhya, bearing on the history of the Hindu immigration. the Dhyani Buddha of the East. His right hand is in the Chumis- The wonderful scenery of the Dyeng plateau was already, in all parsa mudra (pose) touching the earth in front of the right knee- probability, an object of superstitious awe to the aboriginal inhabi- "I swear by the earth." All the statues on the south side are tants of Java; and thus it would catch the attention of the earliest Ratnasam Chavu in the varada mudra--the right hand displayed Hindu settlers. The old crater floor is full of traces of human upwards" I give you all.” On the west side the statues represent occupation; though, in spite of the tradition of the existence of a Amitabha in the dhyana or padinasama mudra, the right hand considerable town, no sepulchral relics of the inhabitants have been resting palm upwards on the left, both being on the lap-the attitude discovered. There still remain five groups of temples-some well of meditation. Those on the north represent Amogasiddhi in the preserved, some mere heaps of stone-to prove the devotion their abhaya mudra, the right hand being raised and displayed, palm builders bore to Siva, his consort Durga, and Ganesha their son. outwards-“ Fear not, all is well." The Arjuno group, in the middle of the plateau, consists of Chandi Other remarkable groups of Hindu temples exist near the village Arjuno (with itschapel or priests' residence, Ch. Semar), Ch. Srikahdi, of Prambanan? (less correctly Brambanan) in Surakarta, but not far Ch. Puntadeva and Ch. Sembadro, each a simple square chamber from the borders of Jokjakarta, with a station on the railway between with a portico reached by a flight of steps. The second group, Ch. the two chief towns. The village has been named after the temples, Daravati and Ch. Parakesit, lies to the north-east. The third, nowa Prambanan signifying the place of teachers. The whole ecclesias- ruined mound, lies to the east. The fourth, to the north-west, is a tical settlement was surrounded by three lines of wall, of which group of seven small temples of which Ch. Sanchaki is the most only the inmost is now visible above ground. Between the second important, with a square ground plan and an octagon roof with a and third walls are 157 small temples, and in the central enclosure second circular storey.. Of the fifth group, in the south, only one are the ruins of six larger temples in a double row with two smaller temple remains--the Chandi Bima-a small, beautiful and excep- ones at the side. The middle temple of the western row is the main tionally interesting building, in " the form of a pyramid, the ribs building, full of statues of purely Sivaite character-Siva as Guru of which stand out much more prominently than the horizontal or teacher, Siva as Kala or Time the Destroyer, Durga, Ganesha, lines of the niche-shaped ornaments which rest each on its lotus. and so on. But, just as many churches in Christendom are called cushion." How this happens to be the one Chalukyan temple not after the Christ but after the Virgin, so this is known as Lara amid hundreds is a problem to be solved. The plateau lies 6500 ft. (i.e. Virgin) Janggrang from the popular name of Durga. In the above the sea, and roads and stairways, locally known as Buddha southern temple of the row is a very fine figure of a four-armed roads, lead up from the lowlands of Bagelen and Pekalongan. The Brahma; in the northern there was a Vishnu with attendant figures. stairway between Lake Menjur and Lake Chebong alone consisted of the other row the middle temple is again the largest, with Siva, of 4700 steps. The width of the roadway, however, is only some three his nandi or bull, and other symbolic sculptures. To the north lies or four feet. A remarkable subterranean tunnel still exists, which the extraordinary cluster of temples which, though it does not served to drain the plateau. deserve its popular name of Chandi Sewu, the thousand shrines, Of all the Hindu temples of Java the largest and most magnificent consists of at least 240 small buildings gathered round a great central is Boro-Budur, which ranks among the architectural marvels of the temple, richly adorned, though roofless and partially ruined since world. It lies in the residency of Kedu, a little to the west of the the earthquake of 1867. Among the more noteworthy figures are Progo, a considerable stream Rowing south to the Indian Ocean. those of the huge and ungainly guardians of the temple kneeling at The place is best reached by taking the steam-tram from Magelang the four main gateways of each of the principal buildings. Colonei or Jokjakarta to the village of Muntilam Passar, where a conveyance Yule pointed out that there are distinct traces of a fine coat of may be hired. Strictly speaking, Boro-Budur is not a temple but a stucco on the exterior and the interior of the buildings, and he com- hill, rising about 150 ft. above the plain, encased with imposing pared in this respect " the cave walls of Ellora, the great idols at terraces constructed of hewn lava-blocks and crowded with sculp- Bamian, and the Doric order at Selinus." Other temples in the tures. The lowest terrace now above ground forms a square, each same' neighbourhood as Chandi Sewu are Ch. Lumbung, Ch. Kali side 497 ft. long. About 50 ft. higher there is another terrace of Bening (Baneng), with a monstrous Kala head as the centre of the similar shape. Then follow four other terraces of more irregular design on the southern side, Ch. Kalong and Ch. Plaosan. Tradition contour. The structure is crowned by a dome or cupola 52 ſt. in assigns these temples to 1266–1296. diameter surrounded by sixteen smaller bell-shaped cupolas. of the temples of the eastern zone the best known is Chandi Jago Regarded as a whole, the main design, to quote Mr Sewell, may be (or Tumpang), elaborately described in the Archaeological Commis- described as an archaic Indian temple, considerably flattened sion's monograph. According to the Pararaton, a native chronicle and consisting of a series of terraces, surmounted by a quasi-stupa (published in the Verhand. v. h. Bat. Gen. v. K. en W., 1896), it See R. Verbeek, Liget der oudheden van Java,” in Verhand. I belongs to the 13th century, containing the tomb of Rangavuni or Vishnuvardhana, who died in 1272-1273. The shrine proper v. h. Bat. Gen., xlvi., and his Oudreid kundige kaart van Java; occupies the third of three platforms, the lowest of which forms a R. Sewell's “ Antiquarian notes în Java," in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1906), give the best conspectus available for English 2 The chief authorities on Prambanan are J. W. Ijzerman, readers. W. B. Worsfold, A Visit to Java (London, 1893), has a Beschrijving der oudheden nabij de Grens der residenties Soerakarta en good sketch of what was then known, revised by Professor W. Rhys Djogjakarta (Batavia, 1891, with photographs and atlas); and Davids; but whoever wishes full information must refer to Dutch T. Groneman, Tjandi Parambanan op Midden Java; see also Guide authorities. These are numerous but difficult of access. à travers l'exposition des Pays-Bas (The Hague, 1900), No. 174, sqq. +1 66 ; 294 JAVELIN-JAY, JOHN as 46 square of 45 to 46 ft. each side. The building fronts the west, and seems to be Celtic, and the word is cognate with Ir. gafa, a hook, is constructed of an andesitic tuff of inferior quality and dark fork, gaff; the root is seen in “gable” (9.0.), and in the German colour. Of distinctly Buddhistic intluence there is no trace. The makara (elephant-fish head) is notably absent. The sculptures | Gabel, fork. The change in meaning from fork, forked end which run round the base and along the sides of the platforms or of a spear, to the spear itself is obscure. terraces are of the most elaborate and varied description-kings on JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, 0. Eng. cheowan, con- thrones, dwarfs, elephants, supernatural beings, diabolical and nected with “chaw" and "chew," and in form with “jowl ”), grotesque, tree-monsters, palaces, temples, courtyards, lakes, gar- dens, forests-all are represented. In one place appears a Chinese- in anatomy, the term for the upper maxillary bone, and the or Burmese-looking seven-roofed pagoda; in another, a tall temple mandible or lower maxillary bone of the skull; it is sometimes strangely split down the centre, with a flight of steps running up the loosely applied to all the lower front parts of the skull (q.v.). fissure. The inscriptions are in the Devanagari character. In the same neighbourhood are Ch. Singossari, Ch. Kidal, &c. Another of JAWĀLIQI, ABU MANŞÜR MAUHUB UL-JAWĀLIQI (1073-1145), the most beautiful of the eastern temples is Ch. Jabung, mentioned in Arabian grammarian, was born at Bagdad, where he studied 1330. It is built of red brick; and its distinctly Javanese origin is philology under Tibrizi and became famous for his handwriting. suggested by the frequency of the snake-motil still characteristic of modern Javanese art. It may be added that a comparison of the In his later years he acted as imam to the caliph Moqtafi. His several buildings of the zone affords an interesting study in the chief work is the Kitāb ul-Mu'arrab, or “ Explanation of Foreign development of the pilaster as a decorative rather than structural Words used in Arabic." element. At Panabaram, near Blitar, Kediri, is another group of stone The text was edited from an incomplete manuscript by E. Sachau temples and other buildings. The chief temple is remarkable Leipzig, 1867). Many of the lacunae in this have been supplied for the richness of its sculptures, which are peculiarly delicate and Oriental Society, xxxiii. 208 sqq. Another work, written as a supple, from another manuscript by W. Spitta in the Journal of the German spirited in their details. The decoration of the mere robes of one of the free-standing, stairway-guardians consists of scroll-work, ment to the Durrat ul-Ghawwās of Hariri (q.v.), has been published Le Livre des locutions vicieuses," by H. Derenbourg in Morgen- interspersed with birds and animals rendered in a non-Indian style, (G.W.T.) reminiscent of Chinese or Japanese work. It has been described. ländische Forschungen (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107–166. as one of the most beautiful pieces of sculpture in all the East. JAWHAR, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Sculptures from the temples are scattered far and wide throughout Bombay, situated among the lower ranges of the western Ghats. Java, and it is one of the greatest difficulties of the archaeologist Area 310 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 47,538. The timated revenue is to determine the origin of many of the most interesting, specimens. This, too, is often the case with those that have found their way £11,000; there is no tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste, to the museums of Java and Europe (Batavia, Leiden, Haarlem, traces back his descent to 1343. The leading exports are teak Berlin, &c.). Minor relics of the past are to be found alike in the and rice. The principal village is that of Jawhar (pop. 3567); palaces of the nobles and the huts of the highland peasants. Zodiac JAWORÓW, a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lemberg. cups of copper or bronze dating from the 12th or 13th century are in daily use among the Tenggerese. The musical instruments Pop: (1900), 10,090. It has a pottery, a brewery, a distillery used by the musicians of the native courts are often prized on and some trade in agricultural produce. Not far from it is the account of their great antiquity. As many of the Chinese came from China centuries ago and have watering-place of Szkto with sulphur springs. The town was a not ceased to hold intercourse with their native country, the houses favourite residence of John Sobieski, who there received the of the wealthier men among them are often rich in ancient specimens congratulations of the pope and the Venetian republic on his of Chinese art. The special exhibition organized by. Henri Borel success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At Jaworów Peter and other enthusiasts showed how much of value in this matter the Great was betrothed to Catherine I. might be brought together in spite of the reluctance of the owners to commit the sacrilege of exposing to public gaze the images of JAY, JOHN (1745-1829), American statesman, the descendant their ancestral gods and heroes. Borel has given exquisite examples of a Huguenot family, and son of Peter Jay, a successful New of images of Kwan-yin (the Chinese Virgin-Goddess), of Buddhas, of York merchant, was born in New York City on the 12th of the ghoulish god of literature, of Lie-tai-Peh (the Chinese poet who December 1745. On graduating at King's College (now Colum- has gone to live in the planet Venus), &c., in illustration of his papers in L'Art flamand et hollandais, pt. v. (1900), a translation of his bia University) in 1764, Jay entered the office of Benjamin monograph published at Batavia. Kissam, an eminent New York lawyer. In 1768 he was admitted AUTHORITIES.-Besides the special works quoted passim, see Sir to the bar, and rapidly acquired a lucrative practice. In 1774 Stamford Raffles, History of Java (London, 1830); F. Junghuhn, Java: he married Sarah, youngest daughter of William Livingston, seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke, und innere Bauart (Ger. trans. by J: K. Hasskarl, Leipzig, 1854-1857); P. J. Veth, Java, Geographisch, ethno- and was thus brought into close relations with one of the most logisch, historisch (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1896-1903), a masterly com- influential families in New York. Like many other able young pendium originally based largely on Junghuhn's descriptions; L. van lawyers, Jay took an active part in the proceedings that resulted Deventer, Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java (2nd ed., Haarlem, in the independence of the United States, identifying himself 1895); L. W. C. van den Berg, Le Hadhramout et les colonies arabes dans l'archipel indien (Batavia, 1886); E. R. Scidmore, Java, the with the conservative element in the Whig or patriot party. He Garden of the East (New York, 1898); J. Chailley-Bert, Java et ses was sent as a delegate from New York City to the Continental habitants (Paris, 1900); C. Day, The Policy and Administration of the Congress at Philadelphia in September 1774, and though almost Dutch in Java (London, 1904); E. S. de Klerck, De Java-Oorlog van 1825-1830 (Batavia, 1905); Encyclopaedie v. N. Indië, art.“ Java;" the youngest member, was entrusted with drawing up the Guide d Iravers l'Exposition de Paris (The Hague, 1900), with articles address to the people of Great Britain. Of the second congress, by specialists on each department of the Dutch colonies, more also, which met at Philadelphia on the roth of May 1775, particularly Java; Koloniale Verslagen en Regeerings-almanok van Jay was a member; and on its behalf he prepared an address N. Indië, being official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East. Indian Government (see also MALAY ARCHIPELAGO). to the people of Canada and an address to the people of Jamaica (H. A. W.; 0. J.R. H.) and Ireland. In April 1776, while still retaining his seat in the Continental Congress, Jay was chosen as a member of JAVELIN, a spear, particularly one light enough to be thrown, the third provincial congress of New York; and his consequent a dart. The javelin was often provided with a thong to help in absence from Philadelphia deprived him of the honour of casting (see SPEAR). Javelin-throwing is one of the contests in affixing his signature to the Declaration of Independence. the athletic section at the international Olympic games. For- As a member of the fourth provincial congress he drafted a merly the sheriff of a county or borough had a body of men resolution by which the delegates of New York in the Continental armed with javelins, and known as javelin-men, who acted Congress were authorized to sign the Declaration of Indepen- as a bodyguard for the judges when they went on assize. Their dence. In 1777 he was chairman of the committee of the con. duties are now performed by the ordinary police. The word vention which drafted the first New York state constitution itself is an adaptation of Fr. javeline. There are several words After acting for some time as one of the council of safety (which in Celtic and Scandinavian languages and in Old English, administered the state government until the new constitution meaning a spear or dart, that seem to be connected with javel, came into effect), he was made chief justice of New York state, the base form in French; thus Welsh gaflach, Irish gabhla, in September 1777. A clause in the state constitution pro- O. Norwegian gaflok, 0. E. gaſeluc, later in the form gavelock, cf. hibited any justice of the Supreme Court from holding any other 0. Norman-Fr. gavelol, javelot, Ital. giavelotto. The origin post save that of delegate to Congress on a “special occasion,” JAY, JOHN 295 ( but in November 1778 the legislature pronounced the secession his seat in Congress and accepted the secretaryship. He con- of what is now the state of Vermont from the jurisdiction of tinued to act in this capacity until 1790, when Jefferson became New Hampshire and New York to be such an occasion, and secretary of state under the new constitution. In the question of sent Jay to Congress charged with the duty of securing a settle this constitution Jay had taken a keen interest, and as an ment of the territorial claims of his state. He took his seat advocate of its ratification he wrote over the name Publius," in congress on the 7th of December, and on the roth was chosen five (Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 64) of the famous series of papers known president in succession to Henry Laurens. collectively as the Federalist (see HAMILTON, ALEXANDER). He On the 27th of September 1779 Jay was appointed minister published anonymously (though without succeeding in concealing plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty between Spain and the the authorship) An Address to the People of New York, in vindica- United States. He was instructed to endeavour to bring Spain tion of the constitution; and in the state convention at Pough- into the treaty already existing between France and the United keepsie he ably seconded Hamilton in securing its ratification States by a guarantee that Spain should have the Floridas in by New York. In making his first appointments to federal case of a successful issue of the war against Great Britain, offices President Washington asked Jay to take his choice; reserving, however, to the United States the free navigation of Jay chose that of chief justice of the Supreme Court, and held the Mississippi. He was also to solicit a subsidy in consideration this position from September 1789 to June 1795. The most of the guarantee, and a loan of five million dollars. His task was famous case that came before him was that of Chisolm v. Georgia, one of extreme difficulty. Although Spain had joined France in in which the question was, Can a state be sued by a citizen the war against Great Britain, she feared to imperil her own of another state ? Georgia argued that it could not be so sued, colonial interests by directly encouraging and aiding the former on the ground that it was a sovereign state, but Jay decided British colonies in their revolt against their mother country, against Georgia, on the ground that sovereignty in America and she had refused to recognize the United States as an in- resided with the people. This decision led to the adoption of dependent power. Jay landed at Cadiz on the 22nd of January the eleventh amendment to the federal constitution, which 1780, but was told that he could not be received in a formally provides that no suit may be brought in the federal courts diplomatic character. In May the king's minister, Count against any state by a citizen of another state or by a citizen or de Florida Blanca, intimated to him that the one obstacle to a subject of any foreign state. In 1792 Jay consented to stand for treaty was the question of the free navigation of the Mississippi, the governorship of New York State, but a partisan returning- and for months following this interview the policy of the board found the returns of three counties technically defective, court was clearly one of delay. In February 1781 Congress and though Jay had received an actual majority of votes, his instructed Jay that he might make concessions regarding the opponent, George Clinton, was declared elected. navigation of the Mississippi, if necessary; but further delays Ever since the War of Independence there had been friction were interposed, the news of the surrender of Yorktown arrived, between Great Britain and the United States. To the grievances and Jay decided that any sacrifice to obtain a treaty was no of the United States, consisting principally of Great Britain's longer advisable. His efforts to procure a loan were not much refusal to withdraw its troops from the forts on the north- more successful, and he was seriously embarrassed by the action western frontier, as was required by the peace treaty of 1783, her of Congress in drawing bills upon him for large sums. Although refusal to make compensation for negroes carried away by the by importuning the Spanish minister, and by pledging his British army at the close of the War of Independence, her personal responsibility, Jay was able to meet some of the bills, restrictions on American commerce, and her refusal to enter he was at last forced to protest others; and the credit of the into any commercial treaty with the United States, were added, United States was saved only by a timely subsidy from France. after war broke out between France and Great Britain in 1793, In 1781 Jay was commissioned to act with Franklin, John the anti-neutral naval policy according to which British naval Adams, Jefferson and Henry Laurens in negotiating a peace vessels were authorized to search American merchantmen and with Great Britain. He arrived in Paris on the 23rd of June impress American seamen, provisions were treated as contraband 1782, and jointly with Franklin had proceeded far with the of war, and American vessels were seized for no other reason than negotiations when Adams arrived late in October. The in- that they had on board goods which were the property of the structions of the American negotiators were as follows: enemy or were bound for a port which though not actually “You are to make the most candid and confidential communicablockaded was declared to be blockaded. The anti-British tions upon all subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the feeling in the House of Representatives became so strong that king of France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their knowledge and concurrence; and ultimately commercial intercourse between the United States and Great on the 7th of April 1794 a resolution was introduced to prohibit to govern yourselves by their advice and opinion, endeavouring in your whole conduct to make them sensible how much we rely Britain until the north-western posts should be evacuated and on his majesty's influence for effectual support in every thing that Great Britain's anti-neutral naval policy should be abandoned. may be necessary to the present security, or future prosperity, of Thereupon Washington, fearing that war might result, appointed the United States of America.' Jay minister extraordinary to Great Britain to negotiate a new - Jay, however, in a letter written to the president of Congress treaty, and the Senate confirmed the appointment by a vote of from Spain, had expressed in strong terms his disapproval of 18 to 8, although the non-intercourse resolution which came such dependence upon France, and, on arriving in Paris, he from the house a few days later was defeated in the senate only demanded that . Great Britain should treat with his country on by the casting vote of Vice-President John Adams. Jay landed an equal footing by first recognizing its independence, although at Falmouth in June 1794, signed a treaty with Lord Grenville the French minister, Count de Vergennes, contended that an on the 19th of November, and disembarked again at New York acknowledgment of independence as an effect of the treaty on the 28th of May 1795. The treaty, known in history as Jay's was as much as could reasonably be expected. Finally, Treaty, provided that the north-western posts should be owing largely to Jay, who suspected the good faith of France, evacuated by the ist of June 1796, that commissioners should be the American negotiators decided to treat independently with appointed to settle the north-east and the north-west boundaries, Great Britain. The provisional articles, which were so favour- and that the British claims for British debts as well as the able to the United States as to be a great surprise to the courts American claims for compensation for illegal seizures should of France and Spain, were signed on the 30th of November 1782, be referred to commissioners. More than one-half of the clauses and were adopted with no important change as the final treaty in the treaty related to commerce, and although they con- on the 3rd of September 1783. tained rather small concessions to the United States, they On the 24th of July 1784 Jay landed in New York, where he were about as much as could reasonably have been expected was presented with the freedom of the city and elected a delegate in the circumstances. One clause, the operation of which to Congress. On the 7th of May Congress had already chosen him was limited to two years from the close of the existing war, to be secretary for foreign affairs, and in December Jay resigned l provided that American vessels not exceeding 70 tons burden 296 JAY, W.--JAY might trade with the West Indies, but should carry only | American Bible Society; was a judge of Westchester county from American products there and take away to American ports only 1818 to 1843, when he was removed from office by the party in West Indian products; moreover, the United States was to power in New York, which hoped, by sacrificing an anti-slavery export in American vessels no molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa judge, to gain additional strength in the southern states; or cotton to any part of the world. Jay consented to this joined the American anti-slavery society in 1834, and held prohibition under the impression that the articles named., several important offices in this organization. In 1840, how- were peculiarly the products of the West Indies, not being aware ever, when it began to advocate measures which he deemed too that cotton was rapidly becoming an important export from radical, he withdrew his membership, but with his pen he con- the southern states. The operation of the other commercial tinued his labours on behalf of the slave, urging emancipation clauses was limited to twelve years. By them the United States in the district of Columbia and the exclusion of slavery from the was granted limited privileges of trade with the British East Territories, though deprecating any attempt to interfere with Indies; some provisions were made for reciprocal freedom of slavery in the states. He was a member of the American peace trade between the United States and the British dominions in society and was its president for several years. His pamphlet, Europe; some articles were specified under the head of “contra- War and Peace: the Evils of the First with a Plan for Securing band of war"; it was agreed that whenever provisions were the Last, advocating international arbitration, was published by seized as contraband they should be paid for, and that in cases of the English Peace Society in 1842, and is said to have contributed the capture of a vessel carrying contraband goods such goods to the promulgation, by the powers signing the Treaty of Paris only and not the whole cargo should be seized; it was also in 1856, of a protocol expressing the wish that nations, before agreed that no vessel should be seized merely because it was bound resorting to arms, should have recourse to the good offices of a for a blockaded port, unless it attempted to enter the port friendly power. Among William Jay's other writings, the most after receiving notice of the blockade. The treaty was laid before important are The Life of John Jay (2 vols., 1833) and a Review the Senate on the 8th of June 1795, and, with the exception of the Causes and Consequences of the Mexican War (1849). He of the clause relating to trade with the West Indies, was ratified died at Bedford on the 14th of October 1858. on the 24th by a vote of 20 to 10. As yet the public was ignorant See Bayard Tuckerman, William Jay and the Constitutional of its contents, and although the Senate had enjoined secrecy Movement for the Abolition of Slavery (New York, 1893). on its members even after the treaty had been ratified, Senator William Jay's son, JOHN JAY (1817–1894), also took an active Mason of Virginia gave out a copy for publication only a few days later. The Republican party, strongly sympathizing with part in the anti-slavery movement. He was a prominent mem- ber of the free soil party, and was one of the organizers of the France and strongly disliking Great Britain, had been opposed to Jay's mission, and had denounced Jay as a traitor and Republican party in New York. He was United States minister to Austria-Hungary in 1869–1875, and was a member, and for a guillotined him in effigy when they heard that he was actually time president, of the New York civil service commission negotiating. The publication of the treaty only added to their appointed by Governor Cleveland in 1883. fury. They filled newspapers with articles denouncing it, JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853), English Nonconformist divine, wrote virulent pamphlets against it, and burned Jay in effigy. The British flag was insulted. Hamilton was stoned at a public adopted his father's trade of stone-inason, but gave it up in was born at Tisbury in Wiltshire on the 6th of May 1769. He meeting in New York while speaking in defence of the treaty, and Washington was grossly abused for signing it. In the House 785 in order to enter the Rev. Cornelius Winter's school at of Representatives the Republicans endeavoured to prevent his preaching powers were rapidly developed. Before he was Marlborough. During the three years that Jay spent there, the execution of the treaty by refusing the necessary appro.twenty-one he had preached nearly a thousand times, and in priations, and a vote (29th of April, 1795) on a resolution that it 1788 he had for a while očcupied Rowland Hill's pulpit in London. ought to be carried into effect stood 49 to 49; but on the next day the opposition was defeated by a vote of 51 to 48. Once Wishing to continue his reading he accepted the humble pastor- in operation, the treaty grew in favour. Two days before landing about two years. After one year at Hope chapel, Clifton, he ate of Christian Malford, near Chippenham, where he remained on his return from the English mission, Jay had been elected governor of New York state; notwithstanding his temporary and on the 30th of January 1791 he began the work of his life was called to the ministry of Argyle Independent chapel in Bath; unpopularity, he was re-elected in April 1798. . With the close there, attracting hearers of every religious denomination and of this second term of office in 1801, he ended his public career. Although not yet fifty-seven years old, he refused all offers brilliant pulpit orator, an earnest religious author, and a friendly of every rank, and winning for himself a wide reputation as a of office and retiring to his estate near Bedford in Westchester counsellor. Sheridan declared him to be the most manly orator county, N.Y., spent the rest of his life in rarely interrupted he had ever heard. A long and honourable connexion of sixty- seclusion. In politics he was throughout inclined toward two years came to an end in January 1853, and he died on the Conservatism, and after the rise of parties under the federal 27th of December following. government he stood with Alexander Hamilton and John Adams as one of the foremost leaders of the Federalist party, The best-known of Jay's works are his Morning and Evening as opposed to the Republicans or Democratic-Republicans. Assistant; and his Discourses. He aiso wrote a Life of Rev. Cornelius Exercises: The Christian contemplated: The Domestic Minister's From 1821 until 1828 he was president of the American Bible Winter, and Memoirs of Rev. John Clarke. An edition of Jay's Society. He died on the 17th of May 1829. The purity and Works in 12 vols., 8vo, revised by himself, was issued in 1842-1844, integrity of his life are commemorated in a sentence by Daniel and again in 1856. A new edition, in 8 vols., 8vo, was published in 1876. See Autobiography (1854); S. Wilson's Memoir of Jay (1854); Webster: “When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe S. Newth in Pulpit Memorials (1878). fell on John Jay, it touched nothing less spotless than itself.”. JAY (Fr. géai), a well-known and very beautiful European See The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay (4 vols., bird, the Corrus glandarius of Linnaeus, the Garrulus glandarius New York, 1890-1893), edited by H. P. Johnston; William Jay, Life of John Jay with Selections from his Correspondence and Miscel- of modern ornithologists. To this species are more or less laneous Papers (2 vols., New York, 1833); William Whitelocke, Life closely allied numerous birds inhabiting the Palaearctic and and Times of John Jay (New York, 1887); and George Pellew, Indian regions, as well as the greater part of America, John Jay (Boston, 1890), in the “ American Statesmen Series." but not occurring in the Antilles, in the southern portion John Jay's son, WILLIAM JAY (1789-1858), was born in New of the Neotropical Region, or in the Ethiopian or Austra- York City on the 16th of June 1789, graduated from Yale in lian. All these birds are commonly called jays, and form a 1807, and soon afterwards assumed the management of his group of the crows or Corvidae, which may fairly be considered father's large estate in Westchester county, N.Y. a sub-family, Garrulinae. Indeed there are, or have been, actively interested in peace, temperance and anti-slavery move- systematists who would elevate the jays to the rank of a family He took a prominent part in 1816 in founding the Garrulidae-a proceeding which seems unnecessary. Some of i He was ments. .:: IJAY ? 297 - HD 10 11 TANTER them have an unquestionable resemblance to the pies, if the group | thence to Constantinople the nearly allied G. krynicki (which now known by that name can be satisfactorily severed from the alone is found in southern Russia, Caucasia and Asia Minor) true Corvinae. In structure the jays are not readily differen- shares its haunts with it. It also crosses the Mediterranean tiated from the pies; but in habit they are much more arboreal, to Algeria and Morocco; but there, as in southern Spain, it is delighting in thick coverts, seldom appearing in the open, and probably but a winter immigrant. The three forms just named seeking their food on or under trees. They seem also never to have the widest range of any of the genus. Next to them come walk or run when on the ground, but always to hop. The body- G. atricapillus, reaching from Syria to Baluchistan, G. japonicus, feathers are commonly loose and soft; and, gaily coloured as are the ordinary jay of southern Japan, and G. sinensis, the Chinese most of the species, in few of them has the plumage the metallic bird. Other forms have a much more limited area, as G. cervicalis, glossiness it generally presents in the pies, while the proverbial the local and resident jay of Algeria, G. hyrcanus, found on the beauty of the “jay's wing."" is due to the vivid tints of blue southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and G. taevanus, confined to turquoise and cobalt, heightened by bars of jet-black, an indica- the island of Formosa. The most aberrant of the true jays is tion of the same style of ornament being observable in the greater G. lidihi, a very rare species, which seems to come from some minit.row to abiv odtytilstund 20079' svoltosi part of Japan (vide Salvadori, Atli Accad. Torino, vii. 474), Wo yo hard to Pouqob 10%8346 though its exact locality is not known. leren i to dig Lot Leaving the true jays of the genus Garrulus, it is expedient next to consider those of a group named, in 1831, Perisoreus REIT ON by Prince C. L. Bonaparte (Saggio, &c., Anim. Vertebrati , p. 43) 911 Silov and Dysornithid by Swainson (F. B.-Americana, ii. 495).2011 Algid - This group contains two species--one the Lanius infaustus of 2011 Linnaeus and the Siberian jay of English writers, which ranges it throughout the pine-forests of the north of Europe and Asia, and UND oH | the second the Corvus canadensis of the same author, or Canada algu jay, occupying a similar station in America. The so-called Vd Siberian jay is one of the most entertaining birds in the world. Its bst bugoy versatile cries and actions, as seen and heard by those who pene- 105 cm trate the solitude of the northern forests it inhabits, can never be og zid forgotten by one who has had experience of them, any more than eroidship al Thomas 978 the pleasing sight of its rust-coloured tail, which an occasional sbromslig yd 65307 ories logizash mar gleam of sunshine will light up into a brilliancy quite unexpected 15.gcoln (over 3) FIG. 1-European Jay. I aid nisllivliga by those who have only surveyed the bird's otherwise gloomy 1027 hold 9981 bus breigasi dsod On pwovat appearance sind aus es anoidae Houd baitigasis number of the other forms of the group, and in some predomi- the glass-case of lo Willelsesda 10) nating over nearly the whole surface. Of the many genera a museum. lt It did that have been proposed by ornithologists, perhaps about nine seems scarcely to may be deemed sufficiently well established. con torni avisen know fear, ob- The ordinary European jay, Garrulus glandarius" (fig. 1), has truding itself on suffered so much persecution in the British Islands as to have the notice of any to be indigenous to the southern half of the island only; in vades its haunts, England generally, it is far less numerous than formerly; and and, should he in Scotland its numbers have decreased with still greater rapidity, halt, making it- There is little doubt that it would have been exterminated but self? Tat once a for its stock being supplied in autumn by immigration, and for denizen of this its shy and wary behaviour, especially at the breeding-season, bivouac. Incon- when it becomes almost wholly mute, and thereby often escapes finement it detection. No may depredations on fruit and eggs that it at friendly, but suit- times commits; but the gardeners and gamekeepers of Britain, able food for it is instead of taking a few simple steps to guard their charge from not easily found: methods that in the case of this species are only too easy and too to have been effectual—by proffering temptation to trespass which it is not in under a misap-oft jay-nature to resist, and accordingly the bird runs great chance prehension when it is 5101 of total extirpation. Notwithstanding the war carried on against he applied to it balss Fig. 2.-American Blue Jay. 10 gub the jay, its varied cries and active gesticulations show it to be a the trivial epithet it bears; for by none of his countrymen is it sprightly bird, and at a distance that renders its beauty-spots deemed an unlucky bird, but rather the reverse. In fact, no one body and pure white tail-coverts, which contrast with the deep a hopeful feeling. The Canada jay, or calls with any but invisible, it is yet rendered conspicuous by its cinnamon-coloured can listen to the cheery sound of its whisky-jack” (the black and rich chestnut that otherwise mark its plumage, and corruption probably of a Cree name), seems to be of a similar. even the young at once assume a dress closely resembling that nature, but it presents a still more sombre coloration, its nestling of the adult. The nest, generally concealed in a leafy tree or plumage, indeed, being thoroughly corvine in appearance and bush, is carefully built, with a lining formed of fine roots neatly suggestive of its being a pristine form. 2011 interwoven. Herein from four to seven eggs, of a greenish-As though to make amends for the dull plumage of the species white closely freckled, so as to seem suffused with light olive, last mentioned, North America offers some of the most brilliantly are laid in March or April, and the young on quitting it accom- more aw sa Ho savo pany their parents for some weeks. Horar ninnostool Vinot not occupied at the same season of the year by the two forms. a1 Further information will possibly show that these districts are 7 Though the common jay of Europe inhabits nearly the whole ? Recent writers have preferred the former name, though it was of this quarter of the globe south of 64° N. lat., its territory in only used sub-generically by its author, who assigned to it no charac- the east of Russia is also occupied by G. brandti, a kindred form, térs, which the inventor of the latter was careful to do, regarding it which replaces it on the other side of the Ural, and ranges thence at the same time as a genust ** In this it was described and figured (F. B. Americana, ii. 296, across Siberia to Japan; and again on the lower Danube and I pl. 55) as a distinct species, G. brachyrhynchus. I wond i 298 JEALOUSY-JEANNIN 66 coloured of the sub-family, and the common blue jay' of Canada | is generally fixed between 1268 and 1285 by a reference in the and the eastern states of the Union, Cyanurus cristatus (fig. 2), poem to the death of Manfred and Conradin, executed (1268) by is one of the most conspicuous birds of the Transatlantic woods. order of Charles of Anjou (d. 1285) who is described as the present The account of its habits by Alexander Wilson is known to every king of Sicily. M. F. Guillon (Jean Clopinel, 1903), however, student of ornithology, and Wilson's followers have had little to considering the poem primarily as a political satire, places it in do but supplement his history with unimportant details. In the last five years of the 13th century. Jean de Meun doubtless this bird and its many allied forms, coloration, though almost edited the work of his predecessor, Guillaume de Lorris, before confined to various tints of blue, seems to reach its climax, but using it as the starting point of his own vast poem, running to want of space forbids more particular notice of them, or of the 19,000 lines. The continuation of Jean de Meun is a satire on members of the other genera Cyanocilla, Cyanocorax, Xanthura, the monastic orders, on celibacy, on the nobility, the papal see, Psilorhi and more, which inhabit various parts of the the excessive pretensions of royalty, and especially on women Western continent. It remains, however, to mention the genus and marriage. Guillaume had been the servant of love, and the Cissa, including many beautiful forms belonging to the Indian exponent of the laws of “courtoisie "; Jean de Meun added an region, and among them the C. speciosa and C. sinensis, so often art of love,” exposing with brutality the vices of women, their represented in Oriental drawings, though doubts may be ex- arts of deception, and the means by which men may out wit pressed whether these birds are not more nearly related to the them. Jean de Meun embodied the mocking, sceptical spirit of pies than to the jays. (A. N.) the fabliaux. He did not share in current superstitions, he had JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, no respect for established institutions, and he scorned the con- jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. Südos, ardour, zeal, from the root ventions of feudalism and romance. His poem shows in the seen in Stelv, to boil, ferment; cf.“ yeast "), originally a condi- highest degree, in spite of the looseness of its plan, the faculty of tion of zealous emulation, and hence, in the usual modern sense, keen observation, of lucid reasoning and exposition, and it entitles of resentment at being (or believing that one is or may be) him to be considered the greatest of French medieval poets. supplanted or preferred in the love or affection of another, or in He handled the French language with an ease and precision the enjoyment of some good regarded as properly one's own. unknown to his predecessors, and the length of his poem was no Jealousy is really a form of envy, but implies a feeling of personal bar to its popularity in the 13th and 14th centuries. Part of its claim which in envy or covetousness is wanting. The jealousy vogue was no doubt due to the fact that the author, who had of God, as in Exod. xx. 5, “For I, the Lord thy God, am a jealous mastered practically all the scientific and literary knowledge of God,” has been defined by Pusey (Minor Prophets, 1860) as the his contemporaries in France, had found room in his poem for a attribute“ whereby he does not endure the love of his creatures great amount of useful information and for numerous citations to be transferred from him.' Jealous,” by etymology, is from classical authors. The book was attacked by Guillaume de however, only another form of “ zealous,” and the identity is Degulleville in his Pèlerinage de la vie humaine (c. 1330), long a exemplified by such expressions as “ I have been very jealous favourite work both in England and France; by John Gerson, for the Lord God of Hosts (1 Kings xix. 10). A kind of glass, and by Christine de Pisan in her Épitre au dieu d'amour; but it thick, ribbed and non-transparent, was formerly known as also found energetic defenders. “ jealous-glass,” and this application is seen in the borrowed Jean de Meun translated in 1284 the treatise, De re militari, of French word jalousie, a blind or shutter, made of slats of wood, Vegetius into French as Le livre de Vegèce de l'art de chevalerie? (ed. which slope in such a way as to admit air and a certain amount Ulysse Robert, Soc. des anciens textes fr., 1897). He also produced of light, while excluding rain and sun and inspection from a spirited version, the first in French, of the letters of Abelard and without. Heloise., A 14th-century MS. of this translation in the Bibliothèque Nationale has annotations by Petrarch. His translation of the JEAN D'ARRAS, a 15th-century trouvère, about whose De consolatione philosophiae of Boëtius is preceded by a letter to personal history nothing is known, was the collaborator with Philip IV. in which he enumerates his earlier works, two of which Antoine du Val and Fouquart de Cambrai in the authorship of are lost-De spirituelle amitié from the De spirituali amicitia of a collection of stories entitled Évangiles de quenouille. They from the Topographia Hibernica, or De Mirabilibus Hibernice of Aelred of Rievaulx (d. 1166), and the Livre des merveilles d'Hirlande purport to record the narratives of a group of ladies at their Giraldus. Cambrensis (Giraud de Barry). His last poems are spinning, who relate the current theories on a great variety of doubtless his Testament and Codicille. The Testament is written in subjects. The work dates from the middle of the 15th century quatrains in monorime, and contains advice to the different classes of the community. and is of considerable value for the light it throws on medieval See also Paulin Paris in Hist. lit. de la France, xxviii. 391-439, and E. Langlois in Hist. de la langue et de la lit. française, ed. L. There were many editions of this book in the 15th and 16th cen- Petit de Julleville, ii, 125-161 (1896); and editions of the Roman turies, one of which was printed by Wynkyn de Worde in English, de la rose (q.v.). as The Gospelles of Dystaves. A modern edition (Collection Jannet) has a preface by Anatole France. JEANNETTE, a borough of Westmoreland county, Pennsyl- vania, U.S.A., about 27 m. E. by S. of Pit burg. Pop. (1890), Another trouvère, JEAN D'ARRAS who flourished in the 3296; (1900), 5865 (1340 foreign-born); (1910), 8077. It is second half of the 14th century, wrote, at the request of John, served by the Pennsylvania railroad, and is connected with duke of Berry, a long prose romance entitled Chronique de la Pittsburg and Uniontown by electric railway. It is supplied princesse. It relates with many digressions the antecedents with natural gas and is primarily a manufacturing centre, its and life of the fairy Mélusine (q.v.). principal manufactures being glass, table-ware and rubber goods. JEAN DE MEUN, or De Meung (C. 1250-c. 1305), whose Jeannette was founded in 1888, and was incorporated as a original name was Jean Clopinel or Chopinel, was born at Meun-borough in 1889. sur-Loire. Tradition asserts that he studied at the university JEANNIN, PIERRE (1540-1622), French statesman, was born of Paris. At any rate he was, like his contemporary, Rutebeuf, at Autun. A pupil of the great jurist Jacques Cujas at Bourges, a defender of Guillaume de Saint-Amour and a bitter critic of the he was an advocate at Dijon in 1569 and became councillor and mendicant orders. Most of his life seems to have been spent in then president of the parlement of Burgundy. He opposed in Paris, where he possessed, in the Rue Saint-Jacques, a house with vain the massacre of St Bartholomew in his province. As a tower, court and garden. which was described in 1305 as the councillor to the duke of Mayenne he sought to reconcile him house of the late Jean de Meung, and was then bestowed by a with Henry IV. After the victory of Fontaine-Française (1595), certain Adam d’Andely on the Dominicans. Jean de Meun says Henry took Jeannin into his council and in 1602 named him that in his youth he composed songs that were sung in every intendant of finances. He took part in the principal events of public place and school in France. In the enumeration of his the reign, negotiated the treaty of Lyons with the duke of Savoy own works he places first his continuation of the Roman de la rose of Guillaume de Lorris (q.v.). The date of this second part (1290) by Jean Priorat of Besançon, Li abreyance de l'ordre de cheva- ? Jean de Meun's translation formed the basis of a rhymed version 1 The birds known as blue jays in India and Africa are rollers (q.v.). I lerie. manners. 2 JEBB, JOHN—JEDBURGH 299 « " (see HENRY IV.), and the defensive alliance between France and ashore at Byblus, and there found by Isis. 'The orgies of Adonis the United Netherlands in 1608. As superintendent of finances in the temple of Baalit (Aphrodite Byblia) are described by under Louis XIII., he tried to establish harmony between the Lucian, De Dea Syr., cap. vi. The river Adonis is the Nahr al- king and the queen-mother. Ibrahim, which flows near the town. The crusaders, after failing See Berger de Xivrey, Lettres missives de Henri IV. (in the Collec- before it in 1099, captured “ Giblet " in 1103, but lost it again tion inédite pour l'histoire de France), t. v. (1850); Pierre) S(aumaise), to Saladin in 1189. Under Mahommedan rule it has gradually Eloge sur la vie de Pierre Janin (Dijon, 1623); Sainte-Beuve, Causeries decayed. (D. G. H.) du lundi, t. X. (May 1854). JEBEL (plur. jibāl), also written GEBEL with hard g (plur. JEBB, JOHN (1736-1786), English divine, was educated at gibāl), an Arabic word meaning a mountain or a mountain chain. Cambridge, where he was elected fellow of Peterhouse in 1761, It is frequently used in place-names. The French transliteration having previously been second wrangler. He was a man of of the word is djebel. Jebeli signifies a mountaineer. The pro- independent judgment and warmly supported the movement of nunciation with a hard g sound is that used in the Egyptian 1.771 for abolishing university and clerical subscription to the dialect of Arabic. Thirty-nine Articles. In his lectures on the Greek Testament he JEDBURGH, a royal and police burgh and county-town of is said to have expressed Socinian views. In 1775 he resigned Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. of police burgh (1901), 3136. his Suffolk church livings, and two years afterwards graduated It is situated on Jed Water, a tributary of the Teviot, 56 m. S.E. M.D. at St Andrews. He practised medicine in London and was of Edinburgh by the North British railway, via Roxburgh and elected F.R.S. in 1779. St Boswells (49 m. by road), and 10 m. from the border at Another JOHN JEBB (1775-1833), bishop of Limerick, is best Catcleuch Shin, a peak of the Cheviots, 1742 ft. high. Of the known as the author of Sacred Literature (London, 1820). name Jedburgh there have been many variants, the earliest being JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE (1841-1905), English Gedwearde (800), Jedwarth (1251), and Geddart (1586), while classical scholar, was born at Dundee on the 27th of August | locally the word is sometimes pronounced Jethart. The town 1841. His father was a well-known barrister, and his grand- is situated on the left bank of the Jed, the main streets running father a judge. He was educated at Charterhouse and at at right angles from each side of the central market-place. Of Trinity College, Cambridge. He won the Porson and Craven the renowned group of Border abbeys-Jedburgh, Melrose, scholarships, was senior classic in 1862, and became fellow and Dryburgh and Kelso--that of Jedburgh is the stateliest. In tutor of his college in 1863. From 1869 to 1875 he was public 1118, according to tradition, but more probably as late as 1138, orator of the university; professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875 David, prince of Cumbria, here founded a priory for Augustinian to 1889, and at Cambridge from 1889 till his death on the oth of monks from the abbey of St Quentin at Beauvais in France, and December 1905. In 1891 he was elected member of parliament in 1147, after he had become king, erected it into an abbey for Cambridge University; he was knighted in 1900. Jebb was dedicated to the Virgin. Repeatedly damaged in Border warfare, acknowledged to be one of the most brilliant classical scholars of it was ruined in 1544-45 during the English invasion led by his time, a humanist in the best sense, and his powers of transla- Sir Ralph Evers (or Eure). The establishment was suppressed tion from and into the classical languages were unrivalled. A in 1559, the revenues being temporarily annexed to the Crown. collected volume, Translations into Greek and Latin, appeared After changing owners more than once, the lands were purchased in 1873 (ed. 1909). He was the recipient of many honorary in 1637 by the 3rd earl of Lothian. Latterly five of the bays at degrees from European and American universities, and in 1905 the west end had been utilized as the parish church, but in 1873- was made a member of the Order of Merit. He married in 1875 the 9th marquess of Lothian built a church for the service 1874 the widow of General A. J. Slemmer, of the United States of the parish, and presented it to the heritors in exchange for the army, who survived him. ruined abbey in order to prevent the latter from being injured Jebb was the author of numerous publications, of which the by modern additions and alterations. following are the most important: The Characters of Theophrastus The abbey was built of Old Red sandstone, and belongs mostly (1870), text, introduction, English translation and commentary to the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries. The (re-edited by J. E. Sandys, 1909); The Attic Orators from Antiphon architecture is mixed, and the abbey is a beautiful example of the to Isaeus (2nd ed., 1893), with companion volume, Selections from the Norman and Transition styles. The total length is 235 ft., the nave Attic Orators (2nd ed., 1888): Bentley (1882): Sophocles (3rd ed., 1893) being 1331 ft. long and 59! ft. wide. The west front contains a the seven plays, text, English translation and notes, the pro- great Norman porch and a fine wheel window. The nave, on each mised edition of the fragments being prevented by his death: side, has nine pointed arches in the basement storey, nine round Bacchylides (1905), text, translation, and notes; Ilomer (3rd ed., 1888), arches in the triſorium, and thirty-six pointed arches in the clere. an introduction to the Wiad and Odyssey; Modern Greece (1901): story, through which an arcade is carried on both sides. The tower, The Growth and Influence of Classical Greek Poetry (1893). His at the intersection of the nave and transepts, is of unusually massive translation of the Rhetoric of Aristotle was published posthumously proportions, being 30 ft. square and fully 100 ft. high; the network under the editorship of J. E. Sandys (1909). A selection from his baluster round the top is modern. With the exception of the north Essays and Addresses, and a subsequent volume, Life and Letters of picrs and a small portion of the wall above, which are Norman, the Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb (with critical introduction by A. W. tower dates from the end of the 15th century. The whole of the Verrall) were published by his widow in 1907; see also an appreciative south transept has perished. The north transept, with early notice by J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908). Decorated windows, has been covered in and walled off, and is the JEBEIL (anc. Gebal-Byblus), a town of Syria pleasantly of Lothian. The earliest tombstone is dated 1524: one of the burial-ground of the Kerrs of Fernihirst, ancestors of the marquess situated on a slight eminence near the sea, about 20 m. N. of latest is the recumbent cffigy, by G. F. Watts, R.A., of the 8th Beirut. It is surrounded by a wall iż m. in circumference, with marquess of Lothian (1832-1870). All that is left of the choir, square towers at the angles, and a castle at the south-east corner. which contains some very carly Norman work, is two bays with three Numerous broken granite columns in the gardens and vineyards supposed that the aisle, with Decorated window and groined roof, tiers on each side, corresponding to the design of the nave. It is that surround the town, with the number of ruined houses within south of the chancel, formed the grammar school (removed from the the walls, testify to its former importance. The stele of Jchaw-abbey in 1751) in which Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661), principal melek, king of Gebal, found here, is one of the most important of St Mary's College, St Andrews, and James Thomson, author of of Phoenician monuments. The small port is almost choked up into a herbaceous garden, formerly the cloister, is an exquisite copy The Seasons, were educated. The door leading from the south aisle with sand and ruins. Pop. 3000, all Moslems. of one which had become greatly decayed. It was designed by Sir The inhabitants of the Phoenician Gebal and Greek Byblus Rowand Anderson, under whose superintendence restoration in the were renowned as stonecutters and ship-builders. Arrian (ii. 20.1) abbey was carried out. represents Enylus, king of Byblus, as joining Alexander with a The castle stood on high ground at the south end of the burgh, fleet, after that monarch had captured the city. Philo of Byblus or“ town-head." Erected by David I., it was one of the strong- makes it the most ancient city of Phoenicia, founded by Cronus, holds ceded to England in 1174, under the treaty of Falaise, for i.e. the Moloch who appears from the stele of Jehawmelek to have the ransom of William the Lion. It was, however, so often been with Baalit the chief deity of the city. According to captured by the English that it became a menace rather than'a Plutarch (Mor. 357), the ark with the corpse of Osiris was cast 'protection, and the townsfolk demolished it in 1409. It had 300 JEEJEEBHOY-JEFFERIES I occasionally been used as a royal residence, and was the scene, in of sympathy with his poorer countrymen, and commenced that November 1285, of the revels held in celebration of the marriage career of private and public philanthropy which is his chief title (solemnized in the abbey) of Alexander III. to Joleta, or Yolande, to the admiration of mankind. His liberality was unbounded, daughter of the count of Dreux. The site was occupied in 1823 and the absorbing occupation of his later life was the alleviation by the county prison, now known as the castle, a castellated of human distress. To his own community he gave lavishly, structure which gradually fell into disuse and was acquired by but his benevolence was mainly cosmopolitan. Hospitals, the corporation in 1890. A house exists in Backgate in which schools, homes of charity, pension funds, were founded or en- Mary Queen of Scots, resided in 1566, and one in Castlegate dowed by him, while numerous public works in the shape of wells, which Prince Charles Edward occupied in 1745. reservoirs, bridges, causeways, and the like, not only in Bombay, The public buildings include the grammar school (built in but in other parts of India, were the creation of his bounty. The 1883 to replace the successor of the school in the abbey), founded total of his known benefactions amounted at the time of his by William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow (d. 1454), the county death, which took place in 1859, to over £230,000. It was not, buildings, the free library and the public'hall, which succeeded to however, the amount of his charities so much as the period and the corn exchange destroyed by fire in 1898, a loss that involved circumstances in which they were performed that made his the museum and its contents, including the banners captured benevolent career worthy of the fame he won. In the first half by the Jethart weavers at Bannockburn and Killiecrankie. The of the 19th century the various communities of India were much old market cross still exists, and there are two public parks. more isolated in their habits and their sympathies than they are The chief industry is the manufacture of woollens (blankets, now. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy's unsectarian philanthropy awak- hosiery), but brewing, tanning and iron-founding are carried on, ened a common understanding and created a bond between them and fruit (especially pears) and garden produce are in repute. which has proved not only of domestic value but has had a Jedburgh was made a royal burgh in the reign of David I., and national and political significance. His services were recognized received a charter from Robert I. and another, in 1566, from first in 1842 by the bestowal of a knighthood upon him, and in Mary Queen of Scots. Sacked and burned time after time dur- 1858 by that of a baronetcy. These were the very first distinc- ing the Border striſe, it was inevitable that the townsmen should tions of their kind conferred by Queen Victoria upon a British become keen fighters. Their cry of “Jethart's here!” was heard subject in India. wherever the fray waxed most fiercely, and the Jethart axe of His title devolved in 1859 on his eldest son CURSETJEE, who, their invention-a steel axe on a 4-ft. pole-wrought havoc in by a special Act of the Viceroy's Council in pursuance of a their hands. provision in the letters-patent, took the name of Sir Jamsetjee “Jethart or Jeddart justice,” according to which a man was Jeejeebhoy as second baronet. - At his death in 1877 his eldest hanged first and tried afterwards, seems to have been a hasty son, MENEKJEE, became Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, the third generalization from a solitary fact--the summary execution in baronet. Both had the advantage of a good English education, James VI.'s reign of a gang of rogues at the instance of Sir and continued the career of benevolent activity and devoted George Home, but has nevertheless passed into a proverb. loyalty to British rule which had signalized the life-work of the Old Jeddart, 4 m. S. of the present town, the first site of the founder of the family. They both visited England to do homage burgh, is now marked by a few grassy mounds, and of the great to their sovereign; and their public services were recognized Jedburgh forest, only the venerable oaks, the “Capon Tree" and by their nomination to the order of the Star of India, as well the “King of the Woods” remain. Dunion Hill (1095 ft.), as by appointment to the Legislative Councils of Calcutta and about 2 m. south-west of Jedburgh, commands a fine view of Bombay. the capital of the county. On the death of the third baronet, the title devolved upon his JEEJEEBHOY (JIJIBHAI), SIR JAMSETJEE (JAMSETJI), brother, CowSAJEE (1853-1908), who became Sir Jamsetjee Bart. (1783-1859), Indian merchant and philanthropist, was Jeejeebhoy, fourth baronet, and the recognized leader of the born in Bombay in 1783, of poor but respectable parents, and Parsee community all over the world. He was succeeded by was left an orphan in early life. At the age of sixteen, with a his son RUSTOMJEE (b. 1878), who became Sir . Jamsetjee smattering of mercantile education and a báre pittance, he Jeejeebhoy, fifth baronet. commenced a series of business travels destined to lead him to Since their emigration from Persia, the Parsee community had fortune and fame. After a preliminary visit to Calcutta, he under- never had a titular chief or head, its communal funds and affairs took a voyage to China, then fraught with so much difficulty and being managed by a public body, more or less democratic in its risk that it was regarded as a venture betokening considerable constitution, termed the Parsee panchayat. The first Sir enterprise and courage; and he subsequently initiated a syste- Jamsetjee, by the hold that he established on the community, matic trade with that country, being himself the carrier of his by his charities and public spirit, gradually came to be regarded merchant wares on his passages to and fro between Bombay and in the light of its chief; and the recognition which he was the Canton and Shanghai. His second return voyage from China first in India to receive at the hands of the British sovereign was made in one of the East India Company's fleet, which, under finally fixed him and his successors in the baronetcy in the posi- the command of Sir Nathaniel Dance, defeated the French tion and title of the official Parsee leader. (M. M. Bh.) squadron under Admiral Linois (Feb. 15, 1804). On his JEFFERIES, RICHARD (1848-1887), English naturalist and fourth return voyage from China, the Indiaman in which he author, was born on the 6th of November 1848, at the farmhouse sailed was forced to surrender to the French, by whom he was of Coate about 2} m. from Swindon, on the road to Marlborough. carried as a prisoner to the Cape of Good Hope, then a neutral He was sent to school, first at Sydenham and then at Swindon, Dutch possession; and it was only after much delay, and with till the age of fifteen or so, but his actual education was at the great difficulty, that he made his way to Calcutta in a Danish hands of his father, who gave him his love for Nature and taught ship. Nothing daunted, he undertook yet another voyage to him how to observe. For the faculty of observation, as Jefferies, China, which was more successful than any of the previous ones. Gilbert White, and H. D. Thoreau have remarked, several giſts are By this time he had fairly established his reputation as a mer- necessary, including the possession of long sight and quick sight, chant possessed of the highest spirit of enterprise and consider- two things which do not always go together. To them must be able wealth, and thenceforward he settled down in Bombay, joined trained sight and the knowledge of what to expect. The where he directed his commercial operations on a widely extended boy's father first showed him what there was to look for in the scale. By 1836 his firm was large enough to engross the energies | hedge, in the field, in the trees, and in the sky. This kind of of his three sons and other relatives; and he had amassed what training would in many cases be wasted: to one who can under- at that period of Indian mercantile history was regarded as stand it, the book of Nature will by-and-by offer pages which are fabulous wealth. An essentially self-made man, having experi- blurred and illegible to the city-bred lad, and even to the country enced in early life the miseries of poverty and want, in his days lad the power of reading them must be maintained by constant of afluence Jamisetjee jeejeebhoy developed an active instinct | practice. To live amid streets or in the working world destroys JEFFERSON, J.-JEFFERSON, T. 301 a 6 it. The observer must live alone and always in the country; | superseded the old system of local stock companies. With the he must not worry himself about the ways of the world, he must exception of minor parts, such as the First Gravedigger in be always, from day to day, watching the infinite changes and Hamlet, which he played in an all star combination headed variations of Nature. Perhaps, even when the observer can by Edwin Booth, Jefferson created no new character after 1865; actually read this book of Nature, his power of articulate speech and the success of Rip Van Winkle was so pronounced that he may prove inadequate for the expression of what he sees. But has often been called a one-part actor. If this was a fault, it was Jefferies, as a boy, was more than an observer of the fields, he the public's, who never wearied of his one masterpiece. Jefferson was bookish, and read all the books that he could borrow or buy. died on the 23rd of April 1905. No man in his profession was And presently, as is apt to be the fate of a bookish boy who cannot more honoured for his achievements or his character. He was enter a learned profession, he became a journalist and obtained the friend of many of the leading men in American politics, art a post on the local paper. He developed literary ambitions, but and literature. He was an ardent fisherman and lover of nature, for a long time to come was as one beating the air He tried local and devoted to painting. Jefferson was twice married: to an history and novels; but his early novels, which were published actress, Margaret Clements Lockyer (1832–1861), in 1850, and in at his own risk and expense, were, deservedly, failures. In 1872, 1867 to Sarah Warren, niece of William Warren the actor. however, he published a remarkable letter in The Times, on Jefferson's Autobiography (New York, 1889) is written with admir- “The Wiltshire Labourer,” full of original ideas and of facts able spirit and humour, and its judgments with regard to the art new to most readers. This was in reality the turning point of the actor and of the playwright entitle it to a place beside Cibber's Apology, See William Winter, The Jeffersons (1881), and Life of in his career. In 1873, after more false starts, Jefferics Joseph Jefferson (1894); Mrs. E. P. Jefferson, Recollections of Joseph returned to his true field of work, the life of the country, Jefferson (1909). and began to write for Fraser's Magazine on “ Farming and JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826), third president of the Farmers.” He had now found himself. The rest of his United States of America, and the most conspicuous apostle of history is that of continual advance, from close observation democracy in America, was born on the 13th of April 1743, becoming daily more and more close, to that intimate com- at Shadwell, Albemarle county, Virginia. His father, Peter munion with Nature with which his later pages are filled. The Jefferson (1707-1757), of early Virginian yeoman stock, was a developments of the later period are throughout touched civil engineer and a man of remarkable energy, who became a with the melancholy that belongs to ill-health. For, though in justice of the peace, a county surveyor and a burgess, served the his prose poem called “ The Pageant of Summer ?? the writer Crown in inter-colonial boundary surveys, and married into one seems absolutely revelling in the strength of manhood that be- of the most prominent colonial families, the Randolphs. Albe- longs to that pageant, yet, in the Story of My Heart, written about marle county was then in the frontier wilderness of the Blue the same time, we detect the mind that is continually turned to Ridge, and was very different, socially, from the lowland counties death. He died at Goring, worn out with many ailments, on the where a few broad-acred families dominated an open-handed, 14th of August 1887. The best-known books of Richard Jefferies somewhat luxurious and assertive aristocracy. Unlike his are: The Gamekeeper at Home (1878); The Slory of My Heart Randolph connexions, Peter Jefferson was a whig and a thorough (1883); Life of the Fields (1884), containing the best paper he ever democrat; from him, and probably, too, from the Albemarle wrote, “ The Pageant of Summer"; Amaryllis at the Fair (1884), environment, his son came naturally by democratic inclinations. in which may be found the portraits of his own people; and The Jefferson carried with him from the college of William and Open Air. He stands among the scanty company of men who Mary at Williamsburg, in his twentieth year, a good knowledge address a small audience, for whom he read aloud these pages of of Latin, Greek and French (to which he soon added Spanish, Nature spoken of above, which only he, and the few like unto Italian and Anglo-Saxon), and a familiarity with the higher him, can decipher. mathematics and natural sciences only possessed, at his age, by See Sir Walter Besant, Eulogy of Richard Jefferies (1888); H. S. men who have a rare natural taste and ability for those studies. Salt, Richard Jefferies: a Study (1894); Edward Thomas, Richard He remained an ardent student throughout life, able to give and Jefferies, his Life and Work (1909). (W. Be.) take in association with the many scholars, American and foreign, JEFFERSON, JOSEPH (1829–1905), American actor, was born whom he numbered among his friends and correspondents, in Philadelphia on the 20th of February 1829. He was the third with a liberal Scotsman, Dr William Small, then of the faculty actor of this name in a family of actors and managers, and the of William and Mary and later a friend of Erasmus Darwin, and most famous of all American comedians. At the age of three he George Wythe (1726–1806), a very accomplished scholar and appeared as the boy in Kotzebue's Pizarro, and throughout his leader of the Virginia bar, Jefferson was an habitual member, youth he underwent all the hardships connected with theatrical while still in college, of a partie carrée at the table of Francis touring in those early days. After a miscellaneous experience, Fauquier (c. 1720-1768), the accomplished lieutenant-governor partly as actor, partly as manager, he won his first pronounced of Virginia. Jefferson was an expert violinist, a good singer and success in 1858 as Asa Trenchard in Tom Taylor's Our American dancer, proficient in outdoor sports, and an excellent horseman. Cousin at Laura Keene's theatre in New York. This play was Thorough-bred horses always remained to him a necessary the turning-point of his career, as it was of Sothern's. The luxury. When it is added that Fauquier was a passionate naturalness and spontaneity of humour with which he acted the gambler, and that the gentry who gathered every winter at love scenes revealed a spirit in comedy new to his contemporaries, Williamsburg, the seat of government of the province, were long used to a more artificial convention; and the touch of pathos ruinously addicted to the same weakness, and that Jefferson had which the part required revealed no less to the actor an unex- a taste for racing, it does credit to his early strength of character pected power in himself. Other early parts were Newman Noggs that of his social opportunities he took only the better. He in Nicholas Nickleby, Caleb Plummer in The Cricket on the Hearth, never used tobacco, never played cards, never gambled, and was Dr Pangloss in The Heir al Law, Salem Scudder in The Octoroon, never party to a personal quarrel. and Bob Acres in The Rivals, the last being not so much an inter- Soon after leaving college he entered Wythe's law office, and pretation of the character as Sheridan sketched it as a creation in 1767, after five years of close study, was admitted to the bar. of the actor's. In 1859 Jefferson made a dramatic version of the His thorough preparation enabled him to compete from the first story of Rip Van Winkle on the basis of older plays, and acted with the leading lawyers of the colony, and his success shows that it with success at Washington. The play was given its perma- the bar had no rewards that were not fairly within his reach. As nent form by Dion Boucicault in London, where (1865) it ran 170 an advocate, however, he did not shine; a weakness of voice made nights, with Jefferson in the leading part. Jefferson continued continued speaking impossible, and he had neither the ability to act with undiminished popularity in a limited number of parts nor the temperament for oratory. To his, legal scholarship and in nearly every town in the United States, his Rip Van Winkle, collecting zeal Virginia owed the preservation of a large part Bob Acres, and Caleb Plummer being the most popular. He was of her early statutes. He seems to have lacked interest in one of the first to establish the travelling combinations which I litigiousbess, which was extraordinarily developed in colonial a 302 JEFFERSON, T. in 1775. Virginia; and he saw and wished to reform the law's abuses. Continental Congress, taking with him fresh credentials of It is probable that he turned, therefore, the more willingly to radicalism in the shape of Virginia's answer, which he had politics; at any rate, soon after entering public life he abandoned drafted, to Lord North's conciliatory propositions. Jefferson practice (1774). soon drafted the reply of Congress to the same propositions. The death of his father had left him an estate of 1900 acres, the Reappointed to the next Congress, he signalized his service by income from which (about £400) gave him the position of an the authorship of the Declaration of Independence (4.v.). Again independent country gentleman; and while engaged in the law reappointed, he surrendered his seat, and after refusing a he had added to his farms after the ambitious Virginia fashion, proffered election to serve as a commissioner with Benjamin until, when he married in his thirtieth year, there were 5000 Franklin and Silas Deane in France, he entered again, in October acres all paid for; and almost as much more came to him in 1773 1776, the Virginia legislature, where he considered his services on the death of his father-in-law. On the ist of January 1772, most needed. Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton (1749–1782), a childless The local work to which Jefferson attributed such importance widow of twenty-three, very handsome, accomplished, and very was a revision of Virginia's laws. Of the measures proposed to fond of music. Their married life was exceedingly happy, and this end he says: “I considered four, passed or reported, as Jefferson never remarried after her early death. Of six children forming a system by which every trace would be eradicated born from their union, two daughters alone survived infancy. of ancient or future aristocracy, and a foundation laid for Jefferson was emotional and very affectionate in his home, and a government truly 'republican "-the repeal of the laws of his generous and devoted relations with his children and grand- entail; the abolition of primogeniture and the unequal children are among the finest features of his character. division of inheritances (Jefferson was himself an eldest son); Jefferson began his public service as a justice of the peace and the guarantee of freedom of conscience and relief of the people parish vestryman; he was chosen a member of the Virginia house from supporting, by taxation, an established church; and a of burgesses in 1769 and of every succeeding assembly and con- system of general education. The first object was embodied in vention of the colony until he entered the Continental Congress law in 1776, the second in 1785, the third ² in 1786 (supplemented His forceful, facile pen gave him great influence from 1799, 1801). The last two were parts of a body of codified laws the first; but though a foremost member of several great delibera- prepared (1776-1779) by Edmund Pendleton, George Wythe; tive bodies, he can fairly be said never to have made a speech. and Jefferson, and principally by Jefferson. Not so fortunate were He hated the “morbid rage of debate” because he believed that Jefferson's ambitious schemes of education. District, grammar men were never convinced by argument, but only by reflection, and classical schools, a free state library and a state college, were through reading or unprovocative conversation; and this belief all included in his plan. He was the first American statesman guided him through life. Moreover it is very improbable that to make education by the state a fundamental arti le of demo- he could ever have shone as a public speaker, and to this fact cratic faith. His bill for elementary education he regarded as unfriendly critics have attributed, at least in part, his abstention the most important part of the code, but Virginia had no strong from debate. The house of burgesses of 1769, and its successors middle class, and the planters would not assume the burden of in 1773 and 1774, were dissolved by the governor (see VIRGINIA) educating the poor. At this time Jefferson championed the for their action on the subject of colonial grievances and inter- natural right of expatriation, and gradual emancipation of the colonial co-operation. Jefferson was prominent in all; was a slaves. His earliest legislative effort, in the five-day session signer of the Virginia agreement of non-importation and economy of 1769, had been marked by an effort to secure to masters (1769); and was elected in 1774 to the first Virginia convention, freedom to manumit their slaves without removing them from called to consider the state of the colony and advance inter- the state. It was unsuccessful, and the more radical measure colonial union. Prevented by illness from attending, Jefferson he now favoured was even more impossible of attainment; but sent to the convention elaborate resolutions, which he proposed a bill he introduced to prohibit the importation of slaves was as instructions to the Virginia delegates to the Continental passed in 1778—the only important change effected in the slave Congress that was to meet at Philadelphia in September. In system of the state during the War of Independence. Finally the direct language of reproach and advice, with no disingenuous he endeavoured, though unsuccessfully, to secure the introduc- loading of the Crown's policy upon its agents, these resolutions tion of juries into the courts of chancery, and a generation and attacked the errors of the king, and maintained that“ the relation more before the fruition of the labours of Romilly and his co- between Great Britain and these colonies was exactly the same workers in England-aided in securing a humanitarian revision as that of England and Scotland after the accession of James and of the penal code, which, though lost by one vote in 1785, was until the Union; and that our emigration to this country gave sustained by public sentiment, and was adopted in 1796. Jeffer- England no more rights over us than the emigration of the Danes son is of course not entitled to the sole credit for all these and Saxons gave to the present authorities of their mother services: Wythe, George Mason and James Madison, in parti. country over England.” This was cutting at the common root cular, were his devoted lieutenants, and after his departure of allegiance, emigration and colonization; but such radicalism for France--the principals in the struggle; moreover, an approv: was ioo thorough-going for the immediate end. The resolutions ing public opinion must receive large credit. But Jefferson was were published, however, as a pamphlet, entitled A Summary throughout the chief inspirer and foremost worker. View of the Rights of America, which was widely circulated. In In 1779, at almost the gloomiest stage of the war in the southern England, after receiving such modifications-attributed to states, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as the governor of Burke-as adapted it to the purposes of the opposition, this Virginia, being the second to hold that office after the organiza- pamphlet ran through many editions, and procured for its author, tion of the state government. In his second term (1780-1781) as he said, “ the honour of having his name inserted in a long the state was overrun by British expeditions, and Jefferson, a list of proscriptions enrolled in a bill of attainder commenced in civilian, was blamed for the ineffectual resistance. Though he one of the two houses of parliament, but suppressed in embryo cannot be said to have been eminently fitted vor the task that by the hasty course of events.” It placed Jefferson among the devolved upon him in such a crisis, most of the criticism of his foremost leaders of revolution, and procured for him the honour of drafting, later, the Declaration of Independence, whose ? The first law of its kind in Christendom, although not the earliest historical portions were, in large part, only a revised transcript practice of such liberty in America. George Mason and Thomas L. Lee were members of the commis. of the Summary Vicw. In June 1775 he took his seat in the sion, but they were not lawyers, and did little actual work on the revision. "It was embarrassed with a debt, however, of £3749, which, * Capital punishment was confined to treason and murder; the owing to conditions caused by the War of Independence, he really former was not to be attended by corruption of blood, drawing, or paid three times to his British creditors (not counting destruction quartering: all other fclonics were made punishable by confinement on his estates, of equal amount, ordered by Lord Cornwallis). This and hard labour, save a few to which was applied, agaiisst Jefferson's greatly reduced his income for a number of years. desire. the principle of retaliation. JEFFERSON, T. 303 administration was undoubtedly grossly unjust. His conduct supports, that Jefferson's morals were pure. His religious views being attacked, he declined renomination for the governorship, and political beliefs will be discussed later. His theories had a but was unanimously returned by Albemarle as a delegate to the deep and broad basis in English whiggism; and though he may state legislature; and on the day previously set for legislative well have found at least confirmation of his own ideas in French inquiry on a resolution offered by an impulsive critic, he received, writers and notably in Condorcet-he did not read sympa- by unanimous vote of the house, a declaration of thanks and thetically the writers commonly named, Rousseau and Montes- confidence. He wished however to retire permanently from quieu; besides, his democracy was seasoned, and he was rather public life, a wish strengthened by the illness and death of his a teacher than a student of revolutionary politics when he went wife. At this time he composed his Notes on Virginia, a semi- to Paris. The Notes on Virginia were widely read in Paris, and statistical work full of humanitarian liberalism. Congress twice undoubtedly had some influence in forwarding the dissolution offered him an appointment as one of the plenipotentiaries to of the doctrines of divine rights and passive obedience among negotiate peace with England, but, though he accepted the the cultivated classes of France. Jefferson was deeply interested second offer, the business was so far advanced before he could in all the events leading up to the French Revolution, and all his sail that his appointment was recalled. During the following ideas were coloured by his experience of the five seething years winter (1783) he was again in Congress, and headed the committee passed in Paris. On the 3rd of June 1789 he proposed to the appointed to consider the treaty of peace. In the succeeding leaders of the third estate a compromise between the king and session his service was marked by a report, from which resulted the nation. In July he received the extraordinary honour of the present monetary system of the United States (the funda- being invited to assist in the deliberations of the committee mental idea of its decimal basis being due, however, to Gouverneur appointed by the national assembly to draft a constitution. Morris); and by the honour of reporting the first definitely | This honour his official position compelled him, of course, to formulated plan for the government of the western territories,' decline; for he sedulously observed official proprieties, and that embodied in the ordinance of 1784. He was already in no way gave offence to the government to which he was particularly associated with the great territory north-west of the accredited. Ohio; for Virginia had tendered to Congress in 1781, while When Jefferson left France it was with the intention of soon Jefferson was governor, a cession of her claims to it, and now in returning; but President Washington tendered him the secretary- 1784 formally transferred the territory by act of Jefferson and ship of state in the new federal government, and Jefferson his fellow delegates in congress: a consummation for which he reluctantly accepted. His only essential objection to the consti- had laboured from the beginning. His anti-slavery opinions tution-the absence of a bill of rights--was soon met, at least grew in strength with years (though he was somewhat inconsis- partially, by amendments. Alexander Hamilton (q.v.) was tent in his attitude on the Missouri question in 1820–1821). Not secretary of the treasury. These two men, antipodal in tempera- only justice but patriotism as well pleaded with him the cause of ment and political belief, clashed in irreconcilable hostility, and the negroes,? for he foresaw the certainty that the race must some in the conflict of public sentiment, first on the financial measures day, in some way, be freed, and the dire political dangers involved of Hamilton, and then on the questions with regard to France in the institution of slavery; and could any feasible plan of and Great Britain, Jefferson's sympathies being predominantly emancipation have been suggested he would have regarded its with the former, Hamilton's with the latter, they formed about cost as a mere bagatelle. themselves the two great parties of Democrats and Federal- From 1784 to 1789 Jefferson was in France, first under an ists. The schools of thought for which they stood have appointment to assist Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in since contended for mastery in American politics: Hamilton's negotiating treaties of commerce with European states, and then gradually strengthened by the necessities of stronger administra- as Franklin's successor (1785-1789) as minister to France. In tion, as time gave widening amplitude and increasing weight to these years he travelled widely in western Europe. Though the the specific powers—and so to Hamilton's great doctrine of commercial principles of the United States were far too liberal the “ implied powers ”-of the general government of a growing for acceptance, as such, by powers holding colonies in America, country; Jefferson's rooted in colonial life, and buttressed by Jefferson won some specific concessions to American trade. He the hopes and convictions of democracy. was exceedingly popular as a minister. The criticism is even The most perplexing questions treated by Jefferson as secre- to-day current with the uninformed that Jefferson took his tary of state arose out of the policy of neutrality adopted by the manners," morals, “irreligion” and political philosophy from his United States toward France, to whom she was bound by treaties French residence; and it cannot 'be wholly ignored. It may and by a heavy debt of gratitude. Separation from European therefore be said that there is nothing except unsubstantiated politics—the doctrine of " America for Americans” that was scandal to contradict the conclusion, which various evidence embodied later in the Monroe declaration-was a tenet cherished 1 This plan applied to the south-western as well as to the north by Jefferson as by other leaders (not, however, Hamilton) and western territory, and was notable for a provision that slavery by none cherished more firmly, for by nature he was peculiarly should not exist therein after 1800. This provision was defeated opposed to war, and peace was a fundamental part of his politics. in 1784, but was adopted in 1787 for the north-western territory-a step which is very often said to have saved the Union in the Civil However deep, therefore, his French sympathies, he drew the War; the south-western territory (out of which were later formed same safe line as did Washington between French politics and Mississippi, Alabama, &c.) being given over to slavery. Thus the American politics, and handled the Genet complications to the anti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1784, was not adopted; and satisfaction of even the most partisan Federalists. He expounded, it was preceded by unofficial proposals to the same end; yet to it belongs rightly some special honour as blazoning the way for federal as a very high authority has said," with remarkable clearness control of slavery in the territories, which later proved of such and power the nature and scope of neutral duty,” and gave a enormous consequence. Jefferson in the first draft of the Ordinance “ classic” statement of the doctrine of recognition. of 1784, suggested the names to be given to the states eventually But the French question had another side in its reaction on to be formed out of the territory concerned. For his suggestions he has been much ridiculed. The names are as follows: Illinoia, American parties.? Jefferson did not read excesses in Paris as Michigaria, Sylvania, Polypotamia, Assenisipia, Charronesus, warnings against democracy, but as warnings against the abuses Pelisipia, Saratoga, Metropotamia and Washington. ? He owned at one time above 150 slaves. His overseers were • Jefferson did not sympathize with the temper of his followers under contract never to bleed them; but he manumitted only a few who condoned the zealous excesses of Genet, and in general with the at his death. " misbehaviour of the democratic clubs; but, as a student of Eng- During this time he assisted in negotiating a treaty of amity lish liberties, he could not accept Washington's doctrine that for a and commerce with Prussia (1785) and one with Morocco (1789), self-created permanent body to declare " this act unconstitutional, and negotiated with France a convention defining and establishing and that act pregnant with mischiefs was "a stretch of arrogant the functions and privileges of consuls and vice-consuls" (1788). presumption which would, if unchecked, " destroy the country." * Patrick Henry humorously declaimed before a popular audience 6 John Basset Moore, American Diplomacy (New York, 1905). that Jefferson, whofayoured French wine and cookery, had" abjured * Compare C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American opinion of the his native victuals." French Revolution (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1897). 9 1. ) 304 JEFFERSON, T. 66 of monarchy; nor did he regard Bonaparte's coup d'étal as newspapers;. and Washington abandoned perforce his idea “ if revealing the weakness of republics, but rather as revealing parties did exist to reconcile them." Partly from discontent the danger of standing armies; he did not look on the war of with a position in which he did not feel that he enjoyed the abso- the coalitions against France as one of mere powers, but as one lute confidence of the president, and partly because of the between forms of government; and though the immediate fruits embarrassed condition of his private affairs, Jefferson repeatedly of the Revolution belied his hopes, as they did those of ardent sought to resign, and finally on the 31st of December 1793, with humanitarians the world over, he saw the broad trend of history, Washington's reluctant consent, gave up his portfolio and retired which vindicated his faith that a successful reformation of to his home at Monticello, near Charlottesville. government in France would insure a general reformation Here he remained improving his estate (having refused a through Europe, and the resurrection to a new life of their foreign mission) until elected vice-president in 1796. Jefferson people." Each of se statements could be reversed as regards was never truly happy except in the country. He loved garden- Hamilton. It is the key to an understanding of the times to ing, experimented enthusiastically in varieties and rotations of remember that the War of Independence had disjointed society; crops and kept meteorological tables with diligence. For eight and democracy–which Jefferson had proclaimed in the Declara- years he tabulated with painful accuracy the earliest and latest tion of Independence, and enthroned in Virginia-after strength- appearance of thirty-seven vegetables in the Washington market. ening its rights by the sword, had run to excesses, particularly in When abroad he sought out varieties of grasses, trees, rice and the Shays' rebellion, that produced a conservative reaction. To olives for American experiment, and after his return from this reaction Hamilton explicitly appealed in the convention of France received yearly for twenty-threc years, from his old friend 1787; and of this reaction various features of the constitution, the superintendent of the Jardin des plantes, a box of seeds, and Hamiltonian federalism generally, were direct fruits. which he distributed to public and private gardens throughout Moreover, independently of special incentives to the alarmist the United States. Jefferson seems to have been the first dis- and the man of property, the opinions of many Americans coverer of an exact formula for the construction of mould-boards turned again, after the war, into a current of sympathy for of least resistance for ploughs. He managed to make practical England, as naturally as American commerce returned to English use of his calculus about his farms, and seems to have been re- ports. Jefferson, however, far from America in these years markably apt in the practical application of mechanical principles. and unexposed to reactionary influences, came back with un- In the presidential election of 1796 John Adams, the Federalist diminished fervour of democracy, and the talk he heard of praise candidate, received the largest number of electoral votes, and for England, and fearful recoil before even the beginning of the Jefferson, the Republican candidate, the next largest number, revolution in France, disheartened him, and filled him with and under the law as it then existed the former became president suspicion. Hating as he did feudal class institutions and and the latter vice-president. Jefferson re-entered public life Tudor-Stuart traditions of arbitrary rule,2 his attitude can be with reluctance, though doubtless with keen enough interest and imagined toward Hamilton's oft-avowed partialities—and resolution. He had rightly measured the strength of his followers, Jefferson assumed, his intrigues-for British class-government and was waiting for the government to“ drift into unison with with its eighteenth-century measure of corruption. In short, the republican sense of its constituents, predicting that President Hamilton took from recent years the lesson of the evils, of lax Adams would be “overborne" thereby. This prediction was government; whereas Jefferson clung to the other lesson, which speedily fulfilled. At first the reign of terror and the X. Y. Z. crumbling colonial governments had illustrated, that govern- disclosures strengthened the Federalists, until these, mistaking ments derived their strength (and the Declaration had proclaimed the popular resentment against France for a reaction against that they derived their just rights) from the will of the governed. democracy-an equivalence in their own minds-passed the alien Each built his system accordingly: the one on the basis of order, and sedition laws. In answer to those odious measures Jefferson the other on individualism-which led Jefferson to liberty alike and Madison prepared and procured the passage of the Kentucky in religion and in politics. The two men and the fate of the and Virginia resolutions. These resolutions later acquired extra-, parties they led are understandable only by regarding one as the ordinary and pernicious prominence in the historical elaboration leader of reaction, the other as in line with the American tenden- of the states’-rights doctrine. It is, however, unquestionably cies. The educated classes characteristically furnished Federal- true, that as a startling protest against measures to silence," ism with a remarkable body of alarmist leaders, and thus it in Jefferson's words,“ by force and not by reason the com- happened that Jefferson, because, with only a few of his great plaints or criticisms, just or unjust, of our citizens against the, contemporaries, he had a thorough trust and confidence in the conduct of our agents," they served, in this respect, a useful people, became the idol of American democracy. purpose; and as a counterblast against Hamiltonian principles As Hamilton was somewhat officious and very combative, and of centralization they were probably, at that moment, very Jefferson, although uncontentious, very suspicious and quite salutary; while even as pieces of constitutional interpretation independent, both men holding inflexibly to opinions, cabinet it is to be remembered that they did not contemplate nullifica- harmony became impossible when the two secretaries had formed tion by any single state, and, moreover, are not to be judged by parties about them and their differences were carried into the constitutional principles established later by courts and war. ? It was at this period of his life that Jefferson gave expression The Federalist party had ruined itself, and it lost the presidential to some of the opinions for which he has been most severely election of 1800. The Republican candidates, Jefferson and criticized and ridiculed. For the Shays' rebellion he felt little abhor- rence, and wrote: “ A little rebellion now and then is a good thing House of Representatives, in accordance with the system which Aaron Burr (q.v.), receiving equal votes, it devolved upon the ... an observation of this truth should render honest republican governors so mild in their punishment of rebellions as not to dis- then obtained, to make one of the two president, the other vice- courage them too much. It is a medicine necessary for the sound president. Party feeling in America has probably never been health of government” (Writings, Ford ed., iv. 362-363). Again, more dangerously impassioned than in the three years preceding "Can history produce an instance of rebellion so honorably con- ducted ? ... God forbid that we should ever be twenty years 3 Hamilton wrote for the papers himself; Jefferson never did. without such a rebellion. ... What signify a few lives lost in a A talented clerk in his department, however, Philip Frencau, set up century or two? The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time an anti-administration paper. It was alleged that Jefferson ap- to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants... It is its natural pointed him for the purpose, and encouraged him. Undoubtedly (Ibid. iv. 467). Again he says: "Societies exist under there was nothing in the charge. The Federalist outcry could only three forms(1) without government, as among our Indians; (2) have been silenced by removal of Freneau, or by disclaimers or under governments wherein the will of every one has a just in- admonitions, which Jefferson did not think it incumbent upon fluence. (3) under governments of force. . It is a problem not himself-or, since he thought Freneau was doing good, desirable for clear in my mind that the first condition is not the best.' (Ibid. him--to make. iv. 362.) • Contrary to the general belief that Hamilton dominated Washing. : He turned law students from Blackstone's toryism to Coke on ton in the cabinet, there is the president's explicit statement that Littleton; and he would not read Walter Scott, so strong was his " there were as many instances of his deciding against as in favour aversion to that writer's predilection for class and feudalism. of the secretary of the treasury. 1 ) 11 manure JEFFERSON, T. 305 66 this election; discount as one will the contrary obsessions of ducted their famous exploring expedition across the continent to men like Fisher Ames, Hamilton and Jefferson, the time was the Pacific (see LEWIS, MERIWETHER). Early in his term he fateful. Unable to induce Burr to avow Federalist principles, carried out a policy he had urged upon the government when influential Federalists, in defiance of the constitution, contem- minister to France and when vice-president, by dispatching plated the desperate alternative of preventing an election, and naval forces to coerce Tripoli into a decent respect for the trade appointing an extra-constitutional (Federalist) president pro of his country—the first in Christendom to gain honourable im- tempore. Better counsels, however, prevailed; Hamilton used munity from tribute or piracy in the Mediterranean. The his influence in favour of Jefferson as against Burr, and Jefferson Louisiana Purchase, although the greatest “inconsistency" of became president, entering upon his duties on the 4th of March his career, was also an illustration, in corresponding degree, of 1801. Republicans who had affiliated with the Federalists at his essential practicality, and one of the greatest proofs of his the time of the X. Y Z. disclosures returned, very many of the statesmanship. It was the crowning achievement of his adminis- Federalists themselves Jefferson placated and drew over. Be-tration. It is often said that Jefferson established the “spoils lieving," he wrote, that (excepting the ardent monarchists) all system” by his changes in the civil service. He was the inno- our citizens agreed in ancient whig principles "-or, as he else-vator, because for the first time there was opportunity for inno- where expressed it, in “republican forms "_“I thought it vation. But mere justice requires attention to the fact that advisable to define and declare them, and let them see the ground incentive to that innovation, and excuse for it, were found in the on which we can rally.” This he did in his inaugural, which, absolute one-party monopoly maintained by the Federalists. though somewhat rhetorical, is a splendid and famous statement Moreover, Jefferson's ideals were high; his reasons for changes of democracy! His conciliatory policy produced a mild schism were in general excellent; he at least so far resisted the great in his own party, but proved eminently wise, and the state pressure for office-producing by his resistance dissatisfaction elections of 1801 fulfilled his prophecy of 1791 that the policy of within his party—as not to have lowered, apparently, the per- the Federalists would leave them all head and no body.” In sonnel of the service; and there were no such blots on his adminis- 1804 he was re-elected by 162 out of 176 votes. tration as President Adams's“ midnight judges.” Nevertheless, Jefferson's administrations were distinguished by the simplicity his record here was not clear of blots, showing a few regrettable that marked his conduct in private life. He eschewed the pomp inconsistencies. Among important but secondary measures of and ceremonies, natural inheritances from English origins, that his second administration were the extinguishment of Indian had been an innocent setting to the character of his two noble titles, and promotion of Indian emigration to lands beyond the predecessors. His dress was of “plain cloth” on the day of his Mississippi; reorganization of the militia; fortification of the inauguration. Instead of driving to the Capitol in a coach and seaports; reduction of the public debt; and a simultaneous six, he walked without a guard or servant from his lodgings-or, reduction of taxes. But his second term derives most of its as a rival tradition has it, he rode, and hitched his horse to a historical interest from the unsuccessful efforts to convict Aaron neighbouring fence--attended by a crowd of citizens. Instead of Burr of treasonable acts in the south-west, and from the efforts opening Congress with a speech to which a formal reply was made to maintain, without war, the rights of neutrals on the expected, he sent in a written message by a private hand. He high seas. In his diplomacy with Napoleon and Great Britain discontinued the practice of sending ministers abroad in public Jefferson betrayed a painful incorrigibility of optimism. A vessels. Between himself and the governors of states he recog- national policy of “growling before fighting”-later practised nized no difference in rank. He would not have his birthday successfully enough by the United States--was not then pos- celebrated by state balls. The weekly levée was practically sible; and one writer has very justly said that what chiefly abandoned. Even such titles as “ Excellency,” “Honourable,” affects one in the whole matter is the pathos of it—"a philo- Mr were distasteful to him. It was formally agreed in cabinet sopher and a friend of peace struggling with a despot of super- meeting that “when brought together in society, all are perfectly human genius, and a Tory cabinet of superhuman insolence equal, whether foreign or domestic, titled or untitled, in or out and stolidity” (Trent). It is possible to regard the embargo of office." Thus diplomatic grades were ignored in social pre- policy dispassionately as an interesting illustration of Jefferson's cedence and foreign relations were seriously compromised by love of peace. The idea-a very old one with Jefferson--was dinner-table complications. One minister who appeared in not entirely original; in essence it received other attempted gold lace and dress sword for his first, and regularly appointed, applications in the Napoleonic period—and especially in the official call on the president, was received-as he insisted with continental blockade. Jefferson's statesmanship had the limita- studied purpose-by Jefferson in negligent undress and slippers tions of an agrarian outlook. The extreme to which he carried down at the heel. All this was in part premeditated system?_a his advocacy of diplomatic isolation, his opposition to the part of Jefferson's purpose to republicanize the government creation of an adequate navy,“ his estimate of cities as “sores and public opinion, which was the distinguishing feature of his upon the body politic,” his prejudice against manufactures, administration; but it was also simply the nature of the man. In trust in farmers, and political distrust of the artisan class, all the company he chose by preference, honesty and knowledge reflect them. were his only tests. He knew absolutely no social distinctions in When, on the 4th of March 1809, Jefferson retired from the his willingness to perform services for the deserving. He held up presidency, he had been almost continuously in the public to his daughter as an especial model the family of a poor but service for forty years. He refused to be re-elected for a third gifted mechanic as one wherein she would see “ the best examples time, though requested by the legislatures of five states to be a of rational living." "If it be possible,” he said, " to be certainly candidate; and thus, with Washington's prior example, helped conscious of anything, I am conscious of feeling no difference 3 See C. R. Fish, The Civil Service and the Patronage (Harvard between writing to the highest and lowest being on earth.” Historical Studies, New York, 1905), ch. 2. Jefferson's first administration was marked by a reduction of * Jefferson's dislike of a navy was due to his desire for an economi- the army, navy, diplomatic establishment and, to the uttermost, expressed a desire to lay up the larger men of war in the eastern cal administration and for peace. Shortly after his inauguration he of governmental expenses; some reduction of the civil service, branch of the Potomac, where they would require only one set accompanied by a large shifting of offices to Republicans; and, of plunderers to take care of them." To Thomas Paine he wrote above all, by the Louisiana Purchase (q.v.), following which in 1807: “I believe that gunboats are the only water defence which Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, sent by Jefferson, con- can be useful to us and protect us from the ruinous folly of a navy.' (Works, Ford ed., ix. 137.) The gunboats desired by Jefferson See also Jefferson to E. Gerry, 26th of January 1799 (Writings, were small, cheap, craft equipped with one or two guns and kept on vii. 325), and to Dupont de Nemours (x. 23). Ct. Hamilton to shore under sheds until actually needed, when they were to be J, Dayton, 1799 (Works, x. 329). launched and manned by a sort of naval militia. A large number ? In 1786 he suggested to James Monroe that the society of of these boats were constructed and they afforded some protection friends he hoped to gather in Albemarle might, in sumptuary to coasting vessels against privateers, but in bad weather, or when matters, set a good example" to a country (i.e. Virginia) that employed against a frigate, they were worse than useless, and “ needed "it. Jefferson's "gunboat system was admittedly a failure. 2a XV 6 4 " ) 306 JEFFERSON, T. to establish a precedent deemed by him to be of great impor- | by appealing to the reason of voters; that by education their tance under a democratic government. His influence seemed ignorance can be eliminated; that human nature is indefinitely scarcely lessened in his retirement. Madison and Monroe, his perfectible; that majorities rule, therefore, not only by virtue immediate successors-neighbours and devoted friends, whom he of force (which was Locke's ultimate justification of them), but had advised in their early education and led in their maturer of right." His importance as a maker of modern America can years—consulted him on all great questions, and there was no scarcely be overstated, for the ideas be advocated have become break of principles in the twenty-four years of the “ Jeffersonian the very foundations of American republicanism. His ad- system." Jefferson was one of the greatest political managers ministration ended the possibility, probability or certainty- his country has known. He had a quick eye for character, was measure it as one will-of the development of Federalism in the genuinely amiable, uncontentious, tactful, masterful; and it direction of class government; and the party he formed, inspired may be assumed from his success that he was wary or shrewd to by the creed he gave it, fixed the democratic future of the a degree. It is true, moreover, that, unless tested by a few nation. And by his own labours he had vindicated his faith unchanging principles, his acts were often strikingly inconsis- | in the experiment of self-government. tent; and even when so tested, not infrequently remain so in Jefferson's last years were devoted to the establishment of appearance. Full explanations do not remove from some impor- the university of Virginia at Charlottesville, near his home. tant transactions in his political life an impression of indirect- He planned the buildings, gathered its faculty-mainly from .ness. But reasonable judgment must find very unjust the stigma abroad--and shaped its organization. Practically all the great of duplicity put upon him by the Federalists. Measured by the ideas of aim, administration and curriculum that dominated records of other men equally successful as political leaders, American universities at the end of the 19th century were antici- there seems little of this nature to criticize severely. Jefferson pated by him. He hoped that the university might be a domi. had the full courage of his convictions. Extreme as were his nant influence in national culture, but circumstances crippled it. principles, his pertinacity in adhering to them and his indepen-His educational plans had been maturing in his mind since 1776. dence of expression were quite as extreme. There were philo- His financial affairs in these last years gave him grave concern. sophic and philanthropic elements in his political faith which His fine library of over 10,000 volumes was purchased at a low will always lead some to class him as a visionary and fanatic; price by Congress in 1815, and a national contribution ($16,500) but although he certainly indulged at times in dreams at which just before his death enabled him to die in peace. Though not one may still smile, he was not, properly speaking, a visionary; personally extravagant, his salary, and the small income from nor can he with justice be stigmatized as a fanatic. He felt his large estates, never sufficed to meet his generous maintenance fervently, was not afraid to risk all on the conclusions to which of his representative position; and after his retirement from his heart and his mind led him, declared himself with openness public life the numerous visitors to Monticello consumed the and energy; and he spoke and even wrote his conclusions, how remnants of his property. He died on the 4th of July 1826, the ever bold or abstract, without troubling to detail his reasoning fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, on the or clip his off-hand speculations. Certain it is that there is same day as John Adams. He chose for his tomb the epitaph: much in his utterances for a less robust democracy than his own “Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration to cavil at. Soar, however, as he might, he was essentially not of American Independence, of the statute of Virginia for reli- a doctrinaire, but an empiricist; his mind was objective. Though gious freedom, and father of the university of Virginia." he remained, to the end, firm in his belief that there had been an active monarchist party, this obsession did not carry him sinewy. He had angular features, a very ruddy complexion, sandy Jefferson was about 6 ft. in height, large-boned, slim, erect and out of touch with the realities of human nature and of his hair, and hazel-flecked, grey eyes. Age lessened the unattractive- time. He built with surety on the colonial past, and had a ness of his exterior. In later years he was negligent in dress and better reasoned view of the actual future than had any of his loose in bearing. There was grace, nevertheless, in his manners; and his frank and earnest address, his quick sympathy. (yet he contemporaries. seemed cold to strangers), his vivacious, desultory, informing talk, Events soon appraised the ultra-Federalist judgment of Ameri- gave him an engaging charm. Beneath a quiet surface he was fairly can democracy, so tersely expressed by Fisher Ames as “like aglow with intense convictions and a very emotional temperament. death . . . only the dismal passport to a moie dismal hereafter”; Yet he seems to have acted habitually, in great and little things, and, with it, appraised Jefferson's word in his first inaugural was the most impressible, the most receptive, mind of his time in on system. His mind, no less trenchant and subtle than Hamilton's, for those who, “in the full tide of successful experiment,” | America. The range of his interests is remarkable. For many years were ready to abandon a government that had so far kept he was president of the American philosophical society. Though it is them “ free and firm, on the visionary fear that it might by a biographical tradition that he lacked wit, Molière and Don Quixote possibility lack energy to preserve itself.” Time soon tested, crowds romanticism out of his writings, he had enough of that seem to have been his favourites; and though the utilitarian wholly too, his principle that that government must prove the strongest quality in youth to prepare to learn Gaelic in order to translate on earth “where every man ... would meet invasions of the Ossian, and sent to Macpherson for the originals! His interest public order as his own personal concern.” He summed up as in art was evidently intellectual. He was singularly sweet-tempered, follows the difference between himself and the Hamiltonian about him; bore with relative equanimity a flood of coarse and and shrank from the impassioned political bitterness that raged group: One feared most the ignorance of the people; the malignant abuse of his motives, morals, religion,- personal honesty other the selfishness of rulers independent of them.” Jefferson, and decency; cherished very few personal animosities; and better in short, had unlimited faith in the honesty of the people; a than any of his great antagonists cleared political opposition of ill. blooded personality. In short, his kindness of heart rose above all large faith in their common sense; believed that all is to be won social, religious or political differences, and nothing destroyed his confidence in men and his sanguine views of life. "See e.g. his letters in 1787 on the Shays' rebellion, and his specula- AUTHORITIES.-See the editions of Jefferson's Writings by H. A. tions on the doctrine that one generation may not bind another Washington (9 vols., New York, 1853-1854), and the best-by Paul by paper documents. With the latter may be compared present- day movements like the initiative and referendum, and not a few 3." Jefferson, in 1789, wrote some such stuff about the will of discussions of national debts. Jefferson's distrust of governments majorities, as a New Englander would lose his rank among men of was nothing exceptional for a consistent individualist. sense to avow."-Fisher Ames (Jan. 1800). ? In his last years he carefully siſted and revised his contemporary + He was classed as a “ French infidel" and atheist. His attitude notes evidencing, as he believed, the existence of such a party, and toward religion was in fact deeply reverent and sincere, but he they remain as his Ana (chicfly Hamiltoniana). The only just insisted that religion was purely an individual matter, evidenced, judgment of these notes is to be obtained by looking at them, as concerns the world by each one's daily life," and demanded and by testing his suspicions with the letters of Hamilton, Ames, absolute freedom of private judgment. He looked on Unitarianism Oliver Wolcott, Theodore Sedgwick, George Cabot and the other with much sympathy and desired its growth. "I am a Christian, Hamiltonians. Such a comparison measures also the relative he wrote in 1823, " in the only sense in which he (Jesus) wished any judgment, temper and charity of these writers and Jefferson. It one to be; sincerely attached to his doctrines in preference to all must still remain true, however, that Jefferson's Ana present him others; ascribing to himself every human excellence, and believing in a far from engaging light. he never claimed any other." ") 1 JEFFERSON CITY-JEFFREY, LORD 307 crats. Leicester Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892–1899); letters in Massachu- good water power for manufacturing purposes both at Jefferson- setts Historical Society, Collections, series 7, yol. i.; S. E. Forman, ville and at Louisville. The total value of the factory product The Letters and Writings of Thomas Jefferson, includingall his Important Utterances on Public Questions (1900); J. P. Foley, The Jefferson in 1905 was $4,526,443, an increase of 20 % since 1900. The Cyclopaedia (New York, 1900); the Memoir, Correspondence, &c., Indiana reformatory (formerly the Southern Indiana peniten- by T.J. Randolph (4 vols., Charlottesville, Va., 1829); biographies by tiary) and a large supply dépôt of the United States army are at James Schouler (Makers of America Series," New York, 1893); Jeffersonville. General George Rogers Clark started (June 24, John T. Morse (" American Statesmen Series," Boston, 1883), George Tucker (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1837): James Parton (Boston, 1778) on his expedition against Kaskaskia and Vincennes from 1874); and especially that by Henry S. Randall (3 vols., New York, Corn Island (now completely washed away) opposite what is 1853): a monumental work, although marred by some special now Jeffersonville. In 1786 the United States government pleading, and sharing Jefferson's implacable opinions of the Mong established Fort Finney (built by Captain Walter Finney), after- See also Henry Adams, History of the United States 1801-1817: wards re-named Fort Steuben, on the site of the present city; vols. 1-4 (New York, 1889-1890); Herbert B. Adams, Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia (U. S. bureau of education, but the fort was abandoned in 1791, and the actual beginning Washington, 1888); Sarah N. Randolph, Domestic Life of Thomas of Jeffersonville was in 1802, when'a part of the Clark grant Jefferson (New York, 1871); and an illuminating appreciation by W. P. Trent, in his Southern Slatesmen of the Old Régime (New York, | (the site of the present city) was transferred by its original 1897); that by John Fiske, Essays, Historical and Literary, vol. i. owner, Lieut. Isaac Bowman, to three trustees, under whose (New York, 1902), has slighter merits. (F.S. P.) direction a town was laid out. Jeffersonville was incorporated as a town in 1815, and was chartered as a city in 1839. JEFFERSON CITY (legally and officially the City of Jefferson), JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY, LORD (1773-1850), Scottish the capital of Missouri, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Cole judge and literary critic, son of a depute-clerk in the Court of county, on the Missouri river, near the geographical centre of the Session, was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of October 1773. state, about 125 m. W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 6742; (1900), After attending the high school for six years, he studied at the 9664, of whom 786 were foreign-born and 1822 were negroes; university of Glasgow from 1787 to May 1789, and at Queen's (1910 census), 11,850. It is served by the Missouri Pacific, College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. He had the Chicago & Alton, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford, railways. Its site is partly in the bottom-lands of the river and and now resumed his studies there. He became a member of partly on the steep banks at an elevation of about 600 ft. above the speculative society, where he measured himself in debate the sea. A steel bridge spans the river. The state capitol, an with Scott, Brougham, Francis Horner, the marquess of Lans- imposing structure built on a bluff above the river, was built in downe, Lord Kinnaird and others. He was admitted to the 1838-1842 and enlarged in 1887-1888; it was first occupied in Scotch bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned the Tory 1840 by the legislature, which previously had met (after 1837) principles in which he had been educated, he found that his in the county court house. Other prominent buildings are the Whig politics seriously prejudiced his legal prospects. In conse- United States court house and post office, the state supreme court quence of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in house, the county court house, the state penitentiary, the state 1798 to try his fortune as a journalist, but without success; he armoury and the executive mansion. The penitentiary is to a also made more than one vain attempt to obtain an office which large extent self-supporting; in 1903-1904 the earnings were would have secured him the advantage of a small but fixed $3493.80 in excess of the costs, but in 1904-1906 the costs salary. His marriage with Catherine Wilson in 1801 made the exceeded the earnings by $9044. Employment is furnished for question of a settled income even more pressing. A project for a the convicts on the pentitentiary premises by incorporated new review was brought forward by Sydney Smith in Jeffrey's flat companies. The state law library here is one of the best of in the presence of H. P. Brougham (afterwards Lord Brougham), the kind in the country, and the city has a public library. Francis Horner and others; and the scheme resulted in the In the city is Lincoln Institute, a school for negroes, founded appearance on the roth of October 1802 of the first number of the in 1866 by two regiments of negro infantry upon their discharge Edinburgh Review. At the outset the Review was not under from the United States army, opened in 1868, taken over the charge of any special editor. The first three numbers were, by the state in 1879, and having sub-normal, normal, college, however, practically edited by Sydney Smith, and on his leaving industrial and agricultural courses. Coal and limestone are for England the work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an , found near the city. In 1905 the total value of the factory arrangement with Constable, the publisher, was eventually product was $3,926,632, an increase of 28.2% since 1900. appointed editor at a fixed salary. Most of those associated in The original constitution of Missouri prescribed that the capital the undertaking were Whigs; but, although the general bias of should be on the Missouri river within 40 m. of the mouth the Review was towards social and political reforms, it was at of the Osage, and a commission selected in 1821 the site of first so little of a party organ that for a time it numbered Sir Jefferson City, on which a town was laid out in 1822, the name Walter Scott among its contributors; and no distinct emphasis being adopted in honour of Thomas Jefferson. The legislature was given to its political leanings until the publication in 1808 of first met here in 1826; Jefferson City became the county-seat in an article by Jeffrey himself on the work of Don Pedro Cevallos 1828, and in 1839 was first chartered as a city. The constitu- on the French Usurpation of Spain. This article expressed tional conventions of 1845 and 1875, and the state convention despair of the success of the British arms in Spain, and Scott at which issued the call for the National Liberal Republican conven- once withdrew his subscription, the Quarterly being soon after- tion at Cincinnati in 1872, met here, and so for some of its wards started in opposition. According to Lord Cockburn the sessions did the state convention of 1861-1863. In June 1861 effect of the first number of the Edinburgh Review was “ elec- Jefferson City was occupied by Union forces, and in September-trical." The English reviews were at that time practically October 1864 it was threatened by Confederate troops under publishers' organs, the articles in which were written by hack- General Sterling Price. writers instructed to praise or blame according to the publishers JEFFERSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Clark interests. Few men of any standing consented to write for county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the N. bank of the Ohio them. The Edinburgh Review, on the other hand, enlisted a river, opposite Louisville, Kentucky, with which it is connected brilliant and independent staff of contributors, guided by the by several bridges. Pop. (1890), 10,666; (1900), 10,774, of editor, not the publisher. They received sixteen guineas a whom 1818 were of negro descent and 615 were foreign-born; sheet (sixteen printed pages), increased subsequently to twenty- (1910 census), 10,412. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio five guineas in many cases, instead of the two guineas which South-western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, formed the ordinary London reviewer's fee. Further, the review and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, was not limited to literary criticism. It constituted itself the and by three inter-urban electric lines. It is attractively situated accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. The particu- on bluffs above the river, which at this point has a descent lar work which provided the starting-point of an article was in (known as the falls of the Ohio) of 26 ft. in 2 m. This furnishes | many cases merely the occasion for the exposition, always 308 JEFFREYS, BARON brilliant and incisive, of the author's views on politics, social | of Macvey Napier (1877); the sketch of Jeffrey in Carlyle's Reminis- subjects, ethics or literature. These general principles and the cences, vol. ii. (1881); and an essay by Lewis E. Gates in Three Studies in Literature (New York, 1899). novelty of the method ensured the success of the undertaking even after the original circle of exceptionally able men who JEFFREYS, GEORGE JEFFREYS, ist BARON (1648-1689), founded it had been dispersed. It had a circulation, great for lord chancellor of England, son of John Jeffreys, a Welsh country those days, of 12,000 copies. The period of Jeffrey's editorship gentleman, was born at Acton Park, his father's seat in Denbigh- extended to about twenty-six years, ceasing with the ninety- shire, in 1648. His family, though not wealthy, was of good eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in social standing and repute in Wales; his mother, a daughter of favour of Macvey Napier. Sir Thomas Ireland of Bewsey, Lancashire, was “ a very pious Jeffrey's own contributions, according to a list which has the good woman.' He was educated at Shrewsbury, St Paul's sanction of his authority, numbered two hundred, all except and Westminster schools, at the last of which he was a pupil six being written before his resignation of the editorship. Jeffrey of Busby, and at Trinity College, Cambridge; but he left the wrote with great rapidity, at odd moments of leisure and with university without taking a degree, and entered the Inner little special preparation. Great fluency and ease of diction, Temple as a student in May 1663. From his childhood Jeffreys considerable warmth of imagination and moral sentiment, and displayed exceptional talent, but on coming to London he a sharp eye to discover any oddity of style or violation of the occupied himself more with the pleasures of conviviality than accepted canons of good taste, made his criticisms pungent and with serious study of the law. Though he never appears to effective. But the essential narrowness and timidity of his have fallen into the licentious immorality prevalent at that general outlook prevented him from detecting and estimating period, he early became addicted to hard drinking and boisterous latent forces, either in politics or in matters strictly intellectual company. But as the records of his early years, and indeed of his and moral; and this lack of understanding and sympathy ac- whole life, are derived almost exclusively from vehemently hostile counts for his distrust and dislike of the passion and fancy of sources, the numerous anecdotes of his depravity cannot be Shelley and Keats, and for his praise of the half-hearted and ele- accepted without a large measure of scepticism. He was a gant romanticism of Rogers and Campbell. (For his treatment handsome, witty and attractive boon-companion, and in the of the lake poets see WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM.) taverns of the city he made friends among attorneys with A criticism in the fifteenth number of the Review on the practice in the criminal courts. Thus assisted he rose so rapidly morality of Moore's poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two in his profession that within three years of his call to the bar authors at Chalk Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the in 1668, he was elected common serjeant of the city of London. police, and Jeffrey's pistol was found to contain no bullet. The Such advancement, however, was not to be ailained even in alfair led to a warm friendship, however, and Moore contributed the reign of Charles II. solely by the aid of disreputable friend- to the Review, while Jeffrey made ample amends in a later article ships. Jeffreys had remarkable aptitude for the profession of on Lalla Rookh (1817). an advocate-quick intelligence, caustic humour, copious elo- Jeffrey's wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became ac- quence. His powers of cross-examination were masterly; quainted with Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New and if he was insufficiently grounded in legal principles to become York, and great-niece of John Wilkes. When she returned to a profound lawyer, nothing but greater application was needed in America, Jeffrey followed her, and they were married in 1813. the opinion of so hostile a critic as Lord Campbell, to have made Before returning to England they visited several of the chief | him the rival of Nottingham and Hale. Jeffreys could count American cities, and his experience strengthened Jeffrey in the on the influence of respectable men of position in the city, such as conciliatory policy he had before advocated towards the States. Sir Robert Clayton and his own namesake Alderman Jeffreys; Notwithstanding the increasing success of the Review, Jeffrey and he also enjoyed the personal friendship of the virtuous always continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambi- Sir Matthow Hale. In 1667 Jeffreys had married in circum- tion. As a matter of fact, his literary reputation helped his stances which, if improvident, were creditable to his generosity professional advancement. His practice extended rapidly in and sense of honour; and his domestic life, so far as is known, the civil and criminal courts, and he regularly appeared before was free from the scandal common among his contemporaries. the general assembly of the Church of Scotland, where his work, While holding the judicial office of common serjcanı, he pursued though not financially profitable, increased his reputation. As his practice at the bar. With a view to further preferment an advocate his sharpness and rapidity of insight gave him a for- he now sought to ingratiate himself with the court party, midable advantage in the detection of the weaknesses of a witness to which he obtained an introduction possibly through William and the vulnerable points of his opponent's case, while he grouped Chiffinch, the notorious keeper of the king's closet. He at once his own arguments with an admirable eye to effect, especially attached himself to the king's mistress, the duchess of Poris- excelling in eloquent closing appeals to a jury. Jeffrey was mouth; and as early as 1672 he was employed in confidential twice, in 1820 and 1822, elected lord rector of the university of business by the court. His influence in the city of London, Glasgow. In 1829 he was chosen dean of the faculty of advocates. where opposition to the government of Charles II was now be. On the return of the Whigs to power in 1830 he became lord coming pronounced, enabled Jeffreys to make himself useful to advocate, and entered parliament as member for the Perth Danby. In September 1677 he received a knighthood, and his burghs. He was unseated, and afterwards returned for Malton, growing favour with the court was further marked by his a borough in the interest of Lord Fitzwilliam. After the passing appointment as solicitor-general to James, duke of York; while of the Scottish Reform Bill, which he introduced in parliament, the city showed its continued confidence in him by electing he was returned for Edinburgh in December 1832. His parlia- him to the post of recorder in October 1678. mentary career, which, though not brilliantly successful, had In the previous month Titus Oates had made his first revela- won him high general esteem, was terminated by his elevation tions of the alleged popish plot, and from this time forward to the judicial bench as Lord Jeffrey in May 1834. In 1842 he Jeffreys was prominently identified, either as advocate or was moved to the first division of the Court of Session. On the judge, with the memorable state trials by which the political disruption of the Scottish Church he took the side of the seceders, conflict between the Crown and the people was waged during giving a judicial opinion in their favour, afterwards reversed by the remainder of the 17th century. The popish ploi, followed the house of lords. He died at Edinburgh on the 26th of January by the growing agitation for the exclusion of the duke of 1850. York from the succession, widened the breach between the city and the court. Jeffreys threw in his lot with the latter, display- Some of his contributions to the Edinburgh Review appeared in ing his zeal by initiating the movement of the "abhorrers ” (9.0.) four volumes in 1844 and 1845. This selection includes the essay against the petitioners ” who were giving voice to the popular Beauty contributed to the Ency. Brit. The Life of Lord Jeffrey, with a Selection from his Correspondence, by Lord Cockburn, demand for the summoning of parliament. He was rewarded appeared in 1852 in 2 vols. See also the Selected Correspondence I with the coveted office of chief justice of Chester on the job 66 1 on JEFFREYS, BARON 309 of April 1680; but when parliament met in October the House of the 18th of April 1689. He was succeeded in the peerage by his Commons passed a hostile resolution which induced him to son, John (and Baron Jeffreys of Wem), who died without male resign his recordership, a piece of pusillanimity that drew from issue in 1702, when the title became extinct. the king the remark that Jeffreys was “ not parliament-proof” It is impossible to determine precisely with what justice Jeffreys nevertheless received from the city aldermen a substan- tradition has made the name of “ Judge Jeffreys " a byword of tial token of appreciation for his past services. In 1681 he was infamy. The Revolution, which brought about his fall, handed created a baronet In June 1683 the first of the Rye House con- over his reputation at the same time to the mercy of his bitterest spirators were brought to trial. Jeffreys was briefed for the enemies. They alone have recorded his actions and appraised his crown in the prosecution of Lord William Howard, and, hav- motives and character. Even the adherents of the deposed ing been raised to the bench as lord chief justice of the king's dynasty had no interest in finding excuse for one who served as bench in September, he presided at the trials of Algernon Sidney a convenient scapegoat for the offences of his master. For at in November 1683 and of Sir Thomas Armstrong in the following least half a century after his death no apology for Lord Jeffreys June. In the autumn of 1684 Jeffreys, who had been active in would have obtained a hearing; and none was attempted. procuring the surrender of municipal charters to the crown, With the exception therefore of what is to be gathered from the was called to the cabinet, having previously been sworn of the reports of the state trials, all knowledge of his conduct rests privy council. In May 1685 he had the satisfaction of passing on testimony tainted by undisguised hostility. Innumerable sentence on Titus Oates for perjury in the plot trials; and about scurrilous lampoons vilifying the hated instrument of James's the same time James II. rewarded his zeal with a peerage as tyranny, but without a pretence of historic value, flooded the Baron Jeffreys of Wem, an honour never before conferred on a country at the Revolution; and these, while they fanned the chief justice during his tenure of office. Jeffreys had for some undiscriminating hatred of contemporaries who remembered time been suffering from stone, which aggravated the irrita- the judge's severities, and perpetuated that hatred in tradition, bility of his naturally violent temper; and the malady probably have not been sufficiently discounted even by modern historians was in some degree the cause of the unmeasured fury he dis-like Macaulay and Lord Campbell. The name of Jeffreys has played at the trial of Richard Baxter (9.0.) for seditious libel-therefore been handed down as that of a coarse, ignorant, if the unofficial ex parte report of the trial, which alone exists, dissolute, foul-mouthed, inhuman bully, who prostituted the is to be accepted as trustworthy. seat of justice. That there was sufficient ground for the execra- In August 1685 Jeffreys opened at Winchester the commission tion in which his memory was long held is not to be gainsaid. known in history as the “ bloody assizes,” his conduct of which But the portrait has nevertheless been blackened overmuch. has branded his name with indelible infamy. The number An occasional significant admission in his favour may be gleaned of persons sentenced to death at these assizes for complicity in even from the writings of his enemies. Thus Roger North the duke of Monmouth's insurrection is uncertain. The official declares that “in matters indifferent," i.e. where politics were return of those actually executed was 320; many hundreds not concerned, Jeffreys became the seat of justice better than any more were transported and sold into slavery in the West Indies. Other that author had seen in his place. Sir J. Jekyll, master In all probability the great majority of those condemned were of the rolls, told Speaker Onslow that Jeffreys “ had great parts in fact concerned in the rising, but the trials were in many and made a great chancellor in the business of his court. In cases a mockery of the administration of justice. Numbers were mere private matters he was thought an able and upright judge cajoled into pleading guilty; the case for the prisoners seldom wherever he sat." His keen sense of humour, allied with a spirit obtained a hearing. The merciless severity of the chief justice of inveterate mockery and an exuberant command of pungent did not however exceed the wishes of James II.; for on his return eloquence, led him to rail and storm at prisoners and witnesses in to London Jeffreys received from the king the great seal with grossly unseemly fashion. But in this he did not greatly surpass the title of lord chancellor. For the next two years he was a most of his contemporaries on the judicial bench, and it was strenuous upholder of prerogative, though he was less abjectly a failing from which even the dignified and virtuous Hale was not pliant than has sometimes been represented. There is no reason altogether exempt. The intemperance of Jeffreys which shocked to doubt the sincerity of his attachment to the Church of England; North, certainly did not exceed that of Saunders; in violence he for although the king's favour was capricious, Jeffreys never took was rivalled by Scroggs; though accused of political apostasy, the easy and certain path to secure it that lay through apostasy; he was not a shameless renegade like Williams; and there is and he even withstood James on occasion, when the latter no evidence that in pecuniary matters he was personally venal, pushed his Catholic zeal to extremes. Though it is true that or that in licentiousness he followed the example set by he accepted the presidency of the ecclesiastical commission, Charles II. and most of his courtiers. Some of his actions Burnet's statement that it was Jeffreys who suggested that that have incurred the sternest reprobation of posterity were institution to James is probably incorrect; and he was so far otherwise estimated by the best of his contemporaries. His from having instigated the prosecution of the seven bishops in trial of Algernon Sidney, described by acaulay and Lord 1688, as has been frequently alleged, that he disapproved Campbell as one of the most beinous of his iniquities, was warmly of the proceedings and rejoiced secretly at the acquittal. But commended by Dr. William Lloyd, who was soon afterwards while he watched with misgiving the king's preferment of Roman to become a popular idol as one of the illustrious seven bishops Catholics, he made himself the masterful instrument of un-(see letter from the bishop of St Asaph in H. B. Irving's Life of constitutional prerogative in coercing the authorities of Cam- Judge Jefreys, p. 184). Nor was the habitual illegality of his bridge University, who in 1687 refused to confer degrees on a procedure on the bench so unquestionable as many writers have Benedictine monk, and the fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford, assumed. Sir James Stephen inclined to the opinion that no who declined to elect as their president a disreputable nominee actual abuse of law tainted the trials of the Rye House conspira- of the king tors, or that of Alice Lisle, the most prominent victim of the Being thus conspicuously identified with the most tyrannical" bloody assizes. The conduct of the judges in Russell's trial measures of James II., Jeffreys found himself in a desperate was, he thinks, "moderate and fair in general”; and the trial plight when on the 11th of December 1688 the king fled from of Sidney" much resembled that of Russell.” The same high the country on the approach to London of William of Orange. authority pronounces that the trial of Lord Delamere in the The lord chancellor attempted to escape like his master; but House of Lords was conducted by Jeffreys “with propriety and in spite of his disguise as a common seaman he was recognized dignity.” And if Jeffreys judged political offenders with cruel in a tavern at Wapping-possibly, as Roger North relates, by an severity, he also crushed some glaring abuses; conspicuous attorney whom Jeffreys had terrified on some occasion in the examples of which were the frauds of attorneys who infested court of chancery-and was arrested and conveyed to the Westminster Hall, and the systematic kidnapping practised Tower. The malady from which he had long suffered had | by the municipal authorities of Bristol. Moreover, if any recently made fatal progress, and he died in the Tower on value is to be attached to the evidence of physiognomy, the &6 310 JEHOIACHIN-JEHORAM traditional estimate of the character of Jeffreys obtains no con- haps the advance troops despatched by the Babylonian king; firmation from the refinement of his features and expression as the power of Egypt was broken and the whole land came into depicted in Kneller's portrait in the National Portrait Gallery the hands of Nebuchadrezzar. It was at the close of Jehoiakim's of London. But even though the popular notion requires reign, apparently just before his death, that the enemy appeared to be thus modified in certain respects, it remains incontestable at the gates of Jerusalem, and although he himself “slept with that Jeffreys was probably on the whole the worst example of a his fathers ” his young son was destined to see the first captivity period when the administration of justice in England had sunk of the land of Judah (597 B.C.). (See JEHOIACHIN.) to the lowest degradation, and the judicial bench had become Which "three years the too willing tool of an unconstitutional and unscrupulous it is uncertain whether Judah suffered in 605 BC. (Berossus in (2 Kings xxiv 1) are intended is disputed; executive. Jos. c A p. 1. 19) or was left unharmed (Jos. Ant. x. 6. 1), perhaps BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The chief contemporary authorities for the life ebuchadrezzar made his first inroad against Judah in 602 B.C. of Jeffreys are Bishop Burnet's History of my own Time (1724), and because of its intrigue with Egypt (H. Winckler, Keilinschrift , u.d alle Test. see especially the edition" with notes by the Earls of Dartmouth and , pp. !07 seq.). and the three years of allegiance extends to 599. The chronicler's tradition (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8) speaks of Jehoiakim's Hardwick Speaker Onslow and Dean Swift" (Oxford Univ. Press, 1833); Roger North's Life of the Right Hon. Francis North, Baronson captivity, apparently confusing him with Jehoiachin. The Septua. Guildford (1808) and Autobiography (ed. by Augustus Jessopp, 1887); çint, however, still preserves there the record of his peaceful death, Ellis Correspondence, Verney Papers (Hist. MSS. Comm.), Hollon in agreement with the earlier source in 2 Kings, but against the Correspondence (Camden Soc. pub.); the earl of Ailesbury's Memoirs; prophecy of Jeremiah (xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30), which is accepted by Evelyn's Diary. The only trustworthy information as to the judicial Los. Ant. x. 6.3: The different traditions can scarcely be reconciled. State Trials, vols. vii.-xil.; and cf. Sir J. F. Stephen's History of the but see Jer. xxxv. 11; some recensions of the Septuagint even conduct and capacity of Jeffreys is to be found in the reports of the Nothing certain is known of the marauding bands sent against Jehoiakim; ſor Syrians (Aram) one would expect Edomites (Edom), Criminal Law of England (1883). For details of the “ bloody assizes,". include the “ Sainaritans "'! see Harl. M$8., 4689; George Roberts, The Life, Progresses and (For further references to this reign Rebellion of James Duke of Monmouth, vol. ii. (1844); also many see especially JEREMIAH; see also Jews: History, $ 17.) (S.A.C.) pamphlets, lampoons, &c., in the British Museum, as to which see JEHOL (“ hot stream "), or CH'ENG-TE-FU, a city of China, the article on “ Sources of History for Monmouth's Rebellion and the Bloody Assizes," by A. L. Humphreys, in Proceedings of the Somerset- / formerly the seat of the emperor's summer palace, near 1186 shire Archaeological and Natural Hist. Soc. (1892). Later accounts are E. and 41° N., about 140 m. N.E. of Peking, with which it is by H. W. Woolrych, Memoirs of the Life of Judge Jeffreys (1827); Lord connected by an excellent road. Pop. (estimate), 10,000. It Campbell, The Lives of the Lord Chancellors (1845), 1st series, vol. iii.; E. Foss, The Judges of England (1864), vol. vii. Henry Roscoe, Lives long, with smaller streets radiating in all directions. The people is a flourishing town, and consists of one great street, about 2 m. of Eminent British Lawyers (1830); Lord Macaulay, History of England (1848; and many subsequent editions). Most of these works, and are well-to-do and there are some fine shops. The palace, called especially those by Macaulay and Campbell, are uncritical in their Pi-shu-shan-chuang, or “mountain lodge for avoiding heat," hostility to Jeffreys, and are based for the most part on untrust. was built in 1703 on the plan of the palace of Yuen-ming-yuen worthy authorities. The best modern work on the subject, though unduly favourable to Jeffreys, is H. B. Irving's Life of Judge Jeffreys near Peking. A substantial brick wall 6 m. in circuit encloses (1898), the appendix to which contains a full bibliography. several well-wooded heights and extensive gardens, rockeries, (R. J. M.) pavilions, temples, &c. Jehol was visited by Lord Macartney JEHOIACHIN (Heb. “ Yahſweh) establisheth "), in the Bible, on his celebrated mission to the emperor K'ienlung in 1793; son of Jehoiakim and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 8 sqq.; and it was to Jehol that the emperor Hienfēng retired when 2 Chron, xxxvi. 9 seq.). He came to the throne at the age of the allied armies of England and France occupied Peking in eighteen in the midst of the Chaldean invasion of Judah, and is 1860. In the vicinity of Jehol are numerous Lama monas- said to have reigned three months. He was compelled to sur- teries and temples, the most remarkable being Potala-su, render to Nebuchadrezzar and was carried off to Babylon built on the model of the palace of the grand lama of Tibet (597 B.c.). This was the First Captivity, and from it Ezekiel at Potala. (one of the exiles) dates his prophecies. Eight thousand people JEHORAM, or Joram (Heb. “Yah(weh) is high ”), the name of the better class (including artisans, &c.) were removed, of two Biblical characters. the Temple was partially despoiled (see Jer. xxvii. 18-20; 1. The son of Ahab, and king of Israel in succession to his xxiii.v. 3 seq.),' and Jehoiachin's uncle Mattaniah (son of Josiah) | brother Ahaziah.? He maintained close relations with Judah, was appointed king. Jehoiachin's fate is outlined in Jer. xxii. whose king came to his assistance against Moab which had re- 20-30 (cf. xxvii. 20). Nearly forty years later, Nebuchad- volted after Ahab's death (2 Kings i. 1;iii.). The king in question rezzar II. died (562 B.C.) and Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk) his is said to have been Jehoshaphat; but, according to Lucian's successor released the unfortunate captive and gave him pre- recension, it was Ahaziah, whilst i. 17 would show that it was cedence over the other subjugated kings who were kept prisoners Jehoram's namesake (sce 2). The result of the campaign appears in Babylon. With this gleam of hope for the unhappy Judaeans to have been a defeat for Israel (see on the incidents Edom, both the book of Kings and the prophecies of Jeremiah conclude ELISHA, MOAB). The prophetical party were throughout hos- (2 Kings xxv. 27-30; Jer. lii. 31-34). tile to Jehoram (with his reform iii. 2 contrast x. 27), and the See, further, Jeremiah (especially chaps. xxiv., xxvii. seq.), and singular account of the war of Benhadad king of Syria against Jews, $ 17. the king of Israel (vi. 24-vii.) shows the feeling against the JEHOIAKIM (Heb. “ Yahſweh) raiseth up"), in the Bible, reigning dynasty. But whether the incidents in which Elisha son of Josiah (9.v.) and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiii. 34-xxiv.6). and the unnamed king of Israel appear originally belonged to the On the defeat of Josiah at Megiddo his younger brother Jehoahaz time of Jehoram is very doubtful, and in view of the part which (or Shallum) was chosen by the Judaeans, but the Egyptian Elisha took in securing the accession of Jehu, it has been urged conquerer Necho summoned him to his headquarters at Riblah with much force that they belong to the dynasty of the latter, (south of Hamath on the Orontes) and removed him to Egypt, when the high position of the prophet would be perfectly natural. appointing in his stead Eliakim, whose name “ El(God) raiseth The briefest account is given of Jehoram's alliance with Ahaziah up") was changed to its better-known synonym, Jehoiakim. (son of 2 below) against Hazael of Syria, at Ramoth-Gilead For a time Jehoiakim remained under the protection of Necho 22 Kings i. 17 seq.; see Lucian's reading (cf. Vulg. and Pesh.); and paid heavy tribute; but with the rise of the new Chaldean Apart from the allusion 1 Kings xxii. 49 (see 2. Chron. xx. 35), and Empire under Nebuchadrezzar II., and the overthrow of Egypt the narrative in 2 Kings i. (see Elijau), nothing is known of this Ahaziah. Notwithstanding his very brief reign (1 Kings xxii. 51; at the battle of Carchemish (605 B.c.) a vital change occurred. 2 Kings iii. 1), the compiler passes the usual hostile judgment After three years of allegiance the king revolted. Invasions (1 Kings xxii. 52 seq.); see KINGS (Books). The chronology in i Kings followed by Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites and Ammonites, per- xxii. 51 is difficult; if Lucian's text (twenty-fourth year of Jeho- shaphat) is correct, Jehoram 1 and 2 must have come to their "2 Kings xxiv. 13 seq. gives other numbers and a view of respective thrones at almost the same time. the disaster which is more suitable for the Second Captivity. (See 3 In vii. 6 the hostility of Hittites and Mizraim (9.v.) points to a ZEDEKIAH.) period after 842 B.C. (See Jews, $ 10 seq.) JEHOSHAPHAT-JEHOVAH 311 > 17 (6 2 (2 Kings viii. 25-29), and the incident--with the wounding of | Galatinus (1518) is erroneous; Jehova occurs in manuscripts the Israelite king in or about the critical year 842 B.C.-finds a at least as early as the 14th century. noteworthy parallel in the time of Jehoshaphat and Ahab The form Jehovah was used in the 16th century by many (1 Kings xxii. 29-36) at the period of the equally momentous authors, both Catholic and Protestant, and in the 17th was events in 854 (see AHAB). See further JEHU. zealously defended by Fuller, Gataker, Leusden and others, 2. The son of Jehoshaphat and king of Judah. He married against the criticisms of such scholars as Drusius, Cappellus and Athaliah the daughter of Ahab, and thus was brother-in-law of the elder Buxtorf. It appeared in the English Bible in Tyndale's 1. above, and contemporary with him (2 Kings i. 17). In his days translation of the Pentateuch (1530), and is found in all English Edom revolted, and this with the mention of Libnah's revolt Protestant versions of the 16th century except that of Coverdale (2 Kings viii. 20 sqq.) suggests some common action on the part (1535). In the Authorized Version of 1611 it occurs in Exod. vi. 3; of Philistines and Edomites. The chronicler's account of his Ps. Ixxxiii. 18; Isa. xii. 2; xxvi. 4, beside the compound names life (2 Chron. xxi-xxii. 1) presupposes this, but adds many Jehovah-jireh, Jehovah-nissi, Jéhovah-shalom; elsewhere, in remarkable details: he began his reign by massacring his breth- accordance with the usage of the ancient versions, Jhvh is repre- ren (cf. Jehu son of Jehoshaphat, and his bloodshed, 2 Kings sented by LORD (distinguished by capitals from the title " Lord," ix. seq.); for his wickedness he received a communication from Heb. adonay). In the Revised Version of 1885 Jehovah is Elijah foretelling his death from disease (cf. Elijah and Ahaziah retained in the places in which it stood in the A. V., and is intro- of Israel, 2 Kings i.); in a great invasion of Philistines and Arabian duced also in Exod. vi. 2, 6, 7, 8; Ps. lxviii. 20; Isa. xlix. 14; tribes he lost all his possessions and family, and only Jehoahaz Jer. xvi. 21; Hab. iii. 19. The American committee which co- (i.e. Ahaziah) was saved. His son Ahaziah reigned only for a operated in the revision desired to employ the name Jehovah year (cf. his namesake of Israel); he is condemned for his wherever Jhvh occurs in the original, and editions embodying Israelite sympathies, and met his end in the general butchery their preferences are printed accordingly. which attended the accession of Jehu (2 Kings viii. 25 sqq.; Several centuries before the Christian era the name Jhvh had 2 Chron. xxii. 3 seq., 7; with 2 Kings ix. 27 seq., note the variant ceased to be commonly used by the Jews. Some of the later tradition in 2 Chron. xxii. 8 seq., and the details which the LXX. writers in the Old Testament employ the appellative Elohim, (Lucian) appends to 2 Kings x.). (S. A. C.) God, prevailingly or exclusively; a collection of Psalms (Ps. xlii.- JEHOSHAPHAT (Heb. “ Yahweh judges "), in the Bible, lxxxiii.) was revised by an editor who changed the Jhvh of the son of Asa, and king of Judah, in the 9th century B.C. During authors into Elohim (see e.g. xlv. 7; xlviii. 10; 1. 7; li. 14); his period close relations subsisted between Israel and Judah; observe also the frequency of “the Most High,” “the God of the two royal houses were connected by marriage (see ATHALIAH; Heaven,' King of Heaven," in Daniel, and of “ Heaven” in JEHORAM, 2), and undertook joint enterprise in war and commerce. First Maccabees. The oldest Greek versions (Septuagint), from Jehoshaphat aided Ahab in the battle against Benhadad at the third century B.C., consistently use Kiplos, “Lord,” where Ramoth-Gilead in which Ahab was slain (1 Kings xxii.; 2 Chron. the Hebrew has Jhvh, corresponding to the substitution of xviii.; cf. the parallel incident in 2 Kings viii, 25-29), and trading Adonay for Jhyh in reading the original; in books written in journeys to Ophir were undertaken by his fleet in conjunction Greck in this period (e.g. Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the no doubt with Ahab as well as with his son Ahaziah (2 Chron. New Testament, Kúplos takes the place of the name of God. xx. 35 sqq.; 1 Kings xxii. 47 sqq.). The chronicler's account Josephus, who as a priest knew the pronunciation of the name, of his war against Moab, Ammon and Edomite tribes (2 Chron. declares that religion forbids him to divulge it; Philo calls it xx.), must rest ultimately upon a tradition which is presupposed ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and in the earlier source (1 Kings xxii. 47), and the disaster to the tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy ships at Ezion-Geber at the head of the Gulf of Aķaba preceded, place (that is, for priests in the Temple); and in another passage, if it was not the introduction to, the great revolt in the days commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: “If any one, I do not say of Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram, where, again, the details in should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should 2 Chron. xxi. must rely in the first instance upon an old source. even dare to utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the Apart from what is said of Jehoshaphat's legislative measures penalty of death."3 (2 Chron. xix. 4 sqq.; cf. the meaning of his name above), an Various motives may have concurred to bring about the sup- account is preserved of his alliance with Jehoram of Israel pression of the name. An instinctive feeling that a proper name against Moab (2 Kings iii.), on which see JEHORAM; MOAB. The for God implicitly recognizes the existence of other gods may have “ valley of Jehoshaphat” (Joel iii. 12) has been identified by had some influence; reverence and the fear lest the holy name tradition (as old as Eusebius) with the valley between Jerusalem should be profaned among the heathen were potent reasons; but and the mount of Olives. (S.A.C.) probably the most cogent motive was the desire to prevent the JEHOVAH (YAHWEH?), in the Bible, the God of Israel. abuse of the name in magic. If so, the secrecy had the opposite “ Jehovah " is a modern mispronunciation of the Hebrew name, effect; the name of the god of the Jews was one of the great resulting from combining the consonants of that name, Jhuh, names in magic, heathen as well as Jewish, and miraculous with the vowels of the word adonāy, “Lord,” which the Jews efficacy was attributed to the mere utterance of it. substituted for the proper name in reading the scriptures. In In the liturgy of the Temple the name was pronounced in the such cases of substitution the vowels of the word which is to be priestly benediction (Num. vi. 27) after the regular daily sacrifice read are written in the Hebrew text with the consonants of the (in the synagogues a substitute-probably Adonay-was em- word which is not to be read. The consonants of the word to ployed); * on the Day of Atonement the High Priest uttered the be substituted are ordinarily written in the margin; but inasmuch name ten times in his prayers and benediction. In the last as Adonay was regularly read instead of the ineffable name Jhvh, generations before the fall of Jerusalem, however, it was pro- it was deemed unnecessary to note the fact at every occurrence. nounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant When Christian scholars began to study the Old Testament in of the priests.6 Hebrew, if they were ignorant of this general rule or regarded * See Josephus, Ant. ii. 12, 4; Philo, Vita Mosis, iii. 11 (ii. $114, the substitution as a piece of Jewish superstition, reading what ed. Cohn and Wendland); ib. iii. 27 (ii. § 206). The Palestinian actually stood in the lext, they would inevitably pronounce the authorities more correctly interpreted Lev. xxiv. 15 seq., not of the name Jéhovāh It is an unprofitable inquiry who first made this mere utterance of the name, but of the use of the name of God in blaspheming God. blunder, probably many fell into it independently. The state- • Siphre, Num. $$ 39, 43; M. Sotaḥ, iii. 7.; Solah, 389. The tradi- ment still commonly repeated that it criginated with Petrus tion that the utterance of the name in the daily benedictions ceased with the death of Simeon the Just, two centuries or more before * These details are scarcely the invention of the chronicler; the Christian era, perhaps arose from a misunderstanding of Mena; see CHRONICLES, and Expositor, Aug. 1906, p. 191. hoth, 109b; in any case it cannot stand against the testimony of ? This form, Yahweh, as the correct one, is generally used in the older and more authoritative texts. separate articles throughout this work. • Yoma, 396; Jer. Yoma, iii. 7; Kidduskin, 71a. ) 312 JEHOVAH 66 After the destruction of the Temple (A.D. 70) the liturgical use God would be with his people (cf. v. 12) in future oppressions as of the name ceased, but the tradition was perpetuated in the he was in the present distress, or the assertion of his eternity, or schools of the rabbis.' It was certainly known in Babylonia in eternal constancy; the Alexandrian translation 'Eyw elud ūv the latter part of the 4th century, and not improbably much Ο ων απεσταλκέν με προς υμάς, understands it in the later. Nor was the knowledge confined to these pious circles; more metaphysical sense of God's absolute being. Both inter- the name continued to be employed by healers, exorcists and pretations, “He (who) is (always the same),” and “He (who) is magicians, and has been preserved in many places in magical (absolutely, the truly existent),” import into the name all that papyri. The vehemence with which the utterance of the name they profess to find in it; the one, the religious faith in God's is denounced in the Mishna—"He who pronounces the Nanie unchanging fidelity to his people, the other, a philosophical con- with its own letters has no part in the world to come!”3-ception of absolute being which is foreign both to the meaning of suggests that this misuse of the name was not uncommon the Hebrew verb and to the force of the tense employed. Modern among Jews. scholars have sometimes found in the name the expression of The Samaritans, who otherwise shared the scruples of the Jews the aseity14 of God; sometimes of his reality, in contrast to the about the utterance of the name, seem to have used it in judicial imaginary gods of the heathen. Another explanation, which oaths to the scandal of the rabbis.* appears first in Jewish authors of the middle ages and has found The early Christian scholars, who inquired what was the true wide acceptance in recent times, derives the name from the name of the God of the Old Testament, had therefore no great causative of the verb; He (who) causes things to be, gives them difficulty in getting the information they sought. Clement of being; or calls events into existence, brings them to pass; with Alexandria (d. c. 212) says that it was pronounced laove.s many individual modifications of interpretation-creator, life- Epiphanius (d. 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a con- giver, fulfiller of promises. A serious objection to this theory siderable part of his life there, gives laße. (one cod. lave). Theo- in every form is that the verb hāyāh, to be," has no causative doret (d. c. 457), born in Antioch, writes that the Samaritans stem in Hebrew; to express the ideas which these scholars find pronounced the name laße (in another passage, labai), the in the name Yahweh the language employs altogether different Jews Aia. The latter is probably not Jhvh but Ehyeh (Exod. iii. verbs. 14), which the Jews counted among the names of God; there is This assumption that Yahweh is derived from the verb "to be," no reason whatever to imagine that the Samaritans pronounced as seems to be implied in Exod. jii. 14 seq., is not, however, free the name Jhvh differently from the Jews. This direct testimony from difficulty. “To be” in the Hebrew of the Old Testament is supplemented by that of the magical texts, in which Iaße Seßvo is not hāwāh, as the derivation would require, but hāyāh; and we (Jahveh Şebāöth), as well as laßa, occurs frequently.' In an are thus driven to the further assumption that hāwāh belongs to Ethiopic list of magical names of Jesus, purporting to have been an earlier stage of the language, or to some older speech of the taught by him to his disciples, Vāwe is found.10 Finally, there is forefathers of the Israelites. This hypothesis is not intrinsically evidence from more than one source that the modern Samaritan improbable—and in Aramaic, a language closely related to priests pronounce the name Yahwch or Yahwa.l1 Hebrew, “to be” actually is hāwd—but it should be noted that There is no reason to impugn the soundness of this substantially in adopting it we admit that, using the name Hebrew in the his- consentient testimony to the pronunciation Yahweh or Jahveh, torical sense, Yahweh is not a Hebrew name. And, inasmuch as coming as it does through several independent channels. It is nowhere in the Old Testament, outside of Exod. iii., is there the confirmed by grammatical considerations. The name Jhvh slightest indication that the Israelites connected the name of enters into the composition of many proper names of persons their God with the idea of “being " in any sense, it may fairly in the Old Testament, either as the initial element, in the form be questioned whether, if the author of Exod. iii. 14 seq., intended Jeho- or Jo- (as in Jehoram, Joram), or as the final element, in to give an etymological interpretation of the name Yahweh,15 his the form -jahu or -jah (as in Adonijahu, Adonijah). These etymology is any better than many other paronomastic explana- various forms are perfectly regular if the divine name was tions of proper names in the Old Testament, or than, say, the Yahweh, and, taken altogether, they cannot be explained on any connexion of the name 'Atóllwv with stolovwv, åtoliw in other hypothesis. Recent scholars, accordingly, with but few | Plato's Cratylus, or the popular derivation from åtóllugl. exceptions, are agreed that the ancient pronunciation of the A root hāwāh is represented in Hebrew by the nouns howāh name was Yahweh (the first h sounded at the end of the syllable). (Ezek., Isa. xlvii. 11) and hawwāh (Ps., Prov., Job) “ disaster, Genebrardus seems to have been the first to suggest the pro- calamity, ruin.” 18 The primary meaning is probably nunciation Iahué, 12 but it was not until the 19th century that it down, fall,” in which sense-common in Arabic—the verb became generally accepted. appears in Job xxxvii. 6 (of snow falling to earth). A Catholic Jahveh or Yahweh is apparently an example of a common commentator of the 16th century, Hieronymus ab Olcastro, type of Hebrew proper names which have the form of the 3rd seems to have been the first to connect the name pers. sing. of the verb. e.g. Jabneh (name of a city), Jābin, with howāh interpreting it contritio, sive pernicies (destruction Jamlēk, Jiptāḥ (Jephthah), &c. Most of these really are verbs, of the Egyptians and Canaanites); Daumer, adopting the same the suppressed or implicit subject being 'ēl, numen, god,” or etymology, took it in a more general sense: Yahweh, as well as the name of a god; cf. Jabneh and Jabně-ēl, Jiptāḥ and Jiptah-ēl. Shaddai, meant “ Destroyer,” and fitly expressed the nature The ancient explanations of the name proceed from Exod. iii. of the terrible god whom he identified with Moloch. 14, 15, where “Yahweh 13 hath sent me " in v. 15 corresponds The derivation of Yahweh from hāwāh is formally unimpeach- Ehyeh hath sent me in v. 14, thus seeming to connectable, and is adopted by many recent scholars, who proceed, the name Yahweh with the Hebrew verb hāyāh, to become, to however, from the primary sense of the root rather than from the be.”. The Palestinian interpreters found in this the promise that specific meaning of the nouns. The name is accordingly inter- R. Johanan (second half of the 3rd century), Kiddushin, 71a. preted, He (who) falls (baetyl, Baitulos, meteorite); or causes ? Kiddushin, 1.c.= Pesaḥim, $oa. (rain or lightning) to fall (storm god); or casts down (his foes, : M. Sanhedrin, x. 1; Abba Saul, end of 2nd century. • Jer. Sanhedrin, x. 1; R. Mana, 4th century. by his thunderbolts). It is obvious that if the derivation be * Strom. v. 6. Variants: la ove, la ovat; cod. L. laov. correct, the significance of the name, which in itself denotes * Panarion, Haer. 40, 5: cf. Lagarde, Psalter juxta Hebraeos, 154. only “ He falls” or “He fells," must be learned, if at all, from * Quaest. 15 in Exod.; Fab. haeret. compend. v.3, sub fin. carly Israelitish conceptions of the nature of Yahweh rather than s šia occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, 1. 3020 from etymology. (Wessely, Denkschrift. Wien. Akad., Phil. Hist. Kl., XXXVI. p. 120), and in the Leiden Papyrus, xvii. 31. 14 A-se-ilas, a scholastic Latin expression for the quality of existing See Deissmann, Bibelstudien, 13 sqq. by oneself. 10 See Driver, Studia Biblica, I. 20. 15 The critical difficulties of these verses need not be discussed here. 11 See Montgomery,Journal of Biblical Literature, xxv. (1906),49-51. See W. R. Arnold, “ The Divine Name in Exodus iii. 14," Journal of 12 Chronographia, Paris, 1567 (ed. Paris, 1600, p. 79 seq.). Biblical Literature, XXIV. (1905), 107-165. 13 This transcription will be used henceforth. 16 Cí. also hawwāh,“ desire," Mic. vii. 3; Prov. x. 3. 16 sink “ Jehova 66 to 66 JEHOVAH 313 66 as A more fundamental question is whether the name Yahweh and places which they explain as compounds of Yahu or Yah.. originated among the Israelites or was adopted by them from The explanation is in most cases simply an assumption of the some other people and speech. The biblical author of the his- point at issue; some of the names have been misread; others tory of the sacred institutions (P) expressly declares that the are undoubtedly the names of Jews. There remain, however, name Yahweh was unknown to the patriarchs (Exod. vi. 3), and some cases in which it is highly probable that names of non- the much older Israelite historian (E) records the first revelation Israelites are really compounded with Yahweh. The most of the name to Moses (Exod. iii. 13-15), apparently following a conspicuous of these is the king of Hamath who in the inscrip- tradition according to which the Israelites had not been wor. tions of Sargon (722-705 B.C.) is called Yaubi'di and Ilubi'di shippers of Yahweh before the time of Moses, or, as he conceived (compare Jehoiakim-Eliakim). Azriyau of Jaudi, also, in it, had not worshipped the god of their fathers under that name. inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser (745-728 B.c.), who was for- The revelation of the name to Moses was made at a mountain merly supposed to be Azariah (Uzziah) of Judah, is probably sacred to Yahweh (the mountain of God) far to the south of a king of the country in northern Syria known to us from the Palestine, in a region where the forefathers of the Israelites had Zenjirli inscriptions as Ja'di. never roamed, and in the territory of other tribes; and long after Friedrich Delitzsch brought into notice three tablets, of the the settlement in Canaan this region continued to be regarded as age of the first dynasty of Babylon, in which he read the names the abode of Yahweh (Judg. V. 4; Deut. xxxiii. 2 sqq.; 1 Kings xix. of Ya-a’-ve-ilu, Ya-ve-ilu, and Ya-i-um-ilu (“ Yahweh is God ”), 8 sqq. &c.). Moses is closely connected with the tribes in the vici- and which he regarded as conclusive proof that Yahweh was nity of the holy mountain; according to one account, he married a known in Babylonia before 2000 B.C.; he was a god of the daughter of the priest of Midian (Exod. ii. 16 sqq.; iii. 1); to this Semitic invaders in the second wave of migration, who were, mountain he led the Israelites after their deliverance from according to Winckler and Delitzsch, of North Semitic stock Egypt; there his father-in-law met him, and extolling Yahweh (Canaanites, in the linguistic sense). We should thus have greater than all the gods," offered (in his capacity as priest in the tablets evidence of the worship of Yahweh among the of the place?) sacrifices, at which the chief men of the Israelites Western Semites at a time long before the rise of Israel. The were his guests; there the religion of Yahweh was revealed reading of the names is, however, extremely uncertain, not to say through Moses, and the Israelites pledged themselves to serve improbable, and the far-reaching inferences drawn from them God according to its prescriptions. It appears, therefore, that carry no conviction. In a tablet attributed to the 14th century in the tradition followed by the Israelite historian the tribes B.C. which Sellin found in the course of his excavations at within whose pasture lands the mountain of God stood were Tell Ta'annuk (the Taanach of the O.T.) a name occurs which worshippers of Yahweh before the time of Moses; and the surmise may be read Ahi-Yawi (equivalent to Hebrew Ahijah); 6 if the that the name Yahweh belongs to their speech, rather than to reading be correct, this would show that Yahweh was wor- that of Israel, has considerable probability. One of these tribes shipped in Central Palestine before the Israelite conquest. was Midian, in whose land the mountain of God lay. TheThe reading is, however, only one of several possibilities. The Kenites also, with whom another tradition connects Moses, fact that the full form Yahweh appears, whereas in Hebrew seem to have been worshippers of Yahweh. It is probable that proper names only the shorter Yahu and Yah occur, weighs Yahweh was at one time worshipped by various tribes south of somewhat against the interpretation, as it does against Delitzsch's Palestine, and that several places in that wide territory (Horeb, reading of his tablets. Sinai, Kadesh, &c.) were sacred to him; the oldest and most It would not be at all surprising if, in the great movements famous of these, the mountain of God, seems to have lain in of populations and shifting of ascendancy which lie beyond Arabia, east of the Red Sea. From some of these peoples and our historical horizon, the worship of Yahweh should have been at one of these holy places, a group of Israelite tribes adopted the established in regions remote from those which it occupied in religion of Yahweh, the God who, by the hand of Moses, had historical times; but nothing which we now know warrants the delivered them from Egypt. opinion that his worship was ever general among the Western 5 The tribes of this region probably belonged to some branch of Semites. the great Arab stock, and the name Yahweh has, accordingly, Many attempts have been made to trace the West Semitic been connected with the Arabic hawa, “the void ” (between | Yahu back to Babylonia. Thus Delitzsch formerly derived the heaven and earth), “the atmosphere," or with the verb hawa, name from an Akkadian god, I or Ia; or from the Semitic cognate with Heb. hāwāh,“ sink, glide down ” (through space); nominative ending, Yau;? but this deity has since disappeared hawwā" blow" (wind). “He rides through the air, He blows ” from the pantheon of Assyriologists. The combination of (Wellhausen), would be a fit name for a god of wind and storm. Yah with Ea, one of the great Babylonian gods, seems to have a There is, however, no certain evidence that the Israelites in his peculiar fascination for amateurs, by whom it is periodically torical times had any consciousness of the primitive significance“ discovered.” Scholars are now agreed that, so far as Yahu or of the name. Yah occurs in Babylonian texts, it is as the name of a foreign The attempts to connect the name Yahweh with that of god. an Indo-European deity (Jehovah-Jove, &c.), or to derive it from Assuming that Yahweh was primitively a nature god, scholars Egyptian or Chinese, may be passed over. But one theory which in the 19th century discussed the question over what sphere of has had considerable currency requires notice, namely, that nature he originally presided. According to some he was the Yahweh, or Yahu, Yaho, is the name of a god worshipped god of consuming fire; others saw in him the bright sky, or the throughout the whole, or a great part, of the area occupied by heaven; still others recognized in him a storm god, a theory the Western Semites. In its earlier form this opinion rested with which the derivation of the name from Heb. hāwāh or Arab. chiefly on certain misinterpreted testimonies in Greek authors hawa well accords. The association of Yahweh with storm and about a god ’láw, and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; re-fire is frequent in the Old Testament; the thunder is the voice cent adherents of the theory build more largely on the occurrence of Yahweh, the lightning his arrows, the rainbow his bow. The in various parts of this territory of proper names of persons revelation at Sinai is amid the awe-inspiring phenomena of tempest. Yahweh leads Israel through the desert in a pillar of 1 See HEBREW RELIGION. cloud and fire; be kindles Elijah's altar by lightning, and * The divergent Judaean tradition, according to which the fore translates the prophet in a chariot of fire. See also Judg. v.4 seq.; fathers had worshipped Yahweh from time immemorial, may indicate that Judah and the kindred clans had in fact been worshippers of * See a collection and critical estimate of this evidence by Zimmern, Yahweh before the time of Moses. Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 465 sqq. 3 The form Yahu, or Yaho, occurs not only in composition, but Babel und Bibel, 1902. The enormous, and for the most part by itself ; see. Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan, B 4, 6, 11; E 14; ephemeral, literature provoked by Delitzsch's lecture cannot be j' 6. This is doubtless the original of 'law, frequently found in cited here. Greek authors and in magical texts as the name of the God of the Denkschriften d. Wien. Akad., L. iv. p. 115 seq. (1904). Jews. • Wo lag da's Paradies? (1881), pp. 158-166. 314 JEHU—JELLACHICH ) Deut. xxxiii. 1; Ps. xviii. 7-15; Hab. iii. 3-6. The cherub In the course of an expedition against Hazael in 842 Shalma- upon which he rides when he flies on the wings of the wind neser II. of Assyria received tribute of silver and gold from (Ps. xviii. 10) is not improbably an ancient mythological per- Ya-u-a son of Omri,' Tyre and Sidon; another attack followed sonification of the storm cloud, the genius of tempest (cf. Ps. in 839. For some years after this Assyria was unable to interfere, civ. 3). In Ezekiel the throne of Yahweh is borne up on Che- and war broke out between Damascus and Israel. The Israelite rubim, the noise of whose wings is like thunder. Though we may story, which may perhaps be supplemented from Judaean sources recognize in this poetical imagery the survival of ancient and, (see Joase:), records a great loss of territory on the east of the if we please, mythical notions, we should err if we inferred Jordan (2 Kings x. 32 seq.). Under Jehu's successor Jehoahaz that Yahweh was originally a departmental god, presiding there was continual war with Hazael and his son Ben-hadad, specifically over meteorological phenomena, and that this con- but relief was obtained by his grandson Joash, and the land ception of him persisted among the Israelites till very late times. recovered complete independence under Jeroboam. Rather, as the god-or the chief god-of a region and a people, Jehu is also the name of a prophet of the time of Baasha and the most sublime and impressive phenomena, the control of the Jehoshaphat (1 Kings xvi.; 2 Chron. xix., xx.). (S. A. C.) mightiest forces of nature are attributed to him. As the God JEKYLL, SIR JOSEPH (1663–1738), English lawyer and mas. of Israel Yahweh becomes its leader and champion in war; he ter of the rolls, son of John Jekyll, was born in London, and after is a warrior, mighty in battle; but he is not a god of war in the studying at the Middle Temple was called to the bar in 1687. specific sense. He rapidly rose to be chief justice of Chester (1697), scrjeant-at- In the inquiry concerning the nature of Yahweh the name law and king's serjeant (1700), and a knight. In 1717 he was Yahweh Sebaoth (E.V., The LORD of Hosts) has had an important made master of the rolls. A Whig in politics, he sat in parliament place. The hosts have by some been interpreted of the armies for various constituencies from 1697 to the end of his life, and of Israel (see 1 Sam. xvii. 45, and note the association of the name took an active part there in debating constitutional questions in the Books of Samuel, where it first appears, with the ark, or with much learning, though, according to Lord Hervey (Mcm. 1, with war); by others, of the heavenly hosts, the stars conceived 474), with little“ approbation.” He was ccnsured by the House as living beings, later, perhaps, the angels as the court of Yahweh of Commons for accepting a brief for the defence of Lord Halifax and the instruments of his will in nature and history (Ps. Ixxxix.); | in a prosecution ordered by the house. He was one of the or of the forces of the world in general which do his bidding, managers of the impeachment of the Jacobite earl of Wintoun ef. the common Greek renderings, Kúplos. TWV Suvámewv and in 1715, and of Harley (Lord Oxford) in 1717. In later years K. Tavtokpátwp, Universal Ruler). It is likely that the name he supported Walpole. He became very unpopular in 1736 for was differently understood in different periods and circles; but his introduction of the “gin act,” taxing the retailing of in the prophets the hosts are clearly superhuman powers. In spirituous liquors, and his house had to be protected from the many passages the name seems to be only a more solemn sub- mob. Pope has an illusion to “ Jekyll or some odd Whig, Who stitute for the simple Yahweh, and as such it has probably never changed his principle or wig" (Epilogue to the Satires). often been inserted by scribes. Finally, Sebaoth came to be Jekyll was also responsible for the Mortmain Act of 1736, which treated as a proper name (cf. Ps. Ixxx. 5, 8, 20), and as such is was not superseded till 1888. He died without issue in 1738. Very common in magical texts. His great-nephew JOSEPH JEKYLL (d. 1837) was a lawyer, LITERATURE.- Reland, Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera politician and wit, who excited a good deal of contemporary pronuntiatione nominis Jehova, 1707; Reinke, Philologisch-histo- satire, and who wrote some jeux d'esprit which were well-known rische Abhandlung über den Gottesnamen Jehova," in Beiträge zur Erklärung des Alten Testaments, III. (1855); Baudissin, “ Der in his time. His Letters of the late Ignatius Sancho, an African, Ursprung des Gottesnamens 'law," in Studien zur semitischen Reli- was published in 1782. In 1894 his correspondence was edited, gionsgeschichte, I. (1876), 179-254; Driver, “ Recent Theories on the with a memoir, by the Hon. Algernon Bourke. Origin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton," in Studia Biblica, JELLACHICH, JOSEF, Count (1801-1859), Croatian states. I. (1885), 1-20; Deissmann, “Griechische Transkriptionen des Tetragrammaton," in Bibelstudien (1895), 1-20; Blau, Das altjüdi- man, was born on the 16th of October 1801 at Pétervárad. He sche Zauberwesen, 1898. See also HEBREW RELIGION. (G. F. Mo.) entered the Austrian army (1819), fought against the Bosnians in 1845, was made ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia in JEHU, son of Jehoshaphat and grandson of Nimshi, in the 1848 on the petition of the Croatians, and was simultaneously Bible, a general of Ahab and Jehoram, and, later, king of Israel. raised to the rank of lieutenant-general by the emperor. As ban, Ahaziah son of Jehoram of Judah and Jehoram brother of Ahaziah Jellachich's policy was directed to preserving the Slav kingdoms of Israel had taken joint action against the Aramaeans of Damas- for the Habsburg monarchy by identifying himself with the cus who were attacking Ramoth-Gilead under Hazael. Jehoram ' nationalist opposition to Magyar ascendancy, while at the same had returned wounded to his palace at Jezreel, whither Ahaziah time discouraging the extreme“ Illyrism "advocated by Lodovik had come down to visit him. Jehu, meanwhile, remained at the Gáj (1809-1872). Though his separatist measures at first seat of war, and the prophet Elisha sent a messenger to anoint brought him into disfavour at the imperial court, their true him king. The general at once acknowledged the call, “ drove objective was soon recognized, and, with the triumph of the more furiously” to Jezreel, and, having slain both kings, proceeded violent elements of the Hungarian revolution, he was hailed as to exterminate the whole of the royal family (2 Kings ix., X.). A the most conspicuous champion of the unity of the empire, and similar fate befell the royal princes of Judah (see ATHALIAH), was able to bring about that union of the imperial army with the and thus, for a time at least, the new king must have had com southern Slavs by which the revolution in Vienna and Budapest plete control over the two kingdoms (cf. 2 Chron. xxii. 9). was overthrown (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: History). He began Israelite historians viewed these events as a great religious the war of independence in September 1848 by crossing the Drave revolution inspired by Elijah and initiated by Elisha, as the at the head of 40,000 Croats. After the bloody battle of Buda overthrow of the worship of Baal, and as a retribution for the he concluded a three days' truce with the Hungarians to enable cruel murder of Naboth the Jezreelite (see JEZEBEL). A vivid him to assist Prince Windischgrätz to reduce Vienna, and subse- description is given of the destruction of the prophets of Baal at quently fought against the Magyars at Schwechát. During the the temple in Samaria (2 Kings x. 27; contrast iii. 2). While Jehu winter campaign of 1848-49 he commanded, under Windisch- was supported by the Rechabites in his reforming zeal, a similar grätz, the Austrian right wing, capturing Magyar-Ovar and revolt against Baalism in Judah is ascribed to the priest Jehoiada Raab, and defeating the Magyars at Mór. After the recapture (see Joash). In the tragedies of the period it seems clear that of Buda he was made commander-in-chief of the southern army. Elisha's interest in both Jehu and the Syrian Hazael (2 Kings viii. 7 sqq.) had some political significance, and in opposition 11.e. either descendant of, or from the same district as, Omri to the “ Deuteronomic " the commendation in 2 Kings x. 28 (see Hogs, Ency: Bib. col. 2291). The Assyrian king's sculpture, sqq., Hosea's denunciation (i. 4) indicates the judgment which depicting the embassy, and its gifts, is the so-called " black obelisk now in the British Museum (Nimroud Central Gallery, No. 98; was passed upon Jehu's bloodshed in other circles. Guide to Bab. and Ass. Antiq., 1900, p. 24 seq., pl. ii.). JELLINEK-JENA 315 At first be gained some successes against Bem (q.v.), but on the tower 318 ft. high, containing an altar, beneath which is a door- 14th of July 1849 was routed by the Hungarians at Hegyes and way leading to a vault, and a bronze statue of Luther, originally driven behind the Danube. He took no part in the remainder destined for his tomb; the university Library, in which is preserved of the war, but returned to Agram to administer Croatia. In a curious figure of a dragon; and the bridge across the Saale, as 1853 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent long as the church steeple is high, the centre arch of which is against Montenegro, and in 1855 was created a count. He died surmounted by a stone carved head of a malefactor. Across on the 20th of May 1859. His Gedichte were published at Vienna the river is the “ mountain," or hill, whence a fine view is ob- in 1851. tained of the town and surroundings, and hard by the Fuchs- See the anonymous The Croatian Revolution of the Year 1848 Turm (Fox tower) celebrated for student orgies, while in the (Croat.), Agram, 1898. (R. N. B.) centre of the town is the house of an astronomer, Weigel, with JELLINEK, ADOLF (1821–1893), Jewish preacher and Thus the seven marvels of Jena are summed up in the Latin a deep shaft through which the stars can be seen in the day time. scholar, was born in Moravia. After filling clerical posts in lines: Leipzig, he became Prediger (preacher) in Vienna in 1856. Ara, caput, draco, mons, pons, vulpecula turris, He was associated with the promoters of the New Learning Weigeliana domus; septem miracula Jenar. within Judaism, and wrote on the history of the Kabbala. His There must also be mentioned the university church, the new bibliographies (each bearing the Hebrew title Qontres) were useful university buildings, which occupy the site of the ducal palace compilations. But his most important work lay in three other (Schloss) where Goethe wrote his Hermann und Dorothea, the directions. (1) Midrashic. Jellinek published in the six parts Schwarzer Bär Hotel, where Luther spent the night after his of his Beth ha-Midrasch (1853-1878) a large number of smaller flight from the Wartburg, and four towers and a gateway which Midrashi, ancient and medieval homilies and folk-lore records, which have been of much service in the recent revival of interest of late years become a favourite residential resort and has greatly now alone mark the position of the ancient walls. The town has in Jewish apocalyptic literature. A translation of these collec- extended towards the west, where there is a colony of pleasant tions of Jellinek, into German was undertaken by A. Wuensche, villas. Its chief prosperity centres, however, in the university. under the general title Aus Israels Lehrhalle. (2) Psychological. În 1547 the elector John Frederick the Magnanimous of Saxony, Before the study of ethnic psychology had become a science, while a captive in the hands of the emperor Charles V., conceived Jellinek devoted attention to the subject. There is much keen the plan of founding a university at Jena, which was accordingly analysis and original investigation in his two essåys Der jüdische established by his three sons. After having obtained a charter Stamm (1869) and Der jüdische Stamm in nicht-jüdischen from the emperor Ferdinand I., it was inaugurated on the 2nd Sprich-wörtern (1881-1882). It is to Jellinek that we owe of February 1558. It was most numerously attended about the the oft-repeated comparison of the Jewish temperament to middle of the 18th century; but the most brilliant professoriate that of women in its quickness of perception, versatility and was under the duke Charles Augustus, Goethe's patron (1787– sensibility. (3) Homiletic, Jellinek was probably the greatest 1806), when Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, Schlegel and Schiller were synagogue orator of the 19th century. He published some 200 on its teaching staff. Founded as a home for the new religious sermons, in most of which are displayed unobtrusive learn- ing, fresh application of old sayings, and a high conception of Opinions of the 16th century, it has ever been in the forefront of German universities in liberally accepting new ideas. It Judaism and its claims. Jellinek was a powerful apologist and distances perhaps every other German university in the extent an accomplished homilist, at once profound and ingenious. to which it carries out what are popularly regarded as the charac- His son, GEORGE JELLINEK, was appointed professor of inter- teristics of German student-life-duelling and the passion for national law at Heidelberg in 1891. Another son, Max HERMANN Freiheit. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th JELLINEK, was made assistant professor of philology at Vienna century, the opening of new universities, co-operating with the in 1892. suspicions of the various German governments as to the demo- A brother of Adolf, HERMANN JELLINEK (b. 1823), was cratic opinions which obtained at Jena, militated against the executed at the age of 26 on account of his association with university, which has never regained its former prosperity. In the Hungarian national movement of 1848. One of Hermann Jellinek's best-known works was Uriel Acosta. Another brother, 1905 it was attended by about 1100 students, and its teaching staff (including privatdocenten) numbered 112. Amongst its MORITZ JELLINEK (1823-1883), was an accomplished econo- numerous auxiliaries may be mentioned the library, with 200,000 mist, and contributed to the Academy of Sciences essays on volumes, the observatory, the meteorological institute, the botan. the price of cereals and on the statistical organization of the ical garden, seminaries of theology, philology and education, country. He founded the Budapest tramway company (1864) and well equipped clinical, anatomical and physical institutes. and was also president of the corn exchange. There are also veterinary and agricultural colleges in connexion See Jewish Encyclopedia, vii. 92-94. For a haracter sket with the university. The manufactures of Jena are not consider- Adolf Jellinek see $. Singer, Lectures and Addresses (1908), pp; 88-93; able. The book trade has of late years revived, and there are Kohut, Berühmte israelitische Männer und Frauen. (1. A.) several printing establishments. JEMAPPÉS, a town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium, Jena appears to have possessed municipal rights in the 13th near Mons, famous as the scene of the battle at which Dumouriez, century. At the beginning of the 14th century it was in the at the head of the French Revolutionary Army, defeated the possession of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it passed in Austrian army (which was greatly outnumbered) under the 1423 to the elector of Saxony. Since 1485 it has remained in duke of Saxe-Teschen and Clerfayt on the 6th of November the Ernestine line of the house of Saxony. In 1662 it fell to 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars). Bernhard, youngest son of William duke of Weimar, and became JENA, a university town of Germany, in the grand duchy of the capital of a small separate duchy. Bernhard's line having Saxe-Weimar, on the left bank of the Saale, 56 m. S.W. from become extinct in 1690, Jena was united with Eisenach, and in Leipzig by the Grossberigen-Saalfeld and 12 m. S.E. of Weimar 1741 reverted with that duchy to Weimar. In more modern by The Weimar-Gera lines of railway. Pop. (1905), 26,355. times Jena has been made famous by the defeat inflicted in Iis situation in a broad valley environed by limestone hills is the vicinity, on the 14th of October 1806, by Nápoleon upon the somewhat dreary. To the north lies the plateau, descending Prussian army under the prince of Hohenlohe (see NAPOLEONIC steeply to the valley, famous as the scene of the battle of Jena. CAMPAIGNS). The town is surrounded by promenades occupying the site of See Schreiber and Färber, Jena von seinem Ursprung bis zur neuesten the old fortifications; it contains in addition to the medieval Zeit (2nd ed., 1858): Ortloff, Jena und Umgegend (3rd ed., 1875); market square, many old-fashioned houses and quaint narrow Leonhardt, Jena als Universität und Stadi Jena, 1902); Ritter, Führer durch Jena und Umgebung (Jena, 1901); Biedermann, Die streets. Besides the old university buildings, the most inter- Universität Jena (Jena, 1858); and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Jena esting edifices are the 15th-century church of St Michael, with a ledited by J. E. A. Martin and O. Devrient (1888-1903). 316 JENATSCH-JENGHIZ KHAN JENATSCH, GEORG (1596-1639), Swiss political leader, one of his kingdom to an assembly on the banks of the Onon, and of the most striking figures in the troubled history of the Grisons at their unanimous request adopted the name and title of in the 17th century, was born at Samaden (capital of the Upper Jenghiz Khan (Chinese, Chêng-sze, or “ perfect warrior"). At Engadine). He studied at Zürich and Basel, and in 1617 became this time there remained to him but one open enemy on the the Protestant pastor of Scharans (near Thusis). But almost at Mongolian steppes, Polo the Naiman khan. Against this chief once he plunged into active politics, taking the side of the he now led his troops, and in one battle so completely shattered Venetian and Protestant party of the Salis family, as against his forces that Kushlek, the successor of Polo, who was leſt dead the Spanish and Romanist policy supported by the rival family, upon the field, fled with his ally Toto, the Merkit khan, to the that of Planta. He headed the “preachers ” who in 1618 tor- river Irtysh. tured to death the arch-priest Rusca, of Sondrio, and outlawed Jenghiz Khan now meditated an invasion of the empire of the the Plantas. As reprisals, a number Protestants were Kin Tatars, who had wrested northern China from the Sung massacred at Tirano (1620), in the Valtellina, a very fertile dynasty. As a first step he invaded western Hia, and, having valley, of considerable strategical importance (for through it captured several strongholds, retired in the summer of 1208 to the Spaniards in Milan could communicate by the Umbrail Pass Lung-ting to escape the great heat of the plains. While there with the Austrians in Tirol), which then fell into the hands of the news reached him that Toto and Kushlek were preparing for Spanish. Jenátsch took part in the murder (1621) of Pompey war. In a pitched battle on the river Irtysh he overthrew them Planta, the head of the rival party, but later with his friends was completely. Toto was amongst the slain, and Kushlek fled for compelled to fly the country, giving up his position as a pastor, refuge to the Khitan Tatars. Satisfied with his victory, Jenghiz and henceforth acting solely as a soldier. He helped in the revolt again directed his forces against Hia. After having defeated against the Austrians in the Prättigau (1622), and in the invasion the Kin army under the leadership of a son of the sovereign, he of the Valtellina by a French army (1624), but the peace made captured the Wu-liang-hai Pass in the Great Wall, and pene- (1626) between France and Spain left the Valtellina in the trated as far as Ning-sia Fu in Kansuh. With unceasing vigour hands of the pope, and so destroyed Jenatsch's hopes. Having he pushed on his troops, and even established his sway over the killed his colonel, Ruinelli, in a duel, Jenatsch had once more to province of Liao-tung. Several of the Kin commanders, seeing leave his native land, and took service with the Venetians how persistently victory attended his banners, deserted to him, (1629-1630). In 1631 he went to Paris, and actively supported and garrisons surrendered at his bidding. Having thus secured Richelieu's schemes for driving the Spaniards out of the Val- a firm footing within the Great Wall, he despatched three armies tellina, which led to the successful campaign of Rohan (1635), in the autumn of 1213 to overrun the empire. The right wing, one of whose firmest supporters was Jenatsch. But he soon saw under his three sons, Juji, Jagatai and Ogotai, marched towards that the French were as unwilling as the Spaniards to restore the south; the left wing, under his brothers Hochar, Kwang-tsin the Valtellina to the Grisons (which had seized it in 1512). So Noyen and Chow-tse-te-po-shi, advanced eastward towards the he became a Romanist (1635), and negotiated secretly with the sea; while Jenghiz and his son Tulē with the centre directed their Spaniards and Austrians. He was the leader of the conspiracy course in a south-easterly direction. Complete success attended which broke out in 1637, and resulted in the expulsion of Rohan all three expeditions. The right wing advanced as far as Honan, and the French from the Grisons. This treachery on Jenatsch's and after having captured upwards of twenty-eight cities rejoined part did not, however, lead to the freeing of the Valtellina from headquarters by the great western road. Hochar made himself the Spaniards, and once more he tried to get French support. But master of the country as far as Liao-si; and Jenghiz ceased his on the 24th of January 1639 he was assassinated at Coire by triumphal career only when he reached the cliffs of the Shan- the Plantas; later in the same year the much coveted valley tung promontory. But either because he was weary of the was restored by Spain to the Grisons, which held it till 1797. strife, or because it was necessary to revisit his Mongolian Jenatsch's career is of general historical importance by reason of empire, he sent an envoy to the Kin emperor in the spring of the the long conflict between Erance and Spain for the possession following year (1214), saying, “All your possessions in Shan- of the Valtellina, which forms one of the most bloody episodes tung and the whole country north of the Yellow River are now in the Thirty Years' War. (W. A. B. C.) mine with the solitary exception of Yenking (the modern Peking). See biography by E. Haffter (Davos, 1894). By the decree of heaven you are now as weak as I am strong, but I am willing to retire from my conquests; as a condition of my JENGHIZ KHAN (1162-1227), Mongol emperor, was born in a doing so, however, it will be necessary that you distribute tent on the banks of the river Onon. His father Yesukai was largess to my officers and men to appease their fierce hostility." absent at the time of his birth, in a campaign against a Tatar These terms of safety the Kin emperor eagerly accepted, and as chieftain named Temuchin. The fortune of war favoured a peace offering he presented Jenghiz with a daughter of the late Yesukai, who having slain his enemy returned to his encampment emperor, another princess of the imperial house, 500 youths and in triumph. Here he was met by the news that his wife Yulun maidens, and 3000 horses. No sooner, however, had Jenghiz had given birth to a son. On examining the child be observed passed beyond the Great Wall than the Kin emperor, fearing to in its clenched fist a clot of coagulated blood like a red stone. remain any longer so near the Mongol frontier, moved his court In the eyes of the superstitious Mongol this circumstance referred to K'ai-fêng Fu in Honan. This transfer of capital appearing to his victory over the Tatar chieftain, and he therefore named to Jenghiz to indicate a hostile attitude, he once more marched the infant Temuchin. The death of Yesukai, which placed his troops into the doomed empire. Temuchin at the age of thirteen on the Mongol throne, was the While Jenghiz was thus adding city to city and province to signal also for the dispersal of several tribes whose allegiance province in China, Kushlek, the fugitive Naiman chief, was not the old chieftain had retained by his iron rule. When remon- idle. With characteristic treachery he requested permission strated with by Temuchin, the rebels replied: “ The deepest from his host, the Khitan khan, to collect the fragments of his wells are sometimes dry, and the hardest stone is sometimes army which had been scattered by Jenghiz at the battle on the broken; why should we cling to thee?” But Yulun was by no Irtysh, and thus having collected a considerable force he leagued means willing to see her son's power melt away; she led those himself with Mahommed, the shah of Khwārizm, against the retainers who remained faithful against the deserters, and suc- confiding khan. After a short but decisive campaign the allies ceeded in bringing back fully one half to their allegiance. With remained masters of the position, and the khan was compelled this doubtful material, Temuchin succeeded in holding his to abdicate the throne in favour of the late guest. ground against the plots and open hostilities of the neighbouring With the power and prestige thus acquired, Kushlek prepared tribes, more especially of the Naimans, Keraits and Merkits. once again to measure swords with the Mongol chief. On With one or other of these he maintained an almost unceasing receiving the news of his hostile preparations, Jenghiz at once warfare until 1206, when he felt strong enough to proclaim him- took the field, and in the first battle routed the Naiman troops self the ruler of an empire. He therefore summoned the notables I and made Kushlek a prisoner. His ill-gotten kingdom became JENGHIZ KHAN 317 an apanage of the Mongol Empire. Jenghiz now held sway up opening its gates to the Mongols. At this point of his vic- to the Khwārizm frontier. Beyond this he had no immediate torious career Tulē received an order to join Jenghiz before desire to go, and he therefore sent envoys to Mahommed, the Talikhan in Badakshan, where that chieftain was preparing to shah, with presents, saying, “I send thee greeting; I know thy renew his pursuit of Jelaleddin, after a check he had sustained power and the vast extent of thine empire; I regard thee as my in an engagement fought before Ghazni. As soon as sufficient most cherished son. On my part thou must know that I have reinforcements arrived Jenghiz advanced against Jelaleddin, conquered China and all the Turkish nations north of it; thou who had taken up a position on the banķs of the Indus. Here knowest that my country is a magazine of warriors, a mine the Turks, though far outnumbered, defended their ground of silver, and that I have no need of other lands. I take it that with undaunted courage, until, beaten at all points, they fled in we have an equal interest in encouraging trade between our confusion. Jelaleddin, seeing that all was lost, mounted a fresh subjects." This peaceful message was well received by the shah, horse and jumped into the river, which flowed 20 ft. below. and in all probability the Mongol armies would never have With admiring gaze Jenghiz watched the desperate venture of appeared in Europe but for an unfortunate occurrence. Shortly his enemy, and even saw without regret the dripping horseman after the despatch of this first mission Jenghiz sent a party of mount the opposite bank. From the Indus Jenghiz sent in traders into Transoxiana who were seized and put to death as pursuit of Jelaleddin, who fled to Delhi, but failing to capture spies by Inaljuk, the governor of Otrar. As satisfaction for the fugitive the Mongols relurned to Ghazni after having ravaged this outrage Jenghiz demanded the extradition of the offending the provinces of Lahore, Peshawar and Melikpur. At this governor. Far from yielding to this summons, however, moment news reached Jenghiz that the inhabitants of Herat Mahommed beheaded the chief of the Mongol envoys, and sent had deposed the governor whom Tulē had appointed over the the others back without their beards. This insult made war city, and had placed one of their own choice in his room. To inevitable, and in the spring of 1219 Jenghiz set out from punish this act of rebellion Jenghiz sent an army of 80,000 Karakorum on a campaign which was destined to be as startling men against the offending city, which after a siege of six months in its immediate results as its ulterior effects were far-reaching. was taken by assault. For a whole week the Mongols ceased The invading force was in the first instance divided into two not to kill, burn and destroy, and 1,600,000 persons are said to armies: one commanded by Jenghiz's second son Jagatai was have been massacred within the walls. Having consummated directed to march against the Kankalis, the northern defenders this act of vengeance, Jenghiz returned to Mongolia by way of of the Khwărizm empire; and the other, led by Juji, his eldest Balkh, Bokhara and Samarkand. son, advanced by way of Sighnak against Jand (Jend). Against Meanwhile Chēpē and Sabutai marched through Azerbeijan, this latter force Mahommed led an army of 400,000 men, who and in the spring of 1222 advanced into Georgia. Here they were completely routed, leaving it is said 160,000 dead upon defeated a combined force of Lesghians, Circassians and Kip- the field. With the remnant of his host Mahommed fled to chaks, and after taking Astrakhan followed the retreating Kip- Samarkand. Meanwhile Jagatai marched down upon the Syrchaks to the Don. The news of the approach of the mysterious Daria' (Jaxartes) by the pass of Taras and invested Otrar, the enemy of whose name even they were ignorant was received by offending city. After a siege of five months the citadel was taken the Russian princes at Kiev with dismay. At the instigation, by assault, and Inaljuk and his followers were put to the sword. however, of Mitislaf, prince of Galicia, they assembled an opposing The conquerors levelled the walls with the ground, after having force on the Dnieper. Here they received envoys from the given the city over to pillage. At the same time a third army Mongol camp, whom they barbarously put to death. besieged and took Khojent on the Jaxartes; and yet a fourth, led have killed our envoys,” was the answer made by the Mongols; by Jenghiz and his youngest son Tulē, advanced in the direction “ well, as you wish for war you shall have it. We have done of Bokhara. Tashkent and Nur surrendered on their approach, you no harm. God is impartial; He will decide our quarrel." and after a short siege Bokhara fell into their hands. On In the first battle, on the river Kaleza, the Russians were utterly entering the town Jenghiz ascended the steps of the principal routed, and filed before the invaders, who, after ravaging Great mosque, and shouted to his followers, “ The hay is cut; give your Bulgaria retired, gorged with booty, through the country of horses fodder.” No second invitation to plunder was needed; Saksin, along the river Aktuba, on their way to Mongolia. the city was sacked, and the inhabitants either escaped beyond In China the same success had attended the Mongol arms as in the walls or were compelled to submit to infamies which were western Asia. The whole of the country north of the Yellow worse than death. As a final act of vengeance the town was river, with the exception of one or two cities, was added to the fired, and before the last of the Mongols left the district, the Mongol rule, and, on the death of the Kin emperor Süan Tsung great mosque and certain palaces were the only bụildings left in 1223, the Kin empire virtually ceased to be, and Jenghiz's to mark the spot where the “ centre of science” once stood. frontiers thus became conterminous with those of the Sung From the ruins of Bokhara Jenghiz advanced along the valley emperors who held sway over the whole of central and of the Sogd to Samarkand, which, weakened by treachery, sur- southern China. After his return from Central Asia, Jenghiż rendered to him, as did also Balkh. But in neither case did once more took the field in western China. While on this cam- submission save either the inhabitants from slaughter or the paign the five planets appeared in a certain conjunction, which to city from pillage. Beyond this point Jenghiz went no farther the superstitiously minded Mongol chief foretold that evil was westward, but sent Tulē, at the head of 70,000 men, to ravage awaiting him. With this presentiment strongly impressed Khorasan, and two flying columns under Chēpē and Sabutai upon him he turned his face homewards, and had advanced no Bahadar to pursue after Mahommed who had taken refuge in farther than the Si-Kiang river in Kansuh when he was seized Nishapur. Defeated and almost alone, Mahommed fled before with an illness of which he died a short time afterwards (1227) his pursuers to the village of Astara on the shore of the Caspian at his travelling palace at Ha-lao-tu, on the banks of the river Sea, where he died of an attack of pleurisy, leaving his empire Sale in Mongolia. By the terms of his will Ogotai was appointed to his son Jelaleddin (Jalāl ud-din). Meanwhile Tulē carried his his successor, but so essential was it considered to be that his arms into the fertile province of Khorasan, and after having death should remain a secret until Ogotai was proclaimed that, captured Nessa by assault appeared before Merv. By an act of as the funeral procession moved northwards to the great ordu atrocious treachery the Mongols gained possession of the city, on the banks of the Kerulen, the escort killed every one they and, after their manner, sacked and burnt the town. From Merv met. The body of Jenghiz was then carried successively to the Tulē marched upon Nishapur, where he met with a most deter- ordus of his several wives, and was finally laid to rest in the mined resistance. For four days the garrison fought desperately valley of Kilien. on the walls and in the streets, but at length they were over- Thus ended the career of one of the greatest conquerors the powered, and, with the exception of 400 artisans who were sent world has ever seen, Born and nurtured as the chief of a petty into Mongolia, every man, woman and child was slain. Herat Mongolian tribe, he lived to see his armies victorious from the escaped the fate which had overtaken Merv and Nishapur by China Sea to the banks of the Dnieper; and, though the empire “ You " 318 JENKIN-JENKS ܙܙ . which he created ultimately dwindled away under the hands of Bill, though he was by no means a pliant tool in the hands of the his degenerate descendants, leaving not a wrack behind, we have court. He resigned office in 1684, and died on the ist of Sep- in the presence of the Turks in Europe a consequence of his rule, tember 1685. He left most of his property to Jesus College, since it was the advance of his armies which drove their Osmanli Oxford, including his books, which he bequeathed to the college ancestors from their original home in northern Asia, and thus library, built by himself; and he left some important manuscripts led to their invasion of Bithynia under Othman, and finally their to All Souls College, where they are preserved. Jenkins left his advance into Europe under Amurath I. impress on the law of England in the Statute of Frauds, and the See Sir H. H. Howorth, The History of the Mongols; Sir Robert K. Statute of Distributions, of which he was the principal author, Douglas, The Life of Jenghiz Khan. (R. K. D.) and of which the former profoundly affected the mercantile law JENKIN, HENRY CHARLES FLEEMING (1833-1885), British of the country, while the latter regulated the inheritance of the engineer, was born near Dungeness on the 25th of March 1833, personal property of intestates. He was never married. his father (d. 1885) being a naval commander, and his mother See William Wynne, Life of Sir Leoline Jenkins (2 vols., London, (d. 1885) a novelist of some literary repute, her best books perhaps 1724); which contains a number of his diplomatic despatches, letters, being Cousin Stella (1859) and Who breaks, pays (1861). Fleem- vol. ii. (4 vols., 1770): Anthony à Wood, Athenae Oxonienses speeches and other papers. See also Sir William Temple, Works, ing Jenkin was educated at first in Scotland, but in 1846 the (Fasti) edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813-1820), and History family went to live abroad, owing to financial straits, and he and Antiquities of the University of Oxford, edited by J. Gutch (Oxford, studied at Genoa University, where he took a first-class degree 1792-1796). in physical science. In 1851 he began his engineering career as JENKINS, ROBERT (A. 1731-1745), English master mariner, apprentice in an establishment at Manchester, and subsequently is known as the protagonist of the “ Jenkins's ear incident, he entered Newall's submarine cable works at Birkenhead. In which, magnified in England by the press and the opposition, 1859 he began, in concert with Sir William Thomson (afterwards became a contributory cause of the war between England and Lord Kelvin), to work on problems respecting the making and Spain (1739). Bringing home the brig“Rebecca" from the West use of cables, and the importance of his researches on the resis- | Indies in 1731, Jenkins was boarded by a Spanish guarda-costa, whose commander rifled the holds and cut off one of his ears. On tance of gutta-percha was at once recognized. From this time he was in constant request in connexion with submarine tele- arriving in England Jenkins stated his grievance to the king, and graphy, and he became known also as an inventor. In partner- a report was furnished by the commander-in-chief in the West ship with Thomson, he made a large income as a consulting Indies confirming his account. At first the case created no great telegraph engineer. In 1865 he was elected F.R.S., and was stir, but in 1738 he repeated his story with dramatic detail appointed professor of engineering at University College, London. before a committee of the House of Commons, producing what In 1868 he obtained the same professorship at Edinburgh Univer- purported to be the ear that had been cut off. Afterwards it sity, and in 1873 he published a textbook of Magnetism and was suggested that he might have lost the ear in the pillory. Electricity, full of original work. He was author of the article Jenkins was subsequently given the command of a ship in the “ Bridges in the ninth edition of this encyclopaedia. His company's affairs at St Helena. East India Company's service, and later became supervisor of the In 1741 he was sent from England influence among the Edinburgh students was pronounced, and to that island to investigate charges of corruption brought against, R. L. Stevenson's well-known Memoir is a sympathetic tribute the acting governor, and from May 1741 until March 1742 he admin- istered the affairs of the island. Thereafter he resumed his naval to his ability and character. The meteoric charm of his conver- sation is well described in Stevenson's essay on “ Talk and served his own vessel and three others under his care (see T. H. career, and is stated in an action with a pirate vessel to have pre- Talkers," under the name of Cockshot. Jenkin's interests were Brooke, History of the Island of St Helena (London, 2nd ed., 1824), by no means confined to engineering, but extended to the arts and and H. R. Janisch, Extracts from the St Helena Records, 1885). literature; his miscellaneous papers, showing his critical and JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE (1856– ), American econo- unconventional views, were issued posthumously in two volumes mist, was born in St Clair, Michigan, on the end of September (1887). In 1882 Jenkin invented an automatic method of 1856. He graduated at the university of Michigan in 1878; electric transport for goods—"telpherage "-but the completion taught Greek, Latin and German in Mt. Morris College, Illinois; of its details was prevented by his death on the 12th of June studied in Germany, receiving the degree of Ph.D. from the 1885. A telpher line on his system was subsequently erected university of Halle in 1885; taught political science and English at Glynde in Sussex. He was also well known as a sanitary literature at Knox College, Galesburg, III., in 1886–1889; was reformer, and during the last ten years of his life he did much professor of political economy and social science at Indiana State useful work in inculcating more enlightened ideas on the subject University in 1889-1891; and was successively professor of politi- both in Edinburgh and other places. cal, municipal and social institutions (1891-1892), professor of JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE (1623-1685), English lawyer and political economy and civil and social institutions (1892–1901), diplomatist, was the son of a Welsh country gentleman. He was and after 1901 professor of political economy and politics at born in 1623 and was educated at Jesus College, Oxford, of which Cornell University. In 1899-1901 he served as an expert agent he was elected a fellow at the Restoration in 1660, having been an of the United States industrial commission on investigation ardent royalist during the civil war and commonwealth; and in of trusts and industrial combinations in the United States 1661 he became head of the college. In the same year he was and Europe, and contributed to vols. i., viii. and xiïi. of this made registrar of the consistory court of Westminster; in 1664 commission's report (1900 and 1901), vol. viii. being a report, deputy judge of the court of arches; about a year later judge of written wholly by him, on industrial combinations in Europe. In the admiralty court; in 1689 judge of the prerogative court of 1901-1902 he was special commissioner of the United States war Canterbury. In these offices Jenkins did enduring work in eluci- department on colonial administration, and wrote a Report on dating and establishing legal principles, especially in relation to Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in international law and admiralty jurisdiction. He was selected to the Orient, published (1902) by the bureau of insular affairs, and draw up the claim of Charles II. to succeed to the property of his in 1903 he was adviser to the Mexican ministry of finance on pro- mother, Henrietta Maria, on her death in August 1666, and while jected currency changes. In 1903-1904 he was a member of the in Paris for this purpose he succeeded in defeating the rival claim United States commission on international exchange, in especial of the duchess of Orleans, being rewarded by a knighthood on his charge of the reform of currency in China; in 1905 he was special return. In 1673, on being elected member for Hythe, Jenkins representative of the United States with the imperial Chinese resigned the headship of Jesus College. He was one of the special mission visiting the United States. In 1907 he became a English representatives at the congress of Cologne in 1673, and member of the United States immigration commission. Best at the more important congress of Nijmwegen in 1676- | known as an expert on “trusts,” he has written besides on elec- 1679. He was made a privy councillor in February 1680 and tions, ballot reform, proportional representation, on education became secretary of state in April of the same year, in which (especially as a training for citizenship), on legislation regarding office he was the official leader of the opposition to the Exclusion highways, &c. JENNÉ-JENNER, EDWARD 319 : ökonom (Halle a. S., 1885); The Trust Problem (1900; revised 1903); constructed the first balloon seen in those parts. He was a great His principal published works are Henry C. Carey als National | varied geological character of the district in which he lived, and Great Fortunes (1906): Citizenship and the Schools (1906); and Prin- favourite in general society, from his agreeable and instructive ciples of Politics (1909). JENNÉ, a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the Thus he was a fair musician, both as a part singer and as a per- conversation, and the many accomplishments he possessed. Songhoi empire, now included in the French colony of Upper former on the violin and Aute, and a very successful writer, after Senegal and Niger. Jenné is situated on a marigot or natural the fashion of that time, of fugitive pieces of verse. In 1788 he canal connecting the Niger and its affluent the Bani or Mahel married Catherine Kingscote, and in 1792 he obtained the degree Balevel, and is within a few miles of the latter stream. It lies of doctor of medicine from St Andrews. 250 m. S.W. of Timbuktu in a straight line. The city is sur- Meanwhile the discovery that is associated with his name rounded by channels connected with the Bani but in the had been slowly maturing in his mind. When only an apprentice dry season it ceases to be an island. On the north is the at Sodbury, his attention had been directed to the relations Moorish quarter; on the north-west, the oldest part of the between cow-pox and small-pox in connexion with a popular city, stood the citadel, converted by the French since 1893 belief which he found current in Gloucestershire, as to the antagon- into a modern fort. The market-place is midway between the ism between these two diseases. During his stay in London fort and the commercial harbour. The old mosque, partially he appears to have mentioned the thing repeatedly to Hunter, destroyed in 1830, covered a large area in the south-west portion who, being engrossed by other important pursuits, was not so of the city. It was built on the site of the ancient palace of the strongly persuaded as Jenner was of its possible importance, yet Songhoi kings. The architecture of many of the buildings spoke of it to his friends and in his lectures. After he began bears a resemblance to Egyptian, the façades of the houses being practice in Berkeley, Jenner was always accustomed to inquire adorned with great buttresses of pylonic form. There is little what his professional brethren thought of it; but he found that, trace of the infiuence of Moorish or Arabian art. The build- when medical men had noticed the popular report at all, they ings are mostly constructed of clay made into flat long bricks. supposed it to be based on imperfect induction. His first careful Massive clay walls surround the city. The inhabitants are great investigation of the subject dated from about 1775, and five years traders and the principal merchants have representatives at elapsed before he had succeeded in clearing away the most per- Timbuktu and all the chief places on the Niger. The boats plexing difficulties by which it was surrounded. He first built at Jenné are famous throughout the western Sudan. satisfied himself that two different forms of disease had been Jenné is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the hitherto confounded under the term cow-pox, only one of which 8th century, and though it has passed under the dominion of protected against small-pox, and that many of the cases of failure many races it has never been destroyed. Jenné seems to have were to be thus accounted for; and his next step was to ascertain been at the height of its power from the 12th to the 16th century, that the true cow-pox itself only protects when communicated when its merchandise was found at every port along the west at a particular stage of the disease. At the same time he came coast of Africa. From this circumstance it is conjectured that to the conclusion that “the grease" of horses is the same Jenné (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see GUINEA). disease as cow-pox and small-pox, each being modified by the Subsequently, under the control of Moorish, Tuareg and Fula organism in which it was developed. For many years, cow-pox invaders, the importance of the city greatly declined. With the being scarce in his county, he had no opportunity of inoculating advent of the French, commerce again began to flourish. the disease, and so putting his discovery to the test, but he did See F. Dubois, Tombouctou la mystérieuse (Paris, 1897), in which all he could in the way of collecting information and communi- several chapters are devoted to Jenné; also SONGHOI; TIMBUKTU; cating what he had ascertained. Thus in 1788 he carried a drawing of the cow-pox, as seen on the hands of a milkmaid, to JENNER, EDWARD (1749-1823), English physician and London, and showed it to Sir E. Home and others, who agreed discoverer of vaccination, was born at Berkeley, Gloucestershire, that it was "an interesting and curious subject.” At length, on the 17th of May 1749. His father, the Rev. Stephen Jenner, on the 14th of May 1796, he was able to inoculate James rector of Rockhampton and vicar of Berkeley, came of a family Phipps, a boy about eight years old, with matter from cow-pox that had been long established in that county, and was possessed vesicles on the hand of Sarah Nelmes. On the ist of the follow- of considerable landed property; he died when Edward was ing July the boy was carefully inoculated with variolous matter, only six years old, but his eldest son, the Rev. Stephen Jenner, but (as Jenner had predicted) no small-pox followed. The dis- brought his brother up with paternal care and tenderness. covery was now complete, but Jenner was unable to repeat his Edward received his early education at Wotton-under-Edge experiment until 1798, owing to the disappearance of cow-pox and Cirencester, where he already showed a strong taste for from the dairies. He then repeated his inoculations with the natural history. The medical profession having been selected utmost care, and prepared a pamphlet (Inquiry into the Cause and for him, he began his studies under Daniel Ludlow, a Efects of the Variolae Vaccinae) which should announce his dis- surgeon of Sodbury near Bristol; but in his twenty-first year covery to the world. Before publishing it, however, he thought he proceeded to London, where he became a favourite pupil it well to visit London, so as to demonstrate the truth of his of John Hunter, in whose house he resided for two years. assertions to his friends; but he remained in London nearly three During this period he was employed by Sir Joseph Banks to months, without being able to find any person who would submit arrange and prepare the valuable zoological specimens which to be vaccinated. Soon after he had returned home, however, he had brought back from Captain Cook's first voyage in Henry Cline, surgeon of St Thomas's Hospital, inoculated some 1771. He must have acquitted himself satisfactorily in this vaccine matter obtained from him over the diseased hip-joint of a task, since he was offered the post of naturalist in the second child, thinking the counter-irritation might be useful, and found expedition, but declined it as well as other advantageous offers, the patient afterwards incapable of acquiring small-pox. In the preferring rather to practise his profession in his native place, autumn of the same year, Jenner met with the first opposition to and near his eldest brother, to whom he was much attached. He vaccination; and this was the more formidable because it pro. was the principal founder of a local medical society, to which ceded from J. Ingenhousz, a celebrated physician and man of be contributed several papers of marked ability, in one of which science. But meanwhile Cline's advocacy of vaccination brought he apparently anticipated later discoveries concerning rheumatic it much more decidedly before the medical profession, of whom inflammations of the heart. He maintained a correspondence the majority were prudent enough to suspend their judgment with John Hunter, under whose direction he investigated various until they had more ample information. But besides these points in biology, particularly the hibernation of hedgehogs and there were two noisy and troublesome factions, one of which habits of the cuckoo; his paper on the latter subject was laid by opposed vaccination as a useless and dangerous practice, while Hunter before the Royal Society, and appeared in the Phil. the other endangered its success much more by rash and self- Trans. for 1788. He also devoted considerable attention to the sceking advocacy. At the head of the latter was George Pearson, and SEXEGAL. 320 JENNER, EDWARD 1 who in November 1798 published a pamphlet speculating upon was “the vaccine clerk of the whole world.” At the same time the subject; before even seeing a case of cow-pox, and after- he continued to vaccinate gratuitously all the poor who applied wards endeavoured, by lecturing on the subject and supplying to him on certain days, so that he sometimes had as many as the virus, to put himself forward as the chief agent in the cause. three hundred persons waiting at his door. Meanwhile honours The matter which he distributed, which had been derived from began to shower upon him from abroad: he was elected a member cows that were found to be infected in London, was found fre- of almost all the chief scientific societies on the continent of quently to produce, not the slight disease described by Jenner, Europe, the first being that of Göttingen, where he was pro- but more or less severe eruptions resembling small-pox. Jenner posed by J. F. Blumenbach. But perhaps the most flattering concluded at once that this was due to an accidental contamina- proof of his influence was derived from France. On one occasion, tion of the vaccine with variolous matter, and a visit to London when he was endeavouring to obtain the release of some of the in the spring of 1799 convinced him that this was the case. In unfortunate Englishmen who had been detained in France on the course of this year the practice of vaccination spread over the sudden termination of the Peace of Amiens, Napoleon was England, being urged principally by non-professional persons of about to reject the petition, when Josephine uttered the name of position; and towards its close attempts were made to found insti- Jenner. The emperor paused and exclaimed: “Ah, we can tutions for gratuitous vaccination and for supplying lymph to refuse nothing to that name. Somewhat later he did the same all who might apply for it. Pearson proposed to establish one of service to Englishmen confined in Mexico and in Austria; and these in London, without Jenner's knowledge, in which he offered during the latter part of the great war persons before leaving him the post of honorary corresponding physician! On learning England would sometimes obtain certificates signed by him of this scheme to supplant him, and to carry on an institution which served as passports. In his own country his merits were for public vaccination on principles which he knew to be partly less recognized. His applications on behalf of French prisoners erroneous, Jenner once more visited London early in 1800, when in England were less successful; he never shared in any of the he had influence enough to secure the abandonment of the patronage at the disposal of the government, and was even unable project. He was afterwards presented to the king, the queen to obtain a living for his nephew George. and the prince of Wales, whose encouragement materially aided In 1806 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards the marquess of Lans- the spread of vaccination in England. Meanwhile it had made downe) became chancellor of the exchequer, and was so con- rapid progress in the United States, where it was introduced by vinced of the inadequacy of the former parliamentary grant that Benjamin Waterhouse, then professor of physic at Harvard, he proposed an address to the Crown, praying that the college of and on the continent of Europe, where it was at first diffused physicians should be directed to report upon the success of by De Carro of Vienna. In consequence of the war between vaccination. Their report being-strongly in its favour, the then England and France, the discovery was later in reaching Paris; chancellor of the exchequer (Spencer Perceval) proposed that but, its importance once realized, it spread rapidly over France, a sum of £10,000 without any deductions should be paid to Spain and Italy. Jenner. The anti-vaccinationists found but one advocate in A few of the incidents connected with its extension may be the House of Commons; and finally the sum was raised to £20,000. mentioned. Perhaps the most striking is the expedition which Jenner, however, at the same time had the mortification of was sent out by the court of Spain in 1803, for the purpose of learning that government did not intend to take any steps diffusing cow-pox through all the Spanish possessions in the towards checking small-rox inoculation, which so persistently Old and New Worlds, and which returned in three years, having kept up that disease. About the same time a subscription for circumnavigated the globe, and succeeded beyond its utmost his benefit was begun in India, where his discovery had been expectations. Clergymen in Geneva and Holland urged vacci- gratefully received, but the full amount of this (£7383) only nation upon their parishioners from the pulpit; in Sicily, South reached him in 1812., America and Naples religious processions were formed for the The Royal Jennerian Society having failed, the national vaccine purpose of receiving it; the anniversary of Jenner's birthday, or establishment was founded, for the extension of vaccination, in of the successful vaccination of James Phipps, was for many 1808. Jenner spent five months in London for the purpose of years celebrated as a feast in Germany; and the empress of organizing it, but was then obliged, by the dangerous illness of Russia caused the first child operated upon to receive the one of his sons, to return to Berkeley. He had been appointed name of Vaccinov, and to be educated at the public expense. director of the institution; but he had no sooner leſt London About the close of the year 1801 Jenner's friends in Gloucester-than Sir Lucas Pepys, president of the college of physicians, shire presented him with a small service of plate as a testimonial neglected his recommendations, and formed the board out of the of the esteem in which they held his discovery. This was in- officials of that college and the college of surgeons. Jenner at tended merely as a preliminary to the presenting of a petition once resigned his post as director, though he continued to give to parliament for a grant. The petition was presented in 1802, the benefit of his advice whenever it was needed, and this resigna- and was referred to a committee, of which the investigations tion was a bitter mortification to him. In 1810 his eldest son, resulted in a report in favour of the grant, and ultimately in a died, and Jenner's grief at his loss, and his incessant labours, vote of £10,000. materially affected his health. In 1813 the university of Towards the end of 1802 steps were taken to form a society for Oxford conferred on him the degree of M.D. It was believed the proper spread of vaccination in London, and the Royal that this would lead to his election into the college of physicians, Jennerian Society was finally established, Jenner returning to but that learned body decided that he could not be admitted town to preside at the first meeting. This institution began very until he had undergone an examination in classics. This Jenner prosperously, more than twelve thousand persons having been at once refused; to brush up his classics would, he said, “be inoculated in the first eighteen months, and with such effect that irksome beyond measure. I would not do it for a diadem. That the deaths from small-pox, which for the latter half of the 18th indeed would be a bauble; I would not do it for John Hunter's century had averaged 2018 annually, fell in 1804 to 622. Unfor- museum. tunately the chief resident inoculator soon set himself up as an He visited London for the last time in 1814, when he was authority opposed to Jenner, and this led to such dissensions as presented to the Allied Sovereigns and to most of the principal caused the society to die out in 1808. personages who accompanied them. In the next year his wife's Jenner was led, by the language of the chancellor of the ex- death was the signal for him to retire from public life: he never chequer when his grant was proposed, to attempt practice in left Berkeley again, except for a day or two, as long as he lived. London, but after a year's trial he returned to Berkeley. His grant | He found sufficient occupation for the remainder of his life in was not paid until 1804, and then, after the deduction of about collecting further evidence on some points connected with his £1000 for fees, it did little more than pay the expenses attendant great discovery, and in his engagements as a physician, a upon his discovery. For he was so thoroughly known every naturalist and a magistrate. In 1818 a severe epidemic of where as the discoverer of vaccination that, as he himself said, he / small-pox prevailed, and fresh doubts were thrown on the » JENNER, SIR WILLIAM-JEPHSON 321 efficacy of vaccination, in part apparently owing to the bad | Lübeck, Jensen studied medicine at the universities of Kiel, quality of the vaccine lymph employed. This caused Jenner Würzburg and Breslau. He, however, abandoned the medical much annoyance, which was relieved by an able defence of the profession for that of letters, and after engaging for some years practice, written by Sir Gilbert Blane. But this led him, in in individual private study proceeded to Munich, where he 1821, to send a circular letter to most of the medical men in associated with men of letters. After'a residence in Stuttgart the kingdom inquiring into the effect of other skin diseases in (1865-1869), where for a short time he conducted the Schwä. modifying the progress of cow-pox. A year later he published bische Volks-Zeitung, he. became editor in Flensburg of the his last work, On the Influence of Artificial Eruptions in Certain Norddeutsche Zeitung. In 1872 he again returned to Kiel, lived Diseases; and in 1823 he presented his last paper—“On the from 1876 to 1888 in Freiburg im Breisgau, and since 1888 has Migration of Birds ”--to the Royal Society. On the 24th of been resident in Munich. January 1823 he retired to rest apparently as well as usual, and Jensen is perhaps the most fertile of modern German writers of next morning rose and came down to his library, where he was fiction, more than one. hundred works having proceeded from his found insensible on the floor, in a state of apoplexy, and with pen; but only comparatively few of them have caught the public taste; such are the novels, Karin von Schweden (Berlin, 1878); Die the right side paralysed. He never rallied, and died on the braune Erica (Berlin, 1868); and the tale, Die Pfeifer von Dusenbach, following morning. Eine Geschichte aus dem Elsass (1884). Among others may be A public subscription was set on foot, shortly after his death, mentioned: Barthenia (Berlin, 1877); Götz und Gisela (Berlin, 1886); by the medical men of his county, for the purpose of erecting Heimkunft (Dresden, 1894); Aus See und Sand (Dresden, 1897); Luv und Lee (Berlin, 1897); and the narratives, Aus den Tagen der some memorial in his honour, and with much difficulty a suffi- Hansa (Leipzig, 1885); Aus stiller Zeit (Berlin, 1881-1885); and cient sum was raised to enable a statue to be placed in Gloucester Heimath (190.1)... Jensen also published some tragedies, among Cathedral. In 1850 another attempt was made to set up a monu- which Dido (Berlin, 1870) and Der Kampf für's Reich (Freiburg im ment to him; this appears to have failed, but at length, in 1858, Br., 1884) may be mentioned. a statue of him was erected by public subscription in London. JENYNS, SOAME (1704-1787), English author, was born in Jenner's life was written by the intimate friend of his later years, London on the ist of January 1704, and was educated at Dr John Baron of Gloucester (2 vols., 1827, 1838). See also St John's College, Cambridge. In 1742 he was chosen M.P. for VACCINATION. Cambridgeshire, in which his property lay, and he afterwards sat JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, BART.(1815-1898), English physician, for the borough of Dunwich and the town of Cambridge. From was born at Chatham on the 30th of January 1815, and educated 1755 to 1780 he was one of the commissioners of the board of at University College, London. He became M.R.C.S. in 1837, trade. He died on the 18th of December 1787. and F.R.C.P. in 1852, and in 1844 took the London M.D. In For the measure of literary repute which he enjoyed during his 1847 he began at the London fever hospital investigations into life Jenyns was indebted as much to his wealth and social stand- cases of " continued ”fever which enabled him finally to make the ing as to his accomplishments and talents, though both were distinction between typhus and typhoid on which his reputation considerable. His poetical works, the Art of Dancing (1727) and as a pathologist principally rests. In 1849 he was appointed pro- Miscellanies (1770), contain many passages graceful and lively fessor of pathological anatomy at University College, and also though occasionally verging, on licence. The first of his prose assistant physician to University College Hospital, where he works was his Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil afterwards becamephysician(1854–1876)and consultingphysician (1756).. This essay was severely criticized on its appearance, (1879), besides holding similar appointments at other hospitals. especially by Samuel Johnson in the Literary Magazine. John- He was also successively Holme professor of clinical medicine son, in a slashing review—the best paper of the kind he ever and professor of the principles and practice of medicine at wrote-condemned the book as a slight and shallow attempt to University College. He was president of the college of physicians solve one of the most difficult of moral problems. Jenyns, a (1881–1888); he was elected F.R.S. in 1864, and received honorary gentle and amiable man in the main, was extremely irritated by degrees from Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 1861 he his failure. He put forth a second edition of his work, prefaced was appointed physician extraordinary, and in 1862 physician by a vindication, and tried to take vengeance on Johnson after in ordinary, to Queen Victoria, and in 1863 physician in ordinary his death by a sarcastic epitaph. In 1776 Jenyns published his to the prince of Wales; he attended both the prince consort and View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion. Though the prince of Wales in their attacks of typhoid fever. In 1868 at one period of his life he had affected a kind of deistic scepticism, he was created a baronet. As a consultant Sir William Jenner he had now returned to orthodoxy, and there seems no reason had a great reputation, and he left a large fortune when he died, to doubt his sincerity, questioned at the time, in defending at Bishop's Waltham, Hants, on the urth of December 1898, Christianity on the ground of its total variance with the prin- having then retired from practice for eight years owing to failing ciples of human reason. The work was deservedly praised in its health. day for its literary merits, but is so plainly the production of an JENNET, a small Spanish horse; the word is sometimes applied amateur in theology that as a scientific treatise it is valueless. in English to a mule, the offspring of a she-ass and a stallion. A collected edition of the works of Jenýns appeared in 1790, Jennet comes, through Fr. genet, from Span. jinete, a light with a biography by Charles Nalson Cole. There are several horseman who rides à la gineta, explained as “ with his legs references to him in Boswell's Johnson. tucked up." The name is taken to be a corruption of the JEOPARDY, a term meaning risk or danger of death, loss or Arabic Zenāta, a Berber tribe famed for its cavalry. English | other injury. The word, in Mid. Eng. juparti, jeupartie, &c., and French transferred the word from the rider to his horse, a was adapted from 0. Fr. ju,. later jeu, and parti, even game, meaning which the word has only acquired in Spain in modern in medieval Latin jocus partitus. This term was originally times. used of a problem in chess or of a stage in any other game at JENOLAN CAVES, a series of remarkable caverns in Roxburgh which the chances of success or failure are evenly divided county, New South Wales, Australia; 113 m. W. by N. of Sydney, between the players. It was thus early transformed to any and 36 m. from Tarana, which is served by railway. They are state of uncertainty. the most celebrated of several similar groups in the limestone JEPHSON, ROBERT (1736-1803), British dramatist, was of the country; they have not yielded fossils of great interest, born in Ireland. After serving for some years in the British but the stalactitic formations, sometimes pure white, are of army, he retired with the rank of captain, and lived in England, extraordinary beauty. The caves have been rendered easily where he was the friend of Garrick, Reynolds, Goldsmith, accessible to visitors and lighted by electricity. Johnson, Burke, Burney and Charles Townshend. His appoint- JENSEN, WILHELM (1837- ), German author, was born ment as master of the horse to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland at Heiligenhafen in Holstein on the 15th of February 1837, the 1 Two lines will suffice: son of a local Danish magistrate, who came of old patrician Boswell and Thrale, retailers of his wit, Frisian stock. After attending the classical schools at Kiel and Will tell you how he wrote, and talk'd, and cough'd, and spit. a 322 JEPHTHAH–JERBOA ear took him back to Dublin. He published, in the Mercury news- JERBA, an island off the coast of North Africa in the Gulf paper a series of articles in defence of the lord-lieutenant's of Gabes, forming part of the regency of Tunisia. It is separated administration which were afterwards collected and issued in from the mainland by two narrow straits, and save for these book form under the title of The Bachelor, or Speculations of channels blocks the entrance to a large bight identified with Jeoffry Wagstaffe. A pension of £300, afterwards doubled, the Lake Triton of the Romans. The western strait, opening was granted him, and he held his appointment under twelve into the Gulf of Gabes, is a mile and a half broad; the eastern succeeding viceroys. From 1775 he was engaged in the writing strait is wider, but at low water it is possible to cross to the of plays. Among others, his tragedy Braganza was successfully mainland by the Tarik-el-Jemil (road of the camel). The performed at Drury Lane in 1775, Conspiracy in 1796, The Law island is irregular in outline, its greatest length and breadth of Lombardy in 1779, and The Count of Narbonne at Covent being some 20 m., and its area 425 sq. m. It contains Garden in 1781. In 1794 he published an heroic poem Roman neither rivers nor springs, but is supplied with water by wells Portraits, and The Confessions of Jacques Baptiste Couteau, a and cisterns. It is flat and well wooded with date palms and satire on the excesses of the French Revolution. He died at olive trees. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000, the bulk of the inhabitants Blackrock, near Dublin, on the 31st of May 1803. being Berbers. Though many of them have adopted Arabic JEPHTHAH, one of the judges of Israel, in the Bible, was an a Berber idiom is commonly spoken. An affinity exists between illegitimate son of Gilead, and, being expelled from his father's the Berbers of Jerba and the Beni Mzab. About 3000 Jews house by his lawful brethren, took refuge in the Syrian land of live apart in villages of their own, and some 400 Europeans, Tob, where he gathered around him a powerful band of homeless chiefly Maltese and Greeks, are settled in the island. Jerba has men like himself.' The Ammonites pressing hard on his country- a considerable reputation for the manufacture of the woollen men, the elders of Gilead called for his help, which he consented tissues interwoven with silk which are known as burnous to give on condition that in the event of victory he should be stuffs; a market for the sale of sponges is held from November made their head (Judg. xi. 1-xii. 7). His name is best known in till March; and there is a considerable export trade in olives, history and literature in connexion with his vow, which led to dates, figs and other fruits. The capital, trading centre and the sacrifice of his daughter on his successful return. The reluct- usual landing-place are at Haumt-es-Suk (market quarter) on ance shown by many writers in accepting the plain sense of the the north side of the island (pop. 2500). Here are a medieval narrative on this point proceeds to a large extent on unwarranted fort, built by the Spaniards in 1284, and a modern fort, garri. assumptions as to the stage of ethical development which had soned by the French. Gallala, to the south, is noted for the been reached in Israel in the period of the judges, or at the time manufacture of a kind of white pottery, much prized. At El when the narrative took shape. The annual lamentation of Kantara (the bridge) on the eastern strait, and formerly con- the women for her death suggests a' mythical origin (see nected with the mainland by a causeway, are extensive ruins Adonis). Attached to the narrative is an account of a quarrel of a Roman city-probably those of Meninx, once a flourishing between Jephthah and the Ephraimites. The latter were seaport. defeated, and their retreat was cut off by the Gileadites, who had Jerba is the Lotophagitis or Lotus-eaters' Island of the seized the fords of the Jordan. As the fugitives attempted to Greek and Roman geographers, and is also identified with the cross they were bidden to say “shibbõleth” (“ flood" or Brachion of Scylax. The modern name appears as early as of corn"), and those who said “sibbõleth” (the Ephraimites the 4th century in Sextus Aurelius Victor. In the middle ages apparently being unused to sh), were at once put to death. In the possession of Jerba was contested by the Normans of this way 42,000 of the tribe were killed.1 Sicily, the Spaniards and the Turks, the Turks proving vic- The loose connexion between this and the main narrative, as also the lengthy speech to the children of Ammon (xi. 14-27), which really the coast of the island by Piali Pasha and the corsair Dragut torious. In 1560, after the destruction of the Spanish fleet off relates to Moab, has led some writers to inſer that two distinct heroes and situations have been combined. See further the com- the Spanish garrison at Haumt-es-Suk was exterminated, and mentaries on the Book of Judges (q.v.), and Cheyne, Ency. Bib., art. a pyramid, 10 ft. broad at the base and 20 ft. high, was built Jephthah." (S. A. C.) of their skulls and other bones. In 1848 this pyramid was pulled JERAHMEEL, (Heb.“ May God pity "), in the Bible, a down at the instance of the Christian community, and the clan which with Caleb, the Kenites and others, occupied the bones were buried in the Catholic cemetery. In general, from southern steppes of Palestine, probably in the district around the Arab invasion in the 7th century Jerba shared the fortunes Arad, about 17 m. S. of Hebron. It was on friendly terms with of Tunisia. David during his residence at Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx. 29), and See H. Barth, Wanderungen durch die Küstenl. des Mittelmeeres it was apparently in his reign that the various elements of the (Berlin, 1849); and H. von Maltzan, Reise in Tunis und Tripolis south were united and were reckoned to Israel. This is (Leipzig, 1870). expressed in the chronicler's genealogies which make Jerahmeel JERBOA, properly the name of an Arabian and North and Caleb descendants of Judah (see DAVID; JUDAH). African jumping rodent mammal, Jaculus aegyplius (also known On the names in i Chron. ii. see S. A. Cook, Ency. Bib., col. as Jaculus, or Dipus, jaculus) typifying the family Jaculidae (or 2363 seq. Peleth (v. 33) may be the origin of the Pelethites (2 Sam. | Dipodidae), but in a wider sense applied to most of the repre- viii. 18; xv. 18; xx. 7), and since the name occurs in the revolt of sentatives of that family, which are widely distributed over the Korah (Num. xvi. 1), it is possible that Jerahmeel, like Caleb and the Kenites, had moved northwards from Kadesh. Samuel (q.v.) desert and semi-desert tracts of the Old World, although un- was of Jerahmeel (1 Sam. i. 1; Septuagint), and the consecutive known in Africa south of the Sahara. In all the more typical Jerahmeelite names Nathan and Zabad (1 Chron. ii. 36) have been members of the family the three middle metatarsals of the long associated with the prophet and officer (Zabud, 1 Kings iv. 5) of the hind-legs are fused into a cannon-bone; and in the true jerboas times of David and Solomon respectively. The association of Samuel and Nathan with this clan, if correct, is a further illustra- of the genus Jaculus the two lateral toes, with their supporting tion of the importance of the south for the growth of biblical metatarsals, are lost, although they are present in the alactagas history (see Kenites and RechABITES). The Chronicles of Jerahmeel (Alactaga), in which, however, as in certain allied genera, only (M. Gaster, Oriental Translation Fund, 1899) is a late production the three middle toes are functional. As regards the true containing a number of apocryphal Jewish legends of no historical jerboas, there is a curious resemblance in the structure of their value. (S. A. C. 1 Similarly, a Syrian story tells how the Druses came to slay instance, the lower part of the hind-leg is formed by a long, hind-legs to that obtaining among birds. In both groups, for Ibrahim Pasha's troops, and desiring to spare the Syrians ordered the men to say gamal (camel). As the Syrians pronounce the g soft, slender cannon-bone, or metatarsus, terminating inferiorly in and the Egyptians the g, hard, the former were easily identified. triple condyles for the three long and sharply clawed toes, the Other examples from the East will be found in H. C. Kay, resemblance being increased by the fact that in both cases Yaman, p. 36, and in S. Lane-Poole, History Egypt in the Middle Ages, p. 300. Also, at the Sicilian Vespers (March 13, 1282) the the small bone of the leg (fibula) is fused with the large one French were made to betray themselves by their pronunciation of (tibia). It may also be noticed that in mammals and birds ceci and ciceri (Ital. c like tch; Fr.c like s). which hop on two legs, such as jerboas, kangaroos, thrushes and JERDAN-JEREMIAH 323 ears. finches, the proportionate length of the thigh-bone or femur to Jeremiah was associated. Some fragments of this work (or the tibia and foot (metatarsus and toes) is constant, being 2 to 5; these works) have come down to us; they greatly add to the in animals, on the other hand, such as hares, horses and frogs, popularity of the Book of Jeremiah. Strict historical truth we which use all four feet, the corresponding lengths are 4 to 7. The must not ask of them, but they do give us what was believed resemblance between the jerboa's and the bird's skeleton is concerning Jeremiah in the following age, and we must believe owing to adaptation to a similar mode of existence. In the that the personality so honoured was an extraordinary one. young jerboa the proportion of the femur to the rest of the leg We have also a number of genuine prophecies which admit is the same as in ordinary running animals. Further, at an early us into Jeremiah's inner nature. These are our best authorities, stage of development the fibula is a complete and separate bone, but they are deficient in concrete facts. By birth Jeremiah was while the three metatarsals, which subsequently fuse together a countryman; he came of a priestly family whose estate lay at to form the cannon-bone, are likewise separate. In addition to Anathoth “ in the land of Benjamin ” (xxxii. 3; cf. i. 1). He their long hind and short fore limbs, jerboas are mostly charac- came forward as a prophet in the thirteenth year of Josiah terized by their silky coats-of a fawn colour to harmonize with (626 B.C.), still young but irresistibly impelled. Unfortunately the their desert surroundings-their large eyes, and long tails and account of the call and of the object of the divine caller come to As is always the case with large-eared animals, the us from a later hand (ch. i.), but we can well believe that the tympanic bullae of the skull are of unusually large size; the size concrete fact which the prophetic call illuminated was an impend- varying in the different genera according to that of the ears. ing blow to the state (i. 13-16; cf. ch. iv.). What the blow (For the characteristics of the family and of its more important exactly was is disputed,' but it is certain that Jeremiah saw the generic representatives, see RODENTIA.) gathering storm and anticipated its result, while the statesmen In the Egyptian jerboa the length of the body is 8 in., and that were still wrapped in a false security. Five years later came of the tail, which is long, cylindrical and covered with short hair the reform movement produced by the "finding” of the book terminated by a tuft, 10 in. The five-toed front limbs are ex- of the law" in the Temple in 621 B.C. (2 Kings xxii. 8), and some tremely short, while the hind pair are six times as long. When critics have gathered from Jer. xi. 1-8 that Jeremiah joined the about to spring, this jerboa raises its body by means of the hinder extremities, and supports itself at the same time upon its tail, ranks of those who publicly supported this book in Jerusalem while the fore-feet are so closely pressed to the breast as to be and elsewhere.. To others this view appears in itself improb- scarcely visible, which doubtless suggested the name Dipus, or two- able. How can a man like Jeremiah have advocated any such footed. It then leaps into the air and alights upon its four feet, but panacea? He was indeed not at first a complete pessimist, instantaneously erecting itself, it makes another spring, and so on but to be a preacher of Deuteronomy required a sanguine temper in such rapid succession as to appear as if rather flying than running. It is a gregarious animal, living in considerable colonies in burrows, which a prophet of the school of Isaiah could not possess. Be. which it excavates with its nails and teeth in the sandy soil of Egypt sides, there is a famous passage (viii. 8, see R.V.) in which and Arabia. In these it remains during great part of the day, Jeremiah delivers a vehement attack upon the “scribes” (or, emerging at night in search of the herbs on which it feeds. It is as we might render,“ bookmen ") and their false pen." If, exceedingly shy, and this, together with its extraordinary agility, renders it difficult to capture. The Arabs, however, succeed by as Wellhausen and Duhm suppose, this refers to Deuteronomy closing up all the exits from the burrows with a single exception, by (i.e. the original Deuteronomy), the incorrectness of the theory which the rodents are forced to escape, and over which a net is referred to is proved. And even if we think that the phraseology placed for their capture. When confined, they will gnaw through the hardest wood in order to make their escape. The Persian jerboa of viii. 8 applies rather to a body of writings than to a single book, (Alactaga indica) is also a nocturnal burrowing animal, feeding yet there is no good ground (xi. 1-8 and xxxiv. 12 being of doubt- chiefly on grain, which it stores in underground repositories, ful origin) for supposing that Jeremiah would have excepted closing these when full, and only drawing upon them when the supply Deuteronomy from his condemnation. of food above ground is exhausted (see also JUMPING MOUSE). (R. L.*) Stages of his Development.-At first our prophet was not alto- gether a pessimist. He aspired to convince the better minds JERDAN, WILLIAM (1782-1869), Scottish journalist, was that the only hope for Israelites, as well as for Israel, lay in born on the 16th of April 1782, at Kelso, Scotland. During the returning to the true Yahweh, a deity who was no mere. years between 1799 and 1806 he spent short periods in a country national god, and was not to be cajoled by the punctual offering lawyer's office, a London West India merchant's counting of costly sacrifices. When Jeremiah wrote iv. 1-4 he evidently house, an Edinburgh solicitor's chambers and held the position of considered that the judgment could even then be averted. After- surgeon's mate on board H.M. guardship “Gladiator” in Ports- wards he became less hopeful, and it was perhaps a closer mouth Harbour, under his uncle, who was surgeon. He went to acquaintance with the manners of the capital that served to London in 1806, and became a newspaper reporter. He was in the disillusionize him. He began his work at Anathoth, but v. 1-5 lobby of the House of Commons on the 11th of May 1812 when (as Duhm points out) seems to come from one who has just now Spencer Perceval was shot, and was the first to seize the assassin. for the first time “run to and fro in the streets of Jerusalem," By 1812 he had become editor of The Sun, a semi-official Tory observing and observed. And what is the result of his expedi- paper; he occasionally inserted literary articles, then quite an tion? That he cannot find a single just and honest man; that unusual proceeding; but a quarrel with the chief proprietor high and low, rich and poor, are all ignorant of the true method brought that engagement to a close in 1817. He passed next to of worshipping God (“ the way of Yahweh,” v. 4). It would the editor's chair of the Literary Gazette, which he conducted with seem as if Anathoth were less corrupt than the capital, the moral success for thirty-four years. Jerdan's position as editor state of which so shocked Jeremiah. And yet he does not really brought him into contact with many distinguished writers. An go beyond the great city-prophet Isaiah who calls the men of account of his friends, among whom Canning was a special Jerusalem “ a people of Gomorrah ” (i. 10). With all reverence, intimate, is to be found in his Men I have known (1866). When an historical student has to deduct something from both these Jerdan retired in 1850 from the editorship of the Literary statements. It is true that commercial prosperity had put à Gazette his pecuniary affairs were far from satisfactory. A severe strain on the old morality, and that contact with other testimonial of over £900 was subscribed by his friends; and in 1 Davidson (Hast., D.B., ii. 570 b) mentions two views. (1) The 1853 a government pension of 100 guineas was conferred on foe might be “a creation of his moral presentiment and assigned him by Lord Aberdeen. He published his Autobiography in to the north as the cloudy region of mystery." (2) The more usual 1852-1853, and died on the rith of July 1869. view is that the Scythians (see Herod. i. 76, 103-106; iv. I) are meant. Neither of these views is satisfactory. The passage v. 15-17 is too JEREMIAH, in the Bible, the last pre-exilic prophet (f. 626–7 definite for (1), and as for (2), the idea of a threatened Scythian inva- 586 B.C.?), son of Hilkiah, sion lacks a sufficient basis. Those who hold (2) have to suppose that Early Days of Jeremiah.There must anciently have existed original references to the Scythians were retouched under the impres. one or more prose works on Jeremiah and his times, written şion of Chaldean invasions. Hence Cheyne's theory of a north Arabian partly to do honour to the prophet, partly to propagate those invasion from the land of Zaphon=Zibeon (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14); i.e. Ishmael. Cf. N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., Zibeon, " Scythians, views respecting Israel's past with which the name of $8; Cheyne, Critica Biblica, part i. (Isaiah and Jeremiah). 66 a 324 JEREMIAH peoples, as well as the course of political history, had appeared | were formerly friendly to Jeremiah, now took up an attitude of to lower the position of the God of Israel in relation to other gods. decided hostility to him. At last they had him consigned to a Still, some adherents of the old Israelitish moral and religious miry dungeon, and it was the king who (at the instance of the standards must have survived, only they were not to be found Cushite Ebed-melech) intervened for his relief, though he re- in the chief places of concourse, but as a rule in coteries which mained a prisoner in other quarters till the fall of Jerusalem handed on the traditions of Amos and Isaiah in sorrowful (586 B.C.). Nebuchadrezzar, who is assumed to have heard of retirement. Jeremiah's constant recommendations of submission, gave him Danger of Book Religion.- Probably, too, even in the highest the choice either of going to Babylon or of remaining in the class there were some who had a moral sympathy with Jeremiah; country (chs. xxxviii. seq.). He chose the latter and resided otherwise we can hardly account for the contents of Deuteronomy, with Gedaliah, the native governor, at Mizpah. On the murder at least if the book " found " in the Temple at all resembled the of Gedaliah he was carried to Mizraim or Egypt, or perhaps central portion of our Deuteronomy. And the assumption to the land of Mizrim in north Arabia-against his will seems to be confirmed by the respectful attitude of certain (chs. xl. xliii.). How far all this is correct we know not. The "elders of the land ” in xxvi. 17 sqq., and of the “princes” in graphic style of a narrative is no sufficient proof of its truth. xxxvi. 19, 25, towards Jeremiah, which may, at any rate in part, Conceivably enough the story of Jeremiah's journey to Egypt have been due to the recent reform movement. If therefore(or Mizrim) may have been imagined to supply a background for Jeremiah aimed at Deuteronomy in the severe language of viii.8, the artificial prophecies ascribed to Jeremiah in chs. xlvi.-li. he went too far. History shows that book religion has special A legend in Jerome and Epiphanius states that he was stoned dangers of its own.' Nevertheless the same incorruptible to death at Daphnae, but the biography, though not averse adviser also shows that book religion may be necessary as an from horrors, does not mention this. educational instrument, and a compromise between the two A Patriot?—Was Jeremiah really a patriot? The question types of religion is without historical precedent. has been variously answered. He was not a Phocion, for he Reaction: Opposition to Jeremiah.—This, however, could not never became the tool of a foreign power. To say with Winckler as yet be recognized by the friends of prophecy, even though it that he was" a decided adherent of the Chaldean party” is to go seemed for a time as if the claims book religion were rebuffed beyond the evidence. did deed counsel submission, but by facts. The death of the pious king Josiah at Megiddo in only because his detachment from party gave him a clearness 608 B.C. dashed the high hopes of the “book-men,” but meant no of vision (cf. xxxviii. 17, 18) which the politicians lacked. How victory for Jeremiah. Its only result for the majority was a he suffered in his uphill course he has told us himself (xv. 10-21). falling back on the earlier popular cultus of the Baals, and on the in after ages the oppressed people saw in his love for Israel and heathen customs introduced, or reintroduced, by Josiah's grand- his patient resignation their own realized ideal. “ And Onias father, Manasseh. Would that we possessed the section of the said, This is the lover of the brethren, he who prayeth much prophet's biography which described his attitude immediately for the people and the holy city, Jeremiah the prophet of God” after the news of the battle of Megiddo! Let us, however, be (2 Macc. xv. 14). And in proportion as the popular belief in thankful for what we have, and notably for the detailed narra- Jeremiah rose, fresh prophecies were added to the book (notably tives in chs. xxvi. and xxxvi. The former is dated in the those of the new covenant and of the restoration of the people beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim, though Wellhausen suspects after seventy years) to justify it. Professor N. Schmidt has gone that the date is a mistake, and that the real occasion was the further into the character of this sympathetic prophet, Ency. Bib. death of Josiah. The one clear-sighted patriot saw the full “ Jeremiah,” 5. meaning of the tragedy of Megiddo, and for“prophesying against Jeremiah's Prophecies.-It has been said above that our best this city”-secured, as men thought, by the Temple (vii. 4)-he authorities are Jeremiah's own prophecies. Which may these be? was accused by“ the priests, the prophets, and all the people” of Before answering we must again point out (see also ISAIAH) that the records of the pre-exilic prophets came down in a fragmentary high treason. But the divinity which hedged a prophet saved form, and that these fragments needed much supplementing to adapt him. The “princes,” supported by certain "elders” and by them to the use of post-exilic readers. In Jeremiah, as in Isaiah, "the people ” (quick to change their leaders), succeeded in we must constantly ask to what age do the phraseology, the ideas According quashing the accusation and setting the prophet free. No king, and the implied circumstances most naturally point? to Duhm there are many passages in which metre (see also Amos) be it observed, is mentioned. The latter narrative is still more may also be a factor in our critical conclusions. Jeremiah, he thinks, exciting. In the fourth year of Jehoiakim (= the first of always uses the same metre. Giesebrecht, on the other hand, Nebuchadrezzar, xxv. I) Jeremiah was bidden to write down“ all maintains that there are passages which are certainly Jeremiah's, the words that Yahweh had spoken to him against Jerusalem but which are not in what Duhm calls Jeremiah's metre; Giesebrecht also, himself rather conservative, considers Duhm remarkably free (so LXX.), Judah and all the nations from the days of Josiah with his emendations. There has also to be considered whether onwards (xxxvi. 2). So at least the authors of Jeremiah's the text of the poetical passages has not often become corrupt, not biography tell us. They add that in the next year Jeremiah's only from ordinary causes but through the misunderstanding and scribe Baruch read the prophecies of Jeremiah first to the people misreading of north Arabian names on the part of late scribes and assembled in the Temple, then to the princes," and then to the editors, the danger to Judah from north Arabia being (it is held) not less in pre-exilic times than the danger from Assyria and Baby- king, who decided his own future policy by burning Baruch's lonia, so that references to north Arabia are only to be expected. roll in the brazier. We cannot, however, bind ourselves to this To bring educated readers into touch with critical workers it is tradition. Much more probably the prophecy was virtually a needful to acquaint them with these various points, the neglect of new one (i.e. even if some old passages were repeated yet the any one of which may to some extent injure the results of criticism. It is a new stage of criticism on which we have entered, so that no setting was new), and the burden of the prophecy was “ The single critic can be reckoned as the authority on Jeremiah. But king of Babylon shall come and destroy this land.” 2 We cannot since the results of the higher criticism depend on the soundness and therefore assent to the judgment that we have, at least as thoroughness of the criticism called " lower," and since Duhm has regards (the) oldest portions (of the book] information con- the advantage of being exceptionally free from that exaggerated respect for the letters of the traditional text which has survived the siderably more specific than is usual in the case of the writings destruction of the old superstitious veneration for the vowel-points, of the prophets."3 it may be best to give the student his “ higher critical " results, Fall of the State.-Under Zedekiah the prophet was less fortu- dated 1901. Let us premise, however, that the portions mentioned nate. Such was the tension of feeling that the “princes,” who in part denied," to Jeremiah, viz. X. 1-16; xxx.; xxxiii.; l. li. and in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. as having been “entirely or lii., are still regarded in their present form as non-Jeremianic. 1C1. Ewald, The Prophets, Eng. trans., iii. 63, 64. The question which next awaits decision is whether any part of the ? Cheyne, Ency. Brii. (9th ed.). " Jeremiah," suggests after Grätz booklet on foreign nations (xxv., xlvi.-.i.) can safely be regarded as that the roll simply contained ch. xxv., omitting the most obvious Jeremianic. Giesebrecht still asserts the genuineness of xxv. 15-24 interpolations Against this view see N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., | (apart from glosses), xlvii. (in the main and xlix. 7, 8, 10, 11. " Jeremiah (Book)," $ 8, who, however, accepts the negative part Against these views sce N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., col. 2384. of Cheyne's arguments. 3 Driver, Introd. to the Lil. of the O.T. (6), p. 249. • in Helmolt's Weltgeschichte, iii. 211. 66 " " . JEREMY-JERICHO 325 16 1 . Let us now listen to Duhm, who analyses the book into six to be led astray in their minds when they saw images of gold and groups of passages. These are (a) i.-xxv., the words of Jeremiah.' silver and the adornment thereof." But the reference is disputed (i. 1); (b) xxvi. xxix., passages from Baruch's biography of Jeremiah; by Fritzsche, Gifford, Shürer and others. The epistle was in- (c) xxx.xxxi., the book of the future of Israel and Judah; (d) cluded in the Greek canon. There was no question of its canonicity xxxii. xlv., from Baruch; (e) xlvi.-li., the prophecies " concerning till the time of Jerome, who termed it a pseudepigraph. the nations";' (f) lii., historical appendix. Upon examining these See Fritzsche, Handb. zu den A pok., 1851; Gifford, in Speaker's groups we find that besides a prose letter (ch. xxix.), about Apoc. ii. 286–303; Marshall, in Hastings' Dict. Bible, ii. 578-579. sixty poetical pieces may be Jeremiah's. A: Anathoth passages (R. H. C.) before 621, (a) ii. 2b; 3. 14-28; ii. 29–37; iii. 1-5; iii. 126, 13, 19, 20; iii. 21-25; iv. 1, 3, 4; these form a cycle. (b) xxxi. 2-6; 15-20; 21, JERÉZ DE LA FRONTERA (formerly Xeres), a town of 22; another cycle. (c) iv. 5-8; 11b, 12, 13, 15-17a; 19-21; 23-26; southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz, near the right bank 29-31; visions and auditions of the impending invasion of the river Guadalete, and on the Seville-Cadiz railway, about B: Jerusalem passages. (d) v. 1-6a; 6b-9; 10-17; vi. 1-5; 66-8; 9-14; 16, 17, 20; 22-26a; 27-30; vii. 28, 29; viii. 4-7a; 8, 9, 13:17 m. from the Atlantic coast. Pop. (1900), 63,473. Jeréz is 14-17; viii. 18-23; ix. 1-8; 9 (short song); 16-18; 19-21; X. 19, 20, built in the midst of an undulating plain of great fertility. Its 22; reign of Josiah, strong personal element. (e) xxii. to (Jehoahaz). whitewashed houses, clean, broad streets, and squares planted xxii, 13-17, probably too xi. 15, 16; xii. 7-12 (Jehoiakim). xxii. with trees extend far beyond the limits formerly enclosed by the 18, 19, perhaps too xxii . 6b, 7; 20-23; and the cycle xiii, 15, 16: Moorish walls, almost entirely demolished. 17; 18, 19, 20, 211, 22-25a, 26, 27 (later, Jehoiakim). xxii. 24; The principal xxii. 28 (jehoiachiń). (f) Later poems. xiv. 2-10; xv. 5-9; xvi. buildings are the 15th-century church of San Miguel, the 17th- 5-7; xviii. 13-17; xxiii. 9-12; 13–15; xi. 18-20; xv. 10-12; 15-19a, century collegiate church with its lofty bell-tower, the 16th- ånd 20, 21; xvii. 9, 10, 14, 16, 17; xviii. 18-20; xx, 7-11; xx. 14-18; century town-hall, superseded, for official purposes, by a modern xiv. 17, 18; xvii. 1-4;xxxviii. 24; assigned to the close of Zedekiah's edifice, the bull-ring, and many hospitals, charitable institutions time. Two Recensions of the Text.—It has often been said that we have and schools, including academies of law, medicine and com- virtually two recensions of the text, that represented by the Septua- merce. But the most characteristic features of Jeréz are the gint and the Massoretic text, and critics have taken different sides, huge bodegas, or wine-lodges, for the manufacture and storage of some for one and some for the other, “Recension," however, is a bad term; it implies that the two texts which undeniably exist sherry, and the vineyards, covering more than 150,000 acres, were the result of revising and editing according to definite critical which surround it on all sides. The town is an important principles. Such, however, is not the case. It is true that "there are market for grain, fruit and livestock, but its staple trade is in (in the LXX.) many omissions of words, sentences, verses and whole wine. Sherry is also produced in other districts, but takes passages, in fact, that altogether about 2700 words are wanting, its name, formerly written in English as sherris or xeres, from or the eighth part of the Massoretic text" (Bleek). It also be admitted that the scribes who produced the Hebrow basis of the Jeréz. The demand for sherry diminished very greatly during Septuagint version, conscious of the unsettled state of the text, the last quarter of the 19th century, especially in England, did not shrink from what they considered a justifiable simplification which had been the chief consumer. In 1872 the sherry shipped But we must also grant that those from whom the written Hebrew text proceeds allowed themselves to fill up and to repeat in 1902 the total export hardly amounted to one-fifth of this from Cadiz to Great Britain alone was valued at £2,500,000; without any sufficient warrant. genuine difference of reading between the two texts, it is for the sum. The wine trade, however, still brings 'a considerable critic to decide; often, however, he will have to seek to go behind profit, and few towns of southern Spain display greater commer- what both the texts present in order to constitute a truer text than cial activity than Jeréz. In the earlier part of the 18th century either. Here is the great difficulty of the future. We may add to the credit of the Septuagint that the position given to the prophecies the neighbourhood suffered severely from yellow fever; but it on" the nations " (chs. xlvi.-.i. in our Bible) in the Septuagint is was rendered comparatively healthy when in 1869 an aqueduct probably more original than that in the Massoretic text. On this was opened to supply pure water. Strikes and revolutionary point see especially Schmidt, Ency: Bib. , Jeremiah (Book)" $$ 6 disturbances have frequently retarded business in more recentº and 21; Davidson, Hastings's Dict. Bible, ii. 573b-575; Driver, Introduction (8th ed.), pp. 269, 270. years. The best German commentary is that of Cornill (1905). A skilful Jeréz has been variously identified with the Roman Munici- translation by Driver, with notes intended for ordinary students pium Seriense; with Asido, perhaps the original of the Moorish (1906) should also be mentioned. (T. K. C.) Sherish; and with Hasta Regia, a name which may survive in JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, an apocryphal book of the Old the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a neighbouring hill . Jeréz was Testament. This letter purports to have been written by taken from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile (1217-1252); Jeremiah to the exiles who were already in Babylon or on the but it was twice recaptured before Alphonso X. finally occupied way thither. The author was a Hellenistic Jew, and not im- it in 1264. Towards the close of the 14th century it received probably a Jew of Alexandria. His work, which shows little the title de la Frontera, i.e. “ of the frontier," common to literary skill, was written with a serious practical purpose. several towns on the Moorish border, He veiled his fierce attack on the idol gods of Egypt by holding JERÉZ DE LOS CABALLEROS, à town of south-western up to derision the idolatry of Babylon. The fact that Jeremiah Spain, in the province of Badajoz, picturesquely situated on (xxix, I sqq.) was known to have written a letter of this nature two heights overlooking the river Ardila, a tributary of the naturally suggested to a Hellenist, possibly of the ist century Guadiana, 12 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier. Pop. (1900), B.C. or earlier, the idea of a second epistolary undertaking, and 10,271. The old town is surrounded by a Moorish wall with six other passages of Jeremiah's prophecy (x. 1-12; xxix. 4-23) gates; the newer portion is well and regularly built, and planted may have determined also its general character and contents. with numerous orange and other fruit trees. Owing to the lack The writer warned the exiles that they were to remain in of railway communication Jeréz is of little commercial impor- captivity for seven generations; that they would there see the tance; its staple trade is in agricultural produce, especially in worship paid to idols, from all participation in which they were ham and bacon from the large herds of swine which are reared to hold aloof; for that idols were nothing save the work of men's in the surrounding oak forests. The town is said to have been hands, without the powers of speech, hearing or self-preserva- founded by Alphonso IX. of Leon in 1229; in 1232 it was ex. tion. They could not bless their worshippers even in the smallest tended by his son St Ferdinand, who gave it to the knights concerns of life; they were indifferent to moral qualities, and templar. Hence the name. Jeréz de los Caballeros, “Jeréz of were of less value than the commonest household objects, and the knights." finally," with rare irony, the author compared an idol to a JERICHO (119;, 47, once shiny, a word of disputed scarecrow (v. 70), impotent to protect, but deluding to the meaning, whether “. fragrant moon (-god) city "), an imagination (MARSHALL). important town in the Jordan valley some 5 m. N. of the Dead The date of the epistle is uncertain. It is believed by some Sea. The references to it in the Pentateuch are confined to scholars to be referred to in 2 Macc. ii: 2, which says that Jeremiah rough geographical indications of the latitude of the trans- charged the exiles “ not to forget the statutes of the Lord, neither Jordanic camp of the Israelites in Moab before their crossing of 1 li. 59-64a, however, is a specimen of imaginative “Midrashic the river. This was the first Canaanite city to be attacked and history. See Giesebrecht's monograph. reduced by the victorious Israelites. The story of its conquest is 66 or 19 326 JERKIN—JEROME, ST or fully narrated in the first seven chapters of Joshua. There must But Rehoboam refused to depart from Solomon's despotic rule, be some little exaggeration in the statement that Jericho was and was tactless enough to send Adoniram, the overseer of the totally destroyed; a hamlet large enough to be enumerated corvée. He was stoned to death, and Rehoboam realizing among the towns of Benjamin (Josh. xviii. 21) must have re- 'the temper of the people fled to Jerusalem and prepared for mained; but that it was small is shown by the fact that it was war. Jeroboam became the recognized leader of the northern deemed a suitable place for David's ambassadors to retire to tribes.' Conflicts occurred (1 Kings xiv. 30), but no details are after the indignities put upon them by Hanun (2 Sam. x. 5; preserved except the late story of Rehoboam's son Abijah 1 Chron. xix. 5). Its refortification was due to a Bethelite named in 2 Chron. xiii. Jeroboam's chief achievement was the forti- Hiel, who endeavoured to avert the curse of Joshua by offering fication of Shechem (his new capital) and of Penuel in east his sons as sacrifices at certain stages of the work (1 Kings xvi. Jordan. To counteract the influence of Jerusalem he established 34). After this event it grew again into importance and became golden calves at Dan and Bethel, an act which to later ages was the site of a college of prophets (2 Kings ii. 4 sqq.) for whom as gross a piece of wickedness as his rebellion against the legiti- Elisha “healed " its poisonous waters. The principal spring mate dynasty of Judah. No notice has survived of Shishak's in the neighbourhood of Jericho still bears (among the foreign invasion of Israel (see REHOBOAM), and after a reign of twenty-two residents) the name of Elisha; the natives call it, Ain es-Sultan, years Jeroboam was succeeded by Nadab, whose violent death “ Sultan's spring." To Jericho the victorious Israelite two years later brought the whole house of Jeroboam to an end. marauders magnanimously returned their Judahite captives at The history of the separation of Judah and Israel in the 10th the bidding of the prophet Oded (2 Chron. xxviii. 15). Here century B.c. was written from a strong religious standpoint at a was fought the last fight between the Babylonians and Zede-date considerably later than the event itself. The visit of Ahijah kiah, wherein the kingdom of Judah came to an end (2 Kings to Shiloh (xi. 29–39), to announce symbolically, the rending of the xxv. 5; Jer. xxxix. s, lii. 8). In the New Testament Jericho kingdom, replaces some account of a rebellion in which Jeroboam “ lifted up his hand " (0.27) against Solomon.. To such an account, is connected with the well-known stories of Bar-Timaeus not to the incident of 'Ahijah and the cloak, his flight (v. 40) is the (Matt. xx. 29; Mark x. 46; Luke xviii. 35) and Zacchaeus natural sequel.. The story of Ahijah's prophecy against Jeroboam (Luke xix. I) and with the good Samaritan (Luke x. 30). (ch. xiv.) is not in the original LXX., but another version of the same narrative appears at xii. 24 (LXX.), in which there is no reference The extra-Biblical history of Jericho is as disastrous as are the to a previous promise to Jeroboam through Ahijah, but the prophet records preserved in the Scriptures. Bacchides, the general of the is introduced as a new character. Further, in this version (xii. 24) Syrians, captured and fortified it (1. Macc. ix. 50), Aristobulus the incident of the tearing of the cloak is related of Shemaiah and (jos. Ant. XIV. i. 2) also took it, Pompey (ib. XIV. iv. 1) encamped placed at the convention of Shechem. Shemaiah is the prophet here on his way tu Jerusalem. Before Herod its inhabitants ran who counselled Rehoboam to refrain from war (xii. 21-24); the in- away (ib. XIV. xv. 3) as they did before Vespasian (Wars, IV. viii. 2). junction is opposed to xiv. 30, but appears to be intended to explain The reason of this lack of warlike quality was no doubt the enervating Rehoboam's failure to overcome north Israel. (See W. R. Smith, effect of the great heat of the depression in which the city lies, which Old Test. in Jewish Church (2nd ed.), 117 sqq.; Winckler, Alte Test. has the same effect on the handful of degraded humanity that still Untersuch. 12 sqq., and J. Skinner, Century Bible: Kings, pp. 443 sqq.) occupies the ancient site. Few places in Palestine are more fertile.. It was the city of 2. JEROBOAM, son of Joash (2) a contemporary of Azariah palm trees of the ancient record of the Israelite invasion preserved king of Judah. He was one of the greatest of the kings of in part in Judg. i. 16; and Josephus speaks of its fruitfulness Israel. He succeeded in breaking the power of Damascus, with enthusiasm (Wars IV. 8, 3). Even now with every possible which had long been devastating his land, and extended his hindrance in the way of cultivation it is an important centre of fruit-growing. kingdom from Hamath on the Orontes to the Dead Sea. The The modern er-Riha is a poor squalid village of, it is estimated, brief summary of his achievements preserved in 2 Kings xiv. 23 about 300 inhabitants. It is not built exactly on the ancient site. sqq. may be supplemented by the original writings of Amos and Indeed, the site of Jericho has shifted several times. The mound of Tell es-Sultan, near “ Elisha's Fountain," north of the modern Hosea. There appears to be an allusion in Amos vi. 13 to village, no doubt covers the Canaanite town. There are two later the recovery of Ashteroth-Karnaim and Lodebar in E. Jordan, sites, of Roman or Herodian date, one north, the other west, of this. and the conquest of Moab (Isa. xv. seq.) is often ascribed to It was probably the crusaders who established the modern site. this reign. After a period of prosperity, internal disturbances An old tower attributed to them is to be seen in the village, and in broke out and the northern kingdom hastened to its fall. Jero- the surrounding mountains are many remains of early monasticism. Aqueducts, ruined sugar-mills, and other remains of ancient industry boam was succeeded by his son Zechariah, who after six months abound in the neighbourhood. The whole district is the private was killed at Ibleam (so read in 2 Kings xv. 10; cp. ix. 27, property of the sultan of Turkey. In 1907–8 the Canaanite Jericho murder of Ahaziah) by Shallum the son of Jabesh-i.e. possibly was excavated under the direction of Prof. Sellin of Vienna. of Jabesh-Gilead-who a month later fell to Menahem (q.v.). See “ The German Excavations at Jericho," Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statem. (1910), pp. 54-68. (S. A. C.) See, further, Jews 88 7.9 and 88 12, 13. JERKIN, a short close-fitting jacket, made usually of leather, JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS and without sleeves, the typical male upper garment of the HIERONYMUS) (c. 340-420), was born at Strido (modern 16th and 17th centuries. The origin of the word is unknown. Strigau ?), a town on the border of Dalmatia fronting Pannonia, The Dutch word jurk, a child's frock, often taken as the source, destroyed by the Goths in A.D. 377. What is known of Jerome is modern, and represents neither the sound nor the sense of the has mostly been recovered from his own writings. He appears to English word. in architecture the term “ jerkin-roofed ” is have been born about 340; his parents were Christians, orthodox applied, probably with some obscure connexion with the gar- though living among people mostly Arians and wealthy. ment, to a particular form of gable end, the gable being cut He was at first educated at home, Bonosus, a life-long friend, off half way up the roof and sloping back like a hipped roof” sharing his youthful studies, and was afterwards sent to Rome. to the edge. Donatus taught him grammar and explained the Latin poets. JEROBOAM (Heb. yārob'ām, apparently “ Am ['the clan,' Victorinus taught him rhetoric. He attended the law-courts, here perhaps a divine name) contends ”; LXX. lepoßoau), the and listened to the Roman advocates pleading in the Forum. name of two kings in the Bible. He went to the schools of philosophy, and heard lectures on 1. The first king of (north) Israel after the disruption (see Plato, Diogenes, Clitomachus and Carneades; the conjunction SOLOMON). According to the traditions of his early life (1 Kings of names show how philosophy had become a dead tradition. xi. 26 sqq. and LXX.), he was an Ephraimite who for his ability 1 On the variant traditions in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint, was placed over the forced levy of Ephraim and Manasseh. see the commentaries on Kings. Having subsequently incurred Solomon's suspicions he fled to ? See also JONAH. In 2 Kings xiv. 28, " Hamath, which had Shishak, king of Egypt, and remained with him until Reho belonged to Judah" (R.V.) is incorrect; Winckler (Keilinschrift. 4. boam's accession. When the latter came to be made king at Alle Test., 2nd ed., 262) suspects a reference to Israel's overlordship Shechem, the old religious centre (see ABIMELECH), hopes were in Judah; Burney (Heb. Text of Kings) reads: “ how he fought with Damascus and how he turned away the wrath of Yahweh from entertained that a more lenient policy would be introduced. | Israel"; see also Ency. Bib. col. 2406 n. 4, and the commentaries. « JEROME, ST 327 His Sundays were spent in the catacombs in discovering graves | Ezekiel, and of nine homilies of Origen on the visions of of the martyrs and deciphering inscriptions. Pope Liberius Isaiah. baptized him in 360; three years later the news of the death of In 381 Meletius died, and Pope Damasus interfered in the the emperor Julian came to Rome, and Christians felt relieved dispute at Antioch, hoping to end it. Jerome was called to from a great dread. Rome in 382 to give help in the matter, and was made secretary When his student days were over Jerome returned to Strido, during the investigation. His work brought him into inter- but did not stay there long. His character was formed. He was course with this great pontiff, who soon saw what he could best a scholar, with a scholar's tastes and cravings for knowledge, do, and how his vast scholarship might be made of use to the easily excited, bent on scholarly discoveries. From Strido he church. Damasus suggested to him to revise the “Old Latin " went to Aquileia, where he formed some friendships among translation of the Bible; and to this task he henceforth devoted the monks of the large monastery, notably with Rufinus, with his great abilities. At Rome were published the Gospels (with whom he was destined to quarrel bitterly over the question of a dedication to Pope Damasus, an explanatory introduction, Origen's orthodoxy and worth as a commentator; for Jerome was and the canons of Eusebius), the rest of the New Testament a man who always sacrificed a friend to an opinion, and when he and the version of the Psalms from the Septuagint known as the changed sides in a controversy expected his acquaintances to Psalterium romanum, which was followed (c. 388) by the Psal- follow him. From Aquileia he went to Gaul (366–370), visiting terium gallicanum, based on the Hexaplar Greek text. These in turn the principal places in that country, from Narbonne scholarly labours, however, did not take up his whole time, and and Toulouse in the south to Treves on the north-east frontier. it was almost impossible for Jerome to be long anywhere without He stayed some time at Treves studying and observing, and it getting into a dispute. He was a zealous defender of that was there that he first began to think seriously upon sacred monastic life which was beginning to take such a large place things. From Treves he returned to Strido, and from Strido in the church of the 4th century, and he found enthusiastic to Aquileia. He settled down to literary work in Aquileia disciples among the Roman ladies. A number of widows and (370-373) and composed there his first original tract, De muliere maidens met together in the house of Marcella to study the seplies percussa, in the form of a letter to his friend Innocentius. Scriptures with him; he taught them Hebrew, and preached the Some dispute caused him to leave Aquileia suddenly; and with a virtues of the celibate life. His arguments and exhortations may few companions, Innocentius, Evagrius, and Heliodorus being be gathered from many of his epistles and from his tract Adversus among them, he started for a long tour in the East. The epistle Helvidium, in which he defends the perpetual virginity of Mary to Rufinus (3rd in Vallarsi's enumeration) tells us the route. against Helvidius, who maintained that she bore children to They went through Thrace, visiting Athens, Bithynia, Galatia, Joseph. His influence over these ladies alarmed their relatives Pontus, Cappadocia and Cilicia, to Antioch, Jerome observing and excited the suspicions of the regular priesthood and of the and making notes as they went. He was interested in the populace, but while Pope Damasus lived Jerome remained secure. theological disputes and schisms in Galatia, in the two lan- Damasus died, however, in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius, guages spoken in Cilicia, &c. At Antioch the party remained who did not show much friendship for Jerome. He found it some time. Innocentius died of a fever, and Jerome was expedient to leave Rome, and set out for the East in 385. His dangerously ill. This illness induced a spiritual change, and he letters (especially Ep. 45) are full of outcries against his enemies resolved to renounce whatever kept him back from God. His and of indignant protestations that he had done nothing un- greatest temptation was the study of the literature of pagan becoming a Christian, that he had taken no money, nor gifts Rome. In a am Christ reproached him with caring more great nor small, that he had no delight in silken attire, sparkling to be a Ciceronian than a Christian. He disliked the uncouth gems or gold ornaments, that no matron moved him unless by style of the Scriptures. “O Lord,” he prayed, “ thou knowest penitence and fasting, &c. His route is given in the third book In that whenever I have and study secular MSS. I deny thee,” Rufinum; he went by Rhegium and Cyprus, where he was enter- and he made a resolve henceforth to devote his scholarship to tained by Bishop Epiphanius, to Antioch. There he was joined the Holy Scripture.“ David was to be henceforth his Simonides, by two wealthy Roman ladies, Paula, a widow, and Eustochium, Pindar and Alcaeus, his Flaccus, Catullus and Severus." her daughter, one of Jerome's Hebrew students. They came Fortified by these resolves he betook himself to a hermit life in accompanied by a band of Roman maidens vowed to live a the wastes of Chalcis, S.E. from Antioch (373–379). Chalcis celibate life in a nunnery in Palestine. Accompanied by these was the Thebaid of Syria. Great numbers of monks, each in ladies Jerome made the tour of Palestine, carefully noting with solitary cell, spent lonely lives, scorched by the sun, ill-clad and a scholar's keenness the various places mentioned in Holy scantily fed, pondering on portions of Scripture or copying MSS. Scripture. The results of this journey may be traced in his to serve as objects of meditation. Jerome at once set himself translation with emendations of the book of Eusebius on the to such scholarly work as the place afforded. He discovered and situation and names of Hebrew places, written probably three copied MSS., and began to study Hebrew. There also he wrote years afterwards, when he had settled down at Bethlehem. the life of St Paul of Thebes, probably an imaginary tale embody. From Palestine Jerome and his companions went to Egypt, ing the facts of the monkish life around him. Just then the remaining some time in Alexandria, and they visited the con- Meletian schism, which arose over the relation of the orthodox vents of the Nitrian desert. Jerome's mind was evidently full to Arian bishops and to those baptized by Arians, distressed of anxiety about his translation of the Old Testament, for we find the church at Antioch (see MELETIUS OF Antioch), and Jerome as him in his letters recording the conversations he had with learned usual eagerly joined the fray. Here as elsewhere he had but one men about disputed readings and doubtful renderings; the blind rule to guide him in matters of doctrine and discipline—the Didymus of Alexandria, whom he heard interpreting Hosea, practice of Rome and the West; for it is singular to see how appears to have been most useful. When they returned to Jerome, who is daringly original in points of scholarly criticism, Palestine they all settled at Bethlehem, where Paula built four was a ruthless partisan in all other matters; and, having dis-monasteries, three for nuns and one for monks. She was at the covered what was the Western practice, he set tongue and pen head of the nunneries until her death in 404, when Eustochium to work with his usual bitterness (Altercatio luciferiani et succeeded her; Jerome presided over the fourth monastery. orthodoxi). Here he did most of his literary work and, throwing aside his At Antioch in 379 he was ordained presbyter. From there he unfinished plan of a translation from Origen's Hexaplar text, went to Constantinople, where he met with the great Eastern translated the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew, with scholar and theologian Gregory of Nazianzus, and with his aid the aid of Jewish scholars. He mentions a rabbi from Lydda, tried to perfect himself in Greek. The result of his studies there a rabbi from Tiberias, and above all rabbi Ben Anina, who was the translation of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a con- came to him by night secretly for fear of the Jews. Jerome tinuation of twenty-eight homilies of Origen on Jeremiab and was not familiar enough with Hebrew to be able to dispense with * CF. Schoene's critical edition (Berlin, 1866, 1875). such assistance, and he makes the synagogue responsible for the 9) 328 - JEROME, J. K.-JEROME OF PRAGUE accuracy of his version: “ Let him who would challenge aught Editions of the complete works: Erasmus (9 vols., Basel, 1516- in this translation,” he says, “ ask the Jews.” The result of all 1520); Mar. Victorius, bishop of Rieti (9 vols., Rome, 1565-1572): this labour was the Latin translation of the Scriptures which, 1684-1690); J. Martianay (5. vols., incomplete Benedictine ed., F. Calixtus and A. Tribbechovius (12 vols., Frankfort and Leipzig, in spite of much opposition from the more conservative party in Paris, 1693-1706); D. Vallarsi (11 vols., Verona, 1734-1742), the the church, afterwards became the Vulgate or authorized ver- best; Migne, Patrol. Ser. Lat. (xxii.-xxix.). The De viris illust. was sion; but the Vulgate as we have it now is not exactly Jerome's edited by Herding in 1879: À selection is given in translation by Vulgate, for it suffered a good deal from changes made under the 2nd series, vol. vi. (New York, 1893). Biographies are prefixed to W.H. Fremantle, "Sclect Library of Niceneand Post Nicene Fathers, influence of the older translations; the text became very corrupt most of the above editions. See also lives by F. 2. Collombet (Paris during the middle ages, and in particular all the Apocrypha, and Lyons, 1844); O. Zöckler (Gotha, 1865); E. L. Cutts (London, except Tobit and Judith, which Jerome translated from the 1878); C, Martin (London, 1888); P. Largent (Paris, 1898); F. W. Chaldee, were added from the older versions. (See BIBLE: Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, ii. , 150-297 (Edinburgh, 1889). Additional literature is cited in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. für 0.T. Versions.) prot. Theol. viii. 42. Notwithstanding the labour involved in translating the JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– Scriptures, Jerome found time to do a great deal of literary work, ), English author, and also to indulge in violent controversy. Earlier in life he philological school, Marylebone, London; and was by turns was born on the end of May 1859. He was educated at the had a great admiration for Origen, and translated many of his clerk, schoolmaster and actor, before he settled down to journal- works, and this lasted after he had settled at Bethlehem, for in ism. He made his reputation as a humorist in 1889 with Idle 389 he translated Origen's homilies on Luke; but he came to Thoughts of an Idle Fellow and Three Men in a Boat, and change his opinion and wrote violently against two admirers of from 1892 to 1897 he was co-editor of the Idler with Robert the great Alexandrian scholar, John, bishop of Jerusalem, and Barr. At the same time he was also the editor of To-Day. A his own former friend Rufinus. At Bethlehem also he found time to finish Didymi de spiritu in 1886, and was followed by many others, among them Sunset one-act play of his, Barbara, was produced at the Globe theatre sancto liber, a translation begun at Rome at the request of Pope (1888), Wood Barrow Farm (1891), The Passing of the Third Floor Damasus, to denounce the revival of Gnostic heresies by Jovin- | Back (1907). Among his later books are Letters to Clorinda ianus and Vigilantius (Adv. Jovinianum lib. II. and Contra Vigilantium liber), and to repeat his admiration of the hermit (1898), The Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow (1898), Three Men life in his Vita S. Hilarionis eremitae, in his Vita Malchi monachi on the Bummel (1900), Tommy and Co. (1904), They and I (1909). caplivi, in his translations of the Rule of St Pachomius (the JEROME OF PRAGUE (d. 1416), an early Bohemian church- Benedict of Egypt), and in his S. Pachomii et S. Theodorici reformer and friend of John Hus. - Jerome's part in the Hussite epistolae et verba mystica. He also wrote at Bethlehem De viris movement was formerly much overrated. Very little is known illustribus sive de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, a church history in of his early years. He is stated to have belonged to a noble biographies, ending with the life of the author; De nominibus Bohemian familys and to have been a few years younger than Hebraicis, compiled from Philo and Origen; and De situ et nomini- Hus. After beginning his studies at the university of Prague, bus locorum Hebraicorum. At the same place, too, he wrote where he never attempted to obtain any ecclesiastical office, Quaestiones Hebraicae on Genesis, and a series of commentaries Jerome proceeded to Oxford in 1398. There he became greatly on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel , the Twelve Minor Prophets, Trialogus he made copies. Always inclined to a roving life, he impressed by the writings of Wycliffe, of whose Dialogus and Matthew and the Epistles of St Paul. About 394 Jerome came to know Augustine, for whom he held a high regard. He soon proceeded to the university of Paris and afterwards con- tinued his studies at Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to engaged in the Pelagian controversy with more than even his usual bitterness (Dialogi contra pelagianos); and it is said that Prague in 1407. In 1403 he is stated to have undertaken a the violence of his invective so provoked his opponents that an journey to Jerusalem. At Paris his open advocacy of the views armed mob attacked the monastery, and that Jerome was forced of Wycliffe brought him into conflict with John Gerson, chan- to flee and to remain in concealment for nearly two years. He cellor of the university. In Prague Jerome soon attracted returned to Bethlehem in 418, and after a lingering illness died attention by his advanced and outspoken opinions. He gave on the 30th of September 420. great offence also by exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room. Jerome" is one of the few Fathers to whom the title of Saint Jerome was soon on terms of friendship with Hus, and took part appears to have been given in recognition of services rendered 10 French embassy arrived at Kutná Hora, the residence of King in all the controversies of the university. When in 1408 a the Church rather than for eminent sanctity. He is the great Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and proposed that the papal schism Christian scholar of his age, rather than the profound theologian should be terminated by the refusal of the temporal authorities or the wise guide of souls.” His great work was the Vulgate, further to recognize either of the rival popes, Wenceslaus sum- but his achievements in other fields would have sufficed to dis- tinguish him. His commentaries are valuable because of his moned to Kutná Hora the members of the university. The Bohemian magistri spoke strongly in favour of the French pro- knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, his varied interests, and his comparative freedom from allegory. To him we owe the dis- posals, while the Germans maintained their allegiance to the tinction between canonical and apocryphal writings; in the Roman pope, Gregory XII. The re-organization of the univer- Prologus Galeatus prefixed to his version of Samuel and Kings, he sity was also discussed, and as Wenceslaus for a time favoured says that the church reads the Apocrypha“ for the edification of the Germans, Hus and Jerome, as leaders of the Bohemians, the people, not for confirming the authority of ecclesiastical doc- incurred the anger of the king, who threatened them with death trines.” He was a pioneer in the fields of patrology, and of bib- by fire should they oppose his will. lical archaeology. In controversy he was too fond of mingling In 1410 Jerome, who had incurred the hostility of the arch- personal abuse with legitimate argument, and this weakness bishop of Prague by his speeches in favour of Wycliffe's teaching, mars his letters, which were held in high admiration in the early went to Ofen, where King Sigismund of Hungary resided, and, middle ages, and are valuable for their history of the man and though a layman, preached before the king denouncing strongly his times. Luther in his Table Talk condemns them as dealing the rapacity and immorality of the clergy. Sigismund shortly only with fasting, meats, virginity, &c. “ If he only had insisted afterwards received a letter from the archbishop of Prague con- upon the works of faith and performed them! But he teaches taining accusations against Jerome. He was imprisoned by nothing either about faith, or love, or hope, or the works of order of the king, but does not appear to have been detained faith.” long in Hungary. Appearing at Vienna, he was again brought 3 The statement that Jerome's family name was Faulfiss, is * Compare the critical edition of these two works in Lagarde's founded on a misunderstood passage of Aeneas Sylvius, Historica Onomastica sacra (Götting. 1870). Bohemica. Aeneas Sylvius names as one of the early Bohemian ? See Lagarde's edition appended to his Genesis Graece (Leipzig, reformers a man genere nobilis, ex domo quam Putridi Piscis 1868). vocant." This was erroneously believed to refer to Jerome. JERROLD 329 before the ecclesiastical authorities. He was accused of spreading in the sixpenny magazines, and one evening he dropped into the Wycliffe's doctrines, and his general conduct at Oxford, Paris, editor's box a criticism of the opera Der Freischütz. Next Cologne, Prague and Ofen was censured. Jerome vowed that morning he received his own copy to set up, together with a he would not leave Vienna till he had cleared himself from the flattering note from the editor, requesting further contributions accusation of heresy. Shortly afterwards he secretly left Vienna, from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was en- declaring that this promise had been forced on him. He went gaged in journalism. In 1821 a comedy that he had composed first to Võttau in Moravia, and then to Prague. In 1412 the in his fifteenth year was brought out at Sadler's Wells theatre, representatives of Pope Gregory XII. publicly offered indul- under the title More Frightened than Hurt. Other pieces gences for sale at Prague, wishing to raise money for the pope's followed, and in 1825 he was engaged for a few pounds weekly campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples, an adherent of the to produce dramas and farces to the order of Davidge of the antipope of Avignon. Contrary to the wishes of the archbishop Coburg theatre. In the autumn of 1824 the "little Shake- of Prague a meeting of the members of the university took place, speare in a camlet cloak," as he was called, married Mary Swann; at which both Hus and Jerome spoke strongly against the sale and, while he was engaged with the drama at night, he was of indulgences. The fiery eloquence of Jerome, which is noted steadily pushing his way as a journalist. For a short while he by all contemporary writers, obtained for him greater success was part proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829, even than that of Hus, particularly among the younger students, through a quarrel with the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left the who.conducted him in triumph to his dwelling-place. Shortly Coburg; and his three-act melodrama,Black-eyed Susan; or, All afterwards Jerome proceeded to Poland-it is said on the invita- in the Downs, was brought out by R. W. Elliston at the Surrey tion of King Wladislaus. His courtly manners and his eloquence theatre. The success of the piece was enormous. With its here also caused him to become very popular, but he again met free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm, and "all with strong opposition from the Roman Church. While travel London went over the water to see it.” Elliston made a fortune ling with the grand-duke Lithold of Lithuania Jerome took part by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his repu- in the religious services of the Greek Orthodox Church. tation; Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic During his stay in northern Europe Jerome received the news author at five pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist that Hus had been summoned to appear before the council of was achieved. In 1830 it was proposed that he should adapt Constance. He wrote to his friend advising him to do so and something from the French for Drury Lane. “No," was his adding that he would also proceed there to afford him assistance. reply, “I shall come into this theatre as an original dramatist Contrary to the advice of Hus he arrived at Constance on the or not at all.” The Bride of Ludgate (December 8, 1831) 4th of April 1415. Advised to fly immediately to Bohemia, he was the first of a number of his plays produced at Drury Lane. succeeded in reaching Hirschau, only 25 m. from the Bohemian The other patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the frontier. He was here arrested and brought back in chains to Adelphi had already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co- Constance, where he was examined by judges appointed by the manager of the Strand theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother- council. His courage failed him in prison and, to regain his in-law. The venture was not successful, and the partnership freedom, he renounced the doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus. He was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold wrote his only tragedy, declared that Hus had been justly executed and stated in a letter | The Painter of Ghent, and himself appeared in the title-rôle, with- addressed on the 12th of August 1415 to Lacek, lord of Kravář- out any very marked success. He continued to write sparkling the only literary document of Jerome that has been preserved - comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, The Heart of Gold. that “the dead man (Hus) had written many false and harmful Meanwhile he had won his way to the pages of numerous things.” Full confidence was not placed in Jerome's recantation periodicals-before 1830 of the second-rate magazines only, but He claimed to be heard at a general meeting of the council, and after that to those of more importance. He was a contributor this was granted to him. He now again maintained all the theo-to the Monthly Magazine, Blackwood's, the New Monthly, and ries which he had formerly advocated, and, after a trial that the Athenaeum. To Punch, the publication which of all others lasted only one day, he was condemned to be burnt as a heretic. is associated with his name, he contributed from its second The sentence was immediately carried out on the 30th of May number in 1841 till within a few days of his death. He founded 1416, and he met his death with fortitude. As Poggio Braccio- and edited for some time, though with indifferent success, the lini writes, “none of the Stoics with so constant and brave a soul Illuminated Magazine, Jerrold's Shilling Magazine, and Douglas endured death; which he (Jerome) seemed rather to long for.” Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper; and under his editorship Lloyd's The eloquence of the Italian humanist has bestowed a not Weekly Newspaper rose from almost nonentity to a circulation of entirely merited aureole on the memory of Jerome of Prague. 182,000. The history of his later years is little more than a See all works dealing with Hus; and indeed all histories of Bohemia catalogue of his literary productions, interrupted now and again contain detailed accounts of the career of Jerome. The Lives of by brief visits to the Continent or to the country. Douglas John Wicliſſe, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague and Žižka Jerrold died at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on the by William Gilpin (London, 1765) still has a certain value. (L.) 8th of June 1857. JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857), English Jerrold's figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed dramatist and man of letters, was born in London on the 3rd almost to deformity. His features were strongly marked and of January 1803. His father, Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that expressive from the thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes time lessee of the little theatre of Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent, gleaming from beneath the shaggy eyebrows. He was brisk and but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness. There, among the blue-active, with the careless bluffness of a sailor. Open and sincere, jackets who swarmed in the port during the war with France, he concealed neither his anger nor his pleasure; to his simple Douglas grew into boyhood. He occasionally took a child's frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. The cynical side part on the stage, but his father's profession had little attraction of his nature he kept for his writings; in private life his hand was for the boy. In December 1813 he joined the guardship always open. In politics Jerrold was a Liberal,and he gave eager “Namur,” where he had Jane Austen's brother as captain,and he sympathy to Kossuth, Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social served as a midshipman until the peace of 1815. He saw nothing politics especially he took an eager part, he never tired of de- of the war save a number of wounded soldiers from Waterloo; claiming against the horrors of war, the luxury of bishops, and but till his dying day there lingered traces of his early passion for the iniquity of capital punishment. the sea. The peace of 1815 ruined Samuel Jerrold; there was Douglas Jerrold is now perhaps better known from his reputa- no more prize money. On the ist of January 1816 he removed tion as a brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the a dramatist he was very popular, though his plays have not kept world again as a printer's apprentice, and in 1819 became a com- the stage. He dealt with rather humbler forms of social life positor in the printing-office of the Sunday Monitor, Several than had commonly been represented on the boards. He was short papers and copies of verses by him had already appeared I one of the first and certainly one of the most successful of those 7) 330 JERRY-JERSEY who in defence of the native English drama endeavoured to of Ryswick; he was ambassador at the Hague, and after becoming stem the tide of translation from the French, which threatened an earl was ambassador in Paris. In 1699 he was made secretary early in the 19th century altogether to drown original native of state for the southern department, and on three occasions he talent. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram was one of the lords justices of England. In 1704 he was dis- and brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, Time missed from office by Anne, and after this event he was concerned Works Wonders (Haymarket, April 26, 1845). The tales and in some of the Jacobite schemes. He died on the 25th of August sketches which form the bulk of Jerrold's collected works 1711. The 2nd earl was his son William (c. 1682-1721), an vary much in skill and interest; but, although there are adherent of the exiled house of Stuart, and the 3rd earl was the evident traces of their having been composed from week to latter's son William (d. 1769), who succeeded his kinşman John week, they are always marked by keen satirical observation Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th Viscount Grandison. The 3rd and pungent wit. earl's son, George Bussy, the 4th earl (1735-1805), held several Among the best known of his numerous works are: Men of positions at the court of George III., and on account of his help it," and other sketches of the same kind; Cakes and Ale (2 vols.. 4th earl's son, George, 5th earl of Jersey (1773-1859), one of the Character (1838), including Job Pippin: The man who couldn't courtly manners was called the prince of Maccaronies.” The 1842), a collection of short papers and whimsical stories; some more serious novels-The Slory of a Feather (1844), The Chronicles of most celebrated fox-hunters of his time and a successful owner Clovernook (1846), A Man made of Money (1849), and St Giles and Si of racehorses, married Sarah Sophia (1785-1867), daughter of James (1851); and various series of papers reprinted from Punch- John Fane, roth earl of Westmorland, and granddaughter of Punch's Letters to his Son (1843), Punch's Complete Leiter-writer Robert Child, the banker. She inherited her grandfather's (1845), and the famous Mrs Caudle's Curtain Lectures (1846). See W. B. Jerrold, Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold" (1859). great wealth, including his interest in Child's bank, and with her A collected edition of his writings appeared in 1851-1854, and The husband took the name of Child-Villiers. Since this time the Works of Douglas Jerrold, with a memoir by his son, W. B. Jerrold, connexions of the earls of Jersey with Child's bank has been main- in 1863-1864; but neither is complete. Among the numerous selections from his tales and witticisms are two edited by his grand tained. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845) succeeded son, Walter Jerrold, Bons Mols of Charles Dickens and Douglas his father George Augustus (1808–1859), 6th earl, who had only Jerrold (new ed. 1904), and The Essays of Douglas Jerrold (1903), held the title for three weeks, as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859. illustrated by H.M. Brock. See also The Wit and Opinions of Douglas This nobleman was governor of New South Wales from 1890 Jerrold (1858), edited by W. B. Jerrold. to 1893. His eldest son, WILLIAM BLANCHARD JERROLD (1826–1884), JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to English journalist and author, was born in London on the 23rd Great Britain. Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of of December 1826, and abandoning the artistic career for which the island, is in 49° 12' N., 2° 7' W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland he was educated, began newspaper work at an early age there. Bill on the English coast, and 24 m. from the French coast to the He was appointed Crystal Palace commissioner to Sweden in east. Jersey is the southernmost of the more important islands 1853, and wrote A Brage-Beaker with the Swedes (1854) on his of the group. It is of oblong form with a length of 10 m. from return. In 1855 he was sent to the Paris exhibition as corre- east to west and an extreme breadth of 6 m. The area is 28,717 spondent for several London papers, and from that time he lived acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 52,576. much in Paris. In 1857 succeeded his father as editor of The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper, a post which he held for twenty-six north, the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying years. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported bold and picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south the North, and several of his leading articles were reprinted and and west coasts consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow placarded in New York by the federal government. He was the and rocky, with marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky head- founder and president of the English branch of the international lands. The principal bays are Grève au Lançons, Grève de literary association for the assimilation of copyright laws. Lecq, St John's and Bouley Bays on the north coast; St Cache- Four of his plays were successfully produced on the London stage, rine's and Grouville Bays on the east; St Clement's, St Aubin's the popular farce Cool as a Cucumber (Lyceum 1851) being the and St Brelade's Bays on the south; and St Ouen's Bay, the wide best known. His French experiences resulted in a number of sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west coast. books, most important of which is his Life of Napoleon III. The sea in many places has encroached greatly on the land, and (1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave sand drifts have been found troublesome, especially on the west Doré, who had illustrated several of his books, when he died on coast. The surface of the country is broken by winding valleys the roth of March 1884. having a general direction from north to south, and as they Among his books are A Story of Social Distinction (1848), Life and approacn the south uniting so as to form small plains. The Remains of Douglas Jerrold (1859), Up and Down in the World (1863), lofty hedges which bound the small enclosures into which Jersey The Children of Lutetia (1864), Cent per Cent (1871), At Home in Paris is divided, the trees and shrubberies which line the roads and (1871), The Best of all Good Company (1871-1873), and The Life of cluster round the uplands and in almost every nook of the valleys George Cruikshank (1882). unutilized for pasturage or tillage, give the island a luxuriant JERRY, a short form of the name Jeremiah, applied to various appearance, neutralizing the bare effect of the few sandy plains common objects, and more particularly to a machine for finishing and sand-covered hills. Fruits and flowers indigenous to warm cloth. The expression “jerry-built " is applied to houses built climates grow freely in the open air. The land, under careful badly and of inferior materials, and run up by a speculative cultivation, is rich and productive, the soil being generally a builder. There seems to be no foundation for the assertion that deep loam, especially in the valleys, but in the west shallow, light this expression was occasioned by the work of a firm of Liverpool and sandy. The subsoil is usually gravel, but in some parts an builders named Jerry. unfertile clay. Some two-thirds of the total area is under JERSEY, EARLS OF. " Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711), cultivation, great numbers of cattle being pastured, and much son of Sir Edward Villiers (1620-1689), of Richmond, Surrey, market gardening practised. The potato crop is very large. was created Baron Villiers and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl The peasants take advantage of every bit of wall and every of Jersey in 1697. His grandfather, Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585- isolated nook of ground for growing fruit trees. Grapes are 1626), master of the mint and president of Munster, was half- ripened under glass; oranges can be grown in sheltered situations, brother of George. Villiers, ist duke of Buckinghani, and but the most common fruits are apples, which are used for cider, of Christopher Villiers, ist earl of Anglesey; his sister was and pears. A manure of burnt sea-weed (vraic) is generally Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of William III., and after- used. The pasturage is very rich, and is much improved by the wards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight-marshal of application of this manure to the surface. The breed of cattle the royal household in succession to his father; master of the is kept pure by stringent laws against the importation of foreign horse to Queen Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and animals. The milk is used almost exclusively to manufacture Queen Anne. In 1606 he represented his country at the congress butter. The cattle are always housed in winter, but remain out JERSEY CITY–JERUSALEM 331 at night from May till October. There was formerly a small water-front, especially on the east side, is given up to manu. black breed of horses peculiar to the island, but horses are now facturing and shipping establishments. In the hill section chiefly imported from France or England. Pigs are kept are the better residences, most of which are wooden and principally for local consumption, and only a few sheep are detached. reared. Fish are not so plentiful as round the shores of Guernsey, The principal buildings are the city hall and the court house. but mackerel, turbot, cod, mullet and especially the conger eel There are nine small city parks with an aggregate area of 39.1 acres. are abundant at the Minquiers. There is a large oyster bed | The city, has a public library containing (1907) 107,600 volumes and an historical museum. between Jersey and France, but partly on account of over- At the corner of Bergen Ave. and dredging the supply is not so abundant as formerly. There is the First Congregational church and containing a library and reading. Forrest St. is the People's Palace, given in 1904 by Joseph Milbank to a great variety of other shell fish. The fisheries, ship-building room, a gymnasium, bowling alleys, a billiard-room, a rifle-range, and boat-building employ many of the inhabitants. Kelp and a roof-garden, and an auditorium and theatre; kindergarten classes iodine are manufactured from sea-weed. The principal exports educational institutions are the German American school, Has- are held and an employment bureau is maintained. Among the are granite, fruit and vegetables (especially potatoes), butter brouck institute, St Aloysius academy (Roman Catholic) and St and cattle; and the chief imports coal and articles of human con- Peter's college (Roman Catholic); and there are good public schools. sumption. Communications with England are maintained prin-Grain is shipped to and from Jersey City in large quantities, and in cipally from Southampton and Weymouth, and there are regular general the city is an important shipping port; being included, however, in the port of New York, no separate statistics are avail- steamship services from Granville and St Malo on the French able. There are large slaughtering establishments, and factories coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St Helier round St ior the refining of sugar and for the manufacture of tobacco goods, Aubin's Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbière at the south- soap and perfumery, lead pencils, iron and steel, railway cars, western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern railway chemicals, rubber goods, silk goods, dressed lumber, and malt follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. The island is liquors. The value of the city's manufactured products increased from $37,376,322 in 1890 to $77,225,116 in 1900, or 106.6%; in intersected with a network of good roads. 1905 the factory product alone was valued at $75.740,934, an į Jersey is under a distinct and in several respects different form increase of only 3:9 % over the factory product in 1900, this small of administrative government from Guernsey and the smaller rate of increase being due very largely to a decline in the value of islands included in the bailiwick of Guernsey. For its peculiar value of the wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing product the products of the sugar and molasses refining industry. The constitution, system of justice, ecclesiastical arrangements and decreased from $18,551,783 in 1880 and $11,356,511 in 1890 to finance, see CHANNEL ISLANDS. There are twelve parishes, $6,243,217 in 1900—of this $5,708,763, represented wholesale namely St Helier, Grouville, St Brelade, St Clement, St John, slaughtering alone; in 1905 the wholesale slaughtering product was valued at $7,568,739. St Laurence, St Martin, St Mary, St Ouen, St Peter, St Saviour and Trinity. The population of the island nearly doubled In 1908 the assessed valuation of the city was $267,039,754. between 1821 and 1901, but decreased from 54,518 to 52,576 The city is governed by a board of aldermen and a mayor (elected between 1891 and 1901. biennially), who appoints most of the officials, the street and The history of Jersey is treated under CHANNEL ISLANDS. water board being the principal exception. Among objects of antiquarian interest, a cromlech near Mont Jersey City when first incorporated was a small sandy penin- Orgueil is the finest of several examples. St Brelade's church, sula (an island at high tide) known as Paulus Hook, directly probably the oldest in the island, dates from the 12th century; opposite the lower end of Manhattan Island. It had been a part among the later churches St Helier's, of the 14th century, may of the Dutch patroonship of Pavonia granted to Michael Pauw be mentioned. There are also some very early chapels, con- in 1630. In 1633 the first buildings were erected, and for more sidered to date from the toth century or earlier; among these than a century the Hook was occupied by a small agricultural may be noted the Chapelle-ès-Pêcheurs at St Brelade's, and the and trading community. In 1764 a new post route between picturesque chapel in the grounds of the manor of Rozel. The New York and Philadelphia passed through what is now the city, castle of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains, and direct ferry communication began with New York. Early is believed to be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold, in the War of Independence Paulus Hook was fortified by the and a “Caesar's fort " still forms a part of it. Americans, but soon after the battle of Long Island they aban- : JERSEY CITY, a city and the county-seat of Hudson county, doned it, and on the 23rd of September 1776 it was occupied by New Jersey, U.S.A., on a peninsula between the Hudson and the British. On the morning of the 19th of August 1779 the Hackensack rivers at the N. and between New York and Newark British garrison was surprised by Major Henry Lee (“ Light bays at the S., opposite lower Manhattan Island. Pop. (1890), Horse Harry "), who with about 500 men took 159 prisoners and 163,003; (1900), 206,433, of whom 58,424 were foreign-born lost only 2 killed and 3 wounded, one of the most brilliant ex- (19,314 Irish, 17,375 German, 4642 English, 3832 Italian, 1694 ploits during the War of Independence. In 1804 Paulus Hook, Russian, 1690 Scottish, 1643 Russian Poles, 1445 Austrian) and containing 117 acres and having about 15 inhabitants, passed 3704 were negroes; (1910 census) 267,779. It is the eastern into the possession of three enterprising New York lawyers, who terminus of the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, laid it out as a town and formed an association for its government, the Central of New Jersey, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Northern which was incorporated as the “associates of the Jersey com- of New Jersey (operated by the Erie), the Erie, the New York, pany.” In 1820 the town was incorporated as the City of Jersey, Susquehanna & Western, and the New Jersey & New York but it remained a part of the township of Bergen until 1838, when (controlled by the Erie) railways, the first three using the it was reincorporated as a distinct municipality. In 1851 the Pennsylvania station; and of the little-used Morris canal. township of Van Vorst, founded in 1804 between Paulus Hook Jersey City is served by several inter-urban electric railways and and Hoboken, was annexed. In 1870 there were two annexa- by the tunnels of the Hudson & Manhattan railroad company to tions: to the south, the town of Bergen, the county-seat, which Dey St. and to 33rd St. and 6th Ave., New York City, and it also was founded in 1660; to the north-west, Hudson City, which has docks of several lines of Transatlantic and coast steamers. had been separated from the township of North Bergen in 1852 The city occupies a land area of 14:3 sq. m. and has a water-front and incorporated as a city in 1855. The town of Greenville, to of about 12 m. Bergen Hill, a southerly extension of the Pali- the south, was annexed in 1873. sades, extends longitudinally through it from north to south. JERUSALEM (Heb. obom;, Yerushalaim, pronounced as At the north end this hill rises on the east side precipitously a dual), the chief city of Palestiné. Letters found at Tell el- to a height of nearly 200 ft.; on the west and south sides Amarna in Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem, the slope is gradual. On the crest of the hill is the fine show that the name existed under the form Urusalim, i.e. Hudson County Boulevard, about 19 m. long and 100 ft. “ City of Salim City of Peace," many years before the wide, extending through the city and county from north Israelites under Joshua entered Canaan. The emperor Hadrian, to south and passing through West Side Park, a splendid when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia Capitolina. county park containing lakes and a 70-acre playground. The | The Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive of << or 332 JERUSALEM ury holiness, such as Beit el Maķdis and El Mukaddis or briefly El | after some difficulty in taking Jerusalem. He established his K uds, i.e. the Sanctuary. royal city on the eastern hill close to the site of the Jebusite Zion, Natural Topography.— Jerusalem is situated in 31°47' N. and 35° while Jebus, the town on the western side of the Tyropoeon 15'E., in the hill country of southern Palestine, close to the watershed, valley, became the civil city, of which Joab, David's leading at an average altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 3800 general, was appointed governor. David surrounded the royal ft. above the level of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a rocky city with a wall and built a citadel, probably on the site of the plateau, which projects southwards from the main line of hills. On the east the valley of the Kidron separates this plateau from the Jebusite fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town. ridge of the Mount of Olives, which is 100 to 200 ſt. higher, while the North of the city of David, the king, acting under divine guid- Wadi Er Rababi bounds Jerusalem on the west and south, meeting the ance, chose a site for the Temple of Jehovah, which was erected Valley of Kidron near the lower pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall rapidly as they approach the point of junction, which lies at a depth by this building has given rise to much controversy, though all with great magnificence by Solomon. The actual site occupied of more than 600 ft. be . latter, which covers an area of about 1000 acres, has at the present authorities are agreed that it must have stood on some part of time a fairly uniform surface and slopes gradually from the north to the area now known as the Haram. James Fergusson was of the south and east. Originally, however, its formation was very opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner. different, as it was intersected by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon by Josephus, which, starting from a point N.W. of the Damascus As, however, it was proved by the explorations of Sir Charles gate, followed a course first south-east and then west of south, Warren in 1869–1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this and joined the two main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam. corner, and that the foundations must have been of enormous Another shorter valley began near the present Jaffa gate and; depth, Fergusson's theory must be regarded as untenable (see taking an easterly direction, joined the Tyropoeon; while a third ravine passed across what is now the northern part of the Haram also SEPULCHRE, Holy). On the whole it is most likely that enclosure and ſell into the valley of the Kidron. 'The exact form of the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same spot as is now these three interior valleys, which had an important influence on occupied by the Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the the construction and history of the city, is still imperfectly known, as they are to a great extent obliterated by vast accumulations of Mosque of Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the rubbish, which has filled them up in some places to a depth of more ground, it is possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred than 100 ft. Their approximate form was only arrived at by excava- chamber of the Temple, stood over the rock which is still re- tions made during the later years of the 19th The limited garded with veneration by the Mahommedans. Solomon greatly knowledge which we possess of the original features of the ground within the area of the city makes a reconstruction of the topo- strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem, and was probably graphical history of the latter a difficult task; and, as a natural result, the builder of the line of defence, called by Josephus the first or many irreconcilable theories have been suggested. The difficulty old wall, which united the cities on the eastern and western hills. is increased by the fact that the geographical descriptions given in The kingdom reached its highest point of importance during the the Old Testament the Apocrypha and the writings of Josephus reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his death, it was broken up are very short, and, having been written for those who were acquainted with the places, convey insufficient information to his by the rebellion of Jeroboam, who founded the separate kingdom torians of the present day, when the sites are so greatly altered. All of Israel with its capital at Shechem. Two tribes only, ſudah that can be done is to form a continuous account in accord with the and Benjamin, with the descendants of Levi, remained faithful ancient histories, and with the original formation of the ground, to Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Jerusalem thus lost much so far as this has been identified by modern exploration. But the progress of exploration and excavation may render this subject to of its importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to further modification. Shishak, king of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches The geological formation of the plateau consists of thin beds of which had been accumulated by Solomon. The history of hard silicious chalk, locally called misse, which overlie a thick bed of Jerusalem during the succeeding three centuries consists for the soft white limestone, known by the name of meleke. Both descrip- tions of rock yielded good material for building; while in the soft most part of a succession of wars against the kingdom of Israel, meleke tanks, underground chambers, tombs, ' &c., were easily the Moabites and the Syrians. Joash, king of Israel, captured excavated. In ancient times a brook flowed down the valley of the the city from Amaziah, king of Judah, and destroyed part of the Kidron, and it is possible that a stream flowed also through the fortifications, but these were rebuilt by Uzziah, the son of Tyropoeon valley. The only known spring existing at present | Amaziah, who did much to restore the city to its original pros- within the limits of the city is the “ fountain of the Virgin," on the western side of the Kidron valley, but there may have been perity. In the reign of Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became others which are now concealed by the accumulations of rubbish. tributary to the Assyrians, who attempted the capture of Cisterns were also used for the storage of rain water, and aqueducts, Jerusalem. Hezekiah improved the defences and arranged for of which the remains still exist (see AQUEDUCTS ad init.), were constructed for the conveyance of water from a distance. Speaking a good water supply, preparatory to the siege by Sennacherib, generally, it is probable that the water supply of Jerusalem in ancient the Assyrian general. The siege failed and the Assyrians retired. times was better than it is at present. Some years later Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who History. The early history of Jerusaiem is very obscure. The reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign Tell el-Amarna letters show that, long before the invasion by of Zedekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured Joshua, it was occupied by the Egyptians, and was probably by Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city, a stronghold of considerable importance, as it formed a good destroyed the Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see Jews, strategical position in the hill country of southern Palestine. § 17). A number of the principal inhabitants were carried We do not know how the Egyptians were forced to abandon captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was reduced to the position Jerusalem; but, at the time of the Israelite conquest, it was of an insignificant town. Nebuchadrezzar placed in the city a undoubtedly in the hands of the Jebusites, the native inhabitants garrison which appears to have been quartered on the western of the country. The exact position of the Jebusite city is un hill, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the city known; some authorities locate it on the western hill, now known of David was left more or less desolate. We have no information as Zion; some on the eastern hill, afterwards occupied by the regarding Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, but Temple and the city of David; while others consider it was a fortunately Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild double settlement, one part being on the western, and the other the defences about 445 B.C., has given a fairly clear description on the eastern hill, separated from one another by the Tyropoeon of the line of the wall which enables us to obtain a good idea of valley. The latter view appears to be the most probable, as, the extent of the city at this period. The Temple had already according to the Biblical accounts, Jerusalem was partly in Judah been partially rebuilt by Zedekiah and his companions, but on and partly in Benjamin, the line of demarcation between the two a scale far inferior to the agnificent building of King Solomon, tribes passing through the city. According to his theory, the and Nehemiah devoted his attention to the reconstruction of the part of Jerusalem known as Jebus was situated on the western walls. Before beginning the work, he made a preliminary recon- hill, and the outlying fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men naissance of the fortifications on the south of the town from the of Judah and Benjamin did not succeed in getting full possession Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. corner, to the pool of of the place, and the Jebusites still held it when David became Siloam and valley of the Kidron. He then allotted the recon. king of Israel. Some years after his accession David succeeded I struction of wall and gates to different parties of workmen, and Kidron Meah Sheep gate Tower The The The Mount of Olives the The Tower Hananeel CH The Temple The East gate Gate of Ephraim The Old gate The Fish gate The House of the Governor The Horse gate, The Теу. The Upper City The City of David The Watergate / טן 1 2 6 The Valley gate of Siloam JERUSALEM in the time of the Kings and Nehemiah Hinno The Dung gate gate The Fountain Wa11 Outer or Bezetha of Olives The Third Second Wall The Fortress Antonia The Tower Psephinus The Mey The Temple The Mount the Kidron The Old Wall The Tower Hippicus The Palace Jof Herod The Palace of Herod Agrippa Acra uoadoans The The Upper City The Old or First The Valley The Walt Siloam JERUSALEM at the time of the Siege by Titus of Hinn om 12 I mile Emery Walker se 1 一 ​--- } . JERUSALEM 333 his narrative describes the portion of wall upon which each of possession of the Acra, which caused much trouble to the Jews, these was employed.- who erected a wall between it and the Temple, and another wall It is clear from his account that the lines of fortifications included to cut it off from the city. The Greeks held out for a consider- both the eastern and western hills. North of the Temple enclosure able time, but had finally to surrender, probably from want of there was a gate, known as the Sheep Gate, which must have opened food, to Simon Maccabaeus, who demolished the Acra and cut into the third valley mentioned above, and stood somewhere near what is now the north side of the Haram enclosure, but considerably down the hill upon which it stood so that it might no longer be south of the present north wall of the latter. To the west of the higher than the Temple, and that there should be no separation Sheep Gate there were two important towers in the wall, called respec- between the latter and the city. Simon then constructed a new tively Meah and Hananeel. The tower Hananeel is specially worthy of notice as it stood N.W. of the Temple and probably formed the citadel, north of the Temple, to take the place of the Acra, and basis of the citadel built by Simon Maccabaeus, which again was established in Judaea the Asmonean dynasty, which lasted for succeeded by the fortress of Antonia, constructed by Herod the Great, nearly a century, when the Roman republic began to make its and one of the most important positions at the time of the siege by inf.uence felt in Syria. In 65 B.C. Jerusalem was captured by Titus. At or near the tower Hananeel the wall turned south along the east side of the Tyropoeon valley, and then again westward, Pompey after a difficult siege. The Asmonean dynasty lasted crossing the valley at a point probably near the remarkable construc- a few years longer, but finally came to an end when Herod the tion known as Wilson's arch: A gate in the valley, known as the Great, with the aid of the Romans, took possession of Jerusalem Fish Gate, opened on a road which, leading from the north, went and became the first king of the Idumaean dynasty. Herod down the Tyropoeon valley to the southern part of the city. West- ward of this gate the wall followed the south side of the valley which again raised the city to the position of an important capital, joined the Tyropoeon from the west as far as the north-western restoring the fortifications, and rebuilding the Temple from its called tower of David. In this part of the wall there were apparently of the Temple, on the site of the citadel of the Asmoneans, and foundations. He also built the great fortress of Antonia, N.W. corner of the city at the site of the present Jaffa Gate and the so- two gates facing north, s.e. the Old Gate and the Gate of Ephraim, constructed a magnificent palace for himself on the western hill, 400 cubits from the corner.? At the corner stood the residence of the Babylonian governor, near the site upon which King Herod defended by three great towers, which he named Mariamne, afterwards built his magnificent palace. From the corner at the Hippicus and Phasaelus. At some period between the time of governor's house, the wall went in a southerly direction and turned the Maccabees and of Herod, a second or outer wall had been south-east to the Valley Gate, remains of which were discovered by F. J. Bliss and fully described in his Excavations in Jerusalem in built outside and north of the first wall, but it is not possible 1894-1897. From the Valley Gate the wall took an easterly course to fix an accurate date to this line of defence, as the references for a distance of 1000 cubits to the Dung Gate, near which on the to it in Josephus are obscure. Herod adorned the town with east was the Fountain Gate, not far from the lower pool of Siloam. Here was the most southerly point of Jerusalem, and the wall turning doubled the area of the enclosure round the Temple, and there other buildings and constructed a theatre and gymnasium. He hence to the north followed the west side of the valley of the Kidron, enclosing the city of David and the Temple enclosure, and finally can be little doubt that a great part of the walls of the Haram turning west at some point near the site of the Golden Gate joined area date from the time of Herod, while probably the tower of the wall, already described, at the Sheep Gate. Nehemiah mentions David, which still exists near the Jaffa Gate, is on the same foun- a number of places on the eastern hill, including the tomb of David, the positions of which cannot with our present knowledge be fixed dation as one of the towers adjoining his palace. Archelaus, with any certainty. Herod's successor, had far less authority than Herod, and the After the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah, real power of government at Jerusalem was assumed by the a considerable number of Jews returned to the city, but we know Roman procurators, in the time of one of whom, Pontius Pilate, practically nothing of its history for more than a century until, Jesus Christ was condemned to death and crucified outside in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered Syria. The gates of Jerusalem. The places of his execution and burial are not Jerusalem were opened to him and he left the Jews in peaceful certainly known (see SEPULCHRE, Holy). occupation. But his successors did not act with similar leniency; Herod Agrippa, who succeeded to the kingdom, built a third when the city was captured by Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, twelve or outer wall on the north side of Jerusalem in order to enclose years later, the fortifications were partially demolished and and defend the buildings which had gradually been constructed apparently not again restored until the period of the high priest outside the old fortifications. The exact line of this third wall Simon II., who repaired the defences and also the Temple build- is not known with certainty, but it probably followed approxi- ings. In 168 B.C. Antiochus Epiphanes captured Jerusalem, mately the same line as the existing north wall of Jerusalem. destroyed the walls, and devastated the Temple, reducing the Some writers have considered that it extended a considerable city to a worse position than it had occupied since the time of the distance farther to the north, but of this there is no proof, and captivity. He built a citadel called the Acra to dominate the no remains have as yet been found which would support the town and placed in it a strong garrison of Greeks. The position opinion. The wall of Herod Agrippa was planned on a grand of the Acra is doubtful, but it appears most probable that it scale, but its execution was stopped by the Romans, so that it stood on the eastern hill between the Temple and the city of was not completed at the time of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus. David, both of which it commanded. Some writers place it The writings of Josephus give a good idea of the fortifications north of the Temple on the site afterwards occupied by the and buildings of Jerusalem at the time of the siege, and his fortress of Antonia, but such a position is not in accord with the accurate personal knowledge makes his account worthy of the descriptions either in Josephus or in the books of the Maccabees, most careful perusal. He explains clearly how Titus, beginning which are quite consistent with each other. Other writers again his attack from the north, captured the third or outer wall , then have placed the Acra on the eastern side of the hill upon which the second wall, and finally the fortress of Antonia, the Temple, the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but as this point and the upper city. After the capture, Titus ordered the Temple was probably quite outside the city at the time of Antiochus to be demolished and the fortifications to be levelled, with the Epiphanes, and is at too great a distance from the Temple, it exception of the three great towers at Herod's palace. It is, can hardly be accepted. But the site which has been already however, uncertain how far the order was carried out, and it is indicated at the N.E. corner of the present Mosque el Aksa meets probable that the outer walls of the Temple enclosure were left the accounts of the ancient authorities better than any other. partially standing and that the defences on the west and south At this point in the Haram enclosure there is an enormous under of the city were not completely levelled. When Titus and his ground cistern, known as the Great Sea, and this may possibly army withdrew from Jerusalem, the roth legion was left as a have been the source of water supply for the Greek garrison. permanent Roman garrison, and a fortified camp for their We have no The oppression of Antiochus led to a revolt of the Jews under the occupation was established on the western hill . leadership of the Maccabees, and Judas Maccabaeus succeeded account of the size or position of this camp, but a consideration in capturing Jerusalem after severe fighting, but could not get of the site, and a comparison with other Roman camps in various . ?The sites shown on the plan are tentative, and cannot be re- parts of Europe, make it probable that it occupied an area of garded as certain; see Nehemiah ii. 12–15, iii. 1–32, xii. 37-39. about 50 acres, extending over what is now known as the Armenian See 2 Kings xiv, 13. quarter of the town, and that it was bounded on the north by the 334 JERUSALEM 1 old or first wall, on the west also by the old wall, on the south by 1 of Aksa, built by the amir Abdalmalik (Abd el Malek), whu also a line of defence somewhat in the same position as the present constructed the Dome of the Rock, known as the Mosque of south wall where it passes the Zion Gate, and on the east by an Omar, in 688. The Mahommedans held Jerusalem until 1099, entrenchment running north and south parallel to the existing when it was captured by the crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, thoroughfare known as David Street. For sixty years the and became the capital of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem Roman garrison were left in undisturbed occupation, but in 132 (see CRUSADES, vol. viii. p. 401) until 1187, when Saladin re- the Jews rose in revolt under the leadership of Bar-Cochebas or conquered it, and rebuilt the walls. Since that time, except Barcochba, and took possession of Jerusalem. After a severe from 1229 to 1239, and from 1243 to 1244, the city has been struggle, the revolt was suppressed by the Roman general, Julius held by the Mahommedans. It was occupied by the Egyptian Severus, and Jerusalem was recaptured and again destroyed. sultans until 1517, when the Turks under Selim I. occupied According to some writers, this devastation was even more com- Syria. Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, restored the plete than after the siege by Titus. About 130 the emperor fortifications, which since that time have been little altered. Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, and make it a Roman colony. The new city was called Aelia Capitolina. The exact governed by a mulessariſ, who reports directly to the Porte. Modern Jerusalem.-Jerusalem is the chief town of a sanjak, It has size of the city is not known, but it probably extended as far as the usual executive and town councils, upon which the recognized the present north wall o! Jerusalem and included the northern religious communities, or millels, have representatives; and it is part of the western hill. A temple dedicated to Jupiter Capitol- garrisoned by infantry of the V. army corps. The city is connected inus was erected on the site of the Temple, and other buildings railway. 54 m., which was completed in 1892, and is worked by a with its port, Jaffa, by a carriage road, 41 m., and by a metre-gauge were constructed, known as the Theatre, the Demosia, the French company: There are also carriage roads to Beihlehem, Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra. The Jews Hebron and Jericho, and a road to Nablus was in course of construc were forbidden to reside in the city, but Christians were freely tion in 1909. Prior to 1858, when the modern building period com. admitted. The history of Jerusalem during the period between menced, Jerusalem lay wholly within its 16th-century walls, and even as late as 1875 there were few private residences beyond their limits. the foundation of the city of Aelia by the emperor Hadrian and At present Jerusalem without ihe walls covers a larger area than that the accession of Constantine the Great in 306 is obscure, but no within them. The growth has been chiefly towards the north and important change appears to have been made in the size or north-west ; but there are large suburbs on the west, and on the south- fortifications of the city, which continued as a Roman colony; of Siloam has also increased in size, and the western slopes of Olivet west near the railway station on the plain of Rephaim. The village In 326 Constantine, after his conversion to Christianity, issued are being covered with churches, monasteries and houses. Amongst orders to the bishop Macarius to recover the site of the cruci- the most marked features of the change that has taken place since fixion of Jesus Christ, and the tomb in which his body was laid 1875 are the growth of religious and philanthropic establishments; the settlement of Jewish colonies from Bokhara. Yemen and Europe; (see SEPULCHRE, Holy). After the holy sites had been deter- mined, Constantine gave orders for the construction of two city to the suburbs; the increased vegetation, due to the numerous the migration of Europeans, old Moslem families, and Jews from the magnificent churches, the one over the tomb and the other over gardens and improved methods of cultivation; the substitution of the place where the cross was discovered. The present church timber and red tiles for the vaulted stone roofs which were so of the Holy Sepulchre stands on the site upon which one of the characteristic of the old city; the striking want of beauty, grandeur, churches of Constantine was built, but the second church, the buildings; and the introduction of wheeled transport, which, cutting and harmony with their environment exhibited by most of the new Basilica of the Cross, has completely disappeared. The next into the soft limestone, has produced mud and dust to an extent important epoch in building construction at Jerusalem was about previously unknown. To facilitate communication between the 460, when the empress Eudocia visited Palestine and expended city and its suburbs, the Bab ez-Zāhire, or Herod's Gate, and a new gate, near the north-west angle of the walls, have been opened; large sums on the improvement of the city. The walls were and a portion of the wall, adjoining the Jaffa Gate, has been thrown repaired by her orders, and the line of fortifications appears to down, to allow free access for carriages. Within the city the princi- have been extended on the south so as to include the pool of pal streets have been roughly paved, and iron bars placed across Siloam. A church was built above the pool, probably at the the narrow alleys to prevent the passage of camels. Without the walls carriage roads have been made to the mount of Olives, the same time, and, after having completely disappeared for many railway station, and various parts of the suburbs, but they are kept centuries, it was recovered by F. J. Bliss when making his in bad repair Little effort has been made to meet the increased exploration of Jerusalem. The empress also erected a large church sanitary requirements of the larger population and wider inhabited in honour of St Stephen north of the Damascus Gate, and is There is no municipal water supply, and the main drain of the city discharges into the lower pool of Siloam, which has become believed to have been buried therein. The site of this church was an open cesspit. In several places the débris within the walls is discovered in 1874, and it has since been rebuilt. In the 6th saturated with sewage, and the water of the Fountain of the century the emperor Justinian erected a magnificent basilica Virgin, and of many of the old cisterns, is unfit for drinking. Amongst at Jerusalem, in honour of the Virgin Mary, and attached to it the more important buildings for ecclesiastical and philanthropic two hospitals, one for the reception of pilgrims and one for the cathedral, hospice and hospital; the French hospital of St Louis, purposes erected to the north of the city since 1860 are the Russian accommodation of the sick poor. The description given by and hospice and church of St Augustine; the German schools, Procopius does not indicate clearly where this church was orphanages and hospitals; the new hospital and industrial school of situated. A theory frequently put forward is that it stood the London mission to the Jews; the Abyssinian church, the church within the Haram area near the Mosque of el Aksa, but it is more college and bishop's house; the Dominican monastery,, seminary and schools of the Church missionary society; the Anglican church, probable that it was on Zion, near the traditional place of the and church of St Stephen; the Rothschild hospital and girls' school; Coenaculum or last supper, where the Mahommedan building and the industrial school and workshops of the Alliance Israélite. known as the tomb of David now stands. In 614 Chosroes II., On the mount of Olives are the Russian church, tower and hospice, near the chapel of the Ascension; the French Paternoster church; the king of Persia, captured Jerusalem, devastated many of the the Carmelite nunnery; and the Russian church of St Mary Magda- buildings, and massacred a great number of the inhabitants. lene, near Gethsemane. South of the city are the Armenian The churches at the Holy Sepulchre were much damnaged, but monastery of Mount Zion and Bishop Gobat's school. On the west were partially restored by the monk Modestus, who devoted side are the institution of the sisters of St Vincent; the Ratisbon himself with great energy to the work. school; the Montefore hospice; the British ophthalmic hospital of After a severe struggle | the knights of St John; the convent and church of the Clarisses: the Persians were defeated by the emperor Heraclius, who entered and the Moravian leper hospital. Within the city walls are the Jerusalem in triumph in 629 bringing with him the holy cross, Latin Patriarchal church and residence; the school of the Frères which had been carried off by Chosroes. this period the de la Doctrine Chrétienne; the schools and printing house of the religion of Mahomet was spreading over the east, and in 637 the Franciscans; the Coptic monastery; the German church of the Redeemer, and hospice; the United Armenian church of the Spasm; caliph Omar marched on Jerusalem, which capitulated after a the convent and school of the Sours de Zion; the Austrian hospice; siege of four months. Omar behaved with great moderation, the Turkish school and museum; the monastery and seminary of restraining his troops from pillage and leaving the Christians in the Frères de la Mission Algérienne, with the restored church of St possession of their churches. A wooden mosque was erected Anne, the church, schools and hospital of the London mission to the Jews; the Armenian seminary and Patriarchal buildings; near the site of the Temple, which was replaced by the Mosque I the Rothschild hospital; and Jewish hospices and synagogues. area. JERUSALEM—JESSE 335 The climate is naturally good, but continued neglect of sanitary | Bethlehemitica; a revised text in 1678 as Synodus Jerosolymitana: precautions has made the city unhealthy. During the summer Hardouin, Acta conciliorum, vol. xi.; Kimmel, Monumenta fidei months the heat is tempered by a fresh sea-breeze, and there is ecclesiae orientalis (Jena, 1850; critical edition); P. Schaff, “The usually a sharp fall of temperature at night; but in spring and Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii. (text after Hardouin and Kimmel, autumn the east and south-east winds, which blow across the heated with Latin translation); The Acts and Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem depression of the Ghor, are enervating and oppressive. A dry translated from the Greek, with notes, by J. N. W. B.' Robertson season, which lasts from May to October, is followed by a rainy (London, i899); J. Michalcescu, Die Bekenntnisse und die wichtigsten season, divided into the early winter and latter rains. Snow falls Glaubenszeugnisse der griechisch-orientalischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1904; two years out of three, but soon melts. The mean annual tempera- Kimmel's text with introductions). LITERATURE.-The Doctrine of ture is 62.8° F., the maximum 112°, and the minimum 25. The the Russian Church ... translated by R. W. Blackmore (Aberdeen, mean monthly temperature is lowest (47:2°) in February, and highest 1845), p. xxv. sqq.; Schaff, i. & 17:Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon (763°) in August. The mean annual rainfall (1861 to 1899) is (2nd ed.) ( vi. 1359 seq.; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (3rd ed.), 26.06 in. The most unhealthy period is from ist May to 31st viii. 703-705; Michalcescu, 123 sqq. (See Councils.) (W.W. R.*) October, when there are, from time to time, outbreaks of typhoid, small-pox, diphtheria and other epidemics. The unhealthiness of JESI (anc. Aesis), a town and episcopal see of the Marchas, the city is chiefly due to want of proper drainage, impure drinking; Italy, in the province of Ancona, from which it is 17 m. W. by S. water, miasma from the disturbed rubbish heaps, and contaminated by rail, 318 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 23,285. The place dust from the uncleansed roads and streets. The only industry took its ancient name from the river Aesis (mod. Esino), upon the is the manufacture of olive-wood and mother-of-pearl goods for sale to pilgrims and for export. The imports (see Joppa) are chiefly left bank of which it lies. It still retains its picturesque medieval food, clothing and building material. about 60,000 Moslems 7000, Christians 13,000, Jews 40,000). During Renaissance building (1487-1503) by Francesco di Giorgio The population in 1905 was town walls. The Palazzo del Comune is a fine, simple, early the pilgrimage season it is increased by about 15,000 travellers and Martini; the walls are of brick and the window and door-frames pilgrims. AUTHORITIES: --Pal. Exp. Fund Publications-Sır C. Warren, of stone, with severely restrained ornamentation. The court- Jerusalem, Memoir (1884); Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeol. Researches yard with its loggie was built by Andrea Sansovino in 1519. The (vol. 1,, 1899); Bliss, Excavns.al Jerusalem (1898): Conder, Latin King; library contains some good pictures by Lorenzo Lotto. The dom of Jerusalem (1897), and The City of Jerusalem (1909), an historical survey over 4000 years; Le Strange, Pal. under the Moslems (1890); castle was built by Baccio Pontelli (1488), designer of the castle Fergusson, Temples of the Jews (1878); Hayter Lewis, Holy Places of at (stia (1483-1486). Jesi was the birthplace of the emperor Jerusalem (1888); Churches of Constantine al Jerusalem (1891), Guthe, Frederic II. (1194), and also of the musical composer, Giovanni Ausgrabungen in Jer.," in Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins (vol. v.); Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736). The river Aesis formed the Tobler, Topographie von Jerusalem (Berlin, 1854); Dritte Wanderung boundary of Italy proper from about 250 B.C. to the time of (1859); Sepp, Jerusalem und das heilige Land (1873): Röhricht. Regesta Sulla (c. 82 B.c.); and, in Augustus’ division of Italy, that Regni Hierosolymitani; Bibliotheca Geographica Palaestinae (1890); De Vogüé, Le Temple de Jérusalem (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, Golgotha between Umbria (the 6th region) and Picenum (the 5th). The and the Holy Sepulchre (1906), publications of the Pal. Pilgrims' town itself was a colony, of little importance, except, apparently, Text Society and of the Société de l'Orient latin; papers in Quarterly as a recruiting ground for the Roman army. Statements of the P. E. Fund, the Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins, Clermont-Ganneau's Recueil d'archéologie orientale and Études d'arch. JESSE, in the Bible, the father of David (q.v), and as such orientale, and the Revue Biblique; Baedeker's Handbook to Palestine often regarded as the first in the genealogy of Jesus Christ (cf. and Syria (1906): Mommert, Due hl Grabeskirche zu Jerusalem (1898); Isa. xi. 1, 10). Hence the phrase “ tree of Jesse ” is applied to Golgotha und das hl. Grab zu Jerusalem (1900); Couret, La Prise de a design representing the descent of Jesus from the royal line of Jérusm. par les Perses, 014. (Orléans, 1896—Plans, Ordnance Survey, revised ed.; Ordnance Survey revised by Dr Schick in David, formerly a favourite ecclesiastical ornament. From a 2.D.P.V. xviii., 1895). (C. W. W.; C. M. W.) recumbent figure of Jesse springs a tree bearing in its branches the chief figures in the line of descent, and terminating in the JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672). By far the most important figure of Jesus, or of the Virgin and Child. There are remains of of the many synods held at Jerusalem (see Wetzer and Welte, such a tree in the church of St Mary at Abergavenny, carved in Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., vi. 1357 sqq.) is that of 1672; and its wood, and supposed to have once stood behind the high altar. confession is the most vital statement of faith made in the Greek Jesse candelabra were also made. At Laon and Amiens there Church during the past thousand years. It refutes article by are sculptured Jesses over the central west doorways of the article the confession of Cyril Lucaris, which appeared in Latin cathedrals. The design was chiefly used in windows. The at Geneva in 1629, and in Greek, with the addition of four great east window at Wells and the window at the west end of questions,” in 1633. Lucaris, who died in 1638 as patriarch | the nave at Chartres are fine examples. There is a 16th-century of Constantinople, had corresponded with Western scholars and Jesse window from Mechlin in St George's, Hanover Square, had imbibed Calvinistic views. The great opposition which London. The Jesse window in the choir of Dorchester Abbey, arose during his lifetime continued after his death, and found Oxfordshire, is remarkable in that the tree forms the central classic expression in the highly venerated confession of Petrus mullion, and many of the figures are represented as statuettes Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev (1643). Though this was intended on the branches of the upper tracery; other figures are in the as à barrier against Calvinistic influences, certain Reformed stained glass; the whole gives a beautiful example of the com- writers, as well as Roman Catholics, persisted in claiming the bination of glass and carved stonework in one design. support of the Greek Church for sundry of their own positions. JESSE, EDWARD (1780–1868), English writer on natural Against the Calvinists the synod of 1672 therefore aimed its history, was born on the 14th of January 1780, at Hutton Crans- rejection of unconditional predestination and of justification by wick, Yorkshire, where his father was vicar of the parish. He faith alone, also its advocacy of what are substantially the became clerk in a government office in 1798, and for a time was Roman doctrines of transubstantiation and of purgatory, the secretary to Lord Dartmouth, when president of the Board of Oriental hostility to Calvinism had been fanned by the Jesuits. Control. In 1812 he was appointed commissioner of hackney Against the Church of Rome, however, there was directed the coaches, and later he became deputy surveyor-general of the affirmation that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and royal parks and palaces. On the abolition of this office he not from both Father and Son; this rejection of the filioque was retired on a pension, and he died at Brighton on the 28th of not unwelcome to the Turks. Curiously enough, the synod re- March 1868. fused to believe that the heretical confession it refuted was The result of his interest in the habits and characteristics of actually by a former patriarch of Constantinople; yet the proofs animals was a series of pleasant and popular books on natural of its genuineness seem to most scholars overwhelming. In history, the principal of which are Gleanings in Natural History negotiations between Anglican and Russian churchmen the con-|(1832-1835); An Angler's Rambles (1836); Anecdoles of Dogs (1846); and Lectures on Natural History (1863). He also edited Izaak ſession of Dosithcus' usually comes to the front. Walton's Compleat Angler, Gilbert White's Selborne, and L. Ritchie's TEXTS.—The confession of Dositheus, or the eighteen decrees of Windsor Castle, and wrote a number of handbooks to places of the Synod of Jerusalem, appeared in 1676 at Paris as Synodus interest, including Windsor and Hampton Court. * Patriarch of Jerusalem (1669-1707), who presided over the JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE (1815-1874), English historian, synod. son of Edward Jesse, was educated at Eton, and afterwards > 1 336 JESSEL-JESSORE became a clerk in the secretary's department of the admiralty. and of the master of the rolls who preceded him. He disposed of He died in London on the 7th of July 1874. His poem on Mary the business before him with rapidity combined with correctness Queen of Scots was published about 1831, and was followed by of judgment, and he not only had no arrears himself, but was a collection of poems entitled Tales of the Dead. He also wrote frequently able to help other judges to clear their lists. His a drama, Richard III., and a fragmentary poem entitled London. knowledge of law and equity was wide and accurate, and his None of these ventures achieved any success, but his numerous memory for cases and command of the principles laid down in historical works are written with vivacity and interest, and, in them extraordinary. In the rolls court he never reserved a their own style, are an important contribution to the history of judgment, not even in the Epping Forest case (Commissioners of England. They include Memoirs of the Court of England during Sewers v. Glasse, L.R. 19 Eq.; The Times, 11th November 1874), the Reign of the Stuarts (1840), Memoirs of the Court of England in which the evidence and arguments lasted twenty-two days from the Revolution of 1688 to the Death of George II. (1843), George (150 witnesses being examined in court, while the documents went Selwyn and his Contemporaries (1843, new ed. 1882), Memoirs of back to the days of King John), and in the court of appeal he the Pretenders and their Adherents (1845), Memoirs of Richard the did so only twice, and then in deference to the wishes of his Third and his Contemporaries (1861), and Memoirs of the Life and colleagues. The second of these two occasions was the case of Reign of King George the Third (1867). The titles of these works Robarls v. The Corporation of London (49 Law Times 455; The are sufficiently indicative of their character. They are sketches Times, 10th March 1883), and those who may read Jessel's judg- of the principal personages and of the social details of various ment should remember that, reviewing as it does the law and cus- periods in the history of England rather than complete and com- tom on the subject, and the records of the city with regard to the prehensive historical narratives. In addition to these works appointment of a remembrancer from the 16th century, together Jesse wrote Literary and Historical Memorials of London (1847), with the facts of the case before the court, it occupied nearly London and its Celebritics (1850); and a new edition of this work as an hour to deliver, but was nevertheless delivered without notes London: its Celebrated Characters and Remarkable Places (1871). this, too, on the 9th of March 1883, when the judge who uttered His Memoirs of Celebrated Elonians appeared in 1875. it was within a fortnight of his death. Never during the 19th A collected edition containing most of his works in thirty volumes century was the business of any court performed so rapidly, was published in London in 1901. punctually, and satisfactorily as it was when Jessel presided. JESSEL, SIR GEORGE (1824-1883), English judge, was born He was master of the rolls at a momentous period of legal history. in London on the 13th of February 1824. He was the son of The Judicature Acts, completing the fusion of law and equity, Zadok Aaron Jessel, a Jewish coral merchant. George Jessel were passed while he was judge of first instance, and were still new was educated at a school for Jews at Kew, and being prevented by to the courts when he died. His knowledge and power of assimi- then existing religious disabilities from proceeding to Oxford or lating knowledge of all subjects, his mastery of every branch of Cambridge, went to University College, London. He entered as a law with which he had to concern himself, as well as of equity, student at Lincoln's Inn in 1842, and a year later took his B.A. together with his willingness to give effect to the new system, degree at the university of London, becoming M.A. and gold caused it to be said when he died that the success of the Judi- medallist in mathematics and natural philosophy in 1844. In cature Acts would have been impossible without him. His 1846 he became a fellow of University College, and in 1847 he was faults as a judge lay in his disposition to be intolerant of those called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His earnings during his first who, not able to follow the rapidity of his judgment, endeavoured three years at the bar were 52,346, and 795 guineas, from which to persist in argument after he had made up his mind; but it will be seen that his rise to a tolerably large practice was rapid. though he was peremptory with the most eminent counsel, young His work, however, was mainly conveyancing, and for long his men had no cause to complain of his treatment of them. income remained almost stationary. By degrees, however, he Jessel sat on the royal commission for the amendment of the got more work, and was called within the bar in 1865, becoming a Medical Acts, taking an active part in the preparation of its bencher of his Inn in the same year and practising in the Rolls report. He actively interested himself in the management of Lon- Court. Jessel entered parliament as Liberal member for ‘Dover don University, of which he was a fellow from 1861, and of which in 1868, and although neither his intellect nor his oratory was of a he was elected vice-chancellor in 1880. He was one of the class likely to commend itself to his fellow-members, he attracted commissioners of patents, and trustee of the British Museum. Gladstone's attention by two learned speeches on the Bankruptcy He was also chairman of the committee of judges which drafted Bill which was before the house in 1869, with the result that in the new rules rendered necessary by the Judicature Acts. He 1871 he was appointed solicitor-general. His reputation at this was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn in 1883, and vice-president of the time stood high in the chancery courts; on the common law side he council of legal education. He was also a fellow of the Royal was unknown, and on the first occasion upon which he came into Society. Jessel's career marks an epoch on the bench, owing to the court of Queen's bench to move on behalf of the Crown, there the active part taken by him in rendering the Judicature Acts was very nearly a collision between him and the bench. His force-effective, and also because he was the last judge capable of ful and direct method of bringing his arguments home to the sitting in the House of Commons, a privilege of which he did not bench was not modified in his subsequent practice before it. His avail himself. He was the first Jew who, as solicitor-general, great powers were fully recognized; his business in addition to that took a share in the executive government of his country, the on behalf of the Crown became very large, and his income for three first Jew who was sworn a regular member of the privy council, years before he was raised to the bench amounted to nearly and the first Jew who took a seat on the judicial bench of Great £25,000 per annum. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as Britain; he was also, for many years after being called to the master of the rolls. From 1873 to 1881 Jessel sat as a judge bar, so situated that any one might have driven him from it, of first instance in the rolls court, being also a member of the because, being a Jew, he was not qualified to be a member of the court of appeal. In November 1874 the first Judicature Act came bar. In person Jessel was a stoutish, square-built man of into effect, and in 1881 the Judicature Act of that year made the middle height, with dark hair, somewhat heavy features, a fresh master of the rolls the ordinary president of the first court of ruddy complexion, and a large mouth. He married in 1856 appeal, relieving him of his duties as a judge of first instance. In Amelia, daughter of Joseph Moses, who survived him together the court of appeal Jessel presided almost to the day of his with three daughters and two sons, the elder of whom, Charles death. For some time before 1883 he suffered from diabetes with James (b. 1860), was made a baronet shortly after the death chronic disorder of the heart and liver, but struggled against it; of his distinguished father and in recognition of his services. on the 16th of March 1883 he sat in court for the last time, and See The Times, March 23, 1883; E. Manson, Builders of our Law on the 21st of March he died at his residence in London, the (1904). immediate cause of death being cardiac syncope. JESSORE, a town and district of British India, in the Presi- As a judge of first instance Jessel was a revelation to those dency division of Bengal. The town is on the Bhairab river. accustomed to the proverbial slowness of the chancery courts with a railway station 75 m. N.E. of Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 8054 JESTER—JESUITS 337 The District of Jessore has an area of 2925 sq. m. Pop. devolved upon Miani. Their rule of life, originally a compound (1901), 1,813,155, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The of Benedictine and Franciscan elements, was later modified district forms the central portion of the delta between the Hugli on Augustinian lines, but traces of the early penitential idea and the united Ganges and Brahmaputra. It is a vast alluvial persisted, e.g. the wearing of sandals and a daily flagellation. plain intersected by rivers and watercourses, which in the Paul V. in 1606 arranged for a small proportion of clerical members, southern portion spread out into large marshes. The northern and later in the 17th century the Jesuati became so secularized part is verdant, with extensive groves of date-palms; villages that the members were known as the Aquavitae Fathers, and the are numerous and large; and the people are prosperous. In the order was dissolved by Clement IX. in 1668. The female branch central portion the population is sparse, the only part suitable of the order, the Jesuati sisters, founded by Caterina Colombini for dwellings being the high land on the banks of rivers. (d. 1387) in Siena, and thence widely dispersed, more consistently The principal rivers are the Madhumati or Haringhata (which maintained the primitive strictness of the society and survived forms the eastern boundary of the district), with its tributaries the male branch by 200 years, existing until 1872 in small com- the Nabaganga, Chitra, and Bhairab; the Kumar, Kabadak, munities in Italy. Katki, Harihar, Bhadra and Atharabanka. Within the last JESUITS, the name generally given to the members of the century the rivers in the interior of Jessore have ceased to be Society of Jesus, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church, true deltaic rivers; and, whereas the northern portion of the founded in 1539. This Society may be defined, in its original district formerly lay under water for several months every year, conception and well-avowed object, as a body of highly it is now reached only by unusual inundations. The tide trained religious men of various degrees, bound by the three reaches as far north as the latitude of Jessore town. Jessore personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, together with, is the centre of sugar manufacture from date palms. The exports in some cases, a special vow to the pope's service, with the object are sugar, rice, pulse, timber, honey, shells, &c.; the imports of labouring for the spiritual good of themselves and their are salt, English goods, and cloth. The district is crossed by neighbours. They are declared to be mendicants and enjoy the Eastern Bengal railway, but the chief means of communi- all the privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are cation are waterways. governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up British administration was completely established in the by their founder, St Ignatius of Loyola, and approved by the district in 1781, when the governor-general ordered the opening popes. Their proper title is “Clerks Regulars of the Society of of a court at Murali near Jessore. Before that, however, the Jesus,” the word Socictas being taken as synonymous with the fiscal administration had been in the hands of the English, having original Spanish term, Compañia; perhaps the military term been transferred to the East India company with that of the rest Cohors might more fully have expressed the original idea of a of Bengal in 1765. The changes in jurisdiction in Jessore have band of spiritual soldiers living under martial law and discipline. been very numerous. After many transfers and rectifications, The ordinary term “ Jesuit" was given to the Society by its the district was in 1863 finally constituted as it at present stands. avowed opponents; it is first found in the writings of Calvin and The rajas of Jessore or Chanchra trace their origin to Bhabeswar in the registers of the Parlement of Paris as early as 1552. Rai, a soldier in the army of Khan-i-Azam, an imperial general, Constitution and Character.—The formation of the Society was who deprived Raja Pratapaditya, the popular hero of the Sundar- a masterpiece of genius on the part of a man (see Loyola) who bans, of several fiscal divisions, and conferred them on Bhabeswar. was quick to realize the necessity of the moment. Just before But Manohar Rai (1649-1705) is regarded as the principal Ignatius was experiencing the call to conversion, Luther had founder of the family. The estate when he inherited it was of begun his revolt against the Roman Church by burning the papal moderate size, but he acquired one pargana after another, until, bull of excommunication on the roth of December 1520. But at his death, the property was by far the largest in the neighbour-while. Luther's most formidable opponent was thus being hood. prepared in Spain, the actual formation of the Society was JESTER, a provider of “jests” or amusements, a buffoon, not to take place for eighteen years. Its conception seems especially a professional fool at a royal court or in a nobleman's to have developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius. household (see Fool). The word " jest," from which “jester" It introduced a new idea into the Church, Hitherto all is formed, is used from the 16th century for the earlier “gest,” regulars made a point of the choral office in choir. But as Lat. gesta, or res gestae, things done, from gerere, to do, hence Ignatius conceived the Church to be in a state of war, what was deeds, exploits, especially as told in history, and so used of the desirable in days of peace ceased when the life of the cloister metrical and prose romances and chronicles of the middle ages. had to be exchanged for the discipline of the camp; so in the The word became applied to satirical writings and to any long- sketch of the new society which he laid before Paul III., Ignatius winded empty tale, and thence to a joke or piece of fun, the laid down the principle that the obligation of the breviary current meaning of the word. should be fulfilled privately and separately and not in choir. JESUATI, a religious order founded by Giovanni Colombini of The other orders, too, were bound by the idea of a constitu- Siena in 1360 Colombini had been a prosperous merchant and a tional monarchy based on the democratic spirit. Not so with senator in his native city, but, coming under ecstatic religious the Society. The founder placed the general for life in an almost influences, abandoned secular affairs and his wife and daughter uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the faculty of (after making provision for them), and with a friend of like dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legislative temperament, Francesco Miani, gave himself to a life of apostolic body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military poverty, penitential discipline, hospital service and public obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in preaching. The name Jesuati was given to Colombini and his the older orders, which preserved to their members certain disciples from the habit of calling loudly on the name of Jesus at constitutional rights. the beginning and end of their ecstatic sermons. The senate banished Colombini from Siena for imparting foolish ideas to the The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitu- tions. Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with young men of the city, and he continued his mission in Arezzo the other orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things and other places, only to be honourably recalled home on the result from the system of training which succeeds in forming men outbreak of a devastating pestilence. He went out to meet to a type that is considered desirable. But it must not be thought Urban V. on his return from Avignon to Rome in 1367, and craved that in practice the rule of the Society and the high degree of obedi- ence demanded result in mere mechanism. By a system of check his sanction for the new order and a distinctive habit. Before and counter check devised in the constitutions the power of local this was granted Colombmi had to clear the movement of a sus- superiors is modified, so that in practice the working is smooth. picion that it was connected with the heretical sect of Fraticelli, Ignatius knew that while a high ideal was necessary for every and he died on the 31st of July 1367,soon after the papal approval society, his followers were flesh and blood, not machines. He made it clear from the first that the Society was everything and the had been given. The guidance of the new order, whose members individual nothing, except so far as he might prove a useful instru: (all lay brothers) gave themselves entirely to works of mercy, I ment for carrying out the Society's objects. Ignatius said to his XV6* 338 JESUITS secretary Polanco that "in those who offered themselves he looked to study it both in speaking and writing till entire mastery of it less to purely natural goodness than to firmness of character and had been acquired thus by degrees making all the parts of his ability for business, for he was oſ opinion that those who were not system mutually interchangeable, and so largely, increasing the 6t for public business were not adapted for filling offices in the number of persons eligible to fill any given post without reference Society." He further declared that even exceptional qualities and to locality: But subsequent experience has, in practice, modified endowments in a candidate were valuable in his eyes only on the this interchange, as far as local government goes, though the central condition of their being brought into play, or held in abeyance, government of the Society is always cosmopolitan. strictly at the command of a superior. Hence his teaching on obedience. His letter on this subject, addressed to the Jesuits of Next we must consider the machinery by which the Society Coimbra in 1553, is still one of the standard formularies of the is constituted and governed so as to make its spirit a living energy Society, ranking with those other products of his pen, the Spiritual and not a 'mere abstract. theory. The Society is distributed Exercises and the Constitutions. In this letter Ignatius clothes the into six grades: novices, scholastics, temporal coadjutors (lay general with the powers of a commander-in-chief in time of war, giving him the absolute disposal of all members of the Society in brothers), spiritual coadjutors, professed of the three vows, every place and for every purpose. He pushes the claim even and professed of the four vows. No one can become a postulant further, requiring, besides entire outward submission to command, for admission to the Society until fourteen years old, unless also the complete identification of the inferior's will with that of the superior. He lays down that the superior is to be obeyed simply by special dispensation. The novice is classified according as his as such and as standing in the place of God, without reference to his destination is the priesthood or lay brotherhood, while a third personal wisdom, piety or discretion; that any obedience which falls class of “indifferents " receives such as are reserved for further short of making the superior's will one's own, in inward affection as inquiry before a decision of this kind is made. The novice has well as in outward effect, is lax and imperfect; that going, beyond first to undergo a strict retreat, practically in solitary con, the letter of command, even in things abstractly good and praise- worthy, is disobedience, and that the sacrifice of the intellect " is finement, during which he receives from a director the Spiritual the third and highest grade of obedience, well pleasing to God, when Exercises and makes a general confession of his whole life; after the inferior not only wills what the superior wills, but thinks what which the first novitiate of two years' duration begins. In this he thinks, submitting his judgment, so far as it is possible for the will to influence and lead the judgment. This Letter on Obedience period of trial the real character of the man is discerned, his was written for the guidance and formation of Ignatius's own weak points are noted and his will is tested. Prayer and the followers; it was an entirely domestic affair. But when it became practices of asceticism, as means to an end, are the chief occu- known beyond the Society the teaching met with great opposition, pations of the novice. He may leave or be dismissed at any especially from members of other orders whose institutes repres time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he is sented the normal days of peace rather than those of war. The letter was condemned by the Inquisitions of Spain and Portugal; approved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to and it tasked all the skill and learning of Bellarmine as its apologist, the grade of scholastic and takes the following simple vows in the together with the whole influence of the Society, to avert what seemed presence of certain witnesses, but not to any person:- to be a probable condemnation at Rome. The teaching of the Letter must be understood in the living spirit “ Almighty Everlasting God, albeit everyway most unworthy in of the Society. Ignatius himself lays down the rule that an interior Thy holy sight, yet relying on Thine infinite kindness and mercy is bound to make all necessary representations to his superior so as and impelled by the desire of serving Thee, before the Most Holy to guide him in imposing a precept of obedience. When a superior Virgin Mary and all thy heavenly host, I, N., vow to Thy divine knows the views of his inferior and still commands, it is because he Majesty Poverty, Chastity and Perpetual Obedience to the Society is aware of other sides of the question which appear of greater of Jesus, and promise that I will enter the same Society to live in it importance than those that the inferior has brought forward. perpetually, understanding all things according to the Constitutions Ignatius distinctly excepts the case where obedience in itself would of the Society. I humbly pray from Thine immense goodness and be sinful: "In all things except sin I ought to do the will of my clemency, through the Blood of Jesus Christ, that Thou wilt deign superior and not my own.' There may be cases where an inferior to accept this sacrifice in the odour of sweetness; and as Thou hast judges that what is commanded is sinful. What is to be done? granted me to desire and to offer this, so wilt Thou bestow abundant Ignatius says: “When it seems to me that I am commanded by grace to fulfil it." my superior to do a thing against which my conscience revolts as The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an under. sinful and my superior judges otherwise, it is my duty to yield my graduate at a university. After passing five years in arts he has, doubts to him unless I am otherwise constrained by evident reasons. ... If submissions do not appease my conscience I must impart while still keeping up his own studies, to devote five or six years my doubts to two or three persons of discretion and abide by their more to teaching the junior classes in various Jesuit schools or decision." From this it is clear that only in doubtful cases concerning colleges. About this period he takes his simple vows in the sin should an inferior try to submit his judgment to that of his following terms:- superior, who ex officio is held to be not only one who would not order what is clearly sinful, but also a competent judge who knows and “I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and understands, better than the inferior, the nature and aspect of the the whole heavenly host, and to thee, Reverend Father General command. As the Jesuit obedience is based on the law of God, it is of the Society of Jesus, holding ihe place of God, and to thy succes- clearly impossible that he should be bound to obey in what is directly sors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the opposed to the divine service. A Jesuit lives in obedience all his Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Per- life, though the yoke is not galling nor always felt. He can accept petual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to it a peculiar no dignity or office which will make him independent of the Society; care in the education of boys, according to the manner expressed in and even if ordered by the pope to accept the cardinalate or the the Apostolic Letter and Constitutions of the said Society." episcopate, he is still bound, if not to obey, yet to listen to the advice of those whom the general deputes to counsel him in important The scholastic does not begin the study of theology until he is The lay brothers leave out the clause concerning education. The Jesuits had to find their principal work in the world and in twenty-eight or thirty, and then passes through a four or six direct and immediate contact with mankind. To seek spiritual years' course. Only when he is thirty-four or thirty-six can he perfection in a retired life of contemplation and prayer did not seem be ordained a priest and enter on the grade of a spiritual co- to Ignatius to be the best way of reforming the evils which had brought about the revolt from Rome. He withdrew his followers adjutor. A lay brother, before he can become a temporal from this sort of retirement, except as a mere temporary preparation coadjutor for the discharge of domestic duties, must pass ten for later activity; he made habitual intercourse with the world a years before he is admitted to vows. Sometimes after ordina- prime duty; and to this end he rigidly suppressed all such external peculiarities of dress or rule as tended to put obstacles in the way of tion the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries in to a third year's novitiate, called the tertianship, as a prepara- the most various places and circumstances. Another change he tion for his solemn profession of the three vows. His former, introduced even more completely than did the founders of the Friars. The Jesuit has no home: the whole world is his parish. for any canonical reason. vows were simple and the Society was at liberty to dismiss him Mobility and cosmopolitanism are of the very essence of the Society. The formula of the famous Jesuit, As Ignatius said, the ancient monastic communities were the vow is as follows: infantry of the Church, whose duty was to stand firmly in one place “1, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and on the battlefield; the Jesuits were to be her light horse, capable of the whole heavenly host, and to all standing by;and tothee, Reverend going anywhere at a moment's notice, but especially apt and de-Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, signed for scouting and skirmishing. To carry out this view, it and to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Faiher M. in place of was one of his plans to send foreigners as superiors or officers to the the General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the Jesuit houses in each country, requiring of these envoys, however, place of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and is variably to use the language of their new place of residence and I according to it a peculiar care in the education of boys according to matters. JESUITS 339 the form of life contained in the Apostolic Letters of the Society of he is not obliged to follow it. Once elected the general may Jesus and in its Constitutions.' not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any dignity Immediately after the vows the Jesuit adds the following or office outside of the Society; on the other hand, for certain simple vows: (1) that he will never act nor consent that the definite reasons, he may be suspended or even deposed by the provisions in the constitutions concerning poverty should be authority of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from changed; (2) that he will not directly nor indirectly procure destruction. No such instance has occurred, although steps election or promotion for himself to any prelacy or dignity were once taken in this direction in the case of a general who in the Society; (3) that he will not accept or consent to his had set himself against the current feeling. election to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society unless forced thereunto by obedience; (4) that if he knows of others It is said that the general of the Jesuits is independent of the doing these things he will denounce them the superiors; this idea. But it is based on an entirely wrong conception of the pope; and his popular name," the black pope," has gone to confirm (5) that if elected to a bishopric he will never refuse to hear two offices. The suppression of the Society by Clement XIV. in such advice as the general may deign to send him and will 1773 was an object-lesson in the supremacy of the pope. The follow it if he judges it is better than his own opinion. The Society became very numerous and, from time to time, received professed is now eligible to certain offices in the Society, and he necessities of the times in granting them. A great number of extraordinary privileges from popes, who were warranted by the may remain as a professed father of the three vows for the rest influential friends, also, gathered round the fathers who, naturally, of his life. The highest class, who constitute the real core of the sought in every way to retain what had been granted. Popes who Society, whence all its chief officers are taken, are the professed thought it well to bring about certain changes, or to withdraw of the four vows. This giade can seldom be reached until privileges that were found to have passed their intentions or to interfere unduly with the rights of other bodies, often met with the candidate is in his forty-fifth year, which involves a proba- loyal resistances against their proposed measures. Resistance up tion of thirty-one years in the case of those who have entered on to a certain point is lawful and is not disobedience, for every society the novitiate at the earliest legal age. The number of these has the right of self-preservation. In cases where the popes insisted. in spite of the representations of the Jesuits, their commands were select members is small in comparison with the whole Society; obeyed. Many of the popes were distinctly unfavourable to the the exact proportion varies from time to time, the present ten- Society, while others were as friendly, and often what one pope did dency being to increase the number. The vows of this grade against them the next pope withdrew. Whatever was done in times are the same as the last formula, with the addition of the follow- when strong divergence of opinion cxisted, and whatever may have been the actions of individuals who, even in so highly organized ing important clause:- a body as the Society of Jesus, cannot always be successfully " Moreover I promise the special obedience to the Sovereign controlled by their superiors, yet the ultimate result on the part of Pontiff concerning missions, as is contained in the same Apostolic the Society has always been obedience to the pope, who authorized, Letter and Constitutions. protected and privileged them, and on whom they ultimately depend for their very existence. These various members of the Society are distributed in its novitiate houses, its colleges, its professed houses and its mis. Thus constituted, with a skilful union of strictness and sion residences. The question has been hotly debated whether, freedom, of complex organization with a minimum of friction in addition to these six grades, there be not a seventh answering in working, the Society was admirably devised for its purpose in some degree to the tertiaries of the Franciscan and Dominican of introducing a new power into the Church and the world, orders, but secretly affiliated to the Society and acting as its Its immediate services to the Church were great. The Society emissaries in various lay positions This class was styled in did much, single-handed, to roll back the tide of Protestant France “ Jesuits of the short robe," and there is some evidence advance when half of Europe, which had not already shaken in support of its actual existence under Louis XV. The Jesuits off its allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so. The themselves deny the existence of any such body, and are able to honours of the reaction belong to the Jesuits, and the reactionary adduce the negative disproof that no provision for it is to be spirit has become their tradition. They had the wisdom to see found in their constitutions. On the other hand there are and to admit, in their correspondence with their superiors, clauses therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly that the real cause of the Reformation was the ignorance, feasible iſ thought expedient. An admitted instance is the case of neglect and vicious lives of so many priests. They recognized, Francisco Borgia, who in 1548, while still duke of Gandia, was as most earnest men did, that the difficulty was in the higher received into the Society. What has given colour to the idea is places, and that these could best be touched by indirect methods. that certain persons have made vows of obedience to individual At a time when primary or even secondary education had in Jesuits, as Thomas Worthington, rector of the Douai seminary, most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to to Father Robert Parsons; Ann Vaux to Fr. Henry Garnet, obsolete methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in who told her that he was not indeed allowed to receive her vows, system and material. Putting fresh spirit and devotion into the but that she might make them if she wished and then receive his work, they not merely taught and catechized in a new, fresh direction. The archaeologist George Oliver of Exeter was, and attractive manner, besides establishing free schools of according to Foley's, Records of the English Province, the last good quality, but provided new school books for their pupils of the secular priests of England who vowed obedience to the which were an enormous advance on those they found in use; Society before its suppression. so that for nearly three centuries the Jesuits were accounted The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands the best schoolmasters in Europe, as they were, till their forcible the right to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each suppression in 1901, confessedly the best in France. The Jesuit of the head districts into which the Society is mapped, but to teachers conciliated the goodwill of their pupils by mingled the offices of each house in particular. There is no standard of firmness and gentleness. Although the method of the Ratio electoral right in the Society except in the election of the general Studiorum has ceased to be acceptable, yet it played in its time as himself. By a minute and frequent system of official and private serious a part in the intellectual development of Europe as did reports he is informed of the doings and progress of every the method of Frederick the Great in modern warfare. Bacon member of the Society and of everything that concerns it succinctly gives his opinion of the Jesuit teaching in these throughout the world. Every Jesuit has not only the right words: “ As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has privately, with his general. While the general thus controls been put in practice” (De Augmentis, vi. 4). In instruction everything, he himself is not exempt from supervision on the they were excellent; but in education, or formation of character, part of the Society. A consultative council is imposed upon him deficient. Again, when most of the continental clergy had by the general congregation, consisting of the assistants of the sunk, more or less, into the moral and intellectual slough which various nations, a socius, or adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and is pictured for us in the writings of Erasmus and the Epistolae a confessor. These he cannot remove nor select; and he is bound, obscurorum virorum (see HUTTEN, Ulrich von), the Jesuits won in certain circumstances, to listen to their advice, although I back respect for the clerical calling by their personal culture ) 340 JESUITS a and the unimpeachable purity of their lives. These qualities they | it was no wonder that, when opportunity served, the train that have carefully maintained; and probably no large body of men had been heedlessly laid by speculative professors was fired by in the world has been so free from the reproach of discreditable rash hands. What professors like Suarez taught in the calm members or has kept up, on the whole, an equally high average atmosphere of the lecture hall, what writers like Mariana upheld of intelligence and conduct. As preachers, too, they delivered and praised, practical men took as justification for deeds of the pulpit from the bondage of an effete scholasticism and blood. There is no evidence that any Jesuit took a direct part reached at once a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as in political assassinations; however, indirectly, they may have the English pulpit scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days been morally responsible. They were playing with edged tools of Tillotson; while in literature and theology they count a far and often got wounded through their own carelessness. Other larger number of respectable writers than any other religious grievances were raised by their perpetual meddling in politics, society can boast. It is in the mission field, however, that their e.g. their large share in fanning the flames of political hatred achievements have been most remarkable. Whether toiling against the Huguenots under the last two Valois kings; their among the teeming millions in Hindustan and China, labouring perpetual plotting against England in the reign of Elizabeth; amongst the Hurons and Iroquois of North America, govern- their share in the Thirty Years' War and in the religious miseries ing and civilizing the natives of Brazil and Paraguay in the of Bohemia; their decisive influence in causing the revocation missions and “ reductions,” or ministering, at the hourly risk of the cdict of Nantes and the expulsion of the Protestants from of his life to his fellow-Catholics in England under Elizabeth France; the ruin of the Stuart cause under James II., and the and the Stuarts, the Jesuit appears alike devoted, indefatigable, establishment of the Protestant succession. In a number of cheerful and worthy of hearty admiration and respect. cases where the evidence against them is defective, it is at least Nevertheless, two startling and indisputable facts meet the an unfortunate coincidence that there is always direct proof of student who pursues the history of the Society. The first is the some Jesuit having been in communication with the actual agents universal suspicion and hostility it has incurred-not merely engaged. They were the stormy petrels of politics. Yet the from the Protestants whose avowed foe it has been, not yet from Jesuits, as a body, should not be made responsible for the doings the enemies of all clericalism and dogma; but from every Catholic of men who, in their political intrigues, were going directly state and nation in the world. Its chief enemies have been against the distinct law of the Society, which in strict terms, and those of the household of the Roman Catholic faith. The under heavy penalties, forbade them to have anything to do second fact is the ultimate failure which seems to dog all with such matters. The politicians were comparatively ſew its most promising schemes and efforts. These two results in number, though unfortunately they held high rank; and their are to be observed alike in the provinces of morals and disobedience to the rule besmirched the name of the society and politics. The first cause of the opposition indeed rędounds destroyed the good work of the other Jesuits who were faithfully to the Jesuits' credit, for it was largely due to their success. carrying out their own proper duties. Their pulpits rang with a studied cloquence; their churches, A far graver cause for uneasiness was given by the Jesuits' sumptuous and attractive, were crowded; and in the conſes activity in the region of doctrine and morals. Here the charges sional their advice was eagerly sought in all kinds of against them are precise, early, numerous and weighty. Their difficulties, for they were the fashionable professors of the art founder himself was arrested, more than once, by the Inquisition of direction. Full of enthusiasm and zeal, devoted wholly to and required to give account of his belief and conduct. But their Society, they were able to bring in numbers of rich and St Ignatius, with all his powerful giſts of intellect, was entirely influential persons to their ranks; for, with a clear understanding practical and ethical in his range, and had no turn whatever for of the power of wealth, they became, of set purpose, the apostles speculation, nor desire to discuss, much less to question, any of of the rich and influential. The Jesuits felt that they were the the received dogmas of the Church. He gives it as a rule of new men, the men of the time; so with a perfect confidence in orthodoxy to be ready to say that black is white if the Church themselves they went out to set the Church to rights. It was says so. He was therefore acquitted on every occasion, and no wonder that success, so well worked for and so well de- applied each time for a formally attested certificate of his ortho- served, failed to win the approval or sympathy of those who doxy, knowing well that, in default of such documents, the fact found themselves supplanted. Old-fashioned men, to whom of his arrest as a suspected heretic would be more distinctly the apostles' advice to do all to the glory of God " seemed recollected by opponents than that of his honourable dismissal sufficient, mistrusted those who professed to go beyond all from custody. His followers, however, have not been so for- others and adopted as their motto the famous Ad majorem Dei tunate. On doctrinal questions indeed, though their teaching gloriam, “ To the greater glory of God.” But, besides this, the on grace, especially in the form given to it by Molina (q.v.), ran espril de corps which is necessary for every body of men was, it contrary to the accepted teaching on the subject by the Augus- was held, carried to an excess and made the Jesuits intolerant tinians, Dominicans and other representative schools; yet by of any one or anything iſ not of “ours." The novelties too their pertinacity they gained for their views a recognized and which they introduced into the conception of the religious life, established position. A special congregation of cardinals and naturally, were displeasing to the older orders, who felt like old theologians known as de auxiliis was summoned by the pope to aristocratic families towards a newly rich or purse-proud up- settle the dispute, for the odium theologicum had risen to a start. The Society, or rather its members, were too aggressive desperate height between the representatives of the old and the and self-assertive to be welcomed; and a certain characteristic, new theology; but after many years they failed to arrive at any which soon began to manifest itself in an impatience of episcopal satisfactory conclusion, and the pope, instead of settling the control, showed that the quality of " Jesuitry,” usually associ- dispute; was only able to impose mutual silence on all opponents. ated with the Society, was singularly lacking in their dealings Among those who held out stifly against the Jesuits on the with opponents. Their political attitude also alienated many. subject of grace were the Jansenists, who held that they were Many of the Jesuits could not separate religion from politics. following the special teaching of St Augustine, known par To say this is only to assert that they were not clearer-minded excellence as the doctor of grace. The Jesuits and the Jansenists than most men of their age. But unfortunately they invariably soon became deadly enemies; and in the ensuing conflict both took the wrong side and allowed themselves to be made the tools parties accused each other of Alinging scruples to the wind. (See of men who saw farther and more clearly than they did. They JANSENISM.) had their share, direct or indirect, in the embroiling of states, in But the accusations against the Jesuit system of moral theo- concocting conspiracies and in kindling wars. They were also logy and their action as guides of conduct have had a more serious responsible by their theoretical teachings in theological schools, effect on their reputation. It is undeniable that some of their where cases were considered and treated in the abstract, for not moral writers were lax in their teaching; and conscience was a few assassinations of the enemies of the cause. Weak minds strained to the snapping point. The Society was trying to heard tyrannicide discussed and defended in the abstract; and I make itself all things to all men. Propositions extracied from JESUITS 341 Jesuit moral theologians have again and again been condemned | themselves have been singularly free from personal, as distinguished by the pope and declared untenable. Many of these can be from corporate, evil repute; and no one pretends that the large num- found in Viva's Condemned Propositions. As early as 1554 the greater moral inferiority than others. ber of lay-folk whom they have educated or influenced exhibit Jesuits were censured by the Sorbonne, chiefly at the instance of Eustache de Bellay, bishop of Paris, as being dangerous in The third of these replies is the most cogent as regards Pascal, matters of faith. Melchor Cano, a Dominican, one of the ablest but the real weakness of his attack lies in that nervous dread of divines of the 16th century, never ceased to lift up his testimony appeal to first principles and their logical result which has been against them, from their first beginnings till his own death in the besetting snare of Gallicanism. Pascal, at his best, has mis- 1560; and, unmollified by the bribe of the bishopric of the taken the part for the whole; he charges to the Society what, Canaries, which their interest procured for him, he succeeded at the most, are the doings of individuals; and from these he in banishing them from the university of Salamanca. Carlo asserts the degeneration of the body from its original standard; Borromeo, to whose original advocacy they owed much, especially whereas the stronger the life and the more extensive the natural in the council of Trent, found himself aitacked in his own cathe development, side by side will exist marks of degeneration; and a dral pulpit and interfered with in his jurisdiction. He withdrew society like the Jesuits has no difficulty in asserting its life inde- his protection and expelled them from his colleges and churches; pendently of such excrescences or, in time, in freeing itself from them. and he was followed in 1604 in this policy by his cousin and successor Cardinal Federigo Borromeo. St Theresa learnt, A charge persistently made against the Society is that it teaches in after years, to mistrust their methods, although she was grate whose Medulla theologiae has gone through more than fifty editions, that the end justifies the means. And the words of Busembaum, ful to them for much assistance in the first years of her work. are quoted in proof. True it is that Busembaum uses these words: The credit of the Society was seriously damaged by the publica - Cui licitus est finis etiam licent media. But on turning to his work tion, at Cracow, in 1612, of the Monita Secreta. This book, (ed. Paris 1729. P: 584, or Lib. vi. Tract vi. cap. ii., De sacramentis, which is undoubtedly a forgery, professes to contain the authori- dubium ii.) it will be found that the author is making no universai tative secret instructions drawn up by the general Acquaviva and application of an old legal maxim; but is treating of a particular subject (concerning certain lawful liberties in the marital relation) given by the superiors of the Society to its various officers and beyond which his words cannot be forced. The sense in which other members. A bold caricature of Jesuit methods, the book has Jesuit theologians-e.g. Paul Laymann (1575-1635), in his Theologia been ascribed to John Zaorowsky or to Cambilone and Schloss, moralis (Munich, 1625), and Ludwig Wagemann (1713-1792), in his Synopsis theologiae moralis (Innsbruck, 1762)-quote the axiom all ex-Jesuits, and it is stated to have been discovered in manu- is an equally harmless piece of common sense. For instance, if it script by Christian of Brunswick in the Jesuit college at Prague. is lawful to go on a journey by railway it is lawful to take a ticket. It consists of suggestions and methods for extending the influence No one who put forth that proposition would be thought to mean of the Jesuits in various ways, for securing a footing in fresh that it is lawful to defraud the company by stealing a ticket; for places, for acquiring wealth, for creeping into households and should, in themselves, not be bad but good or at least indifferent. the proviso is always to be understood, that the means employed leading silly rich widows captive and so forth, all marked with So when Wagemann says tersely Finis determinat probitatem actus ambition, craft and unscrupulousness. It had a wide success he is clearly referring to acts which in themselves are indifferent, and popularity, passing through several editions, and even to i.e. indeterminate. For instance: shooting is an indifferent act, neither good nor bad in itself. The morality of any specified this day it is used by controversialists as unscrupulous as the shooting depends upon what is shot, and the circumstances attending original writers. It may, perhaps, represent the actions of some that act: shooting a man in self-defence is, as a moral act, on an individuals who allowed their zeal to outrun their discretion, entirely different plane to shooting a man in murder. It has never but surely no society which exists for good and is marked by so been proved, and never can be proved, although the attempt has many worthy men could systematically have conducted its proposition ascribed to them, which would be entirely subversive of frequently been made, that the Jesuits ever taught the nefarious operations in such a manner. Later on a formidable assault | all morality. Again, the doctrine of probabilism is utterly mis- was made on Jesuit moral theology in the famous Provincial understood. It is based on an accurate conception of law. Law to bind must be clear and definite; if it be not so, its obligation ceases Letlers of Blaise Pascal (q.v.), eighteen in number, issued under the pen-name of Louis de Montalte, from January 1656 to March against a clear and definite law; but when a law is doubtful in and liberty of action remains. No probable opinion can stand 1657. Their wit, irony, eloquence and finished style have kept its application, in certain circumstances, so is the obligation of them alive as one of the great French classics-a destiny more obedience: and as a doubtful law is, for practical purposes, no law fortunate than that of the kindred works by Antoine Arnauld, at all , so it superinduces no obligation. Hence a probable opinion Théologie morale des Jésuites, consisting of extracts from writings does not apply to certain specified cases; and that the law-giver is one, founded on reason and held on serious grounds, that the law of members of the Society, and Morole pratique des Jésuites, therefore did not intend to bind. It is the principle of equity applied made up of narratives professing to set forth the manner in to law. In moral matters a probable opinion, that is one held on which they carried out their own maxims. But, like most no trivial grounds but by unprejudiced and solid thinkers, has no controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their place where the voice of conscience is clear, distinct and formed. quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts Two causes have been at work to produce the universal often entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate failure of the great Society in all its plans and efforts. First reply on the part of the Jesuits, The Discourses of Cleander and stands its lack of really great intellects. It has had its golden Eudoxus by Père Daniel, could not compete with Pascal's work age. No society can keep up to its highest level. Nothing can in brilliancy, wit or style; moreover, it was unfortunate enough be wider of the truth than the popular conception of the ordinary to be put upon the Index of prohibited books in 1701. The Jesuit as a being of almost superhuman abilities and universal reply on behalf of the Society to Pascal's charges of lax knowledge. The Society, numbering as it does so many thou- morality, apart from mere general denials, is broadly as follows:- sands, and with abundant means of devoting men to special (1) St Ignatius himself, the founder of the Society, had a special branches of study, has, without doubt, produced men of great aversion from untruthfulness in all its forms, from quibbling, intelligence and solid learning. The average member, too, on equivocation or even studied obscurity of language, and it would be contrary to the spirit of conformity with his example and institutions account of his long and systematic training, is always equal for his followers to think and act otherwise. Hence, any, who and often superior to the average member of any other equally practised equivocation were, so far, unfaithful to the Society. large body, besides being disciplined by a far more perfect drill. (2) Several of the cases cited by Pascal are mere abstract hypotheses, But it takes great men to carry out great plans; and of really many of them now obsolete, argued simply as intellectual exercises. but having no practical bearing whatever. (3) Even such as do great men, as the outside world knows and judges, the Society belong to the sphere of actual life are of the nature of counsel to has been markedly barren from almost the first. Apart from spiritual physicians, how to deal with exceptional maladies; and its founder and his early companion, St Francis Xavier, there is were never intended to fix the standard of moral obligation for the none who stands in the very first rank. Laynez and Acquaviva general public. (4). The theory that they were intended for this latter purpose and do represent the normal teaching of the Society were able administrators and politicians; the Bollandists (q.v.) becomes more untenable in exact proportion as this immorality were industrious workers and have developed a critical spirit is insisted on, because it is a matter of notoriety that the Jesuits from which much good can be expected; Francisco Suarez, 342 JESUITS Leonhard Lessius and Cardinal Franzelin were some of the leading | Francis Xavier (q.v.). But he quitled Europe in 1541 before the Jesuit theologians; Cornelius a Lapide (1567-1637) represents new society, especially under Laynez, had hardened into its final their old school of scriptural studies, while their new German mould; and he never returned. His work, so far as can be writers are the most advanced of all orthodox higher critics; gathered from contemporary accounts, was not done on true the French Louis Bourdaloue (q.v.), the Italian Paolo Segneri Jesuit lines as they afterwards developed, though the Society (1624-1694), and the Portuguese Antonio Vieyra (1608-1697) has reaped all the credit; and it is even possible that, had he represent their best pulpit orators; while of the many mathema- succeeded the founder as general, the institute might not have ticians and astronomers produced by the Society Angelo Secchi, received that political and self-seeking turn which Laynez, as Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich and G.B. Beccaria are conspicuous, second general, gave at the critical moment. and in modern times Stephen Joseph Perry (1833-1889), director It would almost seem that careful selection was made of the men of the Stonyhurst llege obsery took high rank among of the greatest piety and enthusiasm, whose unworldliness made men of science. Their boldest and most original thinker, Denis them less apt for diplomatic intrigues, to break new ground in the Petau, so many years neglected, is now, by inspiring Cardinal various missions where their success would throw lustre on the Newman's Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, pro- Society and their scruples need never come into play. But such men are not to be found casily; and, as they died off, the tendency ducing a permanent influence over the current of human thought. was to fill their places with more ordinary characters, whose aim was The Jesuits have produced no Aquinas, no Anselm, no Bacon, to increase the power and resources of the body. Hence the conde. no Richelieu. Men whom they trained, and who broke loose scension to heathen rites in Hindustan and China, and the attempted from their teaching, Pascal, Descartes, Voltaire, have power- subjugation of the English Catholic clergy. The first successes of the Indian mission were entirely among the lower classes; but when fully affected the philosophical and religious beliefs of great in Madura, in 1606, Robert de Nobili, a nephew of Bellarmine, to masses of mankind; but respectable mediocrily is the brand on win the Brahmins, adopted their dress and mode of life-a step the long list of Jesuit names in the catalogues of Alegambe and sanctioned by Gregory. XV. in 1623 and by Clement XI. in 1707—the De Backer. This is doubtless due in great measure to the destruc- fathers who followed his example pushed the new caste-feeling so far as absolutely to refuse the ministrations and sacraments to the tive process of scooping out the will of the Jesuit novice, to replace pariahs, lest the Brahmin converts should take offence-an attempt it with that of his superior (as a watchmaker might fit a new which was reported to Rome and was vainly censured by the breves movement into a case), and thereby tending, in most cases, to of Innocent X. in 1645. Clement IX. in 1669, Clement XII. in 1734 annihilate those subtle qualities of individuality and originality with equal unsuccess by one pope after another, were not finally The Chinese rites, assailed and 1739, and Benedict XIV. in 1745. which are essential to genius. Men of the higher stamp will put down until 1744 by a bull of Benedict XIV. 'For Japan, where either refuse to submit to the process and leave the Society, or their side of the story is that best known, we have a remarkable run the danger of coming forth from the mill with their finest letter, printed by Lucas Wadding in the Annales minorum, addressed qualities pulverized and useless. In accordance with the spirit in 1624, in which he complains to the pope that the Jesuits system. to Paul V. by Soleto, a Franciscan missionary, who was martyred of its founder, who wished to secure uniformity in the judgmentatically postponed the spiritual welfare of the native Christians to of his followers even in points left open by the Church (“Let us their own convenience and advantage; while as regards the test of all think the same way, let us all speak in the same manner if martyrdom, no such result had followed on their teaching, but only possible "), the Society has shown itself to be impatient of those in Japan. Yet soon many Jesuit martyrs in Japan were to shed a on that of the other orders who had undertaken missionary work who think or write in a way different from what is current in its new glory on the Society (see JAPAN: Foreign Intercourse). Again, ranks. even in Paraguay, the most promising of all Jesuit undertakings, the evidence shows that the fathers, though civilizing the Guarani Nor is this all. The Ratio Studiorum. devised by Acquaviva and population just sufficiently to make them useful and docile servants. still obligatory in the colleges of the Society, lays down rules which happier no doubt than they were before or after, stopped there. are incompatible with all breadth and progress in the higher forms while the mission was begun on the rational principle of governing of education. True to the anti-speculative and traditional side of races still in their childhood by, methods adapted to that stage in the founder's mind, it prescribes that, even where religious topics are their mental development, yet for one hundred and fifty years the not in question, the teacher is not to permit any novel opinions or “ reductions" were conducted in the same manner, and when the discussions to be mooted; nor to cite or allow others to cite the hour of trial came the Jesuit civilization ſell like a house of cards. opinions of an author not of known repute; nor to teach or suffer to be taught anything contrary to the prevalent opinions of acknow. These examples are sufficient to explain the final collapse of so ledged doctors current in the schools. Obsolete and false opinions are not to be mentioned at all , even for refutation, nor are objections many promising efforts. The individual Jesuit might be, and to received teaching to be dwell on at any length. The result is often was, a hero, saint and martyr, but the system which he that the Jesuit emerges from his schools without any real knowledge was obliged to administer was foredoomed to failure; and the of any other method of thought than that which his professors have suppression which came in 1773 was the natural result of forces instilled into him. The professor of Biblical Literature is always to support and defend the Vulgate and can never prefer the marginal and elements they had set in antagonism without the power of readings from the Hebrew and Greek. The Septuagint, as far as it controlling. is incorrupt, is to be held not less authentic than the Vulgate. In The influence of the Society since its restoration in 1814 has philosophy Aristotle is always to be followed, and St Thomas not been marked with greater success than in its previous history, Aquinas generally, care being taken to speak respectfully of him even when abandoning his opinions, though now it is customary It was natural after the restoration that an attempt should be for the Jesuit teachers to explain him in their own sense. De vera made to pick up again the threads that were dropped; but soon mente D. Thomas is no unſamiliar expression in their books. It is they came to realize the truth of the saying of St Ignatius: not wonderful, under such a method of training. fixed as it has been in minute detail for more than three hundred years, that highly to the Society." The political conditions of Europe have com- “ The Society shall adapt itself to the times and not the times cultivated commonplaces should be the inevitable average result; and that in proportion as Jesuit power has become dominant in pletely changed, and constitutionalism is unfavourable to that Christendom, especially in ecclesiastical circles, the same doom of personal influence which, in former times, the Jesuits were able intellectual sterility and consequent loss of influence with the higher to bring to bear upon the heads of states. In Europe they and thoughtful classes, has separated the part from the whole. The initial mistake in the formation of character is that the Jesuits have confine themselves mainly to educational and ecclesiastical aimed at educating lay boys in the same manner as they consider politics, although both Germany and France have followed the advisable for their own novices, for whom obedience and direction example of Portugal and refuse, on political grounds, to allow is the one thing necessary; whereas for lay people the right use of them to be in these countries. It would appear as though liberty and initiative are to be desired. some of the Jesuits had not, even yet, learnt the lesson that The second cause which has blighted the efforts of the Society meddling with politics has always been their ruin. The main is the lesson, too faithfully learnt and practised, of making its cause of any difficulty that may exist 10-day with the Society is corporate interests the first object at all times and in all places. that the Jesuits are true to the teaching of that remarkable Men were quick to see that Jesuits did not aim at co-operation panegyric, the Imago primi saeculi Societatis (probably written with the other members of the Church but directly or indirectly by John Tollenarius in 1640), by identifying the Church with their at mastery. The most brilliant exception to this rule is found in own body, and being intolerant of all who will not share this view. some of the missions of the Society and notably in that of St | Their power is still large in certain sections of the ecclesiastical JESUITS 343 successors world, but in secular affairs it is small. Moreover within the Society and all its members fight for God under the faithful obedience church itself there is a strong and growing feeling that the of the most sacred lord, the pope, and the other Roman pontiffs his interests of Catholicism may necessitate a second and final and Ignatius makes particular mention that each mem- ber should " be bound by a special vow," beyond that formal suppression of the Society. Cardinal Manning, a keen observer obligation under which all Christians are of obeying the pope. * of times and influences, was wont to say:-“The work of 1773 that whatsoever the present and other Roman pontiffs for the time was the 'work of God: and there is another 1773 coming.' being shall ordain, pertaining to the advancement of souls and the But, if this come, it will be due not to the pressure of secular propagation of the faith, to whatever provinces he shall resolve to send us, we are straightway bound to obey, as far as in us lies, without governments, as in the 18th century, but to the action of the any tergiversation or excuse, whether he send us among the Turks Church itself. The very nations which have cast out the Society or to any other unbelievers in being, even to those parts called India, have shown no disposition to accept its own estimate and identify or to any heretics or schismatics or likewise to any believers." it with the Church, while the Church itself is not conscious of institute of the Society... and in him they shall acknowledge Obedience to the general is enjoined " in all things pertaining to the depending upon the Society. To the Church the Jesuits have Christ as though present, and as far as is becoming shall venerate been what the Janissaries were to the Ottoman Empire, at first him"; ; poverty is enjoined, and this rule affects not only the indi. its defenders and its champions, but in the end its taskmasters. vidual but the common sustentation or care of the Society, except History. The separate article on Loyola tells of his early the wants and necessities of the students"; and the private recita- that in the case of colleges revenues are allowed "to be applied to years, his conversion, and his first gathering of companions. It tion of the Office is distinctly mentioned. On the other hand, the was not until November 1537, when all hope of going to the Holy perpetuity of the general's office during his life was no part of the Land was given up, that any outward steps were taken to form original scheme. these companions into an organized body. It was on the eve On the 7th of April 1541, Ignatius was unanimously chosen of their going to Rome, for the second time, that the fathers general. His refusal of this post was overruled, so he entered met Ignatius at Vicenza and it was determined to adopt a com- on his office on the 13th of April, and two days after, the newly mon rule and, at the suggestion of Ignatius, the name of the constituted Society took its formal corporate vows in the basilica Company of Jesus. Whatever may have been his private hopes of San Paolo fuori le mura. Scarcely was the Society launched and intentions, it was not until ne, Laynez and Faber (Pierre when its members dispersed in various directions to their new Lefevre), in the name of their companions, were sent to lay their tasks. Alfonso Salmeron and Pasquier-Brouet, as papal dele- services at the feet of the pope that the history of the Society gates, were sent on a secret mission to Ireland to encourage the really begins. native clergy and people to resist the religious changes introduced by Henry VIII., Nicholas Bobadilla went to Naples; Faber, first On their arrival at Rome the three Jesuits were favourably re- ceived by Paul III., who at once appointed Faber to the chair of to Germany, while Ignatius busied himself at Rome in good works to the diet of Worms and then to Spain; Laynez and Claude le Jay scripture and Laynez to that of scholastic theology in the university and in drawing up the constitutions and completing the Spiritual of the Sapienza. But they encountered much opposition and were even charged with heresy: when this accusation had been disposed Exercises. Success crowned these first efforts; and the Society of, there were still difficulties in the way of starting any new order. began to win golden opinions. The first college was founded at Despite the approval of Cardinal Contarini and the goodwill of the Penatius, o The singer of God is here on there was ae serong and rectorship of Rodriguez. It was designed as a training school to (who is said to have exclaimed on perusing the scheme of Coimbra in 1542 by John III. of Portugal and put under the general feeling that the regular system had broken down and could feed the Indian mission of which Francis Xavier had already not be wisely developed farther. Cardinal Guidiccioni, one of the taken the oversight, while a seminary at Goa was the second commission of three appointed to cxamine the draft constitution, was known to advocate the abolition of all existing orders, save four institution founded outside Rome in connexion with the Society. which were to be remodelled and put under strict control. That Both from the original scheme and from the foundation at very year, 1538, a commission of cardinals, including Reginald Coimbra it is clear that the original idea of the colleges was to Pole, Contarini, Sadolet, Caraffa (afterwards Paul IV.). Fregoso provide for the education of future Jesuits. In Spain, national and others, had reported that the conventual orders, which they had to deal with, had drifted into such a state that they should all be pride in the founder aided the Society's cause almost as much as abolished. Not only so, but, when greater strictness of rule and of royal patronage did in Portugal; and the third house was opened enclosure seemed the most needful reforms in communities that had in Gandia under the protection of its duke, Francisco Borgia, a become too secular in tone, the proposal of Ignatius, to make it a grandson of Alexander VI. In Germany, the Jesuits were first principle that the members of his institute should mix freely in eagerly welcomed as the only persons able to meet the Lutherans the world and be as little marked off as possible externally from secu- lar clerical life and usages, ran counter to all tradition and prejudice, on equal terms. Only in France, among the countries which save that Caraffa's then recent order of Theatines, which had some still were united with the Roman Church, was their advance analogy with the proposed Society, had taken some steps in the same checked, owing to political distrust of their Spanish origin, to- direction. Ignatius and his companions, however, had but little doubt of gether with the hostility of the Sorbonne and the bishop of Paris. ultimate success, and so bound themselves, on the 15th of April 1539, However, after many difficulties, they succeeded in getting a to obey any superior chosen from amongst their body, and added footing through the help of Guillaume du Prat, bishop of on the 4th of May certain other rules, the most important of which Clermont (d. 1560), who founded a college for them in 1545 in the was a vow of special allegiance to the pope for mission purposes to be taken by all the members of the society., But Guidiccioni, on a town of Billom, besides making over to them his house at Paris, careful study of the papers, changed his mind; it is supposed that the the hôtel de Clermont, which became the nucleus of the after. cause of this change was in large measure the strong interest in the wards famous college of Louis-le-Grand, while a formal legaliza- , new scheme exhibited by John III., king of Portugal, who instructed tion was granted to them by the states-general at Poissy in 1561. his ambassador to press it on the pope and to ask Ignatius to send some priests of his Society for mission work in Portugal and its In Rome, Paul III.'s favour did not lessen. He bestowed on Indian possessions. Francis Xavier and Simon Rodriguez were them the church of St Andrea and conferred at the same time sent to the king in March 1540. Obstacles being cleared away, the valuable privilege of making and altering their own statutes; Paul III., on the 27th of September 1540, issued his bull Regimini besides the other points, in 1546, which Ignatius had still more at militantis ecclesiae, by which he confirmed the new Society (the term " order." does not belong to it), but limited the members to sixty, heart, as touching the very essence of his institute, namely, a restriction which was removed by the same pope in the buli exemption from ecclesiastical offices and dignities and from the Injunclum nobis of the 14th of March 1543. In the former bull , task of acting as directors and confessors to convents of women. the pope gives the text of the formula submitted by Ignatius as the The former of these measures effectually stopped any drain of scheme of the proposed society, and in it we get the founder's own ideas: This Society, instituted to this special end, the best members away from the society and limited their hopes namely, to offer spiritual consolation for the advancement of souls within its bounds, by putting them more freely at the general's in life and Christian doctrine, for the propagation of the faith by disposal, especially as it was provided that the final vows could public preaching and the ministry of the word of God, spiritual not be annulled, nor could a professed member be dismissed, save excrcises and works of charity and, especially, by the instruction of children and ignorant people in Christianity, and by the spiritual by the joint action of the general and the pope. The regulation consolation of the faithful in Christ in hearing confessions. as to convents seems partly due to a desire to avoid the worry In this original scheme it is clearly marked out “ that this entire and expenditure of time involved in the discharge of such offices 344 JESUITS and partly to a conviction that penitents living in enclosure, as and obtained a legal footing from the states-general for colleges all religious persons then were, would be oſ no efiective use to the of the Society in France. He died in 1564, leaving the Society Society; whereas the founder, against the wishes of several of his and was succeeded by Francisco Borgia. During the third general- increased to eighteen provinces with a hundred and thirty colleges, companions, laid much stress on the duty of accepting the post ate, Pius V. confirmed all the former privileges, and in the amplest of confessor to kings, queens and women of high rank when form extended to the Society, as being a mendicant institute, all opportunity presented itself. And the year 1546 is notable in favours that had been or might afterwards be granted to such mendi. cant bodies. It was a trilling set-off that in 1567. the pope again the annals of the Society as that in which it embarked on its enjoined the fathers to keep choir and to admit only the professed great educational career, especially by the annexation of free to priests' orders, especially, as Gregory XIII. rescinded both these day-schools to all its colleges. injunctions in 1573; and indeed, as regards the hours, all that, Pius V. was able to obtain was the nominal concession that the bre. The council of Trent, in its first period, seemed to increase the viary should be recited in choir in the professed houses only, and reputation of the Society; for the pope chose Laynez, Faber and that not of necessity by more than two persons at a time. Everard Salmeron to act as his theologians in that assembly, and in this Mercurian, a Fleming, and a subject of Spain, succeeded Borgia in capacity they had no little influence in framing its decrees. When 1573, being forced on the Society by the pope, in preference to the council reassembled under Pius IV., Laynez and Salmeron again Polanco, Ignatius's secretary and the vicar-general, who was re. attended in the same capacity. It is sometimes said that the council jected partly as a Spaniard and still more because he was a "New formally approved of the Society. This is impossible; for as the Christian Society had received the papal approval, that of the council would of Jewish origin and therefore objected to in Spain itself. During his term of office there took place the troubles in have been impertinent as well as unnecessary. St Charles Borromeo Rome concerning the English college and the subsequent Jesuit wrote to the presiding cardinals, on the 11th of May 1562, saying that, rule over that institution, and in 1580 the first Jesuit mission, as France was disaffected to the Jesuits whom the pope wished to headed by the redoubtable Robert Parsons and the saintly Edmund see established in every country, Pius IV. desired, when the council Campion, set out for England. This mission, on one side, carried was occupying itself about regulars, that it should make some on an active propaganda against Elizabeth in favour of Spain; and honourable mention of the Society in order to recommend it. This on the other, among the true missionaries, was marked with devoted was done in the twenty-fifth session (cap. XVI., d.r.] when the zeal and heroism even to the ghastly death of traitors. Claude decree was passed that at the end of the time of probation novices Acquaviva, the fifth general, held office from 1581 to 1615, a time should either be professed or dismissed; and the words of the council almost coinciding with the high tide of the successful reaction, chiefly are: " By these things, however, the Synod does not intend to make due to the Jesuits. He was an able, strong-willed man, and crushed any innovation or prohibition, so as to hinder the religious order of what was tantamount to a rebellion in Spain. It was during this Clerks of the Society of Jesus from being able to serve God and His struggle that Mariana, the historian and the author of the famous Church, in accordance with their pious institute approved of by the De rege in which he defends tyrannicide, wrote his treatise On the Holy Apostolic See." Defects in the Government of the Society. He confessed freely that the In 1548 the Society received a valuable recruit in the person of Society had faults and that there was a great deal of unrest among the members; and he mentioned among the various points calling Francisco Borgia, duke of Gandia, afterwards thrice general, for reform the education of the novices and students; the state of while two important events marked 1550—the foundation of the the lay brother and the possessions of the Society; the spying system, Collegio Romano and a fresh confirmation of the Society by which he declared to be carried so far that, if the general's archives Julius III. The German college, for the children of poor nobles, at Rome should be searched, not one Jesuit's character would be was founded in 1552; and in the same year Ignatius firmly settled and the absence of all encouragement and recompense for the best found to escape; the monopoly of the higher offices by a small clique: the discipline of the Society by putting down, with promptness men of the Society. and severity, some attempts at independent action on the part of Rodriguez at Coimbra— this being the occasion of the famous Society began to gain an evil reputation which eclipsed its good It was chiefly during the generalship of Acquaviva that the letter on obedience; while 1553 saw the despatch of a mission to Abyssinia with one of the fathers as patriarch, and the first rift report. In France the Jesuits joined, if they did not originate, the league against Henry of Navarre. Absolution was refused within the lute when the pope thought that the Spanish Jesuits by them to those who would not join in the Guise rebellion, and were taking part with the emperor against the Holy See. Paul IV: (whose election alarmed the Jesuits, for they had not Acquaviva is said to have tried to stop them, but in vain. The found him very friendly as cardinal) was for a time managed wounding of Henry IV. in 1594 by Chastel, a pupil of theirs, assassination of Henry III. in the interests of the league and the with supreme tact by Ignatius, whom he respected personally. revealed the danger that the whole Society was running by the In 1556, the founder died and left the Society consisting of forty- intrigues of a few men. The Jesuits were banished from France five professed fathers and two thousand ordinary members, in 1594, but were allowed to return by Henry IV. under condi- distributed over twelve provinces, with more than a hundred tions; as Sully has recorded, the king declared his only motive colleges and houses. to be the expediency of not driving them into a corner with After the death of the first general there was an interregnum of possible disastrous results to his life, and because his only hope of two years, with Laynez as vicar. During this long period he occu- pied himself with completing the constitutions by incorporating In England the political schemings of Parsons were no small tranquillity lay in appeasing them and their powerful friends. certain declarations, said to be Ignatian, which explained and sometimes completely altered the meaning of the original text. factors in the odium which fell on the Society at large; and his Laynez was an astute politician and saw the vast capabilities of determination to capture the English Catholics as an apanage the Society over a far wider field than the founder contemplated; of the Society, to the exclusion of all else, was an object lesson to and he prepared to give it the direction that it has since followed. In some senses, this learned and consummately clever man may be the rest of Europe of a restless ambition and lust of domination looked upon as the real founder of the Society as history knows it. which were to find many imitators. The political turn which Having carefully prepared the way, he summoned the general was being given by some to the Society, to the detriment of its congregation from which he emerged as second general in 1556. real spiritual work, evoked the fears of the wiser heads of the As soon as Ignatius had died Paul IV. announced his intention of in- stituting reforms in the Society, especially in two points: the public body; and in the fifth general congregation held in 1593-1594 it recitation of the office in choir and the limitation of the general's was decreed: “ Whereas in these times of difficulty and danger office to a term of three years. Despite all the protests and nego- it has happened through the fault of certain individuals, through tiations of Laynez, the pope remained obstinate; and there was nothing but to submit. On the 8th of September 1558, two points ambition and intemperate zeal, that our institute has been ill were added to the constitutions that the generalship should be spoken of in divers places and before divers sovereigns triennial and not perpetual, although after the three years the general it is severely and strictly forbidden to all members of the Society might be confirmed; and that the canonical hours should be observed to interfere in any manner whatever in public affairs even though in choir after the manner of the other orders, but with that modera: they be thereto invited; or to deviate from the institute through tion which should seem expedient to the general. Taking advantage of this last clause, Laynez applied the new law to two houses only. entreaty, persuasion or any other motive whatever.” It would namely, Rome and Lisbon, the other houses contenting themselves have been well had Acquaviva enforced this decree; but Parsons with singing vespers on feast days; and as soon as Paul IV. died, was allowed to keep on with his work, and other Jesuits in Laynez, acting on advice, quietly ignored for the future the orders France for many years after directed, to the loss of religion, of the late pope. He also succeeded in increasing further the already affairs of state. enormous powers of the general. Laynez took a leading part in the In 1605 took place in England the Gunpowder colloquy of Poissy in 1561 between the Catholics and Huguenots: / Plot, in which Henry Garnet, the superior of the Society in JESUITS 345 England, was implicated. That the Jesuits were the instigators of the Jesuits.. Though the political weight of the Society continued of the plot there is no evidence, but they were in close touch with internally. The Jesuits abandoned the system of free education to increase in the cabinets of Europe, it was being steadily weakened the conspirators, of whose designs Garnet had a general know- which had won them so much influence and honour; by attaching ledge. There is now no reasonable doubt that he and other themselves exclusively to the interests of courts, they lost favour Jesuits were legally accessories, and that the condemnation of with the middle and lower classes; and above all, their monopoly Garnet as a traitor was substantially just (see Garnet, Henry) of power and patronage in France , with the fatal use they had made of It was during Acquaviva's generalship that Philip 11. of Spain it, drew down the bitterest hostility upon them. It was to their credit, complained bitterly of the Society to Sixtus V., and encouraged him indeed, that the encyclopaedists attacked them as the foremost in those plans of reform (even to changing the name) which were representatives of Christianity, but they are accountable in no small only cut short by the pope's death in 1590, and also that the long degree in France, as in England, for alienating the minds of men from the religion for which they professed to work. protracted discussions on grace, wherein the Dominicans contended against the Jesuits, were carried on at Rome with little practical But the most fatal part of the policy of the Society was its result, by the Congregation de auxiliis, which sat from 1598 till 1607: activity, wealth and importance as a great trading firm with The Ratio Studiorum took its shape during this time. The Jesuit in. fluence at Rome was supported by the Spanish ambassador; but when branch houses scattered over the richest countries of the world. Henry IV. "went to Mass," the balance inclined to the side of its founder, with a wise instinct, had forbidden the accumulation France, and the Spanish monopoly became a thing of the past, of wealth; its own constitutions, as revised in the 84th decree of Acquaviva saw the expulsion of the Jesuits from Venice in 1606 for siding with Paul V. when he placed the republic under interdict, the sixth general congregation, had forbidden all pursuits of a but did not live to see their recall, which took place at the inter commercial nature, as also had various popes; but nevertheless cession of Louis XIV. in 1657. He also had to banish Parsons from the trade went on unceasingly, necessarily with the full know- Rome, by order of Clement VIII., who was wearied with the per- ledge of the general, unless it be pleaded that the system of petual complaints made against that intriguer. Gregory XIV., by obligatory espionage had completely broken down. The first the bull Ecclesiae Christi (July 28, 1591), again confirmed the Society, and granted that Jesuits might, for true cause, be expelled muttering of the storm which was soon to break was heard in a from the body without any form of trial or even documentary pro- breve issued in 1741 by Benedict XIV., wherein he denounced cedure, besides denouncing excommunications against every one, the Jesuit offenders as “ disobedient, contumacious, captious and save the pope or his legates, who directly or indirectly infringed the reprobate persons,” and enacted many stringent regulations for constitutions of the Society or attempted to bring about any change their better government. The first serious attack came from a therein. Under Vitelleschi, the next general, the Society celebrated its country where they had been long dominant. In 1753 Spain first centenary on the 25th of September 1639, the hundredth anni- and Portugal exchanged certain American provinces with each versary of the verbal approbation given to the scheme by Paul III. other, which involved a transfer of sovereign rights over Para- During this hundred years the Society had grown to thirty-six provinces, with eight' hundred houses containing some filteen guay; but it was also provided that the populations should thousand members. In 1640 broke out the great Jansenist contro- severally migrate also, that the subjects of each crown might versy, in which the Society took the leading part on one side remain the same as before. The inhabitants of the “reductions," and finally secured the victory. In this same year, considering whom the Jesuits had trained in the use of European arms and themselves ill-used by Olivarez, prime minister of Philip. IV. of discipline, naturally rose in defence of their homes, and attacked Spain, the Jesuits powerfully aided the revolution which placed the duke of Braganza on the throne of Portugal; and their services were the troops and authorities. Their previous docility and their rewarded for nearly one hundred years with the practical control entire submission to the Jesuits left no possible doubt as to the of ecclesiastical and almost of civil affairs in that kingdom. source of the rebellion, and gave the enemies of the Jesuits a The Society also gained ground steadily in France; for, though handle against them that was not forgotten. In 1757 Carvalho, held in check by Richelieu and little more favoured by Mazarin, yet from the moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, their star marquis of Pombal, prime minister of Joseph I. of Portugal, and was in the ascendant, and Jesuit confessors, the most celebrated of an old pupil of the Jesuits at Coimbra, dismissed the three Jesuit whom were François de La Chaise (q.v.) and Michel Le Tellier (1643- chaplains of the king and named three secular priests in their 9719), guided the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side stead. He next complained to Benedict XIV. that the trading in his quarrel with the Holy See, which nearly resulted in a schism, nor to sign the Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots operations of the Society hampered the commercial prosperity forced on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and their of the nation, and asked for remedial measures. The pope, who war against their Jansenist opponents did not cease till the very knew the situation, committed a visitation of the Society to walls of Port Royal were demolished in 1710, even to the very abbey Cardinal Saldanha, an intimate friend of Pombal, who issued a church itself, and the bodies of the dead taken with every mark of insult from their graves and literally flung to the dogs to devour. severe decree against the Jesuits and ordered the confiscation But while thus gaining power in one direction, the Society was losing of all their merchandise. But at this juncture Benedict XIV., it in another. The Japanese mission had vanished in blood in 1651; the most learned and able pope of the period, was succeeded by and though many. Jesuits died with their converts bravely as martyrs for the faith, yet it is impossible to acquit them of a large share in the a pope strongly in favour of the Jesuits, Clement XIII. Pombal, causes of that overthrow. It was also about this same period that finding no help from Rome, adopted other means. The king was the grave scandal of the Chinese and Malabar rites began to attract fired at and wounded on returning from a visit to his mistress attention in Europe, and to make thinking men ask seriously on the 3rd of September 1758. The duke of Aveiro and other whether the Jesuit missionaries in those parts taught anything which high personages were tried and executed for conspiracy; while could fairly be called Christianity at all. When it was remembered, too, that they had decided, at a council held at Lima, that it was some of the Jesuits, who had undoubtedly been in communica- inexpedient to impose any act of Christian devotion except baptism tion with them, were charged, on doubtful evidence, with on the South American converts, without the greatest precautions, complicity in the attempted assassination. Pombal charged the on the ground of intellectual difficulties, it is not wonderful that this whole Society with the possible guilt of a few, and, unwilling to doubt was not satisfactorily cleared up, notably in face of the charges brought against the Society by Bernardin de Cardonas, wait the dubious issue of an application to the pope for licence bisliop of Paraguay, and the saintly Juan de Palafox (q.v.), bishop to try them in the civil courts, whence they were exempt, issued of Angelopolis in Mexico. on the ist of September 1759 a decree ordering the immediate But the terrible power in the universal church, the great riches deportation of every Jesuit from Portugal and all its dependencies and the extraordinary prestige" of the Society, which Palafox and their suppression by the bishops in the schools and universi- complained had raised it " above all dignities, laws, councils and apostolic constitutions," carried with them the seeds of rapid and ties. Those in Portugal were at once shipped, in great misery, to inevitable decay, A succession of devout but incapable generals, the papal states, and were soon followed by those in the colonies. after the death of Acquaviva, saw the gradual secularization of tone In France, Madame de Pompadour was their enemy because they by the flocking in of recruits of rank and wealth desirous to share in the glories and influence of the Society, but not well adapted to in- had refused her absolution while she remained the king's mistress; crease them. The general's supremacy received a shock when the but the immediate cause of their ruin was the bankruptcy of eleventh general congregation appointed Oliva as vicar, with the Father Lavalette, the Jesuit superior in Martinique, a daring right of succession and powers that practically superseded those of speculator, who failed, after trading for some years, for 2,400,000 the general Goswin Nickel, whose infirmities, it is said, did not permit francs and brought ruin upon some French commercial houses him to govern with the necessary application and vigour; and an attempt was made to depose Tirso Gonzalez, the thirteenth general, of note. Lorenzo Ricci, then general of the Society, repudiated whose views on probabilism diverged from those favoured by the rest I the debt, alleging lack of authority on Lavalette's part to pledge 346 JESUITS the credit of the Society, and he was sued by the creditors. Losing , obliged to punish them. Seeing then that the Catholic sove- his cause, he appealed to the parlement of Paris, and it, co reigns had been forced to expel them, that many bishops and other decide the issue raised by Ricci, required the constitutions of the eminent persons demanded their extinction, and that the Society Jesuits to be produced in evidence, and affirmed the judgment of had ceased to fulfil the intention of its institute, the pope declares the courts below But the publicity given to a document scarcely it necessary for the peace of the Church that it should be sup- known till then raised the utmost indignation against the Society. pressed, extinguished, abolished and abrogated for ever, with A royal commission, appointed by the duc de Choiseul to examine all its houses, colleges, schools and hospitals; transfers all the the constitutions, convoked a private assembly of fifty-one arch- authority of its general or officers to the local ordinaries; forbids bishops and bishops under the presidency of Cardinal de Luynes, the reception of any more novices, directing that such as were all of whom except six voted that the unlimited authority of the actually in probation should be dismissed, and declaring that general was incompatible with the laws of France, and that the profession in the Society should not serve as a title to holy orders. appointment of a resident vicar, subject to those laws, was the Priests of the Society are given the option of either joining other only solution of the question fair on all sides. Ricci replied with orders or remaining as secular clergy, under obedience to the the historical answer, Sint ut sunt, aut non sint; and after some ordinaries, who are empowered to grant or withhold from them further delay, during which much interest was exerted in their licences to hear confessions. Such of the fathers as are engaged favour, the Jesuits were suppressed by an edict in November in the work of education are permitted to continue, on condition 1764, but suffered to remain on the footing of secular priests, of abstaining from lax and questionable doctrines apt to cause a grace withdrawn in 1767, when they were expelled from the strife and trouble. The question of missions is reserved, and the kingdom. In the very same year, Charles III. of Spain, a relaxations granted to the Society in such matters as fasting, monarch known for personal devoutness, convinced, on evidence reciting the hours and reading heretical books, are withdrawn; not now forthcoming, that the Jesuits were plotting against his while the breve ends with clauses carefully drawn to bar any authority, prepared, through his minister D'Aranda, a decree legal exceptions that might be taken against its full validity and suppressing the Society in every part of his dominions. Scaled obligation. It has been necessary to cite these heads of the breve despatches were sent to every Spanish colony, to be opened on because the apologists of the Society allege that no motive the same day, the end of April 1767, when the measure was to influenced the pope save the desire of peace at any price, and that take effect in Spain itself, and the expulsion was relentlessly he did not believe in the culpability of the fathers. The catego- carried out, nearly six thousand priests being deported from rical charges made in the document rebut this plea. The pope Spain alone, and sent to the Italian coast, whence, however, they followed up this breve by appointing a congregation of cardinals were repelled by the orders of the pope and Ricci himself, finding to take possession of the temporalities of the Society, and armed a refuge at Corte in Corsica, after some months' suffering in over- it with summary powers against all who should attempt to crowded vessels at sea. The general's object may probably have retain or conceal any of the property. He also threw Lorenzo been to accentuate the harshness with which the fathers had been Ricci, the general, into prison, first in the English college and treated, and so to increase public sympathy, but the actual result then in the castle of St Angelo, where he died in 1775, under the of his policy was blame for the cruelty with which he enhanced pontificate of Pius VI., who, though not unfavourable to the their misfortunes, for the poverty of Corsica made even a bare Society, and owing his own advancement to it, dared not release subsistence scarcely procurable for them there. The Bourbon him, probably because his continued imprisonment was made a courts of Naples and Parma followed the example of France and condition by the powers who enjoyed a right of veto in papal Spain; Clement XIII. retorted with a bull launched at the elections. In September 1774 Clement XIV. died after much weakest adversary, and declaring the rank and title of the duke suffering, and the question has been hotly debated ever since of Parma forfeit. The Bourbon sovereigns threatened to make whether poison was the cause of his death. But the latest re- war on the pope in return (France, indeed, seizing on the county searches have shown that there is no evidence to support the of Avignon), and a joint note demanding a retractation, and the theory of poison. Salicetti, the pope's physician, denied that abolition of the Jesuits, was presented by the French ambassador the body showed signs of poisoning, and Tanucci, Neapolitan at Rome on the roth of December 1768 in the name of France, ambassador at Rome, who had a large share in procuring Spain and the two Sicilies. The pope, a man of eighty-two, died the breve of suppression, entirely acquits the Jesuits, while of apoplexy, brought on by the shock, early in 1769. Cardinal F. Theiner, no friend to the Society, does the like. Lorenzo Ganganelli, a conventual Franciscan, was chosen to At the date of this suppression, the Society had 41 provinces succeed him, and took the name of Clement XIV. He endea- and 22,589 members, of whom 11,295 were priests. Far from voured to avert the decision forced upon him, but, as Portugal submitting to the papal breve, the ex-Jesuits, after some in joined the Bourbon league, and Maria Theresa with her son the effectual attempts at direct resistance, withdrew into the terri- emperor Joseph II. ceased to protect the Jesuits, there remained tories of the free-thinking sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, only the petty kingdom of Sardinia in their favour, though the fall Frederick II. and Catherine II., who became their active friends of Choiseul in France raised the hopes of the Society for a time. and protectors; and the fathers alleged as a principle, in so far as, The pope began with some preliminary measures, permitting their theology is concerned, that no papal bull is binding in a first the renewal of lawsuits against the Society, which had been state whose sovereign has not approved and authorized its publi- suspended by papal authority, and which, indeed, had in no case cation and execution. Russia formed the headquarters of the been ever successful at Rome. He then closed the Collegio Society, and two forged breves were speedily circulated, being Romano, on the plea of its insolvency, seized the houses at dated June 9 and June 29, 1774, approving their establishment Frascati and Tivoli, and broke up the establishments in Bologna | in Russia, and implying the repeal of the breve of suppression. and the Legations. Finally on the 21st of July 1773 the famous But these are contradicted by the tenor of five genuine breves breve Dominus ac Redemptor appeared, suppressing the Society of issued in September 1774 to the archbishop of Gnesen, and making Jesus. This remarkable document opens by citing a long series certain assurances to the ex-Jesuits, on condition of their complete of precedents for the suppression of religious orders by the Holy obedience to the injunctions already laid on them. The Jesuits See, amongst which occurs the ill-omened instance of the also pleaded a verbal approbation by Pius VI., technically known Templars. It then briefly sketches the objects and history of as an Oraculum vivae vocis, but this is invalid for purposes of law the Jesuits themselves. It speaks of their defiance of their own unless reduced to writing and duly authenticated. constitution, expressly revived by Paul V., forbidding them to They elected three Poles successively as generals, taking, how- meddle in politics; of the great ruin to souls caused by their ever, only the title of vicars, till on the 7th of March 1801 Pius quarrels with local ordinaries and the other religious orders, their VII. granted them liberty to reconstitute themselves in north condescension to heathen usages in the East, and the disturbances, Russia, and permitted Kareu, then vicar, to exercise full authority resulting in persecutions of the Church, which they had stirred as general. On the 30th of July 1804 a similar breve restored the up even in Catholic countries, so that several popes had been | Jesuits in the Two Sicilies, at the express desire of Ferdinand IV. JESUP 347 " the pope thus anticipating the further action of 1814, when, by this pope's support throughout his long reign, the gradual filling the constitution Sollicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum, he revoked the of nearly all the sees of Latin Christendom with bishops of their action of Clement XIV., and formally restored the Society to own selection, and their practical capture, directly or indirectly, corporate legal existence, yet not only omitted any censure of his of the education of the clergy in seminaries, they contrived to predecessor's conduct, but all vindication of the Jesuits from the stamp out the last remains of independence everywhere, and to heavy charges in the breve Dominus ac Redemptor. In France, crown the Ultramontane triumph with the Vatican Decrees, is even after their expulsion in 1765, they had maintained a pre matter of familiar knowledge. Leo XIII , while favouring them carious footing in the country under the partial disguise and somewhat, never gave them his full confidence; and by his ad- names of “Fathers of the Faith” or “Clerks of the Sacred Heart,” hesion to the Thomist philosophy and theology, and his active but were obliged by Napoleon I. to retire in 1804. They re- work for the regeneration and progress of the older orders, he appeared under their true name in 1814, and obtained formal | made another suppression possible by destroying much of their licence in 1822, but became the objects of so much hostility prestige. But the usual sequence has been observed under that Charles X. deprived them by ordinance of the right of in. Pius X., who appeared to be greatly in favour of the Society and struction, and obliged all applicants for licences as teachers to to rely upon them for many of the measures of his pontificate. make oath that they did not belong to any community unrecog. The Society has been ruled by twenty-five generals and four nized by the law. They were dispersed again by the revolution of vicars from its foundation to the present day (1910). Of all the July 1830, but soon reappeared and, though put to much incon- various nationalities represented in the Society, neither France, venience during the latter years of Louis Philippe's reign, notably its original cradle, nor England, has ever given it a head, while in 1845, maintained their footing, recovered the right to teach Spain, Italy, Holland, Belgium, Germany and Poland, were all freely after the revolution of 1848, and gradually became the represented. The numbers of the Society are not accurately leading educational and ecclesiastical power in France, notably known, but are estimated at about 20,000, in all parts of the under the Second Empire, till they were once more expelled by world; and of these the English, Irish and American Jesuits are the Ferry laws of 1880, though they quietly returned since the under 3000. execution of those measures. They were again expelled by the The generals of the Jesuits have been as follow:- Law of Associations of 1901. In Spain they came back with 1. Ignatius de Loyola (Spaniard) 1541-1556 Ferdinand VII., but were expelled at the constitutional rising in 2. Diego Laynez (Spaniard) 1558-1565 1820, returning in 1823, when the duke of Angoulême's army 3. Francisco Borgia (Spaniard), 1565-1572 replaced Ferdinand on his throne; they were driven out once 4. Everard Mercurian (Belgian) 1573-1580 1581-1615 more by Espartero in 1835, and have had no legal position since, 5. Claudio Acquaviva (Neapolitan) 6. Mutio Vitelleschi (Roman) 1615-1645 though their presence is openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging 7. Vincenzio Caraffa (Neapolitan). 1646-1649 themselves on the side of Dom Miguel, they fell with his cause, 8. Francesco Piccolomini (Florentine). 1649-1651 and were exiled in 1834. There are some to this day in Lisbon 9. Alessandro Gottofredi (Roman) 1652 10. Goswin Nickel (German) under the name of “ Fathers of the Faith.” Russia, which had 1652–1664 11. Giovanni Paolo Oliva (Genoese) vicar-general and been their warmest patron, drove them from St Petersburg and coadjutor, 1661; general 1664-1681 Moscow in 1813, and from the whole empire in 1820, mainly 12. Charles de Noyelle (Belgian) 1682-1686 on the plea of attempted proselytizing in the imperial army. 13. Tirso Gonzalez (Spaniard). 1687-1705 1706-1730 Holland drove them out in 1816, and, by giving them thus a 14. Michele Angelo Tamburini (Modenese) 15. Franz Retz (Bohemian) 1730-1750 valid excuse for aiding the Belgian revolution of 1830, secured 16. Ignazio Visconti (Milanese). 1751-1755 them the strong position they have ever since held in Belgium; 17. Alessandro Centurioni (Genoese) 1755-1757 but they have succeeded in returning to Holland. They were 18. Lorenzo Ricci (Florentine) 1758-1775 a. Stanislaus Czerniewicz (Poie), vicar-general expelled from Switzerland in 1847-1848 for the part they were 1782–1785 b. Gabriel Lienkiewicz (Pole), 1785-1798 charged with in exciting the war of the Sonderbund. In south C. Franciscus Xavier Kareu (Pole), (general in Germany, inclusive of Austria and Bavaria, their annals since Russia, 7th March 1801) 1799–1802 their restoration have been uneventful; but in north Germany, d. Gabriel Gruber (German). 1802-1805 owing to the footing Frederick II. had given them in Prussia, 20. Aloysio Fortis (Veronese) 19. Thaddaeus Brzozowski (Pole) 1805–1820 1820-1829 they became very powerful, especially in the Rhine provinces, 21. Johannes Roothaan (Dutchman) 1829-1853 and, gradually moulding the younger generation of clergy after 22. Peter Johannes Beckx (Belgian) 1853–1884 the close of the War of Liberation, succeeded in spreading Ultra- | 23. Antoine Anderledy. (Swiss) 1884-1892 1892–1906 montane views amongst them, and so leading up to the difficul-24. Luis Martin (Spanish) 25. Francis Xavier Wernz (German). 1906- lies with the civil government which issued in the Falk laws, and their own expulsion by decree of the German parliament The bibliography of Jesuitism is of enormous extent, and it is im- (June 19, 1872). Since then many attempts have been made to practicable to cite more than a few of the most important works. They are as follows: Institutum Societatis Jesu (7. vols., Avignon, procure the recall of the Society to the German Empire, but 1830–1838); Orlandini, Historia Societatis Jesu (Antwerp. 1620); without success, although as individuals they are now allowed in Imago primi saeculi Societatis Jesu (Antwerp. 1640); Nieremberg, the country. In Great Britain, whither they began to straggle Vida de San Ignacio de Loyola (9, vols., fol., Madrid, 1645-1736); over during the revolutionary troubles at the close of the 18th Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus (3 vols., Paris, Genelli, Life of St Ignatius of Loyola (London, 1872), Backer, century, and where, practically unaffected by the clause directed 1853-1861); Crétineau Joly, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus (6 vols., against them in the Emancipation Act of 1829, their chief settle- Paris, 1844); Guettée, llistoire des Jésuites (3 vols., Paris, 1858-1859); ment has been at Stonyhurst in Lancashire, an estate conferred Wolff, Allgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten (4 vols., Zurich, 1789-1792): on them by Thomas Weld in 1795, they have been unmolested; 1 of France in the New World and The Jesuils in North America Gioberti, Il Gesuita moderno (Lausanne, 1846); F. Parkman, Pioneers but there has been little affinity to the order in the British (Boston, 1868); Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions temperament, and the English province has consequently never étrangères, avec les Annales de la propagation de la foi (40 vols., risen to numerical or intellectual importance in the Society. In Lyons, 1819-1854): Saint-Priest, Histoire de la chute des Jésuites au Rome itself, its progress after the restoration was at first slow, and 1838); E. Taunton, History of the Jesuits in England (London, 1901), XVIII Siècle (Paris, 1844); Ranke, Römische Päpste (3 vols., Berlin, it was not till the reign of Leo XII. (1823-1829) that it recovered Thomas Hughes, S.J., History of the Society of Jesus in North America its place as the chief educational body there. It advanced (London and New York, 1907); R. G. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations steadily under Gregory XVI., and, though it was at first shunned and Allied Documents (73 vols. Cleveland, 1896-1901), (R. F. L., E. Ts.) by Pius IX., it secured his entire confidence after his return from Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from him a special breve erect- JESUP, MORRIS KETCHUM (1830-1908), American banker ing the staff of its literary journal, the Civiltà Callolica, into a and philanthropist, was born at Westport, Connecticut, on the perpetual college under the general of the Jesuits, for the purpose 21st of June 1830. In 1842 he went to New York City, where of teaching and propagating the faith in its pages. How, with | after some experience in business he established a banking house 348 JESUS CHRIST 6 ܙܙ ) " in 1852. In 1856 he organized the banking firm of M. K. Jesupdonia. The writers are Jews, to judge by their salutation of & Company, which after two reorganizations became Cuyler, peace,” and by their mention of God the Father,” and of the Morgan & Jesup. He became widely known as a financier, assembly or society as being “in " Him. But what is this new retiring from active business in 1884. He was best known, name which is placed side by side with the Divine Name"in however, as a munificent patron of scientific research, a large God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ ”? An educated contributor to the needs of education, and a public-spirited Greek, who knew something (as many at that time did) of the citizen of wide interests, who did much for the betterment of Greek translation of the ancient Hebrew Scriptures, if he had social conditions in New York. He contributed largely to the picked up this letter before he had ever heard the name of Jesus funds for the Arctic expeditions of Commander Robert E. Peary, Christ, would have been deeply interested in thcsc opening becoming president of the Peary Arctic Club in 1899. To the words. He would have known that Jesus was the Greek American museum of natural history, in New York City, he gave form of Joshua; that “ Christ " was the Greek rendering of large sums in his lifetime and bequeathed $1,000,000. He Messiah, or Anointed, the title of the great King for whom the was president of the New York chamber of commerce from 1899 Jews were looking; he might further have remembered that until 1907, and was the largest subscriber to its new building. the Lord is the expression which the Greek Old Testament To his native town he gave a fine public library. He died in constantly uses instead of the incffable name of God, which we New York City on the 22nd of January 1908. now call“ Jehovah ” (q.v.). Who, then, he might well ask JESUS CHRIST. To write a summary account of the life is this Jesus Christ who is lifted to this unexampled height? of Christ, though always involving a grave responsibility, was For it is plain that Jesus Christ stands in some close relation to until recent years a comparatively straightforward task; for it “ God the Father," and that on the ground of that relation a was assumed that all that was needed, or could be offered, was a society has been built up, apparently by Jews, in a Greck city chronological outline based on a harmony of the four canonical far distant from Palestine. He would learn something as he Gospels. But to-day history is not satisfied by this simple pro- read on; for the letter makes a passing reference to the founda- cedure. Literary criticism has analysed the documents, and hastion of the society, and to the expansion of its influence in other already established some important results; and many questions parts of Greece; to the conversion of its members from heathen- are still in debate, the answers to which must affect our judg- ism, and to the consequent sufferings at the hands of their ment of the historical value of the existing narratives. It seems heathen neighbours. The writers speak of themselves as therefore consonant alike with prudence and reverence to re- “apostles,” or messengers, of Christ; they refer to similar frain from attempting to combine afresh into a single picture societies“ in Christ Jesus,” which they call“ churches of God," the materials derivable from the various documents, and to in Judaea, and they say that these also suffer from the Jews endeavour instead to describe the main contents of the sources there, who had “killed the Lord Jesus” some time before. from which our knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ as an But they further speak of Jesus as “raised from the dead,” historical personage is ultimately drawn, and to observe the and they refer to the belief which they had led the society to picture of Him which each writer in turn has offered to us. entertain, that He would come again “from heaven to deliver The chief elements of the evidence with which we shall deal are them from the coming wrath.” Morcover, they urge them the following: not to grieve for certain members of the society who have al- 1. First, because earliest in point of time, the references to the ready died, saying that, if we believe that Jesus died and Lord Jesus Christ in the earliest Epistles of St Paul. rose again," we may also be assured that “the dead in Christ 2. The Gospel according to St Mark. will rise" and will live for ever with Him. Thus the letter 3. A document, no longer extant, which was partially incorporated into the Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke. assumes that its readers already have considerable knowledge 4. Further information added by St Matthew's Gospel. as to “the Lord Jesus Christ," and as to His relation to “God 5. Further information added by St Luke's Gospel. the Father," a knowledge derived from teaching given in person 6. The Gospel according to St John. on a former visit. The purpose of the letter is not to give in- With regard to traditional sayings or doings of our Lord, which were formation as to the past, but to stimulate its readers to perse- only written down at a later period, it will suffice to say that those which have any claim to be genuine are very scanty, and that their verance by giving fresh teaching as to the future. Historically genuineness has to be tested by their correspondence with the great it is of great value as showing how widely within twenty or Bulk of information which is derived from the sources already twenty-five years of the Crucifixion a religion which proclaimed enumerated. The fictitious literature of the second and third developed theological teaching as to the Lord Jesus Christ " centuries, known as the Apocryphal Gospels, offers no direct evidence had spread in the Roman Empire. We may draw a further con- of any historical value at all: it is chiefly valuable for the contrast which it presents to the grave simplicity of the canonical Gospels. clusion from this and other letters of St Paul before we go on. and as showing how incapable a later age was of adding anything to St Paul's missionary work must have created a demand. Those the Gospel history which was not palpably absurd. who had heard him and read his letters would want to know 1. Letters of St Paul.-In the order of chronology we must give more than he had told them of the earthly life of the Lord the first place to the earliest letters of St Paul. The first piece Jesus. They would wish to be able to picture Him to their of Christian literature which has an independent existence and minds; and especially to understand what could have led to to which we can fix a date is St Paul's first Epistle to the Thessa- His being put to death by the Romans at the requisition of the lonians. Lightfoot dates it in 52 cr 53; Harnack places it Jews. St Paul had not been one of his personal disciples in five years earlier. We may say, then, that it was written some Galilee or Jerusalem; he had no memories to relate of His twenty years after the Crucifixion. St Paul is not an historian; miracles and teaching. Some written account of these was an he is not attempting to describe what Jesus Christ said or did. obvious need. And we may be sure that any such narrative He is writing a letter to encourage a little Christian society which concerning One who was so deeply reverenced would be most he, a Jew, had founded in a distant Greek city; and he reminds carefully scrutinized at a time when many were still living whose his readers of many things which he had told them when he was memories went back to the period of Our Lord's public ministry. with them. The evidence to be collected from his epistles One such narrative we now proceed to describe. generally must not detain us here, but we may glance for a 2. St Mark's Gospel.—The Gospel according to $t Mark was moment at this one letter, because it contains what appears to be written within fifteen years of the first letter of St Paul to the the first mention of Jesus Christ in the literature of the world. Thessalonians-i.e. about 65. It seems designed to meet the Those who would get a true history cannot afford to neglect their requirements of Christians living far away from Palestine. The earliest documents. Now the opening sentence of this letter is author was not an eye-witness of what he relates, but he writes as follows: “ Paul and Silvanus and Timothy to the Church of with the firm security of a man who has the best authority the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: behind him. The characteristics of his work confirm the early Grace to you, and peace.” Three men with Greek or Latin belief that St Mark wrote this Gospel for the Christians of Rome names are writing to some kind of assembly in a city of Mace- | under the guidance of St Peter. It is of the first importance that 1) JESUS CHRIST 349 << “ Jesus we should endeavour to see this book as a whole; to gain the total | forgive sins.” The title which He thus adopts must be con- impression which it makes on the mind; to look at the picture of sidered later. Jesus Christ which it offers. That picture must inevitably be We may note, as we pass on, that He has again, in the an incomplete representation of Him; it will need to be supple- exercise of His power and His sympathy, come into conflict mented by other pictures which other writers have drawn. with the established religious tradition. This free- Attitude But it is important to consider it by itself, as showing us what im- dom from the trammels of convention appears yet towards press the Master had made on the memory of one disciple who again when he claims as a new disciple a publican, a Religious Tradition. had been almost constantly by His side. man whose calling as a tax-gatherer for the Roman The book opens thus: “ The beginning of the Gospel of government made him odious to every patriotic Jew. Publicans Jesus Christ.” This beginning is shown to be itself rooted were classed with open sinners; and when Jesus went to this Begioning in the past. Hebrew prophets had foretold that man's house and met a company of his fellows the rabbis were of Christ's God would send a messenger "; that a voice scandalized: “Why eateth your Master with publicans and Mission. would be heard saying, “ Prepare the way of the sinners?” The gentle answer of Jesus showed His sympathy even Lord.”. And so, in fact, John came, baptizing in the wilderness with those who opposed Him: “The doctor,” He said, “must go and turning the heart of the nation back to God. But John was to the sick.” And again, when they challenged His disciples for only a forerunner. He was himself a ptophet, and his prophecy not observing the regular fasts, He gently reminded them that was this, “ He that is stronger than I am is coming after me." they themselves relaxed the discipline of fasting for a bride- Then, we read, “ Jesus came.” St Mark introduces Him quite groom's friends. And He added, in picturesque and pregnant abruptly, just as he had introduced John; for he is writing sayings, that an old garment could not bear a new patch, and for those who already know the outlines of the story. that old wine-skins could not take new wine. Such language was came from Nazareth of Galilee." He was baptized by John, and at once gentle and strong; without condemning the old, it as He came out of the water He had a vision of the opened claimed liberty for the new. To what lengths would this heavens and the Holy Spirit, like a dove, descending upon liberty go? The sacred badge of the Jews' religion, which Him; and He heard a Voice saying, “Thou art My Son, the marked them off from other men all the world over, was their Beloved: in Thee I am well pleased.” He then passed away observance of the Sabbath. It was a national the test into the wilderness, where He was tempted by Satan and fed of religion and patriotism. The rabbis bad fenced the Sabbath by angels. Then He begins His work; and from the very round with minute commands, lest any Jews should even seem first we feel that He fulfils John's sign: He is strong. His first to work on the Sabbath day. Thus, plucking and rubbing the words are words of strength; “ the time is fulfilled ”-that is to ears of corn was counted a form of reaping and threshing. The say, all the past has been leading up to this great moment; hungry disciples had so transgressed as they walked through the "the kingdom of God is at hand ”-that is to say, all your fields of ripe corn. Jesus defended them by the example of best hopes are on the point of being fulfilled; " repent, and David, who had eaten the shewbread, which only priests might believe the Gospel”—that is to say, turn from your sins and eat, and had given it to his hungry men. Necessity absolves accept the tidings which I bring you. It is but a brief summary from ritual restrictions. And he went farther, and proclaimed of what He must have said; but we fcel its strength. He does a principle: “ The Sabbath was made for man, and not man not hesitate to fix all eyes upon Himself. Then we see Him call for the Sabbath, so that the Son of Man is lord even of the two brothers who are fishermen. “Come after Me,” He says, Sabbath.” For a second time, in justifying His position, He “and I will make you fishers of men.” They dropped their nets used the expression “the Son of Man." The words might sound and went after Him, and so did two other brothers, their partners; to Jewish ears merely as å synonym for “ man.” For Himself, for they all felt the power of this Master of men: He was strong and possibly for some others, they involved a reference, as He began to teach in the synagogue; they were astonished at His appears later, to the “one like to a son of man " in Daniel's teaching, for he spoke with authority. He was interrupted prophecy of the coming kingdom. They emphasized His relation by a demoniac, but He quelled the evil spirit by a word; He was to humanity as a whole, in contrast to such narrower titles as stronger than the power of evil. When the sun set the Sabbath “Son of Abraham ” or “ Son of David.”. They were fitted to was at an end, and the people could carry out their sick into express a wider mission than that of a merely Jewish Messiah: the street where He was; and He came forth and healed them He stood and spoke for mankind.. The controversy was renewed all. The demoniacs showed a strange faculty of recognition, when a man with a withered hand appeared in the synagogue and cried that He was“ the holy one of God," and "the Christ,” “ on the Sabbath, and the rabbis watched to see whether Jesus but He silenced them at once. The next morning. He was would heal him. For the first time, we read that Jesus was gone. He had sought a quiet spot for prayer. Peter, one of angry. They were wilfully blind, and they would rather not those fishermen whom He had called, whose wife's mother had see good donc than see it done in a way that contradicted their been healed the day before, found Him and tried to bring teachings and undermined their influence. After a sharp remon- Him back. “All men are seeking Thee,” he pleaded. “Let strance, He healed the man by a mere word. And they went elsewhere was the quiet reply of one who could not out to make a compact with the followers of the worldly Herod be moved by popular enthusiasm. Once again, we observe, He to kill Him, and so to stave off à religious revolution which fulfils John's sign: He is strong. This is our first sight of might easily have been followed by political trouble. Jesus Christ. The next shows us that this great strength is Up to this point what have we seen? On the stage of Palestine, united to a most tender sympathy. To touch a leper was an outlying district of the Roman Empire,, the home of the forbidden, and the offence involved ceremonial defilement. Yet Jewish nation, now subject but still fired with the Recapitu• when a leper declared that Jesus could heal him, if only He hope of freedom and even of universal domination lation. would, “He put forth His hand and touched him." The act under the leadership of a divinely anointed King, a new figure perfected the leper's faith, and he was healed immediately. has appeared. His appearance has been announced by a But he disobeyed the command to be silent about the matter, reforming prophet, who has summoned the nation to return and the result was that Jesus could not openly enter into the to its God, and promised that a stronger than himself is to town, but remained outside in the country. It is the first shadow follow. In fulfilment of this promise, who is it that has come ? that falls across His path; His power finds a check in human Not a rough prophet in the desert like John, not a leader striking wilfulness. Presently He is in Capernaum again. He heals a for political freedoin, not a pretender aining at the petty throne paralysed man, but not until He has come into touch, as we of the Herods, not even a great rabbi, building on the patriotic say, with him also, by reaching his deepest need and declaring the foundation of the Pharisees who had secured the national life forgiveness of his sins. This declaration disturbs the rabbis, by a new devotion to the ancient law. None of these, but, on the who regard it as a blasphemous usurpation of Divine authority. contrary, an unknown figure from the remote hills of Galilee, But He claims that “the Son of Man hath authority on earth to standing on the populous shores of its lake, proclaiming as 1 " us go " 350 JESUS CHRIST a message from God that the highest hopes were about to be | He taught them. He gives them a parable from nature the fulfilled, fastening attention on Himself by speaking with sower's three kinds of failure, compensated by the rich produce authority and attaching a few followers to His person, exhibiting of the good soil. At the close He utters the preg- Christ's wonderful powers of healing as a sign that He has come to nant saying: “He that hath ears to hear let him Teaching. fulfil all needs, manifesting at the same time an unparalleled hear.” When Iis disciples afterwards asked for an explana- sympathy, and setting quietly aside every religious convention tion, He prefaced it by saying that the inner circle only which limited the outflow of this sympathy; and as the result were intended to understand. The disciples might learn that of all this arousing the enthusiasm of astonished multitudes and the message would often prove fruitless, but that nevertheless an evoking the opposition and even the murderous resentment abundant harvest would result. For the light was intended to of the religious guides of the nation. Of His teaching we have shine, and the hidden was meant to be revealed. Another heard nothing, except in the occasional sentences by which He parable compared the kingdom of God to seed which, when justified some of His unexpected actions. No party is formed, once planted, must inevitably germinate; the process was no programme is announced, no doctrine is formulated; without secret and slow, but the harvest was certain. Again, it was assuming the title of Messiah, He offers Himself as the centre of like the tiny mustard-seed which grew out of all proportion expectation, and seems to invite an unlimited confidence in to its original size, till the birds could shelter in its great branches. His person. This, then, in brief summary, is what we have seen: These enigmatic speeches were all that the multitudes got, the natural development of an historical situation, a march but the disciples in private were taught their lesson of hope. of events leading rapidly to a climax; an unexampled strength As we review this teaching it is very remarkable. The world and an unexampled sympathy issuing inevitably in an unex- of common things is seen to be a lesson-book of the kingdom of ampled liberty; and then the forces of orthodox religion com- God to those who have eyes to read it. What that kingdom is to bining with the forces of worldly indifference in order to suppress be we are not told; we are only taught that its coming is secret, a dangerous innovator. Yet the writer who in a few pages pre- slow and certain. If nature in its ordinary processes was thus sents us with so remarkable a representation shows no conscious- seen to be full of significance, the disciples were also to learn ness at all of artistic treatment. He tells a simple tale in the that it was under His control. As the boat from which He had plainest words: he never stops to offer a comment or to point a been teac passed to the other side, the tired Teacher slept. moral. The wonder of it all is not in the writing, but in the A sudden storm terrified the disciples, and they roused Him in subject itself. We feel that we have here no skilful composi- alarm. He stilled the storm with a word and rebuked their tion, but a bare transcript of what occurred. And we feel be- want of faith. “ Who then is this,” they whispered with awe, sides that such a narrative as this is the worthy commencement that even the wind and the sea obey Him?” On the opposite of an answer to the question with which its readers would have hills a.solitary spectator had watched the rise and the lull of the come to it: What was the beginning of the Gospel? How tempest, a fierce demoniac who dwelt among the tombs on did the Lord Jesus speak and act? and why did He arouse such the mountain-side. He believed himself to be possessed by a malignant enmity amongst His own people? regiment of demons. When Jesus bade them go forth, he begged We have followed St Mark's narrative up to the point at that they might be allowed to enter into a herd of swine which which it became clear that conciliatory argument could have was hard by. His request was granted, and the swine rushed no effect upon the Jewish religious leaders. The controversy over a steep place into the lake. It is worth while to note that about the Sabbath had brought their dissatisfaction to a climax. while most of the cures which Jesus had performed appear to Henceforth Jesus was to them a revolutionary, who must, by have belonged to this class, this particular case is described as any means, be suppressed. After this decisive breach a new an exceptionally severe one, and the visible effect of the removal period opens. Jesus leaves Capernaum, never again, it would of his tormentors may have greatly helped to restore the man's seem, to appear in its synagogue. Henceforward He was to be shattered personality. found, with His disciples, on the shore of the lake, where vast We must not attempt to trace in detail the whole of St Mark's multitudes gathered round Him, drawn not only from Galilee and story. We have followed it long enough to see its directness and Judaea, but also from the farther districts north and east of simplicity, to observe the naturalness with which one incident these. He would take refuge from the crowds in a boat, which succeeds another, and to watch the gradual manifestation of a carried Him from shore to shore; and His healing activity was personality at once strong and sympathetic, wielding extra- now at its height. Yet in the midst of this popular enthusiasm ordinary powers, which are placed wholly at the service of others, He knew that the time had come to prepare for a very different and refusing to be hindered from helping men by the ordinary future, and accordingly a fresh departure was made when He restrictions of social or religious custom. And we have seen as selected twelve of His disciples for a more intimate companion the consequence of all this the development of an historical ship, with a view to a special mission: “He appointed twelve situation in which the leaders of current orthodoxy ally them- that they might be with Him, and that He might send them selves with the indifferentism which accepts existing political forth to preach and to have power to cast out the devils.” conditions in order to put down a disturber of the peace. We The excitement and pressure of the crowds was at this time must now be content with a broader survey of the course of almost overwhelming, and the relatives of Jesus endeavoured to events. restrain Him; “ for they said, He is mad.” The scribes from Two notable cures were wrought on the western side of the Jerusalem offered a more sinister explanation, saying that He lake-the healing of the woman with the issue and the raising of was possessed by the prince of the devils, and that this was why Jairus's daughter. In each of these cures prominence Healing He was able to control all the evil spirits. He answered them is given to the requirement and the reward of faith- first in figurative language, speaking of the certain downfall that is to say, of personal confidence in the Healer: Thy of a kingdom or a family divided against itself, and of the strong faith hath made thee whole." Fear not, only believe.” man's house which could not be looted unless the strong man After this Jesus passed away from the enthusiastic crowds by were first bound. Then followed the tremendous warning, that the lake to visit His own Nazareth, and to find there a strange to assign His work to Satan, and so to call good evil, was to incredulity in regard to one whom the villagers knew as the blaspheme against the Holy Spirit-the one sin which admitted carpenter. Once more we come across a mysterious limitation of no forgiveness. Presently, when He was told that His mother of His powers: “ He could not do there any miracle,” save the and brethren were calling for Him, He disclaimed their interfer- cure of a few sick folk; and He marvelled because of their want ence by pointing to a new circle of family relationship, consisting of faith. The moment had now come when the twelve disciples of all those who “do the will of God." were to be entrusted with a share of His healing power and with Again we find Him teaching by the lake, and the pressure of the proclamation of repentance. While they are journeying the multitude is still so great that He sits in a boat while they two and two in various directions St Mark takes occasion to tell line the shore. For the first time we are allowed to hear how us the current conjectures as to who Jesus really was. Some Powers. JESUS CHRIST 351 of the Scribes. thought him Elijah or one of the ancient prophets returned to described it only in parables from nature. He had adopted the earth-a suggestion based on popular tradition; others said He vague title of the “Son of Man," but had refrained from pro- was John the Baptist risen from the dead-the superstition claiming Himself as the expected Messiah. At last the disciples of Herod who had put him to death. When the disciples had expressed their conviction that He was the Christ, and imme- returned, Jesus took them apart for rest; but the crowds re- diately He tells them that He goes to meet humiliation and death assembled when they found Him again near the lake, and His as the necessary steps to a resurrection and a coming of the Son yearning compassion for these shepherdless sheep led Him to give of Man in the glory of His Father. It was an amazing announce- them an impressive sign that He had indeed come to supply all ment and He plainly added that their path like His own lay human needs. Hitherto His power had gone forth to individuals, through death to life. The dark shadows of this picture of the but now He fed five thousand men from the scanty stock of five future alone could impress their minds, but a week later three of loaves and two fishes. That night He came to His disciples them were allowed a momentary vision of the light which shoula walking upon the waters, and in the period which immediately overcome the darkness. They saw Jesus transfigured in a followed there was once more a great manifestation of healing radiance of glory: Elijah appeared with Moses, and they talked power. with Jesus. A cloud came over them, and a Voice, like that of We have heard nothing for some time of any opposition; but the Baptism, proclaimed “This is My Son, the Beloved: hear now a fresh conflict arose with certain scribes who had come down ye Him." They were bidden to keep the vision secret till the Opposition from Jerusalem, and who complained that the dis- Son of Man should have risen from the dead. It was in itself a ciples neglected the ceremonial washing of their foretaste of resurrection, and the puzzled disciples remembered hands before meals. Jesus replied with a stern re- that the scribes, declared that before the resurrection Elijah buke, addressing the questioners as hypocrites, and exposing the would appear. Their minds were confused as to what resurrec- falsity of a system which allowed the breach of fundamental tion was meant. Jesus told them that Elijah had in fact come; commandments in order that traditional regulations might be and He also said that the Scriptures foretold the sufferings of observed. He then turned from them to the multitude, and the Son of Man. But the situation was wholly beyond their uttered a saying which in effect annulled the Jewish distinction grasp, and the very language of St Mark at this point seems to bet ween clean and unclean meats. This was a direct attack on reflect the confusion of their minds. the whole Pharisaic position. The controversy was plainly The other disciples, in the meantime, had been vainly en- irreconcilable, and Jesus withdrew to the north, actually passing deavouring to cure a peculiarly violent case of demoniacal outside the limits of the Holy Land. He desired to remain possession. Jesús Himself cast out the demon, but not before unknown, and not to extend His mission to the heathen popula- the suffering child had been rendered seemingly lifeless by a tion, but the extraordinary faith and the modest importunity of final assault. Then they journeyed secretly through Galilee a Syrophenician woman induced Him to heal her daughter. towards Judaea and the eastern side of the Jordan. On the way Then He returned by a circuitous route to the Sea of Galilce. Jesus reinforced the new lesson of self-renunciation. He offered His return was marked by another miraculous feeding of the the little children as the type of thosc to whom the kingdom of multitude, and also by two healing miracles which present God belonged; and He disappointed a young and wealthy aspi- unusual features. In both the patient was withdrawn from the rant to His favour, amazing His disciples by saying that the multitude and the cure was wrought with the accompaniment of kingdom of God could hardly be entered by the rich; he who symbolic actions. Moreover, in one case Jesus is described as forsook all should have all, and more than all; the world's groaning before He spoke; in the other the cure was at first in- estimates were to be reversed—the first should be last and the complete; and both of the men were strictly charged to observe last first. They were now journeying towards Jerusalem, and silence afterwards. It cannot be a mere coincidence that these the prediction of the Passion was repeated. James and John, are the last cures which St Mark records as performed in Galilee. who had witnessed the Transfiguration, and who were confident In fact the Galilean ministry is now closed. Jesus retires of the coming glory, asked for the places nearest to their Master, northwards to Caesarea Philippi, and appears henceforth to and professed their readiness to share His sufferings. When Messianic devote Himself entirely to the instruction of his dis- the other ten were aggrieved Jesus declared that greatness was Teaching. ciples, who needed to be prepared for the fatal issue measured by service, not by rank; and that the Son of Man had which could not long be delayed. He begins by asking them come not to be served but to serve, and to give His life to the popular opinion as to His Person. The suggestions are ransom many other lives. As they came up from the Jordan still the same-John the Baptist, or Elijah, or some other of valley and passed through Jericho, an incident occurred which the prophets. But when He asked their own belief, Peter signalized the beginning of the final period. A blind man replied, “ Thou art the Christ.” He warned them not to make appealed to Jesus as “the Son of David," and was answered this known; and He proceeded to give them the wholly new by the restoration of his sight; and when, a little later, Jesus teaching that the Son of Man must suffer and be killed, adding fulfilled an ancient prophecy by mounting an ass and riding into that after three days He must rise again. Peter took Him aside Jerusalem, the multitudes shouted their welcome to the returning and urged Him not to speak so. But He turned to the other “ kingdom of David.” Hitherto He had not permitted any disciples and openly rebuked Peter. And then, addressing a yet public recognition of His Messiahship, but now He entered wider circle, He demanded of those who should follow Him a David's city in lowly but significant pomp as David's promised self-sacrifice like His own. He even used the metaphor of the heir. cross which was carried by the sufferer to the place of execution. Two incidents illustrate the spirit of judgment with which He Life, he declared, could only be saved by voluntary death. He approached the splendid but apostate city. On His arrival He went on to demand an unswerving loyalty to Himself and His had carefully observed the condition of the Temple, Entry into teaching in the face of a threatening world; and then He promised and had retired to sleep outside the city. On the Jerusalem. that some of those who were present should not die before they following morning, finding no fruit on a fig-tree in full leaf, had seen the coming of the kingdom of God. We have had no He said, “Let no man eat fruit of thee henceforth for ever." It hint of such teaching as this in the whole of the Galilean ministry, was a parable of impending doom. Then, when He entered Jesus had stood forth as the strong healer and helper of men; it the Temple, He swept away with a fiery zeal the merchants and was bewildering to hear Him speak of dying. He had promised merchandise which had turned God's House into “a robbers’ to fulfil men's highest expectations, if only they would not den." The act was at once an assertion of commanding au- doubt His willingness and power. He had been enthusiastically thority and an open condemnation of the religious rulers who reverenced by the common people, though suspected and attacked had permitted the desecration. Its immediate effect was to by the religious leaders. He had spoken of "the will of God” make new and powerful enemies; for the chief priests, as well as as supreme, and had set aside ceremonial traditions. He had their rivals the scribes, were now infiamed against Him. At the announced the nearness of the kingdom of God, but had I moment they could do nothing, but the next day they formally 352 JESUS CHRIST demanded whence He derived His right so to act. When they for manifest blasphemy, and a scene of cruel mockery followed: refused to answer His question as to the authority of John the Meanwhile Peter in the court below had been sitting with the Baptist He in turn refused to tell them His own. But He servants, and in his anxiety to escape recognition had thrice uttered a parable which more than answered them. The owner declared that he did not know Jesus. Thus the night passed, of the vineyard, who had sent his servants and last of all his only and in the morning Jesus was caken to Pilate, for the Jewish son, would visit their rejection and murder on the wicked council had no power to execute their decree of death. Pilate's husbandmen. He added a reminder that the stone which the question, “ Art Thou the King of the Jews?" shows the nature builders refused was, after all, the Divine choice. They were of the accusation which was thought likely to tell with the restrained from arresting Him by fear of the people, to whom Roman governor. He had already in bonds one leader of the meaning of the parable was plain. They therefore sent a revolution, whose hands were stained with blood-a striking joint deputation of Pharisees and Herodians to entrap Him contrast to the calm and silent figure who stood before him. At with a question as to the Roman tribute, in answering which He this moment a crowd came up to ask the fulfilment of his annual must either lose His influence with the people or else lay Him- act of grace, the pardon of a prisoner at the Passover. Pilate, self open to a charge of treason. When they were baffled, the discerning that it was the envy of the rulers which sought to Sadducees, to whose party the chief priests belonged, sought in destroy an inconvenient rival, offered “the King of the Jews vain to pose Him with a problem as to the resurrection of the as the prisoner to be released. But the chief priests succeeded dead; and after that a more honest scribe confessed the truth in making the people ask for Barabbas and demand the cruci- of His teaching as to the supremacy of love to God and man over fixion of Jesus. Pilate fulfilled his pledge by giving them the all the sacrificial worship of the Temple, and was told in reply man of their choice, and Jesus, whom he had vainly hoped to that he was not far from the kingdom of God. Jesus Himself release on a satisfactory pretext, he now condemned to the now put a question as to the teaching of the scribes which shameful punishments of scourging and crucifixion; for the identified the Messiah with “the Son of David ”; and then cross, as Jesus had foreseen, was the inevitable fate of a Jewish He denounced those scribes whose pride and extortion and pretender to sovereignty. The Roman soldiers mocked "the hypocrisy were preparing for them a terrible doom. Before He King of the Jews" with a purple robe and a crown of thorns. left the Temple, never to return, cne incident gave Him pure As they led out they forced the cross, which the sufferer satisfaction. His own teaching that all must be given for God commonly carried, upon the shoulders of one Simon of Cyrene, was illustrated by the devotion of a poor widow who cast into whose sons Alexander and Rufus are here mentioned-probably the treasury the two tiny coins which were all that she had. as being known to St Mark's readers; at any rate, it is interesting As He passed out He foretold, in words which corresponded to to note that, in writing to the Christians at Rome, St Paul a the doom of the fig-tree, the utter demolition of the imposing few years earlier had sent a greeting to“ Rufus and his mother.” but profitless Temple; and presently He opened up to four of Over the cross, which stood between two others, was the con- His disciples a vision of the future, warning them against false demnatory inscription, “ The King of the Jews." This was the Christs, bidding them expect great sorrows, national and Roman designation of Him whom the Jewish rulers tauntingly, personal, declaring that the gospel must be proclaimed to all addressed as “the King of Israel.” The same revilers, with a the nations, and that after a great tribulation the Son of Man deeper truth than they knew, summed up the mystery of His should appear, coming with the clouds of heaven." The day life and death when they said, “He sąved others, Himself He and the hour none knew, neither the angels nor the Son, but cannot save.” only the Father: it was the duty of all to watch. A great darkness shrouded the scene for three hours, and then, We now come to the final scenes. The passover was approach- in His native Aramaic, Jesus cried in the words of the Psalm, ing, and plots were being laid for His destruction. He Himself My God, My God, why has Thou forsaken Me?" One other Final spoke mysteriously of His burial, when a woman cry He uttered, and the end came, and at that moment the veil Sceges. poured a vase of costly ointment upon His head. of the Temple was rent from top to bottom-an omen of fearful To some this seemed a wasteful act; but He accepted it as import to those who had mocked Him, even on the cross, as the a token of the love which gave all that was in its power, and destroyer of the Temple, who in three days should build it anew. He promised that it should never cease to illustrate His Gospel. The disciples of Jesus do not appear as spectators of the end, but Two of the disciples were sent into Jerusalem to prepare the only a group of women who had ministered to His needs in Passover meal. During the meal Jesus declared that He should Galilee, and had followed Him up to Jerusalem. These women be betrayed by one of their number. Later in the evening He watched His burial, which was performed by a Jewish councillor, gave them bread and wine, proclaiming that these were His body to whom Pilate had granted the body after the centurion had and His blood—the tokens of His giving Himself to them, and certified the reality of the unexpectedly early death. The body of a new covenant with God through His death. As they with- was placed in a rock-hewn tomb, and a great stone was rolled drew to the Mount of Olives He foretold their general flight, but against the entrance. Sunset brought on the Jewish sabbath, promised that when He was risen He would go before them into but the next evening the women brought spices to anoint the Galilee. Peter protested faithfulness unto death, but was told body, and at sunrise on the third day they arrived at the tomb, that he would deny his Master three times that very night. and saw that the stone was rolled away. They entered and Then coming to a place called Gethsemane, He bade the disciples found a young man in a white robe, who said, “He is risen, He wait while He should pray; and taking the three who had been is not here," and bade them say to His disciples and Peter, " He with Him at the Transfiguration He told them to tarry near goeth before you into Galilee; there ye shall see Him, as He said Him and to watch. He went forward, and fell on the ground, unto you.” In terror they fled from the tomb, “and they said praying that “the cup might be taken away ” from Him, but nothing to any man, for they feared . resigning Himself to His Father's will. Presently Judas arrived So with a broken sentence the narrative ends. The document with a band of armed men, and greeted his Master with a kiss, is imperfect, owing probably to the accidental loss of its last the signal for His arrest. The disciples fled in panic, after one leaf. In very early times attempts were made to furnish it with of them had wounded the high priest's servant. Only a nameless a fitting close; but neither of the supplements which we find in young man tried to follow, but he too fled when hands were laid manuscripts can be regarded as coming from the original writer. upon him. Before the high priest Jesus was charged, among If we ask what must, on grounds of literary probability, have oiher accusations, with threatening to destroy the Temple; but been added before the record was closed, we may content our- the matter was brought to an issue when He was plainly asked selves here with saying that some incident must certainly have if He were the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One.” He been narrated which should have realized the twice-repeated answered that He was, and He predicted that they should see promise that Jesus would be seen by His disciples in Galilee. the fulfilment of Daniel's vision of the Son of Man sitting on the 3. Document used by St Matthew and St Luke.-We pass on now right band of power. Thereupon He was condemned to death to compare with this narrative of St Mark another very early 66 C C a JESUS CHRIST 353 document which no longer exists in an independent form, but document. To begin with, it contained a fuller account of the which can be partially reconstructed from the portions of it teaching of John the Baptist. · St Mark tells us only his message which have been embodied in the Gospels of St Matthew and of hope; but here we read the severer language with which he St Luke. called men to repentance. We hear his warning of “ the coming When we review St Mark's narrative as a whole we are struck, wrath ": his mighty Successor will baptize with fire; the fruitless first of all, with its directness and simplicity. It moves straight-tree will be cast into the fire; the chaff will be separated from the forward upon a well-defined path. It shows us the Lord Jesus wheat and burned with unquenchable fire; the claim to be entering on the mission predicted by the Baptist without de- children of Abraham will not avail, for God can raise up other claring Himself to be the Messiah; attracting the multitudes children to Abraham, if it be from the stones of the desert. in Galilee by His hcaling power and His unbounded sympathy, Next, we have a narrative of the Temptation, of which St Mark and at the same time awakening the envy and suspicion of the had but recorded the bare fact. It was grounded on the leaders of religion; training a few disciples till they reach the Divine sonship, which we already know was proclaimed at the conviction that He is the Christ, and then, but not till then, Baptism. In a threefold vision Jesus is invited to enter upon admitting them into the secret of His coming sufferings, and His inheritance at once; to satisfy His own needs, to accept of preparing them for a mission in which they also must sacrifice earthly dominion, to presume on the Divine protection. The themselves; then journeying to Jerusalem to fulfil the destiny passage stands almost alone as a revelation of inner conflict in a which He foresaw, accepting the responsibility of the Messianic life which outwardly was marked by unusual calm. title, only to be condemned by the religious authorities as a Not far from the beginning of the document there stood a blasphemer and handed over to the Roman power as a pretender remarkable discourse delivered among the hills above the lake. to the Jewish throne. That is the story in its barest outline. It opens with a startling reversal of the common esti- The Sermon It is adequate to its presumed purpose of offering to distant mates of happiness and misery. In the light of the on the Gentile converts a clear account of their Master's earthly work, coming kingdom it proclaims the blessedness of the Mount. and of the causes which led to His rejection by His own people poor, the hungry, the sad and the maligned; and the wofulness and to His death by Roman crucifixion. The writer makes no of the rich, the full; the merry and the popular. It goes on to comment on the wonderful story which he tells. Allusions to reverse the ordinary maxims of conduct. Enemies are to be Jewish customs are, indeed, explained as they occur, but apart loved, helped, blessed, prayed for. No blow is to be returned; from this the narrative appears to be a mere transcript of every demand, just or unjust, is to be granted: in short, “as remembered facts. The actors are never characterized; their ye desire that men should do to you, do in like manner to them." actions are simply noted down; there is no praise and no blame. Then the motive and the model of this conduct are adduced: To this simplicity and directness of narrative we may in large “ Love your enemies ... and ye shall be sons of the Highest; measure attribute the fact that when two later evangelists for He is kind to the thankless and wicked. Be merciful, as desired to give fuller accounts of our Lord's life they both your father is merciful; and judge not, and ye shall not be made this early book the basis of their work. In those days judged.” We note in passing that this is the first introduction. there was no sense of unfairness in using up existing materials of our Lord's teaching of the fatherhood of God. God is your in order to make a more complete treatise. Accordingly so Father, He says in effect; you will be His sons if like Him you much of St Mark's Gospel has been taken over word for word in will refuse to make distinctions, loving without looking for a the Gospels of St Luke and St Matthew that, if every copy of it return, sure that in the end love will not be wholly lost. Then had perished, we could still reconstruct large portions of it by follow grave warnings--generous towards others, you must be carefully comparing their narratives. They did not hesitate, strict with yourselves; only the good can truly do good, hearers however, to alter St Mark's language where it seemed to them of these words must be doers also, if they would build on the rough or obscure, for each of them had a distinctive style of his rock and not on the sand, So, with the parable of the two own, and St Luke was a literary artist of a high order. Moreover, builders, the discourse reached its formal close. though they both accepted the general scheme of St Mark's It was followed by the entry of Jesus into Capernaum, where narrative, each of them was obliged to omit many incidents in He was asked to heal the servant of a Roman officer. This order to find room for other material which was at their disposal, man's unusual faith, based on his soldierly sense of discipline, by which they were able to supplement the deficiencies of the surprised the Lord, who declared that it had no equal in Israel earlier book. The most conspicuous deficiency was in regard itself. Somewhat later messengers arrived from the imprisoned to our Lord's teaching, of which, as we have seen, St Mark had Baptist, who asked if Jesus were indeed “the coming One given surprisingly little. Here they were happily in a position of whom he had spoken. Jesus pointed to His acts of healing to make a very important contribution. the sick, raising the dead and proclaiming good news for the poor; For side by side with St Mark's Gospel there was current in thereby suggesting to those who could understand that He ful- the earliest times another account of the doings and sayings of filled the ancient prophecy of the Messiah. He then declared Jesus Christ. Our knowledge of it to-day is entirely derived the greatness of John in exalted terms, adding, however, that the from a comparison of the two later evangelists who embodied least in the kingdom of God was John's superior. Then He large portions of it, working it in and out of the general scheme complained of the unreasonableness of an age which refused which they derived from St Mark, according as each of them John as too austere and Himself as too lax and as being thought most appropriate. St Luke appears to have taken it friend of publicans and sinners.” This narrative clearly pre- over in sections for the most part without much modification; supposes a series of miracles already performed, and also such a but in St Matthew's Gospel its incidents seldom find an indepen. conflict with the Pharisees as we have seen recorded by Si Mark. dent place; the sayings to which they gave rise are often detached Presently we find an offer of discipleship met by the warning from their context and grouped with sayings of a similar character that the Son of Man" is a homeless wanderer; and then the so as to form considerable discourses, or else they are linked on stern refusal of a request for leave to perform a father's funeral to sayings which were uttered on other occasions recorded by rites. St Mark. It is probable that many passages of St Luke's Gospel Close upon these incidents follows a special mission of disciples, which have no parallel in St Matthew were also derived from introduced by the saying: The harvest is great, but the this early source; but this is not easily capable of distinct proof; labourers are few." The disciples as they journey Othe and, therefore, in order to gain a secure conception of the docu- are to take no provisions, but to throw themselves Sayiogs of ment we must confine ourselves at first to those parts of it which on the bounty of their hearers; they are to heal the Jesus. were borrowed by both writers. We shall, however, look to sick and to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God. St Luke in the main as preserving for us the more nearly its The city that rejects them shall have à less lenient judgment original form. than Sodom; Tyre and Sidon shall be better off than cities We proceed now to give an outline of the contents of this I like Chorazin and Bethsaida which have seen His miracles; " the 354 JESUS CHRIST come, Capernaum, favoured above all, shall sink to the deepest depth. I cannot be a disciple, nor he who does not bear his cross. Savour. If words could be sterner than these, they are those which less salt is fit for nothing. The lost sheep is brought home with follow:“ He that heareth you heareth Me; and he that rejecteth a special joy. “ Yecannot serve God and Mammon.” Scandals you rejecteth Me, but He that rejecteth Me rejecteth Him that must arise, but woe to him through whom they arise. The Son sent Me.” This reference to His own personal mission is strik- of Man will come with the suddenness of lightning, the days of ingly expanded in words which He uttered on the return of the Noah and the days of Lot will find a parallel in their blind gaiety disciples. After thanking the Father for revealing to babes and their inevitable disaster. He who seeks to gain his life will what He hides from the wise, He continued in mysterious lose it. “One shall be taken, and the other left." · Where language: “ All things are delivered to Me by My Father, and the carcase is, the vultures will gather.” Then, lastly, we have none knoweth who the Son is but the Father; and who the a parable of the servant who failed to employ the money en- Father is but the Son, and he to whom the Son chooseth to trusted to him; and a promise that the disciples shall sit on reveal Him." Happy were the disciples in seeing and bearing twelve thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. We cannot what prophets and kings had looked for in vain. say by our present method of determination, how this document When His disciples, having watched Him at prayer, desired closed; for in the narratives of the Passion and the Resurrection to be taught how to pray, they were bidden to address God as St Matthew and St Luke only coincide in passages which they “ Father "; to ask first for the hallowing of the Father's name, have taken from St Mark. and the coming of His kingdom; then for their daily food, for Now that we have reconstructed in outline this early account the pardon of their sins and for freedom from temptation. It of the Lord Jesus, so far as it has been used by both the later was the prayer of a family—that the sons might be true to the evangelists, we may attempt to compare the picture Comparison Father, and the Father true to the sons; and they were further which it presents to us with that which was offered with encouraged by a parable of the family: “Ask and ye shall by St Mark. But in doing so we must remember St Mark. receive. . . . Every one that asketh receiveth":for the heavenly that we know it only in fragments. There can be little doubt Father will do more, not less than an earthly father would do for that much more of it is embedded in St Luke's Gospel, and his children. After He had cast out a dumb demon, some said something more also in St Matthew's; but in order to stand on that His power was due to Beelzebub. He accordingly asked firm ground we have considered thus far only those portions them by whom the Jews themselves cast out demons; and He which both of these writers elected to use in composing claimed that His power was a sign that the kingdom of God was their later narratives. To go beyond this is a work of delicate But He warned them that demons cast out once might discrimination. It can only be effected by a close examination return in greater force. When they asked for a sign from heaven, of the style and language of the document, which may enable us He would give them no more than the sign of Jonah, explaining in some instances to identify with comparative security certain that the repentant Ninevites should condemn the present passages which are found in St Luke, but which St Matthew did generation: so, too, should the queen of Sheba; for that which not regard as suitable for his purpose. Among these we may they were now rejecting was more than Jonah and more than venture, quite tentatively, to mention the sermon at Nazareth Solomon. Yet further warnings were given when a Pharisee which opened with a passage from the Book of Isaiah, the raising invited Him to his table, and expressed surprise that He did not of the widow's son at Nain, and the parable of the good Samari- wash His hands before the meal. The cleansing of externals and tan. These are found in St Luke, but not in St Matthew On the tithing of garden-produce, He declares, have usurped the the other hand, it is not improbable that the wonderful words place of judgment and the love of God. Woe is pronounced which begin, “ Come unto Me all ye that labour," were drawn upon the Pharisees: they are successors to the murderers of by St Matthew from the same document, though they are not the prophets. Then citing from Genesis and 2 Chronicles, the recorded by St Luke. But here we have entered upon a region first and last books in the order of the Jewish Bible, He declared of less certainty, in which critical scholarship has still much todo; that all righteous blood from that of Abel to that of Zachariah and these passages are mentioned here only as a reminder that should be required of that generation. After this the disciples the document must have contained more than what St Matthew are encouraged not to fear their murderous opponents. The and St Luke each independently determined to borrow from it. very sparrows are God's care-much more shall they be; the Looking, then, at the portions which we have indicated as having hairs of their head are all counted. In the end the Son of Man this two-fold testimony, we see that in their fragmentary con- will openly own those who have owned Him before men. For dition we cannot trace the clear historical development which earthly needs no thought is to be taken: the birds and the was so conspicuous a feature of St Mark's Gospel; yet we need flowers make no provision for their life and beauty. God will not conclude that in its complete form it failed to present an give food and raiment to those who are seeking His kingdom.orderly narrative. Next, we see that wherever we are able to Earthly goods should be given away in exchange for the observe its method of relating an incident, as in the case of the imperishable treasures. Suddenly will the Son of Man come: healing of the centurion's servant, we have the same charac- happy the servant whom His Master finds at his appointed task.teristics of brevity and simplicity which we admired in St Mark. In brief parables the kingdom of God is likened to a mustard- No comment is made by the narrator; he tells his tale in the seed and to leaven. When Jesus is asked if the saved shall be fewest words and passes on. Again, we note that it supplies few, He replies that the door is a narrow one. Then, changing just what we feel we must need when we have reached the end His illustration, He says that many shall seek entrance in vain; of St Mark's story, a fuller account of the teaching which Jesus for the master of the house will refuse to recognize them. But gave to His disciples and to the people at large. And we see while they are excluded, a multitude from all quarters of the that the substance of that teaching is in complete harmony earth shall sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and the with the scattered hints that we found in St Mark. If the father- prophets in the kingdom of God. hood of God stands out clearly, we may remember a passage of His eyes are now fixed on Jerusalem, where, like the prophets, St Mark also which speaks of “the Heavenly Father" He must die.“ Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often have I desired giving those who forgive. If prayer is encouraged, we may also to gather thy children together, as a bird her brood beneath her remember that the same passage of St Mark records the saying: wings, but ye refused." “ Ye shall not see Me, until ye shall say, “ All things whatsoever ye pray for and ask, believe that ye Blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord.” After this have received them and ye shall have them. If in one myste we have the healing of a dropsical man on the Sabbath, with a rious passage Jesus speaks of “the Father” and “the Son ". reply to the murmuring Pharisees; and then a parable of the terms with which the Gospel of St John has made us familiar failure of invited guests and the filling of their places from the -St Mark also in one passage uses the same impressive terms streets. A few fragmentary passages remain, of which it will be the Son” and “the Father." of course, many sufficient to cite a word or two to call them to remembrance. Other parallels with St Mark, and at some points the two docu- There is a warning that he who forsakes not father and mother ments seem to overlap and to relate the same incidents in as for 6 There are, JESUS CHRIST 355 a somewhat different forms. There is the same use of parables good tidings to the poor: it sets no store on property and material from nature, the same incisiveness of speech and employment of comfort: it pities the wealthy and congratulates the needy. It paradox, the same demand to sacrifice all to Him and for His reverses ordinary judgments and conventional maxims of con- cause, the same importunate claim made by Him on the human duct. It proclaims the downfall of institutions, and compares the soul. present blind security to the days of Noah and of Lot: a few only But the contrast between the two writers is even more impor. shall escape the coming overthrow. Yet even in this sterner tant for our purpose. No one can read through the passages to setting the figure portrayed is unmistakably the same. There is which we have pointed without feeling the solemn the same strength, the same tender sympathy, the same freedom The Element sternness of the great Teacher, a sternness which can from convention: there is the same promise to fulfil the highest of Waralog. indeed be traced here and there in St Mark, but which hopes, the same surrender of life, and the same imperious demand does not give its tone to the whole of his picture. Here on the lives of others. No thoughtful man who examines and we see Christ standing forth in solitary grandeur, looking compares these pictures can doubt that they are genuine historical with the eyes of another world on a society which is blindly portraits of a figure wholly different from any which had hitherto hastening to its dissolution. It may be that if this document appeared on the world's stage. They are beyond the power had come down to us in its entirety, we should have gathered of human invention. They are drawn with a simplicity which is from it an exaggerated idea of the severity of our Lord's charac- their own guarantee. If we had these, and these only, we should ter. Certain it is that as we read over these fragments we are have an adequate explanation of the beginnings of Christianity. somewhat startled by the predominance of the element of warn- There would still be a great gap to be filled before we reached the ing, and by the assertion of rules of conduct which seem almost earliest letters of St Paul; but yet we should know what the inconsistent with a normal condition of settled social life. The Apostle meant when he wrote to “the Church of the Thessalo- warning to the nation sounded by the Baptist, that God could nians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ,"and reminded raise up a new family for Abraham, is heard again and again in them how they had "turned from idols to serve the living and our Lord's teaching. Gentile faith puts Israel to shame. The true God, and to wait for His Son from heaven, whom He raised sons of the kingdom will be left outside, while strangers feast from the dead, even Jesus who delivereth us from the wrath to with Abraham. Capernaum shall go to perdition; Jerusalem come." shall be a desolate ruin. The doom of the nation is pronounced; If these two narratives served the first needs of Christian its fate is imminent; there is no ray of hope for the existing con. believers, it is easy to see that they would presently stimulate stitution of religion and society. As to individuals within the further activity in the same direction. For, to begin with, they nation, the despised publicans and sinners will find God's favour were obviously incomplete: many incidents and teachings known before the self-satisfied representatives of the national religion. to the earliest disciples found no place in them; and they con- In such a condition of affairs it is hardly surprising to find that tained no account of the life of Jesus Christ before His public the great and stern Teacher congratulates the poor and has ministry, no record of His pedigree, His birth or His childhood. nothing but pity for the rich; that He has no interest at all in Secondly, their form left much to be desired; for one of them at comfort or property. If a man asks you for anything, give it him; least was rude in style, sometimes needlessly repetitive and some- if he takes it without asking, do not seek to recover it. Nothing times brief to obscurity. Moreover the very fact that there were material is worth a thought; anxiety is folly; your Father, who two challenged a new and combined work which perhaps should feeds His birds and clothes His flowers, will feed and clothe you. supersede both. Rise to the height of your sonship to God; love your enemies even Accordingly, some years after the fall of Jerusalem-we as God loves His, and if they kill you, God will care for you still; cannot tell the exact date or the author's name-the book fear them not, fear only Him who loves you all. which we call the Gospel according to St Matthew The Gospel Here is a new philosophy of life, offering solid consolation was written to give the Palestinian Christians a of St amid the ruin of a world. We have no idea who the disciple full account of Jesus Christ, which should present may have been who thus seized upon the sadder elements of Him as the promised Messiah, fulfilling the ancient Hebrew the teaching of Jesus; but we may well think of him as one of prophecies, proclaiming the kingdom of heaven, and founding those who were living in Palestine in the dark and threatening the Christian society. The writer takes St Mark as his years of internecine strife, when the Roman eagles were gathering basis, but he incorporates into the story large portions of round their prey, and the first thunder was muttering of the the teaching which he has found in the other document. He storm which was to leave Jerusalem a heap of stones. At such a groups his materials with smalı regard to chronological order; moment the warnings of our Lord would claim a large place in aand he fashions out of the many scattered sayings of our Lord record of His teaching, and the strange comfort which He had continuous discourses, everywhere bringing like to like, with offered would be the only hope which it would seem possible to considerable literary art. A wide knowledge of the Old Testament entertain. supplies him with a text to illustrate one incident after another; 4. Additions by the Gospel according to St Matthew.-We have and so deeply is he impressed with the correspondence between now examined in turn the two earliest pictures which have been the life of Christ and the words of ancient prophecy, that he does preserved to us' of the life of Jesus Christ. The first not hesitate to introduce his quotations by the formula“ that it The Earlier Narratives. portrays Him chiefly by a record of His actions, might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet.” and illustrates His strength, His sympathy, and His His Hebrew instinct leads him to begin with a table of genea. freedom from conventional restraints. It shows the disturbing logy, artificially constructed in groups of fourteen generations- forces of these characteristics, which aroused the envy and appre- from Abraham to David, from David to the Captivity, and from hension of the leaders of religion. The first bright days of wel- the Captivity to the Christ. The royal descent of the Messiah is come and popularity are soon clouded: the storm begins to lower. thus declared, and from the outset His figure is set against the More and more the Master devotes Himself to the little circle background of the Old Testament. He then proceeds to show of His disciples, who are taught that they, as well as He, can only that, though His lineage is traced through Joseph's ancestors, triumph through defeat, succeed by failure, and find their life in He was but the adopted son of Joseph, and he tells the story of giving it away At length, in fear of religious innovations and the Virgin-birth. The coming of the Child draws Eastern sages pretending that He is a political usurper, the Jews deliver Him to his cradle and fills the court of Herod with suspicious fears. up to die on a Roman cross. The last page of the story is torn | The cruel tyrant kills the babes of Bethlehem, but ihe Child has away, just at the point when it has been declared that He is been withdrawn by a secret flight into Egypt, whence he presently alive again and about to show Himself to His disciples. The returns to the family home at Nazareth in Galilee. All this is second picture has a somewhat different tone. It is mainly a necessarily fresh material, for the other records had dealt only record of teaching, and the teaching is for the most part stern with the period of public ministry. We have no knowledge of the and paradoxical. It might be described as revolutionary. It is source from which it was drawn. From the historical standpoint Matthew. 356 JESUS CHRIST and Parables. its value must be appraised by the estimate which is formed of portraits to which it has so little to add, in its recognition of the the writer's general irustworthiness as a narrator, and by the relation of Christ to the whole purpose of God as revealed in the extent to which the incidents receive confirmation from other Old Testanient, and in its interpretation of the Gospel message quarters. The central fact of the Virgin-birth, as we shall in its bearing on the living Church of the primitive days. presently see, has high attestation from another early writer. 5. Additions by St Luke.—While the needs of Jewish be- The next addition which St Matthew's Gospel makes to our lievers were amply met by St Matthew's Gospel, a like service knowledge is of a different kind. It consists of various important was rendered to Gentile converts by a very different writer. Discourses sayings of our Lord, which are combined with dis- St Luke was a physician who had accompanied Si Paul on his courses found in the second document and are worked missionary journeys. He undertook a history of the beginnings up into the great utterance which we call the Sermon of Christianity, two volumes of which have come down lo us, on the Mount. Such grouping of materials is a feature of this entitled the Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. His Gospel, Gospel, and was possibly designed for purposes of public in- like St Matthew's, is founded on St Mark, with the incorporation struction; so that continuous passages might be read aloud in the of large portions of the second document of which we have services of the Church, just as passages from the Old Testament spoken above. But the way in which the two writers have used were read in the Jewish synagogues. This motive would account the same materials is strikingly different. In St Matthew's not only for the arrangement of the material, but also for certain Gospel the original sources are frequently blended: the incidents changes in the language which seem intended to remove difficul.. of St Mark are rearranged and often grouped afresh according ties, and to interpret what is ambiguous or obscure. An example to subject matter: harsh and ambiguous sentences of both of such interpretation meets us at the outset. The startling saying, documents are toned down or interpreted. St Luke, on the “ Blessed are ye poor,” followed by the woe pronounced upon the contrary, chooses between parallel stories of his two sources, rich, might seem like a condemnation of the very principle of preferring neither to duplicate nor to combine: he incorporates property; and when the Christian Church had come to be organ- St Mark in continuous sections, following him alone for a time, ized as a society containing rich and poor, the heart of the saying then leaving him entirely, and then returning to introduce a new was felt to be more truly and clearly expressed in the words, block of his narrative. He modifies St Mark's style very freely, “ Blessed are th poor in spirit.” This interpretative process but he makes less change in the recorded words of our Lord, and may be traced again and again in this Gospel, which frequently he adheres more closely to the original language of the second seems to reflect the definite tradition of a settled Church. document. Apart from the important parables of the tares, the pearl and In his first two chapters he gives an account of the birth and the net, the writer adds little to his sources until we come to the childhood of St John the Baptist and of our Lord Himself, remarkable passage in ch. xvi., in which Peter the Rock is gathered perhaps directly from the traditions of the Holy Family, declared to be the foundation of the future Church, and is en- and written in close imitation of the sacred stories of the Old trusted with the keys of the kingdom of heaven. The function Testament which were familiar to him in their Greek translation. of " binding and loosing," here assigned to him, is in identi- | The whole series of incidents differ from that which we find in cal terms assigned to the disciples generally in a passage in St Matthew's Gospel, but there is no direct variance between ch. xviii. in which for the second time we meet with the word them. The two narratives are in agreement as to the central fact “Church”-a word not found elsewhere in the Gospels. There of the Virgin-birth. St Luke gives a table of genealogy which is is no sufficient ground for denying that these sayings were uttered irreconcilable with the artificial table of St Matthew's Gospel, by our Lord, but the fact that they were now first placed upon and which traces our Lord's ancestry up to Adam, “ which was record harmonizes with what has been said already as to the the son of God.” more settled condition of the Christian society wbich this Gospel The opening scene of the Galilean ministry is the discourse at appears to reflect. Nazareth, in which our Lord claims to fulfil Isaiah's prophecy The parables of the two debtors, the labourers in the vineyard, of the proclamation of good tidings to the poor. The same the two sons, the ten virgins, the sheep and goats, are recorded prophecy is alluded to in His reply to the Baptist's messengers only by this evangelist. But by way of incident he has almost which is incorporated subsequently from the second document. nothing to add till we come to the closing scenes. The earth- The scene ends with the rejection of Christ by His own townsfolk, quake at the moment of our Lord's death and the subsequent as in the parallel story of St Mark which St Luke does not give. appearance of departed saints are strange traditions unattested It is probable that St Luke found this narrative in the second by other writers. The same is to be said of the soldiers placed to document, and chose it after his manner in preference to the less guard the tomb, and of the story that they had been bribed to instructive story in St Mark. He similarly omits the Marcan say that the sacred body had been stolen while they slept. On account of the call of the fishermen, substituting the story of the the other hand, the appearance of the risen Christ to the women miraculous draught. After that he follows St Mark alone, until may have been taken from the lost pages of St Mark, being the he introduces after the call of the twelve apostles the sermon sequel to the narrative which is broken off abruptly in this Gospel: which begins with the beatitudes and woes. This is from the and it is not improbable that St Mark's Gospel was the source second document, which he continues to use, and that without of the great commission to preach and baptize with which interruption (if we may venture to assign to it the raising of the St Matthew closes, though the wording of it has probably widow's son at Nain and the anointing by the sinful woman in been modified in accordance with a settled tradition. the Pharisee's house), until he returns to incorporate another The work which the writer of this Gospel thus performed section from St Mark. received the immediate sanction of a wide acceptance. It met This in turn is followed by the most characteristic section of a definite spiritual need. It presented the Gospel in a suitable his Gospel (ix. 51-xviii. 14), a long series of incidents wholly form for the edification of the Church; and it confirmed its truth independent of St Mark, and introduced as belonging Character by constant appeals to the Old Testament scriptures, thus mani- to the period of the final journey from Galilee to istic Section festing its intimate relation with the past as the outcome of a Jerusalem. Much of this material is demonstrably of St Luke's long preparation and as the fulfilment of a Divine purpose. No derived from the second document; and it is quite Gospel. Gospel is so frequently quoted by the early post-apostolic writers: possible that the whole of it may come from that source. none has exercised a greater influence upon Christianity, and There are special reasons for thinking so in regard to certain consequently upon the history of the world. passages, as for example the mission of the seventy disciples Yet from the purely historical point of view its evidential and the purable of the good Samaritan, although they are not value is not the same as that of St Mark. Its facts for the most contained in St Matthew's Gospel. part are simply taken over from the earlier evangelist, and the For the closing scenes at Jerusalem St Luke makes considerable historian must obviously prefer the primary source. Its true additions to St Mark's narrative: he gives a different account of importance lies in its attestation of the genuineness of the earlier the Last Supper, and he adds the trial before Herod and the 6 a JESUS CHRIST -357 ) incident of the penitent robber. He appears to have had no and helper and teacher, keeping in the background as far as information as to the appearance of the risen Lord in Galilee, possible His claim to be the Messiah; whereas in Jerusalem His and he accordingly omits from his reproduction of St Mark's authority is challenged at His first appearance, the element of narrative the twice-repeated promise of a meeting with the controversy is never absent, His relation to God is from the out- disciples there. He supplies, however, an account of the set the vital issue, and consequently His Divine claim is of neces- appearance to the two disciples at Emmaus and to the whole sity made explicit. Time after time His life is threatened before body of the apostles in Jerusalem. the feast is ended, and when the last passover has come we can St Luke's use of his two main sources has preserved the well understand, what was not made sufficiently clear in the characteristics of both of them. The sternness of certain passages, brief Marcan narrative, why Jerusalem proved so fatally hostile which has led some critics to imagine that he was an Ebionite, to His Messianic claim. is mainly, if not entirely, due to his faithful reproduction of the The Fourth Gospel thus offers us à most important supplement language of the second document. The key-note of his Gospel to the limited sketch of our Lord's life which we find in the is universality: the mission of the Christ embraces the poor, the Synoptic Gospels. Yet this was not the purpose which The Purpose weak, the despised, the heretic and the sinful: it is good tidings led to its composition. That purpose is plainly stated of St Joha's to all mankind. He tells of the devotion of Mary and Martha, by the author himself: “ These things have been Gospel and of the band of women who ministered to our Lord's needs written that ye may believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of and followed Him to Jerusalem: he tells also of His kindness to God, and that believing ye may have life in His name." His more than one sinful.woman. Zacchaeus the publican and the avowed aim is, not to write history, but to produce conviction. grateful Samaritan leper further illustrate this characteristic. He desires to interpret the coming of Jesus Christ into the world, Writing as he does for Gentile believers he omits many details to declare whence and why He came, and to explain how His which from their strongly Jewish cast might be unintelligible or coming, as light in the midst of darkness, brought a crisis into uninteresting. He also modifies the harshness of St Mark's the lives of all with whom He came in contact. The issue of this style, and frequently recasts his language in reference to diseases. crisis in His rejection by the Jews at Jerusalem is the main theme From an historical point of view his Gospel is of high value. of the book. The proved accuracy of detail elsewhere, as in his narration of St John's prologue prepares us to find that he is not writing events which he witnessed in company with St Paul, enhances for persons who require a succinct narrative of facts, but for our general estimation of his work. A trustworthy observer and a those who having such already in familiar use are asking deep literary artist, the one non-Jewish evangelist has given us—to use questions as to our Lord's mission. It goes back far behind M. Renan's words—" the most beautiful book in the world.” human birth or lines of ancestry. It begins, like the sacred story 6. Additions by St John.-We come lastly to consider what of creation, “In the beginning." The Book of Genesis had told addition to our knowledge of Christ's life and work is made by how all things were called into existence by a Divine utterance: the Fourth Gospel. St Mark's narrative of our Lord's ministry “God said, Let there be ... and there was.” The creative and passion is so simple and straightforward that it satisfies our Word had been long personified by Jewish thought, especially historical sense. We trace a natural development in it: we seem in connexion with the prophets to whom “the Word of the Lord” to see why with such power and such sympathy He necessarily came. “In the beginning," then, St John tells us, the Word came into conflict with the religious leaders of the people, was-was with God-yea, was God. He was the medium of who were jealous of the influence which He gained and were scan- creation, the source of its light and its life--especially of that dalized by His refusal to be hindered in His mission of mercy higher life which finds its manifestation in men. So He was in by rules and conventions to which they attached the highest the world, and the world was made by Him, and yet the world importance. The issue is fought out in Galilee, and when our Lord knew Him not. At length He came, came to the home which finally journeys to Jerusalem He knows that He goes there to had been prepared for Him, but His own people rejected Him. die. The story is so plain and convincing in itself that it gives But such as did receive Him found a new birth, beyond their at first sight an impression of completeness. This impression birth of flesh and blood: they became children of God, were is confirmed by the Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke, which born of God. In order thus to manifest Himseif He had under- though they add much fresh material do not disturb the general gone a human birth:“the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among scheme presented by St Mark. But on reflection we are led to us, and we beheld His glory”-the glory, as the evangelist has question the sufficiency of the account thus offered to us. Is it learned to see, of the Father's only-begotten Son, who has probable, we ask, that our Lord should have neglected the sacred come into the world to reveal to men that God whom "no man custom in accordance with which the pious Jew visited Jerusalem hath ever seen.” In these opening words we are invited to study several times each year for the observance of the divinely the life of Christ from a new point of view, to observe His self- appointed feasts? It is true that St Mark does not break his manifestation and its issue. The evangelist looks back across narrative of the Galilean ministry to record such visits: but this a period of half a century, and writes of Christ not merely as he does not prove that such visits were not made. Again, is it saw Him in those far-off days, but as he has come by long experi- probable that He should have so far neglected Jerusalem as to ence to think and speak of Him. The past is now filled with a give it no opportunity of seeing Him and hearing His message glory which could not be so fully perceived at the time, but until the last week of His life? If the writers of the other two which, as St John tells, it was the function of the Holy Spirit to Gospels had no means at their disposal for enlarging the narrow reveal to Christ's disciples. framework of St Mark's narrative by recording definite visits to The first name which occurs in this Gospel is that of John the Jerusalem, at least they preserve to us words from the second Baptist. · He is even introduced into the prologue which sketches document which seem to imply such visits: for how else are we in general terms the manifestation of the Divine Word: “There to explain the pathetic complaint, “ Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how was a man sent from God, whose name was John: he came for often would I have gathered thee, as a hen gathereth her chickens witness, to witness to the Light, that through him all might under her wings; but ye would not" ? believe." This witness of John holds a position of high impor- St John's Gospel meets our questionings by a wholly new tance in this Gospel. His mission is described as running on for series of incidents and by an account of a ministry which is con- a while concurrently with that. of our Lord, whereas in the other cerned mainly not with Galileans but with Judaeans, and which Gospels we have no record of our Lord's work until John is cast centres in Jerusalem. It is carried on to a large extent con- into prison. It is among the disciples of the Baptist on the currently with the Galilean ministry: it is not continuous, but is banks of the Jordan that - Jesus finds His first disciples. The taken up from feast to feast as our Lord visits the sacred city Baptist has pointed Him out to them in striking language, which at the times of its greatest religious activity. It differs in recalls at once the symbolic ritual of the law and the spiritual character from the Galilean ministry; for among the simple, lessons of the prophets:“ Behold, the Lamb of God, which taketh unsophisticated folk of Galilee Jesus presents Himself as a healer I away the sin of the world.”. ( 358 JET Soon afterwards at Cana of Galilee Jesus gives His first “ sign,' the heavenly food, the flesh and blood of Him who came down as the evangelist calls it, in the change of water into wine to from heaven. This teaching leads to a conflict with certain supply the deficiency at a marriage feast. This scene has all the Judaeans who seem to have come from Jerusalem, and it proves happy brightness of the early Galilean ministry which St Mark a severe test even to the faith of disciples. records. It stands in sharp contrast with the subsequent appear- The feast of tabernacles brings fresh disputes in Jerusalem, ance of Jesus in Jerusalem at the Passover, when His first act is and an attempt is made to arrest Jesus. A climax of indignation to drive the traders from the Temple courts. In this He seems is reached when a blind man is healed at the pool of Siloam on the to be carrying the Baptist's stern mission of purification from the sabbath day. At the feast of the dedication a fresh effort at desert into the heart of the sacred city, and so fulfilling, perhaps arrest was made, and Jesus then withdrew beyond the Jordan. consciously, the solemn prophecy of Malachi which opens with Here He learned of the sickness of Lazarus, and presently He the words: Behold, I will send My Messenger, and He shall returned and came to Bethany to raise him from the dead. The prepare the way before Me; and the Lord whom ye seek shall excitement produced by this miracle led to yet another attack, suddenly come to His Temple " (Mal. iii. 1-5). This significant destined this time to be successful, on the life of Jesus. The action provokes a challenge of His authority, which is answered Passover was at hand, and the last supper of our Lord with His by a mysterious saying, not understood at the time, but interpreted disciples on the evening before the Passover lamb was killed is afterwards as referring to the Resurrection. After this our Lord made the occasion of the most inspiring consolations. Our Lord was visited secretly by a Pharisee named Nicodemus, whose interprets His relation to the disciples by the figure of a tree and advances were severely met by the words, “ Except a man be its branches~He is the whole of which they are the parts; He born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." When Nico- promises the mission of the Holy Spirit to continue His work demus objected that this was to demand a physical impossibility, in the world; and He solemnly commends to His Father the dis- he was answered that the new birth was“ of water and spirit”-ciples whom He is about to leave. words which doubtless contained a reference to the mission of the The account of the trial and the crucifixion differs considerably Baptist and to his prophecy of One who should baptize with the from the accounts given in the other Gospels.. St John's narra. Holy Spirit. Towards the end of this conversation the evangelist tives are in large part personal memories, and in more than one passes imperceptibly from reporting the words of the Lord into incident he himself figures as the unnamed disciple“ whom Jesus an interpretation or amplification of them, and in language which loved.” In the Resurrection scenes he also gives incidents in recalls the prologue he unfolds the meaning of Christ's mission which he has played a part; and the appearances of the risen and indicates the crisis of self-judgment which necessarily ac- Lord are not confined either to Jerusalem or to Galilee, but occur companies the manifestation of the Light to each individual. in both localities. When he resumes his narrative the Lord has left Jerusalem, and If we ask what is the special contribution to history, apart is found baptizing disciples, in even greater numbers than the from theology, which St John's Gospel makes, the answer would Baptist himself. Though Jesus did not personally perform the seem to be this—that beside the Galilean ministry reported by rite, it is plain once again that in this early period He closely St Mark there was a ministry to “ Jews ” (Judaeans) in Jeru- linked His own mission with that of John the Baptist. When salem, not continuous, but occasional, taken up from time to time men hinted at a rivalry between them, John plainly declared as the great feasts came round; that its teaching was widely “He must increase, and I must decrease”: and the reply of Jesus different from that which was given to Galileans, and that the was to leave Judaea for Galilee. situation created was wholly unlike that which arose out of the Away from the atmosphere of contention we find Him mani- Galilean ministry. The Galilean ministry opens with enthu- festing the same broad sympathy and freedom from convention siasm, ripening into a popularity which even endangers a satis- which we have noted in the other Gospels, especially in that of factory result. Where opposition manifests itself, it is not St Luke. He converses with a woman, with a woman moreover native opposition, but comes from religious teachers who are who is a Samaritan, and who is of unchaste life. He offers her parts of a system which centres in Jerusalem, and who are some- the “living water” which shall supply all her needs: she readily times expressly noted as having come from Jerusalem. The accepts Him as the expected Messiah, and He receives a welcome Jerusalem ministry on the contrary is never welcomed with from the Samaritans. He passes on to Galilee, where also He enthusiasm. It has to do with those who challenge it from the is welcomed, and where He performs His second “sign,” healing first. There is no atmosphere of simplicity and teachableness the son of one of Herod's courtiers. which rejoices in the manifestation of power and sympathy and But St John's interest does not lie in Galilee, and he soon brings liberty. It is a witness delivered to a hostile audience, whether our Lord back to Jerusalem on the occasion of a feast. The they will hear or no. Ultimate issues are quickly raised: keen The Mini Baptist's work is now ended; and, though Jesus still critics see at once the claims which underlie deeds and words, appeals to the testimony of John, the new conflict and the claims in consequence become explicit: the relation of Jerusalem. with the Jewish authorities shows that He is moving the teacher to God Himself is the vital interest. The conflict now on His own independent and characteristic lines. In which thus arose explains what St Mark's succinct narrative had cleansing the Temple He had given offence by what might seem left unexplained--the fatal hostility of Jerusalem. It may have an excess of rigour: now, by healing a sick man and bidding him been a part of St John's purpose to give this explanation, and to carry his bed on the Sabbath, He offended by His laxity. He make other supplements or corrections where earlier narratives answered His accusers by the brief but pregnant sentence: “My appeared to him incomplete or misleading. But he says nothing Father worketh even until now, and I work." They at once to indicate this, while on the other hand he distinctly proclaims understood that He thus claimed a unique relation to God, and that his purpose is to produce and confirm conviction of the divine their antagonism became the more intense: “the Jews therefore claims of Jesus Christ. sought the more to kill Him, because He had not only broken the Sabbath, but had also said that God was His own Father, making the articles on the separate Gospels. For bibliography see Bible;CHRISTIANITY;CHURCH History;and (J. A. R.) Himself equal to God.” His first reply is then expanded to cover the whole region of life. The Son beholds the Father at JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat), a substance which seems to be work, and works concurrently, doing nothing of Himself. He a peculiar kind of lignite or anthracite; often cut and polished does the Father's will. The very principle of life is entrusted to for ornaments. The word “jet” probably comes, through O. Fr. Him. He quickens, and He judges. As Son of Man He judges jaiet, from the classical gagates, a word which was derived, according to Pliny, from Gagas, in Lycia, where jet, or a similar The next incident is the feeding of the five thousand, which substance, was originally found. Jet was used in Britain in belongs to the Galilean ministry and is recorded by the three prehistoric times; many round barrows of the Bronze age have other evangelists. St John's purpose in introducing it is not his- yielded jet beads, buttons, rings, armlets and other ornaments. torical but didactic. It is made the occasion of instruction as to I The abundance of jet in Britain is alluded to by Caius Julius stry at man. JETHRO-JETTY 359 L.W. Solinus (A. 3rd century) and jet ornaments are found with Roman are generally carried out in pairs from river banks, or in continua. relics in Britain. Probably the supply was obtained from the tion of river channels at their outlets into deep water; or out into coast of Yorkshire, especially near Whitby, where nodules of jet docks, and outside their entrances; or for forming basins along were formerly picked up on the shore. Caedmon refers to this the sea-coast for ports in tideless seas. The forms and construc- jet, and at a later date it was used for rosary beads by the monks tion of these jetties are as varied as their uses; for though they of Whitby Abbey. invariably extend out into water, and serve either for directing The Whitby jet occurs in irregular masses, often of lenticular a current or for accommodating vessels, they are sometimes shape, embedded in hard shales known as jet-rock. The jet-rock formed of high open timber-work, sometimes of low solid pro- series belongs to that division of the Upper Lias which is termed jections, and occasionally only differ from breakwaters in their the zone of Ammonites serpentinus. Microscopic examination of object. jet occasionally reveals the structure of coniferous wood, which A. C. Seward has shown to be araucarian. Probably masses of Jetties for regulating Rivers.-Formerly jetties of timber-work were wood were brought down by a river, and drifted out to sea, where very commonly extended out, opposite one another, from each bank becoming water-logged they sank, and became gradually buried in of a river, at intervals, to contract a wide channel, and by concentra- a deposit of fine mud, which eventually hardened into shale. Under tion of the current to produce a deepening of the central channel; or pressure, perhaps assisted by heat, and with exclusion of air, the sometimes mounds of rubble stone, stretching down the foreshore wood suffered a peculiar kind of decomposition, probably modified from each bank, served the same purpose. As, however, this system by the presence of salt water, as suggested by Percy E. Spielmann. occasioned a greater scour between the ends of the jetties than in Scales of fish and other fossils of the jet-rock are frequently impresii depth, it has to a great extent been superseded by longitudina! the intervening channels, and consequently produced an irregular nated with bituminous products, which may replace the original tissues. Drops of liquid bitumen occur in the cavities of some training works, or by dipping cross dikes pointing somewhat up- fossils, whilst inflammable gas is not uncommon in the jet-workings, stream (see RIVER ENGINEERING). and petroleum may be detected by its smell. Iron pyrites is often Jetties at Docks.-Where docks are given sloping sides, openwork associated with the jet. timber jetties are generally carried across the slope, at the ends of Formerly sufficient jet was found in loose pieces on the shore, set which vessels can lie in deep water (fig. 1); or more solid structures free by the disintegration of the cliffs, or washed up from a submarine source. When this supply became insufficient, the rock was attacked by the jet-workers; ultimately the workings took the form of true mines, levels being driven into the shales not only at their outcrop in the cliffs but in some of the inland dales of the Yorkshire moor. lands, such as Eskdale. The best jet has a uniform black colour, and is hard, compact and homogeneous in texture, breaking with a conchoidal fracture. It must be tough enough to be readily carved or turned on the lathe, and sufficiently compact in texture to receive a high polish. The final polish was formerly given by means of rouge, which produces a beautiful velvéty surface, but rotten-stone and lampblack are often employed instead. The softer kinds, not capable of being freely worked, are known as bastard jet. A soft jet is obtained from the estuarine series of the Lower Oolites of HIE Yorkshire. Much jet is imported from Spain, but it is generally less hard and lustrous than true Whitby jet. In Spain the chief locality, is Villaviciosa, in the province of Asturias. France furnishes jet, especially in the department of the Aude. Much jet, too, occurs in the Lias of Württemberg, and works have been established for its utilization. In the United States jet is known at many localities but is not systematically worked. Pennsylvanian anthracite, however, has been occasionally employed as a substitute. In like Fig. 1.-Timber Jetty across Dock Slope. manner Scotch cannel coal has been sometimes used at Whitby. Imitations of jet, or substitutes for it, are furnished by vulcanite, glass, black obsidian and black onyx, or stained chalcedony. Jet are also constructed in the water outside the entrances to docks on are erected over the slope for supporting coal-tips. Pilework jetties is sometimes improperly termed black amber, because like amber, each side, so as to form an enlarging trumpet-shaped channel though in less degree, it becomes electric by friction. See P. E. Spielmann, “On the Origin of Jet," Chemical News in order to guide vessels in entering or leaving the docks. Solid between the entrance, lock or tidal.basin and the approach channel, (Dec. 14, 1906); c. Fox-Strangways, “The Jurassic Rocks of Britain, Vol. 1. Yorkshire,” Mem. Geol. Surv. (1892); J. A. Bower, jetties, moreover, lined with quay walls, are sometimes carried out “Whitby Jet and its Manufacture,” Journ. Soc. Arts (1874, vol. enlarge the accommodation; and they also serve, when extended on into a wide dock, at right angles to the line of quays at the side, to xxii. p. 80). a large scale from the coast of a tideless sea under shelter of an out- JETHRO (or JETHER, Exod. iv. 18), the priest of Midian, in the lying breakwater, to form the basins in which vessels lie when Bible, whose daughter Zipporah became the wife of Moses. He is discharging and taking in cargoes in such a port as Marseilles (see known as Hobab the son of Reuel the Kenite (Num. X. 29; Judg. Jettics at Entrances to Jetty Harbours.--The approach channel to iv. 11), and once as Reuel (Exod. ii. 18); and if Zipporah is the wife some ports situated on sandy coasts is guided and protected across of Moses referred to in Num. xii. 1, the family could be regarded the beach by parallel jętties, made solid up to a little above low water of neap tides, on which open timber-work is erected, provided with as Cushite (see Cush). Jethro was the priest of Yahweh, and a planked platform at the top raised above the highest tides. The resided at the sacred mountain where the deity commissioned channel between the jetties was originally maintained by tidal scour Moses to deliver the Israelites from Egypt. Subsequently from low-lying areas close to the coast, and subsequently, by the Jethro came to Moses (probably at Kadesh), a great sacrificial deepened by sand-pump dredging. It is protected to some extent current from sluicing basins; but it is now often considerably feast was held, and the priest instructed Moses in legislative by the solid portion of the jetties from the inroad of sand from the procedure; Exod. xviii. 27 (see Exodus) and Num. X. 30 imply adjacent beach, and from the levelling action of the waves; whilst that the scene was not Sinai. Jethro was invited to accompany the upper open portion serves to indicate the channel, and to guide the people into the promised land, and later, we find his clan the vessels if necessary (see HARBOUR). The bottom part of the settling in the south of Judah (Judg. i. 16); see KENITES. The and Ostend, was composed of clay or rubble stone, covered on the older jetties, in such long-established jetty ports as Calais, Dunkirk traditions agree in representing the kin of Moses as related to top by fascine-work or pitching; but the deepening of the jetty the mixed tribes of the south of Palestine (see Edom) and in channel by dredging, and the need which arose for its enlargement, ascribing to the family an important share in the early develop- jetties at Dunkirk were founded in the sandy beach, by the aid of led to the reconstruction of the jetties at these ports. The new ment of the worship of Yahweh. Cheyne suggests that the compressed air, at a depth of 221 ft. below low water of spring names of Hobab and of Jonadab. the father of the Rechabites tides; and their solid masonry portion, on a concrete foundation, (9.0.) were originally identical (Ency. Bib. ii. col. 2101). was raised 5! ft. above low water of neap tides (fig. 2). JETTY. The term jetty, derived from Fr. jetée, and therefore Jetties at Lagoon Outlets.-A small tidal rise spreading tidal water signifying something “ thrown out,” is applied to a variety of and efux of the tide to maintain a deep channel through a narrow over a large expanse of lagoon or inland back-water causes the influx structures employed in river, dock and maritime works, which I outlet; but the issuing current on emerging from the outlet, being 360 JEVER-JEVEROS SEA. 89.6 O.L.W. וכולם no longer confined by a bank on each side, becomes dispersed, and shifting outlet of the river Yare to the south of Yarmouth, and has owing to the reduction of its scouring force, is no longer able at a also been successfully employed for fixing the wandering mouth of moderate distance from the shore the Adur near Shoreham, and of the Adour flowing into the Bay of stole tend sa effectually to resist the action of Biscay below Bayonne. When a new channel was cut across the the waves and littoral currents Hook of Holland to provide a straighter and deeper outlet channel on tending to form a continuous beach for the river Maas, forming the approach channel to Rotterdam, low, A.W.O.S.T. hi in front of the outlet. Hence a broad, parallel jetties, composed of fascine mattresses weighted with கோமா bar is produced which diminishes stone (hig. 5), were carried across the foreshore into the sea on either the available depth in the ap- side of the new mouth of the river, to protect the jetty channel from ere bi IZV proach channel. By carrying out littoral drift, and cause the discharge of the river to maintain it w... Weeta solid jetty over the bar, however, out to deep water (see River ENGINEERING). The channel, also, on each side of the outlet, the tidal | beyond the outlet of the river Nervion into the Bay of Biscay has currents are concentrated in the di buove sorte nos une sd 151 tot el Da hat channel across the bar, and lower it 20 m videris ad otsessi Stre to by scour. Thus the available depthstockW 1920 bat uh syd gwah dodany boom anatoa of the approach channels to Venice it baie van de plante vadı banal-191 EW Emced 10 lane sit to through the Malamocco and Lido zoba Lombabouing va bi bilo dogslis SHOOT 15 outlets from the Venetian lagoon RIVER .. bastante 20223 have been deepened several feet O. H. W. sdoze harglue boot Till slot over their bars by jetties of rubble FIG. 2.---'Dunkirk East Jetty. stone surmounted by a small super- 1bftro tali to structure (fig. 3), carried out across sinos gan at the foreshore into deep water on both sides of the channel. Other examples are provided by the long jetties extended into the sea in front of the entrance to Charleston harbour, formerly constructed of fascines, weighted with stone and SAND. Home SEA. 1925 do 118..10" 0.$.L. Home SEO 2007 Vlag out tool Fig. 5.-River Maas Outlet, North Jetty. vo . been regulated by jetties; and by extending the south-west jetty out for nearly half a mile with a curve concave towards the channe! the outlet has not only been protected to some extent from the easterly drift, but the bar in front has been lowered by the scour produced by the discharge of the river following the concave bend of the south-west jetty. As the outer portion of this jetty was Fig. 3.-Lido Outlet Jetty, Venice. exposed to westerly storms from the Bay of Biscay before the outer logs, but subsequently of rubble stone, and by the two converging of a breakwater situated in shallow water (fig. 6). (L. F.V.-H.) harbour was constructed, it has been given the form and strength rubble jetties carried out from each shore of Dublin bay for deepening to allo sva ona se tosi banisido 39 the approach to Dublin harbour. tillo Jetties at the Outlet of Tideless Rivers.-Jetties have been con- brus byer 99 and in 2 mont buhom af at ibaM structed on each side of the outlet ai viisu 2 stege 25 vitet edotaul RIVER. of some of the rivers flowing into gi erleben SE BITER to a nivel nesnius the Baltic, with the objects of obs-ar o moga od tri yllstega prolonging the scour of the river od sya alow bus admonit W o si, da and protecting the channel from warts 21 101 29152 bitonsilla being shoaled by the littoral drift along the shore. The most interdit es boyolalaro nggo mediawor esting application of parallel Com er lag laansó datopa ne b.W.E.S.T. jetties is in lowering the bar in muhadte 10 3 10 anois siin! front of one of the mouths of a deltaic river flowing into a tide- less sea, by extending the scour of the river out to the bar by. a virtual prolongation of its banks. Jetties prolonging the wlana desbot Shew Balai Sulina branch of the Danube 1 bas tots eboncons a la parte JPTT Stuivat bas de -0 into the Black Sea, and the biolo 2009 sila mol stie FIG. 6.-River Nervion Outlet, Western Jetty. south pass of the Mississippi untuk orderland Eary into the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 4), formed of rubble stone JEVER, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy the grand-duchy of Oldenburg a , and concrete blocks, and RIVER. 13 m by rail N.W of Wilhelmshaven, and connected with the SEA. fascine mattresses weighted with stone and surmounted North Sea by a navigable canal. Pop. (1901), 5486. The chief with large concrete blocks | industries are weaving, spinning, dyeing, brewing and milling; respectively, have enabled the there is also a trade in horses and cattle. The fathers (Die discharge of these rivers to Getretien) of the town used to send an annual birthday present scour away the bars ob- structing the access to them; of jou plovers' eggs to Bismarck, with a dedication in verse. and they have also carried The castle of Jever was built by Prince Edo Wiemken (d. 1410), Fig. 4.–Mississippi South Pass the sediment-bearing waters the ruler of Jeverland, a populous district which in 1575 came Outlet Jetty. sufficiently far out to come under the rule of the dukes of Oldenburg. In 1603 it passed to under the influence of littoral currents, which, by conveying away some of the sediment, post-the house of Anhalt and was later the property of the empress pone the eventual formation of a fresh bar farther out (see River Catherine II of Russia, a member of this family. In 1814 it came ENGINEERING). again into the possession of Oldenburg. Jetties at the Mouth of Tidal Rivers.-Where a river is narrow near its mouth, and its discharge is generally feeble, the sea is liable on See D. Hohnholz, Aus Jevers Vorgangenheit (Jever, 1886): Hagena, an exposed coast, when the tıdal range is small, to block up its outlet Jeverland bis zum Jahr 1500 (Oldenburg, 1902), and F. W. Riemann, during severe storms. The river is thus forced to seek another exit Geschichte des Jeverlandes (Jever, 1896). at a weak spot of the beach, which along a low coast may be at some distance off, and this new outlet in its turn may be blocked up, so JEVEROS (JEBEROS, JIbaros, Jivaros or Givaros), a tribe of that the river from time to tiine shifts the position of its mouth. South American Indians on the upper Marañon, Peru, where This inconvenient cycle of changes may be stopped by fixing the they wander in the forests. The iribe has many branches and outlet of the river at a suitable site, by carrying a jetty on each sid: of this outlet across the beach, thereby concentrating its discharge there are frequent tribal wars, but they have always united in a definite channel and protecting the mouth from being blocked against a common enemy Juan de Velasco declares them 10 be up by littoral drift. This system was long ago applied to the I faithful, noble and amiable. They are brave and warlike, and M.W.E.S.T. 1 JEVONS 361 2 though upon the conquest of Peru they temporarily submitted, | modity available, together with the implied doctrine that a general insurrection in 1599 won them back their liberty. economics is essentially a mathematical science, took more Curious dried human heads, supposed to have been objects of definite form in a paper on “A General Mathematical Theory of worship, have been found among the Jeveros (see Ethnol. Soc. Political Economy," written for the British Association in 1862. Trans. 1862, W. Bollaert). This paper does not appear to have attracted much attention JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882), English econo- either in 1862 or on its publication four years later in the Journal mist and logician, was born at Liverpool on the ist of September of the Statistical Society; and it was not till 1871, when the Theory 1835. His father, Thomas Jevons, a man of strong scientific of Political Economy appeared, that Jevons set forth his doctrines tastes and a writer on legal and economic subjects, was an iron in a fully developed form. It was not till after the publication merchant. His mother was the daughter of William Roscoe. At of this work that Jevons became acquainted with the applications the age of fifteen he was sent to London to ttend University of mathematics to political economy made by earlier writers, College school. He appears at this time to have already formed notably Antoine Augustin Cournot and H. H. Gossen. The the belief that important achievements as a thinker were possible theory of utility was about 1870 being independently developed to him, and at more than one critical period in his career this on somewhat similar lines by Carl Menger in Austria and M.E.L. belief was the decisive factor in determining his conduct. To- Walras in Switzerland. As regards the discovery of the con- wards the end of 1853, after having spent two years at University nexion between value in exchange and final (or marginal) utility, College, where his favourite subjects were chemistry and botany, the priority belongs to Gossen, but this in no way detracts from he unexpectedly received the offer of the assayership to the new the great importance of the service which Jevons rendered to mint in Australia. The idea of leaving England was distasteful, English economics by his fresh discovery of the principle, and but pecuniary considerations had, in consequence of the failure by the way in which he ultimately forced it into notice. In his of his father's firm in 1847, become of vital importance, and he reaction from the prevailing view he sometimes expressed himself accepted the post. He left England for Sydney in June 1854, without due qualification: the declaration, for instance, made and remained there for five years. At the end of that period he at the commencement of the Theory of Political Economy, that resigned his appointment, and in the autumn of 1859 entered “ value depends entirely upon utility,” lent itself to misinter- again as a student at University College, London, proceeding in pretation. But a certain exaggeration of emphasis may be due course to the B.A. and M.A. degrees of the university of pardoned in a writer seeking to attract the attention of an in- London. He now gave his principal attention to the moral different public. It was not, however, as a theorist dealing with sciences, but his interest in natural science was by no means the fundamental data of economic science, but as a brilliant exhausted: throughout his life he continued to write occasional writer on practical economic questions, that Jevons first received papers on scientific subjects, and his intimate knowledge of the general recognition. A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold (1863) and physical sciences greatly contributed to the success of his chief The Coal Question (1865) placed him in the front rank as a writer logical work, The Principles of Science. Not long after taking on applied economics and statistics; and he would be remembered his M.A. degree Jevons obtained a post as tutor at Owens College, as one of the leading economists of the 19th century even had Manchester. In 1866 he was elected professor of logic and mental his Theory of Political Economy never been written. Amongst and moral philosophy and Cobden professor of political economy his economic works may be mentioned Money and the Mechanism in Owens college. Next year he married Harriet Ann Taylor, of Exchange (1875), written in a popular style, and descriptive whose father had been the founder and proprietor of the Man- rather than theoretical, but wonderfully fresh and original in chester Guardian. Jevons suffered a good deal from ill health treatment and full of suggestiveness, a Primer 091 Polilical and sleeplessness, and found the delivery of lectures covering Economy (1878), The State in Relation to Labour (1882), and two so wide a range of subjects very burdensome. In 1876 he was works published after his death, namely, Methods of Social Reform glad to exchange the Owens professorship for the professorship and Investigations in Currency and Finance, containing papers that of political economy in University College, London. Travelling had appeared separately during his lifetime. The last-named and music were the principal recreations of his life; but his health volume contains Jevons's interesting speculations on the con- continued bad, and he suffered from depression. He found his nexion between commercial crises and sun-spots. He was professorial duties increasingly irksome, and feeling that the engaged at the time of his death upon the preparation of a large pressure of literary work left him no spare energy, he decided in treatise on economics and had drawn up a table of contents and 1880 to resign the post. On the 13th of August 1882 he was completed some chapters and parts of chapters. This fragment drowned whilst bathing near Hastings. Throughout his life he was published in 1905 under the title of The Principles of Eco- had pursued with devotion and industry the ideals with which nomics: a Fragment of a Treatise on the Industrial Mechanism of he had set out, and his journal and letters display a noble sim- Society, and other Papers. plicity of disposition and an unswerving honesty of purpose. Jevons's work in logic went on pari passu with his work He was a prolific writer, and at the time of his death he occupied in political economy. In 1864 he published a small volume, the foremost position in England both as a logician and as an entitled Pure Logic; or, the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity, economist. Professor Marshah has said of his work in economics which was based on Boole's system of logic, but freed from what that it " will probably be found to have more constructive force he considered the false mathematical dress of that system. In than any, save that of Ricardo, that has been done during the the years immediately following he devoted considerable atten- last hundred years.” At the time of his death he was engaged tion to the construction of a logical machine, exhibited before the upon an economic work that promised to be at least as important Royal Society in 1870, by means of which the conclusion deriv- as any that he had previously undertaken. It would be difficult able from any given set of premisses could be mechanically to exaggerate the loss which logic and political economy sustained obtained. In 1866 what he regarded as the great and universal through the accident by which his life was prematurely cut short. principle of all reasoning dawned upon him; and in 1869 he Jevons arrived quite early in his career at the doctrines that published a sketch of this fundamental doctrine under the title constituted his most characteristic and original contributions to of The Substitution of Similars. He expressed the principle in its economics and logic. The theory of utility, which became the simplest form as follows: "Whatever is true of a thing is true of keynote of his general theory of political economy, was practi- its like,” and he worked out in detail its various applications. cally formulated in a letter written in 1860; and the germ of his In the following year appeared the Elementary Lessons on Logic, logical principles of the substitution of similars may be found in which soon became the most widely read elementary textbook the view which he propounded in another letter written in 1861, on logic in the English language. In the meantime he was that “philosophy would be found to consist solely in pointing engaged upon a much more important logical treatise, which out the likeness of things.” The theory of utility above referred appeared in 1874 under the title of The Principles of Science. to, namely, that the degree of utility of a commodity is some In this work Jevons embodied the substance of his earlier works continuous mathematical function of the quantity of the com- on pure logic and the substitution of similars; he also enunciated » 362 JEW, THE WANDERING and developed the view that induction is simply an inverse | Wandering Jew was seen at Munich (1721), Altbach (1766), employment of deduction; he treated in a luminous manner the Brussels (1774), Newcastle (1790, see Brand, Pop. Antiquities, general theory of probability, and the relation between proba- s.v.), and on the streets of London between 1818 and 1830 (see bility and induction; and his knowledge of the various natural Athenaeum, 1866, ii. 561). So far as can be ascertained, the sciences enabled him throughout to relieve the abstract character latest report of his appearance was in the neighbourhood of Salt of logical doctrine by concrete scientific illustrations, often Lake City in 1868, when he is said to have made himself known worked out in great detail. Jevons's general theory of induction to a Mormon named O'Grady. It is difficult to tell in any one was a revival of the theory laid down by Whewell and criticized of these cases how far the story is an entire fiction and how far by Mill; but it was put in a new form, and was free from some some ingenious impostor took advantage of the existence of the of the non-essential adjuncts which rendered Whewell's exposi- myth. tion open to attack. The work as a whole was one of the most The reiterated reports of the actual existence of a wandering notable contributions to logical doctrine that appeared in Great being, who retained in his memory the details of the crucifixion, Britain in the 19th century. His Studies in Deductive Logic, show how the idea had fixed itself in popular imagination and consisting mainly of exercises and problems for, the use of found its way into the 19th-century collections of German legends. students, was published in 1880. In 1877 and the following years The two ideas combined in the story of the restless fugitive akin Jevons contributed to the Contemporary Review some articles to Cain and wandering for ever are separately represented in the on J. S. Mill, which he had intended to supplement by further current names given to this figure in different countries. In articles, and eventually publish in a volumc as a criticism of most Teutonic languages the stress is laid on the perpetual Mill's philosophy. These articles and one other were republished character of his punishment and he is known as the “ everlast. after Jevons's death, together with his earlier logical treatises, in ing,” or “eternal ” Jew (Ger. “ Ewige Jude "'). In the lands a volume, entitled Pure Logic, and other Minor Works. The criti-speaking a Romance tongue, the usual form has reference to the cisms on Mill contain much that is ingenious and much that is wanderings (Fr. “ le Juif errant '). The English form follows forcible, but on the whole they cannot be regarded as teking rank the Romance analogy, possibly because derived directly from with Jevons's other work. His strength lay in his power as an France. The actual name given to the mysterious Jew varies original thinker rather than as a critic; and he will be remembered in the different versions: the original pamphlet calls him Ahasver, by his constructive work as logician, economist and statistician. and this has been followed in most of the literary versions, See Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons, edited by his wife though it is difficult to imagine any Jew being called by the name (1886). This work contains a bibliography of Jevons's writings. of the typical anti-Semitic king of the Book of Esther. In one of See also Logic: History. (J. N. K.) his appearances at Brussels his name is given as Isaac Laque- JEW, THE WANDERING, a legendary Jew (see Jews) doomed dem, implying an imperfect knowledge of Hebrew in an attempt to wander till the second coming of Christ because he had taunted to represent Isaac" from of old.” Alexandre Dumas also made Jesus as he passed bearing the cross, saying, “ Go on quicker.” use of this title. In the Turkish Spy the Wandering Jew is called Jesus is said to have replied, “I go, but thou shalt wait till I Paul Marrane and is supposed to have suffered persecution at the return." The legend in this form first appeared in a pamphlet hands of the Inquisition, which was mainly occupied in dealing of four leaves alleged to have been printed at Leiden in 1602. with the Marranos, i.e. the secret Jews of the Iberian peninsula. This pamphlet relates that Paulus von Eizen (d. 1598), bishop In the few references to the legend in Spanish writings the of Schleswig, had met at Hamburg in 1542 a Jew named Ahas. Wandering Jew is called Juan Espera en Dios, which gives a uerus (Ahasverus), who declared he was “ eternal” and was the more hopeful turn to the legend. . same who had been punished in the above-mentioned manner by Under other names, a story very similar to that given in the Jesus at the time of the crucifixion. The pamphlet is supposed pamphlet of 1602 occurs nearly 400 years earlier on English soil. to have been written by Chrysostomus Dudulaeus of Westphalia According to Roger of Wendover in his Flores historiarum under and printed by one Christoff Crutzer, but as no such author or the year 1228, an Armenian archbishop, then visiting England, printer is known at this time--the latter name indeed refers was asked by the monks of St Albans about the well-known directly to the legend-it has been conjectured that the whole Joseph of Arimathaea, who had spoken to Jesus and was said to story is a myth invented to support the Protestant contention be still alive. The archbishop claimed to have seen him in of a continuous witness to the truth of Holy Writ in the person Armenia under the name of Carthaphilus or Cartaphilus, who had of this "eternal" Jew; he was to form, in his way, a counterpart confessed that he had taunted Jesus in the manner above related. to the apostolic tradition of the Catholic Church. This Carthaphilus had afterwards been baptized by the name of The story met with ready acceptance and popularity. Eight Joseph. Matthew Paris, in repeating the passage from Roger of editions of the pamphlet appeared in 1602, and the fortieth Wendover, reported that other Armenians had confirmed the edition before the end of the following century. It was translated story on visiting St Albans in 1252, and regarded it as a great into Dutch and Flemish with almost equal success. The first proof of the Christian religion. A similar account is given in the French edition appeared in 1609, and the story was known in chronicles of Philippe Mouskès (d. 1243). A variant of the same England before 1625, when a parody was produced. Denmark story was known to Guido Bonati, an astronomer quoted by and Sweden followed suit with translations, and the expression Dante, who calls his hero or villain Butta Deus because he struck “eternal Jew" passed as a current term into Czech. In other Jesus. Under this name he is said to have appeared at Mugello words, the story in its usual form spread wherever there was a in 1413 and at Bologna in 1415 (in the garb of a Franciscan of the tincture of Protestantism. In southern Europe little is heard third order). of it in this version, though Rudolph Botoreus, parliamentary • The source of all these reports of an ever-living witness of the advocate of Paris (Comm. histor., 1604), writing in Paris two crucifixion is probably Matthew xvi. 28: “ There be some of years after its first appearance, speaks contemptuously of the them that stand here which shall in no wise taste of death till popular belief in the Wandering Jew in Germany, Spain and they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom.” As the Italy. kingdom had not come, it was assumed that there must be The popularity of the pamphleť and its translations soon led persons living who had been present at the crucifixion; the same to reports of the appearance of this mysterious being in almost reasoning is at the root of the Anglo-Israel belief. These words all parts of the civilized world. Besides the original meeting of are indeed quoted in the pamphlet of 1602. Again, a legend was the bishop and Ahasuerus in 1542 and others referred back to based on John xxi. 20 that the beloved disciple would not die 1575 in Spain and 1599 at Vienna, the Wandering Jew was stated before the second coming; while another legend (current in the to have appeared at Prague (1602), at Lübeck (1603), in Bavaria | 16th century) condemned Malchus, whose ear Peter cut off in the 1604), at Ypres (1623), Brussels (1640), Leipzig (1642), Paris garden of Gethsemane (John xvii. 10), to wander perpetually (1644, by the “ Turkish Spy "), Stamford (1658), Astrakhan till the second coming. The legend alleges that he had been so (1672), and Frankenstein (1678). In the next century the condemned for having scofied at Jesus. These legends and the JEWEL 363 utterance of "Matt. xvi. 28' became "contaminated” by the and other private tutors until his matriculation at Merton legend of St Joseph of •Arimathaea and the Holy Grail, and took college, Oxford, in July 1535. There he was taught by John the form given in Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris. But Parkhurst, afterwards bishop of Norwich; but on the 19th of there is nothing to show the spread of this story among the people August 1539 he was elected scholar of Corpus Christi college. before the pamphlet of 1602, and it is difficult to see how this He graduated B.A. in 1540, and M.A. in 1545, having been Carthaphilus could have given rise to the legend of the Wander- elected fellow of his college in 1542. He made some mark as ing Jew, since he is not a Jew nor does he wander. The author a teacher at Oxford, and became after 1547 one of the chief of 1602 was probably acquainted either directly or indirectly disciples of Peter Martyr. He graduated B.D. in 1552, and was with the story as given by Matthew Paris, since he gives almost made vicar of Sunningwell, and public orator of the university, the same account. But he gives a new name to his hero and in which capacity he had to compose a congratulatory epistle to directly connects his fate with Matt. xvi. 28. Mary on her accession. In April 1554 he acted as notary to Moncure D. Conway (Ency. Brit., 9th ed., xiii. 673) attempted Cranmer and Ridley at their disputation, but in the autumn he to connect the legend of the Wandering Jew with a whole series signed a series of Catholic articles. He was, nevertheless, sus- of myths relating to never-dying heroes like King Arthur, pected, filed to London, and thence to Frankfort, which he Frederick Barbarossa, the Seven Sleepers, and Thomas the reached in March 1555. There he sided with Coxe against Rhymer, not to speak of Rip Van Winkle. He goes even farther Knox, but soon joined Martyr at Strassburg, accompanied him and connects our legend with mortals visiting earth, as the Yima to Zurich, and then paid a visit to Padua. in Parsism, and the “ Ancient of Days” in the Books of Daniel Under Elizabeth's succession he returned to England, and made and Enoch, and further connects the legend with the whole earnest efforts to secure what would now be called a low-church medieval tendency to regard the Jew as something uncanny and settlement of religion. Indeed, his attitude was hardly dis- mysterious. But all these mythological explanations are super- tinguishable from that of the Elizabethan Puritans, but he erogatory, since the actual legend in question can be definitely gradually modified it under the stress of office and responsibility. traced to the pamphlet of 1602. The same remark applies to He was one of the disputants selected to confute the Romanists the identification with the Mahommedan legend of the “eternal” at the conference of Westminster after Easter 1559; he was select Chadhir proposed by M. Lidzbarski (Zeit. f. Assyr. vii. 116) and preacher at St Paul's cross on the 15th of June; and in the I. Friedländer (Arch. f. Religionswiss. xiii. 110). autumn was engaged as one of the royal visitors of the western This combination of eternal punishment with restless wandering counties. His congé d'élire as bishop of Salisbury had been made has attracted the imagination of innumerable writers in almost out on the 27th of July, but he was not consecrated until the all European tongues. The Wandering Jew has been regarded 21st of January 1560. He now constituted himself the literary as a symbolic figure representing the wanderings and sufferings apologist of the Elizabethan settlement. He had on the 26th of of his race. The Germans have been especially attracted by November 1559, in a sermon at St Paul's Cross, challenged all the legend, which has been made the subject of poems by comers to prove the Roman case out of the Scriptures, or the Schubart, Schreiber, W. Müller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, councils or Fathers for the first six hundred years after Christ. Mosen and Koehler, from which enumeration it will be seen that He repeated his challenge in 1560, and Dr Henry Cole took it up. it was a particularly favourite subject with the Romantic school. The chief result was Jewel's Apologia ecclesiae Anglicanae, They were perhaps influenced by the example of Goethe, who published in 1562, which in Bishop Creighton's words is "the in his Autobiography describes, at considerable length, the plan of first methodical statement of the position of the Church of a poem he had designed on the Wandering Jew. More recently England against the Church of Rome, and forms the ground- poems have been composed on the subject in German by Adolf work of all subsequent controversy.” A more formidable Wilbrandt, Fritz Lienhard and others; in English by Robert antagonist than Cole now entered the lists in the person of Thomas Buchanan, and in Dutch by H. Heijermans. German novels also Harding, an Oxford contemporary whom Jewel had deprived of exist on the subject, by Franz Horn, Oeklers, Laun and Schuck- his prebend in Salisbury Cathedral for recusancy. "He published ing, tragedies by Klinemann, Haushofer and Zedlitz. Sigismund an elaborate and bitter Answer in 1564, to which Jewel issued a Heller wrote three cantos on the wanderings of Ahasuerus, while Reply in 1565. Harding followed with a Confutation, and Jewel Hans Andersen made of him an " Angel of Doubt.” Robert with a Defence, of the Apology in 1566 and 1567; the combatants Hamerling even identifies Nero with the Wandering Jew. In ranged over the whole field of the Anglo-Roman controversy, and France, E. Quinet published a prose epic on the subject in 1833, Jewel's theology was officially enjoined upon the Church by and Eugène Sue, in his best-known work, Le Juif errant (1844), Archbishop Bancroft in the reign of James I. Latterly Jewel introduces the Wandering Jew in the prologues of its different had been confronted with criticism from a different quarter. sections and associates him with the legend of Herodias. In | The arguments that had weaned him from his Zwinglian sim- modern times the subject has been made still more popular by plicity did not satisfy his unpromoted brethren, and Jewel had Gustave Doré's elaborate designs (1856), containing some of his to refuse admission to a benefice to his friend Laurence Humphrey most striking and imaginative work. Thus, probably, he sug- (q.v.), who would not wear a surplice. He was consulted a good gested Grenier's poem on the subject (1857). deal by the government on such questions as England's attitude In England, besides the ballads in Percy's Reliques, William towards the council of Trent, and political considerations made Godwin introduced the idea of an eternal witness of the course him more and more hostile to Puritan demands with which he of civilization in his St Leon (1799), and his son-in-law Shelley had previously sympathized. He wrote an attack on Cart- introduces Ahasuerus in his Queen Mab. It is doubtful how far wright, which was published after his death by Whitgift. He Swift derived his idea of the immortal Struldbrugs from the notion died on the 23rd of September 1571, and was buried in Salisbury of the Wandering Jew. George Croly's Salathiel, which appeared Cathedral, where he had built a library. Hooker, who speaks anonymously in 1828, gave a highly elaborate turn to the legend; of Jewel as “the worthiest divine that Christendom hath bred this has been re-published under the title Tarry Thou Till I Come for some hundreds of years," was one of the boys whom Jewel BIBLIOGRAPHY.-J. G. Th. Graesse, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden prepared in his house for the university; and his Ecclesiastical (1844); F. Helbig, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden (1874); G. Paris, Le Polity owes much to Jewel's training. Juif errant (1881); M. D. Conway, The Wandering Jew (1881); S. Morpugo, L' Ebre errante in Italia (1891); L. Neubaur, Die Jewel's works were published in a folio in 1609 under the direction Sage vom ewigen Juden (2nd ed., 1893). The recent literary handling of Bancroft, who ordered the Apology to be placed in churches, in of the subject has been dealt with by J. Prost, Die Sage vom ewigen some of which it may still be seen chained to the lectern; other Juden in der neueren deutschen Literatur (1905); T. Kappstein, editions appeared at Oxford (1848, 8 vols.) and Cambridge (Parker Ahasver in der Weltpoesie (1905). (J. JA.) Soc., 4 vols.). See also Gough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype's JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571), bishop of Salisbury, son of John Works (General Index); Acts of the Privy Council; Calendars of Domestic and Spanish State Papers; Dixon's and Frere's Church Jewel of Buden, Devonshire, was born on the 24th of May 1522, Histories; and Dictionary of National Biography (art. by Bishop and educated under his uncle John Bellamy, rector of Hampton, 1 Creighton). (A.F.P.) I 364 JEWELRY ЕВ JEWELRY (О. Fr. jouel, Fr. joyau, perhaps from joie, joy; represented-including chiselling, soldering, inlaying with coloured Lat. gaudium; retranslated into Low Lat. jocale, a toy, from stones, moulding and working with twisted wires and filigree. jocus, by misapprehension of the origin of the word), a collective grains of gold, soldered on a flat surface (fig. 1). The principal Here also occurs the earliest instance of granulated work, with small term for jewels, or the art connected with them--jewels being items in this dazzling group are the following: Three gold pectorals personal ornaments, usually made of gems, precious stones, &c., (fig. 2 and Plate I. figs. 35, 36) worked a jour (with the interstices with a setting of precious metal; in a restricted sense it is also left open); on the front side they are inlaid with coloured stones, the common to speak of a gem-stone itself as a jewel, when utilized back, the gold surfaces are most delicately carved, in low relief. fine cloisons being the only portion of the gold that is visible; on the in this way. Personal ornaments appear to have been among Two gold crowns (Plate I. figs. 32, 34), found together, are curiously the very first objects on which the invention and ingenuity of contrasted in character. The one (fig. 32) is of a formal design, of man were exercised; and there is no record of any people so rude gold, inlaid (the plume, Plate I. fig 33, was attached to it); the other as not to employ some kind of personal decoration Natural fig: 34) has a multitude of star-like flowers, embodied in a filigree of daintily twisted wires. A dagger with inlaid patterns on the objects, such as small shells, dried berries, small perforated handle shows extraordinary perfection of finish. stones, feathers of variegated colours, were combined by stringing or tying together to ornament the head, neck, arms and legs, the fingers, and even the toes, whilst the cartilages of the nose and ears were frequently perforated for the more ready suspension of suitable ornaments. Amongst modern Oriental nations we find almost every kind of personal decoration, from the simple caste mark on the fore- head of the Hindu to the gorgeous examples of beaten gold and silver work of the various cities and provinces of India. Nor are such decorations mere ornaments without use or meaning. The hook with its corresponding perforation or eye, the clasp, the buckle, the button, grew step by step into a special ornament, according to the rank, means, taste and wants of the wearer, or became an evidence of the dignity of office. Nor was the jewel deemed to have served its purpose with the death of its owner, for it is to the tombs of ancient peoples that we must look for evidence of the early existence of the jeweller's art. hal The jewelry of the ancient Egyptians has been preserved for us in their tombs, sometimes in, and sometimes near the sarco- phagi which contained the embalmed bodies of the wearers.ro a od An amazing series of finds of the intact jewels of five princesses Lystera. A FIG. 2. ad ant dantys brusa W digno deducta of the XIIth Dynasty (c. 2400 B.C.) was the result of the excava- tions of J. de Morgan at Dāhshur in 1894–1895. The treasure collection of Egyptian art in the jewelry taken from the coffin of Nearly a thousand years later we have another remarkable of Princess Hathor-Set contained jewels with the names of Senwosri (Usertesen) II. and III., one of whom was probably her Queen Aah-hotp, discovered in 1859 by Mariette in the entrance father. The treasure of Princess Merit contained the names of the Cairo museum. Compared with the Dähshur treasure the to the valley of the tombs of the kings and now preserved in the same two monarchs, and also that of Amenemh? III., to jewelry of Aah-hotp is in parts rough and coarse, but none the whose family Princess Nebhotp may have belonged. The two less it is marked by the ingenuity and mastery of the materials remaining princesses were Ita and Khnumit. that characterize all the work of the Egyptians. Hammered work, incised and chased work, the evidence of soldering, the combinations of layers of gold plates, together with coloured stones, are all present, and the handicraft is complete in every respect. 10 st 1152 A diadem of gold and enamel, found at the back filho of the head of the mummy of the queen (fig. 3), was fixed in the back hair, show- ing the cartouche in front. The box holding this car- Joordel om touche has on the upper 1) Matro dodo surface the titles of the follangan king, “the son of the sun, Aahmes, living for ever and asid ltro 120 in gold on a ground of lapis lazuli, with a s 14. Ariwte) chequered ornament in blue Fonsilivit and red pastes, and a sphinx couchant on each side. A i FIG. 3. dt ega bozini necklace with three pendant flies (fig. 4) is entirely of gold, having a hook and loop to fasten it round the neck. Fig. 5 is a gold drop, inlaid with turquoise or blue paste, in the shape of a fig. A g gold od ostu leidoq-toad asd airlo 572HT AS a (81) Masi Webil FIG. I. ng by The art of the nameless Memphite jewellers of the XIIth Dynasty is marked by perfect accuracy of execution, by sureness of intention, 22:noneid) MODEL by decorative instinct and sobriety in design, and by the service- I fou mod awesov bu to uwal ahle nature of the jeweis for actual wear. All forms of work are colorist to to Fig. 4. claredat sa pahaFIG. 5. En ! ever," Stro 1 1 JEWELRY 365 chain (fig. 6) is formed of wires closely plaited and very flexible, and stars formed of combined crosses, with crosses in the centre the ends terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having small forming spikes-all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by a forms an incessant decoration from its facile production and repeti- tion by means of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets in gold repoussé suspended by chains and probably used for the FIG. 6. are FIG. 7 use. FIG. 13. small ring a scarabaeus of solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. We FIG. 10. FIG. II. have an example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig. 7), decoration of the hair, and a griffin (fig. 12), having the upper part of the body of an eagle and the lower parts of a lion, with wings decorated with spirals, are among the more remarkable examples of perforated ornaments for attachment to the clothing. NE There also perforated QU ornaments belonging to neck- laces, with intaglio engravings of such subjects as a contest of a man and lion, and a duel of two warriors, one of whom FIG. 12. stabs his antagonist in the FIG. 8. throat. There are also pinheads and brooches formed of two stags lying down (fig. 13), the bodies and necks crossing each other, and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined and the horns meeting symmetrically above the heads, forming a finial. The heads of these ornaments were of gold, by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repoussé on a ground with silver blades or pointed pins inserted for inlaid with lapis lazuli. The bodies of the two stags reston That the Assyrians used personal decorations of a very dis- fronds of the date-palm growing out of the stem which receives the pin. Another remarkable tinct character, and no doubt made of precious materials, is series.is composed of figures of women with proved by the bas-re- doves. Some have one dove resting on the liefs from which a con- head; others have three doves, one on the siderable collection of head and the others resting on arms. The arms in both instances are extended to the jewels could be gather- elbow, the hands being placed on the breasts. ed, such as bracelets, These ornaments are also perforated, and ear-rings and necklaces. were evidently sewed on the dresses, although Thus, for example, in there is some evidence that an example with three doves has been fastened with a pin. the British Museum An extraordinary diadem was found upon the head of one of the we have representa- bodies discovered in the same tomb with many objects similar to tions of Assur-nazir- those noticed above. It is 25 in. in length, covered with shield-like pal, king of Assyria or rosette ornaments in repoussé, the relief being very low but per- fectly distinct, and further ornamented by thirty-six large leaves of (c.885-860 B.C.), wear- repoussé gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfec- ing a cross (fig. 8) very tion of detail, another smaller diadem found in another tomb may be similar to the Maltese noted (fig. 14). It is of gold plate, so thick as to require no" piping' cross of modern times. It happens, however, that the excavations have not hitherto been fertile in actual re- mains of gold work from Assyria. Chance also has so far ordained that the excavations at the back to sustain it; but in general the repoussé examples have Fig. 9.–From Archaeologia, vol. 59. in Crete should not be a piping of copper wire. p. 447, by permission of the Society of particularly rich in Antiquaries of London. The admirable inlaid daggers of the IVth grave at Mycenae are ornaments of gold. A unique in their kind, with their subjects of a lion hunt, of a lion chasing a herd of antelopes, of running lions, of cats hunting wild few isolated objects have been found, such as a duck and duck, of inlaid lilies, and of geometric patterns. The subjects are other pendants, and also several necklaces with beads of inlaid in gold of various tints, and silver, in bronze plates which are the Argonaut shell-fish pattern. More striking than these is a inserted in the flat surfaces of the dagger-blades. In part also the short bronze sword. The handle has an agate pommel, and is subjects are rendered in relicf and gilded. The whole is executed with marvellous precision and vivid representation of motion. To a covered with gold plates, engraved with spirited scenes of lions certain limited extent these daggers are paralleled by a dagger and and wild goats (fig. 9, A. J. Evans in Archaeologia, 59, 447). hatchet found in the treasure of Queen Aah-hoto mentioned above, In general, however, the gold jewelry of the later Minoan periods but in their most characteristic fcatures there is little resemblance. The gold ornaments found by Schliemann at Hissarlik, the supposed is more brilliantly represented by the finds made on the main- site of Troy, divide themselves, generally speaking, into two gļoups, land of Greece and at Enkomi in Cyprus. Among the former one being the great treasure" of diadems, ear-rings, beads, brace- the gold ornaments found by Heinrich Schliemann in the graves lets, &c., which seem the product of a local and uncultured art. of Mycenae are pre-eminent. The other group, which were found in smaller" have treasures, spirals and rosettes similar to those of Mycenae. The discovery, The objects found ranged over most of the personal ornaments however, of the gold treasures of the Artemision at Ephesus has still in use; necklaces with gold beads and pendants, butterflies brought out points of affinity between the Hissarlik treasures and (fig. 10), cuttlefish (fig. 11), single and concentric circles, rosettes those of Ephesus, and has made any reasoning difficult, in view of and leafage, with perforations for attachment to clothing, crosses the uncertainties surrounding the Hissarlik finds. The group with මම මහ FIG. 14. 366 JEWELRY 6 se down for d 99 55 56 Mycenaean affinities (fig. 15) includes necklaces, brooches, bracelets Fig. 51 (Plate L.) Ring, with cut blue glass-pastes in the (8), hair-pins (e), earrings (c, d, e, f), with and without pendants, grooves. beads and twisted wire drops. The majority of these are ornamented 52 EUR Pendant ornament, repoussé, and originally with spirals of twisted wire, or small rosettes, with fragments of inlaid with pieces of cut glass-paste. stones in the centres. The twisted wire ornaments were evidently 53 Pendant ornament, with dogs and apes, portions of necklaces. A circular plaque decorated with a rosette modified from Egyptian forms. For the beginnings of Greek art proper, the most striking series of personal jewels is the great deposit of orna- ments which was found APS in 1905 by D. G. Hogarth AN AN IN in the soil beneath the central basis of the ar- chaic temple of Artemis of Ephesus. The gold ornaments in question (amounting in all to about 1000 pieces) were mingled with the closely packed earth, and must neces- sarily, it would seem, have FIG. 15. been in the nature of vo- (h) is very similar to those found at Mycenae, and a conventionalized | tive offerings, made at the end of the 7th or the beginning of the eagle (k) is characteristic of much of the detail found at that place 6th century B.C. The hoard was rich in pins, brooches, beads and as well as at Hissarlik. They were all of pure gold, and the wire stamped disks of gold. The greater part of the find is at Con- must have been drawn through a plate of harder metal-probably bronze. The principal ornaments differing from those found at stantinople, but a portion was assigned to the British Museum, Mycenae are diadems or head fillets of pure hammered gold (6) which had undertaken the excavations. cut into thin plates, attached to rings by double gold wires, and Figs. 54-58 (Plate II.) Examples of the Ephesus hoard. fastened together at the back with thin twisted wire. To these 54 Electrum pin, with pomegranate head. pendants (of which those at the two ends are nearly three times the Hawk ornament. length of those forming the central portions) are attached small Electrum pin. figures, probably of idols. It has been assumed that these were CE 57, 58 Electrum ornaments for sewing on drapery. worn across the forehead by women, the long pendants falling on The cemeteries of Cyprus have yielded a rich harvest of each side of the face. jewelry of Graeco-Phoenician style of the 7th and following The jewelry of the close of the Mycenaean period is best centuries B.C. Figs. 16 and 17 are typical examples of a ring and represented by the rich finds of the cemetery of Enkomi near | ear-ring from Cyprus. Salamis, in Cyprus. This field was excavated by the British Museum in 1896, and a considerable portion of the finds is now at Bloomsbury. It was rich in all forms of jewelry, but especially in pins, rings and diadems with patterns in relief. In its geometric patterns the art of Enkomi is entirely Mycenaean, but special stress is laid on the mythical forms that were in- herited by Greek art, such as the sphinx and the gryphon. Figs. 37-48 (Plate I.) are examples of the late Mycenaean treasures from Enkomi. FIG. 16. 37, 38 Ear-rings. Greek, Etruscan and Roman ornaments partake of very 39 Diadem, to be tied on the forehead. The similar characteristics. Of course there is variety in design and impressed figure of a sphinx is repeated sometimes in treatment, but it does not rise to any special twelve times. 40, 41, 46 Ear-rings, originally in bull's head form individuality. Fretwork is a distinguishing ſcature of all, (fig. 40). Later, the same general form together with the wave ornament, the guilloche, and the is retained, but decorative patterns (figs. occasional use of the human figure. The workmanship is often 41,46) take the place of the bull's head. 42 Pin, probably connected by a chain with a of a character which modern gold-workers can only rival with fellow, to be used as a cloak fastening. their best skill, and can never surpass. 43 Pomegranate pendant, with fine granulated work. 44, 45 Pins as No. 42. The heads are of vitreous paste. (See above.) 47 Pendant ornament, in lotus-form, of a pectoral, inlaid with coloured pastes. Small slate cylinder, set in filigree. Another find of importance was that of a collection of gold ornaments from one of the Greek islands (said to be Aegina) which also found its way to the British Museum. Here we find the themes of archaic Greek art, such as a figure holding up two water-birds, in immediate connexion with Mycenaean gold patterns. Figs. 49-53 (Plate I.) are specimens from this treasure. 49 Plate with repoussé ornament for sewing on a dress. 50 Pendant. Figure with two water-birds, on a lotus base, and having serpents issuing from near his middle, modified from Egyptian forms. FIG. 18. FIG. 17 19 . ID 11 : 2 46 1 48 1 CODI JEWELRY 367 FIG. 19. 1) 01 10 11 65 The Greek jewelry of the best period is of extraordinary With the decay of the Roman empire, and the approach of the delicacy and beauty. Fine examples are shown in the British barbarian tribes, a new Teutonic style was developed. An Museum from Melos and elsewhere. Undoubtedly, however, the important example of this style is the remarkable gold treasure, most brilliant collection of such ornaments is that of the Hermi- discovered at Pétrossa in Transylvanian Alps in 1837, and tage, which was derived from the tombs of Kerch and the Crimea. now preserved, as far as it survives, in the museum of Bucharest. It contains examples of the purest Greek work, together with A runic inscription shows that it belonged to the Goths. Its objects which must have been of local origin, as is shown by the style is in part the classical tradition, debased and modified; in themes which the artist has chosen for his reliefs. Fig. 18 part it is a singularly rude and vigorous form of barbaric art. illustrates the jewelry of the Hermitage (see also Ear-RING). Its chief characteristics are a free use of strongly conventional- As further examples of Greek jewelry see the pendant oblong ized animal forms, such as great bird-shaped fibulae, and an ornament for containing a scroll (fig. 19). ornamentation consisting of pierced gold work, combined with a free use of stones cut to special shapes, and inlaid either cloisonné-fashion or in a perforated gold plate. This part of the hoard has its affinities in objects found over a wide field from Siberia to Spain. Its rudest and most naturalistic forms occur in the East in uncouth objects from Siberian tombs, whose lineage however has been traced to Persepolis, Assyria and Egypt. In its later and more refined forms the style is known FIG. 20. FIG. 21. by the name, now somewhat out of favour (except as applied to a limited number of finds), of Merovingian. The ear-rings (figs. 20, 21) are also characteristic. The so-called Merovingian jewelry of the 5th century, and the Figs. 59-70 (Plate II.) Examples of fine Greek jewelry, in the Anglo-Saxon of a later date, have as their distinctive feature British Museum. thin plates of gold, decorated with thin slabs of garnet, set in 59-60 Pair of ear-rings, from a grave at Cyme in Aeolis, wi filigree work and pendant walls of gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonné enamel, Erotes. with the addition of very decorative details of filigree work, Small bracelet. beading and twisted gold. The typical group are the contents 62-63 Small gold reel with repoussé figures of of the tomb of King Childeric (A.D. 481) now in the Bibliothèque Nereid with helmet of Achilles, and Eros. From Cameiros (Rhodes). Nationale at Paris. In Figs. 22 and 23 we have examples of 64 Filigree ornament (ear-ring?) with Eros Anglo-Saxon fibulae, the first being decorated with a species in centre. From Syria. Medallion ornament with repoussé head of Dionysos and filigree work. (Blacas coll.) 66 Stud, with filigree work. 67-68 Pair of ear-rings, of gold, with filigree and enamel, from Eretria. 69 Diadem, with filigree, and enamel scales, from Tarquinii. 70 Necklace pendants. Etruscan jewlery at its best is not easily distinguished from FIG. 22. the Greek, but it tends in its later forms to become florid of cloisonné, in which garnets are inserted, while the other is in and diffuse, without precision of design. The granulation of hammered work in relief. A pendant (fig. 24) is also set with surfaces practised with the highest degree of refinement by the garnets... The buckles (figs. 25, 26, 27) are remarkably charac- Etruscans was long a puzzle and a problem to the modern jeweller, until Castellani of Rome discovered gold-workers in the Abruzzi to whom the method had descended through many generations. He induced some of these men to go to Naples, and so revived the art, of which he contributed examples to the London Exhibition of 1872 (see FILIGREE). Figs. 71-77 (Plate II.) are well-marked examples of Etruscan work, in the British Museum. 71 Pair of sirens, repoussé, forming a hook and eye fastening. From Chiusi (?). 72 Early fibula. Horse and chimaera. (Blacas coll.) 74 Medallion-shaped fibula, of fine granulated work, with figures of sirens in relief, and set with dark blue pastes. (Bale coll.) 73, 75 Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings. Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings, in the FIG. 26. florid style. The jewels of the Roman empire are marked by a greater use teristic examples, and very elegant in design. A girdle ornament of large cut stones in combination with the gold, and by larger in gold, set with garnets (fig. 28), is an example of Carolingian surfaces of plain and undecorated metal. The adaptation of design of a high class. Another remarkable imperial gold coins to the purposes of the jeweller is also not group of barbaric jewelry, dated by coins as of the beginning of the 7th century, was excavated uncommon. Figs. 78-82 (Plate 11.) Late Roman imperial jewelry, in the at Castel Trosino near the Picenian Ascoli, and British Museum. is attributed to the Lombards. See Monumenti Large pendant ear-ring, set with stones antichi (Accademia dei Lincei), xii. 145. and pearls. From Tunis, 4th century. We turn now to the Celtic group of jewelled 79 Pierced-work pendant, set with a coin of the emperor Philip. ornaments, which has an equally long and inde- Ear-ring, roughly set with garnets. pendent line of descent. The characteristic 81 Bracelet, with á winged cornucopia as Celtic ornaments are of hammered work with Fig. 28. central ornament, set with plasmas, and details in repoussé, having fillings-in of vitreous with filigree and leaf work. 82 Bracelet, roughly set with pearls and paste, coloured enamels, amber, and in the later examples rock stones. From Tunis, 4th century. crystal with a smooth rounded surface cut en cabochon. The 1 FIG. 23. FIG. 24. RE 76, 77 FIG. 25. FIG. 27. 78 .. 80 . 368 JEWELRY . whole group FIG. 29. a special development within the British Isles | Douglas, countess of Lennox, the mother of Henry Darnley. It is of the art of the mid-European Early Iron age, which in its jewelled and enamelled with emblematic figures and devices. It a pendant golden heart set with a heart-shaped sapphire, richly turn had been considerably influenced by early Mediterranean also has Scottish mottoes around and within it. The ear-ring (e) of culture. In its early stages its special marks are combinations gold, enamelled, hung with small pearls, is an example of 17th cen- of curves, with peculiar central thickenings which give a quasi-fury Russian work, and another ) is Italian of the same period, naturalistic effect; a skilful use of inlaid enamels, and the being of gold and filigree with enamel, also with pendant pearls. chased line. After the introduction of Christianity, a con, ribbon, cord and filigree in gold; and another (h) is Flemish, of A Spanish ear-ring, of 18th century work (g), is a combination of tinuous tradition combined the old system with the interlaced probably the same period; it is of gold open work set with diamonds winding scrolls and other new forms of decoration, and so led in projecting collets. The old French-Normandy pendant cross and up to the extreme complexity of early Irish illumination and locket (1) presents a characteristic example of peasant jewelry; it is metal work. of branched open work set_with bosses and ridged ornaments of crystal. The ear-ring (j) is French of 17th century, also of gold open A remarkable group of gold ornaments of the pre-Christian work set with crystals. A small pendant locket (k) is of rock time (probably of the ist century) was discovered about 1896, crystal, with the cross of Santiago in gold and translucent crimson in the north-west of Ireland, and acquired by the British Museum. enamel; it is 16th or 17th century Spanish work. A pretty ear-ring It was subsequently claimed by the Crown as treasure trove, and pendant pcarls, is Portuguese of 17th century, and another ear-ring of gold open scroll work (m), set with minute diamonds and three after litigation was transferred to Dublin (see Archaeologia, lv., (n) of gold circular open work, set also with minute diamonds, is pl. 22). Portuguese work of 18th century. These examples fairly illustrate Figs. 29 and 30 are illustrations of two brooches of the latest the general features of the most characteristic jewelry of the dates quoted. During the 17th and 18th centuries we see only a mechanical kind of excellence, the results of the mere tradition of the work- shop—the lingering of the power which when wisely directed had done so much and so well, but now simply living on tra- ditional forms, often combined in a most incongruous fashion. Gorgeous effects were aimed at by massing the gold, and intro- ducing stones elaborately cut in themselves or, clustered in groups. Thus diamonds were clustered in rosettes and bou- quets; rubies, pearls, emeralds and other coloured special stones were brought together for little other purpose than to get them AUD) into a given space in conjunction with a certain quantity of gold. The question was not of design in its relation to use as personal decoration, but of the value which could be got into a given space period in this class of work. The first is 13th century; the latter to produce the most striking effect. is probably 12th century, and is set with paste, amber and The traditions of Oriental design as they had come down blue. through the various periods quoted, were comparatively lost Rings are the chief specimens now seen of medieval jewelry in the wretched results of the rococo of Louis XIV. and the from the roth to the 13th century. They are generally massive inanities of what modern revivalists of the Anglo-Dutch call and simple. Through the 16th century a variety of changes · Queen Anne.” In the London exhibition of 1851, the ex- arose; in the traditions and designs of the cinquecento we have travagances of modern jewelry had to stand comparison with plenty of evidence that the workmen used their own designs, the Oriental examples contributed from India. Since then we and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert Dürer, have learnt more about these works, and have been compelled Benvenuto Cellini and Hans Holbein. The goldsmiths of the to acknowledge, in spite of what is sometimes called inferiority of workmanship, how completely the Oriental jeweller under- stood his work, and with what singular simplicity of method he carried it oịt. The combinations are always harmonious, the result aimed at is always achieved; and if in attempting to work to European ideas the jeweller failed, this was rather the fault of the forms he had to follow, than due to any want of skill in making the most of a subject in which half the thought and the intended use were foreign to his experience. A collection of peasant jewelry got together by Castellani for the Paris exhibition of 1867, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, illustrates in an admirable manner the traditional jewelry and personal ornaments of a wide range of peoples in Europe. This collection, and the additions made to it since its acquisition by the nation, show the forms in which these objects existed over several generations among the peasantry Fig. 30. of France (chiefly Normandy), Spain, Portugal, Holland, Den- Mark, Germany and Switzerland, and also show how the forms Italian republics must have produced works of surpassing popular in one country are followed and adopted in another, excellence in workmanship, and reaching the highest point in almost invariably because of their perfect adaptation to the design as applied to handicrafts of any kind. The use of purpose for which they were designed. enamels, precious stones, niello work and engraving, in combina- Apart from these humbler branches of the subject, in the tion with skilful execution of the human figure and animal life, middle of the 19th century the production of jewelry, regarded produced effects which modern art in this direction is not likely as a personal art, and not as a commercial and anonymous to approach, still less to rival. industry, was almost extinct. Its revival must be associated In fig: 31 illustrations are given of various characteristic specimens with the artistic movement which marked the close of that of the Renaissance and later forms of jewelry. A crystal cross set century, and which found emphatic expression in the Paris in enamelled gold (a) is German work of the 16th century. The international exhibition of 1900. For many years before 1895 pendant reliquary (6), enamelled and jewelled, is of 16th century this industry, though prosperous from the commercial point of Italian work, and so probably is the jewel (c) of gold set with dia- monds and rubies. The Darnley or Lennox jewel (d), now in the view, and always remarkable from that of technical finish, possession of the king, was made about 1576-1577 for Lady Margaret I remained stationary as an art. French jewelry rested on its CY JEWELRY PLATE I. f 33 34 32 Supe 36 OTO Early Egyptian. 39 38 37 50 51 49 40 41 42 52 7 e e S 43 44 45 -) e 47 e d Woch 15 d at 46 48 53 25 1, (From Enkomi.) (From the Greek Islands.) ts Late Mycenaean. PLATE II. JEWELRY 54 55 56 61 59 60 58 57 64 66 65 62 63 67 68 69 70 Greek. 71 72 78 80 79 81 74 73 75 XXUIET O 82 76 77 Etruscan. Roman. JEWELRY 369 reputation. The traditions were maintained of either the 17th | further confirmed in his remarkable position by the exhibition of and 18th centuries or the style affected at the close of the second 1900. What specially stamps the works of Lalique is their empire-light pierced work and design borrowed from natural striking originality. His work may be considered from the point flowers. The last type, introduced by Massin, had exercised, of view of design and from that of execution. As an artist he indeed, a revolutionary influence on the treatment of jewelry. has completely reconstructed from the foundation the scheme This clever artist, not less skilful as a craftsman, produced a new of design which had fed the poverty-stricken imagination of the genre by copying the grace and lightness of living blossoms, thus last generation of goldsmiths. He had recourse to the art of introducing a perfectly fresh element into the limited variety of the past, but to the spirit rather than the letter, and to nature traditional style, and by the use of filigree gold work altering for many new elements of design-free double curves, suave or its character and giving it greater elegance. Massin still held soft; opalescent harmonies of colouring; reminiscences, with quite the first rank in the exhibition of 1878; he had a marked a new feeling, of Egypt, Chaldea, Greece and the East, or of the influence on his contemporaries, and his name will be remem- art of the Renaissance; and infinite variety of floral forms even bered in the history of the goldsmith's art to designate a style l of the humblest. He introduces also the female nude in the U ORG Mode 220 0 FIG. 31. and a period. Throughout these years the craft was exclusively form of sirens and sphinxes. As a craftsman he has effected a devoted to perfection of workmanship. The utmost finish was radical change, breaking through old routine, combining all aimed at in the mounting and setting of gems; jewelry was, in the processes of the goldsmith, the chaser, the enameller and the fact, not so much an art as a high-class industry; individual gem-setter, and freeing himself from the narrow lines in which effort and purpose were absent. the art had been confined. He ignores the hierarchy of gems, Up to that time precious stones had been of such intrinsic caring no more on occasion for a diamond than for a dint, since, value that the jeweller's chief skill lay in displaying these costly in his view, no stone, whatever its original estimation, has any stones to the best advantage; the mounting was a secondary value beyond the characteristic expression he lends it as a means consideration. The settings were seldom long preserved in to his end. Thus, while he sometimes uses diamonds, rubies, their original condition, but in the case of family jewels were sapphires or emeralds as a background, he will, on the other renewed with each generation and each change of fashion, a hand, give a conspicuous position to common stones-carnelian, state of things which could not be favourable to any truly artistic agate, malachite, jasper, coral, and even materials of no intrinsic development of taste, since the work was doomed, sooner or value, such as horn. One of his favourite stones is the opal, later, to destruction. However, the evil led to its own remedy. which lends itself to his arrangements of colour, and which has As soon as diamonds fell in value they lost at the same time in consequence become a fashionable stone in French jewelry. their overwhelming prestigė, and refined taste could give a In criticism of the art of Lalique and his school it should be preference to trinkets which derived their value and character observed that the works of the school are apt to be unsuited to the from artistic design. This revolutionized the jeweller's craft, wear and tear of actual use, and inconveniently eccentric in their and revived the simple ornament of gold or silver, which came details. Moreover, the preciousness of the material is an almost forward but timidly at first, till, in the Salon of 1895, it hurst inevitable consideration in the jeweller's craft, and cannot be set upon the world in the exhibits of René Lalique, an artist who was at naught by the artist without violating the canons of his art. XV7 2a 370 JEWELRY sance. The movement which took its rise in France spread in due century, a branch of industry which collapsed after the French course to other countries. In England the movement con- Revolution. veniently described as the “ arts and crafts movement "affected the design of jewelry. A group of designers has aimed at purg- Modern jewelry may be classified under three heads: (1) objects ing the jeweller's craft of its character of mere gem-mounting in in which gems and stones form the principal portions, and in conventional forms (of which the more unimaginative, represent for carrying out the design by fixing the gems or stones in the which the work in silver, platinum or gold is really only a means ing stars, bows, flowers and the like, are varied by such absurdi- position arranged by the designer, the metal employed being ties as insects, birds, animals, figures of men and objects made visible only as a setting; (2) when gold work plays an important pari up simply of stones clustered together). Their work is often in the development of the design, being itself ornamented by' en- excellently and fancifully designed, but it lacks that exquisite gems being arranged in subordination to the gold work in such graving (now rarely used) or enamelling or both, the stones and perfection of execution achieved by the incomparable craftsmen positions as to give a decorative effect to the whole; (3) when gold of France. At the same time English sculptor-decorators, or other metal is alone used, the design being wrought out by hain- such as Alfred Gilbert, R.A., and George J. Frampton, A.R.A.-mering in repoussé, casting, engraving, chasing or by the addition have produced objects of a still higher class, but it is usually the lutely plain but polished and highly finished. of filigree work (see FILIGREE), or when the surfaces are left abso- work of the goldsmith rather than of the jeweller. Examples Of course the most ancient and primitive methods are those may be seen in the badge executed by Gilbert for the president wholly dependent upon the craft of the workman, but gradually of the Institute of Painters in Water Colours and in the mayoral in the portions to be repeated in a design could be produced with various ingenious processes were invented, by which greater accuracy chain for Preston. Symbolism here enters into the design, certainty and economy hence the various methods of stamping which has not only an ornamental but a didactic purpose. used in the production of hand-made jewelry, which are in themselves The movement was represented in other countries also. In as much mechanical in relation to the end in view as if the whole the United States it was led by L. C. Tiffany, in Belgium by object were stamped out at a blow, twisted into its proper position as regards the detail, or the various stamped portions fitted into Philippe Wolfers, who occupies in Belgium the position which in France is held by René Lalique. If his design is a little heavier, fore rather difficult to draw an absolute line between hand-made each other for the mechanical completion of the work. It is there- it is not less beautiful in imagination or less masterly in execu- and machine-made jewelry, except in extreme cases of hand-made, tion. Graceful, ingenious, fanciful, elegant, fantastic by turns; when everything is worked, so to speak, from the solid, or of machine. his objects of jewelry and goldsmithery have a solid claim to made, when the hand has only to give the ornament a few touches of a tool, or fit the parts together iſ of more than one piece. be considered créations d'art. It has also been felt in Germany, The best and most costly hand-made jewelry produced in England, Austria, Russia and Switzerland. It must be admitted that many whether as regards gold work, gems, enamelling or engraving, is of the best artists who have devoted themselves to jewelry have made in London, and chiefly at Clerkenwell. A design is first made been more successful in design than in securing the lightness enlargement of details, everything in short to make the drawing with pencil, sepia or water colour, and when needful with separate and strength which are required by the wearer, and which were a thoroughly intelligible to the working jeweller. According to the characteristic in the works of the Italian craftsmen of the Renais- nature and purpose of the design, he cuts out, hammers, hles and For this reason many of their masterpieces are more brings into shape the constructive portions of the work as a basis. beautiful in the case than upon the person. Upon this, as each detail is wrought out, he solders, or (more rarely) fixes by rivets, &c., the ornamentation necessary to the effect. Modern Jewelry. --So far we have gone over the progress and The human figure, representations of animal liſe, leaves, fruit, &c., results of the jeweller's art. We have now to speak of the pro- are modelled in wax, moulded and cast in gold, to be chased up and duction of jewelry as a modern art industry, in which large finished. As the hammering goes on the metal becomes brittle and hard, and then it is passed though the fire to anneal or soften numbers of men and women are employed in the larger cities it. In the case of elaborate examples of repoussé, after the general of Europe. Paris, Vienna, London and Birmingham are the forms are beaten up, the interior is filled with a resinous compound, most important centres. An illustration of the manufacture as pitch mixed with fire-brick dust; and this, forming a solid but carried on in London and Birmingham will be sufficient to give pliable body underneath the metal, allows of the finished details an insight into the technique and artistic manipulation of this completed by chasing. When stones are to be set, or when they being wrought out on the front of the design, and being finally branch of art industry; but, by way of contrast, it may be inter- form the principal portions of the design, the gold or other metal esting to give in the first place a description of the native working has to be wrought by hand so as to receive them in little cup-like jeweller of Hindustan. orifices, these walls of gold enclosing the stone and allowing the edges to be bent over to secure it. Setting is never effected by He travels very much after the fashion of a tinker in England; cement in well-made jewelry, Machine-made settings have in his budget contains tools, materials, fire pots, and all the requisites recent years been made, but these are simply cheap imitations of of his handicraſt. The gold to be used is generally, supplied by the true hand-made setting. Even strips of gold have been used, the patron or employer, and is frequently in gold coin, which the serrated at the edges to allow of being easily bent over, for the travelling jeweller undertakes to convert into the ornaments required. retention of the stones, true or false. He squats down in the corner of a courtyard, or under cover of a Great skill and experience are necessary in the proper setting veranda, lights his fire, cuts up the gold pieces entrusted to him, of stones and gems of high value, in order to bring out the grcatest hammers, cuts, shapes, drills, solders with the blow-pipe, files, amount of brilliancy and colour, and the angle at which a diamond scrapes and burnishes until he has produced the desired effect. (say) shall be set, in order that the light shall penetrate at the proper If he has stones to set or coloured enamels to introduce, he never point to bring out the "spark or " flash," is a subject of grave seems to make a mistake; his instinct for harmony of colour, like consideration to the setter. Stones set in a haphazard, slovenly that of his brother craftsman the weaver, is as unerring as that of manner, however brilliant in themselves, will look commonplace the bird in the construction of its nest. Whether the materials. by the side of skilfully set gems of much less fine quality and water. are common or rich and rare, he invariably does the very best possible Enamelling, (see ENAMEL) has of late years largely taken the place with them, according to native ideas of beauty in design and com- of paste or false stones. bination. It is only when he is interfered with by European Engraving is a simple process in itself, and diversity of effect dictation that he ever vulgarizes his art or makes a mistake. The can be produced by skilful manipulation. An interesting variety result may appear rude in its finish, but the design and the thought in the effect of a single ornament may be produced by the combina- are invariably right. We thus see how a trade in the working of tion of coloured gold of various tints . This colouring is a process which the plant " is so simple and wants are so readily met could requiring skill and experience in the manipulation of the materials. spread itself, as in years past it did at Clerkenwell and at Birmingham according to the quality of the gold and the amount of silver alloy before gigantic factories were invented for producing everything in it. The objects to be coloured are dipped in a boiling mixture under the sun. of salt, alum and saltpetre. Of general colouring it may be said * It is impossible to find any date at which the systematic pro- | by removing the particles of alloy on the surface, and thus allowing that the object aimed at is to enhance the appearance of the gold duction of jewelry was introduced into England. Probably the pure gold only to remain visible to the eye. The process has, the Clerkenwell trade dates its origin from the revocation of the however, gone much out of fashion. It is apt to rot' the solder, edict of Nantes, as the skilled artisans in the jewelry, clock and repairs to gold work can be better finished by electro-gilding: and watch, and trinket trades appear to have been descendants The application of machinery to the economical production of certain classes of jewelry, not necessarily imitations, but as much of the emigrant Huguenots. The Birmingham trade would “ real gold ” work, to use a trade phrase, as the best hand-made, has appear to have had its origin in the skill to which the workers been on the increase for many years. Nearly every kind of gold in fine steel bad attained towards the middle and end of the 18th I chain now made is manufactured by machinery, and nothing like JEWETT-JEWS 371 ¢¢ as the beauty of design or perfection of workmanship could be obtained JEWS (Heb. Véhūdi, man of Judah; Gr. 'lovdaiov; Lat. by hand at, probably, any cost. The question therefore in relation to chains is not the mode of manufacture, but the quality of the metal. Judaei), the general name for the Semitic people which inhabited Eighteen carat gold is of course preferred by those who wear chains, Palestine from early times, and is known in various connexions but this is only gold in the proportion of 18 to 24, pure gold being the Hebrews,” ," " the Jews,” and “ Israel” (see 85 below). represented by 24. The gold coin of the realm is 22 carat; that is, Their history may be divided into three great periods: (1) That it contains one-twelfth of alloy to harden it to stand wear and tear. Thus 18 carat gold has one-fourth of alloy, and so on with lower covered by the Old Testament to the foundation of Judaism in qualities down to 12, which is in reality only gold by courtesy. the Persian age, (2) that of the Greek and Roman domination It must be remembered that the alloys are made by weight, and as to the destruction of Jerusalem, and (3) that of the Diaspora or gold is nearly twice as heavy as the metal it is mixed with, it only Dispersion to the present day forms a third of the bulk of a 12 carat mixture. The application of machinery to the production of personal ornaments in gold and silver can only be economically and success- 1.-OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY fully carried on when there is a large demand for similar objects, that is to say, objects of precisely the same design and decoration 1. The Land and the People. For the first two periods the throughout. In machine-made jewelry everything is stereotyped, history of the Jews is mainly that of Palestine. It begins among so to speak, and the only work required for the hand is to fit the parts those peoples which occupied the area lying between the Nile together-in some instances scarcely that. A design is made, and from it steel dies are sunk for stamping out as rapidly as possible on the one side and the Tigris and the Euphrates on the other. from a plate of rolled metal the portion represented by each die. Surrounded by ancient. seats of culture in Egypt and Baby- It is in these steel dies that the skill of the artist die-sinker is mani- lonia, by the mysterious deserts of Arabia, and by the highlands fested. Brooches, ear-rings, pinheads, bracelets, lockets, pendants of Asia Minor, Palestine, with Syria on the north, was the &c., are struck out by the gross. This is more especially the case in silver and in plated work-that is, imitation jewelry—the base high road of civilization, trade and warlike enterprise, and of which is an alloy, afterwards gilt by electro-plating. With these the meeting-place of religions. Its small principalities were ornaments imitation stones in paste and glass, pearls, &c., are used, entirely dominated by the great Powers, whose weakness or and it is remarkable that of late years some of the best designs, the acquiescence alone enabled them to rise above dependence or most simple, appropriate and artistic, have appeared in imitation jewelry. It is only just to those engaged in this manufacture to vassalage. The land was traversed by old-established trade state distinctly that their work is never sold wholesale for anything routes and possessed important harbours on the Gulf of 'Akaba else than what it is. The worker in gold only makes gold or real and on the Mediterranean coast, the latter exposing it to the jewelry, and he only makes of a quality well known to his customers. influence of the Levantine culture. It was.“ the physical centre The producer of silver work only manufactures silver ornaments, and so on throughout the whole class of plated goods. of those movements of history from which the world has It is the retailer who, if he is unprincipled, takes advantage of the grown.” The portion of this district abutting upon the Mediter- ignorance of the buyer and sells for gold that which is in reality an ranean may be divided into two main parts:-Syria (from the imitation, and which he bought as such. The imitations of old styles of jewelry which are largely sold in curiosity shops at foreign Taurus to Hermon) and Palestine (southward to the desert places of fashionable resort are said to be made in Germany, especially bordering upon Egypt). The latter is about 150 m. from at Munich. north to south (the proverbial “Dan to Beersheba "), with a BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For the Dāhshur jewels, see J. de Morgan and breadth varying from 25 to 80 m., i.e. about 6040 sq. m. others; Fouilles d Dahchour, Mars-Juin 1894. (Vienna, 1895) and Fouilles à Dahchour en 1894–1895 (Vienna, 1903). For the Aah-hoto This excludes the land east of the Jordan, on which see jewels, see Mariette, Album de Musée de Boulaq, pls. 29–31; Birch, PALESTINE. Facsimiles of the Egyptian Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah- From time to time streams of migration swept into Palestine hotep (1863). For Cretan excavations, see A, J. Evans, in Annual of and Syria. Semitic tribes wandered northwards from their home the British School at Athens, Nos. 7 to 11; Archaeologia, vol. lix. For excavations at Enkomi, see Excavations in Cyprus, by A. S. Murray in Arabia to seek sustenance in its more fertile fields, to plunder, and others (1900). For Schliemann's excavations, see Schliemann's or to escape the pressure of tribes in the rear. The course leads works; also Schuchhardt, Schlicmann's Excavations; Perrot & naturally into either Palestine or Babylonia, and, following the Chipiez, Histoire de l'Art, vi, For the Greek Island treasure, see Euphrates, northern Syria is eventually reached. Tribes also A. J. Evans, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. For Ephesus gold moved down from the north: nomads, or offshoots from the treasure, see D. G. Hogarth, British Museum Excavations at Ephesus: The Archaic Artemisia. For the Hermitage Collection from South powerful states which stretch into Asia Minor. Such frequently Russia, see Gillé, Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmérien (reissued by recurring movements introduced new blood Tribes, chiefly of S. Reinach), and the Comptes rendus of the Russian Archaeological pastoral habits, settled down among others who were so nearly Commission (St Petersburg). For later jewelry, Pollak, Gold- schmiedearbeit. For Treasure of Pétrossa, A. Odobesco, Le Trésor of their own type that a complete amalgamation could be de Pétrossa. For the European and west Asiatic barbaric jewelry, effected, and this without any marked modification of the see O. M. Dalton, in Archaeologia, lviii. 237, and the Treasure of general characteristics of the earlier inhabitants. It is from the Oxus (British Museum, 1905). For the whole history, G. such a fusion as this that the ancestors of the Jews were Fontenay, Les Bijoux anciens et modernes (Paris (Quantin), 1887); descended, and both the history and the genius of this people For the recent move Léonce Bénédite, La Bijouterie et la joaillerie, à l'exposition universelle; René Lalique," in the Revue des can be properly understood only by taking into account the arts décoratifs, 1900 (July, August). (A. H. Sm.) physical features of their land and the characteristics of the JEWETT, SARAH ORNE (1849–1909), American novelist, Semitic races in general (see PALESTINE, SEMITIC LANGUAGES). was born in South Berwick, Maine, on the 3rd of September 1849. 2. Society and Religion.--The similarity uniting the peoples She was a daughter of the physician Theodore H. Jewett (1815- of the East in respect of racial and social characteristics is 1878), by whom she was greatly influenced, and whom she has accompanied by a striking similarity of mental outlook which drawn in A Country Doctor (1884). She studied at the Berwick has survived to modern times. Palestine, in spite of the numer- Academy, and began her literary career in 1869, when she con- ous vicissitudes to which it has been subjected, has not lost tributed her first story to the Atlantic Monthly. Her best work its fundamental characteristics. The political changes involved consists of short stories and sketches, such as those in the in the Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian or Persian conquests Country of the Pointed Firs (1896). The People of Maine, with surely affected it as little as the subsequent waves of Greek, their characteristic speech, manners and traditions, she describes Roman and other European invasions. Even during the tem- with peculiar charm and realism, often recalling the work of porary Hellenization in the second great period the character Hawthorne. She died at South Berwick, Maine, on the 24th of of the people as a whole was untouched by the various external June 1909. influences which produced so great an effect on the upper classes. Among her publications are: Deephaven (1877), a series of When the foreign civilization perished, the old culture once more sketches; Old Friends and New (1879); Country By-ways (1881); came to the surface. Hence it is possible, by a comprehensive A Country Doctor (1884), a novel; A Marsh Island (1885), a novel comparative study of Eastern peoples, in both ancient and A White Heron and other Stories (1886); The King of Folly Island and modern times, to supplement and illustrate within certain other People (1888); Strangers and Wayfarers (1890); A Native of Winby and other Tales (1893); The Queen's Twin and other Stories limits our direct knowledge of the early Jewish people, and (1899), and The Tory Lover (1901), an historical novel. thus to understand more clearly those characteristics which were 372 {OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS peculiar to them, in relation to those which they shared with peoples were responsible. Subdivided into a number of little other Oriental peoples. local principalities, Palestine was suffering both from internal Even before authentic history begins, the elements of religion intrigues and from the designs of this northern power. It is and society had already crystallized into a solid coherent struc- now that we find the restless Habiru, a name which is commonly ture which was to persist without essential modification. Reli- identified with that of the “Hebrews ” ('ibrim). They offer gion was inseparable from ordinary life, and, like that of all themselves where necessary to either party, and some at least peoples who are dependent on the fruits of the earth, was a. perhaps belonged to the settled population. The growing nature-worship. The tie between deities and worshippers prominence of the new northern group of “ Hittite” states con- was regarded as physical and entailed mutual obligations. The tinued to occupy the energies of Egypt, and when again we have study of the clan-group as an organization is as instructive more external light upon Palestinian history, the Hittites (q.v.) here as in other fields. The members of each group lived on are found strongly entrenched in the land. But by the end of terms of equality, the families forming a society of worship the first quarter of the 13th century B.C. Egypt had recovered its the rites of which were conducted by the head. Such groups province (precise boundary uncertain), leaving its rivals in pos- (each with its local deity) would combine for definite purposes session of Syria. Towards the close of the 13th century the under the impulse of external needs, but owing to inevitable Egyptian king Merneptah (Mineptah) records a successful cam- internal jealousies and the incessant feuds among a people paign in Palestine, and alludes to the defeat of Canaan, Ascalon, averse from discipline and authority, the unions were not Gezer, Yenuam (in Lebanon) and (the people or 1ribe) Israel.: necessarily lasting. The elders of these groups possessed some Bodies of aliens from the Levantine coast had previously irfluence, and tended to form an aristocracy, which took the threatened Egypt and Syria, and at the beginning of the 12th lead in social life, although their authority generally depended century they formed a coalition on land and sea which taxed merely upon custom. Individual leaders in times of stress all the resources of Rameses III. In the Purasati, apparently acquired a recognized supremacy, and, once a tribe outstripped the most influential of these peoples, may be recognized the origin the rest, the opportunities for continued advance gave further of the name Philistine.” The Hittite power became weaker, scope to their authority. “ The interminable feuds of tribes, and the invaders, in spite of defeat, appear to have succeeded conducted on the theory of blood-revenge, . can seldom in maintaining themselves on the sea coast. External history, be durably healed without the intervention of a third party however, is very fragmentary just at the age when its evidence who is called in as arbiter, and in this way an impartial and would be most welcome. For a time the fate of Syria and Pales- wise power acquires of necessity a great and beneficent influence tine seems to have been no longer controlled by the great powers. over all around it" (W. R. Smith). In time, notwithstanding a When the curtain rises again we enter upon the historical certain inherent individualism and impatience of control, veri- | traditions of the Old Testament. table despotisms arose in the Semitic world, although such 4. Biblical History.- For the rest of the first period the Old organizations were invariably liable to sudden collapse as the old Testament forms the main source. It contains in fact the forms of life broke down with changing conditions. history itself in two forms: (a) from the creation of man to 3. Early History.? Already in the 15th century B.C. Palestine the fall of Judah (Genesis-2 Kings), which is supplemented and was inhabited by a settled people whose language, thought and continued further-(b) to the foundation of Judaism in the religion were not radically different several hundred years later. 5th century B.C. (Chronicles--Ezra-Nehemiah). In the light of Small native princes ruled as vassals of Egypt which, after contemporary monuments, archaeological evidence, the progress expelling the Hyksos from its borders, had entered upon a series of scientific knowledge and the recognized methods of modern of conquests as far as the Euphrates. Some centuries pre- historical criticism, the representation of the origin of mankind viously, however, Babylonia had laid claim to the western states, and of the history of the Jews in the Old Testament can no longer and the Babylonian (i.e. Assyrian) script and language were now be implicitly accepted. Written by an Oriental people and used, not merely in the diplomatic correspondence between clothed in an Oriental dress, the Old Testament does not contain Egypt and Asia, but also for matters of private and everyday objective records, but subjective history written and incorporated life among the Palestinian princes themselves. To what extent for specific purposes. Like many Oriental works it is a compila- specific Babylonian influence showed itself in other directions tion, as may be illustrated from a comparison of Chronicles with is not completely known. Canaan (Palestine and the south Samuel-Kings, and the representation of the past in the light of Phoenician coast land) and Amor (Lebanon district and beyond) the present (as exemplified in Chronicles) is a frequently recur- were under the constant supervision of Egypt, and Egyptian ring phenomenon. The critical examination of the nature and officials journeyed round to collect tribute, to attend to com- growth of this compilation has removed much that had formerly plaints, and to assure themselves of the allegiance of the vassals. caused insuperable difficulties and had quite unnecessarily been The Amarna tablets and those more recently found at Taannek made an integral or a relevant part of practical religion. On (bibl. Taanach), together with the contemporary archaeological the other hand, criticism has given a deeper eaning to the Old evidence (from Lachish, Gezer, Megiddo, Jericho, &c.), represent Testament history, and has brought into relief the central advanced conditions of life and culture, the precise chronological truths which really are vital; it may be said to have replaced limits of which cannot be determined with certainty. This a divine account of man by man's account of the divine. age, with its regular maritime intercourse between the Aegean Scholars are now almost unanimously agreed that the iniernal settlements, Phoenicia and the Delta, and with lines of caravans features are best explained by the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis. connecting Babylonia, North Syria, Arabia and Egypt, presents This involves the view that the historical traditions are mainly a remarkable picture of life and activity, in the centre of which due to two characteristic though very complicated recensions, lies Palestine, with here and there Egyptian colonies and some one under the influence of the teaching of Deuteronomy (Joshua traces of Egyptian cults. The history of this, the “ Amarna" to Kings, see § 20), the other, of a more priestly character age, reveals a state of anarchy in Palestine for which the weak- (akin to Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua, ness of Egypt and the downward pressure of north Syrian with traces in Judges to Kings, see § 23). There are, of course, numerous problems relating to the nature, limits and dates On the homogeneity of the population, see further, W. R. Smith, of the two recensions, of the incorporated sources, and of other Religion of the Semites (2nd ed., chaps. i.-iii.); T. Nöldeke, Sketches from Eastern History, pp. 1-20 (on “Some Characteristics of the sources (whether early or 'late) of independent origin; and here Semitic Race "); and especially E. Meyer, Gesch.d. Altertums (2nd ed., there is naturally room for much divergence of opinion. Older 1. $$ 330, sqq.)."'For the relation between the geographical character material (often of composite origin) has been used, not so much istics and the political history, see G. A. Smith, Historical Geography for the purpose of providing historical information, as with of the Holy Land. For fuller information on this section see Palestine: History, the object of showing the religious significance of past history; and the related portions of BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, EGYPT, * Or land Israel, W. Spiegelberg, Orient. Lit. Zeit. xi. (1908), cols. HITTITES, SYRIA. 403-405. OLD TESTAMENT HISTORYI JEWS 373 and the series Joshua-Kings is actually included among the histories of any value are necessarily compromises between the prophets ” in Jewish reckoning (see MIDRASH). In general, biblical traditions and the results of recent investigation, and those one may often observe that freedom which is characteristic of canonical representation often do greater justice to the evidence as studies which appear to depart most widely from the biblical or early and unscientific historians Thus one may note the a whole than the slighter or more conservative and apologetic reshaping of older material to agree with later thought, the reconstructions. Scientific biblical historical study, nevertheless, building up of past periods from the records of other periods, of scholars since Ewald constitute a distinct epoch, the trend of is still in a relatively backward condition, and although the labours and a frequent loss of perspective. The historical traditions research points to the recognition of the fact that the purely subjec. are to be supplemented by the great body of prophetic, legal tive literary material requires a more historical treatment in the light and poetic literature which reveal contemporary conditions in of our increasing knowledge of external and internal conditions in various internal literary, theological or sociological features. the old Oriental world. But an inductive and deductive treatment, The investigation of their true historical background and of the exist, and awaits fuller external evidence. both comprehensive and in due proportion, does not as yet (1910) trustworthiness of their external setting (e.g, titles of psalms, dates and headings of prophecies) involves a criticism of the 5. Traditions of Origin.—The Old Testament preserves the historical traditions themselves, and thus the two major classes remains of an extensive literature, representing different stand- of material must be constantly examined both separately and in points, which passed through several hands before it reached its their bearing on one another. In a word, the study of biblical present form. Surrounded by ancient civilizations where writing history, which is dependent in the first instance upon the written had long been known, and enjoying, as excavation has proved, a sources, demands constant attention to the text (which has considerable amount of material culture, Palestine could look had an interesting history) and to the literary features; and it back upon a lengthy and stirring history which, however, has requires a sympathetic acquaintance with Oriental life and rarely left its mark upon our records. Whatever ancient sources thought, both ancient and modern, an appreciation of the neces. may have been accessible, whatever trustworthy traditions were sity of employing the methods of scientific research, and (from in circulation, and whatever a knowledge of the ancient Oriental the theological side) a reasoned estimate of the dependence of world might lead one to expect, one is naturally restricted in individual religious convictions upon the letter of the Old the first instance to those undated records which have survived Testament. in the form which the last editors gave them. The critical In view of the numerous articles in this work dealing with biblical investigation of these records is the indispensable prelude to subjects, the present sketch is limited to the outlines of the tra- all serious biblical study, and hasty or sweeping deductions ditional history; the religious aspect in its bearing upon biblical from monumental or archaeological evidence, or versions com- theology (which is closely bound up with the traditions) is piled promiscuously from materials of distinct origin, are alike handled separately under HEBREW RELIGION. The related litcra. ture is enormous (see the bibliographies to the special articles); it hazardous. A glimpse at Palestine in the latter half of the is indexed annually in Orientalische Bibliographie (Berlin), and is second millennium B.c. ($ 3) prepares us for busy scenes and usefully summarized in the Theologische Jahresbericht (Berlin) On active intercourse, but it is not a history of this kind which the the development of the study of biblical history see C. A. Briggs, biblical historians themselves transmit. At an age when--on Study of Holy Scripture (1899), especially ch. xxiThe first scientific literary-critical grounds-the Old Testament writings were historical work was by H. Ewald, Gesch. d. Volkes Israel (1843: 3rd ed., 1864-1868; Eng trans., 1869-1883), popularized by Arthur assuming their present form, it was possible to divide the im- Penrhyn Stanley in his Hist. of the Jewish Church (1863-1879)., The mediately preceding centuries into three distinct periods. (a) The works of J. Wellhausen (especially Prolegomena to the Hist. of Israel, first, that of the two rival kingdoms: Israel (Ephraim or Samaria) Eng. trans., 1885, also the brilliant article" Israel "in the 9th ed. of the Ency. Brit., 1879) were epoch-making; his position was inter- in the northern half of Palestine, and Judah in the south. Then preted to English readers by W. Robertson Smith (Old Test. in (6) the former lost its independence towards the close of the 8th Jewish Church, 1881, 2nd ed., 1892; Prophets of Israel, 1882, 2nd century B.C., when a number of its inhabitants were carried ed. by T. K. Cheyne, 1902). The historical (and related) works of T K. Cheyne, IÍ. Graetz, H. Guthe, F. C. Kent, A. Kittel, W. H. away; and the latter shared the fate of exile at the beginning of Kosters, A. Kuenen, C. Piepenbring, and especially B. Stade, al- the 6th, but succeeded in making a fresh reconstruction some fiſty though varying greatly in standpoint, are among the most valuable or sixty years later. Finally (c), in the so-called “post-exilic by recent scholars; H. P Smith's Old Test. Hist. ("International period, religion and life were reorganized under the influence of a Theological Library." Edinburgh. 1903) is in many respects the new spirit; relations with Samaria were broken off, and Judaism most serviceable and complete study; a modern and more critical “Ewald " is a desideratum. For the works of numerous other took its definite character, perhaps about the middle or close scholars who have furthered Old Testament research in the past it of the 5th century. Throughout these vicissitudes there were must suffice to refer to the annotated list by J. M. P. Smith, Books important political and religious changes which render the study for 0.T. Study (Chicago, 1908). of the composite sources a work of unique difficuliy. In addition For the external history, E. Schrader. Cuneiform Inscr. and the Old Testament (Eng: trans. by 0. C. Whitehouse, 1885-1888) is still to this it should be noticed that the term “ Jew” (originally helpful; among the less technical works are J. F. McCurdy, History, Yehudi), in spite of its wider application, means properly“ man Prophecy and the Monuments; B. Paton, Syria and Palestine (1902); of Judah," i.e. of that small district which, with Jerusalem as G. Maspero, Hist. ancienne (6th ed., 1904); A. Jeremias, Alte Test. im its capital, became the centre of Judaism. The favourite name Lichte d. Alten Orients (2nd ed., 1906); and especially Altoriental. Texte u. Bilder zum Alten Test., ed. by H. Gressman, with A. Ungnad · Israel” with all its religious and national associations is some- and H. Ranke (1909). The most complete is that of Ed. Meyer, what ambiguous in an historical sketch, since, although it is used Gesch. d. Alterthums (2nd ed., 1907 sqq.). That of Jeremias follows as opposed to Judah (a), it ultimately came to designate the true upon the lines of H. Winckler, whose works depart from the some- nuclcus of the worshippers of the national god Yahweh as op- what narrow limits of purely “ Israelite " histories, emphasize the necessity of observing the characteristics of Oriental thought and posed to the Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite territory policy, and are invaluable for discriminating students. Winckler's (c). A more general term is “ Hebrew"(see HEBREW LANGUAGE), own views are condensed in the 3rd edition-a re-writing-of which, whether originally identical with the Habiru or not ($ 3), Schrader's work (Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Testament, 1903), and, with an instructive account of the history of "ancient nearer Asia," in is used in contrast to foreigners, and this non-commillal ethnic H. F. Helmolt's World's History, ii. 1-252 (1903). All modern * On the bearing of external evidence upon the internal biblical records, see especially S. R. Driver's essay in Hogarth's Authority It is useful to compare the critical study of the Koran (9.8.), and Archaeology; cf. also A. A. Bevan, Critical Review (1897). p. 406 where, however, the investigation of its various revelations $99., 1898, pp. 131 sqq.); G. B. Gray, Expositor, May 1898; W. G. simpler than that of the biblical" prophecies" on account of the Jordan, Bib. Crit. and Modern Thought (1909), pp. 42 sqq. greater wealth of independent historical tradition. See also G. B. . For the sections which follow the present writer may be per- Gray, Contemporary Review (July 1907); A. A. Bevan, Cambridge mitted to refer to his introductory contributions in the Expositor Biblical Essays (ed. Swete, 1909), pp. 1-19. (June, 1906; “ The Criticism of the O.T"); the Jewish Quarterly ? See primarily Bible: Old Testament; the articles on the con- Review (July 1905-January 1907 = Critical Notes on 0.7. History, tents and literary structure of the several books; the various bio- especially sections vii.-ix.); July and October 1907. April 1908; graphical, topographical and ethnical articles, and the separate Amer. Journ. Theol. (July 1909, Simeon and Levi: the Problem treatment of the more important subjects (e.g. LEVITES, PROPHET, of the Old Testament "); and Swete's Cambridge Bib. Essays, SACRIFICE). pp. 54-89 (" The Present Stage of 0.T. Research "). IS 374 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS later age. deserves preference where precise distinction is unnecessary or proved his supremacy. In Moses (9.0.) was seen the founder of impossible. Israel's religion and laws; in Aaron (q.v.) the prototype of the The traditions which prevailed among the Hebrews concerning Israelite priesthood. Although it is difficult to determine the their origin belong to a time when Judah and Israel were regarded true historical kernel, two features are most prominent in the as a unit Twelve divisions or tribes, of which Judah was one, narratives which the post-exilic compiler has incorporated: the held together by a traditional sentiment, were traced back to revelation of Yahweh, and the movement into Palestine. Yahweh the sons of Jacob (otherwise known as Israel), the son of Isaac had admittedly been the God of Israel's ancestors, but his name and grandson of Abraham. Their names vary in origin and was only now made known (Exod. il 13 sqq., vi. 2 seq), and this probably also in point of age, and where they represent fixed conception of a new era in Yahweh's relations with the people territorial limits, the districts so described were in some cases is associated with the family of Moses and with small groups ainly peopled by groups of non-Israelite ancestry. But as from the south of Palestine which reappear in religious move- tribal names they invited explanation, and of the many character- ments in later history (see KENITES). Amid a great variety of istic traditions which were doubtless current a number have motives the prominence of Kadesh in south Palestine is to be been preserved, though not in any very early dress. Close recognized, but it is uncertain what clans or tribes were at relationship was recognized with the Aramaeans, with Edom, Kadesh, and it is possible that traditions, originally confined to Moab and Ammon. This is characteristically expressed when those with whom the new conception of Yahweh is connected, Esau, the ancestor of Edom, is represented as the brother of were subsequently adopted by others who came to regard them- Jacob, or when Moab and Ammon are the children of Lot, Abra- selves as the worshippers of the only true Yahweh. At all ham's nephew (see GENEALOGY: Biblical). Abraham, it was events, two quite distinct views seem to underlie the opening believed, came from Harran (Carrhae), primarily from Babylonia, books of the Old Testament. The one associates itself with the and Jacob re-enters from Gilead in the north-east with his ancestors of the Hebrews and has an ethnic character. The Aramaean wives and concubines and their families (Benjamin other, part of the religious history of “ Israel,” is essentially excepted). It is on this occasion that Jacob's name is changed bound up with the religious genius of the people, and is partly to Israel. These traditions of migration and kinship are in them- connected with clans from the south of Palestine whose influence selves entirely credible, but the detailed accounts of the ancestors appears in later times. Other factors in the literary growth of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as given in Genesis, are inherently the present narratives are not excluded (see further § 8, and doubtful as regards both the internal conditions, which the (late) | EXODUS, THE).? chronological scheme ascribes to the first half of the second 6. The Monarchy of Israel.—The book of Joshua continues the millennium B.C., and the general circumstances of the life of these fortunes of the “children of Israel ” and describes a successful strangers in a foreign land. From a variety of independent occupation of Palestine by the united tribes This stands in reasons one is forced to conclude that, whatever historical striking contrast to other records of the partial successes of elements they may contain, the stories of this remote past individual groups (Judg. i.). The former, however, is based represent the form which tradition had taken in a very much upon the account of victories by the Ephraimite Joshua over confederations of petty kings to the south and north of central Opinion is at variance regarding the patriarchal narratives as a Palestine, apparently the specific traditions of the people of whole. To deny their historical character is to reject them as Ephraim describing from their standpoint the entire conquest trustworthy accounts of the age to which they are 'ascribed, and of Palestine. The book of Judges represents a period of unrest even those scholars who claim that they are essentially historical after the settlement of the people. External oppression and already go so far as to concede idealization and the possibility, or probability of later revision. The failure to apprehend historical. internal rivalries rent the Israelites, and in the religious philo- method has often led to the fallacious argument that the trust sophy of a later (Deuteronomic) age the period is represented as worthiness of individual features justifies our accepting the whole, or that the elimination of unhistorical elements will leave an historical Yahweh of the “ exodus.” Some vague recollection of known one of alternate apostasy from and of penitent return to the residuum. Here and frequently elsewhere in biblical history it is necessary to allow that a genuine historical tradition may be clothed historical events (8 3 end) might be claimed among the traditions in an unhistorical dress, but since many diverse motives are often ascribed to the closing centuries of the second millennium, but concentrated upon one narrative (e.g. Gen. xxxii. 22–32, xxxiv., the view that the prelude to the monarchy was an era when xxxviii.), the work of internal historical criticism (in view of the individual leaders “ judged ” all Israel finds no support in the scantiness of the evidence) can rarely claim finality. The patriarchal narratives themselves belong to the popular stock of tradition of older narratives, where the heroes of the age (whose correct which only a portion has been preserved. Many of the elements lie sequence is uncertain) enjoy only a local fame. The best outside questions of time and place and are almost immemorial. historical narratives belong to Israel and Gilead; Judah scarcely Some appear written for the first time in the book of Jubilees, in the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs (both perhaps 2nd appears, and in a relatively old poetical account of a great fight, century B.c.) and in later sources; and although in Genesis the of the united tribes against a northern adversary lies outside the stories are now in a post-exilic setting (a stage earlier than Jubilees), writer's horizon or interest (Judg. V., see DEBORAH). Stories the older portions may well belong to the 7th or 6th cent. This of successful warfare and of temporary leaders (see ABIMELECH; question, however, will rest upon those criteria alone which are of true chronological validity (see further Genesis). EHUD; GIDEON; JEPHTHAH) form an introduction to the institu- tion of the Israeliţe monarchy, an epoch of supreme importance The story of the settlement of the national and tribal ancestors in biblical history. The heroic figure who stands at the head in Palestine is interrupted by an account of the southward move- is Saul (“asked ”), and two accounts of his rise are recorded. ment of Jacob (or Israel) and his sons into a district under the (1) The Philistines, a foreign people whose presence in Palestine immediate influence of the kings of Egypt. After an interval ? The story of Joseph has distinctive internal features of its own, of uncertain duration we find in Exodus a numerous people, and appears to be from an independent cycle, which has been used subjected to rigorous oppression. No longer individual sons of to form a connecting link between the Settlement and the Exodus; Jacob or Israel, united tribes were led out by Moses and Aaron; see also Ed. Meyer, Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme (1906), and, after a series of incidents extending over forty years, the pp. 228; 433.; B. Luther, ibid, pp. 108 seq., 142 sqq. Neither of the poems in Deut. xxxii. seq. alludes to an escape from Egypt; Israel * children of Israel " invaded the land in which their ancestors is merely a desert tribe inspired to settle in Palestine. Apparently had lived. The traditions embodied in the books Exodus- even the older accounts of the exodus are not of very great anti- Joshua are considerably later than the apparent date of the quity, according to Jeremiah ii . 2, 7 (cf. Hos. ii. 15) some traditions events themselves, and amid the diverse and often conflicting light; for the "canonical" view, see Ezekiel xvi., xx., xxiii. of the wilderness must have represented Israel in a very favourable data it is possible to recognize distinct groups due to some extent 3 The capture of central Palestine itself is not recorded; ac- to distinct historical conditions. The story of the " exodus" is cording to its own traditions the district had been seized by Jacob that of the religious birth of “ Israel," joined by covenant with (Gen. xlviii. 22; cf. the late form of the tradition in Jubilees xxxiv.). the national god Yahweh' whose aid in times of peril and need narratives of the descent of Jacob into Egypt, &c. (see Meyer and This conception of a conquering hero is entirely distinct from the "On the name see JEHOVAH, TETRAGRAMMATON. Luther, op. cil. pp. 110, 227 seq., 415, 433). " OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY) JEWS 375 sources. has already been noticed, had oppressed Israel (cf. SAMSON) until | Amarna tablets may indicate the worship of a Babylonian war a brilliant victory was gained by the prophet Samuel, some and astral god (cf. the solar name Beth-Shemesh). Such was the account of whose early history is recorded. He himself held religious environment of the ancient city which was destined to supreme sway over all Israel as the last of the “ judges" until become the centre of Judaism. Judaean tradition dated the compelled to accede to the popular demand for a king. The sanctity of Jerusalem from the installation of the ark, a sacred young Saul was chosen by lot and gained unanimous recognition movable object which symbolized the presence of Yahweh. It by delivering Jabesh in Gilead from the Ammonites. (2) But is associated with the half-nomad clans in the south of Palestine, other traditions represent the people scattered and in hiding; or with the wanderings of David and his own priest Abiathar; Israel is groaning under the Philistine yoke, and the unknown it is ultimately placed within the newly captured city. Quite Saul is raised up by Yahweh'to save his people. This he accom- another body of tradition associates it with the invasion of all plishes with the help of his son Jonathan. The first account, the tribes of Israel from beyond the Jordan (see Ark). To although now essential to the canonical history, clearly gives combine the heterogeneous narratives and isolated statements a less authentic account of the change from the“ judges to the into a consecutive account is impossible; to ignore those which monarchy, while the second is fragmentary and can hardly be conflict with the now predominating views would be unmetho- fitted into the present historical thread (see SAUL). At all events dical. When the narratives describe the life of the young David the first of a series of annalistic notices of the kings of Israel at the court of the first king of the northern kingdom, when the ascribes to Saul conquests over the surrounding peoples to an scenes cover the district which he took with the sword, and when extent which implies that the district of Judah formed part of the brave Saul is represented in an unfavourable light, one must his kingdom (1 Sam. xiv. 47 seq). His might is attested also by allow for the popular tendency to idealize great figures, and for the fine elegy (2 Sam. i. 19 sqq.) over the death of two great the Judaean origin of the compilation. To David is ascribed Israelite heroes, Saul and Jonathan, knit together by mutual love, the sovereignty over a united people. But the stages in his inseparable in life and death, whose unhappy end after a career progress are not clear. After being the popular favourite of of success was a national misfortune. Disaster had come upon Israel in the little district of Benjamin, he was driven away by the north, and the plain of Jezreel saw the total defeat of the the jealousy and animosity of Saul. Gradually strengthening king and the rout of his army. The court was hastily removed his position by alliance with Judaean clans, he became king at across the Jordan to Mahanaim, where Saul's son Ishbaal Hebron at the time when Israel suffered defeat in the north. (Ish-bosheth), thanks to his general Abner, recovered some of the His subsequent advance to the kingship over Judah and Israel lost prestige. In circumstances which are not detailed, the at Jerusalem is represented as due to the weak condition of kingdom seems to have regained its strength, and Ishbaal is Israel, facilitated by the compliance of Abner; partly, also, to credited with a reign of two years over Israel and Gilead (2 Sam. the long-expressed wish of the Israelites that their old hero should ii. 8-10; contrast v. 11). But at this point the scanty annals are reign over them. Yet again, Saul had been chosen by Yahweh suspended and the history of the age is given in more popular to free his people from the Philistines; he had been rejected for Both Israel and Judah had their own annals, brief his sins, and had suffered continuously from this enemy; Israel excerpts from which appear in the books of Samuel, Kings and at his death was left in the unhappy state in which he had found Chronicles, and they are supplemented by fuller narratives of dis- it; it was the Judaean David, the faithful servant of Yahweh, tinct and more popular origin. The writings are the result of a who was now chosen to deliver Israel, and to the last the people continued literary process, and the Israelite national history has gratefully remembered their debt. David accomplished the come down to us through Judaean hands, with the result that much conquests of Saul but on a grander scale; “ Saul hath slain his of it has been coloured by late Judaean feeling. It is precisely thousands and David his tens of thousands ” is the popular in Saul's time that the account of the Judaean monarchy, or couplet comparing the relative merits of the rival dynasts. A perhaps of the monarchy from the Judaean standpoint, now series of campaigns against Edom, Moab, Ammon and the begins. Aramaean states, friendly relations with Hiram of Tyre, and 7. The Monarchy of Judah.-Certain traditions of Judah and the recognition of his sovereignty by the king of Hamath Jerusalem appear to have looked back upon a movement from on the Orontes, combine to portray a monarchy which was the the south, traces of which underlie the present account of the ideal. exodus." The land was full of " sons of Anak," giants who had But in passing from the books of Samuel, with their many rich terrified the scouts sent from Kadesh. Caleb (9.v.) alone had and vivid narratives, to the books of Kings, we enter upon distinguished himself by his fearlessness, and the clan Caleb another phase of literature; it is a different atmosphere, due to drove them out from Hebron in south Judah (Josh. xv. 14 sqq.; the character of the material and the aims of other compilers cf. also xi. 21 seq.). David and his followers are found in the (see § 9 beginning). David, the conqueror, was followed by his south of Hebron, and as they advanced northwards they en- son Solomon, famous for his wealth, wisdom and piety, above all countered wondrous heroes between Gath and Jerusalem (2 Sam. for the magnificent Temple which he built at Jerusalem. Phoe- xxi. 15 sqq.; xxiii. 8 sqq.). After strenuous fighting the district nician artificers were enlisted for the purpose, and with Phoenician was cleared, and Jerusalem, taken by the sword, became the sailors successful trading-journeys were regularly undertaken. capital. History saw in David the head of a lengthy line of Commercial intercourse with Asia Minor, Arabia, Tarshish kings, the founder of the Judaean monarchy, the psalmist and (probably in Spain) and Ophir (9.0.) filled his coffers, and his the priest-king who inaugurated religious institutions now realm extended from the Euphrates to the border of Egypt. recognized to be of a distinctly later character. As a result of Tradition depicts him as a worthy successor to his father, and this backward projection of later conceptions, the recovery of represents a state of luxury and riches impressive to all who were the true historical nucleus is difficult. The prominence of Jeru: familiar with the great Oriental courts. The commercial activity salem, the centre of post-exilic Judaism, necessarily invited of the king and the picture of intercourse and wealth are quite reflection. Israelite tradition had ascribed the conquest of in accordance with what is known of the ancient monarchies, Jerusalem, Hebron and other cities of Judah to the Ephraimite and could already be illustrated from the Amarna age. Judah Joshua; Judaean tradition, on the other hand, relates the capture and Israel dwelt at ease, or held the superior position of military of the sacred city from a strange and hostile people (2 Sam. v.). officials, while the earlier inhabitants of the land were put to The famous city, within easy reach of the southern desert and forced labour. But another side of the picture shows the central Palestine (to Hebron and to Samaria the distances are domestic intrigues which darkened the last days of David. The about 18 and 35 miles respectively), had already entered into Pales- accession of Solomon had not been without bloodshed, and tinian history in the“ Amarna "age ($3). Anathoth, a few miles Judah, together with David's old general Joab and his faithful to the north-east, points to the cult of the goddess Anath, the priest Abiathar, were opposed to the son of a woman who had near-lying Nob has suggested the name of the Babylonian Nebo, been the wife of a Hittite warrior. The era of the Temple of and the neighbouring, though unidentified, Beth-Ninib of the Jerusalem starts with a new régime, another captain of the army 376 [OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS ) and another priest. Nevertheless, the enmity of Judah is passed (b) the exodus from Egypt and the Israelite invasion, and (c) the over, and when the kingdom is divided for administrative pur-suggested to scholars that there were Israelites in Palestine before rise of the monarchy. As regards (b), external evidence has already poses into twelve districts, which ignore the tribal divisions, the invasion; internal historical criticism is against the view that all the centre of David's early power is exempt from the duty the tribes entered under Joshua; and in (a) there are traces of an of providing supplies (1 Kings iv.). Yet again, the approach of actual settlement in the land, entirely distinct from the cycle of the divided monarchy is foreshadowed. The employment of narratives which prepare the way for (b). The various reconstruc- Judaeans and Israelites for Solomon's palatial buildings, and the tions and compromises by modern apologetic and critical writers alike involve without exception an extremely free treatment of the heavy taxation for the upkeep of a court which was the wonder biblical sources and the rejection of many important and circum- of the world, caused grave internal discontent. External rela- stantial data. On the one hand, a sweeping invasion of all the tions, too, were unsatisfactory. The omites, who had been tribes of Israel moved by a common zeal may, like the conquests of almost extirpated by David in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead Islam, have produced permanent results. According to this view the enervating luxury of Palestinian culture almost destroyed Sea, were now strong enough to seek revenge; and the powerful the lofty ideal monotheism inculcated in the desert, and after the kingdom of Damascus, whose foundation is ascribed to this fall of the northern tribes (latter part of the 8th cent.) Judah is period, began to threaten Israel on the north and north-east. naturally regarded as the sole heir. But such a conquest, and all that it signihes, conflict both with external evidence (e g. the results These troubles, we learn, had affected all Solomon's reign, and of excavation), and with any careful inspection of the narratives even Hiram appears to have acquired a portion of Galilee. In themselves. On the other hand, the reconstructions which allow a the approaching disruption writers saw the punishment for the gradual settlement (perhaps of distinct groups), and an intermingling king's apostasy, and they condemn the sanctuaries in Jerusalem with the earlier inhabitants, certainly find support in biblical which he erected to the gods of his heathen wives. Nevertheless, tribal and other data (e.g. Gen. xxxiv., xxxviii.; Judg. i. ix.). But evidence, and they have been ingeniously built up with the help of these places of cult remained some 300 years until almost the they imply political, sociological and religious developments which close of the monarchy, when their destruction is attributed to do not do justice either to the biblical evidence as a whole or to a Josiah (§ 16). When at length Solomon died the opportunity comprehensive survey of contemporary conditions. Thus, one of was at once seized to request from his son Rehoboam a more the important questions is the relation between those who had taken part in the exodus and the invasion and those who had not. This generous treatment. The reply is memorable:“ My little finger | Inquiry is further complicated by (c), where the history of Israel and is thicker than my father's loins; my father chastised you with Judah, as related in Judges and 1 Samuel, has caused endless whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions.” These words were perplexity. The traditions of the Ephraimite Joshua and of Saul calculated to infiame a people whom history proves to have been the first king of (north) Israel yirtually treat Judah as part of Israel and are related to the underlying representations in (a). But haughty and high-spirited, and the great Israel renounced its the specific independent Judaean standpoint treats the unification union with the small district of Judah. Jeroboam (9.v.), once one of the two divisions as the work of David who leaves the heritage of Solomon's officers, became king over the north, and thus the to Solomon. The varied narratives, now due to Judaean editors, history of the divided monarchy begins (about 930 B.C.) with the preserve. distinct points of view, and it is extremely difficult to unravel the threads and to determine their relative position in the Israelite power on both sides of the Jordan and with Judah history. Finally, the consciousness that the people as a religious extending southwards from a point a few miles north of Jerusalem. body owed everything to the desert clans (b) (see § 5) subsequently leaves its mark upon (north) Israelite history (s 14), but has not the 8. Problems of the Earliest History:,-Biblical history previous to profound significance which it has in the records of Judah, and the separation of Judah and Israel holds a prominent place in current Jerusalem. Without sufficient external and independent evidence ideas, since over two-fifths of the entire Old Testament deals with wherewith to interpret in the light of history the internal ſeatures these early ages. The historical sources for the crucial period, from of the intricate narratives, any reconstruction would naturally be the separation to the fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), occupy only about hazardous, and all attempts must invariably be considered in the one-twelfth, and even of this about one-third is spread over some light of the biblical evidence itself, the date of the Israelite exodus, fifteen years (see below, $ 11). From the flourishing days of the later and the external conditions. Biblical criticism is concerned with a monarchy and onwards, different writers handled the early history composite (Judaean) history based upon other histories (partly of of their land from different standpoints. The feeling of national non-Judaean origin), and the relation between native written unity between north and south would require historical treatment, sources and external contemporary evidence (monumental and the existence of rival monarchies would demand an explanation. archaeological) distinctly forbids any haphazard selection from But the surviving material is extremely uneven; vital events in accessible sources. The true nature of this relation can be readily these centuries are treated with a slightness in striking contrast to observed in other fields (ancient Britain, Greece, Egypt, &c.), the relatively detailed evidence for the preceding period-evidence, where, however, the native documents and sources have not that however, which is far from being contemporary. Where the material is fuller, serious discrepancies are found; and where external complexity which characterizes the composite biblical history. (For evidence is fortunately available, the independent character of the evidence, see Palestine: History ) the period under review, as it appears in the light of existing external biblical history is vividly illustrated. The varied traditions up to this stage cannot be regarded as objective history. It is naturally 9. The Rival Kingdoms.-The Palestine of the Hebrews was impossible to treat them from any modern standpoint as fiction: but part of a great area breathing the same atmosphere, and there they are honest even where they are most untrust worthy. But the was little to disunguish Judah from Israel except when they were recovery of successive historical nuclei does not furnish a continuous distinci political entities. The history of the two kingdoms is thread, and if one is to be guided by the historical context of events the true background to each nucleus must be sought. The northern contained in Kings and the later and relatively less trustworthy. kingdom cherished the institution of a monarchy, and in this, as in Chronicles, which deals with Judah alone. In the former a all great political events, the prophets took part.' The precise part separate history of the northern kingdom has been combined these figures play is often idealized and expresses the later views of with Judaean history by means of synchronisms in accordance their prominence. It was only after a bitter experience that the kingship was no longer regarded as a divine gift, and traditions.have with a definite scheme. The 480 years from the foundation of the been revised in order to illustrate the opposition to secular authority. temple of Jerusalem back to the date of the exodus (1 Kings vi. 1) In this and in many other respects the records of the first monarchy corresponds to the period forward 10 the relurn from the exile have been elaborated and now reveal traces of differing conceptions ($ 20). This falls into three equal divisions, of which the first of the events (see DAN, DAVID, ELI; SAMUEL; SAUL; SOLOMON). The oldest narratives are not in their original contexts, and they ends with Jehoash's temple-reforms and the second with Heze- contain features which render it questionable whether a very trust- kiah's death. The kingdom of Israel lasts exactly half the time. worthy recollection of the period was retained. Although ihe rise "This is especially true of the various ingenious attempts to com. of the Hebrew state, at an age when the great powers were quiescent bine the invasion of the Israelites with the movements of the Habiru and when such a people as the Philistines is known to have appeared in the Amarna period ($ 3). upon the scene, is entirely intelligible, it is not improbable that ? cf. Winckler, Keil. u. das Alle Tesl. p. 212 seq.; also his “Der alte legends of Saul and David, the heroic ſounders of the two kingdoms, Orient und die Geschichtsforschung "in Milleilungen der Vorderasial. have been put in a historical setting with the help of later historical Gesellschaft (Berlin, 1906) and Religionsgeschichtlicher u. gesch. Orenl tradition. 'It is at least necessary to distinguish provisionally (Leipzig. 1906), A. Jeremias, Alle Test. (p. 464 seq.), B. Baentsch, between a possibly historical framework and narratives which may Altonent. u. israel. Monotheismus (pp. 53, 79. 105. &c.); also Theolog; be of later growth-between the general outlines which only external Lil. Blall (1907) No 19. On the reconstructions of the tribal evidence can test and details which cannot be tested and appear history, see especially T K. Cheyne, Ency. Bıb, art. “ Tribes.". The isolated without any cause or devoid of any effect. most suggestive study of the pre-monarchical narratives is that of Many attempts have been made to present a satisfactory sketch E. Meyer and B. Luther (above, see the former's criticisms on the of the early history and to do justice to (e) the patriarchal narratives, I reconstructions, pp. 50, 251 sqq., 422, n. 1 and passim). 3 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY) JEWS 377 Of the 240 years from Jeroboam I., 80 elapse before the Syrian short-lived dynasty resembles that of his predecessors. His son wars in Ahab's reign, these cover another 80; the famous king Elah had reigned only two years (like Ishbaal and Nadab) when Jeroboam II. reigns 40 years, and 40 years of decline bring the he was slain in the midst of a drunken carousal by his captain kingdom to an end. These figures speak for themselves, and the Zimri. Meanwhile the Israelite army was again besieging the présent chronology can be accepted only where it is indepen- Philistines at Gibbethon, and the recurrence of these conflicts dently proved to be trustworthy (see further W. R. Smith, points to a critical situation in a Danite locality in which Judah Prophets of Israel, pp. 144-149). Next, the Judaean compiler itself (although ignored by the writers), must have been vitally regularly finds in Israel's troubles the punishment for its schis- concerned. The army preferred their general Omri, and march- matic idolatry; nor does he spare Judah, but judges its kings by ing upon Zimri at Tirzah burnt the palace over his head. A a standard which agrees with the standpoint of Deuteronomy fresh rival immediately appeared, the otherwise unknown Tibni, and is scarcely earlier than the end of the 7th century B.C. son of Ginath. Israel was divided into two camps, until, on the (S$ 16, 20). But the history of (north) Israel had naturally its death of Tibni and his brother Joram, Omri became sole king own independent political backgrounds and the literary sources (c. 887 B.C.). The scanty details of these important events contain the same internal features as the annals and prophetic must naturally be contrasted with the comparatively full narratives which are already met with in 1 Samuel. Similarly accounts of earlier Philistine wars and internal conflicts in the thread of the Judaean annals in Kings is also found in narratives which date from this or even a later age. 2 Samuel, although the supplementary narratives in Kings are not 10. The Dynasty of Omri.- Omri (q.v.), the founder of one of so rich or varied as the more popular records in the preceding the greatest dynasties of Israel, was contemporary with the books. The striking differences between Samuel and Kings are revival of Tyre under Ithobaal, and the relationship between due to differences in the writing of the history; independent the states is seen in the marriage of Omri's son Ahab to Jezebel, Israelite records having been incorporated with those of Judah the priest-king's daughter. His most notable recorded achieve- and supplemented (with revision) from the Judaean standpoint ment was the subjugation of Moab and the seizure of part of its (see CHRONICLES; KINGS; SAMUEL). territory. The discovery of the inscription of a later king of The Judaean compiler, with his history of the two kingdoms, Moab (9.0.) has proved that the east-Jordanic tribes were no looks back upon the time when each laid the foundation of its uncivilized or barbaric folk; material wealth, a considerable subsequent fortunes. His small kingdom of Judah enjoyed an religious and political organization, and the cultivation of unbroken dynasty which survived the most serious crises, a letters (as exemplified in the style of the inscription) portray temple which grew in splendour and wealth under royal patron- conditions which allow us to form some conception of life in age, and a legitimate priesthood which owed its origin to Israel itself. Moreover, Judah (now under Jehoshaphat) enjoyed Zadok, the successful rival of David's priest Abiathar. Israel, intimate relations with Israel during Omri's dynasty, and the on the other hand, had signed its death-warrant by the institu- traditions of intermarriage, and of co-operation in commerce and tion of calf-cult, a cult which, however, was scarcely recognized war, imply what was practically a united Palestine. Alliance as contrary to the worship of Yahweh before the denunciations with Phoenicia gave the impulse to extended intercourse; trading of Hosea. The scantiness of political information and the dis- expeditions were undertaken from the Gulf of Akaba, and Ahab tinctive arrangement of material preclude the attempt to trace built himself a palace decorated with ivory. The cult of the Baal the relative position of the two rivals. Judah had natural of Tyre followed Jezebel to the royal city Samaria and even found connexions with Edom and southern Palestine; Israel was more its way into Jerusalem. This, the natural result of matrimonial closely associated with Gilead and the Aramacans of the north. and political alliance, already met with under Solomon, receives That Israel was the stronger may be suggested by the acquies the usual denunciation. The conflict between Yahweh and Baal cence of Judah in the new situation. A diversion was caused and the defeat of the latter are the characteristic notes of the by Shishak's invasion, but of this reappearance of Egypt after religious history of the period, and they leave their impression nearly three centuries of inactivity little is preserved in biblical upon the records, which are now more abundant. Although history. Only the Temple records recall the spoliation of the little is preserved of Omri's history, the fact that the northern sanctuary of Jerusalem, and traditions of Jeroboam I. show kingdom long continued to be called by the Assyrians aſter his that Shishak's prominence was well known. Although both name is a significant indication of his great reputation. Assyria? kingdoms suffered, common misfortune did not throw them was now making itself felt in the west for the first time since the together. On the contrary, the statement that there was con- days of Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. 1100 B.C.), and external sources come tinual warfare is supplemented in Chronicles by the story of a to our aid. Assur-nazir-pal III. had exacted tribute from north victory over Israel by Abijah the son of Rehoboam. Jeroboam's Syria (c. 870 B.C.), and his successor Shalmaneser II., in the son Nadab perished in a conspiracy whilst besieging the Philistine course of a series of expeditions, succeeded in gaining the greater city of Gibbethon, and Baasha of (north) Israel scized the throne. part of that land. A defensive coalition was formed in which His reign is noteworthy for the entrance of Damascus into the kings of Cilicia, Hamath, the Phoenician coast, Damascus Palestinian politics. Its natural fertility and its commanding and Ammon, the Arabs of the Syrian desert, and Ahabbu position at the meeting-place of trade-routes from every quarter Sirlai” were concerned. In the last, we must recognize the made it a dominant factor until its overthrow. In the absence Israelite Ahab. His own contribution of 10,000 men and 12,000 of its native records its relations with Palestine are not always chariots perhaps included levies from Judah and Moab (cf. for the clear, but it may be supposed that amid varying political changes number 1 Kings x. 26). In 854 the allies at least maintained it was able to play a double game. According to the annals, themselves at the battle of Karkar (perhaps Apamea to the north incessant war prevailed between Baasha and Abijah's successor, of Hamath). In 849 and 846 other indecisive battles were fought, Asa. It is understood that the former was in league with but the precise constitution of the coalition is not recorded. In Damascus, which had once been hostile to Solomon (1 Kings 842 Shalmaneser records a campaign against Hazael of Damascus; xi. 24 seq.)—it is not stated upon whom Asa could rely. How- no coalition is mentioned, although a battle was fought at Sanir ever, Baasha at length seized Ramah about five miles north of (Hermon, Deut. iii. 9), and the cities of Hauran to the south of Jerusalem, and the very existence of Judah was threatened. Asa Damascus were spoiled. Tribute was received from Tyre and utilized the treasure of the Temple and palace to induce the Sidon; and Jehu, who was now king of Israel, sent his giſts of Syrians to break off their relations with Baasha. These sent gold, silver, &c., to the conqueror. The Assyrian inscription troops to harry north Israel, and Baasha was compelled to retire. (the so-called “Black Obelisk now in the British Museum), Asa, it is evident, was too weak to achieve the remarkable victory which records the submission of the petty kings, gives an inter- ascribed to him in 2 Chron. xiv. (see Asa). As for Baasha, his esting representation of the humble Israelite emissaries with 12 Chron. xii. 8, which is independent of the chronicler's artificial their long fringed robes and strongly marked physiognomy (see treatment of his material, apparently points to some tradition of Costume, fig. 9). . Yet another expedition in 839 would seem to Egyptian suzerainty. 2 See for chronology, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, 88 v. and viïi. 9) 378 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS show that Damascus was neither crushed nor helpless, but thence- , work of the prophets, and sometimes purely political records appear forth for a number of years Assyria was fully occupied elsewhere to have been used for the purpose (see Elijah; Elisha). Ir Elijah and the west was left to itself. The value of this external evi- prophet of Jehu and his successors; and it is extremely probable is the prophet of the fall of Omri's dynasty, Elisha is no less the dence for the history of Israel is enhanced by the fact that biblical that his lifework was confined to the dynasty which he inaugurated.” tradition associates the changes in the thrones of Israel and In the present narratives, however, the stories in which he possesses Damascus with the work of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, but influence with king and court are placed before the rise of Jehu, handles the period without a single reference to the Assyrian he foresees the atrocities which Hazael will perpetrate. But Ahab's and some of them point to a state of hostility with Damascus before Empire. Ahab, it seems, had aroused popular resentment by wars with Syria can with difficulty be reconciled with the Assyrian encroaching upon the rights of the people to their landed posses- evidence (see Anal), and the narratives, largely anonymous, agree sions; had it not been for Jezebel (9.0.) the tragedy of Naboth in a singular manner with what is known of the serious conflicts would not have occurred. The worship of Baal of Tyre roused which, it is said, began in Jehu's time. Moreover, the account of the joint undertaking by Judah (under Jehoshaphat) and Israel against a small circle of zealots, and again the Phoenician marriage was Syria at Ramoth-Gilead at the time of Ahab's death, and again the cause of the evil. We read the history from the point of (under Ahaziah) when Jehoram was wounded, shortly before the view of prophets. Elijah of Gilead led the revolt. To one who accession of Jchu, are historical doublets, and they can hardly be harmonized either with the known events of 854 and 842 or with favoured simplicity of cult the new worship was a desecration of the course of the intervening years. Further, all the traditions Yahweh, and, braving the anger of the king and queen, he fore point clearly to the very close union of Israel and ludah at this shadowed their fate. Hostility towards the dynasty culminated period, a union which is apt to be obscured by the fact that the a few years later in a conspiracy which placed on the throne the annalistic summaries of each kingdom are mainly independent. general Jehu, the son of one Jehoshaphat (or, otherwise, of with the condemnation passed upon Ahab and Jezebel, whose Thus we may contrast the favourable Judaean view of Jehoshaphat Nimshi). The work which Elijah began was completed by daughter Athaliah married Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. It is Elisha, who supported Jehu and the new dynasty. A massacre noteworthy, also, that an Ahaziah and a Jehoram appear as kings of ensued in which the royal families of Israel and Judah perished. incidents recur in the now separate histories of the two kingdoms. Israel, and (in the reverse order) of Judah, and somewhat similar While the extirpation of the cult of Baal was furthered in Israel The most striking is a great revolt in south Palestine. The alliance by Jonadab the Rechabite, it was the “people of the land ” who between Jehoshaphat and Ahab doubtless continued when the latter undertook a similar reform in Judah. Jehu (q.v.) became king was succeeded by his son Ahaziah, and some disaster befell their as the champion of the purer worship of Yahweh. The descen- trading fleet in the Gulf of Akaba (1 Kings xxii. 48 seq. ; 2 Chron. xx. dants of the detested Phoenician marriage were rooted out, and after the briefest of reigns, was followed by Jehoram, whose Judaean 35-37). Next came the revolt of Moab (2 Kings i. 1), and Ahaziah, unless the close intercourse between Israel and Judah had been contemporary was Jehoshaphat (ch. iii.), or perhaps rather his own suddenly broken, it would be supposed that the new king at namesake (i. 17). The popular story of Jehoram's campaign against least laid claim to the south. The events form one of the Moab, with which Edom was probably allied (see Moab), hints at a disastrous ending, and the Judacan annals, in their turn, record the fundamental problems of biblical history. revolt of Edom and the Philistine Libnah (see PHILISTINES), and allude 11. Damascus, Israel and Judah.—The appearance of Assyria obscurely to a defeat of the Judaean Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20–22). in the Mediterranean coast-lands had produced the results Further details in 2 Chron. xxi.-xxii. I even record an invasion of which inevitably follow when a great empire comes into contact Philistines and Arabians (? Edomites), an attack upon Jerusalem, the removal of the palace treasures and of all the royal sons with the with minor states. It awakened fresh possibilities--successful sole exception of Jehoahaz, i.e. Ahaziah (see JEHORAM; JEHOSHA- combination against a common foe, the sinking of petty rivalries, phat). Had the two kingdoms been under a single head, these the chance of gaining favour by a neutrality which was scarcely features might find an explanation, but it must be allowed that it is benevolent. The alliances, counter-alliances and far-reaching history, and to determine where the line is to be drawn between extremely difficult to fit the general situation into our present political combinations which spring up at every advance of the trustworthy and untrustworthy details. Morcover, of the various greater powers are often perplexing in the absence of records of accounts of the massacre of the princes of Judah, the Judaean the states concerned. Even the biblical traditions alone do not ascribes it not to Jehu and the reforming party (2 Kings x, 13 seq.) always represent the same attitude, and our present sources pre- but to Athaliah (q.v.). Only the babe Jehoash was saved, and he remained hidden in the Temple adjoining the palace itself. The serve the work of several hands. Hazael of Damascus, Jehu of queen, Athaliah, despite the weak state of Judah after the revolt Israel and Elisha the prophet are the three men of the new age in Philistia and Edom, actually appears to have maintained herself linked together in the words of one writer as though commissioned for six years, until the priests slew her in a conspiracy, overthrew the cult of Baal, and crowned the for like ends (1 Kings xix. 15-17). Hostility to Phoenicia (i.e. child. young It is a new source which is here suddenly introduced, belonging apparently to a history of the the Baal of Tyre) is as intelligible as a tendency to look to Ara- Temple; it throws no light upon the relations between Judah with maean neighbours. Though Elisha sent to anoint Jehu as king, its priests and Israel with its prophets, the circumstances of the he was none the less on most intimate terms with Bar-hadad regency under the priest Jehoiada are ignored, and the Temple re- (Old. Test. Ben-hadad) of Damascus and recognized Hazael as forms occupy the first place in the compiler's interest. The Judaean annals then relate Hazael's advance to Gath; the city was captured its future ruler. It is a natural assumption that Damascus and Jerusalem was saved only by using the Temple and palace could still count upon Israel as an ally in 842; not until the with- treasure as a bribe. On the other hand, Chron les ha a different drawal of Assyria and the accession of Jehu did the situation story with a novel prelude. Jehoash, it is said, turned away from change. “In those days Yahweh began to cut short” (or, Yahweh after the death of Jehoiada and gave heed to the Judaean nobles, " wrath came upon Judah and Jerusalem for their guilt," altering the text, to be angry with”) “ Israel.” This brief prophets were sent to bring them back but they turned a deaf ear. notice heralds the commencement of Hazael's attack upon The climax of iniquity was the murder of Jehoiada's son Zechariah. Israelite territory east of the Jordan (2 Kings x. 32). The origin Soon after, a small band of Syrians entered Judah, destroyed its of the outbreak is uncertain. It has been assumed that Israel princes, and sent the spoil to the king of Damascus; the disaster is Chron. xxiv.). The inferiority of had withdrawn from the great coalition, that Jehu sent tribute Chronicles as a historical source and its varied examples of " ten. regarded as a prompt retribution to Shalmaneser to obtain that monarch's recognition, and that dency-writing must be set against its possible access to traditions Hazael consequently seized the first opportunity to retaliate. Certain traditions, it is true, indicate that Israel had been at war of contact with those of Saul in 1 Samuel, and the relation is highly with the Aramaeans from before 854 to 842, and that Hazael suggestive for the study of their growth, as also for the perspective of the various writers. was attacking Gilead at the time when Jehu revolted; but in ? See W. R. Smith (after Kuenen), Ency. Bib., col. 2670; also the midst of these are other traditions of the close and friendly W. E. Addis, ib., 1276, the commentaries of Benzinger (p. 130) and relations between Israel and Damascus! With these perplexing Kittel (pp. 153 seq.) on Kings: J. S. Strachan, Hastings's Dici. Bible, data the position of Judah is inextricably involved. i. 694; G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. of Holy Land, P: 582; König and The special points which have to be noticed in the records for Hirsch, Jew. Ency. v. 137 seq. (* legend...as indifferent to accuracy this brief period (1 Kings xvii.-2 Kings xi.) concern both literary in dates as it is to definiteness of places and names "); W. R. Harper, and historical criticism. 1 A number of narratives illustrate the Anos and Hosea, p. xli. seq. (“ the lack of chronological order the result is to create a wrong impression of Elisha's career."); See Jew. Quart. Rev. (1908), pp. 597-630. The independent | The bearing of this displacement upon the literary and historical Israelite traditions which here become more numerous have points criticism of the narratives has never been worked out. 1. OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY) JEWS 379 as trustworthy as those in Kings. In the present instance the | Assyria and Damascus would realize the recuperative power of novel details cannot be lightly brushed aside. The position of Judah at this period must be estimated (@) from the preceding the latter, and would perceive the danger of the short-sighted years of intimate relationship with Israel to the accession of Jehu, and policy of Joash. It is interesting to find that Hadad-nirari (b) from the calamity about half a century later when Jerusalem claims tribute from Tyre, Sidon and Beth-Omri (Israel), also was sacked by Israel. The Judacan narratives do not allow us to from Edom and Palaštu (Philistia). There are no signs of an fill the gap or to determine whether Judaean policy under the regent extensive coalition as in the days of Shalmaneser; Ammon is Jehoiada would be friendly or hostile to Israel, of whether. Judaean probably included under Damascus; the position of Moab- nobles may have severed the earlier bond of union. latter actually occurred, the hostility of the Israelite prophets is only to be which had freed itself from Jehoram of Israel-can hardly be expected. But it is to be presumed that the punishment came from calculated. But the absence of Judah is surprising. Both Israel-the use of Syrian mercenaries not excluded-and if, instead of using his treasure to ward off the invasion of Syria, Jehoash bribed Jehoash (of Judah) and his son Amaziah left behind them a great Damascus to break off relations with Israel, an alternative explana- name; and the latter was comparable only to David (2 Kings tion of the origin of the Aramaean wars may be found.2 xiv. 3). He defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt, and hence it 12. The Aramaean Wars.-If the records leave it uncertain (a) is conceivable that Amaziah's kingdom extended over both Edom whether Jehu (like Tyre and Sidon) sent tribute to Shalmaneser and Philistia. A vaunting challenge to Joash (of Israel) gave as a sign of submission or, while severing relations with Hazael, rise to one of the two fables that are preserved in the Old Testa- sought the favour of Assyria, and (6) whether Judah only es- ment (Judg. ix. 8 sqq.; see ABIMELECH). It was followed by caped Hazael's vengeance by a timely bribe or, in freeing itself a battle at Beth-shemesh; the scene would suggest that Philistia from Israel, had bribed Hazael to create a diversion, it appears also was involved. The result was the route of Judah, the capture that the southern kingdom suffered little in the disastrous wars of Amaziah, the destruction of the northern wall of Jerusalem, the between Damascus and Israel. There were, indeed, internal sacking of the temple and palace, and the removal of hostages to troubles, and Jehoash perished in a conspiracy. His son Samaria (2 Kings xiv. 12 sqq.). Only a few words are preserved, Amaziah had some difficulty in gaining the kingdom and showed but the details, when carefully weighed, are extremely significant. unwonted leniency in sparing the children of his father's mur- This momentous event for the southern kingdom was scarcely derers. This was a departure from the customs of the age, and the outcome of a challenge to a trial of strength; it was rather the was perhaps influenced less by generosity than by expediency. sequel to a period of smouldering jealousy and hostility, Israel, on the other hand, was almost annihilated. The Syrians The Judaean records have obscured the history since the days of seized Gilead, crossed over into Palestine, and occupied the land. Omri's dynasty, when Israel and Judah were as one, when they Jehu's son Jehoahaz saw his army made" like the dust in thresh- only Israel's vengeance gives the measure of the injuries she had were moved by common aims and by a single reforming zeal, and ing," and the desperate condition of the country recalls the received. That the Judaean compiler has not given fuller informa- straits in the time of Saul (1 Sam. xiii. 6,7, 19-22), and the days tion is not surprising; the wonder is that he should have given so , before the great overthrow of the northern power as described much. It is one of those epoch-making facts in the light of which in Judges v. 6-8. The impression left by the horrors of the the course of the history of the preceding and following years must be estimated. It is taken, strangely enough, from an Israelite age is clear from the allusions to the barbarities committed by source, but the tone of the whole is quite dispassionate and objective. Damascus and its Ammonite allies upon Gilead (Amos i. 3, 13), It needs little reflection to perceive that the position of Jerusalem and in the account of the interview between Elisha and Hazael and Judah was now hardly one of independence, and the conflicting (2 Kings viii. 12). Several of the situations can be more vividly of Judacan history. So, on the one hand, the year of the disaster chronological notices betray the attempt to maintain intact the thread realized from the narratives of Syrian wars ascribed to the time sees the death of the Israelite king, and Amaziah survives for fifteen of Omri's dynasty, even if these did not originally refer to the years, while, on the other, twenty-seven years elapse between the later period. Under Joash, son of Jehoahaz, the tide turned. battle and the accession of Uzziah, the next king of Judah.3 Elisha was apparently the champion, and posterity told of his between Damascus, Israel and Judah is clear. The defeat of Syria The importance of the historical questions regarding relations exploits when Samaria was visited with the sword. Thrice by Joash (of Israel) was not final. The decisive victories were Joash smote the Syrians-in accordance with the last words of gained by Jeroboam II. He saved Israel from being blotted out, the dying prophet-and Aphek in the Sharon plain, famous in and through his successes“ the children of Israel dwelt in their tents history for Israel's disasters, now witnessed three victories. warfare with redoubled energy, and a state of affairs is presup; as of old” (2 Kings xiii. 5, xiv. 26 seq.). Syria must have resumed The enemy under Hazael's son Ben-hadad (properly Bar-hadad) posed which can be pictured with the help of narratives that deal was driven out and Joash regained the territory which his father with similar historical situations. In particular, the overthrow had lost (2 Kings xiii. 25); it may reasonably be supposed that a of Israel as foreshadowed in i Kings xxii. implies an Aramaean treaty was concluded (cf. 1 Kings xx. 34). But the peace does invasion (cf. w. 17, 25), after a treaty (xx. 35 sqq.), although this can scarcely be justified by the events which followed the death of not seem to have been popular. The story of the last scene in Ahab, in whose time they are now placed. Elisha's life implies in Joash an easily contented disposition For the understanding of these great wars between Syria and - which hindered him from completing his successes.' Syria Israel (which the traditional chronology spreads over eighty years), had not been crushed, and the failure to utilize the opportunity and for the alternations of despair and hópe, a careful study of all for the significance of the crushing defeats and inspiring victories, was an act of impolitic leniency for which Israel was bound to the records of relations between Israel and the north is at least suffer (2 Kings xiii. 19). Elisha's indignation can be illustrated instructive, and it is important to remember that, although the by the denunciation passed upon an anonymous king by the present historical outlines are scanty and incomplete, some—if not prophetic party on a similar occasion (1 Kings xx. 35-43). all-of the analogous descriptions in their present form are certainly later than the second half of the 9th century B.C., the period in which At this stage it is necessary to notice the fresh invasion of Syria these great events fall." by Hadad (Adad)-nirari, who besieged Mari, king of Damascus, 13. Political Development.--Under Jeroboam II. the borders and exacted a heavy tribute (c. 800 B.C.). A diversion of this of Israel were restored, and in this political revival the prophets kind may explain the Israelite victories; the subsequent with again took part. The defeat of Ben-hadad by the king of drawal of Assyria may have afforded the occasion for retaliation. Those in Israel who remembered the previous war between in the latter part of his reign (812-783 B.c.), when Judah apparently 3 It is possible that Hadad-nirari's inscription refers to conditions Careful examination shows that no a priori distinction can was no longer independent and when Jeroboam 11. was king of be drawn between “trustworthy” books of Kings and "untrust- Israel. The accession of the latter has been placed between 785 and worthy books" of Chronicles. Although the latter have special late 782. It is now known, also, that Ben-hadad and a small coalition and unreliable features, they agree with the former in presenting the were defeated by the king of Hamath; but the bearing of this upon same general trend of past history. The "canonical " history in Israelite history is uncertain. Kings is further embellished in Chronicles, but the gulf between them *Cf. generally, 1 Sam. iv., xxxi.; 2 Sam. ii. 8; 1 Kings XX., xxii.; is not so profound as that between the former and the under- 2 Kings vi. 8-vii. 20; also Judges v. (see DEBORAH). lying and half-suppressed historical traditions which can still be 5 Special mention is made of Jonah, a prophet of Zebulun in recognized. (See also PALESTINE: History.) (north). Israel (2 Kings xiv. 25). Nothing is known of him, unless ? For the former (2 Kings xii. 17 seq.) cf. Hezekiah and Sen- the very late prophetical writing with the account of his visit to nacherib (xviii. 13-15), and for the latter, cf. Asa and Baasha Nineveh rests upon some old tradition, which, however, can scarcely (1 Kings xy, 18-20; above). be recovered (see JONAH), 380 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS Hamath and the quiescence of Assyria may have encouraged | was opposed to the simpler local forms of government, and a Israelite ambitions, but until more is known of the campaigns military régime had distinct disadvantages (cf. 1 Sam. viii. 11-18). of Hadad-nirari and of Shalmaneser III. (against Damascus, The king stood at the head, as the court of final appeal, and upon 773 B.C.) the situation cannot be safely gauged. Moab was him and his officers depended the people's welfare. A more in- probably tributary; the position of Judah and Edom is involved tricate social organization caused internal weakness, and Eastern with the chronological problems. According to the Judaean history shows with what rapidity peoples who have become annals, the “ people of Judah " set Azariah (Uzziah) upon his strong by discipline and moderation pass from the height of father's throne; and to his long reign of fifty-two years are their glory into extreme corruption and disintegration. This ascribed conquests over Philistia and Edom, the fortification of was Israel's fate. Opposition to social abuses and enmity Jerusalem and the reorganization of the army. As the relations towards religious innovations are regarded as the factors which with Israel are not specified, the sequel to Amaziah's defeat is a led to the overthrow of Omri's dynasty by Jehu, and when matter for conjecture; although, when at the death of Jeroboam Israel seemed to be at the height of its glory under Jeroboam II. Israel hastened to its end amid anarchy and dissension, it is warning voices again made themselves heard. The two factors hardly likely that the southern kingdom was unmoved. All are inseparable, for in ancient times no sharp dividing-line was that can be recognized from the biblical records, however, is drawn between religious and civic duties: righteousness and the period of internal prosperity which Israel and Judah enjoyed equity, religious duty and national custom were one. under Jeroboam and Uzziah (99.0.) respectively. Elaborate legal enactments codified in Babylonia by the 20th It is difficult to trace the biblical history century by century century B.c. find striking parallels in Hebrew, late Jewish (Talmudic), as it reaches these last years of bitter conflict and of renewed Syrian and Mahommedan law, or in the unwritten usages of all ages; prosperity. The northern kingdom at the height of its power for even where there were neither written laws nor duly instituted included Judah, it extended its territory east of the Jordan lawgivers, there was no lawlessness, since custom and belief were, and still are, almost inflexible. Various collections are preserved towards the north and the south, and maintained close relations in the Old Testament; they are attributed to the time of Moses the with Phoenicia and the Aramaean states. It had a national lawgiver, who stands at the beginning of Israelite national and history which left its impress upon the popular imagination, religious history. But many of the laws were quite unsuitable and sundry fragments of tradition reveal the pride which the and even contradictory legislation was imposed suddenly upon a for the circumstances of his age, and the belief that a body of intricate patriot felt in the past. An original close connexion is felt with people newly emerged from bondage in Egypt raises insurmountable The east of the Jordan and with Gilead; stories of invasion and objections, and underestimates the fact that legal usage existed in conquest express themselves in varied forms. In so far as in the earliest stages of society, and therefore in pre-Mosaic times. ternal wealth and luxury presuppose the control of the trade-form and content. The more important question is the date of the laws in their present Collections of laws are found in Deuteronomy routes, periodical alliances are implied in which Judah, willingly and in exilic and post-exilic writings; groups of a relatively earlier or unwillingly, was included. But the Judaean records do not type are preserved in Exod. xxxiv. 14-26, XX. 23-xxiii., and (of an- allow us to trace its independent history with confidence, and other stamp) in Lev.xvii.-xxvi. (now in post-exilic form). For a useful our estimate can scarcely base itself solely upon the accidental conspectus of details, see J. E.Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby: The Hexateuch (vol. i., appendix); C. F. Kent, Israel's Laws and fulness or scantiness of political details. In the subsequent Legal Enactments (1907); and in general I. Benzinger, articles disasters of Israel (8 15) we may perceive the growing supremacy "Government,” “Family” and “Law and Justice," Ency. Bib., and of Judah, and the Assyrian inscriptions clearly indicate the G.B. Gray,“ Law Literature,"ib. (the literary growth of legislation). dependence of Judaean politics upon its relations with Edom and Reference may also be made, for illustrative material, to W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, Religion of the Semites; to E. Day, Arab tribes on the south-east and with Philistia on the west. Social Life of The Hebrews; and, for some comparison of customary Whatever had been the effect of the movement of the Purasati usage in the Semitic field, to S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses and Code of some centuries previously, the Philistines (i.e. the people of Hammurabi. Philistia) are now found in possession of a mature organization, 14. Religion and the Prophets. — The elements of the thought and the Assyrian evidence is of considerable value for an estimate and religion of the Hebrews do not sever them from their of the stories of conflict and covenant, of hostility and friendship, neighbours; similar features of cult are met with elsewhere which were current in south Palestine. The extension of the under different names. Hebrew religious institutions can be term Judah " (cf. that of “ Israel” and “Samaria ") is in- understood from the biblical evidence studied in the light of volved with the incorporation of non-Judaean elements. The comparative religion; and without going afield to Babylonia, country for ten miles north of Jerusalem was the exposed and Assyria or Egypt, valuable data are furnished by the cults of highly debatable district ascribed to the young tribe of Benjamin Phoenicia, Syria and Arabia, and these in turn can be illustrated (the favourite “brother” of both Judah and Joseph; Gen. from excavation and from modern custom. Every religion has xxxvii., xxxix. sqq.); the border-line between the rival kingdoms its customary cult and ritual, its recognized times, places and oscillated, and consequently the political position of the smaller persons for the observance. Worship is simpler at the smaller and half-desert Judaean state depended upon the attitude of its shrines than at the more famous temples; and, as the rulers are neighbours. It is possible that tradition is right in supposing the patrons of the religion and are brought into contact with that “ Judah went down from his brethren” (Gen. xxxviii. 1; | the religious personnel, the character of the social organization cf. Judg. i. 3). Its monarchy traced its origin to Hebron in leaves its mark upon those who hold religious and judicial func- the south, and its growth is contemporary with a decline in tions alike. The Hebrews shared the paradoxes of Orientals, Israel (8 7). It is at least probable that when Israel was supreme and religious enthusiasm and ecstasy were prominent features. an independent Judah would centre around a more southerly Seers and prophets of all kinds ranged from those who were site than Jerusalem. It is naturally uncertain how far the consulted for daily mundane affairs to those who revealed the traditions of David can be utilized; but they illustrate Judaean oracles in times of stress, from those who haunted local holy situations when they depict intrigues with Israelite officials, sites to those high in royal favour, from the quiet domestic vassalage under Philistia, and friendly relations with Moab, or communities to the austere mountain recluse. Among these when they suggest how enmity between Israel and Ammon were to be found the most sordid opportunism and the most could be turned to useful account. Tradition, in fact, is heroic self-effacement, the crassest supernaturalism and-the concentrated upon the rise of the Judaean dynasty under David, loftiest conceptions of practical morality. A development of but there are significant periods before the rise of both Jehoash ideals and a growth of spirituality can be traced which render and Uzziah upon which the historical records maintain a the biblical writings with their series of prophecies a unique perplexing silence. The Hebrews of Israel and Judah were, political history apart, Khaldun, whose Prolegomena is well worthy of attention; see De * This is philosophically handled by the Arabian historian Ibn men of the same general stamp, with the same cult and custom, Slane, Not. et extraits, vols. xix.--xxi., with Von Kremer's criticisms for the study of religion and social usages, therefore, they can in the Sitz. d. Kais. Akad. of Vienna (vol. xciii., 1879); cf. also be treated as a single people. The institution of the monarchy | R. Flint, History of the Philosophy of History, i. 157 sqq. 10 OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY) JEWS 381 phenomenon. The prophets taught that the national exis- | Yahweh of Moses was found, and scattered traces survive of a tence of the people was bound up with religious and social con- definite belief in the entrance into Palestine of a movement ditions; they were in a sense the politicians of the age, and to uncompromisingly devoted to the purer worship of Yahweh. regard them simply as foretellers of the future is to limit their The course of the dynasty of Jehu-the reforms, the disastrous sphere unduly. They took a keen interest in all the political Aramaean wars, and, at length, Yahweh's “ arrow of victory vicissitudes of the Oriental world. Men of all standards of -constituted an epoch in the Israelite history, and it is regarded integrity, they were exposed to external influences, but whether as such.3 divided among themselves in their adherence to conflicting The problem of the history of Yahwism depends essentially upon parties, or isolated in their fierce denunciation of contemporary. the view adopted as to the date and origin of the biblical details abuses, they shared alike in the worship of Yahweh whose inspira- and their validity for the various historical and religious conditions tion they claimed. A recollection of the manifold forms which they presuppose. Yahwism is a religion which appears upon a soil religious life and thought have taken in Christendom or in Islam, biblical sources and in neighbouring lands. saturated with ideas and usages which find their parallel in extra- The problem cannot and the passions which are so easily engendered among opposing be approached from modern preconceptions because there was much sects, will prevent a one-sided estimate of the religious stand- associated with the worship of Yahweh which only gradually came points which the writings betray; and to the recognition that to be recognized as repugnant, and there was much in earlier ages and in other lands which reflects an elevated and even complex they represent lofty ideals it must be added that the great religious philosophy. In the south of the Sinaitic peninsula, remains prophets, like all great thinkers, were in advance of their age. have been found of an elaborate half-Egyptian, half-Semitic cultus The prophets are thoroughly Oriental figures, and the inter- (Petrie, Researches in Sinai, xiii.), and not only does Edom possess pretation of their profound religious experiences requires a some reputation for.“ wisdom," but, where this district is concerned, particular sympathy which is not inherent in Western minds. is still imperfectly known) claims some attention. The character- the old Arabian religion (whose historical connexion with Palestine Their writings are to be understood in the light of their age and of istic denunciations of corruption and lifeless ritual in the writings the conditions which gave birth to them. With few exceptions of the prophets and the emphasis which is laid upon purity and they are preserved in fragmentary form, with additions and ad- simplicity of religious life are suggestive of the influence of the justments which were necessary in order to make them applicable soil. Desert pastoral life does not necessarily imply any intellectual nomadic spirit rather than of an internal evolution on Palestinian to later conditions. When, as often, the great figures have been inferiority, and its religious conceptions, though susceptible of modi- made the spokesmen of the thought of subsequent generations, fication, are not artificially moulded through the influence of other the historical criticism of the prophecies becomes one of peculiar civilizations. Nomadic life is recognized by Arabian writers them- difficulty. According to the historical traditions it is precisely purity of manner and its reaction against corruption and luxury selves as possessing a relative superiority, and its characteristic in the age of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah that the first of the are not incompatible with a warlike spirit. If nomadism may be extant prophecies begin (see Amos and Hosea). Here it is recognized as one of the factors in the growth of Yahwism, there is enough to observe that the highly advanced doctrines of the dis- something to be said for the hypothesis which associates it with the clans connected with the Levites (see E. Meyer, Israeliten, pp. 82 tinctive character of Yahweh, as ascribed to the 8th century B.C., sqq.; B. Luther, ib. 138). It is, however, obvious that the influ- presuppose a foundation and development. But the evidence ence due to immigrants could be, and doubtless was, exerted at does not allow us to trace the earlier progress of the ideas. morethan one period (see $818, 20; also HEBREW RELIGION; PRIEST). Yahwism presents itself under a variety of aspects, and the 15. The Fall of the Israelite Monarchy.—The prosperity of history of Israel's relations to the God Yahweh (whose name is Israel was its undoing. The disorders that hastened its end find not necessarily of Israelite origin) can hardly be disentangled an analogy in the events of the more obscure period after the amid the complicated threads of the earlier history. The view death of the earlier Jeroboam. Only the briefest details are that the seeds of Yahwism were planted in the young Israelite given. Zechariah was slain after six months by Shallum ben nation in the days of the “exodus" conflicts with the belief that Jabesh in Ibleam; but the usurper fell a month later to Menahem the worship of Yahweh began in the pre-Mosaic age. Neverthe- (q.v.), who only after much bloodshed established his posi- less, it implies that religion passed into a new stage through tion. Assyria again appeared upon the scene under Tiglath- the influence of Moses, and to this we find a relatively less com- pileser IV. (745-728 B.C.). His approach was the signal for the plete analogy in the specific north Israelite traditions of the formation of a coalition, which was overthrown in 738. Among age of Jehu. The change from the dynasty of Omri to that of those who paid tribute were Rașun (the biblical Rezin) of Jehu has been treated by several hands, and the writers, in their Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, the kings of Tyre, Byblos and recognition of the introduction of a new tendency, have obscured Hamath and the queen of Aribi (Arabia, the Syrian desert). the fact that the cult of Yahweh had flourished even under such Israel was once more in league with Damascus and Phoenicia, a king as Ahab. While the influence of the great prophets and the biblical records must be read in the light of political Elijah and Elisha is clearly visible, it is instructive to find that history. Judah was probably holding aloof. Its king, Uzziah, the south, too, has its share in the inauguration of the new era. was a leper in his latter days, and his son and regent, Jotham, At Horeb, the mount of God, was located the dramatic theophany claims notice for the circumstantial reference (2 Chron. xxvii.; cf. which-heralded to Elijah the advent of the sword, and Jehu's xxvi. 8) to his subjugation of Ammon-the natural allies of Damas- supporter in his sanguinary measures belongs to the Rechabites, cus-for three years. Scarcely had Assyria withdrawn before a seçt which felt itself to be the true worshipping community Menahem lost his life in a conspiracy, and Pekah with the help of Yahweh and is closely associated with the Kenites, the kin of Gilead made himself king. The new movement was evidently of Moses. It was at the holy well of Kadesh, in the sacred anti-Assyrian, and strenuous endeavours were made to present mounts of Sinai and Horeb, and in the field of Edom that the a united front. It is suggestive to find Judah the centre 1 Cf. J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Altis, Osiris (1907), p. 67: Prophecy of attack. Raşun and Pekah directed their blows from the of the Hebrew type has not been limited to Israel; it is indeed a north, Philistia threatened the west flank, and the Edomites phenomenon of almost world-wide occurrence; in many lands and in many ages the wild, whirling words of frenzied men and women whọ drove out the Judaeans from Elath (on the Gulf of 'Akaba) have been accepted as the utterances of an in-dwelling deity. What were no doubt only taking their part in the concerted action. of a few members of the profession wrested this vulgar but powerful of David was then occupied by the young Ahaz, Jotham's son. does distinguish Hebrew prophecy from all others is that the genius A more critical situation could scarcely be imagined. The throne instrument from baser uses, and by wielding it in the interest of a high morality rendered a service of incalculable value to humanity. 3 The condemnation passed upon the impetuous and fiery zeal That is indeed the glory of Israel. ... of the adherents of the new movement (cf. Hos. i. 4), like the remark- 2 The use which was made in Apocalyptic literature of the tradi- able vicissitudes in the traditions of Moses, Aaron and the Levites tions of Moses, Isaiah and others finds its analogy within the Old (99.0.), represents changing situations of real significance, whose true Testament itself; cf. the relation between the present late prophecies place in the history can with difficulty be recovered. of Jonah and the unknown prophet of the time of Jeroboam II. * Formerly thought to be the third of the name. (see $ 13, note 5). To condemn re-shaping or adaptation of this nature 5 Perhaps Judah had come to an understanding with Tiglath- from a modern Western standpoint is to misunderstand entirely pileser (H. M. Haydn, Journ. Bib. Lit., xxviii. 1909, pp. 182-199); the Oriental mind and Oriental usage. see Uzziah. 382 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS << In this crisis we meet with Isaiah (q.v.), one of the finest of son Hezekiah there were fresh disturbances in the southern states, Hebrew prophets. The disorganized state of Egypt and the un- and anti-Assyrian intrigues began to take a more definite shape certain allegiance of the desert tribes left Judah without direct among the Philistine cities. Ashdod openly revolted and found aid; on the other hand, opposition to Assyria among the con- support in Moab, Edom, Judah, and the still ambiguous “Egypt.” flicting interests of Palestine and Syria was rarely unanimous. This step may possibly be connected with the attempt of Marduk Either in the natural course of events—to preserve the unity of (Merodach)-baladan in south Babylonia to form a league against his empire-or influenced by the rich presents of gold and silver Assyria (cf. 2 Kings xx. 12); at all events Ashdod fell aſter a three with which Ahaz accompanied his appeal for help, Tiglath- years' siege (711) and for a time there was peace. But with the pileser intervened with campaigns against Philistia (734 B.C.) and death of Sargon in 705 there was another great outburst; Damascus (733–732). Israel was punished by the ravaging practically the whole of Palestine and Syria was in arms, and of the northern districts, and the king claims to have carried the integrity of Sennacherib's empire was threatened. In both away the people of “the house of Omri.” Pekah was slain and Judah and Philistia the anti-Assyrian party was not without one Hoshea (q.v.) was recognized as his successor. Assyrian opposition, and those who adhered or favoured adherence to officers were placed in the land and Judah thus gained its the great power were justified by the result. The inevitable deliverance at the expense of Israel. But the proud Israelites lack of cohesion among the petty states weakened the national did not remain submissive for long; Damascus had indeed cause. At Sennacherib's approach, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and fallen, but neither Philistia nor Edom had yet been crushed. Edom submitted; Ekron, Ascalon, Lachish and Jerusalem held At this stage a new problem becomes urgent. A number of out strenuously. The southern allies (with " Egypt ") were petty peoples, of whom little definite is known, fringed Palestine defeated at Eltekeh (Josh. xix. 44). Hezekiah was besieged from the south of Judah and the Delta to the Syrian desert. and compelled to submit (701). The small kings who had They belong to an area which merges itself in the west into Egypt, remained faithful were rewarded by an extension of their terri- and Egypt in fact had a hereditary claim upon it. Continued tories, and Ashdod, Ekron and Gaza were enriched at Judah's intercourse between Egypt, Gaza and north Arabia is natural expense. These events are related in Sennacherib's inscription; in view of the trade-routes which connected them, and on several the biblical records preserve their own traditions (see HEZEKIAH). occasions joint action on the part of Edomites (with allied If the impression left upon current thought can be estimated tribes) and the Philistines is recorded, or may be inferred. The from certain of the utterances of the court-prophet Isaiah and part played by Egypt proper in the ensuing anti-Assyrian the Judaean countryman Micah (q.v.), the light which these combinations is not clearly known; with a number of petty throw upon internal conditions must also be used to gauge the dynasts fomenting discontent and revolt, there was an absence real extent of the religious changes ascribed to Hezekiah. A of cohesion in that ancient empire previous to the rise of the brazen serpent, whose institution was attributed to Moses, had Ethiopian dynasty. Consequently the references to Egypt not hitherto been considered out of place in the cult; its destruc- (Heb. Mişrayim, Ass. Muşri) sometimes suggest that the geo- tion was perhaps the king's most notable reform. graphical term was really extended beyond the bounds of Egypt In the long reign of his son Manasseh later writers saw the proper towards those districts where Egyptian influence or domi- deathblow to the Judaean kingdom. Much is' related of his nation was or had been recognized (see further MIZRAIM). wickedness and enmity to the followers of Yahweh, but few When Israel began to recover its prosperity and regained political details have come down. It is uncertain whether confidence, its policy halted between obedience to Assyria and Sennacherib invaded Judah again shortly before his death, never- reliance upon this ambiguous “ Egypt.” The situation is illus- theless the land was practically under the control of Assyria. trated in the writings of Hosea (q.v.). When át length Tiglath-Both Esar-haddon (681-668) and Assur-bani-pal (668-c. 626) pileser died, in 727, the slumbering revolt became general; Israel number among their tributaries Tyre, Ammon, Moab, Edom, refused the usual tribute to its overlord, and definitely threw in Ascalon, Gaza and Manasseh himself, and cuneiform dockets its lot with “ Egypt.” In due course Samaria was besieged unearthed at Gezer suggest the presence of Assyrian garrisons for three years by Shalmaneser IV. The alliance with So there (and no doubt also elsewhere) to ensure allegiance. The (Seveh, Sibi) of “ Egypt," upon whom hopes had been placed, situation was conducive to the spread of foreign customs, and proved futile, and the forebodings of keen-sighted prophets were the condemnation passed upon Manasseh thus perhaps becomes justified. Although no evidence is at hand, it is probable that more significant. Precisely what form his worship took is a Ahaz of Judah rendered service to Assyria by keeping the allies matter of conjecture; but it is possible that the religion must in check; possible, also, that the former enemies of Jerusalem not be judged too strictly from the standpoint of the late com- had now been induced to turn against Samaria. The actual piler, and that Manasseh merely assimilated the older Yahweh- capture of the Israelite capital is claimed by Sargon (722), who worship to new Assyrian forms. Politics and religion, how- removed 27,290 of its inhabitants and fifty chariots. Other ever, were inseparable, and the supremacy of Assyria meant the peoples were introduced, officers were placed in charge, and the supremacy of the Assyrian pantheon. usual tribute re-imposed. Another revolt was planned in 720 in If Judah was compelled to take part in the Assyrian campaigns which the province of Samaria joined with Hamath and Damas- against Egypt, Arabia (the Syrian desert) and Tyre, this would cus, with the Phoenician Arpad and Șimura, and with Gaza and only be in accordance with a vassal's duty. But when tradition Egypt.” Two battles, one at Karkar in the north, another at preserves some recollection of an offence for which Manasseh was Rapiḥ (Raphia) on the border of Egypt, sufficed to quell the taken to Babylon to explain his conduct (2 Chron. xxxiii.), also disturbance. The desert peoples who paid tribute on this of the settling of foreign colonists in Samaria by Esar-haddon occasion still continued restless, and in 715 Sargon removed men (Ezra iv. 2), there is just a possibility that Judah made some of Tamūd, Ibādid, Marsiman, Hayāpa, “the remote Arabs of attempt to gain independence. According to Assur-bani-pal all the desert,” and placed them in the land of Beth-Omri. Sar- the western lands were inflamed by the revolt of his brother gon's statement is significant for the internal history; but Samas-sum-ukin. What part Judah took in the Transjordanic unfortunately the biblical historians take no further interest disturbances, in which Moab fought invading Arabian tribes on in the fortunes of the northern kingdom after the fall of Samaria, behalf of Assyria, is unknown (see MOAB). Manasseh's son Amon and see in Judah the sole survivor of the Israelite tribes (see fell in a court intrigue and“ the people of the land,” after avenging 2 Kings xvii. 7-23). Yet the situation in this neglected district the murder, set up in his place the infant Josiah (637). The must continue to provoke inquiry. circumstances imply a regency, but the records are silent upon 16. Judah and Assyria.-Amid these changes Judah was inti- 1 The fact that these lists are of the kings of the “land Hatti mately connected with the south Palestinian peoples (sce further would suggest that the term “ Hittite ” had been extended to Palestine. PHILISTINES). Ahaz had recognized the sovereignty of Assyria and visited Tiglath-pileser at Damascus. The Temple records attempt to recover the character of the cults, see W. Erbt, Hebräer 2 So K. Budde, Rel. of Israel to Exile, pp. 165-167. For an describe the innovations he introduced on his return. Under his (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 150 sqq. OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY] JEWS 383 the outlook. The assumption that the decay of Assyria awoke with the help of troops from Asia Minor and employed these to the national feeling of independence is perhaps justified by those guard his eastern frontiers at Defneh. He also revived the old events which made the greatest impression upon the compiler, trading-connexions between Egypt and Phoenicia. A Chaldean and an account is given of Josiah's religious reforms, based upon prince, Nabopolassar, set himself up in Babylonia, and Assyria a source apparently identical with that which described the work was compelled to invoke the aid of the Aškuza. It was perhaps of Jehoash. In an age when the oppression and corruption of the after this that an inroad of Scythians (q.v.) occurred (c. 626 B.C.); ruling classes had been such that those who cherished the old if it did not actually touch Judah, the advent of the people of worship of Yahweh dared not confide in their most intimate com- the north appears to have caused great alarm (Jer. iv.-vi.: panions (Mic. vii. 5, 6), no social reform was possible; but now Zephaniah). Bethshean in Samaria has perhaps preserved in its the young Josiah, the popular choice, was upon the throne. A later (though temporary) name Scythopolis an echo of the inva- roll, it is said, was found in the Temple, its contents struck sion. Later, Necho, son of Psammetichus, proposed to add terror into the hearts of the priests and king, and it led to a to Egypt some of the Assyrian provinces, and marched through solemn covenant before Yahweh to observe the provisions of the Palestine. Josiah at once interposed; it is uncertain whether, in law-book which had been so opportunely recovered. spite of the power of Egypt, he had hopes of extending his king- That the writer (2 Kings xxii. seq.) meant to describe the discovery dom, or whether the famous reformer was, like Manasseh, a vassal of Deuteronomy is evident from the events which followed; and this of Assyria. The book of Kings gives the standpoint of a later identification of the roll, already made by Jerome, Chrysostom Judaean writer, but Josiah's authority over a much larger area and others, has been substantiated by modern literary criticism since De Wette (1805). (See DEUTERONOMY; JOSIAH.) Some very than Judah alone is suggested by xxiii. 19 (part of an addition), interesting parallels have been cited from Egyptian and Assyrian and by the references to the border at Riblah in Ezek. vi. 14, records where religious texts, said to have been found in temples, xi. 10 seq. He was slain at Megiddo in 608, and Egypt, as in the or oracles from the distant past, have come to light at the very time long-distant past, again held Palestine and Syria. The Judaeans when “the days were full.” 1 There is, however, no real proof for the traditional antiquity of Deuteronomy. The book forms a very made Jehoahaz (or Shallum) their king, but the Pharaoh banished distinctive landmark in the religious history by reason of its attitude him to Egypt three months later and appointed his brother to cult and ritual (see HEBREW RELIGION, $ 7). In particular Jehoiakim. Shortly afterwards Nineveh fell, and with it the it is aimed against the worship at the numerous minor sanctuaries empire which had dominated the fortunes of Palestine for over and inculcates the sole pre-eminence of the one great sanctuary—the the local priests and a modification of ritual and legal observance. lonia (556 B.C.) saw in the disaster the vengeance of the gods for Temple of Jerusalem. This centralization involved the removal of two centuries (see § 10). Nabonidus (Nabunaid) king of Baby- The fall of Samaria, Sennacherib's devastation of Judah, and the the sacrilege of Sennacherib; the Hebrew prophets, for their growth of Jerusalem as the capital, had tended to raise the position part, exulted over Yahweh's far-reaching judgment. The newly of the Temple, although Israel itself, as also Judah, had famous sanctuaries of its own. From the standpoint of the popular religion, formed Chaldean power at once recognized in Necho a dangerous. the removal of the local altars, like Hezekiah's destruction of the rival and Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadrezzar, who over- brazen serpent, would be an act of desecration, an iconoclasm which threw the Egyptian forces at Carchemish (605). The battle was can be partly appreciated from the sentiments of 2 Kings xviii. 22, and partly also from the modern Wahhabite reformation of the 19th Chaldean or Babylonian kingdom was assured. But the relations the turning-point of the age, and with it the succession of the new century). But the details and success of the reforms, when viewed in the light of the testimony of contemporary prophets, are uncer- between Egypt and Judah were not broken off. The course tain. The book of Deuteronomy crystallizes a doctrine; it is the of events is not clear, but Jehoiakim (q.v.) at all events was in- codification of teaching which presupposes a carefully prepared soil. clined to rely upon Egypt. He died just as Nebuchadrezzar, The account of Josiah's work, like that of Hezekiah, is written by one of the Deuteronomic school: that is to say, the writer describes the seeing his warnings disregarded, was preparing to lay siege to promulgation of the teaching under which he lives. It is part of Jerusalem. His young son Jehoiachin surrendered after a the scheme which runs through the book of Kings, and its apparent three months' reign, with his mother and the court; they were object is to show that the Temple planned by David and founded by taken away to Babylonia, together with a number of the artisan, Solomon ultimately gained its true position as the only sanctuary class (596). Jehoiakim's brother, Mattaniah or Zedekiah, was of Yahweh to which his worshippers should repair. Accordingly, in handling Josiah's successors the writer no longer refers to the set in his place under an oath of allegiance, which he broke, pre- high places. But if Josiah carried out the reforms ascribed to him ferring Hophra the new king of Egypt. A few years later the they were of no lasting effect. This is conclusively shown by the second siege took place. It began on the tenth day of the tenth writings of Jeremiah (xxv. 3-7. xxxvi. 2 seq.) and Ezekiel. Josiah month, January 587. The looked-for intervention of Egypt was himself is praised for his justice, but faithless Judah is insincere (Jer. iii. 10), and those whº claim to possess Yahweh's law are unavailing, although a temporary raising of the siege inspired wild denounced (viii. 8). If Israel could appear to be better than Judah hopes. Desertion, pestilence and famine added to the usual (iii. 11; Ezek. xvi., xxiii.), the religious revival was a practical failure, horrors of a siege, and at length on the ninth day of the fourth and it was not until a century later that the opportunity again came to put any new teaching into effect (§ 20). On the other hand, month 586, a breach was made in the walls. Zedekiah filed the book of Deuteronomy has a characteristic social-religious side; towards the Jordan valley but was seized and taken to Nebuchad- humanity, philanthropy and charity are the distinctive features rezzar at Riblah (45 m. south of Hamath). His sons were slain of its laws, and Josiah's reputation (Jer. xxii. 15 seq.) and the before his eyes, and he himself was blinded and carried off to circumstances in which he was chosen king may suggest that Babylon after a reign of eleven years. The Babylonian Nebuzar- he, like Jehoash (2 Kings xi. 17; cf. xxiii. 3), had entered into a reciprocal covenant with a people who, as Micah's writings would adan was sent to take vengeance upon the rebellious city, and indicate, had suffered grievous oppression and misery.? on the seventh day of the fifth month 586 B.C. Jerusalem was 17. The Fall of the Judaean Monarchy.-In Josiah's reign a destroyed. The Temple, palace and city buildings were burned, new era was beginning in the history of the world. Assyria was the walls broken down, the chief priest Seraiah, the second priest rapidly decaying and Egypt had recovered from the blows of Zephaniah, and other leaders were put to death, and a large body Assur-bani-pal (to which the Hebrew prophet Nahum alludes, of people was again carried away. The disaster became the iii. 8-10). Psammetichus (Psamtek) I., one of the ablest of great epoch-making event for Jewish history and literature. Egyptian rulers for many centuries, threw off the Assyrian yoke Throughout these stormy years the prophet Jeremiah (q.v.) had 1 See G. Maspero, Gesch. d. morgenländ. Völker (1877), p. 446; realized that Judah's only hope lay in submission to Babylonia. E: Naville, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol. (1907), pp. 232 sqq., and T. K. Stigmatized as a traitor, scorned and even imprisoned, he had not Cheyne, Decline and Fall of Judah (1908), p. 13, with references. [The genuineness of such discoveries is naturally a matter for his himself was perhaps open to persuasion. Now the penalty had ceased to utter his warnings to deaf ears, although Zedekiah torical criticism to decide. Thus the discovery of Numa's laws in Rome (Livy xl. 29), upon which undue weight' has sometimes been been paid, and the Babylonians, whose policy was less destructive laid (see Klostermann, Der Pentateuch (1906), pp. 155 sqq., was not than that of Assyria, contented themselves with appointing as accepted as genuine by the senate (who had the laws destroyed), governor a certain Gedaliah. The new centre was Mizpah, a and probably not by Pliny himself. Only the later antiquaries commanding eminence and sanctuary, about 5 m. N.W. of clung to the belief in their trustworthiness.-(Communicated.)] ? Both kings came to the throne after a conspiracy aimed at Jerusalem; and here Gedaliah issued an appeal to the people to existing abuses, and other parallels can be found (see Kings). But see N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., “Scythians," $ 1. 384 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS be loyal to Babylonia and to resume their former peaceful occu- selves as the kernel of " Israel." From this point of view, the pations. The land had not been devastated, and many gladly desire to intensify the denudation of Palestine and the fate of its returned from their hiding-places in Moab, Edom and Ammon. probably be recognized in the writings attributed to contemporary remnant, and to look to the Babylonian exiles for the future, can But discontented survivors of the royal family under Ishmael prophets.1 intrigued with Baalis, king of Ammon. The plot resulted in 18. Internal Conditions and the Exile.—Many of the exiles the murder of Gedaliah and an unsuccessful attempt to carry off accepted their lot and settled down in Babylonia (cf. Jer. xxix. various princesses and officials who had been left in the governor's 4-7); Jewish colonies, too, were being founded in Egypt. The care. This new confusion and a natural fear of Babylonia's agriculturists and herdsmen who had been left in Palestine vengeance led many to feel that their only safety lay in flight to formed, as always, the staple population, and it is impossible to Egypt, and, although warned by Jeremiah that even there the imagine either Judáh or Israel as denuded of its inhabitants. sword would find them, they filed south and took refuge in The down-trodden peasants were left in peace to divide the land Tahpanhes (Daphnae, q.v.), afterwards forming small settle among them, and new conditions arose as they took over the ments in other parts of Egypt. But the thread of the history ownerless estates. But the old continuity was not entirely is broken, and apart from an allusion to the favour shown to broken; there was a return to earlier conditions, and life moved the captive Jehoiachin (with which the books of Jeremiah and more freely in its wonted channels. The fall of the monarchy Kings conclude), there is a gap in the records, and subsequent involved a reversion to a pre-monarchical state. It had scarcely events are viewed from a new standpoint ($ 20). been otherwise in Israel. The Israelites who had been carried The last few years of the Judaean kingdom present several difficult off by the Assyrians were also removed from the cult of the land problems. (a) That there was some Aluctuation of tradition is evident in the (cf. 1 Sam. xxvi . 19; Ruth i. 15 seq.). It is possible that some had case of Jehoiakim, with whose quiet end (2 Kings xxiv. 6 (see also escaped by taking timely refuge among their brethren in Judah; LUCIAN); 2 Chron. xxxvi. 8 (Septuagint)) contrast the fate fore indeed, if national tradition availed, there were doubtless times shadowed in Jer. xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30 (cf. Jos. Ant. x. 6, 2 seq.). when Judah cast its eye upon the land with which it had been The tradition of his captivity (2. Chron. xxxvi. 6; Dan. i. 2) has so intimately connected. It would certainly be unwise to draw a apparently confused him with Jehoiachin, and the latter's reign is 50 brief that some overlapping is conceivable. Moreover, the sharp boundary line between the two districts; kings of Judah prophecy in Jer. xxxiv. 5 that Zedekiah would die in peace is not could be tempted to restore the kingdom of their traditional borne out by the history, nor does Josiah's fate agree with the founder, or Assyria might be complaisant towards a faithful promise in 2 Kings xxii. 20. There is also an evident relation between Judaean vassal. The character of the Assyrian domination over the pairs: Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah Israel must not be misunderstood; the regular payment of (e.g. length of reigns), and the difficulty felt in regard to the second and third is obvious in the attempts of the Jewish historian Josephus tribute and the provision of troops were the main requirements, to provide a compromise. The contemporary prophecies ascribed and the position of the masses underwent little change if an to Jeremiah and Ezekiel require careful examination in this con- Assyrian governor took the place of an unpopular native ruler. nexion, partly as regards their traditional background (especially the two sections of the Hebrews who had had so much in the headings and setting), and partly for their contents, the details of which sometimes do not admit of a literal interpretation in accor- common were scarcely severed by a border-line only a few miles dance with our present historical material (cf. Ezek. xix. 3-9, where to the north of Jerusalem. But Israel after the fall of Samaria the two brothers carried off to Egypt and Babylon respectively would is artificially excluded from the Judaean horizon, and lies as a seem to be Jehoahaz and his nephew Jehoiachin). (6) Some Auctuation is obvious in the number, dates and extent foreign land, although Judah itself had suffered from the intru- of the deportations. Jer. lii. 28–30 gives a total of 4600 persons, sion of foreigners in the preceding centuries of war and turmoil, in contrast to 2 Kings xxiv. 14, 16 (the numbers are not inclusive), and strangers had settled in her midst, had formed part of the and reckons three deportations in the 7th ? 17th). 18th and 23rd royal guard, or had even served as janissaries (§ 15, end). years of Nebuchadrezzar. Only the second is specifically said to be from Jerusalem (the remaining are of Judaeans), and the last has Samaria had experienced several changes in its original been plausibly connected with the murder of Gedaliah, an interval population,2 and an instructive story tells how the colonists, of five years being assumed. For this twenty-third year Josephus in their ignorance of the religion of their new home, incurred the (Ant. x. 9,7) gives an invasion of Egypt and an attack upon Ammon, divine wrath. Cujus regio ejus religio--settlement upon a new Moab and Palestine (see NEBUCHADREZZAR). soil involved dependence upon its god, and accordingly priests (f) That the exile lasted seventy years (? from 586 B.C. to the com- pletion of the second temple) is the view of the canonical history were sent to instruct the Samaritans in the fear of Yahweh. (2 Chron. xxxvi . 21; Jer. xxv. 11, xxix. 10; Zech. i. 12; cf. Tyre, Thenceforth they continued the worship of the Israelite Yahweh Isa. xxiii. 15), but it is usually reckoned from the first deportation along with their own native cults (2 Kings xvii. 24-28, 33). which was looked upon as of greater significance than the second (Jer. xxiv. xxix.), and it may be a round number. Another difficulty Their descendants claimed participation in the privileges of is the interpretation of the 40 years in Ezek. iv. 6 (cf. Egypt, xxix. 11), the Judaeans (cf. Jer. xli. 5), and must have identified themselves and the 390 in v. 5 (Septuagint 150 or 190; 130 in Jos. X. 9, 7 end). with the old stock (Ezra iv. 2). Whatever recollection they A period of fifty years is allowed by the chronological scheme preserved of their origin and of the circumstances of their entry (1 Kings vi. 1; cf. Jos. c. Ap. i: 21), and the late book of Baruch (vi. 3) would be retold from a new standpoint; the ethnological tradi- even speaks of seven generations. Varying chronological schemes may have been current and some weight must be laid upon the tions would gain a new meaning; the assimilation would in remarkable vagueness of the historical information in later time become complete. In view of subsequent events it would writings (see DANIEL). be difficult to find a more interesting subject of inquiry than (d) The attitude of the neighbouring peoples constitutesanother seri- the internal religious and sociological conditions in Samaria at ous problem (cf. 2 Kings xxiv. 2 and 2 Chron. xxxvi. 5, where Lucian's recension and the Septuagint respectively add the Samaritans!), in view of the circumstances of Gedaliah's appointment (Jer. xl. 11, see To the prophets the religious position was lower in Judah above) as contrasted with the frequent prophecies against Ammon, than in Samaria, whose iniquities were less grievous (Jer. ii. Moab and Edom which seem to be contemporary (see Edom; MOAB). (e) Finally, the recurrence of similar historical situationsin Judaean of heathen elements in Jerusalem, as detailed in the reforms of II seq., xxiii. 11 sqq.; Ezek. xvi. 51) The greater prevalence history must be considered. The period under review, with its rela- tions between Judah and Egypt, can be illustrated by prophecies Josiah or in the writings of the prophets (cf Ezek. viii.), would ascribed to a similar situation in the time of Hezekiah. But the So also one can now compare the estimate taken of the Jews in destruction of Jerusalem is not quite unique, and somewhat later Egypt in Jer. xliv. with the actual religious conditions which are we meet with indirect evidence for at least one similar disaster upon known to have prevailed later at Elephantine, where a small Jewish which the records are silent. There are a number of apparently colony worshipped Yahu (Yahweh) at their own temple (see E. related passages which, however, on internal grounds, are unsuitable Sachau, “ Drei aram. Papyrusurkunde,” in the Abhandlungen to the present period, and when they show independent signs of a the Prussian Academy, Berlin, 1907). later date (in their present form), there is a very strong probability 2 Sargon had removed Babylonians into the land of Hatti (Syria that they refer to such subsequent disasters. The scantiness of and Palestine), and in 715 B.C. among the colonists were tribes appare historical tradition makes a final solution impossible, but the study ently of desert origin (Tamud, Hayapa, &c.), other settlements are of these years has an important bearing on the history of the later ascribed to Esar-haddon and perhaps Assur-bani-pal (Ezra iv. 2, 10). Judaean state, which has been characteristically treated from the See for the evidence, A. E. Cowley, Ency. Bib.. col. 4257: J. A. standpoint of exiles who returned from Babylonia and regard them- | Montgomery, The Samaritans, pp. 46-57 (Philadelphia, 1907). c. this age. OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY) JEWS 385 at least suggest that the destruction of the state was not entirely intricacy and additional light is needed from external evidence. a disaster. To this catastrophe may be due the fragmentary It will be convenient to turn to this first. Scarcely 40 years character of old Judaean historical traditions. Moreover, the after the destruction of Jerusalem, a new power appeared in the land was purified when it became divorced from the practices east in the person of Cyrus the Great. Babylon speedily fell of a luxurious court and lost many of its worst inhabitants. (539 B.c.) and a fresh era opened. To the petty states this meant In Israel as in Judah the political disasters not only meant only a change of masters; they now became part of one of the a shifting of population, they also brought into prominence largest empires of antiquity. The prophets who had marked the old popular and non-official religion, the character in the past the advent of Assyrians and Chaldeans now fixed of wbich is not to be condemned because of the attitude.of their eyes upon the advance of Cyrus, confident that the fall lofty prophets in advance of their age. When there were sects of Babylon would bring the restoration of their fortunes. Cyrus like the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv.), when the Judaean fields could was hailed as the divinely appointed saviour, the anointed one produce a Micah or a Zephaniah, and when Israel no doubt of Yahweh. The poetic imagery in which the prophets clothed had men who inherited the spirit of a Hosea, the nature of the the doom of Babylon, like the romantic account of Herodotus underlying conditions can be more justly appreciated. The (i. 191), falls short of.the simple contemporary account of Cyrus writings of the prophets were cherished, not only in the un- himself. He did not fulfil the detailed predictions, and the favourable atmosphere of courts (see Jer. xxxvi., 21 sqq.), but events did not reach the ideals of Hebrew writers; but these also in the circles of their followers (Isa. viii. 16). In the quiet anticipations may have influenced the form which the Jewish smaller sanctuaries the old-time beliefs were maintained, and the traditions subsequently took. Nevertheless, if Cyrus was not priests, often perhaps of the older native stock (cf. 2 Kings originally a Persian and was not a worshipper of Yahweh xvii. 28 and above), were the recognized guardians of the reli- (Isa. xli. 25), he was at least tolerant towards subject races and gious cults. The old stories of earlier days encircle places which, their religions, and the persistent traditions unmistakably point though denounced for their corruption, were not regarded as to the honour in which his memory was held. Throughout the illegitimate, and in the form in which the dim traạitions of the Persian supremacy Palestine was necessarily influenced by past are now preserved they reveal an attempt to purify popular the course of events in Phoenicia and Egypt (with which belief and thought. In the domestic circles of prophetic intercourse was continual), and some light may thus be in- communities the part played by their great heads in history directly thrown on its otherwise obscure political history. Thus, did not suffer in the telling, and it is probable that some part when Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, made his great expedition at least of the extant history of the Israelite kingdom passed against Egypt, with the fleets of Phoenicia and Cyprus and through the hands of men whose interest lay in the pre-eminence with the camels of the Arabians, it is highly probable that of their seers and their beneficent deeds on behalf of these small Palestine itself was concerned. Also, the revolt which broke communities. This interest and the popular tone of the history out in the Persian provinces at this juncture may have extended may be combined with the fact that the literature does not take to Palestine; although the usurper Darius encountered his most us into the midst of that world of activity in which the events serious opposition in the north and north-east of his empire. An unfolded themselves. outburst of Jewish religious feeling is dated in the second year Although the records preserve complete silence upon the period of Darius (520), but whether Judah was making a bold bid for now under review, it is necessary to free oneself from the narrow out. independence or had received special favour for abstaining look of the later Judaean compilers. It is a gratuitous assumption from the above revolts, external evidence alone can decide. that the history of (north) Israel ceased with the fall of Samaria or that Judah then took over Israelite literature and inherited the old Towards the close of the reign of Darius there was a fresh revolt Israelite spirit: the question of the preservation of earlier writings in Egypt; it was quelled by Xerxes (485-465), who did not is of historical importance. It is true that the situation in Israel imitate the religious tolerance of his predecessors. Artaxerxes I. or Samaria continues obscure, but a careful study of literary pro- Longimanus (465-425), attracts attention because the famous ductions, evidently not earlier than the 7th century B.C., reveals a particular loftiness of conception and a tendency which finds its Jewish reformers Ezra and Nehemiah flourished under a king parallels in Hosea and approximates the peculiar characteristics of this name. Other revolts occurred in Egypt, and for these of the Deuteronomic school of thought. But the history which the and also for the rebellion of the Persian satrap Megabyzos Judaean writers have handed down is influenced by the later hostility (C. 448-447), independent evidence for the position of Judah is between Judah and Samaria. The traditional bond between the porth and south which nothing could efface (cf. Jos. Ant., xi. 8, 6) has needed, since a catastrophe apparently befell the unfortunate been carried back to the earliest ages; yet the present period, after state before Nehemiah appears upon the scene. Little is known the age of rival kingdoms, Judah and Israel, and before the founda- of the mild and indolent Artaxerxes II. Mnemon (404-359). tion of Judaism, is that in which the historical background for the With the growing weakness of the Persian empire Egypt reas- inclusion of Judah among the " of Israel is equally suit- able (88 5, 20, end). The circumstances favoured a closer alliance serted its independence for a time. In the reign of Artaxerxes III. between the people of Palestine, and a greater prominence of the Ochus (359-338), Egypt, Phoenicia and Cyprus were in revolt; old holy places (Hebron, Bethel, Shechem, &c.), of which the ruined the rising was quelled without mercy, and the details of Jerusalem would not be one, and the existing condition of Judah the vengeance are valuable for the possible fate of Palestine and Israel from internal and non-political points of view-not their condition in the pre-monarchical ages—is the more crucial problem the enslavement of the Jews, the pollution of the Temple by a itself. The Jewish historian Josephus (Ant. xi. 7) records in biblical history. 19. Persian Period.2—The course of events from the middle Other late sources narrate the destruction of Jericho and a certain Bagoses (see Bagoas), and a seven years' punishment. of the 6th century B.C. to the close of the Persian period is deportation of the Jews to Babylonia and to Hyrcania (on the lamentably obscure, although much indirect evidence indicates Caspian Sea). The evidence for that this age holds the key to the growth of written biblical Artaxerxes I. and III. (see ARTAXERXES), exclusively, contained the catastrophes under history. It was an age of literary activity which manifested in biblical and in external tradition respectively, is of particular itself , not in contemporary historical records-only a few of importance, since several biblical passages refer to disasters which have survived—but rather in the special treatment of similar to those of 586 but presuppose different conditions and are previously existing sources. The problems are of unusual 586 is of fundamental significance for the criticism of “exilic", s6 The growing recognition that the land was not depopulated after apparently of later origini: The murder of Artaxerxes III. by 3 The evidence for Artaxerxes III., accepted by Ewald and others post-exilic history. G. A. Smith thus sums up a dis- (see W. R. Smith, Old Testament in Jewish Church, p. 438 seq.; W. cussion of the extent of the deportations: .. A large majority' Judeich, Kleinasiat. Stud., p. 170; T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col. of the Jewish people remained on the land. This conclusion may 2202; F. C. Kent, Hist . (1899), pp. 230 sqq.) has however been ques- startle us with our generally received notions of the whole nation as tioned by Willrich, Judaica, 35-39 (see Cheyne, Ency Bib., col. exiled. But there are facts which support it" (Jerusalem, ii. 268). 3941). The account of Josephus (above) raises several difficulties, * On the place of Palestine in Persian history see Persia: History, especially the identity of Bagoses. It has been supposed that he has ancient, especially $ 5 ii.; also ARTAXERXes; CAMBYSES;. CYRUS; placed the record too late, and that this Bagoses is the Judaean DARIUS, &c. governor who flourished about 408 B.C. Sée p. 286, n. 3.) 44 sons and a 386 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS 20. Bagoses gave a set-back to the revival of the Persian Empire. In 561 B.C. the captive Judaean king, Jehoiachin, had received Under Darius Codomannus (336-330) the advancing Greek special marks of favour from Nebuchadrezzar's son Amil- power brought matters to a head, and at the battle of Issus marduk. So little is known of this act of recognition that in 333 Alexander settled its fate. The overthrow of Tyre its significance can only be conjectured. A little later Tyre and Gaza secured the possession of the coast and the Jewish received as its king Merbaal (555-552) who had been fetched from state entered upon the Greek period. (See § 25.) Babylonia. Babylonia was politically unsettled, the repre- During these two centuries the Jews in Palestine had been.only sentative of the Davidic dynasty had descendants; if Babylon one of an aggregate of subject peoples enjoying internal freedom was assured of the allegiance of Judah further acts of clemency provided in return for a regular tribute. They lived in comparative may well have followed. But the later recension of Judaean quietude; although Herodotus knows the Palestinian coast he does history our sole source-entirely ignores the elevation of not mention the Jews. The earlier Persian kings acknowledged Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxv. 27 sqq.; Jer. lii. 31-34), and proceeds the various religions of the petty peoples; they were also patrons of their temples and would take care to preserve an ancient right of at once to the first year of Cyrus, who proclaims as his divine asylum or the privileges of long-established cults.!. Cyrus on enter- mission the rebuilding of the Temple (538). The Judaean ing Babylon had even restored the gods to the cities to which they Sheshbazzar (a corruption of some Babylonian name) brought belonged. Consequentlymuch interest attaches to the evidence back the Temple vessels which Nebuchadrezzar had carried which illustrates the environment of the Jews during this period. Those who had been scattered from Palestine lived in small colonies, away and prepared to undertake the work at the expense of sometimes mingling and intermarrying with the natives, sometimes the royal purse. An immense body of exiles is said to have strictly preserving their own individuality. Some took root in the returned at this time to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, who was strange lands, and, as later popular stories indicate, evidently reached high positions; others, retaining a more vivid tradition of the land grandson of the murdered Seraiah (Ezra i.-iii.; v. 13-vi. 5). of Davidic descent, and the priest Jeshua or Joshua, the of their fathers, cherished the ideal of a restored Jerusalem. Excava- tion at Nippur (q.v.) in Babylonia has brought to light numerous When these refused the proffered help of the people of Samaria, contract tablets of the 5th century B.c. with Hebrew proper names men of the same faith as themselves (iv. 2), their troubles began, (Haggai, Hanani, Gedaliah, &c.). Papyri from Elephantine, in and the Samaritans retaliated by preventing the rebuilding. The Upper Egypt, of the same age, proceed from Jewish families who carry on a flourishing business, live among Egyptians and next historical notice is dated in the second year of Darius (520) Persians, and take their oaths in courts of law in the name of the god when two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, came forward to "Yahu," the “God of Heaven," whose temple dated from the last kindle the Judaeans to new efforts, and in spite of opposition Egyptian kings. Indeed, it was claimed that Cambyses had left the work went steadily onwards, thanks to the favour of Darius, the sanctuary unharmed but had destroyed the temples of the Egyptians. In Elephantine, as in Nippur, the legal usages show until the Temple was completed four years later (Ezra v. 2, vi. 13 that similar elements of Babylonio-Assyrian culture prevailed, and sqq.). On the other hand, from the independent writings the evidence from two such widely separated fields is instructive ascribed to these prophets, it appears that no considerable body for conditions in Palestine itself.3 of exiles could have returned-it is still an event of the future The Restoration of Judah.—The biblical history for the (Zech. ii. 7, vi. 15); little, if anything, had been done to the Persian period is contained in a new source--the books of Temple (Hag. ii. 15); and Zerubbabel is the one to take in Ezra and Nehemiah, whose standpoint and period are that of hand and complete the great undertaking (Zech. iv. 9). The Chronicles, with which they are closely joined. After a brief prophets address themselves to men living in comfortable description of the fall of Jerusalem the “ seventy years of abodes with olive-fields and vineyards, suffering from bad seasons the exile are passed over, and we are plunged into a history of and agricultural depression, and though the country is un- the return (2 Chron. xxxvi.; Ezra i.). Although Palestine had not settled there is no reference to any active opposition on the been depopulated, and many of the exiled Jews remained in part of Samaritans. So far from drawing any lesson from Persia, the standpoint is that of those who returned from the brilliant event in the reign of Cyrus, the prophets imply Babylon. Settled in and around Jerusalem, they look upon that Yahweh's wrath is still upon the unfortunate city and that themselves as the sole community, the true Israel, even as it was Persia is still the oppressor. Consequently, although small believed that once before Israel entered and developed inde- bodies of individuals no doubt came back to Judah from time pendently in the land of its ancestors. They look back from the to time, and some special mark of favour may have been shown age when half-suppressed hostility with Samaria had broken by Cyrus, the opinion has gained ground since the early arguments out, and when an exclusive Judaism had been formed. The of E. Schrader (Stud. u. Krit., 1867, pp. 460-504), that the com- interest of the writers is as usual in the religious history; they piler's representation of the history is untrustworthy. His main were indifferent to, or perhaps rather ignorant of, the strict object is to make the new Israel, the post-exilic community at order of events. Their narratives can be partially supplemented Jerusalem, continuous, as a society, with the old Israel. Greater from other sources (Haggai; Zechariah i.-viii. Isa. xl.-lxvi.; weight must be laid upon the independent evidence of the Malachi), but a consecutive sketch is impossible. prophetical writings, and the objection that Palestine could not have produced the religious fervency of Haggai or Zechariah 1 Thus a decree of Darius I. takes the part of his subjects against without an initial impulse from Babylonia begs the question. the excessive zeal of the official Gadatas, and grants freedom of Unfortunately the internal conditions in the 6th century B.C. taxation and exemption from forced labour to those connected with a temple of Apollo in Asia Minor (Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, can be only indirectly estimated ($ 18), and the political position xiii. 529; E. Meyer, Entstehung des Judenthums, p. 19 seq.; cf. id. must remain for the present quite uncertain. In Zerubbabel Forschungen, ii. 497). the people beheld once more a ruler of the Davidic race. The ? In addition to this, the Egyptian story of the priest Uza-hor at the court of Cambyses and Darius reflects a policy of religious new temple heralded a new future; the mournful fasts com- tolerance which illustrates the biblical account of Ezra and Nehemiah memorative of Jerusalem's disasters would become feasts; (Brugsch, Gesch. Aeg. pp. 784 sqq.; see Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life after Yahweh had left the Temple at the fall of Jerusalem, but had now The Exile, pp. 40-43). returned to sanctify it with his presence; the city had purged : From Téma in north Arabia, also, there is monumental evidence of the 5th century B.c. for Babylonian and Assyrian influence upon its iniquity and was fit once more to become the central sanc- the language, cult and art. For Nippur, see Bab. Exped. of Univ. of tuary. So Haggai sees in Zerubbabel the representative of the Pennsylvania, series A., vol. ix. (1898), by H. V. Hilprecht; for Elephantine, the Mond papyri, A. H. Sayce and A. E. Cowley, 6 There is an obvious effort to preserve the continuity of tradition Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assuan (1906), and those cited above (a) in Ezra îi. which gives a list of families who returned from exile (p: 282, n. 1). For the Jewish colonies in general, see H. Guthe, Ency. each to its own city, and (b) in the return of the holy vessels in the Bib., art.“ Dispersion” (with references); also below, 8.25 sqq. time of Cyrus (contrast i Esdras iv. 43 seq.), a view which, in spite * See EZRA AND NEHEMIAH with bibliographical references, of Dan. i. 2, v. 2 seq., conflicts with 2 Kings xxiv. 13 and xxv. 13 also T. K. Cheyne, Introd. to Isaiah (1895): Jew.- Religious Life (see, however, v. 14). That attempts have been made to adjust after the Exile (1898); E. Sellin, Stim. 2. Entstehungsgesch. d. jüd. contradictory representations is suggested by the prophecy ascribed Gemeinde (1901); R. H. Kennett in Swete's Cambridge Biblical to Jeremiah (xxvii. 16 sqq.) where the restoration of the holy vessels Essays (pp: 92 sqq.): G. Jahn, Die Bücher Esra u. Nehemja (1909); finds no place in the shorter text of the Septuagint (see W. R. and C. C. Torrey, Ezra Studies (1910). Smith, old Test. and Jew. Church, pp. 104 sqq.). OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY) JEWS 387 ideal kingdom, the trusted and highly favoured minister who was in either case the history of separate sections of people may have the signet-ring upon Yahweh's hand (contrast Hag. ii. 24 with Jer. been extended to Israel as a whole, but there is no evidence for any adequate reconstruction. Yet the presence of distinct representa- xxii. 23). Zechariah, in his turn, proclaims the overthrow of tions of the history may be recognized, and since the Judaean all difficulties in the path of the new king, who shall rule in compilers of the Old Testament have incorporated non-Judaean glory supported by the priest (Zech. vi.). Wbat political sources (e.g; the history of the northern monarchy), it is obvious aspirations were revived, what other writers were inspired by that, apart from indigenous Judaean tradition, the southern groups which were ultimately enrolled in Judah would possess their own these momentous events are questions of inference. stock of oral and written lo e. Hence it is noteworthy that the late A work which inculcates the dependence of the state upon the editor of Judges has given the first place to Othniel, a Kenizzite, purity of its ruler is the unfinished book of Kings with its history as a Judaean (Judg i. 13, i i. 9; cf. Gen. xxxvi. 11; 1 Chron. iv. 13). and therefore of Edomite affinity, though subsequently reckoned of the Davidic dynasty and the Temple. Its ideals, culminate in Of Kenite interest is the position of Cain, ancestor heroes of cul Josiah ($ 16, end), and there is a strong presumption that it is and of the worship of Yahweh (Gen. iv. 17 sqq.):, One fragmentary intended to impress upon the new era the lessons drawn from the source alludes to a journey to the Midianite or Kenite father-in-law past. Its treatment of the monarchy is only part of a great and now highly complicated literary, undertaking (traceable in the books of Moses with the Ark (9.0.); another knows of its movements with Joshua to Kings), inspired with the thought and coloured by Jethro; cf. also i Chron. iv. 17). Distinctively Calebite are the David and the priest Abiathar (a name closely related to Jether or language characteristic of Deuteronomy (especially the secondary stories of the eponym who, fearless of the “giants" of Palestine, portions), which forms the necessary introduction. Whatever reforms Josiah actually accomplished, the restoration afforded the gained striking divine promises (Num. xiv. 11-24); Caleb's overthrow opportunity of bringing the Deuteronomic teaching into action the capture of Jerusalem, and may be associated with the belief that of the Hebronite giants finds a parallel in David's conflicts before though it is more probable that Deuteronomy itself in the main is these primitive giants once filled the land (Josh. xi. 21 seq.; see $.7, not much earlier than the second half of the 6th century B.c. It shows a strong nationalist feeling which is not restricted to Judah and DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF). Calebite, too, are Hebron and its patron Abraham, and both increase in prominence in the patriarchal alone, but comprises a greater Israel from Kadesh in Naphtali in narratives, where, moreover, an important body of tradition can have the north to Hebron in the south, and even extends beyond the Jordan. Distinctive non-Judaean features are included, as in the emanated only from outside Israel and Judah (see GENESIS), Samaritan liturgical office (Deut. xxvii. 14-26), and the evidence for Although Judah was always closely connected with the south, these “southern" features (once clearly more extensive and complete) the conclusion that traditions originally of (north) Israelite interest are found in the Deuteronomic and priestly compilations, and their were taken over and adapted to the later standpoint of Judah and Jerusalem (viz. in the Deuteronomic book of Kings) independently presence in the historical records can hardly be severed from the confirms the inferences drawn from Deuteronomy itself. The ab prominence of southern" families in the vicinity of Jerusalem, some time after the fall of Jerusalem. The background in i Chron. ii. sence of direct testimony can be partially supplied by later events which presuppose the break-up of no inconsiderable state, and imply these families are found in Nehemiah's time; and while the traditions presupposes the desolation after that disaster, and some traces of relations with Samaria which had been by no means so unfriendly know of a separation from Edom (viz. stories of Jacob and his as the historians represent. A common ground for Judaism and Samaritanism is obvious, and it is in this obscure age that it is to be unbrotherly conduct in connexion with some disaster which befell “brother” Esau), elsewhere Edom is frequently denounced for sought. But the curtain is raised for too brief an interval to allow of more than a passing glimpse at the restoration of Judaean for- | Jerusalem, apparently long after 586 B.C. (see § 22)." The true tunes; not until the time of Nehemiah, about 140 years after the be recovered at present, but it is noteworthy that the evidence inwardness of this movement, its extent and its history, 'can hardly fall of Jerusalem, does the historical material become less imperfect. generally involves the Levites, an ecclesiastical body which under- Upon this blank period before the foundation of Judaism ($$ 21, 23) much light is also thrown by another body of evidence. It has would seem that even as Chronicles (q.v.) has passed through the went an extremely intricate development. To a certain extent it long been recognized that i Chron, ii, and iv. represent a Judah hands of one who was keenly interested in the Temple service, so composed mainly of groups which had moved up from the south the other historical books have been shaped not only by the late (Hebron) to the vicinity of Jerusalem. It includes Caleb and Jerah- priestly writers (symbolized in literary criticism by P), but also by meel, Kenite or Rechabite families, scribes, &c., and these, ás rather earlier writers, also of priestly sympathies, but of southern sons " of Hezron, claim some relationship with Gilead. The names or half-Edomite affinity. This is independently suggested by the point genërally to an affinity with-south Palestine and north Arabia contents and vicissitudes of the purely ecclesiastical traditions. (Edom, Midian, &c.; see especially the lists in Gen. xxxvi.), and suggest that certain members of a closely related collection of body of biblical material, more important for its attitude to the Recent.criticism goes to show that there is a very considerable groups had separated from the main body and were ultimately history than for its historical accuracy, the true meaning of which enrolled as Israelites. It is also recognized by many scholars that cannot as yet be clearly perceived. It raises many serious problems in the present account of the exodus there are indications of the which concentrate upon that age which is of the greatest importance original prominence of traditions of Kadesh, and also of a journey for the biblical and theological student. The perplexing relation northwards in which Caleb, Kenites and others took part (8 5). On between the admittedly late compilations and the actual course these and on other grounds besides, it has long been felt that south Palestine, with its north Arabian connexions, is of real importance in observes such a feature as the late interest in the Israelite tribes. No of the early history becomes still more intricate when one biblical research, and for many years efforts have been made to doubt there is much that is purely artificial and untrustworthy in determine the true significance of the evidence. The usual tendency the late (post-exilic) representations of these divisions, but it is has been to regard it in the light of the criticism of early Israelite almost incredible that the historical foundation for their early history, which demands some reconstruction ($ 8), and to discern career is severed from the written sources by centuries of warfare, distinct tribal movements previous to the union of Judah and Israel under David. On the other hand, the elaborate theory of t. k. immigration and other disturbing factors. On the one hand, conservative scholars insist upon the close material relation between Cheyne involves the view that a history dealing with the south the constituent sources; critical scholars, on the other hand, while actually underlies our sources and can be recovered by emendation recognizing much that is relatively untrustworthy, refrain from of the text. Against the former is the fact that although certain departing from the general outlines of the canonical history more groups are ultimately found in Judah (Judg. i.), the evidence for than is absolutely necessary. Hence the various reconstructions the movement-a conquest north of Kadesh, almost at the gate of of the earlier history, with all their inherent weaknesses. But the promised land-explicitly mentions Israel; and against the latter the evidence again shows that this representation has been deliber- The Historic Exodus (1909), pp. 120 sqq.; especially Meyer and ately subordinated to the entrance of Israel from beyond the Jordan.' Luther, Die Israeliten, pp. 442-440, &c. For the early recognition of the evidence in question, see J. Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis 1 The view that Deuteronomy is later than the 7th century has Judaeis (Göttingen, 1870); Prolegomena (Eng. trans.), pp. 216 sqq., been suggested by M. Vernes, Nouvelle hypothèse sur la comp. et 342 sqq., and 441-443 (from art. ** Israel," $ 2, Ency. Bril. 9th ed.); l'origine du Deut. (1887); Havet, Christian. et ses origines (1878); also A. Kuenen, Relig. of Israel (i. 135 seq., 176-182); W. R. Smith, Horst, in Rev. de l'hist. des relig., 1888; and more recently by E. Day, Prophets of Israel, pp. 28 seq., 379. Journ. Bib. Lit. (1902), pp. 202 sqq.; and R. H. Kennett, Journ. : For the prominence of the southern element in Judah see Theol. Stud. (1906), pp. 486 sqq. The strongest counter-arguments E. Meyer, Entstehung d. Judenthums (1896), pp. 119, 147, 167, 177, (see W. E. Addis, Doc. of Hexat. ii. 2-9) rely upon the historical 183 n. 1; Israeliten, pp. 352 n. 5, 402, 429 seq. trustworthiness of 2 Kings xxii. seq. Weighty reasons are brought See § 23 end, and LEVITES. When Edom is renowned for wis- also by conservative writers against the theory that Deuteronomy dom and a small Judaean family boasts of sages whose names have dates from or about the age of Josiah, and their objections to the south Palestinian affinity, (1 Chron. ii. 6), and when such names as discovery." of a new law-roll apply equally to the "se-discovery Korah, Heman, Ethan and Obed-edom, are associated with psalmody, and promulgation of an old and authentic code. 17 there is no inherent improbability in the conjecture that the " south- * See, for Cheyne's view, his Decline and Fall of Judah. Introduction families settled around Jerusalem may have left their mark in (1908). The former tendency, has many supporters; see, among other parts of the Old Testament. It is another question whether recent writers, N. Schmidt, Hibbert Journal (1908), pp. 322 sqq.; C.F. such literature can be identified (for Cheyne's views, see Ency. Bib. Burney, Journ. Theol. Stud. (1908), pp. 321 sqq.; 0. A. Toffteen, “ Prophetic Literature," " Psalms," and his recent studies). ern" 388 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS historical criticism is faced with the established literary conclusions thing of a twelve-years' governorship and of a second visit, but which, it should be noticed, place the Deuteronomic and priestly the evidence does not enable us to determine the sequence (xiii. 6). compilations posterior to the great changes at and after the fall of the northern monarchy, and, to some extent, contemporary with Neh. v. is placed in the middle of the building of the walls in the equally serious changes in Judah. There were catastrophes fifty-two days; the other reforms during the second visit are detrimental to the preservation of older literary records, and vicis- closely connected with the dedication of the walls and with the situdes which, if they have not left their mark on contemporary history-which is singularly blank-may be traced on the represen- events which immediately follow his first arrival when he had tations of the past. There are external historical circumstances come to rebuild the city. Nehemiah also turns his attention to and internal literary features which unite to show that the application religious abuses. The sabbath, once a festival, had become of the literary hypotheses of the Old Testament to the course of more strictly observed, and when he found the busy agriculturists Israelite history is still incomplete, and they warn us that the and traders (some of them from Tyre) pursuing their usual intrinsic value of religious and didactic writings should not depend upon the accuracy of their history. Future research may not be | labours on that day, he pointed to the disasters which had able to solve the problems which arise in the study of the period now resulted in the past from such profanation, and immediately took under discussion; it is the more necessary, therefore, that all efforts measures to put down the evil (Neh. xiii. 18; cf. Jer. xvii. 20 sqq.; should be tested in the light of purely external evidence (see further § 24; and PALESTINE: History). Ezek. xx. 13-24; Isa. Ivi. 2, 6; lviii. 13). Moreover, the mainten- ance of the Temple servants called for supervision; the customary 21. Nehemiah and Ezra.—There is another remarkable gap in allowances had not been paid to the Levites who had come to the historical traditions between the time of Zerubbabel and Jerusalem after the smaller shrines had been put down, and they the reign of Artaxerxes I. In obscure circumstances the had now forsaken the city. His last acts were the most conspicu- enthusiastic hopes have melted away, the Davidic scion has dis- ous of all. Some of the Jews had married women of Ashdod, appeared, and Jerusalem has been the victim of another disaster. Ammon and Moab, and the impetuous governor indignantly The country is under Persian officials, the nobles and priests form adjured them to desist from a practice which was the historic the local government, and the ground is being prepared for the cause of national sin. Even members of the priestly families had erection of a hierocracy. It is the work of rebuilding and re- intermarried with Tobiah and Sanballat; the former had his own organization, of social and of religious reforms, which we en- chamber in the precincts of the Temple, the daughter of the latter counter in the last pages of biblical history, and in the records of was the wife of a son of Joiada the son of the high priest Eliashib. Ezra and Nehemiah we stand in Jerusalem in the very centre of Again Nehemiah's wrath was kindled. Tobiah was cast out, the èpoch-making events. Nehemiah, the cup-bearer of Artaxerxes offending priest expelled, and a general purging followed, in at Susa, plunged in grief at the news of the desolation of Jerusalem, which all the foreign element was removed. With this Nehemiah obtained permission from the king to rebuild the ruins. Provided brings the account of his reforms to a conclusion, and the words with an escort and with the right to obtain supplies of wood for “Remember me, O my God, for good ” (xiii. 31) are not meaning- the buildings, he returned to the city of his fathers' sepulchres less. The incidents can be supplemented from Josephus. (the allusion may suggest his royal ancestry). His zeal is repre- According to this writer (Ant. xi. 7, 2), a certain Manasseh, the sented in a twofold aspect. Having satisfied himself of the brother of Jaddua and grandson of Joiada, refused to divorce his extent of the ruins, he aroused the people to the necessity of wife, the daughter of Sanballat. For this he was driven out, fortifying and repopulating the city, and a vivid account is given and, taking refuge with the Samaritans, founded a rival temple in his name of the many dangers which beset the rebuilding of and priesthood upon Mt Gerizim, to which repaired other the walls. Sanballat of Horon, Tobiah the Ammonite, and priests and Levites who had been guilty of mixed marriages. Gashmu the Arabian (? Edomite) unceasingly opposed him. There is little doubt that Josephus refers to the same events; Tobiah and his son Johanan were related by marriage to Judaean but there is considerable confusion in his history of the secular and priestly families, and active intrigues resulted, in Persian age, and when he places the schism and the founda- which nobles and prophets took their part. It was insinuated tion of the new Temple in the time of Alexander the Great (after that Nehemiah had his prophets to proclaim that Judah had again the obscure disasters of the reign of Artaxerxes III.), it is its own king; it was even suggested that he was intending to rebel usually supposed that he is a century too late.: At all events, against Persia! Nehemiah naturally gives us only his version, there is now a complete rupture with Samaria, and thus, in the and the attitude of Haggai and Zechariah to Zerubbabel may concluding chapter of the last of the historical books of the Old illustrate the feeling of his partisans. But Tobiah and Johanan Testament, Judah maintains its claim to the heritage of Israel themselves were worshippers of Yahweh (as their names also and rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title' (see $5). show), and consequently, with prophets taking different sides In this separation of the Judaeans from religious and social and with the Samaritan claims summarily repudiated (Neh. ii. intercourse with their neighbours, the work of Ezra (q.v.) re- 20; cf. Ezra iv. 3), all the facts cannot be gathered from the quires notice. The story of this scribe (now combined with the narratives. Nevertheless the undaunted Judaean pressed on memoirs of Nehemiah) crystallizes the new movement inaugu- unmoved by the threatening letters which were sent around, rated after a return of exiles from Babylonia. The age can also and succeeded in completing the walls within fifty-two days.? be illustrated from Isa. Ivi. lxvi. and Malachi (q.v.). There was In the next place, Nehemiah appears as governor of the small a poor and weak Jerusalem, its Temple stood in need of renovation, district of Judah and Benjamin. Famine, the avarice of the rich, its temple-service was mean, its priests unworthy of their office. and the necessity of providing tribute had brought the humbler On the one side was the grinding poverty of the poor; on the classes to the lowest straits. Some had mortgaged their houses, other the abuses of the governors. There were two leading fields and vineyards to buy corn; others had borrowed to pay, religious parties: one of oppressive formalists, exclusive, strict the taxes, and had sold their children to their richer brethren to 3 The papyri from Elephantine (p. 282, n. 1, above) mention as repay the debt. Nehemiah was faced with old abuses, and contemporaries the Jerusalem priest Johanan (cf. the son of Joiada vehemently contrasted the harshness of the nobles with the and father of Jaddua, Neh. xii. 22), Bagohi (Bagoas), governor of generosity of the exiles who would redeem their poor countrymen | They ignore any strained relations between Samaria and Judah, Judah, and Delaiah and Shelemiah sons of Sanballat (408-407 B.C.) from slavery. He himself had always refrained from exacting and Delaiah and Bagohi unite in granting permission to the Jewish the usual provision which other governors had claimed; indeed, colony to rebuild their place of worship If this fixes the date of he had readily entertained over 150 officials and dependants at Sanballat and Nehemiah in the time of the first Artaxerxes, the his table, apart from casual refugees (Neh. v.). We hear some probability of confusion in the later written sources is enhanced by the recurrence of identical names of kings, priests, &c., in the One may recall, in this connexion, Caxton's very interesting history. prologue to Malory's Morte d'Arthur and his remarks on the per- * The Samaritans, for their part, claimed the traditions of their manent value of the "histories" of this British hero. (Cf. also land and called themselves the posterity of Joseph, Ephraim and Horace, Ep. 1. ii. and R. Browning, Development.") Manasseh. But they were ready to deny their kinship with the 2. It is noteworthy that Josephus, who has his own representation Jews when the latter were in adversity, and could have replied to the of the post-exilic age, allows two years and four months for the tradition that they were foreigners with a tu quoque (Josephus, Ani. work (Ant. xi. 5, 8). ix. 14, 3; xi, 8, 6; xii. 5, 5) (see SAMARITANS). OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY) JEWS 389 and ritualistic; the other, more cosmopolitan, extended a freer | independent and undated record (a) points to a return, a rebuilding welcome to strangers, and tolerated the popular elements and apparently after some previous destruction), and some interference. This agrees substantially with the independent records of Nehemiah, the superstitious cults which are vividly depicted (Isa. lxv. seq.) and unless we assume two disasters not widely separated in date But the former gained the day, and, realizing that the only hope - viz. those presupposed in (a) and (c)-the record in (a) may refer of maintaining a pure worship of Yahweh lay in a forcible isolation to that stage in the history where the other source describes the from foreign influence, its adherents were prepared to take intrigues of the Samaritans and the letters sent by Tobiah (cf measures to ensure the religious independence of their assembly. insinuations that Nehemiah was seeking to be ruler and their repre. Tabeel in Ezra iv 7) to frighten Nehemiah (Neh. vi. 19). Their It is related that Ezra, the scribe and priest, returned to Jerusalem sentations to Artaxerxes would be enough to alarm the king (cf with priests and Levites, lay exiles, and a store of vessels for the Neh. vi. 5-9, 19, and Ezra iv. 15 seq., 20 seq.), and it may possibly be Temple. He was commissioned to inquire into the religious con- gathered that Nehemiah at once departed to justify himself (Neh. vii. 2, xiii. 4, 6). Nevertheless, since the narratives are no longer in dition of the land and to disseminate the teaching of the Law to their original form or sequence, it is impossible to trace the successive which he had devoted himself (Ezra vii.), On his arrival the steps of the sequel; although if the royal favour was endorsed people were gathered together, and in due course he read the (cf the account ascribed to the time of Darius, Ezra v. seq.), Nehe- book of the Law of Moses” daily for seven days (Neh, viii ). miah's position as a reformer would be more secure. They entered into an agreement to obey its teaching, undertaking (cf Daniel , Esther, 1 Esdras, Josephus), the historical narratives Although there was a stock of tradition for the post-exilic age in particular to avoid marriages with foreigners (X. 28 sqq) A are of the scantiest and vaguest until the time of Artaxerxes, when special account is given of this reform (Ezra ix. seq.) and the the account of a return (Ezra iv, 12), which otherwise is quite ignored, description of Ezra’s horror at the prevalence of intermarriage, appears to have been used for the times of Darius (1 Esdras iv. seq.) which threatened to destroy the distinctive character of the and subsequently of Cyrus (Ezra i.-iii.).. Moreover, although general opinion identifies our Artaxerxes with the first of that name, certain community, sufficiently indicates the attitude of the stricter features suggest that there has been some confusion with the party. The true seed of Israel separated themselves from all traditions of the time of Artaxerxes II. and III. ($ 19). But the foreigners (not, however, without some opposition) and formed problems are admittedly complicated, and since one is necessarily an exclusively religious body or dependent upon scanty narratives arranged and rearranged by later congregation.” Dreams of hands in accordance with their own historical theories, it is difficult political freedom gave place to hopes of religious independence, to lay stress upon internal evidence which appears to be conclusive and“ Israel” became a church, the foundation of which it sought for this or that reconstruction. The main facts, however, are clear in the desert of Sinai a thousand years before Jerusalem had suffered some serious catastrophe before Nehemiah's return; a body of exiles returned, and in spite of interference the 22, Post-exilic History: --The biblical history for the period in work of rebuilding was completed; through their influence the the books of Ezra and Nehemiah is exceptionally obscure, and it Judaean community underwent reorganization, and separated itself is doubtful how far the traditions can be trusted before we reach from its so-called heather neighbours. How many years elapsed the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra vii. sqq., Neh.). The records belonging from beginning to end can hardly be said. Tradition concentrated to this reign represent four different stages: (a) The Samaritans re- upon Ezra and his age many events and changes of fundamental ported that the Jews who had returned from the king to Jerusalem importance. The canonical history has allowed only one great were rebuilding the city and completing its walls, an act calculated destruction of Jerusalem, and the disaster of 586 B.C. became the to endanger the integrity of the province. Artaxerxes accordingly type for similar disasters, but how many there were criticism can instructed them to stop the work until he should give the necessary scarcely decide. Allusions to Judah's sufferings at the hands of decree, and this was done by force (Ezra iv 7-23, undated; i Esdras Edom, Moab and Ammon often imply conditions which are not ii. 16 sqq. mentions a building of the Temple!). (6) It was in the applicable to 586. A definite series knows of an invasion and occu- 7th year (1.e. 458 B.C.) that Ezra returned with a small body of exiles pation by Edom (q.v end), a people with whom Judah, as the genea- to promulgate the new laws he had brought and to set the Temple logies show, had once been intimately connected. The unfriendli- service in order? Fortified with remarkable powers, some of ness of the brother” people, which added so much to the bitterness which far exceed the known tolerance of Persian kings, he began of Judah, although associated with the events of 586 (so especially wide-sweeping marriage reforms, but the record ceases abruptly 1 Esdras iv.45),probably belongs to a much later date. The tradition (vii.-x.) (c) In the 20th year (445 B.C.) Nehemiah returned with that Edomites burned the Temple and occupied part of Judah (ib. permission to rebuild the walls, the citadel and the governor's house VV 45, 50) is partially confirmed by Ezek. XXXV 5, 10, xxxvi. 5; (Nch. ii. 5, 8; see § 21 above). But (d), whilst as governor he Ps. cxxxvii. 7; but the assumption that Darius, as in i Esdras, helped accomplishes various needed reforms, there is much confusion in the Jews against them can with difficulty be maintained. The in- the present narratives, due partly to the resumption of Ezra's labours teresting conjecture that the second Temple suffered another disaster after an interval of twelve years, and partly to the closely related in the obscure gap which follows the time of Zerubbabel has been events of Nehemiah's activity in which room must be found for urged, after Isa. Ixiji. 7-Ixiv. 12, by Kuenen (afterwards withdrawn) his twelve-years' governorship and a second visit.. The internal and by Sellin, and can be independently confirmed. In the records literary and historical questions are extremely intricate, and the of Nehemiah the ruins of the city are extensive (ii. 8, 17, iii ; cf. necessity for some reconstruction is very generally felt (fos prelimi; Ecclus xlix. 13). and the tradition that Nehemiah rebuilt this Temple nary details, see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH). The disaster which aroused (Jos. Ant. xi. 5. 6, 2 Macc. i. 18) is supported (a) by the explicit Nehemiah's grief was scarcely the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B C., but a more recent one, and it has been conjectured that it followed 3C, F Kent, Israel's Hist, and Biog. Narratives (1905), p. 358 seq. the work of Ezra (in b above), On the other hand, a place can The objections against this very probable view undervalue Ezra iv. hardly be found for the history of Ezra before the appearance of 7-23 and overlook the serious intricacies in the book of Nehemiah. Nehemiah; he moves in a settled and peaceful community such as • There are three inquiries: (a) the critical value of i Esdras, Nehemiah had helped to form, his reforms appear to be more mature (6) the character of the different representations of post-exilic inter- and schematic than those of Nehemiah; and, whilst Josephus handles nal and external history, and (c) the recovery of the historical facts. the two separately, giving Ezra the priority, many recent scholars To start with the last before considering (a) and (b) would be futile. incline to place Nehemiah's first visit before the arrival of Ezra.? 5 For example, to the sufferings under Artaxerxes III. (§ 19) have That later tradition should give the pre-eminence to the priestly been ascribed such passages as Isa. Ixiii. 7-lxiv. 12; Ps. xliv., 1xxiv., reforms of Ezra is in every way natural, but it has been found lxxix., Ixxx., Ixxxiii. (see also. LAMENTATIONS). In their present extremely difficult to combine the two in any reconstruction of the form they are not of the beginning of the 6th century and, if the period. Next, since there are three distinct sources, for (a) above, evidence for Artaxerxes III proves too doubtful, they may belong and for the work of Nehemiah and of Ezra, implicit reliance cannot to the history preceding Nehemiah's return, provided the internal be placed upon the present sequence of narratives. Thus (a), with features do not stand in the way (e.g prior or posterior to the forma. its allusion to a further decree, forms a plausible prelude to the return tion of the exclusive Judaean community &c.). Since the book of of either Ezra (vii. 13) or Nehemiah (i 3. ii. 3); and if it is surprising Baruch (named after Jeremiah's scribe) is now recognized to be con- that the Samaritans and other opponents, who had previously it will be seen that the recurrence of similar causes leads to a similar siderably later (probably after the destruction of Jerusalem A.D. 70). waited to address Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. 14 sqq., v. 5, 17), should now interfere when Nehemiah was armed with a royal mandate (Neh, ity in the contemporary literary productions (with a reshaping of üi. 7-9), it is very difficult not to conclude that the royal permits, earlier tradition), the precise date of which depends upon delicate as now detailed, have been coloured by, Jewish patriotism and points of detail and not upon the apparently obvious historical elements. the history by enmity to Samaria. Finally, the situation in the 6 See H. Winckler, Keil. u. Alte Test., 295, and Kennett, Journ. 1 The statement that the king desired to avoid the divine wrath Theol. Stud. (1906), p. 487; Camb. Bib. Essays, p. 117. The Chaldeans may possibly have some deeper meaning (e.g. some recent revolt, alone destroyed Jerusalem. (2 Kings xxv.) Edom was friendly Ezra vii. 23). or at least neutral (Jer. xxvii. 3, xl. II seq.). The proposal to read ? It must suffice to refer to the opinions of Bertholet, Buhl, “Edomites" for “Syrians in the list of bands which troubled Cheyne, Guthe, Van Hoonacker, Jahn, Kennett, Kent, Kosters, Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiv 2) is not supported by the contemporary Marquart, Torrey, and Wildeboer. reference, Jer. XXXV. II. : 390 (OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY JEWS 19 references to the rebuilding of the Temple in the reign of Artaxerxes | recast in accordance with the requirements of the time, with the (1 Esdras ii. 18, not in Ezra iv. 12; but both in a context relating to the history of the Temple), and (6) by the otherwise inaccurate state- result that, by the side of usages evidently of very great anti- ment that the Temple was finished according to the decree of “Cyrus, quity, details now appear which were previously unknown or Darius and Artaxerxes king of Persia " (Ezra vi. 14). wholly unsuitable The age, which the scanty historical tra- The untrustworthy account of the return in the time of Cyrus (Ezra ditions themselves represent as one of supreme importance for i. sqq ) or Darius (1 Esdras iv. seq., probably the older form) is the history of the Jews, once seemed devoid of interest; and it curiously indebted to material which seems to have belonged to the history of the work of Nehemiah (cf. Ezra îi. with Neh. vii.), and is entirely through the laborious scholarship of the 19th century the important return in the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra iv, 12) seems that it now begins to reveal its profound significance. The to be connected with other references to some new settlement (Neh. Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, that the hierarchical law in its xi. 20, 23, 25, especially xii. 29). The independent testimony of the complete form in the Pentateuch stands at the close and not at names in Nch. iii' is against any previous large return from Babylon: the beginning of biblical history, that this mature Judaism and clearly illustrates the strength of the groups of " southern origin whose presence is only to be expected (p. 285). Moreover, was the fruit of the 5th century B.C. and not a divinely appointed the late compiler of i Chronicles distinguishes a Judah composed institution at the exodus (nearly ten centuries previously), has almost wholly of " southern" groups (1 Chron. ii. and iv.) from a won the recognition of almost all Old Testament scholars. It subsequent stage when the first inhabitants of Jerusalem correspond in the main to the new population after Nehemiah had repaired the has been substantiated by numerous subsidiary investigations ruins (1 Chron. ix. and Neh. xi.). Consequently, underlying the in diverse departments, from different standpoints, and under canonical form of post-exilic history, one may perhaps recognize various aspects, and can be replaced only by one which shall some fresh disaster, after the completion of Zerubbabel's temple, when Judah suffered grievously at the hands of its Edomite brethren more adequately explain the literary and historical evidence (in Malachi, date uncertain, vengeance has at last been taken): | (see further, p. 289). Nehemiah restored the city, and the traditions of the exiles who The post-exilic priestly spirit represents a tendency which is returned at this period have been thrown back and focussed upon the absent from the Judaean Deuteronomic book of Kings but is work of Zerubbabel. The criticism of the history of Nehemiah; fully mature in the later, and to some extent parallely book which leads to this conjecture, suggests also that if Nehemiah repulsed of Chronicles (q.v.), The“ priestly” traditions of the creation the Samaritan claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezra iv. 3, where the building of the ple is concerned) and refused a compromise (vi.2), it is extremely and of the patriarchs mark a very distinct advance upon the unlikely that Samaria had hitherto been seriously hostile, see also earlier narratives, and appear in a further developed form in C C. Torrey, Ezra Studies, pp. 321-333. Bibilical history ends with the triumph of the Judacan community, the still later book of Jubilees, or " Little Genesis," where they the true “ Israel," the right to which title is found in the distant are used to demonstrate the pre-Mosaic antiquity of the priestly past. The J udacan view pervades the present sources, and whilst or Levitical institutions. There is also an unmistakable de- its David and Solomon ruled over a united land, the separation velopment in the laws, and the priestly legislation, though ahead under Jeroboam is viewed as one of calf-worshipping northern tribes of both Ezekiel and Deuteronomy, not to mention still earlier from Jerusalem with its one central temple and the legitimate priesthood of the Zadokites. It is from this narrower standpoint of usage, not only continues to undergo continual internal modi- an exclusive and confined Judah (and Benjamın) that the traditions fication, but finds a further distinct development, in the way of as incorporated in the late recensions gain fresh force, and in Israel's definition and interpretation, Outside the Old Testament-in renunciation of the Judacan yoke the later hostility between the the Talmud (qv) Upon the characteristics of the post-exilic two may be read between the lines. The history in Kings was not priestly writings we need not dwell. Though one may often be finally settled until a very late date, as is evident from the important variations in the Septuagint, and it is especially in the description repelled by their lifelessness, their lack of spontaneity and the of the time of Solomon and the disruption that there continued to externalization of the ritual, it must be recognized that they be considerable fluctuations. The book has no finale and the sudden placed a strict monotheism upon a legal basis. break may not be accidental. It is replaced by Chronicles, which, confining itself to Judaean history from a later standpoint (after necessity that Judaism should incrust itself in this manner, the Persian age), includes new characteristic traditions wherein some without those hard and ossified forms the preservation of its recollection of more recent events may be recognized Thus, the essential elements would have proved impossible. At a time south Judacan or south Palestinian element shows itself in Judaean when all nationalities, and at the same time all bonds of religion genealogies and lists, there are circumstantial stories of the rehabili. tation of the Temple and the reorganization of cultus; there are and national customs, were beginning to be broken up in the fuller traditions of inroads upon Judah by southern peoples and seeming cosmos and real chaos of the Graeco-Roman Empire, their allies There is also a more definite subordination of the royal | the Jews stood out like a rock in the midst of the ocean. authority to the priesthood (so too in the writings of Ezekiel, q,), When the natural conditions of independent nationality all and the stories of punishment inflicted upon kings who dared to contend against the priests (Jehoash, Uzziah) point to a conflict of failed them, they nevertheless artificially maintained it with an authority, a hint of which is already found in the reconciliation of energy truly marvellous, and thereby preserved for themselves, Zerubbabel and the priest Joshua in a passage ascribed to Zechariah and at the same time for the whole world, an eternal good.”'3 (ch vì ) If one is apl to acquire too narrow a view of Jewish legalism, 23. Post-exilic Judaism.-With Nehemiah and Ezra we enter the whole experience of subsequent history, through the heroic upon the era in which a new impulse gave to Jewish lıfe and age of the Maccabees (qv) and onwards, only proves that the thought that form which became the characteristic orthodox minuteness of ritual procedure could not cramp the heart. Judaism It was not a new religion that took root, older ten Besides, this was only one of the aspects of Jewish literary dencies were diverted into new paths, the existing material was activity The work represented in Nehemiah and Ezra, and put shaped to new ends. Judah was now a religious community into action by the supporters of an exclusive Judaism, certainly whose representative was the high priest of Jerusalem Instead won the day, and their hands have left their impress upon the of sacerdotal kings, there were royal priests, anointed with oil, historical traditions. But Yahwism, like Islam, had its sects arrayed with kingly insignia, claiming the usual royal dues in and tendencies, and the opponents to the stricter ritualism always addition to the customary rights of the priests. With his priests had followers. Whatever the predominant party might think and Levites, and with the chiefs and nobles of the Jewish of foreign marriages, the tradition of the half-Moabite origin families, the high priest directs this small state, and his death of David serves, in the beautiful idyll of Ruth (9.v.), to suggest marks an epoch as truly as did that of the monarchs in the past the debt which Judah and Jerusalem owed to one at least This `hierarchical government, which can find no founda- of its neighbours. Again, although some may have desired tion in the Hebrew monarchy, is the forerunner of the Sanhe- a self-contained community opposed to the heathen neigh- drin (q.v.); it is an institution which, however inaugurated, set bours of Jerusalem, the story of Jonah implicitly contends its stamp upon the narratives which have survived. Laws were against the attempt of Judaism to close its doors. The conflict- ing tendencies were incompatible, but Judaism retained the 1 It is at least a coincidence that the prophet who took the part of Tobiah and Sanballat against Nehemiah (vi. 10 seq.) bears the same ? See Hebrew RELIGION, 8 8 seq., and the relevant portions of the name as the one who advised Rehoboam to acquiesce in the disrup-histories of Israel, tion (1 Kings xii. 21-24), or announced the divine selection of Jero. * J Wellhausen, art." boam (ib. v. 24, Septuagint only). Israel," Ency. Brit. 9th ed , vol. xiii. p. 419; or his Prolegomena, pp. 497 seq. “ It was a OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY] JEWS 391 incompatibilities within its limits, and the two tendencies, i hostility to foreign marriages. The most " unhistorical” tradition prophetical and priestly, continue, the former finding its further has some significance for the development of thought or of history- writing, and thus its internal features are ultimately of historical development in Christianity.? value. Only from an exhaustive comparison of controlling data can the scattered hints be collected and classified. There is much The Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis (§ 4) does not pretend to be com- plete in all its details and it is independent of its application to the that is suggestive, for example, in the relation between the " post- exilic historical criticism of the Old Testament. No alternative hypo- additions to the prophecies and their immediately earlier thesis prevails, mere desultory criticism of the internal intricacies form; or in the singular prominence of the Judaean family of Perez being quite inadequate. Maintaining that the position of the (its elevation over Zerah, a half-Edomite family, Gen. xxxviii.; its Pentateuch alone explains the books which follow, conservative connexion with the Davidic dynasty, Ruth iv.; its position as head writers concede that it is composite, has had some literary history, of all the Judaean sub-divisions, . Chron. ii. 5 sqq.); or in the late and has suffered some revision in the post-exilic age. Their con- insertion of local tradition encircling Jerusalem; or in the perplexing cessions continue to become ever more significant, and all that attitude of the histories towards the district of Benjamin and its follows from them should be carefully noticed by those who are famous sanctuary of Bethel (only about 10 m. north of Jerusalem) impressed by their arguments. They identify with Deuteronomy the Although these and other phenomena cannot yet be safely placed law-roll, which explains the noteworthy reforms of Josiah (8 16),; shed much light upon the obscurities of the exilic and post-exilic in a historical frame, the methodical labours of past scholars have but since it is naturally admitted that religious conditions had become quite inconsistent with Mosaism, the conservative view ages, and one must await the more comprehensive study of the implies that the “long-lost " Deuteronomy must have differed two or three centuries which are of the first importance for biblical profoundly from any known Mosaic writings to which earlier pious history and theology. kings and prophets had presumably adhered. Similarly, the "book 24. Old Testament History and External Evidence.-Thus the Old of the Law of Moses," brought from Babylon by Ezra (Ezra vii.; describes the relation of the Hebrews to surrounding peoples, the Testament, the history of the Jews during the first great period, Neh. viii.), clearly contained much of which the people were ignorant, superiority of Judah over the faithless (north) Israelite tribes, and and conservative writers, who oppose the theory that a new Law was then introduced, emphasize (a) the previous existence of legislation at the arrival of Ezra with the Book of the Law. the reorganization of the Jewish community in and around Jerusalem The whole gives (to prove that Ezra's book was not entirely a novelty), and (b) the gross wickedness in Judah (as illustrated by the prophets) from the an impression of unity, which is designed, and is to be expected in a time of Josiah to the strenuous efforts of the reformers on behalf compilation. But closer examination reveals remarkable gaps and of the most fundamental principles of the national religion. This irreconcilable historical standpoints. For all serious biblical study, again simply means that the Mosaism of Ezra or Nehemiah must the stages in the growth of the written traditions and the historical have differed essentially from the priestly teaching prior to their circumstances which they imply, must inevitably be carefully arrival. The arguments of conservative writers involve concessions considered, and upon the result depends, directly or indirectly, which, though often overlooked by their readers, are very detri: impossible to recover with confidence or completeness the develop- almost every subject of Old Testament investigation. Yet it is mental to the position they endeavour to support, and the objections ment of Hebrew history from the pages of the Old Testament alone, they bring against the theory of the introduction of new law-books | The keen interest taken by the great prophets in the world around (under a Josiah or an Ezra) apply with equal force to the promulga- them is not prominent in the national records; political history has tion of Mosaic teaching which had been admittedly ignored or forgotten. Their arguments have most weight, however, when revealing is not conspicuous in the didactic narratives. To external been subordinated, and the Palestine which modern discovery is they show the hazardous character of reconstructions which rely evidence one must look, therefore, for that which did not fall upon the trustworthiness of the historical narratives. What book Ezra really brought from Babylon is uncertain; the writer, it seems, within the scope or the horizon of the religious historians. They is merely narrating the introduction of the Law ascribed to Moses, do not give us the records of the age of the Babylonian monarch even as a predecessor has recounted the discovery of the Book of Khammurabi (perhaps Amraphel, Gen. xiv.), of the Egyptian the Law, the Deuteronomic code subsequently included in the conquests in the XVIIIth and following dynasties, or of the period Pentateuch, illustrated by the Amarna tablets (8 3). They treat with almost The importance which the biblical writers attach to the return unique fullness a few years in the middle of the gth century B.C., but from Babylon in the reign of Artaxerxes forms starting-point for ignore Assyria; yet only the Assyrian inscriptions explain the politi- several interesting inquiries. Thus, in any estimate of the influence cal situation (10 seq.), and were it not for them the true significance of Babylonia upon the Old Testament, it is obviously necessary to of the 8th-7th centuries could scarcely be realized ($ 15 seq.). It ask whcther certain features (a) are of true Babylonian origin, or would be erroneous to confuse the extant sources with the historical material which might or must have been accessible, or to assume (b) merely find parallels or analogies in its stores of literature; whether Assyrian domination or to the exiles who now returned. Again; of some historical kernel merely on account of unhistorical elements the indebtedness goes back to very early times or to the age of the that the antiquity of the elements of history proves or presupposes the antiquity of the records themselves, or even to deny the presence there were priestly and other families--some originally of “southern origin--already settled around Jerusalem, and questions inevitably or the late dress in which the events are now clothed. External arise concerning their relation to the new-comers and the literary logical basis in the internal conflicting character of the written research constantly justifies the cautious attitude which has its vicissitudes which gave us the Old Testament in its present form. To this age we may ascıibe the literature of the Priestly writers traditions or in their divergence from ascertained facts; at the same (symbolized by P), which differs markedly from the other sources. time it has clearly shown that the internal study of the Old Testa- Yet it is clear from the book of Genesis alone that in the age of ment has its limits. Hence, in the absence of more complete external Priestly writers and compilers there were other phases of thought. historical criticism, even though this recognition means that positive evidence one is obliged to recognize the limitations of Old Testament Popular stories with many features of popular religion were current. They could be, and indeed had been made more edifying; but the reconstructions are more precarious than negative conclusions. very noteworthy conservatism of even the last compiler or editor, The naïve impression that each period of history was handled by in contrast to the re-shaping and re-writing of the material in the some more or less contemporary authority is not confirmed by a book of Jubilees, indicates that the Priestly spirit was not that of criticism which confines itself strictly to the literary evidence. An the whole community. But through the Priestly hands the Old interest in the past is not necessarily confined to any one age, and Testament history passed, and their standpoint colours its records. the critical view that the biblical history has been compiled from This is especially true of the history of the exilic and post-exilic relatively late standpoints finds support in the still later treatment periods, where the effort is made to preserve the continuity of Israel of the events—in Chronicles as contrasted with Samuel-Kings or It is instructive to observe bitterness aroused by the ardent and to some extent unjust zeal of (Maspero, Rec. de travaux, xxvii., 1905, 1. 22 seq.); cf. also the late and the Israelite community (Chronicles-Ezra Nehemiah). The in Jubilees as contrasted with Genesis. in Egypt the form which old traditions have taken in Manetho the reforming element can only be conjectured. The traditions reveal a tendency to legitimate new circumstances. Priesthoods, story of Rameses II. and the Hittites (J. H. Breasted, Anc. Rec. of whose traditions connect them with the south, are subordinated; Egypt, iii. 189 seq.); while in Babylonia one may note the didactic the ecclesiastical records are re-shaped or re-adjusted; and a picture treatment, after the age of Cyrus, of the events of the time of Kham- is presented of hierarchical jealousies and rivalries which (it was murabi (A. H. Sayce, Proc. Soc. Biblical Archaeol., 1907, pp. 13 sqq.). thought) were settled once and for all in the days of the exodus from (e.g. Abraham, Ezra), Mesopotamia (e.g. Jacob), Egypt (e.g. Joseph, The links whích unite the traditional heroes with Babylonia Egypt. Many features' gain in significance as the account of the Exodus, the foundation of Israel, is read in the light of the age when, after the advent of a new element from Babylonia, the Pentateuch 2 Cf. the story of Phinehas, Num. xxv. 6 sqq.; on Gen. xxxiv., see assumed its present shape; it must suffice to mention the supremacy SIMEON. Apropos of hostility towards Samaria, it is singular that of the Aaronite priests and the glorification of uncompromising the term of reproach, “ Cutheans," applied to the Samaritans is derived from Cutha, the famous seat of the god Nergal, only some 25 m. N.E. of Babylon itself (see above, p. 286, n. 4). 1 An instructive account of Judaism in the early post-exilic age 3 The various tendencies which can be observed in the later on critical lines (from the Jewish standpoint) is given by C. G. pseudepigraphical and apocalyptical writings are of considerable Montefiore, Hibbert Lectures (1892), pp. 355 sqq.; cf. also the sketch value in any consideration of the development of thought illustrated by I. Abrahams, Judaism (1907). in the Old Testament itself. 392 (GREEK DOMINATION JEWS Jeroboam), Midian (e.g. Moses, Jethro), &c., like the intimate the Old Testament into its present form, and its preservation despite relationship between Israel and surrounding lands, havea significance hostile forces, are the two remarkable phenomena which most arrest in the light of recent research. Israel can no longer be isolated from the attention of the historian; it is for the theologian to interpret the politics, culture, folk-lore, thought and religion of western Asia their bearing upon the history of religious thought. (S. A. C.) and Egypt. Biblical, or rather Palestinian, thought has been brought into the world of ancient Oriental liſe, and this life, in spite of the II.-GREEK DOMINATION various forms in which it has from time to time been shaped, still rules in the East. This has far-reaching, consequences for the 25. Alexander the Great.—The second great period of the traditional attitude to Israelite history and religion. Research is history of the Jews begins with the conquest of Asia by Alexander seriously complicated by the growing stores of material, which unfortunately are often utilized without attention to the principles general of the Greeks. the Great, disciple of Aristotle, king of Macedon and captain- of the various departments of knowledge or aspects of study: It ends with the destruction of Jeru- complexity of modern knowledge and the interrelation of its different salem by the armies of the Roman Empire, which was, like branches are often insufficiently realized, and that by writers who | Alexander, at once the masterſul pupil and the docile patron differ widely in the application of such material as they use to of Hellenism. The destruction of Jerusalem might be regarded their particular views of the manifold problems of the Old Testament It has been easy to confuse the study of the Old Testament in its as an event of merely domestic importance; for the Roman relation to modern religious needs with the technical scientific cosmopolitan it was only the removal of the titular metropolis study of the much edited remains of the literature of a small part of a national and an Oriental religion. But, since a derivative of the ancient East. Iſ there was once a tendency to isolate the of that religion has come to be a power in the world at large, this Old Testament and ignore comparative research, it is now sometimes found possible to exaggerate its general agreement with Oriental event has to be regarded in a different light. The destruction history, life and thought. Difficulties have been found in the super- of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 concludes the period of four centuries, natural or marvellous stories which would be taken as a matter of during which the Jews as a nation were in contact with the course by contemporary readers, and efforts are often made to recover historical facts or to adapt the records to modern theology their own will nor yet against it. Whether the master of the Greeks and exposed to the influence of Hellenism, not wholly of without sufficient attention to the historical data as a whole or to their religious environment. The preliminary preparation for provinces, in which there were Jews, be an Alexander, a Ptolemy, research of any value becomes yearly more exacting. a Seleucid or a Roman, the force by which he rules is the force Many traces of myth, legend and“ primitive" thought survive in of Greek culture. These four centuries are the Greek period of the Old Testament, and on the most cautious estimate they pre Jewish history. suppose a vitality which is not a little astonishing: But they are now softened and often bereſt of their earlier significance, and it is The ancient historians, who together cover this period, are this and their divergence from common Oriental thought which make strangely indifferent to the importance of the Jews, upon which Old Testament thought so profound and unique. The process finds Josephus is at pains to insist. When Alexander invaded the its normal development in later and non-biblical literature; but one can recognize earlier, cruder and less distinctive stages, and, as interior of the Eastern world, which had hitherto remained surely as writings reflect the mentality of an author or of his age, the inviolable, he came as the champion of Hellenism. His death peculiar characteristics of the extant sources, viewed in the light of prevented the achievement of his designs; but he had broken a comprehensive survey of Palestinian and surrounding culture, down the barrier, he had planted the seed of the Greek's influ- demand a reasonable explanation. The differences between the form of the written history and the conditions which prevailed have ence in the four quarters of the Persian Empire. His successors, impressed themselves variously upon modern writers, and efforts the Diadochi, carried on his work, but Antiochus Epiphanes was have been made to recover from the Old Testament carlier forms the first who deliberately took in hand to deal with the Jews. more in accordance with the external evidence. It may be doubted, Daniel (viii. 8) describes the interval between Alexander and however, whether the material is sufficient for such restoration or reconstruction. In the Old Testament we have the outcome of Antiochus thus: “ The he-goat (the king of Greece) did very specific developments, and the stage at which we see each element greatly: and when he was strong the great horn (Alexander) was of tradition or belief is not always isolated or final (cf. Kings and broken; and instead of it came up four other ones-four king- Chronicles). The early myths, legends and traditions which can be doms shall stand up out of his nation but not with his power. traced differ profoundly from the canonical history, and the gap is wider than that between the latter and the subsequent apocalyptical And out of one of them came forth a little horn (Antiochus and pseudepigraphical literature. Epiphanes) which waxed exceeding great towards the south Where it is possible to make legitimate and unambiguous com- (Egypt) and towards the East (Babylon) and towards the parisons, the ethical and spiritual superiority of Old Testament beauteous land (the land of Israel).” The insignificance of the thought has been convincingly demonstrated, and to the re-shaping and re-writing of the older history and the older traditions the Old Jewish community in Palestine was their salvation. The re- Testament owes its permanent value. While the history of the great forms of Nehemiah were directed towards the establishment of area between the Nile and the Tigris irresistibly emphasizes the a religious community at Jerusalem, in which the rigour of the insignificance of Palestine, this land's achievements for humanity law should be observed. As a part of the Persian Empire the grow the more remarkable as research tells more of its environ- ment. Although the light thrown upon ancient conditions of life community was obscure and unimportant. But the race whose and thought has destroyed much that sometimes seems vital for chief sanctuary it guarded and maintained was the heir of great the Old Testament, it has brought into relief a more permanent and traditions and ideals. In Egypt, moreover, in Babylon and in indisputable appreciation of its significance, and it is gradually Persia individual Jews had responded to the influences of their dispelling that pseudo-scientific literalism which would letter the greatest of ancient Oriental writings with an insistence upon the environment and won the respect of the aliens whom they verity of historical facts. Not internal criticism, but the incontest despised. The law which they cherished as their standard and able results of objective observation have shown once and for guide kept them united and conscious of their unity. And the all that the relationship between the biblical account of the earliest individuals, who acquired power or wisdom among those outside history (Gen. i.-xi.) and its value either as an authentic record (which requires unprejudiced examination) or as a religious document Palestine shed a reflected glory upon the nation and its Temple. (which remains untouched) is typical. If, as seems probable, the In connexion with Alexander's march through Palestine Josephus continued methodical investigation, which is demanded by the gives a tradition of his visit to Jerusalem. In Arrian's narrative advance of modern knowledge, becomes more drastic in its results, of Alexander's exploits, whose fame had already faded before the it will recognize ever more clearly that there were certain unique greater glory of Rome, there is no mention of the visit or the city or influences in the history of Palestine which cannot be explained by the Jews. Only Tyre and Gaza barred the way to Egypt. He purely historical research. The change from Palestinian polytheism took, presumably, the coast-road in order to establish and retain to the pre-eminence of Yahweh and the gradual development of his command of the sea. The rest of Palestine, which is called ethical monotheism are facts which external evidence continues to Coele-Syria, made its submission and furnished supplics. Seven emphasize, which biblical criticism must investigate as completely days after the capture of Gaza Alexander was at Pelusium. as possible. And if the work of criticism has brought a fuller According to the tradition which Josephus has preserved the high appreciation of the value of these facts, the debt which is owed to priest refused to transfer his allegiance, and Alexander marched the Jews is enhanced when one proceeds to realize the immense against Jerusalem after the capture of Gaza. The high priest difficulties against which those who transmitted the Old Testament dressed in his robes went out to meet him, and at the sight Alexander had to contend in the period of Greek domination. The growth of remembered a dream, in which such a man had appeared to him as the appointed leader of his expedition. So the danger was 1 Reference may be made to H. Winckler, Gesch. Israels, ii. (1900); averted: Alexander offered sacrifice and was shown the prophecy W. Erbt, Die Hebrüer (1906); and T. K. Cheyne, Traditions and of Daniel, which spoke of him. It is alleged, further, that at this Beliefs of Ancient Israel (1907). time certain Jews who could not refrain from intermarriage with GREEK DOMINATION) JEWS 393 the heathen set up a temple on Mt Gerizim and became the Samari; | Alexandria the Septuagint grew up gradually, as need arose. tan schism ($ 21 above), The combination is certainly artificial and The legendary tradition which even Philo accepts gives it a not historical. But it has a value of its own inasmuch as it illus- trates the permanent tendencies which mould the history of the formal nativity, a royal patron and inspired authors. From Jews. It is true that Alexander was subject to dreams and visited the text which Philo uses, it is probable that the translation had shrines in order to assure himself or his followers of victory. But it been transmitted in writing; and his legend probably fixes the is not clear that he had such need of the Jews or such regard for the date of the commencement of the undertaking for the reign of Temple of Jerusalem that he should turn aside on his way to Egypt for such a purpose. Ptolemy Lagus. However this may be, Alexander's tutor had been in Așia and had The apology for the necessary defects of a translation put forward met a Jew there, if his disciple Clearchus of Soli is to be trusted by the translator of Ecclesiasticus in his Prologue shows that the “The man," Aristotle says, was by race a Jew out of Coele-Syria. work was carried on beyond the limits of the Law. Apparently it His people are descendants of the Indian philosophers. It is re- was in progress at the time of his coming to Egypt in the reign of ported that philosophers are called Calani among the Indians and Ptolemy Euergetes I. or II. He seems to regard this body of Jews among the Syrians. The Jews take their name from their literature as the answer to the charge that the Jews had contributed place of abode, which is called Judaea. The name of their city is nothing useful for human life. Once translated into Greek, the very difficult; they call it Hierusaleme. This man, then, having Scriptures became a bond of union for the Jews of the dispersion been a guest in many homes and having come down gradually from and were at least capable of being used as an instrument for the the highlands to the sea-coast, was Hellenic not only in speech but conversion of the world to Judaism. So far as the latter function also in soul. And as we were staying in Asia, at the time, the man is concerned Philo confesses that the Law in his day shared the ob- cast up at the same place and interviewed us and other scholars, scurity of the people, and seems to imp!y that the proselytes adopted making trial of their wisdom. But inasmuch as he had come to little more than the monotheistic principle and the observance of the be at home with many cultured persons he imparted more than he Sabbath. According to Juvenal the sons of such proselytes were got." The date of this interview is probably determined by the apt to go farther and to substitute the Jewish Law for the Roman- fact that Aristotle visited his friend Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus, Romanas autem soliti contemnere leges; in 347–345 B.C. There is no reason to doubt the probability or even Judaicum ediscunt et servant ac metuunt ius the accuracy of the narrative. Megasthenes also describes the Jews Tradidit arcano quodcunque volumine Moyses. as the philosophers of Syria and couples them with the Brahmins of India. This hellenized Jew who descended from the hills to the 27. The Seleucids.- Toward the end of the 3rd century the coast is a figure typical of the period. Palestinian Jews became involved in the struggle between 26. The Ptolemies. After the death of Alexander Palestine Egypt and Syria. In Jerusalem there were partisans of both fell in the end to Ptolemy (301 B.C.) and remained an Egyptian the combatants. The more orthodox or conservative Jews province until 198 B.C. For a century the Jews in Palestine and preferred the tolerant rule of the Ptolemies: the rest, who chafed in Alexandria had no history—or none that Josephus knew. at the isolation of the nation, looked to the Seleucids, who But two individuals exemplify the different attitudes which inherited Alexander's ideal of a united empire based on a the nation adopted towards its new environment and its wider universal adoption of Hellenism. At this point Josephus cites opportunities, Joseph the tax-farmer and Jesus the sage. the testimony of Polybius:"Scopas, the general of Ptolemy, The wisdom of Jesus ben Sira (Sirach) is contained in the book advanced into the highlands and subdued the nation of the Jews commonly called Ecclesiasticus (q.v.). At a time when men were in the winter. After the defeat of Scopas, Antiochus gained attracted by the wisdom and science of the Greeks, he taught that Batanaea and Samaria and Abila and Gadara, and a little later all wisdom came from Yahweh who had chosen Israel to receive it those of the Jews who live round the Temple called Jerusalem in trust. He discouraged inquiries into the nature and purpose adhered to him.” From this it appears that the pro-Syrian of things: it was enough for him that Yahweh had created and faction of the Jews had been strong and active enough to bring ruled the universe. If a man had leisure to be wise and this is not for many-he ald study_th Scriptures which had come an Egyptian army upon them (199-198 B.c.). Josephus adds down, and so become a scribe. For the scribe, as for the man at that an Egyptian garrison was left in Jerusalem. This act of the plough-tail, the Law was the rule of life. All, however much oppression presumably strengthened the Syrian faction of the or little preoccupied with worldly business, must fear God, from whom come good things and evil , life, death, poverty and riches. Jews and led to the transference of the nation's allegiance. It was not for men to meddle with secrets which are beyond human The language of Polybius suggests that he was acquainted with intelligence. Enough that the individual did his duty in the state other Jewish communities and with the fame of the Temple: in of life in which he was set and left behind him a good name at his his view they are not an organized state. They were not even death. The race survives" the days of Israel are unnumbered." Every member of the congregation of Israel must labour, as God a pawn in the game which Antiochus proposed to play with Rome has appointed, at some handicraft or profession to provide for his for the possession of Greece and Asia Minor. His defeat left the home. It is his sacred duty and his private interest to beget resources of his kingdom exhausted and its extent diminished; children and to train them to take his place. The scholar is apt to and so the Jews became important to his successors for the sake pity the smith, the potter, the carpenter and the farmer: with better of their wealth and their position on the frontier. reason he is apt to condemn the trader who becomes absorbed in To pay his greed of gain and so deserts the way of righteousness and fair dealing. debt to Rome he was compelled to resort to extraordinary As a teacher Jesus gave his own services freely. For the soldier methods of raising money, e actually met his death (187 B.C.) in he had no commendation. There were physicians who understood an attempt to loot the temple Elymais. the use of herbs, and must be rewarded when their help was invited. But, whatever means each head of a family adopted to get a liveli. The pro-Syrian faction of the Palestinian Jews found their hood, he must pay the priest's dues. The centre of the life of Israel opportunity in this emergency and informed the governor of was the Temple, over which the high priest presided and which was Coele-Syria that the treasury in Jerusalem contained untold inhabited by Yahweh, the God of Israel. The scribe could train the individual in morals and in manners; but the high priest was the Philopator, who succeeded Antiochus, arrived at Jerusalem sums of money. Heliodorus, prime minister of Seleucus ruler of the nation. As ruler of the nation the high priest paid its tribute to Egypt, its in his progress through Coele-Syria and Phoenicia and declared overlord. But Josephus reports of one Onias that for avarice he the treasure confiscate to the royal exchequer. According to withheld it. The sequel shows how a Jew might rise to power in the Jewish legend Heliodorus was attacked when he entered the the civil service of the Egyptian Empire and yet remain a hero to Temple by a horse with a terrible rider and by two young men. some of the Jews-provided that he did not intermarry with a Gentile. For Joseph, the son of Tobiah and nephew of Onias, went He was scourged and only escaped with his life at the inter- to court and secured the taxes of Palestine, when they were put up cession of Onias the high priest, who had pleaded with him to auction. As tax-farmer he oppressed the non-Jewish cities and vainly that the treasure included the deposits of widows and so won the admiration of Josephus. orphans and also some belonging to Hyrcanus, “a man in very But while such men went out into the world and brought back high position.” Onias was accused by his enemies of having wealth of one kind or another to Palestine, other Jews were given the information which led to this outrage and when, rely- content to make their homes in foreign parts. At Alexandria ing upon the support of the provincial governor, they proceeded in particular Alexander provided for a Jewish colony which soon to attempt assassination, he fled to Antioch and appealed to the became Hellenic enough in speech to require a translation of king. the Law. It is probable that, as in Palestine an Aramaic para- When Seleucus was assassinated by Heliodorus, Antiochus phrase of the Hebrew text was found to be necessary, so in | IV., his brother, who had been chief magistrate at Athens, came 394 JEWS (GREEK DOMINATION 1) 44 64 "1 back secretly "to seize the kingdom by guile" (Dan. xi. 21 seq.). | the Assideans (Hasidim). Such a breach of the sabbath was On his accession he appointed Jesus, the brother of Onias, to the necessary if the whole Law was to survive at all in Palestine. high-priesthood, and sanctioned his proposals for the conversion But the transgression is enough to explain the disfavour into of Jerusalem into a Greek city. The high priest changed his which the Maccabees seem to fall in the judgment of later name to Jason and made a gymnasium near the citadel. The Judaism, as, in that judgment, it is enough to account for the principle of separation was abandoned. The priests deserted instability of their dynasty. Unstable as it was, their dynasty the Temple for the palaestra and the young nobles wore the Greek was soon established. In the country-side of Judaea, Judaism cap. The Jews of Jerusalem were enrolled as citizens of Antioch. -and no longer Hellenism-was propagated by force. Apollo- Jason sent money for a sacrifice to Heracles at Tyre, and the nius, the commander of the Syrian garrison in Jerusalem, and only recorded opposition to his policy came from his envoys, Seron the commander of the army in Syria, came in turn against who pleaded that the money might be applied to naval expen- Judas and his bands and were defeated. The revolt thus became diture. Thus Jason stripped the high-priesthood of its sacred important enough to engage the attention of the governor of character and did what he could to stamp out Judaism. Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, if not of Lysias the regent himself. Menelaus supplanted Jason, obtaining his appointment from Nicanor was despatched with a large army to put down the the king by the promise of a larger contribution. In order to rebels and to pay the tribule due to Rome by selling them as secure his position, he contrived the murder of Onias, who had slaves, Judas was at Emmaus; the men of the citadel " taken sanctuary at Daphne. This outrage, coupled with his guided a detachment of the Syrian troops to his encampment by appropriation of temple vessels, which he used as bribes, raised night. The rebels escaped in time, but not into the hills, as against Menelaus the senate and the people of Jerusalem. His their enemies surmised. At dawn they made an unexpected brother and deputy was killed in a serious riot, and an accusation attack upon the main body and routed it. Next year (165 B.C.) was laid against Menelaus before Antiochus. At the inquiry Lysias himself entered the Idumaean country and laid siege he bought his acquittal from a courtier and his accusers were to the fortress of Bethsura. Judas gathered what men he could executed. Antiochus required peace in Jerusalem and probably and joined battle. The siege was raised, more probably in regarded Onias as the representative of the pro-Egyptian faction, consequence of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes than because the allies of his enemy. Judas had gained any real victory. The proscription of the During his second Egyptian campaign a rumour came that Jewish religion was withdrawn and the Temple restored to them. Antiochus was dead, and Jason made a raid upon Jerusalem. But it was Menelaus who was sent by the king to encourage Menelaus held the citadel and Jason was unable to establish (2 Macc. xi. 32) the Jews, and in the official letters no reference himself in the city. The people were presumably out of sym- is made to Judas. Such hints as these indicate the impossibility pathy with hellenizers, whether they belonged to the house of of recovering a complete picture of the Jews during the sove- Onias or that of Tobiah. When Antiochus finally evacuated reignty of the Greeks, which the Talmudists regard as the dark Egypt in obedience to the decree of Rome, he thought that age, best left in oblivion. Judaea was in revolt. Though Jason had fled, it was necessary Judas entered Jerusalem, the citadel of which was still occupied to storm. the city; the drastic measures which Menelaus advised by a Syrian garrison, and the Temple was re-dedicated on the seem to indicate that the poorer classes had been roused to 25th of Kislev (164 B.C.). So“ the Pious ” achieved the object defend the Temple from further sacrilege. A massacre took place, for which presumably they took up arms. The re-establishment and Antiochus braved the anger of Yahweh by entering and of Judaism, which alone of current religions was intolerant of pillaging the Temple with impunity. The author of 2 Maccabees a rival, seems to have excited the jealousy of their neighbours infers from his success that the nation had forfeited all right to who had embraced the Greek way of life. The hellenizers had divine protection for the time (2 Macc. V. 18-20). not lost all hope of converting the nation and were indisposed The policy which Antiochus thus inaugurated he carried on to acquiesce in the concordat. Judas and his zealots were thus rigorously and systematically. His whole kingdom was to be able to maintain their prominence and gradually to increase unified; Judaism was an eccentricity and as such doomed to At Joppa, for example, the Jewish settlers--two extinction. The Temple of Jerusalem was made over to Zeus hundred in all—“ were invited to go into boats provided in ac. Olympius: the temple of Gerizim to Zeus Xenius. All the cordance with the common decree of the city” They accepted religious rites of Judaism were proscribed and the neighbouring the invitation and were drowned. Judas avenged them by Greek cities were requested to enforce the prohibition upon their burning the harbour and the shipping, and set to work to bring Jewish citizens. Jerusalem was occupied by an army which into Judaea all such communities of Jews who had kept them- took advantage of the Sabbath and proceeded to suppress its selves separate from their heathen neighbours. In this way he observance. An Athenian came to be the missionary of Hellen- became strong enough to deal with the apostates of Judaea. ism and to direct its ceremonies, which were established by force In 163 Lysias led another expedition against these disturbers up and down the country. of the king's peace and defeated Judas at Bethzachariah. But 28. The Maccabees.-- Jerusalem and Gerizim were purged and while the forces were besieging Bethzur and the fortress on converted to the state religion with some ease. Elsewhere, as Mount Zion, a pretender arose in Antioch, and Lysias was com. there, some conformed and some became martyrs for the faith. pelled to come to terms-and now with Judas. The Jewish And the passive resistance of those who refused to conform at refugees had turned the balance, and so Judas became strategus length gave rise to active opposition. “The king's officers of Judaea, whilst Menelaus was put to death who were enforcing the apostasy came into the city of Modein In 162 Demetrius escaped from Rome and got possession of to sacrifice, and many of Israel went over to them, but Malia- the kingdom of Syria. Jakim, whose name outside religion was thias . . , slew a Jew who came to sacrifice and the king's Alcimus, waited upon the new king on behalf of the loyal Jews officer and pulled down the altar” (1 Macc. ii. 15 sqq.). Whether who had hellenized He himself was qualified to be the legiti led by this Mattathias or not, certain Jews filed into the wilder- mate head of a united state, for he was of the tribe of Aaron ness and found a leader in Judas Maccabaeus his reputed son, Judas and the Asmoneans were usurpers, who owed their title the first of the five Asmonean (Hasmonean) brethren. The to Lysias. So Alcimus-Jakim was made high priest and Bacchides warfare which followed was like that which Saul and David brought an army to instal him in his office. The Assideans waged against the Philistines. Antiochus was occupied with made their submission at once. Judas had won for them his Parthian campaign and trusted that the Hellenized Jews religious freedom: but the Temple required a descendant of would maintain their ascendancy with the aid of the provincial | Aaron for priest and he was come. But his first act was to seize troops. In his last illness he wrote to express his confidence in and slay sixty of them: so it was clear to Judas at any rate, if their loyalty. But the rebels collected adherents from the not also to the Assideans who survived, that political inde- villages; and, when they resolved to violate the sabbath to the pendence was necessary iſ the religion was to be secure. In extent of resisting attack, they were joined by the company of 1 face of his active opposition Alcimus could not maintain himself their power GREEK DOMINATION) JEWS 395 without the support of Bacchides and was forced to retire to appeared to enforce his demand in 134. Simon was dead Antioch. In response to his complaints Nicanor was appointed (135 B.C.) and John Hyrcanus had succeeded his father. The governor of Judaea with power to treat with Judas. It appears Jewish forces were driven back upon Jerusalem and the city was that the two became friends at first, but fresh orders from closely invested. At the feast of tabernacles of 132 Hyrcanus Antioch made Nicanor guilty of treachery in the eyes of requested and Antiochus granted a week's truce. The only Judas's partisans. Warned by the change of his friend's hope of the Jews lay in the clemency of their victorious suzerain, manner Judas fled. Nicanor thrcatened to destroy the Temple and it did not fail them. Some of his advisers urged the demo- if the priests would not deliver Judas into his hands. Soon it lition of the nation on the ground of their exclusiveness, but he came to his knowledge that Judas was in Samaria, whither he sent a sacrifice and won thereby the name of “ Pious." In followed him on a sabbath with Jews pressed into his service. subsequent negotiations he accepted the disarmament of the The day was known afterwards as Nicanor's day, for he was found besieged and a tribute as conditions of peace, and in response dead on the field (Capharsalama) by the victorious followers of to their entreaty left Jerusalem without a garrison. When he Judas (13th of Adar, March 161 B.c.). After this victory Judas went on his last disastrous campaign, Hyrcanus led a Jewish made an alliance with the people of Rome, who had no love contingent to join his army, partly perhaps a troop of mercenaries for Demetrius his enemy, nor any intention of putting their (for Hyrcanus was the first of the Jewish kings to hire mercen- professions of friendship into practice. Bacchides and Alcimus aries, with the treasure found in David's tomb). After his death returned meanwhile into the land of Judah; at Elasa “ Judas Hyrcanus took advantage of the general confusion to extend fell and the rest fled” (1 Macc. ix. 18). Bacchides occupied Jewish territory with the countenance of Rome. He destroyed Judaea and made a chain of forts. Jonathan, who succeeded the temple of Gerizim and compelled the Idumaeans to submit his brother Judas, was captain of a band of fugitive outlaws. to circumcision and embrace the laws of the Jews on pain of But on the death of Alcimus Bacchides retired and Jonathan deportation. with his followers settled down beyond the range of the Syrian In Jerusalem and in the country, in Alexandria, Egypt and garrisons. The Hellenizers still enjoyed the royal favour and Cyprus, the Jews were prosperous (Jos. Ant. xiii. 284). This Jonathan made no attempt to dispossess them. After an inter- prosperity and the apparent security of Judaism led to a breach val of two years they tried to capture him and failed. This between Hyrcanus and his spiritual directors, the Pharisees. failure seems to have convinced Bacchides that it would be well His lineage was (in the opinion of one of them at least) of doubtful to recognize Jonathan and to secure a balance of parties. In purity; and so it was his duty to lay down the high-priesthood 158 Jonathan began to rule as a judge in Michmash and be and be content to rule the nation. That one man should hold destroyed the godless out of Israel-so far, that is, as his power both offices was indeed against the example of Moses, and could extended. In 153 Alexander Balas withdrew Jonathar. from only be admitted as a temporary concession to necessity. his allegiance to Demetrius by the offer of the high-priesthood. Hyrcanus could not entertain the proposal that he should resign He had already made Jerusalem his capital and fortified the the sacred office to which he owed much of his authority. The Temple mount: the Syrian garrisons had already been withdrawn allegation about his mother was false: the Pharisee who retailed with the exception of those of the Akra and Bethzur. In 147 it was guilty of no small offence. A Sadducean friend advised Jonathan repaid his benefactor by destroying the army of the Hyrcanus to ask the whole body of the Pharisees to prescribe the governor of Coele-Syria, who had espoused the cause of Deme- penalty. Their leniency, which was notorious, alienated the trius. The fugitives took sanctuary in the temple of Dagon at king or probably furnished him with a pretext for breaking Azotus. " But Jonathan burned the temple of Dagon and those with them. The Pharisees were troublesome counsellors and who fled into it. After the death of Balas he laid siege to the doubtful allies for an ambitious prince. They were all-powerful Akra; and the apostates, who hated their own nation,” ap- with the people, but Hyrcanus with his mercenaries was inde- pealed to Demetrius. Jonathan was summoned to Antioch, pendent of the people, and the wealthy belonged to the sect of made his peace and apparently relinquished his attempt in the Sadducees. The suppression of the Pharisaic ordinances return for the addition of three Samaritan districts to his terri- and the punishment of those who observed them led to some tory. Later, when the people of Antioch rose against the king, disturbance. But Hyrcanus was judged worthy of the three Jonathan despatched a force of 3000 men who played a notable great privileges, the rule of the nation, the high-priestly dignity, part in the merciless suppression of the insurrection. i Macca- and prophecy.” This verdict suggests that the Sadducees, bees credits them with 100,000 victims. Trypho, the regent of with whom he allied himself, had learned to affect some show of Antiochus VI., put even greater political power into the hands of Judaism in Judaea. If the poor were ardent nationalists who Jonathan and his brother Simon, but finally seized Jonathan on would not intermingle with the Greeks, the rich had long out- the pretext of a conference. Simon was thus left to consolidate grown and now could humour such prejudices; and the title what had been won in Palestine for the Jews and the family of their party was capable of recalling at any rate the sound of whose head he had become. The weakness of the king enabled the national ideal of righteousness, i.e. Sadaqah. him to demand and to secure immunity from taxation. The The successor of Hyrcanus (d. 105) was Judas Aristobulus, Jewish aristocracy became peers of the Seleucid kingdom. " the friend of the Greeks,” who first assumed the title of king. Simon was declared high priest: Rome and Sparta rejoiced in According to Strabo he was a courteous man and in many ways the elevation of their friend and ally. In the hundred and useful to the Jews. His great achievement was the conquest seventieth year (142 B.c.) the yoke of the heathen was taken of a part of Ituraea, which he added to Judaea and whose inhabi- away from Israel and the people began to date their legal tants he compelled to accept Judaism. documents in the first year of Simon the great high priest and The Sadducean nobility continued in power under his brother commander and leader of the Jews.” The popular verdict and successor Alexander Jannaeus (103–78); and the breach received official and formal sanction. Simon was declared by between the king and the mass of the people widened. But the Jews and the priests their governor and high priest for ever, Salome Alexandra, his brother's widow, who released him from until there should arise a faithful prophet. The garrison of the prison on the death of her husband and married him, was con- Akra had been starved by a close blockade into submission, and nected with the Pharisees through her brother Simon ben Shetach. beyond the boundaries of Judaea " he took Joppa for a haven If his influence or theirs dictated her policy, there is no evidence of and made himself master of Gazara and Bethsura." any objection to the union of the secular power with the high- 29. John Hyrcanus and the Sadducees.-But in 138 B.C. priesthood. The party may have thought that Jannaeus was Antiochus Sidetes entered Seleucia and required the submission likely to bring the dynasty to an end. His first action was to of all the petty states, which had taken advantage of the weak- besiege Ptolemais. Its citizens appealed to Ptolemy Lathyrus, ness of preceding kings. From Simon he demanded an indem- who had been driven from the throne of Egypt by his mother nity of 1000 talents for his oppression and invasion of non- Cleopatra and was reigning in Cyprus. Alexander raised the Jewish territory: Simon offered 100 talents. At length Antiochus I siege, made peace with Ptolemy and secretly sent to Cleopatra ! 60 ) 396 (GREEK DOMINATION JEWS for help against her son. The result of this double-dealing was Pompey (65 B.c.). Both brothers appealed to this new tribunal that his army was destroyed by Ptolemy, who advanced into and Aristobulus bought a verdict in his favour. The siege was Egypt leaving Palestine at the mercy of Cleopatra. But Cleo- raised. Aretas retired from Judaea; and Aristobulus pursued patra's generals were Jews and by their protests prevented her the retreating army. But, when Pompey himself arrived at from annexing it. Being thus freed from fear on the side of Damascus, Antipater, who pulled the strings and exploited the Ptolemy, Alexander continued his desultory campaigns across claims of Hyrcanus, realized that Rome and not the Arabs, who the Jordan and on the coast without any apparent policy and were cowed by the threats of Scaurus, was the ruler of the East. with indifferent success. Finally, when he officiated as high To Rome, therefore, he must pay his court. Others shared this priest at the feast of tabernacles he roused the fury of the conviction: Strabo speaks of embassies from Egypt and Judaca people by a derisive breach of the Pharisaic ritual. They cried bearing presents-one deposited in the temple of Jupiter out that he was unworthy of his office, and pelted him with the Capitolinus bore the inscription of Alexander, the king of the citrons which they were carrying as the Law prescribed. Alex- Jews. From Judaea there were three embassies pleading, for ander summoned his mercenaries, and 6000 Jews were killed | Aristobulus, for Hyrcanus, and for the nation, who would have before he set out on his disastrous campaign against an Arabian no king at all but their God. king. He returned a fugitive to find the nation in armed re- Pompey deferred his decision until he should have inquired bellion. After six years of civil war he appealed to them to into the state of the Nabataeans, who had shown themselves state the conditions under which they would lay aside their to be capable of dominating the Jews in the absence of the hostility. They replied by demanding his death and called in Roman army. In the interval Aristobulus provoked him by his the Syrians. But when the Syrians chased him into the moun- display of a certain impatience. The people had no responsible tains, 6000 Jews went over to him and, with their aid, he put head, of whom Rome could take cognisance: so Pompey decided down the rebellion. Eight hundred Jews who had held a fortress in favour of Hyrcanus and humoured the people by recognizing against him were crucified; 8000 Pharisees fled to Egypt and him, not as king, but as high priest. Antipater remained secure, remained there. Offering an ineffectual resistance to the passage in power if not in place. The Roman supremacy was established: of the Syrian troops, Alexander was driven back by Aretas, the Jews were once more one of the subject states of Syria, now king of Arabia, against whom they had marched. His later a Roman province. Their national aspirations had received years brought him small victories over isolated cities. a contemptuous acknowledgment, when their Temple had been i On his deathbed it is said that Alexander advised his wife desecrated by the entry of a foreign conqueror. to reverse this policy and rely upon the Pharisces. According Aristobulus himself had less resolution than his partisans. to the Talmud, he warned her “ to fear neither the Pharisces When he repented of his attempted resistance and treated with nor their opponents but the hypocrites who do the deed of Zimri Pompey for peace, his followers threw themselves into Jeru- and claim the reward of Phinehas: ” the warning indicates his salem, and, when the faction of Hyrcanus resolved to open the justification of his policy in the matter of the crucifixions. In gates, into the Temple. There they held out for three months, any case the Pharisees were predominant under Alexandra, succumbing finally because in obedience to the Law (as inter- who became queen (78-69) under her husband's will. Hyrcanus preted since the time of Antiochus Epiphanes) they would only her elder son was only high priest, as the stricter Pharisees defend themselves from actual assault upon the sabbath day. required. All the Pharisaic ordinances which Hyrcanus had The Romans profited by this inaction to push on the siege- abolished were reaffirmed as binding. Simon ben Shatach works, without provoking resistance by actual assaults until the stood beside the queen: the exiles were restored and among very end. Pompey finally took the stronghold by choosing them his great colleague Jehudah ben Tabai. The great saying the day of the fast, when the Jews abstain from all work, that is of each of these rabbis is concerned with the duties of a judge; the sabbath (Strabo). Dio Cassius calls it the day of Cronos. the selection does justice to the importance of the Sanhedrin, On this bloody sabbath the priests showed a devotion to their which was filled with Pharisees. The legal reforms which they worship which matched the inaction of the fighting men. Though introduced tended for the most part to mercy, but the Talmud they saw the enemy advancing upon them sword in hand they refers to one case which is an exception: false witnesses were remained at worship untroubled and were slaughtered as they condemned to suffer the penalty due to their victim, even if he poured libation and burned incense, for they put their own escaped. This ruling may be interpreted as part of a campaign safety second to the service of God. And there were Jews among directed against the counsellors of Alexander or as an instance the murderers of the 12,000 Jews who fell. of their general principle that intention is equivalent to commis- The Jews of Palestine thus became once more a subject state, sion in the eye of the Law. The queen interposed to prevent stripped of their conquests and confined to their own borders. the execution of those who had counselled the crucifixion of the Aristobulus and his children were conveyed to Rome to grace rebels and permitted them to withdraw with her younger son their conqueror's triumphal procession. But his son Alexander Aristobulus to the fortresses outside Jerusalem. Against their escaped during the journey, gathered some force, and overran natural desire for revenge may be set the fact that the Pharisees Judaea. The Pharisees decided that they could not take action did much to improve the status of women among the Jews. on either side, since the elder son of Alexandra was directed On the death of Alexandra (69 B.C.) Aristobulus disputed the by the Idumaean Antipater; and the people had an affection for succession of Hyrcanus. When their forces met at Jericho, such Asmonean princes as dared to challenge the Roman domina- Hyrcanus, finding that the bulk of his following deserted to tion of their ancestral kingdom. The civil war was renewed; Aristobulus, fled with those who remained to the tower Antonia but Aulus Gabinius, the proconsul, soon crushed the pretender and seized Aristobulus's wife and children as hostages for his and set up an aristocracy in Judaea with Hyrcanus as guardian own safety. Having this advantage, he was able to abdicate of the Temple. The country was divided into five districts with in favour of Aristobulus and to retire into private life. But he five synods; and Josephus asserts that the people welcomed was not able to save his friends, who were also the enemies of the change from the monarchy. In spite of this, Aristobuluş the reigning king. In fear of reprisals Antipas (or Antipater), (56 B.c.) and Alexander (55 B.C.) found loyalists to follow them the Idumaean, his counsellor, played on the fears of Hyrcanus in their successive raids. But Antipater found supplies for the and persuaded him to buy the aid of the Nabataean Arabs with army of Gabinius, who, despite Egyptian and Parthian distrac- promises. Aristobulus could not withstand the army of Aretas: tions, restored order according to the will of Antipater. M. he was driven back upon Jerusalem and there besieged. The Crassus, who succeeded him, plundered the Temple of its gold Jews deserted to the victorious Hyrcanus: only the priests and the treasure (54 B.c.) which the Jews of the dispersion had remained loyal to their accepted king; many fled to Egypt. contributed for its maintenance. It is said that Eleazar, the 30. The Romans and the Idumaeans.--At this point the power priest who guarded the treasure, offered Crassus the golden of Rome appeared upon the scene in the person of M. Aemilius beam as ransom for the whole, knowing, what no one else knew, Scaurus (stepson of Sulla) who had been sent into Syria by 'that it was mainly composed of wood. So Crassus departed to GREEK DOMINATION) JEWS 397 Parthia and died. When the Parthians, elated by their victory rejected his people; but the remnantcould not butinherit the promises, over Crassus (53 B.c.) advanced upon Syria, Cassius opposed those who walk in the righteousness of his commandments (xiv. 1): which belong to the chosen people. For the Lord is faithful unto them. Some of the Jews, presumably the partisans of Aristo- in the exercise of their freewill and with God's help they will attain bulus, were ready to co-operate with the Parthians. At any rate salvation. As God's servant, Pompey destroyed their rulers and every Antipater was ready to aidCassius with advice; Taricheae was wise councillor: soon the righteous and sinless king of David's house taken and 30,000 Jews were sold into slavery (51 B.C.). In shall reign over them and over all the nations (xvii.). spite of this vigorous coercion Cassius came to terms with 31. Herod the Great.--After the departure of Caesar, Antipater Alexander, before he returned to the Euphrates to hold it warned the adhérents of Hyrcanus against taking part in any against the Parthians. revolutionary attempts, and his son Herod, who, in spite of his Two years later Julius Caesar made himself master of Rome youth, had been appointed governor of Galilee, dealt summarily and despatched the captive Aristobulus with two legions to with Hezekiah, the robber captain who was overrunning the win Judaea (49 B.c.). But Pompey's partisans were beforehand adjacent part of Syria. The gratitude of the Syrians brought with him: he was taken off by poison and got not so much as a him to the knowledge of Sextus Caesar the governor of Syria; burial in his fatherland. At the same time his son Alexander but his action inspired the chief men of the Jews with appre- was beheaded at Antioch by Pompey's order as an enemy of hension. Complaint was made to Hyrcanus that Herod had Rome. After the defeat and death of Pompey (48 B.c.) Antipater violated the law which prohibited the execution of even an evil transferred his allegiance to Caesar and demonstrated its value man, unless he had been first condemned to death by the San- during Caesar's Egyptian campaign. He carried with him the hedrin. At the same time the mothers of the murdered men Arabs and the princes of Syria, and through Hyrcanus he was came to the Temple to demand vengeance. So Herod was able to transform the hostility of the Egyptian Jews into active summoned to stand his trial. He came in answer to the summons friendliness. These services, which incidentally illustrate the —but attended by a bodyguard and protected by the word of solidarity and unity of the Jewish nation and the respect of the Sextus. Of all the Sanhedrin only Sameas “a righteous man communities of the dispersion for the metropolis, were recog- and therefore superior to fear” dared to speak. Being a Pharisee nized and rewarded. Before his assassination in 44 B.C. Julius he faced the facts of Herod's power and warned the tribunal Caesar had confirmed Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood and added of the event, just as later he counselled the people to receive the title of ethnarch. Antipater had been made a Roman him, saying that for their sins they could not escape him. Herod citizen and procurator of the reunited Judaea. Further, as put his own profit above the Law, acting after his kind, and he confederates of the senate and people of Rome, the Jews had also was God's instrument. The effect of the speech was to received accession of territory, including the port of Joppa and, goad the Sanhedrin into condemning Herod: Hyrcanus post- with other material privileges, the right of observing their poned their decision and persuaded him to flee. Sextus Caesar religious customs not only in Palestine but also in Alexandria made him lieutenant-governor of Coele Syria, and only his and elsewhere. Idumaean or Pbilistine of Ascalon, Antipater father restrained him from returning to wreak his revenge had displayed the capacity of his adoptive or adopted nation for upon Hyrcanus. his own profit and theirs. And when Caesar died Suetonius notes that he was mourned by foreign nations, especially by the of Herod, Josephus was dependent upon the history of Herod's It is to be remembered that, in this and all narratives of the life Jews (Caes. 84). client, Nicolaus of Damascus, and was himself a supporter of law and In the midst of all this civil strife the Pharisees and all who order. The action of the Sanhedrin and the presence of the women were preoccupied with religion found it almost impossible to suppliants in the Temple suggest, if they do not prove, that this Hezekiah who harassed the Syrians was a Jewish patriot, who could discern what they should do to please God. The people whom not acquiesce and wait with Sameas. they directed were called out to fight, at the bidding of an alien, for this and that foreigner who seemed most powerful and most Malichus also, the murderer or reputed murderer of Anti- likely to succeed. In Palestine few could command leisure for pater, appears to have been a partisan of Hyrcanus, who had meditation; as for opportunities of effective intervention in a zeal for Judaism. When Cassius demanded a tribute of affairs, they had none, it would seem, once Alexander was 700 talents from Palestine, Antipater set Herod, Phasael and dead. this Malichus, his enemy, to collect it. Herod thought it im- There is a story of a priest named Onias preserved both by prudent to secure the favour of Rome by the sufferings of others. But Josephus and in the Talmud, which throws some light upon the in- some cities defaulted, and they were apparently among those decision of the religious in the period just reviewed. When Aretas assigned to Malichus. If he had been lenient for their sakes or intervened in the interest of Hyrcanus and defeated Aristobulus, in the hope of damaging Antipater, he was disappointed; for the usurper of his brother's inheritance, the people accepted the verdict of battle, sided with the victor's client, and joined in the Cassius sold four cities into slavery and Hyrcanus made up the siege of Jerusalem. The most reputable of the Jews Aed to Egypt; deficit. Soon after this (43 B.c.) Malichus succeeded, it is said, but Onias, a righteous man and dear to God, who had hidden himself, in poisoning Antipater as he dined with Hyrcanus, and was assas- was discovered by the besiegers. He had a name for power in prayer; sinated by Herod's bravoes. for once in a drought he prayed for rain and God had heard his prayer. His captors now required of him that he should put a curse upon After the departure of Cassius, Antipater being dead, there Aristobulus and his faction. On compulsion he stood in their midst was confusion in Judaea. Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, and said: "O God, king of the universe, since these who stand with made a raid and was with difficulty repulsed by Herod. The me are thy, people and the besieged are thy priests, I pray thee that prince of Tyre occupied part of Galilee. When Antony assumed thou hearken not to those against these, nor accomplish what these entreat against those.' So he prayed—and the wicked Jews the dominion of the East after the defeat of Cassius at Philippi, stoned him. an embassy of the Jews, amongst other embassies, approached Unrighteous Jews were in the ascendant. There were only him in Bithynia and accused the sons of Antipater as usurpers Asmonean princes, degenerate and barely, titular sons of Levi, to of the power which rightly belonged to Hyrcanus. Another serve as judges of Israel--and they were at feud and both relied upon approached him at Antioch. But Hyrcanus was well content foreign aid. The righteous could only fee or hide, and so wait dreaming of the mercy of God past and to come. As yet our authori- to forgo the title to political power, which he could not exercise ties do not permit us to follow them to Egypt with any certainty in practice, and Antony had been a friend of Antipater. So but the Psalms of Solomon express the mind of one who survived Herod and Phasael continued to be virtually kings of the Jews: to see Pompey the Great brought low. Although Pompey had spared the temple treasure, he was the embodiment of the power of Antony's court required large remittances and Palestine was not Rome, which was not always so considerately exercised. And so exempt. the psalmist exults in his death and dishonour (Ps. ii.): he prayed In 40 B.C. Antony was absent in Egypt or Italy; and the that the pride of the dragon might be humbled and God shewed him Parthians swept down upon Syria with Antigonus in their train, the dead body lying upon the waves--and there was none to bury it. As one of those who fear the Lord in truth and in patience, he looks Hyrcanus and Phasael were trapped: Herod fled by way of forward to the punishment of all sinners who oppress the righteous Egypt to Rome. Hyrcanus, who was Antigonus' only rival, was and profane the sanctuary. For the sins of the rulers God had I mutilated and carried to Parthia. So he could no more be 1! 398 (GREEK DOMINATION JEWS high priest, and his life was spared only at the intercession of kindness, being entrusted with foreknowledge by the visitation the Parthian Jews, who had a regard for the Asmonean prince of God, they prophesied that God had decreed an end of rule for Thus Antigonus succeeded his uncle as “ King Antigonus” in Herod and his line and that the sovereignty devolved upon her the Greek and “ Mattathiah the high priest" in the Hebrew by and Pheroras and their children. grace of the Parthians. From the sequel it appears that the prophecy was uttered by The senate of Rome under the influence of Antony and one Pharisee only, and that it was in no way endorsed by the Octavian ratified the claims of Herod, and after some delay lent party. When it came to the ears of the king he slew the most him the armed force necessary to make them good. In the hope responsible of the Pharisees and every member of his household of healing the breach, which his success could only aggravate, who accepted what the Pharisee said. An explanation of this and for love, he took to wife Mariamne, grandniece of Hyrcanus. unwarrantable generalization may be found in the fact that the Galilee was pacified, Jerusalom taken and Antigonus beheaded incident is derived from a source which was unfavourable to the by the Romans. From this point to the end of the period the Pharisees: they are described as a Jewish section of men who Jews were dependents of Rome, free to attend to their own pretend to set great store by the exactitude of the ancestral affairs, so long as they paid taxes to the subordinate rulers, tradition and the laws in which the deity delights-as dominant Herodian or Roman, whom they detested equally. If some over women-folk-and as sudden and quick in quarrel. from time to time dared to hope for political independence their Towards the end of Herod's life two rabbis attempted to up- futility was demonstrated. One by one the descendants of the hold by physical force the cardinal dogma of Judaism, which Asmoneans were removed. The national hope was relegated to prohibited the use of images. Their action is intelligible enough. an indefinite future and to another sphere. At any rate the Herod was stricken with an incurable disease. He had sinned Jews were free to worship their God and to study his law: their against the Law; and at last God had punished him. At last religion was recognized by the state and indeed established. the law-abiding Jews might and must assert the majesty of the This development of Judaism was eminently to the mind of outraged Law. The most conspicuous of the many symbols and the rulers; and Herod did much to encourage it. More and signs of his transgression was the golden eagle which he had more it became identified with the synagogue, in which the placed over the great gate of the Temple; its destruction was Law was expounded: more and more it became a matter for the obvious means to adopt for the quickening and assertion the individual and his private life. This was so even in Palestine of Jewish principles. -the land which the Jews hoped to possess—and in Jerusalem By their labours in the education of the youth of the nation, itself, the holy city, in which the Temple stood. Herod had these rabbis, Judas and Matthias, had endeared themselves to put down Jewish rebels and Herod appointed the high priests. the populace and had gained influence over their disciples. A In his appointments he was careful to avoid or to suppress report that Herod was dead co-operated with their exhortations any person who, being popular, might legitimize a rebellion by to send the iconoclasts to their appointed work. And so they heading it. The Pharisees, who regarded his rule as an inevitable went to earn the rewards of their practical piety from the Law. penalty for the sins of the people, he encouraged. Pollio the If they died, death was inevitable, the rabbis said, and no better Pharisee and Sameas his disciple were in special honour with death would they ever find. Moreover, their children and kindred him, Josephus says, when he re-entered Jerusalem and put to would benefit by the good name and fame belonging to those who death the leaders of the faction of Antigonus, How well their died for the Law. Such is the account which Josephus gives teaching served his purpose is shown by the sayings of two in the Antiquities; in the Jewish War he represents the rabbis rabbis who, if not identical with these Pharisees, belong to their and their disciples as looking forward to greater happiness for period and their party. Shemaiah said, “Love work and hate themselves after such a death. But Herod was not dead yet, and lordship and make not thyself known to the government." the instigators and the agents of this sacrilege were burned Abtalion said, “ Ye wise, be guarded in your words: perchance alive. ye may incur the debt of exile.” Precepts such as these could 32. The Settlement of Augustus.-On the death of Herod in 4 B.C. hardly fail to effect some modification of the reckless zeal of Archelaus kept open house for mourners as the Jewish custom, the Galileans in the pupils of the synagogue. Many if not all which reduced many Jews to beggary, prescribed. The people of the professed rabbis had travelled outside Palestine: some petitioned for the punishment of those who were responsible for were even members of the dispersion, like Hillel the Babylonian, the execution of Matthias and his associates and for the removal of who with Shammai forms the second of the pairs. Through the high priest. Archelaus temporized; the loyalty of the people them the experience of the dispersion was brought to bear upon no longer constituted a valid title to the throne; his succession the Palestinian Jews. Herod's nominees were not the men to must first be sanctioned by Augustus. Before he departed to extend the prestige of the high-priesthood at the expense of Rome on this errand, which was itself an insult to the nation, these rabbis: even in Jerusalem the synagogue became of more there were riots in Jerusalem at the Passover which he needed importance than the Temple. Hillel also inculcated the duty of all his soldiery to put down. When he presented himself before making converts to Judaism. He said, “ Be of the disciples of the emperor-apart from rival claimants of his own family- Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace, loving mankind and there was an embassy from the Jewish people who prayed to bringing them nigh to the Law.” But even he reckoned the be rid of a monarchy and rulers such as Herod. As part of books of Daniel and Esther as canonical, and these were the Roman province of Syria and under its governors they dangerous food for men who did not realize the full power of would prove that they were not really disaffected and rebellious. Rome. During the absence of Archelaus, who would—the Jews feared So long as Herod lived there was no insurrection. Formally prove his legitimacy by emulating his father's ferocity, and to he was an orthodox Jew and set his face against intermarriage whom their ambassadors preferred Antipas, the Jews of Palestine with the uncircumcised. He was also ready and able to protect gave the lie to their protestations of loyalty and peaceableness. At the Jews of the dispersion. But that ability was largely due to the Passover the pilgrims attacked the Roman troops. After his whole-hearted Hellenism, which was shown by the Greek hard fighting the procurator, whose cruelty provoked the attack, cities which he founded in Palestine and the buildings he erected captured the Temple and robbed the treasury. On this the in Jerusalem. In its material embodiments Greek civilization insurgents were joined by some of Herod's army and besieged the became as much a part of Jewish life in Palestine as it was in Romans in Herod's palace. Elsewhere the occasion tempted Alexandria or Antioch; and herein the rabbis could not follow many to play at being king-Judas, son of Hezekiah, in Galilee; him. Simon, one of the king's slaves, in Peraea. Most notable of all When all the Jewish people swore to be loyal to Caesar and perhaps was the shepherd Athronges, who assumed the pomp of the king's policy, the Pharisees-above 6000-refused to swear. royalty and employed his four brothers as captains and satraps in The king imposed a fine upon them, and the wife of Pherorasthe war which he waged upon Romans and king's men alike-not Herod's brother-paid it on their behalf. In return for her I even Jews escaped him unless they brought him contributions. 4 " GREEK DOMINATION) JEWS 399 Order was restored by Varus the governor of Syria in a campaign | He seems to have served Tiberius as an official scrutineer of which Josephus describes as the most important war between that the imperial officials and he commemorated his devotion by of Pompey and that of Vespasian. the foundation of the city of Tiberias. But he repudiated the At length Augustus summoned the representatives of the nation daughter of Aretas in order to marry Herodias and so set the and Nicholaus of Damascus, who spoke for Archelaus, to plead Arabians against him. Disaster overtook his forces (A.D. 36) before him in the temple of Apollo. Augustus apportioned and Tiberius, his patron, died before the Roman power was Herod's dominions among his sons in accordance with the pro- brought in full strength to his aid. Caligula was not predisposed visions of his latest will. Archelaus received the lion's share: to favour the favourites of Tiberius; and Antipas, having for ten years he was ethnarch of Idumaea, Judaea and Samaria, petitioned him for the title of king at the instigation of Hero- with a yearly revenue of 600 talents. Antipas became tetrarch dias, was banished from his tetrarchy and (apparently) was of Galilee and Peraea, with a revenue of 200 talents. Philip, put to death in 39. who had been left in charge of Palestine pending the decision Antipas is chiefly known to history in connexion with John the and had won the respect of Varus, became tetrarch of Batanaea, Baptist, who reproached him publicly for his marriage with Trachonitis and Auranitis, with 100 talents. His subjects Herodias. According to the earliest authority, he seems to included only a sprinkling of Jews. Up to his death (A.D. 34) he have imprisoned John to save him from the vengeance of did nothing 10 forfeit the favour of Rome. His coins bore the Herodias. But-whatever his motive-Antipas certainly con- heads of Augustus and Tiberius, and his government was worthy | sented to John's death. If the Fourth Gospel is to be of the best Roman traditions-he succeeded where proconsuls | trusted, John had already recognized and acclaimed Jesus of had failed. His capital was Caesarea Philippi, where Pan had Nazareth as the Messiah for whom the Jews were looking. By been worshipped from ancient times, and where Augustus had a common consent of Christendom, John was the forerunner of the temple built by Herod the Great. founder of the Christian Church. It was, therefore, during the 33. Archelaus.-Augustus had counselled Archelaus to deal reign of Antipas, and partly if not wholly within his territory, gently with his subjects. But there was an outstanding feud that the Gospel was first preached by the rabbi or prophet whom between him and them, and his first act as ethnarcb was 10 Christendom came to regard as the one true Christ, the Messiah remove the high priest on the ground of his sympathy with the of the Jews. Josephus' history of the Jews contains accounts rebels. In violation of the Law he married a brother's widow, of John the Baptist and Jesus, the authenticity of which has who had already borne children, and in general he showed himself been called in question for plausible but not entirely convincing so fierce and tyrannical that the Jews joined with the Samaritans reasons. However this may be, the Jews who believed Jesus to to accuse him before the emperor. Archelaus was summoned be the Christ play no great part in the history of the Jews before to Rome and banished to Gaul; his territory was entrusted to a 70, as we know it. Many religious teachers and many revolu- series of procurators (A,D. 6-41), among whom was an apostate tionaries were crucified within this period; and the early Jew, but none with any pretension even to a semi-legitimate Christians were outwardly distinguished from other Jews only authority. Each procuralor represented not David bui Caesạr. by their scrupulous observance of religious duties. The Sanhedrin had its police and powers to safeguard the Jewish The crucifixion of Jesus was sanctioned by Pontius Pilate, religion; but the procurator had the appointment of the high who was procurator of Judaea A.D. 26–36. Of the Jews under priests, and no capital sentence could be executed without his his predecessors. little enough is known. Speaking generally, sanction. they seem to have avoided giving offence to their subjects. But 34. The Procurators.-So the Jews of Judaea obtained the Pilate so conducted affairs as to attract the attention not only settlement for which they had pleaded at the death of Herod; of Josephus but also of Philo, who represents for us the Jewish and some of them began to regret it at once. The first pro- community of Alexăndria. Pilate inaugurated his term of curator Coponius was accompanied by P. Sulpicius Quirinius, office by ordering his troops to enter Jerusalem at night and to legate of Syria, who came to organize the new Roman province. take their standards with them. There were standards and As a necessary preliminary a census (A.D. 6–7) was taken after standards in the Roman armies: those which bore the image of the Roman method, which did not conform to the Jewish Law. the emperor, and therefore constituted a breach of the Jewish The people were affronted, but for the most part acquiesced, Law, had hitherto been kept aloof from the holy city, On under the influence of Joazar the high priest. But Judas the learning of this, the Jews repaired to Caesarea and besought Galilean, with a Pharisee named Sadduc (Sadduk), endeavoured Pilate to remove these offensive images. Pilate refused; and, to incite them to rebellion in the name oi religion. The result of when they persisted in their petition for six days, he surrounded this alliance between a revolutionary and a Pharisee was the them with soldiers and threatened them with instant death. formation of the party of Zealots, whose influence-according They protested that they would rather die than dare to transgress to Josephus-brought about the great revolt and so led to the the wisdom of the laws; and Pilate yielded. But he proceeded destruction of Jerusalem in 70. So far as this influence ex- to expend the temple treasure upon an aqueduct for Jerusalem; tended, the Jewish community was threatened with the danger and some of the Jews regarded the devotion of sacred money to of suicide, and the distinction drawn by Josephus between the the service of man as a desecration. Pilate came up to Jerusalem Pharisees and the Zealots is a valid one. Not all Pharisees were and dispersed the petitioners by means of disguised soldiers prepared to take such action, in order that Israel might armed with clubs. So the revolt was put down, but the exces- tread on the neck of the eagle" (as is said in The Assumption of sive zeal of the soldiers and Pilate's obstinate adherence to his Moses). So long as the Law was not deliberately outraged and policy widened the breach between Rome and the stricter Jews. so long as the worship was established, most of the religious But the death of Sejanus in 31 set Tiberius free from prejudice leaders of the Jews were content to wait. against the Jews; and, when Pilate put up the votive shields in It seems that the Zealots made more headway in Galilee ihan Herod's palace at Jerusalem, the four sons of Herod came forward in Judaea-so much so that the terms Galilean and Zealot are in defence of Jewish principles and he was ordered to remove practically interchangeable. In Galilee the Jews predominated them. in 35 he dispersed a number of Samaritans, who had over the heathen and their ruler Herod Antipas had some sort assembled near Mt Gerizim at the bidding of an impostor, in of claim upon their allegiance. His marriage with the daughter order to see the temple vessels buried there by Moses. Complaint of the Arabian king Aretas (which was at any rate in accordance was made to Vitellius, then legate of Syria, and Pilate was sent with the general policy of Augustus) seems to have preserved his to Rome to answer for his shedding of innocent blood. At the territory from the incursions of her people, so long as he remained passover of 36 Vitellius came to Jerusalem and pacified the Jews faithful to her He conciliated his subjects by his deference by two concessions: he remitted the taxes on fruit sold in the to the observances of Judaism, and—the case is probably city, and he restored to their custody the high priest's vestments, typical of his policy-he joined in protesting, when Pilate set which Herod Archelaus and the Romans had kept in the tower up a votive shield in the palace of Herod within the sacred city. I Antonia. The vestments had been stored there since the time 400 [GREEK DOMINATION JEWS of the first high priest named Hyrcanus, and Herod had taken overruled by his advisers, and Judaea was taken over once more them over along with the tower, thinking that his possession of by Roman procurators. The success of Agrippa's brief reign them would deter the Jews from rebellion against his rule. At had revived the hopes of the Jewish nationalists, and concessions the same time Vitellius vindicated the Roman supremacy by only retarded the inevitable insurrection. degrading Caiaphas from the high-pricsthood, and appointing a Cuspius Fadus, the first of these procurators, purged the son of Annas in his place. The motive for this change does not land of bandits. He also attempted to regain for the Romans appear, and we are equally ignorant of the cause which prompted the custody of the high priest's vestments; but the Jews appealed his transference of the priesthood from his nominee to another to the emperor against the revival of this advertisement of their son of Annas in 37. But it is quite clear that Vitellius was con servitude. The emperor granted the petition, which indeed the cerned to reconcile the Jews to the authority of Rome. When procurator had permitted them to make, and further transferred he marched against Aretas, his army with their standards did the nomination of the high priest and the supervision of the not enter Judaea at all; but he himself went up to Jerusalem-for temple from the procurator to Agrippa's brother, Herod of the feast and, on receipt of the news that Tiberius was dead, Chalcis. But these concessions did not satisfy the hopes of the administered to the Jews the oath of allegiance to Caligula. pecple. During the government of Fadus, Theudas, who claimed 35. Caligula and Agrippa 1.- The accession of Caligula (A.D. to be a prophet and whom Josephus describes as a wizard, per- 37-41) was hailed by his subjects generally as the beginning of suaded a large number to take up their possessions and follow him the Golden Age. The Jews in particular had a friend at court, to the Jordan, saying that he would cleave the river asunder Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, was an avowed with a word of command and so provide them with an easy partisan of the new emperor and had paid penalty for a prema crossing. A squadron of cavalry despatched by Fadus took them ture avowal of his preference. But Caligula's favour, though alive, cut off the head of Theudas and brought it to Jerusalem. lavished upon Agrippa, was not available for pious Jews. His Under the second procurator Tiberius Alexander, an apostate. foible was omnipotence, and he aped the gods of Greece in turn. Jew of Alexandria, nephew of Philo, the Jews suffered from a In the provinces and even in Italy his subjects were ready to great famine and were relieved by the queen of Adiabene, a acknowledge his divinity–with the sole exception of the Jews. proselyte to Judaism, who purchased corn from Egypt. The So we learn something of the Palestinian Jews and more of the famine was perhaps interpreted by the Zealots as a punishment- Jewish community in Alexandria. The great world (as we know for their acquiescence in the rule of an apostate. At any rate it) took small note of Judaism even when Jews converted its Alexander crucified two sons of Simon the Galilean, who had women to their faith; but now the Jews as a nation refused to headed a revolt in the time of the census. They had presumably bow before the present god of the civilized world. The new followed the example of their father. Catholicism was promulgated by authority and accepted with Under Ventidius Cumanus (48-52) the mutual hatred of Jews deference. Only the Jews protested: they had a notion of the land Romans, Samaritans and Jews, found vent in insults and deity which Caligula at all events did not fulfil. bloodshed. At the passover, on the fourth day of the feast, a The people of Alexandria seized the opportunity for an attack soldier mounting guard at the porches of the Temple provoked an upon the Jews. Images of Caligula were set up in the syna- uproar, which ended in a massacre, by indecent exposure of his gogues, an edict deprived the Jews of their rights as citizens, person. Some of the rebels intercepted a slave of the emperor and finally the governor authorized the mob to sack the Jewish on the high-road near the city and robbed him of his possessions. quarter, as if it had been a conquered city (38). Jewesses were Troops were sent to pacify the country, and in one village a forced to eat pork and the elders were scourged in the theatre. soldier found a copy of Moses' laws and tore it up in public with But Agrippa had influence with the emperor and secured the jeers and blasphemies. At this the Jews flocked to Caesarea, degradation of the governor. The people and the Jews re- and were only restrained from a second outbreak by the execution mained in a state of civil war, until each side sent an embassy of the soldier. Finally, the Samaritans attacked certain Gali- (40) to wait upon the emperor. The Jewish embassy was leans who were (as the custom was) travelling through Samaria headed by Philo, who has described its fortunes in a tract dealing to Jerusalem for the passoyer. Cumanus was bribed and refused with the divine punishment of the persecutors. Their opponents to avenge the death of the Jews who were killed. So the Gali- also had secured a friend at court and seem to have prevented any leans with some of the lower classes of “the Jews" allied them- effective measure of redress. While the matter was still pending, selves with a “robber” and burned some of the Samaritan news arrived that the emperor had commanded Publius Petronius, villages. Cumanus armed the Samaritans, and, with them and the governor of Syria, to set up his statue in the temple of Jeru- his own troops, defeated these Jewish marauders. The leading salem. On the intervention of Agrippa the order was counter- men of Jerusalem prevailed upon the rebels who survived the manded, and the assassination of the emperor (41) effectually defeat to disperse. But the quarrel was referred first to the stopped the desecration. legate of Syria and then to the emperor. The emperor was still 36. Claudius and the Procurators.-Claudius, the new emperor, disposed to conciliate the Jews; and, at the in ance of Agrippa, restored the civic rights of the Alexandrian jews and made son of Agrippa I., Cumanus was banished. Agrippa I. king over all the territories of Herod the Great. So 37. Felix and the Revolutionaries.- Under Antonius Felix there was once more a king of Judaea, and a king who observed (52-60) the revolutionary movement grew and spread. The the tradition of the Pharisees and protected the Jewish religion. country, Josephus says, was full of “robbers” and “ wizards.” There is a tradition in the Talmud which illustrates his popularity. The high priest was murdered in the Temple by pilgrims who As he was reading the Law at the feast of tabernacles he burst carried daggers under their cloaks. Wizards and impostors per- into tears at the words “ Thou mayest not set a stranger over suaded the multitude to follow them into the desert, and an thee which is not thy brother”; and the people cried out, Egyptian, claiming to be a prophet, led his followers to the Mount “ Fear not, Agrippa; thou art our brother.” The fact that he of Olives to see the walls of Jerusalem fall at his command. Such began to build a wall round Jerusalem may be taken as further deceivers, according to Josephus, did no less than the murderers proof of his patriotism. But the fact that he summoned five to destroy the happiness of the city. Their hands were cleaner vassal-kings of the empire to a conference at Tiberias suggests but their thoughts were more impious, for they pretended to rather a policy of self-aggrandisement. Both projects were divine inspiration. prohibited by the emperor on the intervention of the legate. Felix the procurator-a king, as Tacitus says, in power and In 44 he died. The Christian records treat his death as an act in mind a slave-tried in vain to put down the revolutionaries, of divine vengeance upon the persecutor of the Christian Church. The“ chief-robber "Eleazar, who had plundered the country for The Jews prayed for his recovery and lamented him. The twenty years, was caught and sent to Rome; countless robbers of Gentile soldiers exulted in the downfall of his dynasty, which less note were crucified. But this severity cemented the alliance they signalized after their own fashion. Claudius intended that of religious fanatics with the physical-force party and induced Agrippa's young son should succeed to the kingdom; but he was the ordinary citizens to join them, in spite of the punishments GREEK DOMINATION) JEWS 401 1 1 which they received when captured. Agrippa II: received a was fulfilling a Nazarite vow, interposed in vain. Florus kingdom-first Chalcis, and then the tetrarchies of Philip and actually dared to scourge and crucify Jews who belonged to the Lysanias-but, though he had the oversight of the Temple and Roman order of knights. For the moment the Jews were cowed, the nomination of the high priest, and enjoyed a reputation for and next day they went submissively to greet the troops coming knowledge of Jewish customs and questions, he was unable to from Caesarea. Their greetings were unanswered, and they cried check the growing power of the Zealots. His sister Drusilla had out against Florus. On this the soldiers drew their swords and broken the Law by her marriage with Felix; and his own notorious drove the people into the city; but, once inside the city, the relations with his sister Berenice, and his coins which bore the people stood at bay and succeeded in establishing themselves images of the emperors, were an open affront to the conscience upon the temple-hill . Florus withdrew with all his troops, of Judaism. When Felix was recalled by Nero in 60 the nation except one cohort, to Caesarea. The Jews laid complaint against was divided against itself, the Gentiles within its gates were him, and he complained against the Jews before the governor watching for their opportunity, and the chief priests robbed the of Syria, Cestius Gallus, who sent an officer to inquire into the lower priests with a high band. matter. Agrippa, who had hurried from Alexandria, entered In Caesarea there had been for some time trouble between the Jerusalem with the governor's emissary. So long as he counselled Jewish and the Syrian inhabitants. The Jews claimed that the submission to the overwhelming power of Rome the people city was theirs, because King Herod had founded it. The Syrians complied, but when he spoke of obedience to Florus he was com- admitted the fact, but insisted that it was a city for Greeks, pelled to fly. The rulers, who desired peace, and upon whom as its temples and statues proved. Their rivalry led to street- Florus had laid the duty of restoring peace, asked him for troops; fighting: the Jews had the advantage in respect of wealth and but the civil war ended in their complete discomfiture. The bodily strength, but the Greek party had the assistance of the rebels abode by their decision to stop the daily sacrifice for the soldiers who were stationed there. On one occasion Felix sent emperor; Agrippa's troops capitulated and marched out unhurt; troops against the victorious Jews; but neither this nor the scourge and the Romans, who surrendered on the same condition and and the prison, to which the leaders of both factions had been laid down their arms, were massacred. As if to emphasize the consigned, deterred them. The quarrel was therefore referred to spirit and purpose of the rebellion, one and only one of the the emperor Nero, who finally gave his decision in favour of the Roman soldiers was spared, because he promised to become a Syrians or Greeks. The result of this decision was that the Jew even to the extent of circumcision. synagogue at Caesarea was insulted on a Sabbath and the Jews 39. Josephus and the Zealots.-Simultaneously with this left the city taking their books of the Law with them. Som massacre the citizens of Caesarea slaughtered the Jews who still Josephus says--the war began in the twelfth year of the reign of remained there; and throughout Syria Jews effected-and Nero (A.D. 66). suffered-reprisals. At length the governor of Syria approached 38. Festus, Albinus and Florus.-Meanwhile the procurators the centre of the disturbance in Jerusalem, but retreated after who succeeded Felix-Porcius Festus (60-62), Albinus (62–64) burning down a suburb. In the course of his retreat he was and Gessius Florus (64-66)-had in their several ways brought attacked by the Jews and fled to Antioch, leaving them his the bulk of the nation into line with the more violent of the Jews engines of war. Some prominent Jews fled from Jerusalem-as of Caesarea. Festus found Judaea infested with robbers and from a sinking ship-to join him and carried the news to the the sicarii, who mingled with the crowds at the feasts and emperor. The rest of the pro-Roman party were forced or stabbed their enemies with the daggers (sicae) from which their persuaded to join the rebels and prepared for war on a grander name was derived. He also had to deal with a wizard, who de- scale. Generals were selected by the Sanhedrin from the aristo- ceived many by promising them salvation and release from evils, cracy, who had tried to keep the peace and still hoped to make if they would follow him into the desert. His attempts to crush terms with Rome. Ananus the high priest, their leader, re- all such disturbers of the peace were cut short by his death in mained in command at Jerusalem; Galilce, where the first attack his second year of office. was to be expected, was entrusted to Josephus, the historian In the interval which elapsed before the arrival of Albinus, of the war. The revolutionary leaders, who had already taken Ananus son of Annas was made high priest by Agrippa. With the field, were superseded. the apparent intention of restoring order in Jerusalem, hę Josephus set himself to make an army of the inhabitants of assembled the Sanhedrin, and being, as a Sadducee, cruel in the Galilee, many of whom had no wish to fight, and to strengthen matter of penalties, secured the condemnation of certain law- the strongholds. His organization of local government and his breakers to death by stoning. For this he was deposed by efforts to maintain law and order brought him into collision Agrippa. Albinus fostered and turned to his profit the struggles with the Zealots and especially with John of Giscala, one of their of priests with priests and of Zealots with their enemies. The leaders. The people, whom he had tried to conciliate, were general release of prisoners, with which he celebrated his impend-roused against him; John sent assassins and finally procured an ing recall, is typical of his policy. Meanwhile Agrippa gave the order from Jerusalem for his recall. In spite of all this Josephus Levites the right to wear the linen robe of the priests and sanc- held his ground and by force or craft put down those who resisted tioned the use of the temple treasure to provide work-the paving his authority. of the city with white stones-for the workmen who had finished In the spring of 67 Vespasian, who had been appointed by the Temple (64) and now stood idle. But everything pointed to Nero to crush the rebellion, advanced from his winter quarters the destruction of the city, which one Jesus had prophesied at at Antioch. The inhabitants of Sepphoris-whom Josephus the feast of tabernacles in 62. The Zealots' zeal for the Law and had judged to be so eager for the war that he left them to build the Temple was flouted by their pro-Roman king. their wall for themselves--received a Roman garrison at their By comparison with Florus, Albinus was, in the opinion of own request. Joined by Titus, Vespasian advanced into Galilee Josephus, a benefactor. When the news of the troubles at with three legions and the auxiliary troops supplied by Agrippa Caesarea reached Jerusalem, it became known also that Florus and other petty kings. Before his advance the army of Josephus had seized seventeen talents of the temple treasure (66). At this filed. Josephus with a few stalwarts took refuge in Tiberias, and the patience of the Jews was exhausted. The sacrilege, as they sent a letter to Jerusalem asking that he should be relieved of his considered it, may have been an attempt to recover arrears of command or supplied with an adequate force to continue the war. tribute; but they were convinced that Florus was providing for Hearing that Vespasian was preparing to besiege Jotapata, himself and not for Caesar. The revolutionaries went about a strong fortress in the hills, which was held by other fugitives, among the excited people with baskets, begging coppers for their Josephus entered it just before the road approaching it was made destitute and miserable governor. Stung by this insult, he passable for the Roman horse and foot. A deserter announced neglected the fire of war which had been lighted at Caesarea, and his arrival to Vespasian, who rejoiced (Josephus says) that the hastened to Jerusalem. His soldiers sacked the upper city and cleverest of his enemies had thus voluntarily imprisoned him. killed 630 persons-men, women and children. Berenice, who I self. After some six weeks' siege the place was stormed, and its XV 7* 402 (GREEK DOMINATION JEWS exhausted garrison were killed or enslaved. Josephus, whose 41. From A.D, 70, to A.D. 135:- The destruction of the Temple pretences had postponed the final assault, hid in a cave with carried with it the destruction of the priesthood and all its power. forty men. His companions refused to permit him to surrender could be offered except at the Temple of Jerusalem. Thenceforward The priests existed to offer sacrifices, and by the Law no sacrifice and were resolved to die. At his suggestion they cast lots, and the remnant of the Jews who survived the fiery ordeal formed a the first man was killed by the second and so on, until all were church rather than a nation or a state, and the Pharisees exercised dead except Josephus and (perhaps) one other. So Josephus an unchallenged supremacy. With the Temple and its Sadducean saved them from the sin of suicide and gave himself up to the high priests perished the Sanhedrin in which the Sadducees had Romans. He had prophesied that the place would be taken-as Zealots who had appealed to the arm of flesh were exterminated. competed with the Pharisees for predominance. The Sicarii or it was-on the forty-seventh day, and now he prophesied that Only the teachers of the Law survived to direct the nation and to both Vespasian and his son Titus would reign over all mankind. teach those who remained loyal Jews, how they should render to Cacsar what belonged to Cacsar, and to God what belonged to God. The prophecy saved his life, though many desired his death, and Here and there hot-headed Zealots rose up to repeat the errors and the rumour of it produced general mourning in Jerusalem. By the disasters of their predecessors. But their late only served to the end of the year (67) Galilee was in the hands of Vespasian, deepen the impression already stamped upon the general mind of and John of Giscala had fled. Agrippa celebrated the conquest | the Jews of the Dispersion had learned to supplement the Temple by the nation. The Temple was gone, but they had the Law. Already at Caesarea Philippi with festivities which lasted twenty days. the synagogue, and even the Jews of Jerusalem had not been free In accordance with ancient custom Jerusalem welcomed the to spend their lives in the worship of the Temple. There were still, fugitive Zealots. The result was civil war and famine. Ananus as always, rites which were independent of the place and of the incited the people against these robbers, who arrested, imprisoned priest; there had been a time when the Temple did not exist. So and murdered prominent friends of Rome, and arrogated to them- Judaism survived once more the destruction of its central sanctuary. selves the right of selecting the high priest by lot. The Zealots When Jerusalem was taken, the Sicarii still continued to hold three strongholds: one-Masada--for three years. But the com. took refuge in the Temple and summoned the Idumaeans to their mander of Masada realized at length that there was no hope of aid. Under cover of a storm, they opened the city-gates to their escaping captivity except by death, and urged his comrades to allies and proceeded to murder Ananus the high priest, and, anticipate their fate. Each man slew his wife and children; ten against the verdict of a formal tribunal, Zacharias the son of executioners, fired the palace and fell upon his sword. men were selected by lot to slay the rest; one man slew the nine When the Baruch in the midst of the Temple. The Idumacans left, but place was stormed the garrison consisted of two old women and five John of Giscala remained master of Jerusalem. children who had concealed themselves in caves. So Vespasian 40. The Fall of Jerusalem.- Vespasian left the rivals to consume obtained possession of Palestine the country which Nero had given one another and occupied his army with the subjugation of the him-and for a time it was purged of revolutionaries. Early country. When he had isolated the capital and was preparing execute all descendants of David who might conceivably come Christian writers assert that he proceeded to search out and to to besiege it, the news of Nero's death reached him at Cacsarea. forward as claimants of the vacant throne. For a year (June 68-June 69) he held his hand and watched In Egypt and in Cyrene fugitive Zcalots endeavoured to continue events, until the robber-bands of Simon Bar-Giora (son of the their rebellion against the emperor, but there also with disastrous proselyte) required his attention. But, before Vespasian took results. The doors of the Temple in Egypt were closed, and its sacri- action to stop his raids, Simon had been invited to Jerusalem in afterwards this temple also was destroyed. fices which had been offered for 243 years were prohibited. Soon Apart from these local the hope that he would act as a counterpoise to the tyrant John. outbreaks, the Jews throughout the empire remained loyal citizens And so, when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in fulfilment of and were not molested.. The general hope of the nation was not Josephus' prophecy, and deputed the command to Titus, there necessarily bound up with the house of David, and its realization was not incompatible with the yoke of Rome. They still looked for were three rivals at war in Jerusalem-Eleazar, Simon and John. a true prophet, an meanwhile they had 'their rabbis. The temple sacrifices were still offered and worshippers were Under Johanan ben Zaccai (q.v.) the Pharisees established them. admitted; but John's catapults were busy, and priest and selves at Jamnia. A new Sanhedrin was formed there under the worshippers at the altar were killed, because Eleazar's party presidency of a ruler, who received yearly dues from all Jewish occupied the inner courts of the Temple. A few days before the national spirit and directed it towards the religious life which was communities. The scribes through the synagogues preserved the passover of 70 Titus advanced upon Jerusalem, but the civil prescribed by Scripture. The traditions of the elders were tested war went on. When Eleazar opened the temple-gates to admit and gradually harmonized in their essentials. The canon of Scrip- those who wished to worship God, John of Giscala introduced ture was decided in accordance with the touchstone of the Penta- some of his own men, fully armed under their garments, and so teuch. Israel had retired to their tents to study their Bible. Under Vespasian'and Titus the Jews enjoyed freedom of con• got possession of the Temple. Titus pressed the attack, and the science and equal political rights with non-Jewish subjects of Rome. two factions joined hands at last to repel it. In spite of their But Domitian, according to pagan historians, bore hardly on them. desperate sallies, Jerusalem was surrounded by a wall, and its The temple-tax was strictly exacted; Jews who lived the Jewish life people, whose numbers were increased by those who had come up their nationality were brought before the magistrates. Proselytes without openly confessing their religion and Jews who concealed for the passover, were hemmed in to starve. The famine affected to Judaism were condemned either to death or to forfeiture of all alike-the populace, who desired peace, and Zcalots, who their property. Indeed it would seem that Domitian instituted a were determined to fight to the end. At last John of Giscala por- persecution of the Jews, to which Nerva his successor put an end. tioned out the sacred wine and oil, saying that they who fought | Cyrene rose against their Greek neighbours and set up, a king. The Towards the end of Trajan's reign (114-117) the Jews of Egypt and for the Temple might fearlessly use its stores for their sustenance. rebellion spread to Cyprus; and when Trajan advanced from Steadily the Romans forced their way through wall after wall, Mesopotamia into Parthia the Jews of Mesopotamia revolted. until the Jews were driven back to the Temple and the daily The massacres they perpetrated were avenged in kind and all the sacrifices came to an end on the 17th of July for lack of men. insurrections were quelled when Hadrian succeeded Trajan. In 132 the Jews of Palestine rebelled again. Hadrian had for- Once more Josephus appealed in vain to John and his followers to bidden circumcision as illegal mutilation: he had also replaced cease from desecrating and endangering the Temple. The siege Jerusalem by a city of his own, Aelia Capitolina, and the temple of proceeded and the temple-gates were burned. According to Yahweh by a temple of Jupiter. Apart from these bitter provoca- Josephus, Titus decided to spare the Temple, but-whether tions—the prohibition of the sign of the covenant and the desecration of the sacred place ---the Jew's had a leader who was recognized as this was so or not-on the roth of August it was fired by a Messiah by the rabbi Aqiba., Though the majority of the rabbis soldier after a sortie of the Jews had been repelled. The legions looked for no such deliverer and refused to admit his claims, Barcoche, set up their standards in the temple-court and hailed Titus as bas (9.0.) drew the people after him to struggle for their national he independence. For ihree years and a ha his own and imperator. ued coins in the name of Simon, which commemorate the liberation of Some of the Zealots escaped with John and Simon to the Jerusalem. Some attempt was apparently made to rebuild the upper city and held it for another month. But Titus had already Temple; and the Jews of the Dispersion, who had perhaps been earned the triumph which he celebrated at Rome in 71. The won over by Aqiba, supported the rebellion. Indeed even Gentiles Jews, wherever they might be, continued to pay the temple-tax; Hadrian sent his best generals against the rebels, and at length they helped them, so that the whole world (Dio Cassius says) was stirred. but now it was devoted to Jupiter Capitolinus. The Romans had were driven from Jerusalem to Bethar (135). The Jews were for. taken their holy place, and the Law was all that was left to them. I bidden to enter the new city of Jerusalem on pain of death. DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES) JEWS 403 BIBLIOGRAPHY:-The most comprehensive of modern booksdealing They were often on terms of intimate friendship with the with the period is Emil Schürer, Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (3 vols., Leipzig, 1901 foll.). Exception emperors, who scarcely interfered with their jurisdiction. has been taken to a certain lack of sympathy with the Jews, espe- As late as Theodosius I. (379-395) the internal affairs of the cially the rabbis, which has been detected in the author. But at least Jews were formally committed to the patriarchs, and Honorius the book remains an indispensable storehouse of references to ancient (404) authorized the collection of the patriarch's tax (aurum and modern authorities. An earlier edition was translated into English under the title History of the Jewish People (Edinburgh, coronarium), by which a revenue was raised from the Jews of the 1890, 1891). Of shorter histories, D. A. Schlatter's Geschichte diaspora. Under Theodosius II. (408-450) the patriarchate Israel's von Alexander dem Grossen bis Hadrian (2nd ed., 1906) was finally abolished after a régime of three centuries and a half is perhaps the least dependent upon Schürer and attempts more (Gractz, History of the Jews, Eng. trans. vol. ii. ch. xxii.), though than others to interpret the fragmentary evidence available. R. H. Charles has done much by his editions to restore to their ironically enough the last holder of the office had been for a time proper prominence in connexion with Jewish history the Testaments elevated by the emperor to the rank of prefect. The real of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Book of Jubilees, Enoch, &c. But turning-point had been reached earlier, when Christianity became Schürer_gives a complete bibliography to which it must suffice to the state religion under Constantine I. in 312. reſer. For the Sanhedrin see SYNEDRIUM. , (J. H. A. H.) Religion under the Christian emperors became a significant source of discrimination in legal status, and non-conformity might reach III.- FROM THE DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES so far as to produce complete loss of rights. The laws concerning 42. The Later Empire.— With the failure in 135 of the attempt Judaism and the prevention of inroads of Jewish influences into the the Jews had a repressive and preventive object: the repression of led by Barcochebas to free Judaea from Roman domination a new state religion. The Jews were thrust into a position of isolation, era begins in the history of the Jews. The direct consequence of and the Code of Thcodosius and other authorities characterize the the failure was the annihilation of political nationality. Large Jews as a lower order of depraved beings (inferiores and perversi), numbers fell in the actual fighting. Dio Cassius puts the total at their community as a godless, dangerous scct (secta nefaria, feralis), their religion a superstition, their assemblies for religious worship a the incredible figure of 580,000, besides the incalculable number blasphemy (sacrilegi coelus) and a contagion (Scherer, op. cit. pp: who succumbed to famine, disease and fire (Dio-Xiphilin lxix. 11-12). Yet Judaism under Roman Christian law was a lawful 11-15). Jerusalem was rebuilt by Hadrian, orders to this effect religion (religio licita), Valentinian I. (364-375) forbade the quarter- prohibited inter- being given during the emperor's first journey through Syria in ing of soldiers in the synagogues, Theodosius ference with the synagogue worship (“Judaeorum sectam nulla lege 130, the date of his foundations at Gaza, Tiberias and Petra prohibitam satis constat"), and in 412 a special edict of protection (Reinach, Textes relatifs au Judaïsme, p. 198). The new city was issued. But the admission of Christians into the Jewish fold was named Aelia Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of was punished by confiscation of goods (357), the erection of new Jehovah there arose another temple dedicated to Jupiter. To synagogues was arrested by Theodosius II. (439) under penalty of a heavy fine, Jews were forbidden to hold Christian slaves under pain Eusebius the erection of a temple of Venus over the sepulchre of death (423). A similar penalty attached to intermarriage between of Christ was an act of mockery against the Christian religion. Jews and Christians, and an attempt was made to nullify all Jewish Rome had been roused to unwonted fury, and the truculence of marriages which were not celebrated in accordance with Roman law. the rebels was matched by the cruelty of their masters. The But Justinian (527-565) was the first to interfere directly in the religious institutions of the Jewish people. In 553 he interdicted holy city was barred against the Jews; they were excluded, the use of the Talmud (which had then not long been completed), under pain of death, from approaching within view of the and the Byzantine emperors of the 8th and 9th centuries passed walls. Hadrian's policy in this respect was matched later on even more intolerant regulations. As regards civil law, Jews were by the edict of the caliph Omar (c. 638), who, like his Roman at first allowed to settle disputcs between Jew and Jew before their own courts, but Justinian denied to them and to hereties the right prototype, prevented the Jews from settling in the capital of to appear as witnesses in the pul courts against orthodox Chris- their ancient country. The death of Hadrian and the accession tians. To Constantine V. (911-959) goes back the Jewish form of of Antoninus Pius (138), however, gave the dispersed people oath which in its later development required the Jew to gird him- of Palestine a breathing-space. Roman law was by no means self with thorns; stand in water; and, holding the scroll of the intolerant to the Jews. Under the constitution of Caracalla the curse of Eli and the fate of Korah's sons should he perjure himself. Torah in his hand, invoke upon his person the leprosy of Naaman, (198-217) all inhabitants of the Roman empire enjoyed the civil This was the original of all the medieval forms of oath more judaico, rights of the Cives Romani (Scherer, Die Rechtsverhältnisse der which still prevailed in many European lands till the 19th century, Juden, p. 10). and are even now maintained by some of the Rumanian courts. Moreover, a spiritual revival mitigated the crushing effects of Jews were by the law of Honorius excluded from the army, from public offices and dignities (418), from acting as advocates (425); material ruin. The synagogue had become a firmly established only the curial offices were open to them. Justinian gave the institution, and the personal and social life of the masses finishing touch by proclaiming in 537 the Jews absolutely ineligible had come under the control of communal law. The dialectic for any honour whatsoever ("honore fruantur nullo "). of the school proved stronger to preserve than the edge of the 43. Judaism in Babylonia.—The Jews themselves were during sword to destroy. Pharisaic Judaism, put to the severest test this period engaged in building up a system of isolation on their to which a religious system has ever been subject, showed itself own side, but they treated Roman law with greater hospitality able to control and idealize life in all its phases. Whatever than it meted out to them. The Talmud shows the influence of question may be possible as to the force or character of Phari- that law in many points, and may justly be compared to it as a. saism in the time of Christ, there can be no doubt that it monument of codification based on great principles. The Pales- became both all-pervading and ennobling among the successors of tinian Talmud was completed in the 4th century, but the better Aqiba (9.v.), himself one of the martyrs to Hadrian's severity: known and more influential version was compiled in Baby- Little more than half a century after the overthrow of the Jewish lonia about 500. The land which, a millennium before, had been nationality, the Mishnah was practically completed, and by this a prison for the Jewish exiles was now their asylum of refuge. code of rabbinic law-and law is here a term which includes For a long time it formed their second fatherland. Here, far the social, moral and religious as well as the ritual and legal more than on Palestinian soil, was built the enduring edifice of phases of human activity—the Jewish people were organized rabbinism. The population of the southern part of Mesopotamia into a community, living more or less autonomously under the -the strip of land enclosed between the Tigris and the Euphrates Sanhedrin or Synedrium (9.v.) and its officials. -was, according to Graetz, mainly Jewish; while the district Judah the prince, the patriarch or nāsi who edited the Mishnah, extending for about 70 m. on the east of the Euphrates, from died early in the 3rd century. With him the importance of | Nehardea in the north to Sura in the south, became a new the Palestinian patriarchate attained its zenith. Gamaliel II. Palestine with Nehardea for its Jerusalem. The Babylonian of Jamnia (Jabne Yebneb) had been raised to this dignity a Jews were practically independent, and the exilarch (resh- century before, and, as members of the house of Hillel and thus galutha) or prince of the captivity was an official who ruled descendants of David, the patriarchs enjoyed almost royal | the community as a vassal of the Persian throne. The exilarch authority. Their functions were political rather than reli- claimed, like the Palestinian patriarch, descent from the royal gious, though their influence was by no means purely secular. I house of David, and exercised most of the functions of 404 [DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES JEWS government. Babylonia had risen into supreme importance for Jewish life at about the time when the Mishnah was com- pleted. The great rabbinic academies at Sura and Nehardea, the former of which retained something of its dominant rôle till the 11th century, had been founded, Sura by Abba Arika (g.v.) (c. 219), but Nehardea, the more ancient seat of the two, famous in the 3rd century for its association with Abba Arika's renowned contemporary Samuel, lost its Jewish import- ance in the age of Mahomet. To Samuel of Nehardea (q.v.) belongs the honour of formu- lating the principle which made it possible for Jews to live under alien laws. Jeremiah had admonished his exiled brothers: " Seek ye the peace of the city whither I have caused you to be carried away captives, and pray unto the Lord for it: for in the peace thereof shall ye have peace" (Jer. xxix, 7). It was now necessary to go farther, and the rabbis proclaimed a principle which was as influential with the synagogue as "Give unto Caesar that which is Caesar's " became with the Church. "The law of the government is law "(Baba Qama 113 b.), said Samuel, and ever since it has been a religious duty for the Jews to obey and accommodate themselves as far as possible to the laws of the country in which they are settled or reside. In 259 Odenathus, the Palmyrene adventurer whose memory has been eclipsed by that of his wife Zenobia, laid Nehardea waste for the time being, and in its neighbourhood arose the academy of Pumbedita (Pombeditha) which became a new focus for the intellectual life of Israel in Babylonia. These academies were organized on both scholastic and popular lines; their consti- tution was democratic. An outstanding feature was the Kallah assemblage twice a year (in Elul at the close of the summer, and in Adar at the end of the winter), when there were gathered together vast numbers of outside students of the most heterogeneous character as regards both age and attainments. Questions received from various quarters were discussed and the final decision of the Kallah was signed by the Resh-Kallah or president of the general assembly, who was only second in rank to the Resh-Metibta, or president of the scholastic sessions. Thus the Babylonian academies combined the func- tions of specialist law-schools, universities and popular parlia- ments, They were a unique product of rabbinism; and the authors of the system were also the compilers of its literary expression, the Talmud, I 44. Judaism in Islam.-Another force now appears on the scene. The new religion inaugurated by Mahomet differed in its theory from the Roman Catholic Church. The Church, it is true, in council after council, passed decisions unfriendly to the Jews. From the synod at Elvira in the 4th century this process began, and it was continued in the West-Gothic Church legislation, in the Lateran councils (especially the fourth in 1215), and in the council of Trent (1563). The anti-social tendency of these councils expressed itself in the fnfliction of the badge, in the compulsory domicile of Jews within ghettos, and in the erection of formidable barriers against all intercourse between church and synagogue. The protective instinct was responsible for much of this interference with the natural impulse of men of various creeds towards mutual esteem and forbearance. The church, it was conceived, needed defence against the synagogue at all hazards, and the fear that the latter would influence and dominate the former was never absent from the minds of medieval ecclesiastics. But though this defensive zeal led to active persecution, still in theory Judaism was a tolerated religion wherever the Church had sway, and many papal bulls of a friendly character were issued throughout the middle ages (Scherer, p. 32 seq.). Islam, on the other hand, had no theoretic place in its scheme for tolerated religions; its principle was fundamentally in- tolerant. Where the mosque was erected, there was no room for church or synagogue. The caliph Omar initiated in the 7th century a code which required Christians and Jews to wear peculiar dress, denied them the right to hold state offices or to possess land, inflicted a poll-tax on them, and while forbidding them to enter mosques, refused them the permission to build | | new places of worship for themselves. Again and again these ordinances were repeated in subsequent ages, and intolerance for infidels is still a distinct feature of Mahommedan law. But Islam has often shown itself milder in fact than in theory, for its laws were made to be broken. The medieval Jews on the whole lived, under the crescent, a fuller and freer life than was possible to them under the cross. Mahommedan Baby- lonia (Persia) was the home of the gaonate (see GAON), the central authority of religious Judaism, whose power transcended that of the secular exilarchate, for it influenced the synagogue far and wide, while the exilarchate was local. The gaonate enjoyed a practical tolerance remarkable when contrasted with the letter of Islamic law. And as the Bagdad caliphate tended to become more and more supreme in Islam, so the gaonate too shared in this increased influence. Not even the Qaraite schism was able to break the power of the geonim. But the dispersion of the Jews was proceeding in directions which carried masses from the Asiatic inland to the Mediterranean coasts and to Europe. 45. In Medieval Europe: Spain.—This dispersion of the Jews had begun in the Hellenistic period, but it was after the Bar- cochebas war that it assumed great dimensions in Europe. There were Jews in the Byzantine empire, in Rome, in France and Spain at very early periods, but it is with the Arab conquest of Spain that the Jews of Europe began to rival in culture and im- portance their brethren of the Persian gaonate. Before this date the Jews had been learning the rôle they afterwards filled, that of the chief promoters of international commerce. Already under Charlemagne this development is noticeable; in his generous treatment of the Jews this Christian emperor stood in marked contrast to his contemporary the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who persecuted Jews and Christians with equal vigour. But by the 10th century Judaism had received from Islam something more than persecution. It caught the contagion of poetry, philosophy and science. The schismatic Qaraites initiated or rather necessitated a new Hebrew philology, which later on produced Qimhi, the gaon Saadiah founded a Jewish philosophy, the statesman Hasdai introduced a new Jewish culture-and all this under Mahommedan rule. It is in Spain that above all the new spirit manifested itself. The distinctive feature of the Spanish-Jewish culture was its comprehensiveness. Litera- ture and affairs, science and statecraft, poetry and medicine, these various expressions of human nature and activity were so harmoniously balanced that they might be found in the posses- sion of one and the same individual. The Jews of Spain attained to high places in the service of the state from the time of the Moorish conquest in 711. From Ḥasdai ibn Shaprut in the 10th century and Samuel the nagid in the 11th the line of Jewish scholar-statesmen continued till we reach Isaac Abrabanel in 1492, the date of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. This last-named event synchronized with the discovery of America; Columbus being accompanied by at least one Jewish navigator. While the Spanish period of Jewish history was thus brilliant from the point of view of public service, it was equally notable on the literary side. Hebrew religious poetry was revived for synagogue hymnology, and, partly in imitation of Arabian models, a secular Hebrew poetry was developed in metre and rhyme. The new Hebrew Piyut found its first important exponent in Kalir, who was not a Spaniard. But it is to Spain that we must look for the best of the medieval poets of the synagogue, greatest among them being Ibn Gabirol and Halevi. So, too, the greatest Jew of the middle ages, Maimonides, was a Spaniard. In him culminates the Jewish expression of the Spanish-Moorish culture; his writings had an influence on European scholas- ticism and contributed significant elements to the philosophy of Spinoza. But the reconquest of Andalusia by the Christians associated towards the end of the 15th century with the establishment of the Inquisition, introduced a spirit of intoler- ance which led to the expulsion of the Jews and Moors. The consequences of this blow were momentous; it may be said to inaugurate the ghetto period. In Spain Jewish life had parti- cipated in the general life, but the expulsion--while it dispersed 4 On the writers mentioned below see articles s.v. DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES] 405 JEWS 1 the Spanish Jews in Poland, Turkey, Italy and France, and | lower rank, the Jews were expelled from states and principalities thus in the end contributed to the Jewish emancipation at the French Revolution-for the time drove the Jews within their own confines and barred them from the outside world.¹ " 46. In France, Germany, England, Italy.-In the meantime Jewish life had been elsewhere subjected to other influences which produced a result at once narrower and deeper. Under Charlemagne, the Jews, who had begun to settle in Gaul in the time of Caesar, were more than tolerated. They were allowed to hold land and were encouraged to become—what their ubiquity qualified them to be—the merchant princes of Europe. | The reign of Louis the Pious (814-840) was, as Graetz puts it, a golden era for the Jews of his kingdom, such as they had never enjoyed, and were destined never again to enjoy in Europe "-prior, that is, to the age of Mendelssohn. In Germany at the same period the feudal system debarred the Jews from holding land, and though there was as yet no material persecu- tion they suffered moral injury by being driven exclusively into finance and trade. Nor was there any widening of the general horizon such as was witnessed in Spain. The Jewries of France and Germany were thus thrown upon their own cultural re- sources. They rose to the occasion. In Mainz there settled in the 10th century Gershom, the "light of the exile," who, about 1000, published his ordinance forbidding polygamy in Jewish law as it had long been forbidden in Jewish practice. This ordinance may be regarded as the beginning of the Synodal government of Judaism, which was a marked feature of medieval life in the synagogues of northern and central Europe from the 12th century. Soon after Gershom's death, Rashi (1040- | 1106) founded at Troyes a new school of learning. If Maimon- ides represented Judaism on its rational side, Rashi was the expression of its traditions. French Judaism was thus in a sense more human if less humane than the Spanish variety; the latter produced thinkers, statesmen, poets and scientists; the former, men with whom the Talmud was a passion, men of robuster because of more naïve and concentrated piety. In Spain and North Africa persecution created that strange and significant phenomenon Maranism or crypto-Judaism, a public acceptance of Islam or Christianity combined with a private fidelity to the rites of Judaism. But in England, France and Germany persecution altogether failed to shake the courage of the Jews, and martyr- dom was borne in preference to ostensible apostasy. The crusades subjected the Jews to this ordeal. The evil was wrought, not by the regular armies of the cross who were in- spired by noble ideals, but by the undisciplined mobs which, for the sake of plunder, associated themselves with the genuine enthusiasts. In 1096 massacres of Jews occurred in many cities of the Rhineland. During the second crusade (1145–1147) Bernard of Clairvaux heroically protested against similar inhumanities. The third crusade, famous for the participation of Richard I., was the occasion for bloody riots in England, especially in York, where 150 Jews immolated themselves to escape baptism. Economically and socially the crusades had disastrous effects upon the Jews (see J. Jacobs, Jewish Encyclopedia, iv. 379). Socially they suffered by the outburst of religious animosity. One of the worst forms taken by this ill-will was the oft-revived myth of ritual murder (q.v.), and later on when the Black Death devastated Europe (1348-1349) the Jews were the victims of an odious charge of well-poisoning. Economically the results were also injurious. Before the crusades the Jews had prac- tically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connexion between Europe and the East brought about by the crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the Christians, and from this time onwards restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent " (op. cit.). After the second crusade the German Jews fell into the class of servi camerae, which at first only implied that they enjoyed the immunity of imperial servants, but afterwards made of them slaves and pariahs. At the personal whim of rulers, whether royal or of For the importance of the Portuguese Jews, see PORTUGAL: History. "C | | and were reduced to a condition of precarious uncertainty as to what the morrow might bring forth. Pope Innocent III, gave strong impetus to the repression of the Jews, especially by ordaining the wearing of a badge. Popular animosity was | kindled by the enforced participation of the Jews in public disputations. In 1306 Philip IV. expelled the Jews from France, nine years later Louis X. recalled them for a period of twelve years. Such vicissitudes were the ordinary lot of the Jews for several centuries, and it was their own inner life—the pure life of the home, the idealism of the synagogue, and the belief in ultimate Messianic redemption-that saved them.from utter demoralization and despair. Curiously enough in Italy— and particularly in Rome-the external conditions were better. The popes themselves, within their own immediate jurisdiction, were often far more tolerant than their bulls issued for foreign communities, and Torquemada was less an expression than a distortion of the papal policy. In the early 14th century, the age of Dante, the new spirit of the Renaissance made Italian rulers the patrons of art and literature, and the Jews to some extent shared in this gracious change. Robert of Aragon— vicar-general of the papal states-in particular encouraged the Jews and supported them in their literary and scientific ambi- tions. Small coteries of Jewish minor poets and philosophers were formed, and men like Kalonymos and Immanuel-Dante's friend-shared the versatility and culture of Italy. But in Germany there was no echo of this brighter note. Persecution was elevated into a system, a poll-tax was exacted, and the rabble was allowed (notably in 1336-1337) to give full vent to its fury. Following on this came the Black Death with its terrible consequences in Germany; even in Poland, where the Jews had previously enjoyed considerable rights, extensive massacres took place. | | "" In effect the Jews became outlaws, but their presence being often financially necessary, certain officials were permitted to hold Jews," who were liable to all forms of arbitrary treatment on the side of their owners.' The Jews had been among the first to appreciate the commercial advantages of permitting the loan of money on interest, but it was the policy of the Church that drove the Jews into money-lending as a characteristic trade. Restrictions on their occupations were everywhere common, and as the Church forbade Christians to engage in usury, this was the only trade open to the Jews. The excessive demands made upon the Jews forbade a fair rate of interest. "The Jews were unwilling sponges by means of which a large part of the subjects' wealth found its way into the royal ex- chequer " (Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, ch, xii.). Hence, though this procedure made the Jews intensely obnoxious to the peoples, they became all the more necessary to the rulers. A favourite form of tolerance was to grant a permit to the Jews to remain in the state for a limited term of years; their con- tinuance beyond the specified time was illegal and they were therefore subject to sudden banishment. Thus a second expul- sion of the Jews of France occurred in 1394. Early in the 15th century John Hus-under the inspiration of Wycliffe-initiated at Prague the revolt against the Roman Catholic Church. The Jews suffered in the persecution that followed, and in 1420 all the Austrian Jews were thrown into prison. Martin V. published a favourable bull, but it was ineffectual. The darkest days were nigh. Pope Eugenius (1442) issued a fiercely intolerant missive; the Franciscan John of Capistrano moved the masses to activity by his eloquent denunciations; even Casimir IV. revoked the privileges of the Jews in Poland, when the Turkish capture of Constantinople (1453) offered a new asylum for the hunted Jews of Europe. But in Europe itself the catastrophe was not arrested. The Inquisition in Spain led to the expulsion of the Jews (1492), and this event involved not only the latter but the whole of the Jewish people. "The Jews everywhere felt as if the temple had again been destroyed" (Graetz). Nevertheless, the result was not all evil. If fugitives are for the next half-century to be met with in all parts of Europe, yet, especially in the Levant, there grew up thriving Jewish 406 (DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES JEWS " dark ages communities often founded by Spanish refugees. Such incidents were Sephardic (or Spanish) Jews-descendants of the Spanish as the rise of Joseph Nasi (q.v.) to high position under the exiles. In the meantime the Ashkenazic (or German) Jews had Turkish government as duke of Naxos mark the coming change. been working out their own salvation. The chief effects of the The reformation as such had no favourable influence on Jewish change were not felt till the 18th century. In England emanci. fortunes in Christian Europe, though the championship of the pation was of democratic origin and concerned itself with cause of toleration by Reuchlin had considerable value. But practical questions. On the Continent, the movement was more the age of the ghetto (q.v.) had set in too firmly for immediate aristocratic and theoretical; it was part of the intellectual amelioration to be possible. It is to Holland and to the 17th renaissance which found its most striking expression in the century that we must turn for the first real steps towards Jewish principles of the French Revolution. Throughout Europe the emancipation. 18th century was less an era of stagnation than of transition. 47. Period of Emanc on.—The ghetto, which had prevailed The condition of the European Jews seems, on a superficial more or less rigorously for a long period, was not formally pre-examination, abject enough. But, excluded though they were scribed by the papacy until the beginning of the 16th century. from most trades and occupations, confined to special quarters The same century was not ended before the prospect of liberty of the city, disabled from sharing most of the amenities of life, dawned on the Jews. Holland from the moment that it joined the the Jews nevertheless were gradually making their escape from union of Utrecht (1579) deliberately set its face against religious the ghetto and from the moral degeneration which it had caused. persecution (Jewish Encyclopedia, i. 537). Maranos, fleeing to Some ghettos (as in Moravia) were actually not founded till the the Netherlands, were welcomed; the immigrants were wealthy, 18th century, but the careful observer can perceive clearly that enterprising and cultured. Many Jews, who had been compelled at that period the ghetto was a doomed institution. In the to conceal their faith, now came into the open. By the middle ” Jews enjoyed neither rights nor privileges; in of the 17th century the Jews of Holland had become of such the 18th century they were still without rights but they had importance that Charles II. of England (then in exile) entered privileges. A grotesque feature of the time in Germany and into negotiations with the Amsterdam Jews (1656). In that Austria was the class of court Jews, such as the Oppenheims, same year the Amsterdam community was faced by a serious the personal favourites of rulers and mostly their victims when problem in connexion with Spinoza. They brought themselves their usefulness had ended. These men often rendered great into notoriety by excommunicating the philosopher-an act services to their fellow-Jews, and one of the results was the of weak self-defence on the part of men who had themselves but growth in Jewish society of an aristocracy of wealth, where recently been admitted to the country, and were timorous of previously there had been an aristocracy of learning. Even the suspicion that they shared Spinoza's then execrated views. more important was another privileged class—that of the It is more than a mere coincidence that this step was taken during Schutz-J ude (protected Jew). Where there were no rights, the absence in England of one of the ablest and most notable of privileges had to be bought. While the court Jews were the the Amsterdam rabbis. At the time, Menasseh ben Israel (9.0.) favourites of kings, the protected Jews were the protégés of was in London, on a mission to Cromwell. The Jews had been town councils. Corruption is the frequent concomitant of expelled from England by Edward I., after a sojourn in the privilege, and thus the town councils often connived for a price country of rather more than two centuries, during which they at the presence in their midst of Jews whose admission was had been the licensed and oppressed money-lenders of the illegal. Many Jews found it possible to cvade laws of domicile realm, and had-through the special exchequer of the Jews- | by residing in one place and trading in another. Nor could been used by the sovereign as a means of extorting a revenue they be effectually excluded from the fairs, the great markets from his subjects. In the 17th century a considerable number of the 18th century. The Sephardic Jews in all these respects of Jews had made a home in the English colonies, where from the occupied a superior position, and they merited the partiality first they enjoyed practically equal rights with the Christian shown to them. Their personal dignity and the vast range of settlers. Cromwell, upon the inconclusive termination of the their colonial enterprises were in striking contrast to the retail conference summoned in 1655 at Whitehall to consider the traffic of the Ashkenazim and their degenerate bearing and Jewish question, tacitly assented to the return of the Jews to speech. Peddling had been forced on the latter by the action this country, and at the restoration his action was confirmed. of the gilds which were still powerful in the 18th century on the The English Jews “gradually substituted for the personal Continent. Another cause may be sought in the Cossack protection of the crown, the sympathy and confidence of the assaults on the Jews at an earlier period. Crowds of wanderers nation” (L. Wolf, Menasseh ben Israel's Mission to Cromwell, were to be met on every road; Germany, Holland and Italy were p. lxxv.). The city of London was the first to be converted to full of Jews who, pack on shoulder, were seeking a precarious live- the new attitude. “ The wealth they brought into the country, lihood at a time when peddling was neither lucrative nor saſe. and their fruitful commercial activity, especially in the colonial But underneath all this were signs of a great change. The trade, soon revealed them as an indispensable element of the 18th century has a goodly tale of Jewish artists in metal-work, prosperity of the city. As early as 1668, Sir Josiah Child, the makers of pottery, and (wherever the gilds permitted it) artisans millionaire governor of the East India company, pleaded for and wholesale manufacturers of many important commodities. their naturalization on the score of their commercial utility. The last attempis at exclusion were irritating enough; but they For the same reason the city found itself compelled at first to differed from the earlier persecution. Such strange enactments connive at their illegal representation on 'Change, and then to as the Familianten-Gesetz, which prohibited more than one violate its own rules by permitting them to act as brokers without member of a family from marrying, broke up families by forcing previously taking up the freedom. At this period they con- the men to emigrate. In 1781 Dohm pointed to the fact that a trolled more of the foreign and colonial trade than all the other Jewish father could seldom hope to enjoy the happiness of living alien merchants in London put together. The momentum of with his children. In that very year, however, Joseph II. their commercial enterprise and stalwart patriotism proved initiated in Austria a new era for the Jews. This Austrian irresistible. From the exchange to the city council chamber, reformation was so typical of other changes elsewhere, and so thence to the aldermanic court, and eventually to the mayoralty expressive of the previous disabilities of the Jews, that, even in itself, were inevitable stages of an emancipation to which their this rapid summary, space must be spared for some of the large interests in the city and their high character entitled them. details supplied by Graetz. “By this new departure (19th of Finally the city of London-not only as the converted champion October 1781) the Jews were permitted to learn handicrafts, of religious liberty but as the convinced apologist of the Jews arts and sciences, and with certain restrictions to devote them- sent Baron Lionel de Rothschild to knock at the door of the selves to agriculture. The doors of the universities and acade- unconverted House of Commons as parliamentary representative mies, hitherto closed to them, were thrown open. ... of the first city in the world” (Wolf, loc. cit.). ordinance of November 2 enjoined that the Jews were every- The pioneers of this emancipation in Holland and England | where considered fellow-men, and all excesses against thera were ... An DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES) JEWS 407 was to be avoided. The Leibzoll (body-tax) was also abolished, in, and others introduced the Jews to more modern ways of thinking. addition to the special law-taxes, the passport duty, the night. Two results emanated from Mendelssohn's work. A new school duty and all similiar imposts which had stamped the Jews of scientific study of Judaism emerged, to be dignified by the as outcast, for they were now (Dec. 19) to have equal names of Leopold Zunz (q.v.), H. Graetz (q.v.) and many rights with the Christian inhabitants.” The Jews were not, others. On the other hand Mendelssohn by his pragmatic indeed, granted complete citizenship, and their residence and conception of religion (specially in his Jerusalem) weakened the public worship in Vienna and other Austrian cities were circum- belief of certain minds in the absolute truth of Judaism, and thus scribed and even penalized. “But Joseph II. annulled a number his own grandchildren (including the famous musician Felix of vexatious, restrictive regulations, such as the compulsory Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, Börne, Gans and wearing of beards, the prohibition against going out in the Neander, embraced Christianity. Within Judaism itself two forenoon on Sundays or holidays, or frequenting public pleasure parties were formed, the Liberals and the Conservatives, and as resorts. The emperor even permitted Jewish wholesale mer- time went on these tendencies definitely organized themselves. chants, notables and their sons, to wear swords (January 2, Holdheim (q.v.) and Geiger (q.v.) led the reform movement in 1782), and especially insisted that Christians should behave in a Germany and at the present day the effects of the movement are friendly manner towards Jews." widely felt in America on the Liberal side and on the opposite 48. The Mendelssohn Movement. This notable beginning to side in the work of the neo-orthodox school founded by S. R. the removal of the ignominy of a thousand years Hirsch (q.v.). Modern seminaries were established first in causally connected with the career of Moses Mendelssohn (1729- Breslau by Zacharias Fränkel (9.v.) and later in other cities. 1786; q.v.). He found on both sides an unreadiness for approxi- Brilliant results accrued from all this participation in the general mation: the Jews had sunk into apathy and degeneration, the life of Germany. Jews, engaged in all the professions and pur- Christians were still moved by hereditary antipathy. The suits of the age, came to the front in many branches of public failure of the hopes entertained of Sabbatai Zebi (q.v.) had life, claiming such names as Riesser (d. 1863) and Lasker in plunged the Jewries of the world into despair. This Smyrnan politics, Auerbach in literature, Rubinstein and Joachim in pretender not only proclaimed himself Messiah (c. 1650) but he music, Traube in medicine, and Lazarus in psychology. Especi- was accepted in that rôle by vast numbers of his brethren. At ally famous have been the Jewish linguists, pre-eminent among the moment when Spinoza was publishing a system which is them Theodor Benfey (1809-1881), the pioneer of modern still a dominating note of modern philosophy, this other son of comparative philology; and the Greek scholar and critic Jakob Israel was capturing the very heart of Jewry. His miracles Bernays (1824-1881). were reported and eagerly believed everywhere; “from Poland, 49. Effect of the French Revolution. In close relation to the Hamburg and Amsterdam treasures poured into his court; in the German progress in Mendelssohn's age, events had been pro- Levant young men and maidens prophesied beſore him; the gressing in France, where the Revolution did much to improve Persian Jews refused to till the fields. "We shall pay no more the Jewish condition, thanks largely to the influence of Mirabeau. taxes,' they said, 'our Messiah is come.'” The expectation In 1807 Napoleon convoked a Jewish assembly in Paris. Though that he would lead Israel in triumph to the Holy Land was the decisions of this body had no binding force on the Jews doomed to end in disappointment. Sabbatai lacked one quality generally, yet in some important particulars its decrees represent without which enthusiasm is ineffective; he failed to believe in principles widely adopted by the Jewish community. They himself. At the critical moment he embraced Islam to escape proclaim the acceptance of the spirit of Mendelssohn's recon- death, and though he was still believed in by many-it was ciliation of the Jews to modern life. They assert the citizen- Sabbatai himself but a phantom resemblance that had assumed ship and patriotism of Jews, their determination to accommodate the turban!-his meteoric career did but colour the sky of the themselves to the present as far as they could while retaining Jews with deeper blackness. Despite all this, one must not fall loyalty to the past. They declare their readiness to adapt the into the easy error of exaggerating the degeneration into which law of the synagogue to the law of the land, as for instance in the Jewries of the world fell from the middle of the 17th till the the question of marriage and divorce. No Jew, they decided, middle of the 18th century. For Judaism had organized itself; may perform the ceremony of marriage unless civil formalities the Shulḥan aruch of Joseph Qaro (q.v.), printed in 1564 within have been fulfilled; and divorce is allowed to the Jews only if and a decade of its completion, though not accepted without demur, so far as it is confirmatory of a legal divorce pronounced by the was nevertheless widely admitted as the code of Jewish life. If civil law of the land. The French assembly did not succeed in in more recent times progress in Judaism has implied more or obtaining formal assent to these decisions (except from Frankfort less of revolt against the rigors and fetters of Qaro's code, yet and Holland), but they gained the practical adhesion of the for 250 years it was a powerful safeguard against demoralization majority of Western and American Jews. Napoleon, after the and stagnation. No community living in full accordance with report of the assembly, established the consistorial system which that code could ſail to reach a high moral and intellectual level. remained in force, with its central consistory in the capital, It is truer to say that on the whole the Jews began at this period until the recent separation of church and state. Many French to abandon as hopeless the attempt to find a place for themselves Jews acquired fame, among them the ministers Crémieux (1796- in the general life of their country. Perhaps they even ceased 1879), Fould, Gondchaux and Raynal; the archaeologists and to desire it. Their children were taught without any regard to philologians Oppert, Halévy, Munk, the Derenbourgs, Darme- outside conditions, they spoke and wrote a jargon, and their steters and Reinachs; the musicians Halévy, Waldteufel and whole training, both by what it included and by what it excluded, Meyerbeer; the authors and dramatists Catulle Mendès and tended to produce isolation from their neighbours. Moses A. d'Ennery, and many others, among them several distinguished Mendelssohn, both by his career and by his propaganda, for occupants of civil and military offices. ever put an end to these conditions; he more than any other man. 50. Modern Italy. Similar developments occurred in other Born in the ghetto of Dessau, he was not of the ghetto. At the countries, though it becomes impossible to treat the history of age of fourteen he found his way to Berlin, where Frederick the the Jews, from this time onwards, in general outline. We must Great, inspired by the spirit of Voltaire, held the maxim that direct our attention to the most important countries in such "to oppress the Jews never brought prosperity to any govern- detail as space permits. And first as to Italy, where the Jews ment." Mendelssohn became a warm friend of Lessing, the in a special degree have identified themselves with the national hero of whose drama Nathan the Wise was drawn from the Dessau life. The revolutions of 1848, which greatly affected the posi- Jew. Mendelssohn's Phaedo, on the immortality of the soul, tion of the Jews in several parts of Europe, brought considerable brought the author into immediate fame, and the simple home gain to the Jews of Italy. During the war against Austria in of the “ Jewish Plato " was sought by many of the leaders of the year named, Isaac Pesaro Marogonato was finance minister Gentile society in Berlin. Mendelssohn's translation of the in Venice. Previously to this date the Jews were still confined Pentateuch into German with a new commentary by himself I to the ghetto, but in 1859, in the Italy united under Victor 408 (DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES JEWS 66 " " Since Emanuel II., the Jews obtained complete rights, a privilege (op. cit.). A similar obligation prevails in parts of Germany. which was extended also to Rome itself in 1870. The Italian A Jew can avoid the communal tax only by formally declaring Jews devoted themselves with ardour to the service of the state. himself as outside the Jewish community. The Jews of Hungary Isaac Artom was Cavour's secretary; L' Olper a counsellor of shared with their brethren in Austria the same alternations of Mazzini. “The names of the Jewish soldiers who died in the expulsion and recall. By the law “ De Judaeis " passed by the cause of Italian liberty were placed along with those of their Diet in 1791 the Jews were accorded protection, but half a century Christian fellow soldiers on the monuments erected in their passed before their tolerated condition was regularized. The honour (Jewish Encyclopedia, vii. 10). More recently men “toleration-tax" was abolished in 1846. During the revolu- like Wollemberg, Ottolenghi and Luzzatti rose to high positions tionary outbreak of 1848, the Jews suffered severely in Hungary, as ministers of state. Most noted of recent Jewish scholars in but as many as 20,000 Jews are said to have joined the army. Italy was S. D. Luzzatto (q.v.). Kossuth succeeded in granting them temporary emancipation, 51. Austria.-From Italy we may turn to the country which but the suppression of the War of Independence led to an era of so much influenced Italian politics, Austria, which had founded royal autocracy which, while it advanced Jewish culture by the system of “ Court Jews” in 1518, had expelled the Jews enforcing the establishment of modern schools, retarded the from Vienna as late as 1670, when the synagogue of that city obtaining of civic and political rights. As in Austria, so in was converted into a church. But economic laws are often too Hungary, these rights were granted by the constitution of 1867. strong for civil vagaries or sectarian fanaticism, and as the But one step remained. The Hungarian Jews did not consider commerce of Austria suffered by the absence of the Jews, it was themselves fully emancipated until the Synagogue was duly impossible to exclude the latter from the fairs in the provinces recognized as one of the legally acknowledged religions of the of from the markets of the capital. As has been pointed out country.” This recognition was granted by the law of 1895-1896. above, certain protected Jews were permitted to reside in places in the words of Büchler (Jewish Encyclopedia,vi. 503); where the expulsion of the Jews had been decreed. But Maria their emancipation the Jews have taken an active part in the Theresa (1740-1780). was distinguished for her enmity to the political, industrial, scientific and artistic life of Hungary. In Jews, and in 1744 made a futile attempt to secure their expulsion all these fields they have achieved prominence. They have also from Bohemia. “In 1760 she issued an order that all unbearded founded great religious institutions. Their progress has not been Jews should wear a yellow badge on their left arm” (Jewish arrested even by anti-Semitism, which first developed in 1883 at Encyclopedia, ii. 330). The most petty limitations of Jewish the time of the Tisza-Eslar accusation of ritual murder." commercial activity continued; thus at about this period the 52. Olher European Countries. --According to M. Caimi the community of Prague, in a petition, “complain that they are present Jewish communities of "Greece are divisible into five not permitted to buy victuals in the market before a certain groups : (1) Arta (Epirus); (2) Chalcis (Euboea); (3) Athens hour, vegetables not before 9 and cattle not before 11 o'clock; (Attica); (4) Volo, Larissa and Trikala (Thessaly); and (5) Corſu to buy fish is sometimes altogether prohibited; Jewish drug- and Zante (Ionian Islands). The Greek constitution admits no gists are not permitted to buy victuals at the same time with religious disabilities, but anti-Semitic riots in Corfu and Zante in Christians” (op. cit.). So, too, with taxation. It was exorbi- 1891 caused much distress and emigration. In Spain there has tant and vexatious. To pay for rendering inoperative the been of late a more liberal attitude towards the Jews, and there banishment edict of 1744, the Jews were taxed 3,000,000 florins is a small congregation (without a public synagogue) in Madrid. annually for ten years. In the same year it was decreed that In 1858 the edict of expulsion was repealed. Portugal, on the the Jews should pay" a special tax of 40,000 florins for the right other hand, having abolished the Inquisition in 1821, has since to import their citrons for the feast of booths.” Nevertheless, 1826 allowed Jews freedom of religion, and there are synagogues Joseph II. (1780–1790) inaugurated a new era for the Jews of in Lisbon and Faro. In Holland the Jews were admitted to his empire. Soon after his accession he abolished the distinctive political liberty in 1796. At present more than half of the Dutch Jewish dress, abrogated the poll-tax, admitted the Jews to Jews are concentrated in Amsterdam, being largely engaged in military service and their children to the public schools, and in the diamond and tobacco trades. Among famous names of general opened the era of emancipation by the Toleranzpatent recent times foremost stands that of the artist Josef Israels. In of 1782. This enlightened policy was not continued by the 1675 was consecrated in Amsterdam the synagogue which is still successors of Joseph II. Under Francis II. (1792–1835) eco- the most noted Jewish edifice in Europe. Belgium granted full nomic and social restrictions were numerous. Agriculture was freedom to the Jews in 1815, and the community has since 1808 again barred; indeed the Vienna congress of 1815 practically been organized on the state consistorial system, which till restored the old discriminations against the Jews. As time recently also prevailed in France. It was not till 1874 that full went on, a more progressive policy intervened, the special form religious equality was granted to the Jews of Switzerland. But of Jewish oath was abolished in 1846, and in 1848, as a result there has been considerable interference (ostensibly on humani- of the revolutionary movement in which Jews played an active tarian grounds) with the Jewish method of slaughtering animals part, legislation took a more liberal turn. Francis Joseph I. for food (Sheḥitah) and the method was prohibited by a refer- ascended the throne in that year, and though the constitution endum in 1893. In the same year a similar enactment was of 1849 recognized the principle of religious liberty, an era of passed in Saxony, and the subject is a favourite one with anti- reaction supervened, especially when the concordat of 1855 Semites, who have enlisted on their side some scientific authori- delivered Austria altogether into the hands of the clericals.” ties, though the bulk of expert opinion is in favor of Sheủilah But the day of medieval intolerance had passed, and in 1867 the (see Dembo, Das Schlachten, 1894). In Sweden the Jews have all new constitution “abolished all disabilities on the ground of the rights which are open to non-Lutherans; they cannot become religious differences,” though anti-Semitic manipulation of the members of the council of state. In Norway there is a small law by administrative authority has led to many instances of Jewish settlement (especially in Christiania) who are engaged intolerance. Many Jews have been members of the Reichsrath, in industrial pursuits and enjoy complete liberty. Denmark some have risen to the rank of general in the army, and Austrian has for long been distinguished for its liberal policy towards the Jews have contributed their quota to learning, the arts and Jews. Since 1814 the latter have been eligible as magistrates, literature. Löw, Jellinek, Kaufmann, as scholars in the Jewish and in 1849 full equality was formally ratified. Many Copen- field; as poets and novelists, Kompert, Franzos, L. A. Frankl; hagen Jews achieved distinction as manufacturers, merchants the pianist Moscheles, the dramatist Mosenthal, and the actor and bankers, and among famous Jewish men of letters may be Sonnenthal, the mathematician Spitzer and the chess-player specially named Georg Brandes. Steinitz are some of the most prominent names. The law of The story of the Jews in Russia and Rumania remains a black 1890 makes it “compulsory for every Jew to be a member of spot on the European record. In Russia the Jews are more the congregation of the district in which he resides, and so gives numerous and more harshly treated than in any other part of to every congregation the right to tax the individual members the world. In the remotest past Jews were settled in much of 9) DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES) JEWS 409 the territory now included in Russia, but they are still treated was, however, immediately repealed. Jews no longer attached as aliens. They are restricted to the pale of settlement which to the Synagogue, such as the Herschels and Disraelis, attained was first established in 1791. The pale now includes fifteen to fame. In 1830 the first Jewish emancipation bill was brought governments, and under the May laws of 1892 the congestion of in by Robert Grant, but it was not till the legislation of 1858– the Jewish population, the denial of free-movement, and the 1860 that Jews obtained full parliamentary rights. In other exclusion from the general rights of citizens were rendered more directions progress was more rapid. The office of sheriff was oppressive than ever before. The right to leave the pale is indeed thrown open to Jews in 1835 (Moses Montefiore, sheriff of London granted to merchants of the first gild, to those possessed of was knighted in 1837); Sir I. L. Goldsmid was made a baronet certain educational diplomas, to veteran soldiers and to certain in 1841, Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected to Parliament in classes of skilled artisans. But these concessions are unfavour-1847 (though he was unable to take his seat), Alderman (Sir ably interpreted and much extortion results. Despite a huge David) Salomons became lord mayor of London in 1855 and emigration of Jews from Russia, the congestion within the pale Francis Goldsmid was made a Q.C. in 1858. In 1873 Sir George is the cause of terrible destitution and misery. Fierce massacres Jessel was made a judge, and Lord Rothschild took his seat in the occurred in Nizhniy-Novgorod in 1882, and in Kishinev in 1903. House of Lords as the first Jewish peer in 1886. A fair propor- Many other pogroms have occurred, and the condition of the tion of Jews have been elected to the House of Commons, and Jews has been reduced to one of abject poverty and despair. Mr Herbert Samuel rose to cabinet rank in 1909. Sir Matthew Much was hoped from the duma, but this body has proved Nathan has been governor of Hong-Kong and Natal, and among bitterly opposed to the Jewish claim for liberty. Yet in spite Jewish statesmen in the colonies Sir Julius Vogel and V. L. of these disabilities there are amongst the Russian Jews many Solomon have been prime ministers (HYAMSON: A History of the enterprising contractors, skilful doctors, and successful lawyers Jews in England, p. 342). It is unnecessary to remark that in and scientists. In Rumania, despite the Berlin Treaty, the Jews the British colonies the Jews everywhere enjoy full citizenship. are treated as aliens, and but a small number have been natural- In fact, the colonies emancipated the Jews earlier than did the ized. They are excluded from most of the professions and are mother country. Jews were settled in Canada from the time hạmpered in every direction. of Wolfe, and a congregation was founded at Montreal in 1768, 53. Oriental Countries.-In the Orient the condition of the and since 1832 Jews have been entitled to sit in the Canadian Jews has been much improved by the activity of Western parliament. There are some thriving Jewish agricultural colonies organizations, of which something is said in a later paragraph. in the same dominion. In Australia the Jews from the first were Modern schools have been set up in many places, and Palestine welcomed on perfectly equal terms. The oldest congregation has been the scene of a notable educational and agricultural is that of Sydney (1817); the Melbourne community dates from revival, while technical schools-such as the agricultural college 1844. Reverting to incidents in England itself, in 1870 the near Jaffa and the schools of the alliance and the more recent abolition of university tests removed all restrictions on Jews at Bezalel in Jerusalem-have been established. Turkey has always Oxford and Cambridge, and both universities have since elected on the whole tolerated the Jews, and much is hoped from the Jews to professorships and other posts of honour. The communal new régime.' In Morocco the Jews, who until late in the 19th organization of English Jewry is somewhat inchoate. In 1841 century were often persecuted, are still confined to a mellah an independent reform congregation was founded, and the (separate quarter), but at the coast-towns there are prosperous Spanish and Portuguese Jews have always maintained their Jewish communities mostly engaged in commerce. In other separate existence with a Haham as the ecclesiastical head. In parts of the same continent, in Egypt and in South Africa, many 1870 was founded the United Synagogue, which is a metropolitan Jews have settled, participating in all industrial and financial organization, and the same remark applies to the more recent pursuits. Recently a mission has been sent to the Falashas of Federation of Synagogues. The chief rabbi, who is the ecclesi- Abyssinia, and much interest has been felt in such outlying astical head of the United Synagogue, has also a certain amount branches of the Jewish people as the Black Jews of Cochin and of authority over the provincial and colonial Jewries, but this the Bene Israel community of Bombay. In Persia Jews are is nominal rather than real. The provincial Jewries, however, often the victims of popular outbursts as well as of official extor- participate in the election of the chief rabbi. At the end of 1909 tion, but there are fairly prosperous communities at Bushire, was held the first conference of Jewish ministers in London, and Isfahan, Teheran and Kashan (in Shiraz they are in low estate). from this is expected some more systematic organization of The recent advent of constitutional government may improve scattered communities. Anglo-Jewry is rich, however, in chari- the condition of the Jews. table, educational and literary institutions; chief among these 54. The United Kingdom.-The general course of Jewish respectively may be named the Jewish board of guardians history in England has been indicated above. The Jews came (1859), the Jews' college (1855), and the Jewish historical society to England at least as early as the Norman Conquest; they were (1893). Besides the distinctions already noted, English Jews expelled from Bury St Edmunds in 1190, after the massacres at have risen to note in theology (C. G. Montefiore), in literature the coronation of Richard I.; they were required to wear badges (Israel Zangwill and Alfred Sutro), in art (S. Hart, R.A., and in 1218. At the end of the 12th century was established the S. J. Solomon, R.A.) in music (Julius Benedict and Frederick exchequer of the Jews,” which chiefly dealt with suits concern- Hymen Cowen). More than 1000 English and colonial Jews ing money-lending, and arranged a continual flow of money participated as active combatants in the South African War. from the Jews to the royal treasury," and a so-called "parlia. The immigration of Jews from Russia was mainly responsible ment of the Jews” was summoned in 1241; in 1275 was enacted for the ineffective yet oppressive Aliens Act of 1905. (Full the statute de Judaismo which, among other things, permitted accounts of Anglo-Jewish institutions are given in the Jewish the Jews to hold land. But this concession was illusory, and as Year-Book published annually since 1895.) the statute prevented Jews from engaging in finance-the only 55. The American Continent.—Closely parallel with the progress occupation which had been open to them-it was a prelude to of the Jews in England has been their steady advancement in their expulsion in 1290. There were few Jews in England from America. Jews made their way to America early in the 16th that date till the Commonwealth, but Jews settled in the American century, settling in Brazil prior to the Dutch occupation. Under colonies earlier in the 17th century, and rendered considerable Dutch rule they enjoyed full civil rights. In Mexico and Peru services in the advancement of English commerce. The White- they fell under the ban of the Inquisition. In Surinam the Jews hall conference of 1655 marks a change in the status of the Jews were treated as British subjects; in Barbadoes, Jamaica and New in England itself, for though no definite results emerged it was York they are found as early as the first half of the 17th century. clearly defined by the judges that there was no legal obstacle to During the War of Independence the Jews of America took a the return of the Jews. Charles II. in 1664 continued Cromwell's prominent part on both sides, for under the British rule many tolerant policy. No serious attempt towards the emancipation had risen to wealth and high social position. After the Declaration of the Jews was made till the Naturalization Act of 1753, which I of Independence, Jews are found all over America, where they 410 JEWSBURY « have long enjoyed complete emancipation, and have enormously | tion for dealing with Jewish questions. In France the Alliance increased in numbers, owing particularly to immigration from Israélite (founded in 1860), in England the Anglo-Jewish Associa- Russia. The American Jews bore their share in the Civil War tion (founded in 1871), in Germany the Hilfsverein der deutschen (7038 Jews were in the two armies), and have always identified Juden, and in Austria the Israelitische Allianz zu Wien (founded themselves closely with national movements such as the eman-1872), in America the American Jewish Committee (founded 1906), cipation of Cuba. They have attained to high rank in all and similar organizations in other countries deal only incidentally branches of the public service, and have shown most splendid with political affairs. They are concerned mainly with the instances of far-sighted and generous philanthropy. Within the education of Jews in the Orient, and the establishment of colonies Synagogue the reform movement began in 1825, and soon won and technical institutions. Baron Hirsch (q.v.) founded the many successes, the central conference of American rabbis and Jewish colonial association, which has undertaken vast colonizing Union College (1875) at Cincinnati being the instruments of this an educational enterprises, especially in Argentina, and more progress. At the present time orthodox Judaism is also again recently the Jewish territorial organization has been started to acquiring its due position and the Jewish theological seminary found a home for the oppressed Jews of Russia. All these of America was founded for this purpose. In 1908 an organiza- institutions are performing a great regenerative work, and the tion, inclusive of various religious sections, was founded under tribulations and disappointments of the last decades of the 19th the description" the Jewish community of New York." There century were not all loss. The gain consisted in the rousing of have been four Jewish members of the United States senate, and the Jewish consciousness to more virile efforts towards a double about 30 of the national House of Representatives. Besides end, to succour the persecuted and ennoble the ideals of the filling many diplomatic offices, a Jew (O. S. Straus) has been a emancipated. member of the cabinet. Many Jews have filled professorial chairs at the universities, others have been judges, and in art, several important countries, the Jewish population of the world can 58. Statistics.-Owing to the absence of a religious census in literature (there is a notable Jewish publication society), industry only be given by inferential estimate. The following approximate and commerce have rendered considerable services to national figures are taken from the American Jewish Year-Book for 1909-1919 culture and prosperity. American universities have owed much and are based on similar estimates in the English Jewish Year-Book, to Jewish generosity, a foremost benefactor of these (as of many of the Alliance Israélite Universelle the Jewish Encyclopedia, Nossig's Jüdische Statistik and the Reports According to these estimates other American institutions) being Jacob Schiff. Such institu- the total Jewish population of the world in the year named was tions as the Gratz and Dropsie colleges are further indications approximately 11,500,000. Of this total there were in the British of the splendid activity of American Jews in the educational Empire about 380,000 Jews (British Isles 240,000, London accounts for 150,000 of these; Canada and British Columbia 60,000; India field. The Jews of America have also taken a foremost place 18,000; South Africa 40,000). The largest Jewish populations were in the succour of their oppressed brethren in Russia and other those of Russia (5,215,000), Austria-Hungary (2,084,000), United parts of the world. (Full accounts of American Jewish institu- States of America (1,777,000), Germany (607,000, of whom 409,000 tions are given in the American Jewish Year-Book, published Palestine), Rumania (250,000), Morocco (109,000) and Holland were in Prussia), Turkey (463,000, of whom some 78,000 resided in annually since 1899.) (106,000). Others of the more important totals are: France 95,000 56. Anti-Semitism. It is saddening to be compelled to close besides Algeria 63,000 and Tunis 62,000): Italy 52,000; Persia this record with the statement that the progress of the European 49:000; Egypt 39,000; Bulgaria 36,000: Argentine Republic 30,000; Jews received a serious check by the rise of modern anti-Semi- Tripoli 19,000; Turkestan and Afghanistan 14,000; Switzerland and tism in the last quarter of the 19th century. While in Russia Sweden and Cuba each 4000; Denmark 3500; Brazil and Abyssinia Belgium each 12,000; Mexico 9000; Greece 8000; Servia 6000; this took the form of actual massacre, in Germany and Austria (Falashas) each 3000; Spain and Portugal 2500; China and Japan it assumed the shape of social and civic ostracism. In Germany 2000. There are also Jews in Curacoa, Surinam, Luxemburg, Jews are still rarely admitted to the rank of officers in the army, Norway, Peru, Crete and Venezuela; but in none of these does the university posts are very difficult of access, Judaism and it's Jewish population much exceed 1000. doctrines are denounced in medieval language, and a tone of 1875; several subsequent editions of separate volumes; Eng. trans. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden (11 vols., 1853– hostility prevails in many public utterances. In Austria, as in 5 vols., 1891-1892); the works of L. Zunz; Jewish Encyclopedia Germany, anti-Semitism is a factor in the parliamentary elections. passim; publications of Jewish societies, such as Etudes Juives, The legend of ritual murder (q.v.) has been revived, and every cal commission, Julius Barasch society (Rumania), Societas Litteraria Jewish historical societies of England and America, German histori. obstacle is placed in the way of the free intercourse of Jews with Hungarico-Judaica, the Viennese communal publications, and many their Christian fellow-citizens. In France Edouard Adolphe others to which may be added the 20 vols, of the Jewish Quarterly Drumont led the way to a similar animosity, and the popular Review, Scherer, Rechtsverhältnisse der Juden (1901); M. Güdemann fury was fanned by the Dreyfus case. It is generally felt, how- Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden (1880, &c.); ever, that this recrudescence of anti-Semitism-is a passing phase Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896); G. F. Abbott, Israel in Europe A. Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel among the Nations (1895); I. Abrahams, in the history of culture (see ANTI-SEMITISM). (1905);G.Caro, Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden (1908);M. Philippson, 57. The Zionist Movement.—The Zionist movement (see Neueste Geschichte des jüdischen Volkeș (1907, &c.); Nossig. Jüdische ZIONISM), founded in 1895 by Theodor Herzl (q.v.) was in a sense Statistik (1903); and such special works as H. Gross, Gallia Judaica (1897), &c. (I. A.) the outcome of anti-Semitism. Its object was the foundation of a Jewish state in Palestine, but though it aroused much JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR (1812-1880), English interest it failed to attract the majority of the emancipated Jews, writer, daughter of Thomas Jewsbury, a Manchester merchant, and the movement has of late been transforming itself into a was born in 1812 at Measham, Derbyshire. Her first novel, Zoe: mere effort at colonization. Most Jews not only confidently be- the History of Two Lives, was published in 1845, and was followed lieve that their own future lies in progressive development wilhin by The Half Sisters (1848), Marian Wilhers (1851), Constance the various nationalities of the world, but they also hope that Herbert (1855), The Sorrows of Gentility (1856), Right or Wrong a similar consummation is in store for the as yet unemancipated (1859). In 1850 she was invited by Charles Dickens to write branches of Israel. Hence the Jews are in no sense internation- for Household Words; for many years she was a frequent con- ally organized. The influence of the happier communities has tributor to the Athenaeum and other journals and magazines, been exercised on behalf of those in a worse position by indivi- It is, however, mainly on account of her friendship with Thomas duals such as Sir Moses Montefiore (q.v.) rather than by societies Carlyle and his wife that her name is remembered. Carlyle leagues. From time to time incidents arise which appeal to described her, after their first meeting in 1841, as“ one of the most the Jewish sympathies everywhere and joint action ensues. interesting young women I have seen for years; clear delicate Such incidents were the Damascus charge of ritual murder (1840), sense and courage looking out of her small sylph-like figure." the forcible baptism of the Italian child Mortara (1858), and the From this time till Mrs Carlyle's death in 1866, Geraldine Jews- Russian pogroms at various dates. But all attempts at an bury was the most intimate of her friends. The selections from international union of Jews, even in view of such emergencies Geraldine Jewsbury's letters 10 Jane Welsh Carlyle (1892, ed. Mrs as these, have failed. Each country has its own local organiza-Alexander Ireland) prove how confidential were the relations JEW'S EARS— -JHABUA 411 between the two women for a quarter of a century. In 1854 | five Jew's harps, all tuned to different notes; by holding one in Miss Jewsbury removed from Manchester to London to be near each hand, a large compass, with duplicate notes, became avail- her friend. To her Carlyle turned for sympathy when his wife able; he called this complex Jew's harp Aura' and with it played died; and at his request she wrote down some " biographical themes with variations, marches, Scotch reels, &c. Other anecdotes” of Mrs Carlyle's childhood and early married life. virtuosi, such as Eulenstein, a native of Würtemberg, achieved Carlyle's comment was that “ few or none of these narratives are the same result by placing the variously tuned Jew's harps upon correct in details, but there is a certain mythical truth in all or the table in front of him, taking them up and setting them down most of them;" and he added, “the Geraldine accounts of her as required. Eulenstein created a sensation in London in 1827 (Mrs Carlyle's) childhood are substantially correct.” He ac- by playing on no fewer than sixteen Jew's harps. In 1828 cepted them as the groundwork for his own essay on “ Jane Sir Charles Wheatstone published an essay on the technique of Welsh Carlyle,” with which they were therefore incorporated by the instrument in the Quarterly Journal of Science. (K. S.) Froude when editing Carlyle's Reminiscences. Miss Jewsbury JEZEBEL (Heb. i-zebel, perhaps an artificial form to suggest was consulted by Froude when he was preparing Carlyle’s “ un-exalted,” a divine name or its equivalent would naturally biography, and her recollection of her friend's confidences con- be expected instead of the first syllable), wife of Ahab, king of firmed the suspicion that Carlyle had on one occasion used Israel (1 Kings xvi. 31), and mother of Athaliah, in the Bible. physical violence towards his wife. Miss Jewsbury further Her father Eth-baal (Ithobal, Jos., contra Ap. i. 18) was king of informed Froude that the secret of the domestic troubles of the Tyre and priest of the goddess Astarte. He had usurped the Carlyles lay in the fact that Carlyle had been "one of those throne and was the first important Phoenician king after Hiram persons who ought never to have married,” and that Mrs Carlyle (see PHOENICIA). Jezebel, a true daughter of a priest of Astarte, had at one time contemplated having her marriage legally an- showed herself hostile to the worship of Yahweh, and to his nulled (see My Relations with Carlyle, by James Anthony Froude, prophets, whom she relentlessly pursued (1 Kings xviii. 4-13; see 1903). The endeavour has been made to discredit Miss Jews- ELIJAH). She is represented as a woman of virile character, and bury in relation to this matter, but there seems to be no sufficient became notorious for the part she took in the matter of Naboth's ground for doubting that she accurately repeated at she had vineyard. When the Jezreelite2 sheikh refused to sell the learnt from Mrs Carlyle's own lips. Miss Jewsbury died in family inheritance to the king, Jezebel treacherously caused him London on the 23rd of September 1880. to be arrested on a charge of treason, and with the help of false JEW'S EARS, the popular name of a fungus, known botani- witnesses he was found guilty and condemned to death. For cally as Hirneola auricula-judae, so called from its shape, which this the prophet Elijah pronounced a solemn curse upon Ahab somewhat resembles a human ear. It is very thin, flexible, flesh- and Jezebel, which was fulfilled when Jehu, who was anointed coloured to dark brown, and one to three inches broad. It is king at Elisha's instigation, killed the son Jehoram, massacred common on branches of elder, which it often kills, and is also all the family, and had Jezebel destroyed (1 Kings xxi.; 2 Kings found on elm, willow, oak and other trees. It was formerly ix. 11-28). What is told of her comes from sources written prescribed as a remedy for dropsy. under the influence of strong religious bias; among the exagger- JEW'S HARP, or Jew's TRUMP (Fr. guimbarde, 0. Fr. trompe, ations must be reckoned 1 Kings xviii. 13, which is inconsistent gronde; Ger. Mundharmonica, Maultrommel, Brummeisen; Ital. with xix. 18 and xxii. 6. A literal interpretation of the reference scaccia-pensieri or spussa-pensiero), a small musical instrument to Jezebel's idolatry (2 Kings ix. 22) has made her name a by- of percussion, known for centuries all over Europe.“ Jew's word for a false prophetess in Rev. ii. 20. Her name is often trump” is the older name, and “trump” is still used in parts used in modern English as a synonym for an abandoned woman of Great Britain. Attempts have been made to derive“ Jew's or one who paints her face. (S.A.C.) from “jaws” or Fr. jcu, but, though there is no apparent reason JEZREEL (Heb. “God sows "), the capital of the Israelite for associating the instrument with the Jews, it is certain that monarchy under Ahab, and the scene of stirring Biblical events "Jew's " is the original form (see the New English Dictionary and (1 Sam. xxix. 1; 1 Kings xxi.; 2 Kings ix. 21-37). The name was c. B. Mount in Noles and Queries (Oct. 23, 1897, p. 322). also applied to the great plain (Esdraeton) dominated by the The instrument consists of a slender tongue of steel riveted at city (“valley of Jezreel,” Josh. xvii. 16, &c.). The site has one end to the base of a pear-shaped steel loop;the other end of never been lost, and the present village Zercin retains the name the tongue, left free and passing out between the two branches radically unchanged. In Greek (e.g. Judith) the name appears of the frame, terminates in a sharp bend at right angles, to enable under the form 'Eodpandá; it is Stradela in the Bordeaux Pilgrim, the player to depress it by an elastic blow and thus set it vibrating and to the Crusaders the place was known as Partum Gerinum. while firmly pressing the branches of the frame against his teeth. The modern stone village stands on a bare rocky knoll, 500ft. The vibrations of the steel tongue produce a compound sound above the broad northern valley, at the north extremity of a composed of a fundamental and its harmonics. By using the long ledge, terminating in steep cliffs, forming part of the chain cavity of the mouth as a resonator, each harmonic in succession of Mt Gilboa. The buildings are modern, but some scanty can be isolated and reinforced, giving the instrument the remains of rock-hewn wine presses and a few scattered sarcophagi compass shown. The lower harmonics of the series cannot be mark the antiquity of the site. The view over the plains is fine and extensive. It is vain now to look for Ahab's palace or 9 10 11 12 Naboth's vineyard. The fountain mentioned in 1 Sam, xxix. I is perhaps the fine spring 'Ain el Meiyyita, north of the village, a shallow pool of good water full of small fish, rising between black basalt boulders: or more probably the copious 'Ain Jalūd. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 A second city named Jezreel lay in the hill country of Judah, somewhere near Hebron (Josh. xv. 56). This was the native obtained, owing to the limited capacity of the resonating cavity. place of David's wife Abinoam (1 Sam. xxv. 43). The black notes on the stave show the scale which may be See, for an excellent description of the scenery and history of the produced by using two harps, one tuned a fourth above the Israelite Jezreel, G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. xix. other The player on the Jew's harp, in order to isolate the harmonics, frames his mouth as though intending to pronounce agency. Area, with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1336 sq. m. JHABUA, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopawar the various vowels. At the beginning of the 19th century, when much energy and ingenuity were being expended in all 1 See Allg. musik. Zig. (Leipzig, 1816), p. 506, and Beilage 5. countries upon the invention of new musical instruments, the where the construction of the instruments is described and illus- Maultrommel, re-christened Mundharmonica (the most rational trated and the system of notation shown in various pieces of music, of all its names), attracted attention in Germany ? According to another tradition Naboth lived at Samaria (xxi i Heinrich Scheibler devised an ingenious holder with a handle, to contain | king's home appears in 2 Kings X. 11 compared with vv. 1, 17 LXX.), 18 seq.; cf. xxii. 38). A similar confusion regarding the 99 4 5 6 7 8 ha 412 JHALAWAR-JHANSI Pop. (1901), 80,889. More than half the inhabitants belong to have been allotted to colonists, who are reported to be flourishing. the aboriginal Bhils. Estimated revenue, £7000; tribute, A branch of the North-Western railway enters the district in £1000. Manganese and opium are exported. The chief, whose this quarter, extending throughout its entire length. The title is raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor 'clan, descended from a Southern Jech Doab railway serves the south. The principal branch of the Jodhpur family. Raja Udai Singh was invested industries are the ginning, pressing and weaving of cotton. in 1898 with the powers of administration. Jhang contains the ruins of Shorkot, identiħed with one of The town of JHABUA (pop. 3354) stands on the bank of a lake, the towns taken by Alexander. In modern times the history of and is surrounded by a mud wall. A dispensary and a guest-Jhang centres in the famous clan of Sials, who exercised an house were constructed to commemorate Queen Victoria's extensive sway over a large tract between Shahpur and Multan, Diamond Jubilee in 1897. with little dependence on the imperial court at Delhi, until they JHALAWAR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, finally fell before the all-absorbing power of Ranjit Singh. The pop. (1901), 90,175; estimated revenue, £26,000; tribute, £2000. Sials of Jhang are. Mahommedans of Rajput descent, whose Area, 810 sq. m. The ruling family of Jhalawar belongs to the ancestor, Rai Shankar of Daranagar, emigrated early in the Jhala clan of Rajputs, and their ancestors were petty chiefs 13th century from the Gangetic Doab. In the beginning of the of Halwad in the district of Jhalawar, in Kathia war. About 19th century Maharaja Ranjit Singh invaded Jhang, and cap- 1709 one of the younger sons of the head of the clan left histured the Sial chieftain's territory. The latter recovered a small country with his son to try his fortunes at Delhi. At Kotah portion afterwards, which he was allowed to retain on payment he left his son Madhu Singh, who soon became a favourite with of a yearly tribute. In 1847, after the establishment of the the maharaja, and received from him an important post, which British agency at Lahore, the district came under the charge of became hereditary. On the death of one of the Kotak rajasthe British government; and in 1848 Ismail Khan, the Sial (1771), the country was left to the charge of Zalim Singh, a leader, rendered important services against the rebel chiefs, for descendant of Madhu Singh. From that time Zalim Singh was which he received a pension. During the Mutiny of 1857 the the real ruler of Kotah. He brought it to a wonderful state of Sial leader again proved his loyalty by serving in person on the prosperity, and under his administration, which lasted over British side. His pension was afterwards increased, and he ſorty-five years, the Kotah territory was respected by all parties. obtained the title of khan bahadur, with a small jagir for life. In 1838 it was resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah, JHANSI, a city and district of British India, in the Allahabad to dismember the state, and to create the new principality of division of the United Provinces. The city is the centre of the Jhalawar as a separate provision for the descendants of Zalim Indian Midland railway system, whence four lines diverge to Singh. The districts then severed from Kotah were considered Agra, Cawnpore, Allahabad and Bhopal. Pop. (1901), 55,724. to represent one-third (£120,000) of the income of Kotah; by A stone fort crowns a neighbouring rock. Formerly the capital treaty they acknowledged the supremacy of the British, and of a Mahratta principality, which lapsed to the British in 1853, agreed to pay an annual tribute of £8000. Madan Singh received it was during the Mutiny the scene of disaffection and massacre. the title of maharaja rana, and was placed on the same footing as it was then made over to Gwalior, but has been taken back in the other chiefs in Rajputana. He died in 1845. An adopted son exchange for other territory. Even when the city was within of his successor took the name of Zalim Singh in 1875 on becom- Gwalior, the civil headquarters and the cantonment were at ing chief of Jhalawar. He was a minor and was not invested Jhansi Naoabad, under its walls. Jhansi is the principal centre with governing powers till 1884. Owing to his maladminis- for the agricultural trade of the district, but its manufactures tration, his relations with the British government became are small. strained, and he was finally deposed in 1896, on account of The DISTRICT OF JHANSI was enlarged in 1891 by the incor- persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers poration of the former district of Lalitpur, which extends of a ruling chief.” He went to live at Benares, on a pension of farther into the hill country, almost entirely surrounded by £2000; and the administration was placed in the hands of the native states. Combined area, 3628 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 616,759 British resident. After much consideration, the government showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, due to the results of resolved in 1897 to break up the state, restoring the greater part famine. The main line and branches of the Indian Midland rail- to Kotah, but forming the two districts of Shahabad and the way serve the district, which forms a portion of the hill country, Chaumahla into a new state, which came into existence in 1899, of Bundelkhand, sloping down from the outliers of the Vindhyan and of which Kunwar Bhawani Singh, a descendant of the range on the south to the tributaries of the Jumna on the north. original Zalim Singh, was appointed chief. The extreme south is composed of parallel rows of long and The chief town is Patan, or JHALRAPATAN (pop.7955), founded narrow-ridged hills. Through the intervening valleys the rivers close to an old site by Zalim Singh in 1796, by the side of flow down impetuously over ledges of granite or quartz. North an artificial lake. It is the centre of trade, the chief exports of the hilly region, the rocky granite chains gradually lose them- of the state being opium, oil-seeds and cotton. The palace is selves in clusters of smaller hills. The northern portion consists at the cantonment or chhaoni, 4 m. north. The ancient site of the level plain of Bundelkhand, distinguished for its deep black near the town was occupied by the city of Chandrawati, said to soil, known as mar, and admirably adapted for the cultivation of have been destroyed in the time of Aurangzeb. The finest cotton. The district is intersected or bounded by three principal feature of its remains is the temple of Sitaleswar Mahadeva rivers—the Pahuj, Betwa and Dhasan. The district is much cut (c. 600). up, and portions of it are insulated by the surrounding native JHANG, a town and district of British India, in the Multan states. The principal crops are millets, cotton, oil-seeds, pulses, division of the Punjab. The town, which forms one municipality wheat, gram and barley. The destructive kans grass has proved with the newer and now more important quarter of Maghiana, as great a pest here as elsewhere in Bundelkhand. Jhansi is is about 3 m. from the right bank of the river Chenab. Founded especially exposed to blights, droughts, floods, hailstorms, epi- by Mal Khan, a Sial chicftain, in 1462, it long formed the demics, and their natural consequence-famine. capital of a Mahommedan state. Pop. (1901), 24,382. Maghiana Nothing is known with certainty as to the history of this nas manufactures of leather, soap and metal ware. district before the period of Chandel rule, about the 11th century The District OF JHANG extends along both sides of the of our era. To this epoch must be referred the artificial reser. Chenab, including its confluences with the Jhelum and the voirs and architectural remains of the hilly region. The Chandels Ravi. Area, 3726 sq.m Pop. (1901), 378,695, showing an were succeeded by their servants the Khangars, who built the apparent decrease of 13 % in the decade, due to the creation of fort of Karar, lying just outside the British border. About the district of Lyallpur in 1904. But actually the population the 14th century the Bundelas poured down upon the plains, increased by 132 % on the old area, owing to the opening of the and gradually spread themselves over the whole region which Chenab canal and the colonization of the tract irrigated by it. now bears their name. The Mahommedan governors were Within Jhang many thousands of acres of government waste I constantly making irruptions into the Bundela country; and in 66 JHELUM-JHERING 413 1732 Chhatar Sal, the Bundela chieftain, called in the aid of the mountains. In this rugged tract cultivation is rare and difficult, Mahrattas. They came to his assistance with their accustomed the soil being choked with saline matter. At the foot of the promptitude, and were rewarded on the raja's death in 1734, Salt Range, however, a small strip of level soil lies along the by the bequest of one-third of his dominions. Their general banks of the Jhelum, and is thickly dotted with prosperous founded the city of Jhansi, and peopled it with inhabitants villages. The drainage of the district is determined by a low from Orchha state. In 1806 British protection was promised central watershed running north and south at right angles to to the Mahratta chief, and in 1817 the peshwa ceded to the the Salt Range. The waters of the western portion find their East India Company all his rights over Bundelkhand. In 1853 way into the Sohan, and finally into the Indus; those of the the raja died childless, and his territories lapsed to the British. opposite slope collect themselves into small torrents, and empty The Jhansi state and the Jalaun and Chanderi districts were themselves into the Jhelum. then formed into a superintendency. The widow of raja The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical considered herself aggrieved because she was not allowed to period of the Mahābhārata. Hindu tradition represents the adopt an heir, and because the slaughter of cattle was permitted Salt Range as the refuge of the five Pandava brethren during in the Jhansi territory. Reports were spread which excited the period of their exile, and every salient point in its scenery is the religious prejudices of the Hindus. The events of 1857 connected with some legend of the national heroes. Modern accordingly found Jhansi ripe for mutiny. In June a few men research has fixed the site of the conflict between Alexander of the 12th native infantry seized the fort containing the treasure and Porus as within Jhelum district, although the exact point and magazine, and massacred the European officers of the at which Alexander effected the passage of the Jhelum (or garrison. Everywhere the usual anarchic quarrels rose among Hydaspes) is disputed. After this event, we have little infor- the rebels, and the country was plundered mercilessly. The mation with regard to the condition of the district until the rani put herself at the head of the rebels, and died bravely in Mahommedan conquest brought back literature and history battle. It was not till November 1858, after a series of sharp to Upper India. The Janjuahs and Jats, who now hold the contests with various guerilla leaders, that the work of reorgan- Salt Range and its northern plateau respectively, appear to ization was fairly set on foot. have been the earliest inhabitants. The Ghakkars seem to JHELUM, or JEHLAM (Hydaspes of the Greeks), a river of represent an early wave of conquest from the east, and they still northern India. It is the most westerly of the “five rivers: " of inhabit the whole eastern slope of the district; while the Awans, the Punjab. It rises in the north-east of the Kashmir state, who now cluster in the western plain, are apparently later flows through the city of Srinagar and the Wular lake, issues invaders from the opposite quarter. The Ghakkars were the through the Pir Panjal range by the narrow pass of Baramula, dominant race at the period of the first Mahommedan incursions, and enters British territory in the Jhelum district. Thence it and long continued to retain their independence. During the flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary flourishing period of the Mogul dynasty, the Ghakkar chieftains between the Jech Doab and the Sind Sagar Doab, and finally were prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of Baber; but after joins the Chenab at Timmu after a course of 450 miles. The the collapse of the Delhi Empire Jhelum fell, like its neighbours, Jhelum colony, in the Shahpur district of the Punjab, formed on under the sway of the Sikhs. In 1765 Gujar Singh defeated the the example of the Chenab colony in 1901, is designed to contain last independent Ghakkar prince, and reduced the wild moun- a total irrigable area of 1,130,000 acres. The Jhelum canal is a taineers to subjection. His son succeeded to his dominions, smaller work than the Chenab canal, but its silt is noted for until 1810, when he fell before the irresistible power of Ranjit its fertilizing qualities. Both projects have brought great Singh. In 1849 the district passed, with the rest of the Sikh prosperity to the cultivators. territories, into the hands of the British. JHELUM, or JEHLAM, a town and district of British India, JHERING, RUDOLF VON (1818-1892), German jurist, was in the Rawalpindi division of the Punjab. The town is situated born on the 22nd of August 1818 at Aurich in East Friesland, on the right bank of the river Jhelum, here crossed by a bridge where his father practised as a lawyer. Young Jhering entered of the North-Western railway, 103 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901), the university of Heidelberg in 1836 and, after the fashion of 14,951. It is a modern town with river and railway trade German students, visited successively Göttingen and Berlin. (principally in timber from Kashmir), boat-building and canton- G.F.Puchta, the author of Geschichte des Rechts bei dem römischen ments for a cavalry and four infantry regiments. Volke, alone of all his teachers appears to have gained his admir- The DISTRICT OF JHELUM stretches from the river Jhelum ation and influenced the bent of his mind. After graduating almost to the Indus. Area, 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 501,424, doctor juris, Jhering established himself in 1844 at Berlin as showing a decrease of 2% in the decade. Salt is quarried at the privatdocent for Roman law, and delivered public lectures on Mayo mine in the Salt Range. There are two coal-mines, the the Geist des römischen Rechts, the theme which may be said to only ones worked in the province, from which the North-Western have constituted his life's work. In 1845 he became an ordinary railway obtains part of its supply of coal. The chief centre of professor at Basel, in 1846 at Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in the salt trade is Pind Dadan Khan (pop. 13,770). The district 1851 at Giessen. Upon all these seats of learning he left his is crossed by the main line of the North-Western railway, and mark; beyond any other of his contemporaries he animated the also traversed along the south by a branch line. The river dry bones of Roman law. The German juristic world was still Jhelum is navigable throughout the district, which forms the under the dominating influence of the Savigny cult, and the older south-eastern portion of a rugged Himalayan spur, extending school looked askance at the daring of the young professor, who between the Indus and Jhelum to the borders of the Sind Sagar essayed to adapt the old to new exigencies and to build up a Doab. Its scenery is very picturesque, although not of so wild system of natural jurisprudence. This is the keynote of his a character as the mountain region of Rawalpindi to the north, famous work, Geist des römischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen and is lighted up in places by smiling patches of cultivated valley. Stufen seiner Entwickelung (1852–1865), which for originality of The backbone of the district is formed by the Salt Range, a conception and lucidity of scientific reasoning placed its author treble line of parallel hills running in three long forks from east in the forefront of modern Roman jurists. It is no exaggeration to west throughout its whole breadth. The range rises in bold to say that in the second half of the 19th century the reputation precipices, broken by gorges, clothed with brushwood and tra- of Jhering was as high as that of Savigny in the first. Their versed by streams which are at first pure, but soon become methods were almost diametrically opposed. Savigny and his impregnated with the saline matter over which they pass. school represented the conservative, historical tendency. In Between the line of hills lies a picturesque table-land, in which Jhering the philosophical conception of jurisprudence, as a the beautiful little lake of Kallar Kahar nestles amongst the science to be utilized for the further advancement of the moral minor ridges. North of the Salt Range, the country extends and social interests of mankind, was predominant. In 1868 upwards in an elevated plateau, diversified by countless ravines Jhering accepted the chair of Roman Law at Vienna, where his and fissures, until it loses itself in tangled masses of Rawalpindi I lecture-room was crowded, not only with regular students but 414 JIBITOS— JIDDA with men of all professions and even of the highest ranks in the quarter are built of stone, are flat-roofed and provided with official world. He became one of the lions of society, the verandas. There is a good water supply, drawn from a reser- Austrian emperor conferring upon him in 1872 a title of hereditary voir about 2 m. distant. The harbour is land-locked and nobility. But to a mind constituted like his, the social functions capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all states of of the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and he gladly wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town, exchanged its brilliant circles for the repose of Göttingen, where consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well he became professor in 1872. In this year he had read at Vienna thatched roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the before an admiring audience a lecture, published under the title disposal of live stock, camels, cattle, &c. The port is a regular of Der Kampf um's Recht (1872; Eng. trans., Batile for Right, calling-place and also a coaling station for the steamers of the 1884). Its success was extraordinary. Within two years it Messageries Maritimes, and there is a local service to Aden. attained twelve editions, and it has been translated into twenty- Trade is confined to coaling passing ships and to importing goods six languages. This was followed a few years later by Der Zweck for and exporting goods from southern Abyssinia via Harrar, im Recht (2 vols., 1877-1883). In these two works is clearly there being no local industries. (For statistics sce SOMALILAND, seen Jhering's individuality. The Kampf um's Recht shows the FRENCH.) The inhabitants are of many races-Somali, Danakil, firmness of his character, the strength of his sense of justice, and Gallas, Armenians, Jews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks, Italians, his juristic method and logic: “ to assert his rights is the duty French and other Europeans. The population, which in 1900 that every responsible person owes to himself.” In the Zweck when the railway was building was about 15,000, had fallen in im Recht is perceived the bent of the author's intellect. But 1907 to some 5000 or 6000, including 300 Europeans. perhaps the happiest combination of all his distinctive charac- Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its teristics is to be found in his Jurisprudenz des täglichen Lebens superiority to Obok both in respect to harbour accommodation (1870; Eng. trans., 1904). A great feature of his lectures was and in nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor his so-called Praktika, problems in Roman law, and a collection of the colony since May 1896. Order is maintained by a purely of these with hints for solution was published as early as native police force. The port is not fortified. 1847 under the title Civilrechtsfälle ohne Entscheidungen. In JICARILLA, a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan Göttingen he continued to work until his death on the 17th of stock. Their former range was in New Mexico, about the head- September 1892. A short time previously he had been the centre waters of the Rio Grande and the Pecos, and they are now settled of a devoted crowd of friends and former pupils, assembled at in a reservation on the northern border of New Mexico. Origin- Wilhelmshöhe near Cassel to celebrate the jubilee of his doc- ally a scourge of the district, they are now subdued, but remain torate. Almost all countries were worthily represented, and uncivilized. They number some 800 and are steadily decreasing. this pilgrimage affords an excellent illustration of the extra- The name is said to be from the Spanish jicara, a basket tray, in ordinary fascination and enduring influence that Jhering reference to their excellent basket-work. commanded. In appearance he was of middle stature, his face JIDDA (also written JEDDAH, DJIDDAH, DJEDDEH), a town in clean-shaven and of classical mould, lit up with vivacity and Arabia on the Red Sea coast in 21° 28' N. and 39° 10' E. It is of beaming with good nature. He was perhaps seen at his best importance mainly as the principal landing place of pilgrims to when dispensing hospitality in his own house. With him dicd Mecca, from which it is about 46 m. distant. It is situated in a the best beloved and the most talented of Roman-law professors low sandy plain backed by a range of hills 10 m. to the east, with of modern times. It was said of him by Professor Adolf Merkel higher mountains behind. The town extends along the beach for in a memorial address, R. v. Jhering (1893), that he belonged to about a mile, and is enclosed by a wall with towers at intervals, the the happy class of persons to whom Goethe's lines are applicable: seaward angles being commanded by two forts, in the northern “Was ich in der Jugend gewünscht, das habe ich im Alter die of which are the prison and other public buildings. There are Fülle," and this may justly be said of him, though he did not three gates, the Medina gate on the north, the Mecca gate live to complete his Geist des römischen Rechts and his Rechts- on the east, and the Yemen gate (rarely opened) on the south; geschichte. For this work the span of a single life would have there are also three small posterns on the west side, the centre been insufficient, but what he has left to the world is a monument one leading to the quay. In front of the Mecca gate is a rambling of vigorous intellectual power and stamps Jhering as an original suburb with shops, coffee houses, and an open market place; thinker and unrivalled exponent (in his peculiar interpretation) before the Medina gate are the Turkish barracks, and beyond of the spirit of Roman law. them the holy place of Jidda, the tomb of our mother Eve,” Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the author surrounded by the principal cemetery. and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: Beiträge The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions zur Lehre von Besitz, first published in the Jahrbücher für die Dogmatik of the body, about 200 paces long and 15 ft. broad. At the head is des heutigen römischen und deutschen Privat-rechts, and then separ- a small erection where gifts are deposited, and rather more than ately; Der Besitzwille, and an article entitled “Besitz" in the half-way down a whitewashed dome encloses a small dark chapel Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (1891), which aroused at within which is the black stone known as El Surrah, the navel. the time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition The grave of Eve is mentioned by. Edrisi, but except the black manifested to Savigny's conception of the subject. See also Scherz stone nothing bears any aspect of antiquity (see Burton's Pilgrimage, und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz (1885); Das Schuldmoment im römischen vol. ii.). Privat-recht (1867); Das Trinkgeld (1882); and among the papers he left behind him his Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer, a fragment, has The sea face is the best part of the town; the houses there are been published by v. Ehrenberg (1894). See for an account of his lofty and well built of the rough coral that crops out all along life also M. de Jonge, Rudolf v. Jhering (1888); and A. Merkel, the shore. The streets are narrow and winding. There are Rudolf von Jhering (1893). (P. A. A.) two mosques of considerable size and a number of smaller ones. JIBITOS, a tribe of South American Indians, first met with The outer suburbs are merely collections of brushwood huts. by the Franciscans in 1676 in the forest near the Huallaga The bazaars are well supplied with food-stuffs imported by sea, river, in the Peruvian province of Loreto. After their con- and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi Fatima. The water version they settled in villages on the western bank of the supply is limited and brackish; there are, however, two sweet river. wells and a spring 71 m. from the town, and most of the houses JIBUTI (DJIBOUTI), the chief port and capital of French have cisterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and Somaliland, in 11° 35' N., 43° 10' E. Jibuti is situated at the damp, but fever is not so prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour entrance to and on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura though inconvenient of access is well protected by coral reefs; about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town is built on a horseshoe- there are, however, no wharves or other dock facilities and cargo shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats, which are is landed in small Arab boats, sambuks. spanned by causeways. The chief buildings are the governor's The governor is a Turkish kaimakam under the vali of Hejaz, palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station and there is a large Turkish garrison; the sharif of Mecca, of the railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European, however, through his agent at Jidda exercises an authority JIG—JIMENES 415 66 practically superior to that of the sultan's officials. Consulates | Alcalá de Henares and afterwards at Salamanca; and in 1459, are maintained by Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, having entered holy orders, he went to Rome. Returning to Holland, Belgium and Persia. The permanent population Spain in 1465, he brought with him an “expective ” letter from is estimated at 20,000, of which less than half are Arabs, and of the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the archpriest- these a large number are foreigners from Yemen and Hadramut, ship of Uzeda in the diocese of Toledo in 1473. Carillo, arch- the remainder aré negroes and Somali with a few Indian and bishop of Toledo, opposed him, and on his obstinate refusal to Greek traders. give way threw him into prison. For six years Jimenes held · Jidda is said to have been founded by Persian merchants in the out, and at length in 1480 Carillo restored him to his benefice. caliphate of Othman, but its great commercial prosperity dates This Jimenes exchanged almost at once for a chaplaincy at from the beginning of the 15th century when it became the centre Siguenza, under Cardinal Mendoza, bishop of Siguenza, who of trade between Egypt and India. Down to the time of shortly pointed him vicar-general of his diocese. that posi- Burckhardt (1815) the Suez ships went no farther than Jidda, tion Jimenes won golden opinions from ecclesiastic and layman; where they were met by Indian vessels. The introduction of and he seemed to be on the sure road to distinction among the steamers deprived Jidda of its place as an emporium, not only secular clergy, when he abruptly resolved to become a monk. for Indian goods but for the products of the Red Sea, which Throwing up all his benefices, and changing his baptismal name formerly were collected here, but are now largely exported Gonzales for that of Francisco, he entered the Franciscan direct by steamer from Hodeda, Suakin, Jibuti and Aden. monastery of San Juan de los Reyes, recently founded by Fer- At the same time it gave a great impulse to the pilgrim traffic dinand and Isabella at Toledo. Not content with the ordinary which is now regarded as the annual harvest of Jidda. The severities of the noviciate, he added voluntary austerities. He average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds 50,000, and in slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his fasts, 1903-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of the and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1904, its imports in the was most rigorously ascetic. The report of his sanctity brought latter year amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance crowds to confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely of trade is paid by a very large export of specie, collected from monastery of Our Lady of Castañar; and he even built with his the pilgrims during their stay in the country. own hands a rude hut in the neighbouring woods, in which he JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of lived at times as an anchorite. He was afterwards guardian of which have varied at different times and in the various countries a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now archbishop in which it has been danced (see DANCE). The music of the of Toledo) had not forgotten him; and in 1492 he recommended jig,” or such as is written in its rhythm, is in various times and him to Isabella as her confessor. The queen sent for Jimenes, has been used frequently to finish a suite, e.g. by Bach and was pleased with him, and to his great reluctance forced the Handel. The word has usually been derived from or con- office upon him. The post was politically important, for nected with Fr. gigue, Ital. giga, Ger. Geige, a fiddle. The French Isabella submitted to the judgment of her father-confessor not and Italian words are now chiefly used of the dance or dance only her private affairs but also matters of state. Jimenes's rhythm, and in this sense have been taken by etymologists as severe sanctity soon won him considerable influence over Isabella; adapted from the English “ jig,” which may have been originally and thus it was that he first emerged into political life. In an onomatopoeic word. The idea of jumping, jerking move- 1494 the queen's confessor was appointed provincial of the order ment has given rise to many applications of “jig” and its of St Francis, and at once set about reducing the laxity of the derivative "jigger" to mechanical and other devices, such as conventual to the strictness of the observantine Franciscans. the machine used for separating the heavier metal-bearing por- Intense .opposition was continued even after Jimenes became tions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing, or a tackle consisting archbishop of Toledo. The general of the order himself came from of a double and single block and fall, &c. The word “jigger," Rome to interfere with the archbishop's measures of reform, a corruption of the West Indian chigoe, is also used as the name but the stern inflexibility of Jimenes, backed by the influence of of a species of flea, the Sarcopsylla penetrans, which burrows and the queen, subdued every obstacle Cardinal Mendoza had died lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails, in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a papal bull nomina- and causes great swelling and irritation (see FLEA). ting her confessor to his diocese of Toledo, the richest and most JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD), an Arabic word powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity of the Roman of which the literal meaning is an effort or a contest. It is used Church save the papacy. Long and sincerely Jimenes strove to to designate the religious duty inculcated in the Koran on the evade the honour; but his nolo episcopari was after six months followers of Mahomet to wage war upon those who do not accept overcome by a second bull ordering him to accept consecration. the doctrines of Islam. This duty is laid down in five suras- With the primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity all of these suras belonging to the period after Mahomet had of high chancellor of Castile; but Jimenes still maintained his established his power. Conquered peoples who will neither lowly life; and, although a message from Rome required him embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (jizya) are to be put to to live in a style befitting his rank, the outward pomp only the sword. (See further MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) By concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jimenes accompanied Mahommedan commentators the commands in the Koran are the court to Granada, and there eagerly joined the mild and not interpreted as a general injunction on all Moslems constantly pious Archbishop Talavera in his efforts to convert the Moors. to make war on the infidels. It is generally supposed that the Talavera had begun with gentle measures, but Jimenes preferred order for a general war can only be given by the caliph (an to proceed by haranguing the fakihs, or doctors of religion, and office now claimed by the sultans of Turkey). Mahommedans loading them with gifts. Outwardly the latter method was who do not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Ottoman successful; in two months the converts were so numerous that sultan, such as the Persians and Moors, look to their own rulers they had to be baptized by aspersion. The indignation of the for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no unconverted Moors swelled into open revolt. Jimenes was universal warfare by Moslems on unbelievers since the early days besieged in his house, and the utmost difficulty was found in of Mahommedanism. Jihads are generally proclaimed by all quieting the city. Baptism or exile was offered to the Moors persons who claim to be mahdis, e.g. Mahommed Aḥmad (the as a punishment for rebellion. The majority accepted baptism; Sudanese mahdi) proclaimed a jihad in 1882. In the belief of and Isabella, who had been momentarily annoyed at her arch- Moslems every one of their number slain in a jihad is taken bishop's imprudence, was satisfied that he had done good straight to paradise. service to Christianity. JIMENES (or XIMENES) DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO (1436– On the 24th of November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand at 1517), Spanish cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at once resigned the title of king of Castile in favour of his daughter Torrelaguna in Castile, of good but poor family. He studied at | Joan and her husband the archduke Philip, assuming instead > G 416 JIND-JINGO text. that of regent. Philip was keenly jealous of Ferdinand's pre- In 1500 was founded, and in 1508 was opened, the university of tensions to the regency; and it required all the tact of Jimenes Alcalá de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose to bring about a friendly interview between the princes. ficence and internal worth. sole expense it was raised, attained a great pitch of outward magni. At one time 7000 students met within Ferdinand finally retired from Castile; and, though Jimenes re- its walls. In 1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the mained, his political weight was less than before. The sudden costly buildings were left vacant. In the hopes of supplanting the death of Philip in September 1506 quite overset the already romances generally found in the hands of the young, Jimenes caused tottering intellect of his wife; his son and heir Charles was still a revived also the Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo, to be published religious treatises by himself and others. He child; and Ferdinand was at Naples. The nobles of Castile, in which it was to be used. But his most famous literary service mutually jealous, agreed to entrust affairs to the archbishop of was the printing at Alcalá (in Latin Complutum) of the Complutensian Toledo, who, moved more by patriotic regard for his country's Polyglott, the first edition of the Christian Scriptures in the original In this work, on which he is said to have expended half a welfare than by special friendship for Ferdinand, strove to es- million of ducats, the cardinal was aided by the celebrated Stunica tablish the final influence of that king in Castile. Ferdinand (D. Lopez de Zuñiga), the Greek scholar Nuñez de Guzman (Pin- did not return till August 1507; and he brought a cardinal's cianus), the Hebraist Vergara, and the humanist Nebrija, by a hat for Jimenes. Shortly afterwards the new cardinal of Cretan Greek Demetrius Ducas, and by three Jewish converts, of Spain was appointed grand inquisitor-general for Castile and Targums are not included. whom Zamora edited the Targum to the Pentateuch. The other In the Old Testament Jerome's version Leon. stands between the Greek and Hebrew. The synagogue and the The next great event in the cardinal's life was the expedition Eastern church, as the preface expresses it, are set like the thieves against the Moorish city of Qran in the north of Africa, in which the midst. The text occupies five volumes, and a sixth contains a on this side and on that, with Jesus (that is, the Roman Church) in his religious zeal was supported by the prospect of the political Hebrew lexicon, &c. The work commenced in 1502. The New and material gain that would accrue to Spain from the possession Testament was finished in January 1514, and the whole in April of such a station. A preliminary expedition, equipped, like that 1517. It was dedicated to Leo X., and was reprinted in 1572 by which followed, at the expense of Jimenes, captured the port of the Antwerp firm of Plantin, after revision by Benito Arias Montano Mers-el-Kebir in 1505; and in 1509 a strong force, accompanied at the expense of Philip II. The second edition is known as the Biblia Regia or Filipina. by the cardinal in person, set sail for Africa, and in one day the The work by Alvaro Gomez de Castro, De Rebus Gestis Francisci wealthy city was taken by storm. Though the army remained to menii (folio, 1659, Alcalá), is the quarry whence have come the make fresh conquests, Jimenes returned to Spain, and occupied materials for biographies of Jimenes-in Spanish by Robles (1604) himself with the administration of his diocese, and in endeavour-|(1684), Flèchier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele and Quintanilla (1633); in French by Baudier (1635), Marsollier ing to recover from the regent the expenses of his Oran expedi- (1844, translated into English by Canon Dalton, 1860) and Have. tion. On the 28th of January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving mann (1848); and in English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott's Jimenes as regent of Castile for Charles (afterwards Charles V.), Ferdinand, and, Isabella; Revue des Deux Mondes (May 1841) and Mém. de l'Acad. d'hist. de Madrid, vol. iv. then a youth of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Jimenes at once took firm hold of the reins of government, and ruled in JIND, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks a determined and even autocratic manner, the haughty and as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous intriguing Flemish in 1809. The territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid councillors of Charles combined to render his position peculiarly British districts. Total area, 1332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 282,003, difficult; while the evils consequent upon the unlimited de- showing a decrease of 1% in the decade. Estimated gross mands of Charles for money threw much undeserved odium revenue £109,000; there is no tribute. Grain and cotton are ex- upon the regent. In violation of the laws, Jimenes acceded to ported, and there are manufactures of gold and silver ornaments, Charles's desire to be proclaimed king; he secured the person leather and wooden wares and cloth. The chief, whose title of Charles's younger brother Ferdinand; he fixed the seat is raja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian family. of the cortes at Madrid; and he established a standing army The principality was founded in 1763, and the chief was recog- by drilling the citizens of the great towns. Immediately on nized by the Mogul emperor in 1768. The dynasty has always Ferdinand's death, Adrian, dean of Louvain, afterwards pope, been famous for its loyalty to the British, especially during the produced a commission from Charles appointing him regent. Mutiny, which has been rewarded with accessions of territory. Jimenes admitted him to a nominal equality, but took care that In 1857 the raja of Jind was actually the first man, European or neither he nor the subsequent commissioners of Charles ever native, who took the field against the mutineers; and his con- had any real share of power. In September 1517 Charles tingent collected supplies in advance for the British troops landed in the province of Asturias, and Jimenes hastened to marching upon Delhi, besides rendering excellent service during meet him. On the way, however, he fell ill, not without a the siege. Raja Ranbir Singh succeeded as a minor in 1887, and suspicion of poison. While thus feeble, he received a letter from was granted full powers in 1899. During the Tirah expedition of Charles coldly thanking him for his services, and giving him 1897-98 the Jind imperial service infantry specially distin- leave to retire to his diocese. A few hours after this virtual guished themselves. The town of Jind, the former capital, has dismissal, which some, however, say the cardinal never saw, a station on the Southern Punjab railway, 80 m. N.W. of Delhi. Francisco Jimenes died at Roa, on the 8th of November 1517. Pop. (1901), 8047. The present capital and residence of the Jimenes was a bold and determined statesman. Sternly raja since 1827 is Sangrur; pop. (1901), 11,852. and inflexibly, with a confidence that became at times over- JINGO, a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chūai, the 14th bearing, he carried through what he had decided to be right, with mikado (191-200). On her husband's death she assumed the as little regard for the convenience of others as for his own. In government, and fitted out an army for the invasion of Korea the midst of a corrupt clergy his morals were irreproachable. He (see JAPAN, § 9). She returned to Japan completely victorious was liberal to all, and founded and maintained very many after three years' absence. Subsequently her son Ojen Tenno, benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole time was afterwards isth mikado, was born, and later was canonized as devoted either to the state or to religion; his only recreation was Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan in theological or scholastic discussion. Perhaps one of the most till 270. She is still worshipped. noteworthy points about the cardinal is the advanced period of As regards the English oath, usually “ By Jingo,” or “ By the life at which he entered upon the stage where he was to play such living Jingo," the derivation is doubtful. The identification leading parts. Whether his abrupt change from the secular to with the name of Gingulph or Gengulphus, a Burgundian saint the regular clergy was the fervid outcome of religious enthusiasm who was martyred on the 11th of May 760, was a joke on the part or the far-seeing move of a wily schemer has been disputed; of R. H. Barham, author of the Ingoldsby Legends. Some explain but the constant austerity of his life, his unvarying superiority the word as a corruption of Jainko, the Basque name for God. It to small personal aims, are arguments for the former alternative has also been derived from the Persian jang (war), St Jingo being that are not to be met by merely pointing to the actual honours the equivalent of the Latin god of war, Mars; and is even and power he at last attained. explained as a corruption of " Jesus, Son of God,” Je-n-go. In JINN—JOACHIM OF FLORIS 417 2 3 support of the Basque derivation it is alleged that the oath was sible for much of David's success. Joab won his spurs, according first common in Wales, to aid in the conquest of which Edward I. to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (1 Chron. xi. 4-9); with imported a number of Basque mercenaries. The phrase does not, Abishai and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israel- however, appear in literature before the 17th century, first as ites who had rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and conjurer's jargon. Motteux, in his “ Rabelais,” is the first to use he superintended the campaign against Ammon and Edom " by jingo," translating par dieu. The political use of the word (2 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 26; i Kings xi. 15). He showed his sturdy as indicating an aggressive patriotism (Jingoes and Jingoism) character by urging the king after the death of Absalom to originated in 1877 during the weeks of national excitement pre- place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of his luding the despatch of the British Mediterranean squadron to favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David's Gallipoli, thus frustrating Russian designs on Constantinople. proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have While the public were on the tiptoe of expectation as to what been regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv.; policy the government would pursue, a bellicose music-hall song 1 Chron. xxi. 6). with the refrain“ We don't want to fight, but by Jingo if we do," The hostility of the "sons of Zeruiah" towards the tribe of &c., was produced in London by a singer known as “the great Benjamin is characteristically contrasted with David's own gener- MacDermott," and instantly became very popular. Thus the osity towards Saul's fallen house. Abishai proposed to kill Saul war-party came to be called Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since when David surprised him asleep (1 Sam. xxvi. 8), and was anxious been the term applied to those who advocate a national policy was resigned to the will of Yahweh and refused to entertain the to slay Shimei when he cursed the king (2 Sam. xvi. 9). But David of arrogance and pugnacity. suggestions. After Asahel met his death at the hands of Abner, For a discussion of the etymology of Jingo see Notes and Queries, Joab expostulated with David for not taking revenge upon the (August 25, 1894), 8th series, p. 149. guilty one, and indeed the king might be considered bound in honour JINN (DJINN), the name of a class of spirits (genii) in Arabian to take up his nephew's cause. But when Joab himself killed Abner, David's imprecation against him and his brother Abishai showed mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and that he dissociated himself from the act of vengeance, although it the propagation of their kind they resemble human beings. brought him nearer to the throne of all Israel (2 Sam. iii.). Fear of They are ruled by a race of kings named “Suleyman," one of a possible rival may have influenced Joab, and this at all events led whom is considered to have built the pyramids. Their central him to slay Amasa of Judah (2 Sam. xx. 4-13). The two deeds are home is the mountain Kāf, and they manifest themselves to men similar, and the impression left by them is expressed in David's last charges to Solomon (1 Kings ii.). But here Joab had taken the under both animal and mortal form and become invisible at will. side of Adonijah against Solomon, and was put to death by Benaiah There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case reach the at Solomon's command, and it is possible that the charges are the extremes of beauty and ugliness. fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible blame from Solomon JIREČEK, JOSÉF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at. (9.0.): It is singular that Joab is not blamed for killing Absalom, but it would indeed be strange if the man who helped to reconcile Vysoké Mýto in Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered father and son (2 Sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so cruel an act the Prague bureau of education in 1850, and became minister of in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii . 5, 10–16). A certain the department in the Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts animus against Joab's family thus seems to underlie some of the (S. A. C.) to secure equal educational privileges for the Slay nationalities popular narratives of the life of David (9.0.). in the Austrian dominions brought him into disfavour with the JOACHIM OF FLORIS (c. 1145-1202), so named from the German element. He became a member of the Bohemian Land- monastery of San Giovanni in Fiore, of which he was abbot, tag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. His merits as Italian mystic theologian, was born at Celico, near Cosenza, in a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president of Calabria. He was of noble birth and was brought up at the court the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went to visit the holy the 25th of November 1888. places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the plague at With Hermenegild Jireček he defended in 1862 the genuineness Constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on his of the Königinhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic (3 vols., 1858–1861), a biographical dictionary of Czech, writers Augusť 1177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of published in the Czech language an anthology of Czech literature retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In (2 vols., 1875-1876), a Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw's Czech grammar and of some Czech classics, and of the works of his Corazzo, near Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope father-in-law Pavel Josef Šafařik (1795-1861). 'Lucius III. at Veroli, and in 1185 visited Urban III. at Verona. His brother HERMENEGILD JIREČEK, Ritter von Samakow There is extant a letter of Pope Clement III., dated the 8th of (1827– ), Bohemian jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoké June 1188, in which Clement alludes to two of Joachim's works, Mýto on the 13th of April 1827, was also an official in the the Concordia and the Expositio in Apocalypsin, and urges him education department. to continue them. Joachim, however, was unable to continue Among his important works on Slavonic law were Codex juris his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in prophetic bohemici (11 parts, 1867–1892), and a Collection of Slav Folk-Law exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself but (Czech, 1880), Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the 14th ill with the somewhat lax discipline of Corazzo. He accordingly Century (Czech, 3 vols. 1863-1873). retired into the solitudes of Pietralata, and subsequently founded JIREČEK, KONSTANTIN JOSEF (1854– ), son of Josef, with some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey taught history at Prague. He entered the Bulgarian service in of San Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the massif of La 1879, and in 1881 became minister of education at Sofia. In Sila. The pope and the emperor befriended this foundation; 1884 he became professor of universal history in Czech at Prague, Frederick II. and his wife Constance made important donations and in 1893 professor of Slavonic antiquities at Vienna. to it, and promoted the spread of offshoots of the parent house; The bulk of Konstantin's writings deal with the history of the while Innocent III., on the 21st of January 1204, approved the southern Slavs and their literature. They include a History of the Bulgars (Czech and German, 1876), The Principality of Bulgaria bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on the 20th ordo Florensis " and the “institutio” which its founder had (1891), Travels in Bulgaria (Czech, 1888), &c. of March. JIZAKH, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of Samarkand, on the Transcaspian railway, 71 m. N.E. of the city Of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed of Samarkand. Pop. (1897), 16,041. As a fortified post of to Joachim in the 13th and following centuries, only those enu- Bokhara it was captured by the Russians in 1866. merated in his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic. These are the Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti (first printed at Venice JOAB (Heb. “ Yah(weh) is a father '), in the Bible, the son in 1519), the Expositio in A pocalypsin (Venice, 1527), the Psalterium of Zeruiah, David's sister (1 Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were decem chordarum (Venice, 1527), together with some libelli." Asahel and Abishai. All three were renowned warriors and against the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is played a prominent part in David's history. Abishai on one very probable that these" libelli" are the writings entitled Concordia occasion saved the king's life from a Philistine giant (2 Sam. Evangeliorum, Contra Judaeos, De articulis fidei, Confessio fidei and . The last is perhaps the work which was xxi. 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly respon- I condemạed by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an erroneous 16 " 418 JOACHIM 1. 8 criticism of the Trinitarian theory of Peter Lombard. This council, was Innocent's successor, Alexander IV., who appointed a commis- though condemning the book, refrained from condemning the sion to examine it; and as a result of this commission, which sat at author, and approved the order of Floris. Nevertheless, the monks Anagni, the destruction of the Liber introductorius was ordered by a continued to be subjected to insults as followers of a heretic, until papal breve dated the 23rd of October 1255. In 1260 a council held they obtained from Honorius III. in 1220 a bull formally recognizing at Arles condemned Joachim's writings and his supporters, who Joachim as orthodox and forbidding anyone to injure his disciples. were very numerous in that region. The Joachimite ideas were It is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to equally persistent among the Spirituals, and acquired new strength Joachim. Some served their avowed object with great success, with the publication of the commentary on the Apocalypse. This being powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining book, probably published after the death of its author and probably the revolted Franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph. interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides Joachimite principles, Among the most widely circulated were the commentaries on an affirmation even clearer than that of Gherardo da Borgo of the Jeremiah, Isaiah and Ezekiel, the Vaticinia pontificum and the elect character of the Franciscan order, as well as extremely violent De oneribus ecclesiae. Of his authentic works the doctrinal essential attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite literature is extremely is very simple. Joachim divides the history of humanity, past, vast. From the 14th century to the middle of the 16th, Ubertin present and future, into three periods, which, in his Expositio in of Casale (in his Arbor Vitae crucifixae), Bartholomew of Pisa (author A pocalypsin (bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the Law, or of the of the Liber Conformitatum), the Calabrian hermit Telesphorus, Father; the age of the Gospel, or of the Son; and the age of the Spirit, John of La Rochetaillade, Seraphin of Fermo, Johannes Annius of which will bring the ages to an end. Before each of these ages there Viterbo, Coelius Pannonius, and a host of other writers, repeated or is a period of incubation, or initiation: the first age begins with complicated ad infinitum the exegesis of Abbot Joachim. A treatise Abraham, but the period of initiation with the first man Adam. entitled De ultima aetate ecclesiae, which appeared in 1356, has been The initiation period of the third age begins with St Benedict, while attributed to Wycliffe, but is undoubtedly from the pen of an the actual age of the Spirit is not to begin until 1260, the Church- anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox movements in mulier amicia sole (Rev. xii. 1)-remaining hidden in the wilderness Italy in the i3th and 14th centuries, such as those of the Segarellists, 1260 days. We cannot here enter into the infinite details of the Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description, were penetrated with other subdivisions imagined by Joachim, or into his system of Joachimism; while such independent spirits as Roger Bacon, perpetual concordances between the New and the Old Testaments, Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Délicieux often comforted which, according to him, furnish the prefiguration of the third age. themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace promised Far more interesting as explaining the diffusion and the religious and by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has social importance of his doctrine is his conception of the second placed him in Paradise (Par., xii. 140-141). and third ages. The first age was the age of the Letter, the second See Acta Sanctorum, Boll. (May), vii. 94-!12; W. Preger in was intermediary between the Letter and the Spirit, and the third Abhandl. der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften, hist. sect., vol. xii., was to be the age of the Spirit. The age of the Son is the period pt. 3 (Munich, 1874); idem, Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Mittel- of study and wisdom, the period of striving towards mystic know- alter, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, “ Joachim de Flore et ledge. In the age of the Father all that was necessary was obedience; | l'Évangile_éternel in Nouvelles études d'histoire religieuse (Paris, in the age of the Son reading is enjoined; but the age of the Spirit 1884); F Tocco, L'Eresia nel medio evo (Florence, 1884); H. Deniſle, was to be devoted to prayer and song. The third is the age of the “ Das Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni " in plena spiritus libertas, the age of contemplation, the monastic age Archiv für Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters, vol. i.; Paul par excellence, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards Fournier, “ Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence in ecstasy, more Oriental than Benedictine. Joachim does not Revue des questions historiques, t. i. (1900); H. C. Lea, History of conceal his sympathies with the ideal of Basilian monachism. In the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888); his opinion-which is, in form at least, perfectly.orthodox-the F. Ehrle's article“ Joachim " in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon. church of Peter will be, not abolished, but purified; actually, On Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, “Recherches nouvelles sur the hierarchy effaces itself in the third age before the order of the l'histoire du Joachimisme" in Revuc historique, vol. xxxi. (1886); monks, the virį spirituales. The entire world will become a vast H. Haupt, “Zur Gesch. des Joachimismus" in Briegers Zeitschrift monastery in that day, which will be the resting-season, the sabbath für Kirchengesch., vol. vii. (1885). (P. A.) of humanity. In various passages in Joachim's writings the clerical hierarchy is represented by Rachel and the contemplative JOACHIM I. (1484-1535), surnamed Nestor, elector of Branden- order by her son Joseph, and Rachel is destined to efface herself burg, elder son of John Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born before her son. Similarly, the teaching of Christ and the Apostles on the 21s of February 1484. He received an excellent educa- on the sacraments is considered, implicitly and explicitly, as transi- tion, became elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in tory, as representing that passage from the significantia to the significata which Joachim signalizes at every stage of his demonstra- January 1499, and soon afterwards married Elizabeth, daughter tion. . Joachim was not disturbed during his lifetime. In 1200 he of John, king of Denmark. He took some part in the political submitted all his writings to the judgment of the Holy See, and complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years unreservedly, affirmed his orthodoxy; the Lateran council, which of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his elector- condemned his criticism of Peter Lombard, made no allusion to his eschatological temerities; and the bull 'of 1220 was a formal ate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring certificate of his orthodoxy. some degree of order (see BRANDENBURG). He also improved the The Joachimite ideas soon spread into Italy and France, and administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, especially after a division had been produced in the Franciscan and was a friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial order. The rigorists, who soon became known as “Spirituals, represented St Francis as the initiator of Joachim's third age. election of 1519, Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the Certain convents became centres of Joachimism. Around the partisans of Francis I., king of France, and by those of Charles, hermit of Hyères, Hugh of Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans afterwards the emperor Charles V. Having treated with, and who expected from the advent of the third age the triumph of their received lavish promises from, both parties, he appears to have ascetic ideas. The Joachimites even obtained a majority in the general chapter of 1247, and elected John of Parma, one of their hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the election came he number, general of the order. Pope Alexander IV., however, turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In spite of compelled John of Parma to renounce his dignity, and the Joachimite this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the opposition became more and more vehement. Pseudo-Joachimite elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim treatises sprang up on every hand, and, finally, in 1254, there appeared in Paris the Liber introductorius ad Evangelium aeternum, was frequently in communication with the enemies of Charles. the work of a Spiritual Franciscan, Gherardo da Borgo San Donnino. Joachim is best known as a pugnacious adherent of Catholic This book was published with, and as an introduction to, the three orthodoxy. He was one of the princes who urged upon the principal works of Joachim, in which the Spirituals had made some emperor the necessity of enforcing the Edict of Worms, and at interpolations. Gherardo, however, did not say, as has been several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers. supposed, that Joachim's books were the new gospel, but merely He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was that the Calabrian abbot had supplied the key to Holy Writ, and that with the help of that intelligentia mystica' it would be possible a member of the league established at Halle in November 1533. to extract from the Old and New Testaments the eternal meaning, But his wife adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528_fied the gospel according to the Spirit, a gospel which would never be written; as for this eternal sense, it had been entrusted to an order for safety to Saxony; and he had the mortification of seeing set apart, to the Franciscan order announced by Joachim, and in these doctrines also favoured by other members of his family. this order the ideal of the third age was realized. These affirmations Joachim, who was a patron of learning, established the uni- provoked very keen protests in the ecclesiastical world. The versity of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1506. He died at Stendal secular masters of the university of Paris denounced the work to on the rth of July 1535. Pope Innocent IV., and the bishop of Paris sent it to the pope. It See T. von Buttlar, Der Kampf Joachims I. von Brandenburg gegen 1 Preger is the only writer who has maintained that the three den Adel (1889); J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der Preussischen Politik books in their primitive form date from 1254. (1855-1886). 1 JOACHIM II.—JOACHIM, JOSEPH 419 JOACHIM II. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of Bran- receive a thorough general education in music from Ferdinand denbuig, the elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, David and Moritz Hauptmarin. _In 1844 he visited England, was born on the 13th of January 1505. Having passed some and made his first appearance at Drury Lane Theatre, where his time at the court of the emperor Maximilian I., he married in playing of Ernst's fantasia on Otello made a great sensation; he 1524 a daughter of George, duke of Saxony. In 1532 he led a also played Beethoven's concerto at a Philharmonic concert contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against the conducted by Mendelssohn. In 1847-1849 and 1852 he revisited Turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married England, and after the foundation of the popular concerts in Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He became 1859, up to 1899, he played there regularly in the latter part of elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in July 1535, and the season. On Liszt's invitation he accepted the post of undertook the government of the old and middle marks, while Konzertmeister at Weimar, and was there from 1850 to 1853. the new mark passed to his brother John. Joachim took a This brought Joachim into close contact with the advanced prominent part in imperial politics as an advocate of peace, school of German musicians, headed by Liszt; and he was though with a due regard for the interests of the house of Habs- strongly tempted to give his allegiance to what was beginning burg. He attempted to make peace between the Protestants to be called the “music of the future”; but his artistic convic- and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and subse- tions forced him to separate himself from the movement, and the quently at other places; but in 1542 he led the German forces on tact and good taste be displayed in the difficult moment of ex- an unsuccessful campaign against the Turks. When the war plaining his position to Liszt afford one of the finest illustrations broke out between Charles and the league of Schmalkalden in of his character. 1546 the elector at first remained neutral; but he afterwards sent His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into some troops to serve under the emperor. With Maurice, elector a different atmosphere, and his playing at the Düsseldorf festival of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to surrender of 1853 procured him the intimate friendship of Robert Schu- to Charles after the imperial victory at Mühlberg in April 1547, mann. His introduction of the young Brahms to Schumann is and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned. a famous incident of this time. Schumann and Brahms col- But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to laborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin and be bound by this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Düsseldorf. At Hanover on Charles. He supported the Interim, which was issued from he was königlicher Konzertdirektor from 1853 to 1868, when he Augsburg in May 1548, and took part in the negotiations that made Berlin his home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano resulted in the treaty of Passau (1552), and the religious peace singer, Amalie Weiss, who died in 1899. In 1869 Joachim was of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics he sought to consoli- appointed head of the newly founded königliche Hochschule für date and strengthen the power of his house by treaties with Musik in Berlin. The famous “ Joachim quartet " was started neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the bishoprics in the Sing-Akademie in the following year. Of his later life, of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. Although brought up continually occupied with public performances, there is little to as a strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the rise wavering soon after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged entrance to the reformed teaching in the electorate. He took master of all. He died on the 15th of August 1907. the communion himself in both kinds, and established a new Besides the consummate manual skill which helped to make ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but retained much bim famous in his youth, Joachim was gifted with the power of of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was not interpreting the greatest music in absolute perfection: while unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly ex-Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Brahms were masters, whose plained by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with works he played with a degree of insight that has never been the wealth of the Church (see BRANDENBURG). After the peace approached, he was no less supreme in the music of Mendelssohn of Augsburg the elector mainly confined his attention to Bran- and Schumann; in short, the whole of the classical repertory denburg, where he showed a keener desire to further the principles has become identified with his playing. No survey of Joachim's of the Reformation. By his luxurious habits and his lavish artistic career would be complete which omitted mention of his expenditure on public buildings he piled up a great accumulation absolute freedom from tricks or mannerism, his dignified bearing, of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates of the land and his unselfish character. His devotion to the highest ideals, in return for important concessions. He cast covetous eyes combined with a certain austerity and massivity of style, brought upon the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of against him an accusation of coldness from admirers of a more Halberstadt, both of which he secured for his son Frederick in effusive temperament. But the answer to this is given by the 1551. When Frederick died in the following year, the elector's depth and variety of expression which his mastery of the re- son Sigismund obtained the two sees; and on Sigismund's death in sources of his instrument put at his command. His biographer 1566 Magdeburg was secured by his nephew, Joachim Frederick, (1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim, who was a prince the words, “ He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the of generous and cultured tastes, died at. Köpenick on the 3rd of service of an ideal.” January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In As a composer Joachim did but little in his later years, and the 1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau. works of his earlier life never attained the public success which, See Steinmüller, Einführung der Reformation in die Kurmark in the opinion of many, they deserve (see Music). They un- Brandenburg durch Joachim 11. (1903); S. Isaacsohn, Die Finanzen doubtedly have a certain austerity of character which does not Joachims Il." in the Zeitschrift für Preussische Geschichte und Landes appeal to every hearer, but they are full of beauty of a grave kunde (1864-1883); J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der Preussischen and dignified kind; and in such things as his “ Hungarian con- Politik (1855-1886). certo" for his own instrument the utmost degree of difficulty JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831-1907), German violinist and com- is combined with great charm of melodic treatment. The poser, was born at Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June romance" in B flat for violin and the variations for violin and 1831, the son of Jewish parents. His family moved to Budapest orchestra are among his finest things, and the noble overture in when he was two years old, and he studied there under Serwac- memory of Kleist, as well as the scena for mezzo soprano from zynski, who brought him out at a concert when he was only eight Schiller's Demetrius, show a wonderful degree of skill in orchestra- years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder Hellmesberger tion as well as originality of thought. Joachim's place in musical and Joseph Böhm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in the history as a composer can only be properly appreciated in the management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter light of his intimate relations with Brahms, with whom he the newly founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing studiously refrained from putting himself into independent his musical powers, pronounced that the regular training of a rivalry, and to whose work as a composer he gave the co-opera• music school was not needed, but recommended that he should | tion of one who might himself have ranked as a master. 66 420 JOAN—JOAN OF ARC She was There are admirable portraits of Joachim by G. F. Watts (1866) had become imbued with a sense of having a mission to free and by J. S. Sargent (1904), the latter presented to him on the 16th of May 1904, at the celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of his France from the English. She heard the voices of St Michael, first appearance in England. St Catherine and St Margaret urging her on. In May 1428 she JOAN, a mythical female pope, who is usually placed between leurs , an introduction to the dauphin, saying that God would send tried to obtain from Robert de Baudricourt, governor of Vaucou- Leo IV. (847-855) and Benedict III. (855-858). One account has it that she was born in England, another in Germany of him aid, but she was rebuffed. When, however, in September the English parents. After an education at Cologne, she fell in English (under the earl of Salisbury) invested Orleans, the key love with a Benedictine monk and fled with him to Athens to the south of France, she renewed her efforts with Baudricourt, disguised as a man. On his death she went to Rome under the her mission being to relieve Orleans and crown the dauphin at alias of Joannes Anglicus (John of England), and entered the Reims. By persistent importunity, the effect of which was in- priesthood, eventually receiving a cardinal's hat. creased by the simplicity of her demeanour and her calm assur- elected pope under the title of John VIII., and died in child- ance of success, she at last prevailed on the governor to grant her birth during a papal procession. request; and in February 1429, accompanied by six men-at-arms, A French Dominican, Steven of Bourbon (d. C. 1261) gives the she set out on her perilous journey to the court of the dauphin legend in his Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit. He is believed to have at Chinon. At first Charles refused to see her, but popular feel- derived it from an earlier writer. More than a hundred authors ing in her favour induced his advisers to persuade him after three between the 13th and 17th centuries gave circulation to the myth. days to grant her an interview. She is said to have persuaded Its explosion was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, him of the divine character of her commission by discovering French Calvinist, in his Eclaircissement de la question si une femme a été assise au siège papal de Rome (1647); and De Joanna Papissa him though disguised in the crowd of his courtiers , and by (1657). The refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his reassuring him regarding his secret doubts as to his legitimacy. Papstfabeln des Mittelalters (1863; Eng. trans. 1872). And Charles was impressed by her knowledge of a secret prayer, JOAN OF ARC, more properly JEANNETON DARC, afterwards which (he told Dunois) could only be known to God and himself. known in France as JEANNE D'ARC? (1411-1431), the “Maid of Accordingly, after a commission of doctors had reported that Orleans," was born between 1410 and 1412, the daughter of they had found in her nothing of evil or contrary to the Catholic Jacques Darc, peasant proprietor, of Domremy, a small village faith, and a council of matrons had reported on her chastity, she in the Vosges, partly in Champagne and partly in Lorraine, and was permitted to set forth with an army of 4000 or 5000 men of his wife Isabeau, of the village of Vouthon, who from having designed for the relief of Orleans. At the head of the army she made a pilgrimage to Rome had received the usual surname of rode clothed in a coat of mail, armed with an ancient sword, said Romée. Although her parents were in easy circumstances, Joan to be that with which Charles Martel had vanquished the Sara- never learned to read or write, and received her sole religious cens, the hiding-place of which, under the altar of the parish instruction from her mother, who taught her to recite the Pater church of the village of Ste Catherine de Fierbois, the“ voices Noster, Ave Maria, and Credo. She sometimes guarded her had revealed to her; she carried a white standard of her own father's flocks, but at her trial in 1431 she strongly resented being design embroidered with lilies, and having on the one side the referred to as a shepherd girl. In all household work she was image of God seated on the clouds and holding the world in His specially proficient, her skill in the use of the needle not being hand, and on the other a representation of the Annunciation. excelled (she said) by that of any matron even of Rouen. In her Joan succeeded in entering Orleans on the 29th of April 1429, childhood she was noted for her abounding physical energy; but and through the vigorous and unremitting sallies of the French her vivacity, so far from being tainted by any coarse or un- the English gradually became so discouraged that on the 8th of feminine trait, was the direct outcome of an abnormally sensitive May they raised the siege. It is admitted that her extraordinary nervous temperament. Towards her parents her conduct was pluck and sense of leadership were responsible for this result. uniformly exemplary, and the charm of her unselfish kindness In a single week (June 12 to 19), by the capture of Jargeau and made her a favourite in the village. As she grew to womanhood Beaugency, followed by the great victory of Patay, where Talbot she became inclined to silence, and spent much of her time in was taken prisoner, the English were driven beyond the Loire. solitude and prayer. She repelled all attempts of the young With some difficulty the dauphin was then persuaded to set out men of her acquaintance to win her favour; and while active in towards Reims, which he entered with an army of 12,000 men the performance of her duties, and apparently finding her life on the 16th of July, Troyes having yielded on the way. On the quite congenial, inwardly she was engrossed with thoughts following day, holding the sacred banner, Joan stood beside reaching far beyond the circle of her daily concerns. Charles at his coronation in the cathedral. At this time, through the alliance and support of Philip of The king then entered into negotiations with a view to detach- Burgundy, the English had extended their conquest over the ing Burgundy from the English cause. Joan, at his importunity, whole of France north of the Loire in addition to their possession remained with the army, but the king played her false when she of Guienne; and while the infant Henry VI. of England had in 1422 attempted the capture of Paris; and after a failure on the 8th of been proclaimed king of France at his father's grave at St Denis, September, when Joan was wounded, his troops were disbanded. Charles the dauphin (still uncrowned) was forced to watch the Joan went into Normandy to assist the duke of Alençon, but in slow dismemberment of his kingdom. Isabella, the dauphin's | December returned to the court, and on the 29th she and her mother, had.favoured Henry V. of England, the husband of her family were ennobled with the surname of du Lis. Unconsoled daughter Catherine; and under Charles VI. a visionary named by such honours, she rode away from the court in March, to assist Marie d'Avignon declared that France was being ruined by a in the defence of Compiègne against the duke of Burgundy; and woman and would be restored by an armed virgin from the on the 24th of May she led an unsuccessful sortie against the marches of Lorraine. To what extent this idea worked in Joan's besiegers, when she was surrounded and taken prisoner. Charles, mind is doubtful. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's tract, De pro- partly perhaps on account of his natural indolence, partly on phetiis Merlini, there is a reference to an ancient prophecy of the account of the intrigues at the court, made no effort to effect enchanter Merlin concerning a virgin ex nemore canuto, and it her ransom, and never showed any sign of interest in her fate. appears that this nemus canutum had been identified in folk-lore By means of negotiations instigated and prosecuted with great with the oak wood of Domremy, Joan's knowledge of the perseverance by the university of Paris and the Inquisition, and prophecy does not, however, appear till 1429; and already before through the persistent scheming of Pierre Cauchon, the bishop that, from 1424, according to her account at her trial, she of Bcauvais-a Burgundian partisan, who, chased from his own 1 In the act of ennoblement the name is spelt Day, due probably see, hoped to obtain the archbishopric of Rouen-she was sold to the peculiar pronunciation. It has been disputed whether the in November by John of Luxemburg and Burgundy to the name was written originally d’Arc or Darc. It is beyond doubt English, who on the 3rd of January 1431, at the instance of the that the father of Joan was not of noble origin, but Bouteiller suggests that at that period the apostrophe did not indicate nobility. ? The Porte St Honoré where Joan was wounded stood where the Her mother, it may be noted, is called " de Vouthon." Comédic Française now stands. JOANES—JOANNA I. OF NAPLES 421 see university of Paris, delivered her over to the Inquisition for trial. J. J. Bourassé, Miracles de Madame Sainte Katherine de , Fierbois After a public examination, begun on the 9th of January and (1858, trans. by A. Lang); Boucher de Molandon and A. de Beau- lasting six days, and another conducted in the prison, she was, Agroles, S.J., La Vraie Jeanne d'Arc. For the "false Pucelle corps, L'Armée anglaise vaincue par Jeanne d'Arc (1892); R. P. on the 20th of March, publicly accused as a heretic and witch, A. Lang's article in his Valet's Tragedy (1903). Of the numerous and, being in the end found guilty, she made her submission at dramas and poems of which Joan of Arc has been the subject, the scaffold on the 24th of May, and received pardon. She was mention can only be made of Die Jungfrau von Orleans of Schiller, still, however, the prisoner of the English, and, having been in- Barbier was set to music by C. Gounod (1873). (I.T.S.*; H. Ch.) and of the Joan of Arc of Southey. A drama in verse by Jules duced by those who had her in charge to resume her male clothes, she was on this account judged to have relapsed, was sentenced JOANES (or JUANES), VICENTE (1506–1579), head of the to death, and burned at the stake on the streets of Rouen on the Valencian school of painters, and often called “the Spanish 30th of May 1431. In 1436 an impostor appeared, professing Raphael,” was born at Fuente de la Higuera in the province of to be Joan of Arc escaped from the flames, who succeeded in Valencia in 1506. He is said to have studied his art for some inducing many people to believe in her statement, but afterwards time in Rome, with which school his affinities are closest, but confessed her imposture. The sentence passed on Joan of Arc the greater part of his professional life was spent in the city of was revoked by the pope on the 7th of July 1456, and since then Valencia, where most of the extant examples of his work are it has been the custom of Catholic writers to uphold the reality now to be found. Al relate to religious subjects, and are of her divine inspiration. characterized by dignity of conception, accuracy of drawing, During the latter part of the 19th century a popular cult of the truth and beauty of colour, and minuteness of finish. He died Maid of Orleans sprang up in France, being greatly stimulated at Bocairente (near Jativa) while engaged upon an altarpiece in by the clerical party, which desired to advertise, in the person the church there, on the 21st of December 1579. of this national heroine, the intimate union between patriotism JOANNA (1479-1555), called the Mad (la Loca),queen of Castile and the Catholic faith, and for this purpose ardently desired her and mother of the emperor Charles V., was the second daughter enrolment among the Saints. On the 27th of January 1894 of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, and was solemn approval was given by Pope Leo XIII., and in February born at Toledo on the 6th of November 1479. Her youngest 1903 a formal proposal was entered for her canonization. The sister was Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII. Feast of the Epiphany (Jan. 6), 1904 was made the occasion for In 1496 at Lille she was married to the archduke Philip the Hand- a public declaration by Pope Pius X. that suie was entitled to the some, son of the German King Maximilian I., and at Ghent, in designation Venerable. Ön the 13th of December 1908 the February 1500, she gave birth to the future emperor. The death decree of beatification was published in the Consistory Hall of of her only brother John, of her eldest sister Isabella, queen of the Vatican, Portugal, and then of the latter's infant son Miguel, made Joanna As an historical figure, it is impossible to dogmatize concerning heiress of the Spanish kingdoms, and in 1502 the cortes of Castile the personality of Joan of Arc. The modern clerical view has and of Aragon recognized her and her husband as their future to some extent provoked what appears, in Anatole France's sovereigns. Soon after this Joanna's reason began to give way. learned account, ably presented as it is, to be a retaliation, in She mourned in an extravagant fashion for her absent husband, regarding her as a clerical tool in her own day. But her character whom at length she joined in Flanders; in this country her pas- was in any case exceptional. She undoubtedly nerved the sionate jealousy, although justified by Philip's conduct, led to French at a critical time, and inspired an army of laggards and deplorable scenes. In November 1504 her mother's death left pillagers with a fanatical enthusiasm, comparable with that of Joanna queen of Castile, but as she was obviously incapable of Cromwell's Puritans. Moreover, as regards her genuine military ruling, the duties of government were undertaken by her father, qualities we have the testimony of Dunois and d'Alençon; and and then for a short time by her husband. The queen was with Captain Marin, in his Jeanne d'Arc, tacticien et stratégiste (1891), Philip when he was wrecked on the English coast and became takes a high view of her achievements. The nobility of her the guest of Henry VII. at Windsor; soon after this event, in purpose and the genuineness of her belief in her mission, combined September 1506, he died and Joanna's mind became completely with her purity of character and simple patriotism, stand clear. deranged, it being almost impossible to get her away from the As to her“ supranormal ” faculties, a matter concerning which dead body of her husband. The remaining years of her miserable belief largely depends on the point of view, it is to be remarked existence were spent at Tordesillas, where she died on the 11th that Quicherat, a freethinker wholly devoid of clerical influences, of April 1555. In spite of her afflictions the queen was sought admits them (A perçus nouveaux, 1850), saying that the evidence in marriage by Henry VII. just before his death. Nominally is as good as for any facts in her history. See also A. Lang.on Joanna remained queen of Castile until her death, her name being “the voices” in Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, vol. xi. joined with that of Charles in all public documents, but of AUTHORITIES.-For bibliography see Le Livre d'or de Jeanne d'Arc necessity she took no part in the business of state. In addition (1894), and A. Molinier, Sources de l'histoire de France (1904). Until to Charles she had a son Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor the 19th century the history of Joan of Arc was almost entirely Ferdinand I.,, and four daughters, anong them being Maria neglected; Voltaire's scurrilous satire La Pucelle, while indicative (1505-1558), wife of Louis II., king of Hungary, afterwards of the attitude of his time, may be compared with the very fair praises in the Encyclopédie. The first attempt at a study of the governor-general of the Netherlands. sources was that of L'Averdy in 1790, published in the third volume See R. Villa, La Reina doña Juana la Loca (Madrid, 1892); Rösler, of Mémoires of the Academy of Inscriptions, which served as the Johanna die Wahrsinnige (Vienna, 1890); W. H. Prescott, Hist. of Fer- base for all lives until J. Quicherat's great work, Le Procès de Jeanne dinand and Isabella (1854); and H. Tighe, A Queen of Unrest (1907), d'Arc (1841-1849), a collection of the texts so full and so vivid that they reveal the character and life of the heroine with great dis- JOANNA I. (c. 1327–1382), queen of Naples, was the daughter tinctness. Michelet's sketch of her work in his Histoire de France, of Charles duke of Calabria (d. 1328), and became sovereign of one of the best sections of the history, is hardly more vivid than these Naples in succession to her grandfather King Robert in 1343. sources, upon which all the later biographies (notably that of H. A. Wallon, 1860) are based. See also A. Marty, L'Histoire de Jeanne Her first husband was Andrew, son of Charles Robert, king of d'Arc d'après des documents originaux, with introduction by M. Sepet Hungary, who like the queen herself was a member of the house (1907); P. H. Dunand, Jeanne d'Arc et l'église (1908); and especially of Anjou. In 1345 Andrew was assassinated at Aversa, possibly Andrew Lang, The Maid of France (1908). The Vie de Jeanne d'Arc, with his wife's connivance, and at once Joanna married Louis, by Anatole France (2 vols., 1908), is brilliant and erudite, but in some respects open to charges of inaccuracy and prejudice in its son of Philip prince of Taranto. King Louis of Hungary then handling of the sources (see the criticism by Andrew Lang in The came to Naples to avenge his brother's death, and the queen took Times, Lit. Suppl., May 28, 1998). The attempt to establish the refuge in Provence-which came under her rule at the same time reality of the "revelations and consequently to obtain the canoni- zation of Joan of Arc led the Catholic party in France to publish to him the town of Avignon, then part of her dominions. Having as Naples--purchasing pardon from Pope Clement VI. by selling lives (such as Sepet's, 1869) in support of their claims. Excellent works worth special mention are: Siméon Luce, Jeanne d'Arc à returned to Naples in 1352 after the departure of Louis, Joanna Domremy; L. Jarry, L'Armée anglaise au siège d'Orleans (1892); lost her second husband in 1362, and married James, king of 422 JOANNA II. OF NAPLES-JOB a Majorca (d. 1375), and later Otto of Brunswick, prince of Taranto. 1 al 1423 (1864). C.Cipolla, Storia, della signoria Italiana (1881),where the original authorities are quoted. (See also Naples; SFORZA.) The queen had no sons, and as both her daughters were dead she made Louis I. duke of Anjou, brother of Charles V. of France, her heir. This proceeding so angered Charles, duke of Durazzo, the name of two kings of Palestine in the Bible. JOASH, or JEHOASH (Heb.“ Yahweh is strong, or hath given "), who regarded himself as the future king of Naples, that he seized 1. Son of Ahaziah (see JEHORAM, 2) and king of Judah. He the city. Joanna was captured and was put to death at Aversa obtained the throne by means of a revolt in which Athaliah (q.v.) on the 22nd of May 1382. The queen was a woman of intel; perished, and his accession was marked by a solemn covenant, lectual tastes, and was acquainted with some of the poets and and by the overthrow of the temple of Baal and of its priest scholars of her time, including Petrarch and Boccaccio. Mattan(-Baal). In this the priest Jehoiada (who must have See Crivelli, Della prima e della seconda Giovanna, regine di Napoli continued to act as regent) took the leading part. The account (1832); G. Battaglia, Giovanna I., regina di Napoli (1835); W. Št C. 'Baddeley, Queen Joanną I. of Naples (1893); Scarpetta; of Joash's reign is not from a contemporary source (2 Kings xi. 4 Giovanna 1. di Napoli (1903); and Francesca M. Steele, The Beautiful -xii. 16), and 2 Chronicles adds several new details, including Queen Joanna I. of Naples (1910). a tradition of a conflict between the king and priests after the death of Jehoiada (xxii. 11; xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.). At an unstated JOANNA II. (1371–1435), queen of Naples, was descended from period, the Aramaeans under Hazael captured Gath, and Jeru- Charles II. of Anjou through his son John of Durazzo. She had salem only escaped by buying off the enemy (2 Kings xii. 17 sqq.). been married to William, son of Leopold III. of Austria, and at This may perhaps be associated with the Aramaean attacks upon the death of her brother King Ladislaus in 1414 she succeeded Israel (2 below), but the tradition recorded in 2 Chron.xxiv. 23 seq: to the Neapolitan crown. Her life had always been very dissolute, differs widely and cannot be wholly rejected. The king perished and although now a widow of forty-five, she chose as her lover in a conspiracy, the origin of which is not clear; it may have been Pandolfo Alopo, a youth of twenty-six, whom she made seneschal for his attack upon the priests, it was scarcely for the course he of the kingdom. He and the constable Muzio Attendolo Sforza took to save Jerusalem. He was succeeded by his son Amaziah, completely dominated her, and the turbulent barons wished to whose moderation in avenging his father's death receives special provide her with a husband who would be strong enough to mention. After defeating the Edomites, Amaziah turned his break her favourites yet not make himself king. The choice attention to Israel. fell on James of Bourbon, a relative of the king of France, and 2. Son of Jehoahaz and king of Israel. Like his grandfather the marriage took place in 1415. But James at once declared Jehu, he enjoyed the favour of the prophet Elisha, who promised himself king, had Alopo killed and Sforza imprisoned, and kept him a triple defeat of the Aramaeans at Aphek (2 Kings xiii . 14 sqq. his wife in a state of semi-confinement; this led to a counter- 22-25). The cities which had been taken from his father by agitation on the part of the barons, who forced James to liberate Hazael the father of Ben-hadad were recovered (cf. í Kings xx. Sforza, renounce his kingship, and eventually to quit the country. 34, time of Ahab) and the relief gained by Israel from the previous The queen now sent Sforza to re-establish her authority in Rome, blows of Syria prepared the way for its speedy extension of whence the Neapolitans had been expelled after the death of power. When challenged by Amaziah of Judah, Joash uttered Ladislaus; Sforza entered the city and obliged the condottiere the famous fable of the thistle and cedar (for another example Braccio da Montone, who was defending it in the pope's name, to see Judg. ix. 8-15; see also ABIMELECH), and a battle was depart (1416). But when Oddo Colonna was elected pope as fought at Beth-shemesh, in which Israel was completely success- Martin V., he allied himself with Joanna, who promised to give ful. An obscure statement in 2 Chron. xxv. 13 would show up Rome, while Sforza returned to Naples. The latter found, that this was not the only conflict; at all events, Amaziah was however, that he had lost all influence with the queen, who was captured, the fortifications of Jerusalem were partially destroyed, completely dominated by her new lover Giovanni (Sergianni) the treasures of the Temple and palace were looted, and hostages Caracciolo. Hoping to re-establish his position and crush were carried away to Samaria. According to one statement, Caracciolo, Sforza favoured the pretensions of Louis III. of Amaziah survived the disaster fifteen years, and lost his life in Anjou, who wished to obtain the succession of Naples at Joanna's a conspiracy; but there is a gap in the history of Judah which death, a course which met with the approval of the pope. Joanna the narratives do not enable us to fill (1 Kings xv. 1; see refused to adopt Louis owing to the influence of Caracciolo, who xiv. 17, 23). See further Uzziah; JEROBOAM (2); and Jews. hated Sforza; she appealed for help instead to Alphonso of (S. A. C.) Aragon, promising to make him her heir War broke out be- JOB. The book of Job (Heb. Six 'Iyyob, Gr. 'Iub), in the Bible, tween Joanna and the Aragonese on one side and Louis and the most splendid creation of Hebrew poetry, is so called from the Sforza, supported by the pope, on the other. After much fight- name of the man whose history and afflictions and sayings form ing by land and sea, Alphonso entered Naples, and in 1422 peace the theme of it. was made. But dissensions broke out between the Aragonese Contents.-As it now lies before us it consists of five parts. 1. The and Catalans and the Neapolitans, and Alphonso had Caracciolo prologue, in prose, chr. i.-ii., describes in rapid and dramatic steps arrested; whereupon Joanna, fearing for her own safety, invoked the history of this man, his prosperity and greatness corresponding the aid of Sforza, who with difficulty carried her off to Aversa. to his godliness; then how his life is drawn in under the operation of There she was joined by Louis whom she adopted as her successor the sifting providence of God, through the suspicion suggested by the Satan, the minister of this aspect of God's providence, that his instead of the ungrateful Alphonso. Sforza was accidentally godliness is selfish and only the natural return for unexampled drowned, but when Alphonso returned to Spain, leaving only a prosperity, and the insinuation that iſ stripped of his prosperity small force in Naples, the Angevins with the help of a Genoese he will curse God to His face. . These suspicions bring down two fleet recaptured the city. For a few years there was peace in severe calamities on Job, one depriving him of children and possessions alike, and the other throwing the man himself under a painful the kingdom, but in 1432 Caracciolo, having quarrelled with the malady. In spite of these afflictions Job retains his integrity and queen, was seized and murdered by his enemies. Internal ascribes no wrong to God. Then is described the advent of Job's disorders broke out, and Gian Antonio Orsini, prince of Taranto, three friends-Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and led a revolt against Joanna in Apulia; Louis of Anjou died while Zophar the Naamathite--who, having heard of Job's calamities, come to condole with him. 2. The body of the book, in poetry, conducting a campaign against the rebels (1434), and Joannach. iii.-xxxi., contains a series of speeches in which the problem herself died on the 11th of February 1435, after having appointed of Job's afflictions and the relation of external evil to the his son René her successor. Weak, foolish and dissolute, she righteousness of God and the conduct of men are brilliantly. made her reign one long scandal, which reduced the kingdom cussed. . This part, after Job's passionate outburst in ch. iii., is to the lowest depths of degradation. Her perpetual intrigues of the friends, and three by Job, one in reply to each of theirs divided into three cycles, each containing six speeches, one by each and her political incapacity made Naples a prey to anarchy and (ch. iv. xiv.; XV.-xxi.; xxii.-xxxi.). although in the last cycle the foreign invasions, destroying all sense of patriotism and loyalty 1 That the murder of Zechariah the son of Jehoiada (2 Chron...C.) both in the barons and the people. is referred to in Matt. xxiii. 35, Luke xi. 51 is commonly held; but AUTHORITIES.-A. von Platen, Storia del reame di Napoli dal 1414 | see Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 5373. JOB 423 third speaker Zophar fails to answer (unless his answer is to be found | issue of his afflictions—in all this Israel may see itself, and from in ch. xxvii.). Job, having driven his opponents from the field, the sight take courage, and forecast its own history. Job, how- carries his reply through a series of discourses in which he dwells in pathetic words upon his early prosperity, contrasting with it his ever, is not to be considered Israel, the righteous servant of the present humiliation, and ends with a solemn repudiation of all the Lord, under a feigned name; he is no mere parable (though such a offences that might be suggested against him, and a challenge to view is found as early as the Talmud); he and his history have God to appear and put His hand to the charge which He had against both elements of reality in them. It is these elements of reality him and for which He afflicted him. 3. Elihu, the representative of a younger generation, who has been a silent observer of the debate, common to him with Israel in affliction, 'common even to him intervenes to express his dissatisfaction with the manner in which with humanity as a whole, confined within the straitened limits both Job and his friends conducted the cause, and offers what is set by its own ignorance, wounded to death by the mysterious in some respects a new solution of the question (xxxii.-xxxvii.). sorrows of life, tortured by the uncertainty whether its cry finds 4. In answer to Job's repeated demands that God would appear and solve the riddle of his life, the Lord answers Job out of the whirlwind. an entrance into God's ear, alarmed and paralysed by the irrecon- The divine speaker does not condescend to refer to Job's individual cilable discrepancies which it seems to discover between its problem, but in a series of ironica! interrogations asks him, as he necessary thoughts of Him and its experience of Him in His provi- thinks himself capable of fathoming all things, to expound the dence, and faint with longing that it might come into His place, mysteries of the origin and subsistence of the world, the phenomena of the atmosphere, the instincts of the creatures that inhabit the and behold him, not girt with His majesty, but in human form, desert, and, as he judges God's conduct of the world amiss, invites as one looketh upon his fellow-it is these elements of truth that him to seize the reins, gird himself with the thunder and quell the make the history of Job instructive to Israel in the times of rebellious forces of evil in the universe (xxxviii.-xlii. 6). Job affliction when it was set before them, and to men of all races in is humbled and abashed, lays his hand upon his mouth, and repents all ages. It would probably be a mistake, however, to imagine his hasty words in dust and ashes. No solution of his problem is vouchsafed; but God Himself effects that which neither the man's that the author consciously stepped outside the limits of his own thoughts of God nor the representations of the friends could nation and assumed a human position antagonistic to it. The accomplish: he had heard of him with the hearing of the ear without chords he touches vibrate through all humanity—but this is effect, but now his eye sces Him. This is the profoundest religious because Israel is the religious kernel of humanity, and because deep in the book. 5. The epilogue, in prose, xlii. 7-17, describes Job's restoration to a prosperity double that of his former estate, from Israel's heart the deepest religious music of mankind is his family felicity and long life. heard, whether of pathos or of joy. Design.-With the exception of the episode of Elihu, the con- Two threads requiring to be followed, therefore, run through the nexion of which with the original form of the poem may be doubt- book-one the discussion of the problem of evil between Job and ful, all five parts of the book are essential elements of the work his friends, and the other the varying attitude of Job's mind towards as it came from the hand of the first author, although some parts friends advance to the discussion of his sufferings and of the problem God, the first being subordinate to the second. Both Job and his of the second and fourth divisions may have been expanded by of evil, ignorant of the true cause of his calamities Job strong in later writers. The idea of the composition is to be derived not his sense of innocence, and the friends armed with their theory from any single element of the book, but from the teaching and of the righteousness of God, who giveth to every man according to movement of the whole piece. Job is unquestionably the hero his works. With fine psychological instinct the poet lets Job altogether lose his self-control first when his three friends came to of the work, and in his ideas and his history combined we may visit him. His bereavements and his malady he bore with a steady assume that we find the author himself speaking and teaching.courage, and his wife's direct instigations to godlessness he repelled The discussion between Job and his friends of the problem of with severity and resignation. But when his equals and the old suffering occupies two-thirds of the book, or, if the space occupied looks and in their seven days silence the depth of his own misery, associates of his happiness came to see him, and when he read in their by Elihu be not considered, nearly three-fourths, and in direc- his self-command deserted him, and he broke out into a cry of tion which the author causes this discussion to take we may see despair, cursing his day and crying for death (iii.). Job had revealed the main didactic purpose of the book. When the three somewhat misinterpreted the demeanour of his friends. friends, the representatives of former theories of providence, are all pity that it expressed. Along with their pity they had also reduced to silence, we may be certain that it was the author's this. Till a few days before, Job would have agreed with them on brought their theology, and they trusted to heal Job's malady with purpose to discredit the ideas which they represent. Job himself the sovereign virtues of this remedy. But he had learned through offers no positive contribution to the doctrine of evil; his position a higher teaching, the events of God's providence, that it was no His violent impatience, however, is negative, merely antagonistic to that of the friends. But this longer a specific in his case. negative position victoriously maintained by him has the effect only served to confirm the view of his sufferings which their theory under his afflictions and his covert attacks upon the divine rectitude of clearing the ground, and the author himself supplies in the of evil had already suggested to his friends. And thus commences prologue the positive truth, when he communicates the real the high debate which continues through twenty-nine chapters. explanation of his hero's calamities, and teaches that they were The three friends of Job came to the consideration of his history a trial of his righteousness. It was therefore the author's main ity is the reward of righteousness. Suffering is not an accident or a with the principle that calamity is the result of evil-doing, as prosper- purpose in his work to widen men's views of the providence of spontaneous growth of the soil; man is born unto trouble as the sparks God and set before them a new view of suffering. This purpose, fly upwards; there is in human life a tendency to do evil which draws however, was in all probability subordinate to some wider down upon men the chastisement of God" (v. 6). The principle practical design. No Hebrew writer is merely a poet or a is thus enunciated by Eliphaz, from whom the other speakers take their cue: where there is suffering there has been sin in the sufferer. thinker. He is always a teacher. He has men before him in Not suffering in itself, but the effect of it on the sufferer is what gives their relations to God,' and usually not men in their individual insight into his true character. Suffering is not always punitive: relations, but members of the family of Israel, the people of it is sometimes disciplinary, designed to wean the good man from his God. It is consequently scarcely to be doubted that the his evil, his future shall be rich in peace and happiness, and his latter sin. If he sees in his suffering the monition of God and turns from book has a national scope. The author considered his new estate more prosperous than his first. If he murmurs or resists, truth regarding the meaning of affliction as of national interest, he can only perish under the multiplying chastisements which his and as the truth then needful for the heart of his people. But impenitence will provoke. Now this principle is far from being a the teaching of the book is only half its contents. It contains erred in supposing that it would cover the wide providence of God. peculiar crotchet of the friends; its truth is undeniable, though they also a history-deep and inexplicable affliction, a great moral The principle is the fundamental idea of moral government, the ex- struggle, and a victory. The author meant his new truth to pression of the natural conscience, a principle common more or less inspire new conduct, new faith, and new hopes. In Job's suffer- to all peoples, though perhaps more prominent in the Semitic mind, ings, undeserved and inexplicable to him, yet capable of an because all religious ideas are more prominent and simple there- not suggested to Israel first by the law, but found and adopted by the explanation most consistent with the goodness and faithfulness law, though it may be sharpened by it. It is the fundamental of God, and casting honour upon his faithful servants; in his principle of prophecy no less than of the law, and, if possible, of the. despair bordering on unbelief, at last overcome; and in the happy tion among the Hebrews had a simpler task before it than it had in wisdom of philosophy of the Hebrews more than of either. Specula- Exceptions must be made in the cases of Esther and the Song of the West or in the farther East. The Greek philosopher began his Songs, which do not mention God, and the original writer in Ecclesi- operations upon the sum of things; he threw the universe into his astes who is a philosopher. crucible at once. His object was to effect some analysis of it, so It was not 1 424 JOB extreme. that he could call one element cause and another effect. Or, to vary | maintaining that injustice on the part of God is inconceivable, the figure, his endeavour was to pursue the streams of tendency might have given due weight to the persistent testimony of Job's which he could observe till he reached at last the central spring which conscience as that behind which it is impossible to go, and found sent them all forth. God, a single cause and explanation, was the refuge in the reflection that there might be something inexplicable object of his search. But to the Hebrew of the later time this was in the ways of God, and that affliction might have some other mean- already found. The analysis resulting in the distinction of God and ing than to punish the sinner or even to wean him from his sin. the world had been effected for him so long ago that the history and And Job, while maintaining his innocence from overt sins, might circumstances of the process had been forgotten, and only the have confessed that there was such sinfulness in every human life as unchallengeable result remained. His philosophy was not a quest was sufficient to account for the severest chastisement from heaven, of God whom he did not know, but a recognition on all hands of or at least he might have stopped short of charging God foolishly. God whom he knew. The great primary idea to his mind was that Such a position would certainly be taken up by an afflicted saint now, of God, a Being wholly just, doing all. And the world was little and such an explanation of his sufferings would suggest itself to the more than the phenomena that revealed the mind and the presence sufferer, even though it might be in truth a false explanation. and the operations of God. Consequently the nature of God as Perhaps here, where an artistic fault might seem to be committed, known to him and the course of events formed a perfect equation. the art of the writer, or his truth to nature, and the extraordinary The idea of what God was in Himself was in complete harmony freedom with which he moves among his materials, as well as the with His manifestation of Himself in providence, in the events of power and individuality of his dramatic creations, are most remark- individual human lives, and in the history of nations. The philosophy able. The rôle which the author reserved for himself was to teach of the wise did not go behind the origin of sin, or referred it to the the truth on the question in dispute, and he accomplishes this by freedom of man; but, sin existing, and God being in immediate allowing his performers to push their false principles to their proper personal contact with the world, every event was a direct expression There is nothing about which men are usually so sure as of His moral will and energy; calamity fell on wickedness, and success the character of God. They are ever ready to take Him in their attended right-doing: This view of the moral harmony between the own hand, to interpret His providence in their own sense, to say nature of God and the events of providence in the fortunes of men what taings are consistent or not with His character and word, and nations is the view of the Hebrew wisdom in its oldest form, and beat down the opposing consciences of other men by. His during what might be called the period of principles, to which belong so-called authority, which is nothing but their own. The friends Prov. x. seq.; and this is the position maintained by Job's three of Job were religious Orientals, men to whom God was a being friends. And the significance of the book of Job in the history of in immediate contact with the world and life, to whom the idea Hebrew thought arises in that it marks the point when such a view of second causes was unknown, on whom science had not yet begun was definitely overcome, closing the long period when this principle to dawn, nor the conception of a divine scheme pursuing a distant was merely subjected to questionings, and makes a new positive end by complicated means, in which the individual's interest may addition to the doctrine of evil. suffer for the larger good. The broad sympathics of the author and Job agreed that afflictions came directly from the hand of God, his sense of the truth lying in the theory of the friends are seen in the and also that God afflicted those whom He held guilty of sins. scope which he allows them, in the richness of the thought and the But his conscience denied the imputation of guilt, whether insinu- splendid luxuriance of the imagery-drawn from the immemorial ated by his friends or implied in God'schastisement of him. Hence he moral consent of mankind, the testimony of the living conscience, was driven to conclude that God was unjust. The position of Job and the observation of life--with which he makes them clotne appeared to his friends nothing else but impiety; while theirs was their views. He remembered the elements of truth in the theory to him mere falsehood and the special pleading of sycophants on from which he was departing, that it was a national heritage, which behalf of God because He was the stronger. Within these two iron he himself perhaps had been constrained not without a struggle to walls the debate moves, making little progress, but with much abandon; and, while showing its insufficiency, he sets it forth in its brilliancy, if not of argument, of illustration. A certain advance most brilliant form. indeed is perceptible. In the first series of speeches (iv.-xiv.), The extravagance of Job's assertions was occasioned greatly the key-note of which is struck by Eliphaz, the oldest and most by the extreme position of his friends, which left no room for his considerate of the three, the position is that affliction is caused by conscious innocence along with the rectitude of God. Again, the sin, and is chastisement designed for the sinner's good; and the moral poet's purpose, as the prologue shows, was to teach that afflictions is that Job should recognize and use it for the purpose for which may fall on a man out of all connexion with any offence of his own, it was sent. In the second (xv. xxi.) the terrible fate of the sinner and merely as the trial of his righteousness; and hence he allows is emphasized, and those brilliant pictures of a restored future, Job, as by a true instinct of the nature of his sufferings, to repudiate thrown in by all the speakers in the first series, are absent. Job's all connexion between them and sin in himself. And further, the demeanour under the consolations offered him afforded little hope terrible conflict into which the suspicions of the Satan brought of his repentance. In the third series (xxii. seq.) the friends cast Iob could not be exhibited without pushing him to the verge of off all disguise, and openly charge Job with a course of evil life. ungodliness. These are all elements of the poet's art; but art and That their armoury was now exhausted is shown by the brevity of In ancient Hebrew life the sense of sin was less the second speaker, and the failure of the third (at least in the present deep than it is now. In the desert, too, men speak boldly of God. text) to answer in any form. In reply. Job disdains for a time to Nothing is more false than to judge the poet's creation from our touch what he well knew lay under all their exhortations; he laments later point of view, and construct a theory of the book according with touching pathos the defection of his friends, who were like the to a more developed sense of sin and a deeper reverence for God winter torrents looked for in vain by the perishing caravan in the than belonged to antiquity. In complete contradiction to the testi- summer heat; he meets with bitter scorn their constant cry that mony of the book itself, some critics, as Hengstenberg and Budde, God will not cast off the righteous man, by asking: How can one have assumed that Job's spiritual pride was the cause of his afflic- be righteous with God? what can human weakness, however tions, that this was the root of bitterness in him which must be killed innocent, do against infinite might and subtlety? they are righteous down ere he could become a true saint. The fundamental position whom an omnipotent and perverse will thinks fit to consider so; of the book is that Job was already a true saint; this is testified he falls into a hopeless wail over the universal misery of man, who by God Himself, is the radical idea of the author in the prologue, has a weary campaign of life appointed him; then, rísing up in the and the very hypothesis of the drama. We might be ready to think strength of his conscience, he upbraids the Almighty with His mis, that Job's afflictions did not befall him out of all connexion with his use of His power and His indiscriminate tyranny-righteous and own condition of mind, and we might be disposed to find a vindica- innocent He destroys alike--and challenges Him to lay aside His tion of God's ways in this. There is no evidence that such an idea majesty and meet His creature as a man, and then he would not was shared by the author of the book. It is remarkable that the fear Him. Even in the second series Job can hardly bring himself attitude which we imagine it would have been so easy for Job to to face the personal issue raised by the friends. His relations to assume, namely, while holding fast his integrity, to fall back upon the God absorb him almost wholly-his pitiable isolation, the indig'nities inexplicableness of providence, of which there are such imposing showered on his once honoured head, the loathsome spectacle of descriptions in his speeches, is just the attitude which is taken up in his body; abandoned by all, he turns for pity from God to men and ch. xxviii. It is far from certain, however, that this chapter is an from men to God. Only in the third series of debates does he put integral part of the original book. out his hand and grasp firmly the theory of his friends, and their The other line running through the book, the varying attitude of " defences of mud fall to dust in his hands. Instead of that roseate Job's mind towards God, exhibits dramatic action and tragic moral order on which they are never weary of insisting, he finds only interest of the highest kind, though the movement is internal. disorder and moral confusion. When he thinks of it, trembling takes That the exhibition of this struggle in Job's mind was a main point hold of him. It is not the righteous but the wicked that live, in the author's purpose is seen from the fact that at the end of each grow old, yea, wax mighty in strength, that send forth their children of his great trials he notes that Job sinned not, nor ascribed wrong like a flock and establish them in their sight. Before the logic of to God (i. 22; ii. 10), and from the effect which the divine voice facts the theory of the friends goes down; and with this negative from the whirlwind is made to produce upon him (xl. 3). In result, which the author skilfully reaches through the debate, has the first cycie of debate (iv.-xiv.) Job's mind reaches the deepest to be combined his own positive doctrine of the uses of adversity | limit of estrangement. There he not merely charges God with advanced in the prologue. injustice, but, unable to reconcile His former goodness with His To a modern reader it appears strange that both parties were so present enmity, he regards the latter as the true expression of entangled in the meshes of their preconceptions regarding God as to God's attitude towards His creatures, and the former, comprising be unable to break through the broader views. The friends, while I all his infinite creative skill in weaving the delicate organism of nature are one. JOB 425 human nature and the rich endowments of His providence, only as own thoughts of God nor the representations of his friends could the means of exercising His mad and immoral cruelty in the time to accomplish, though by the same means. The religious insight of come. When the Semitic skin of Job is scratched, we find a modern the writer sounds here the profoundest deeps of truth. pessimist beneath. Others in later days have brought the keen sensibility of the human frame and the torture which it endures Integrity.--Doubts whether particular portions of the present together, and asked with Job to whom at last all this has to be book belonged to the original form of it have been raised by many. referred. Towards the end of the cycle a star of heavenly light seems M. L. De Wette expressed himself as follows: " It appears to to rise on the horizon; the thought seizes the sufferer's mind that man might have another life, that God's anger pursuing him to the grave us that the present book of Job has not all flowed from one pen. might be sated, and that He might call him out of it to Himself As many books of the Old Testament have been several times again (xiv. 13). This idea of a resurrection, unfamiliar to Job written over, so has this also ” (Ersch and Gruber, Ency., sect. at first, is one which he is allowed to reach out of the necessities of ii. vol. viii.). The judgment formed by De Wette has been the moral complications around him, but from the author's manner of using the idea we may judge that it was familiar to himself. adhered to more or less by most of those who have studied the In the second cycle the thought of a future reconciliation with God book. Questions regarding the unity of such books as this are is more firmly grasped. That satisfaction or at least composure difficult to settle; there is not unanimity among scholars re- which, when we observe calamities that we cannot morally account garding the idea of the book, and consequently they differ as to for, we reach by considering that providence is a great scheme moving according to general laws, and that it does not always truly what parts are in harmony or conflict with unity; and it is reflect the relation of God to the individual, Job reached in the only dangerous to apply modern ideas of literary composition and way possible to a Semitic mind. He drew a distinction between artistic unity to the works of antiquity and of the East. The an outer God whom events obey, pursuing him in His anger, and an problem raised in the book of Job has certainly received frequent inner God whose heart was with him, who was aware of his innocence; and he appeals from God to God, and beseeches God to pledge treatment in the Old Testament; and there is no likelihood that Himself that he shall receive justice from God (xvi. 19; xvii. 35. all efforts in this direction have been preserved to us. It is And so high at last does this consciousness that God is at one with probable that the book of Job was but a great effort amidst him rise that he avows his assurance that He will get appear to do or after many smaller. It is scarcely to be supposed that one him justice before men, and that he shall see Him with his own eyes, with such poetic and literary power as the author of chap. iii.- no more estranged but on his side, and for this moment he faints with longing (xix. 25. seq.). xxxi., xxxviii. xli. would embody the work of any other writer After this expression of faith Job's mind remains calm, though in his own. If there be elements in the book which must be he ends by firmly charging God with perverting his right, and demand-pronounced foreign, they have been inserted in the work of the ing to know the cause of his affictions (xxvii. z seq.; xxxi. 35, author by a later hand. It is not unlikely that our present book where render: “Oh, that I had the indictment which mine adversary has written !"). In answer to this demand the Divine voice answers may, in addition to the great work of the original author, contain Job out of the tempest: “Who is this that darkeneth counsel by some fragments of the thoughts of other religious minds upon words without knowledge ?" The word "counsel " intimates to the same question, and that these, instead of being loosely Job that God does not act without a design, large and beyond the appended, have been fitted into the mechanism of the first work. comprehension of man; and to impress this is the purpose of the Divine speeches. The speaker does not enter into Job's particular Some of these fragments may have originated at first quite in- cause; there is not a word tending to unravel his riddle; his mind dependently of our book, while others may be expansions and is drawn away to the wisdom and majesty of God Himself. His insertions that never existed separately,' At the same time it is own words and those of his friends are but re-echoed, but it is God scarcely safe to throw out any portion of the book merely because Himself who now utters them. Job is in immediate nearness to the majesty of heaven, wise, unfathomable, ironical over the littleness it seems to us out of harmony with the unity of the main part of of man, and he is abased; God Himself effects what neither the man's the poem, or unless several distinct lines of consideration conspire 1 This remarkable passage reads thus: “ But I know that my to point it out as an extraneous element. redeemer liveth, and afierwards he shall arise upon the dust, and after The arguments against the originality of the prologuemas, my skin, even this body, is destroyed, without my flesh shall I see God; that it is written in prose, that the name Yahweh appears in it, that whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not as a sacrifice is referred to, and that there are inconsistencies between it stranger; my reins within me are consumed with longing." The and the body of the book-are of little weight. There must have redeemer who liveth and shall arise or stand upon the earth is God been some introduction to the poem explaining the circumstances whom he shall see with his own eyes, on his side. The course of of Job, otherwise the poetical dispute would have been unintelligible, exegesis was greatly influenced by the translation of Jerome, who, for it is improbable that the story of Job was so familiar that a poem departing from the Itala, rendered: “ In novissimo die de terra in which he and his friends figured as they do here would have been surrecturus sum ... et rursum circumdabor pelle mea et in carne understood. And there is no trace of any other prologue or intro- mea videbo deum meum." The only point now in question is duction having ever existed. The prologue, too, is an essential whether: (a) Job looks for this manifestation of God to him while he element of the work, containing the author's positive contribution is still alive, or (b) after death, and therefore in the sense of a spiritual to the doctrine of suffering, for which the discussion in the poem vision and union with God in another life; that is, whether the prepares the way. The intermixture of prose and poetry is common words " destroyed ” and “without my flesh" are to be taken in Oriental works containing similar discussions; the reference to relatively only, of the extremest effects of his disease upon him, or sacrifice is to primitive not to Mosaic sacrifice; and the author, literally, of the separation of the body in death. A third view which while using the name Yahweh freely himself, puts the patriarchal assumes that the words rendered " without my flesh," which run Divine names into the mouth of Job and his friends because he literally, “out of my flesh,' mean looking out from my flesh, regards them as belonging to the patriarchal age and to a country that is, clothed with a new body, and finds the idea of resurrection outside of Israel. That the observance of this rule had a certain repeated, perhaps imports more into the language than it will awkwardness for the writer appears perhaps from his allowing the fairly bear In favour of (6) may be adduced the persistent refusal name Yahweh to slip in once or twice (xii. 9, cf. xxviii. 28) in familiar of Job throughout to entertain the idea of a restoration in this life; phrases in the body of the poem. The discrepancies, such as Job's the word " afterwards "; and perhaps the analogy of other passages references to his children as still alive (xix. 17, the interpretation is where the same situation appears, as Ps. xlix. and lxxiii., although doubtful), and to his servants, are trivial, and even if real imply the actual dénouement of the tragedy supports (a). The difference nothing in a book admittedly poetical and not historical. The between the two senses is not important, when the Old Testament objections to the epilogue are equally unimportant—as that the view of immortality is considered. To the Hebrew the life beyond Satan is not mentioned in it, and that Job's restoration is in conflict was not what it is to us, a freedom from sin and sorrow and admission with the main idea of the poem-that earthly felicity does not to an immediate divine fellowship not attainable here. To him the follow righteousness. The epilogue confirms the teaching of the life beyond was at best a prolongation of the life here; all he desired poem when it gives the divine sanction to Job's doctrine regarding was that his fellowship with God here should not be interrupted God in opposition to that of the friends (xlii. 7). And it is certainly in death, and that Sheol, the place into which deceased persons not the intention of the poem to teach that earthly felicity does not descended and where they remained, cut off from all life with God, follow righteousness; its purpose is to correct the exclusiveness might be overleapt. On this account the theory of Ewald, which with which the friends of job maintained that principle. The throws the centre of gravity of the book into this passage in ch. xix., Satan is introduced in the prologue, exercising his function as minis- considering its purpose to be to teach that the riddles of this life ter of God in heaven; but it is to misinterpret wholly the doctrine shall be solved and its inequalities corrected in a future life, appears of evil in the Old Testament to assign to the Satan any such personal one-sided. The point of the passage does not lie in any distinction importance or independence of power as that he should be called which it draws between this life and a future life; it lies in the assur. before the curtain to receive the hisses that accompany his own ance which Job expresses that God, who even now knows his inno- discomfiture. The Satan, though he here appears with the begin- cence, will vindicate it in the future, and that, though estranged nings of a malevolent will his own, is but the instrument of the now, He will at last take him to His heart. siſting providence of God. His work was to try; that done he 426 JOB result. disappears, his personality being too slight to have any place in the solution at particular epochs of the history of Israel, and points Much grayer are the suspicions that attach to the speeches of of contact with other writings of which the age may with some Elihu. Most of those who have studied the book carefully hold certainty be determined. The Jewish tradition that the book that this part does not belong to the original cast, but has been is Mosaic, and the idea that it is a production of the desert, introduced at a considerably later time. The piece is one of the written in another tongue and translated into Hebrew, want most interesting parts of the book; both the person and the thoughts of Elihu are marked by a strong individuality. This individuality even a shadow of probability. The book is a genuine outcome has indeed been very diversely estimated. The ancients for the of the religious life and thought of Israel, the product of a most part passed a very severc judgment on Elihu: he is a buffoon, religious knowledge and experience that were possible among a boastful youth whose shallow intermeddling is only to be explained no other people. That the author lays the scene of the poem by the fewness of his years, the incarnation of folly, or even the outside his own nation and in the patriarchal age is a proceeding Satan himself gone a-mumming. Some moderns on the other hand have regarded him as the incarnation of the voice of God or even common to him with other dramatic writers, who find freer play of God himself. The main objections to the connexion of the for their principles in a region removed from the present, where episode of Elihu with the original book are: that the prologue and they are not hampered by the obtrusive forms of actual life, but epilogue know nothing of him; that on the cause of Job's afflictions are free to mould occurrences into the moral form that their he occupies virtually the same position as the friends; that his ideas require. speeches destroy the dramatic effect of the divine manifestation by introducing a lengthened break between Job's challenge and the It is the opinion of some scholars, c.g. Delitzsch, that the book answer of God; that the language and style of the piece are marked belongs to the age of Solomon. It cannot be earlier than this age, by an excessive mannerism, too great to have been created by the for Job (vii. 17) travesties the ideas of Ps. viii. in a manner author of the rest of the poem; that the allusions to the rest of the book are so minute as to betray a reader rather than a hearer; and which shows that this hymn was well known. To infer the that the views regarding sin, and especially the scandal given to date from a comparison of literary coincidences and allusions the author by the irreverence of Job, indicate a religious advance is however a very delicate operation. For, first, owing to the which marks a later age. The position taken by Elihu is almost that of a critic of the book. Regarding the origin of amictions he unity of thought and language which prevades the Old Testa- is at one with the friends, although he dwells more on the general ment, in which, regarded merely as a national literature, it sinfulness of man than on actual sins, and his reprobation of Job's differs from all other national literatures, we are apt to be position is even greater than theirs. His anger was kindled against deceived, and take mere similarities for literary allusions and Job because he made himself righteous before God, and against his friends because they found no answer to Job. His whole object is quotations; and, secondly, even when we are sure that there is to refute Job's charge of injustice against God. What is novel in dependence, it is often uncommonly difficult to decide which is the Elihu, therefore, is not his position but his arguments. These do original source. The reference to Job in Ezek. xiv. 14 is not to not lack cogency, but betray a kind of thought different from that our book, but to the man (a legendary figure) who was afterwards of the friends. Injustice in God, he argues, can only arise from sel- made the hero of it. The affinities on the other hand between Job fishness in Him; but the very existence of creation implies unselfish love on God's part, for if He thought only of Himself, He would and Isa, xl.-lv. are very close. The date, however, of this part cease actively to uphold creation, and it would fall into death. of Isaiah is uncertain, though it cannot have received its final Again, without justice mere earthly rule is impossible; how then is form, if it be composite, long before the return. Between Job iii. injustice conceivable in Him who rules over all? It is probable and ſer. xx. 14 seq. there is, again, certainly literary connexion. that the original author found his three interlocutors a sufficient medium for expression, and that this new speaker is the creation But the judgment of different minds differs on the question of another. To a devout and thoughtful reader of the original which passage is dependent on the other. The language of book, belonging perhaps to a more reverential age, it appeared that Jeremiah, however, has a natural pathos and genuineness of the language and bearing of Job had scarcely been sufficiently feeling in it, somewhat in contrast with the elaborate poetical reprobated by the original speakers, and that the religious reason, apart from any theophany, could suggest arguments sufficient to finish of Job's words, which might suggest the originality of condemn such demeanour on the part of any man. (For an able the former. though hardly convincing argument for the originality of the The tendency among recent scholars is to put the book of discourses of Elihu see Budde's Commentary.) There are good reasons It is more difficult to come to a decision in regard to some other Job not earlier than the 5th century B.C. portions of the book, particularly ch. xxvii. 7-xxviii. In the latter for putting it in the 4th century. It stands at the beginning part of ch. xxvii. Job seems to go over to the camp. of his opponents, of the era of Jewish philosophical inquiry—its affinities are and expresses sentiments in complete contradiction to his former with Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of views. Hence some have thought the passage to be the missing Solomon, a body of writings that belongs to the latest period speech of Zophar. Others, as Hitzig, believe that Job is parodying of pre-Christian Jewish literary development (see WISDOM the ideas of the friends; while others, like Ewald, consider that he is recanting his former excesses, and making such a modification as LITERATURE). Its points of connexion with Isa. xl.-lv. relate to express correctly his views on cvil. None of these opinions is only to the problem of the suffering of the righteous, and that quite satisfactory, though the last probably expresses the view with it is later than the Isaiah passage appears from the fact that which the passage was introduced, whether it be original or not. The meaning of ch. xxviii. can only be that Wisdom," that is, a this latter is national and ritual in scope, while Job is universal theoretical comprehension of providence, is unattainable by man, and ethical. whose only wisdom is the fear of the Lord or practical piety. But The book of Job is not literal history, though it reposes on to bring Job to the feeling of this truth was just the purpose of the historical tradition. To this tradition belong probably the name theophany and the divine speeches; and, if Job had reached it of Job and his country, and the names of his three friends, already through his own reflection, the theophany becomes an irrelevancy. It is difficult, therefore, to find a place for these two and perhaps also many other details impossible to specify chapters in the original work. The hymn on Wisdom is a most particularly. The view that the book is entirely a literary exquisite poem, which probably originated separately, and was creation with no basis in historical tradition is as old as the brought into our book with a purpose similar to that which suggested the speeches of Elihu. Objections have also been raised to the Talmud (Baba Bathra, xv. I), in which a rabbi is cited who says: , descriptions of leviathan and behemoth (ch. xl. 15-xli.). Regarding Job was not, and was not created, but is an allegory. This these it may be enough to say that in meaning these passages are view is supported by Hengstenberg and others. there is a breadth and detail in the style unlike the sharp, short, East and at so early an age. in perfect harmony with other parts of the Divine words, although poetical creations on so extensive a scale are not probable in the ironical touches otherwise characteristic of this part of the poem, (Other longer passages, the originality of which has been called Author.-The author of the book is wholly unknown. The into question, are: xvii. 8 seq.: xxi. 16-18; xxii. 17 seq.; xxiii. 8 seq.; religious life of Israel was at certain periods very intense, and xxiv. 9, 18-24; xxvi. 5-14. On these see the commentaries.) at those times the spiritual energy of the nation expressed itself Date.—The age of such a book as Job, dealing only with prin- almost impersonally, through men who forgot themselves and ciples and having no direct references to historical events can be were speedily forgotten in name by others. Hitzig conjectures fixed only approximately. Any conclusion can be reached only that the author was a native of the north on account of the free by an induction founded on matters which do not afford perfect criticism of providence which he allows himself. Others, on certainty, such as the comparative development of certain moral account of some affinities with the prophet Amos, infer that he ideas in different ages, the pressing claims of certain problems for I belonged to the south of Judah, and this is supposed to account But pure JOBST-JODHPUR 427 )) << for his intimate acquaintance with the desert. Ewald considers JOCKEY, a professional rider of race-horses, now the current that he belonged to the exile in Egypt, on account of his minute usage (see HORSE-RACING). The word is by origin a diminutive acquaintance with that country. But all these . conjectures of " Jock,” the Northern or Scots colloquial equivalent of the localize an author whose knowledge was not confined to any name“ John " (cf. JACK). A familiar instance of the use of the locality, who was a true child of the East and familiar with word as a name is in “ Jockey of Norfolk ” in Shakespeare's life and nature in every country there, who was at the same time Richard III. v. 3, 304. In the 16th and 17th centuries the word a true Israelite and felt that the earth was the Lord's and the was applied to horse-dealers, postilions, itinerant minstrels and fullness thereof, and whose sympathies and thought took in all vagabonds, and thus frequently bore the meaning of a cunning God's works. trickster, a sharp,” whence“ to jockey,” to outwit, or “ do " LITERATURE.-Commentaries by Ewald (1854); Renan (1859); a person out of something. The current usage is found in John Delitzsch (1864); Zöckler in Lange's Bibelwerk (1872); E: C. Cook Evelyn's Diary, 1670, when it was clearly well known. George in Speaker's Comm. (1880); A. B. Davidson in Cambridge Bible (1884); Dillmann (1891); K. Budde (1896); Duhm (1897). See Borrow's attempt to derive the word from the gipsy chukni, a also Hoekstra, “ Job de Knecht van Jehovah ”.in Theol. Tijdschr. heavy whip used by horse-dealing gipsies, has no foundation. (1871), and, in reply, A. Kuenen, “ Job en de leidende Knecht van JODELLE, ÉTIENNE, seigneur de Limodin (1532–1573), Jahveh," ibid. (1873); C, H. H. Wright in Bib. Essays (1886); G. G. French dramatist and poet, was born in Paris of a noble family. Bradley, Lects. on Job (2nd ed., 1888); Cheyne, Job and Solomon (1887); Dawson, Wisd. Lit. (1893); D. B. Macdonald, “ The Original He attached himself to the poetic circle of the Pléiade (see Form of the Legend of Job" in Journ. Bib. Lit. (1895); E. Hatch, DAURAT) and proceeded to apply the principles of the reformers Essays in Bib. Gk. (1889); A. Dillmann, in Trans. of Roy. Pruss. to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at creating a classical Acad. (1890). (A. B. D., C. H. T. *) drama that should be in every respect different from the JOBST, or JODOCUS (C. 1350-1411), margrave of Moravia, moralities and soties that then occupied the French stage. was a son of John Henry of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia, His first play, Cléopâtre captive, was represented before the court and grandson of John, the blind king of Bohemia. He became at Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title rôle, and the margrave of Moravia on his father's death in 1375, and his clever cast included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean de la Péruse. and unscrupulous character enabled him to amass a considerable In honour of the play's success the friends organized a little amount of wealth, while his ambition led him into constant fête at Arcueil when a goat garlanded with flowers was led in quarrels with his brother Procop, his cousins, the German king procession and presented to the author-a ceremony exaggerated Wenceslaus and Sigismund, margrave of Brandenburg, and by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a renewal of the pagan others. By taking advantage of their difficulties he won consider- rites of the worship of Bacchus. Jodelle wrote two other plays. able power, and the record of his life is one of warfare and Eugène, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less success treachery, followed by broken promises and transitory recon- than it deserved. Its preface poured scorn on Jodelle's pre- ciliations. In 1385 and 1388 he purchased Brandenburg from decessors in comedy, but in reality his own methods are not so Sigismund, and the duchy of Luxemburg from Wenceslaus; and very different from theirs. Didon se sacrifiant, a tragedy which in 1397 he also became possessed of upper and lower Lusatia. follows Virgil's narrative, appears never to have been represented. For some time he had entertained hopes of the German throne Jodelle died in poverty in July 1573. His works were collected and had negotiated with Wenceslaus and others to this end, the year after his death by Charles de la Mothe. They include When, however, King Rupert died in 1410 he maintained at a quantity of miscellaneous verse dating chiefly from Jodelle's first that there was no vacancy, as Wenceslaus, who had been youth. The intrinsic value of his tragedies is small . Cléopâtre deposed in 1400, was still king; but changing his attitude, he is lyric rather than dramatic. Throughout the five acts of the was chosen German king at Frankfort on the ist of October piece nothing actually happens. The death of Antony is an- 1410 in opposition to Sigismund, who had been elected a few days nounced by his ghost in the first act; the story of Cleopatra's previously. Jobst however was never crowned, and his death suicide is related, but not represented, in the fifth. Each act on the 17th of January 141.1 prevented hostilities between the is terminated by a chorus which 'moralizes on such subjects as rival kings. the inconstancy of fortune and the judgments of heaven on See F. M. Pelzel, Lebensgeschichte des römischen und böhmischen human pride. But the play was the starting-point of French Königs Wenceslaus (1788–1790): J. Heidemann, Die Mark Branden- classical tragedy, and was soon followed by the Médée (1553) of burg unter Jobst von Mähren (1881); J. Aschbach, Geschichte Kaiser Sigmunds (1838–1845); F. Palacky, Geschichte von Böhmen, iii. Jean de la Péruse and the Aman (1561) of André de Rivaudeau. (1864-1874); and T. Lindner, Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches vom Jodelle was a rapid worker, but idle and fond of dissipation. Ende des 14 Jahrhunderts bis zur Reformation, i. (1875–1880). His friend Ronsard said that his published poems gave no JOB'S TEARS, in botany, the popular name for Coix Lachryma- adequate idea of his powers. Jobi, a species of grass, of the tribe maydeae, which also includes Jodelle's works are collected (1868) in the Pléiade française of the maize (see GRASSES). The seeds, or properly fruits, are con- Charles Marty-Laveaux. The prefatory notice gives full informa- tained singly in a stony involucre or bract, which does not open tion of the sources of Jodelle's biography, and La Mothe's criticism until the enclosed seed germinates. The young involucre sur- is reprinted in its entirety. rounds the female flower and the stalk supporting the spike of JODHPUR, or MARWAR, a native state of India, in the male flowers, and when ripe has the appearance of bluish-white Rajputana agency. Area, 34,963 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,935,565, porcelain. Being shaped somewhat like a large drop of fluid, the showing a decrease of 23% in the decade, due to the results of form has suggested the name. The fruits are esculent, but the famine. Estimated revenue, £373,600; tribute, £14,000. The involucres are the part chiefly used, for making necklaces and general aspect of the country is that of a sandy plain, divided other ornaments. The plant is a native of India, but is now into two unequal parts by the river Lūni, and dotted with pic- widely spread throughout the tropical zone. It grows in .marshy turesque conical hills, attaining in places an elevation of 3000 ft. places; and is cultivated in China, the fruit having a supposed The river Lūni is the principal feature in the physical aspects of value as a diuretic and anti-phthisic. It was cultivated by John Jodhpur. One of its head-streams rises in the sacred lake of Gerard, aụthor of the famous Herball, at the end of the 16th Pushkar in Ajmere, and the main river flows through Jodhpur century as a tender annual. in a south-westerly direction till it is finally lost in the marshy JOCASTA, or IOCASTA ('loxáorn; in Homer, 'Erlkaorn), in ground at the head of the Runn of Cutch. It is fed by numerous Greek legend, wife of Laius, mother (afterwards wife) of Oedipus tributaries and occasionally overflows its banks, fine crops (q.v.), daughter of Menoeceus, sister (or daughter) of Creon. of wheat and barley being grown on the saturated soil. Its According to Homer (Od. xi. 271) and Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 1241), water is, as a rule, saline or brackish, but comparatively sweet on learning that Oedipus was her son she immediately hanged water is obtained from wells sunk at a distance of 20 or 30 yds. herself; but in Euripides (Phoenissae, 1455) she stabs herself from the river bank. The famous salt-lake of Sambhar is situ- over the bodies of her sons Eteocles and Polynices, who had slain ated on the borders of Jodhpur and Jaipur, and two smaller each other in single combat before the walls of Thebes. lakes of the same description lie within the limits of the state, 428 JOEL from which large quantities of salt are extracted. Marble, on the Rajputana railway. Pop. (1901), 60,437. It was built is mined in the north of the state and along the south-east | by Ráo Jodha in 1459, and from that time has been the seat of border. government. It is surrounded by a strong wall nearly 6 m. in The population consists of Rathor Rājputs (who form the extent, with seventy gates. The fort, which stands on an iso- ruling class), Brāhmans, Charans, Bhāts, Mahajans or traders, and lated rock, contains the mahārājā's palace, a large and handsome Jāts. The Charans, a sacred race, hold large religious grants of building, completely covering the crest of the hill on which it land, and enjoy peculiar immunities as traders in local produce. stands, and overlooking the city, which lies several hundred feet The Bhāts are by profession genealogists, but also engage in below. The city contains palaces of the mahārājā, and town trade. Mārwāri traders are an enterprising class to be found residences of the thâkurs or nobles, besides numerous fine temples throughout the length and breadth of India. and tanks. Building stone is plentiful and close at hand, and The principal crops are millets and pulses, but wheat and the architecture is solid and handsome. Three miles north of barley are largely produced in the fertile tract watered by the Jodhpur are the ruins of Mandor, the site of the ancient capital Lūni river. The manufactures comprise leather boxes and of the Parihar princes of Mārwār, before its conquest by the brass utensils; and turbans and scarfs and a description of em- Rathors. Mills for grinding flour and crushing grain have been broidered silk knotted thread are specialities of the country. constructed for the imperial service troops. The Jaswant The Mahārājā belongs to the Rathor clan of Rājputs. The college is affiliated to the B.A. standard of the Allahabad univer- family chronicles relate that after the downfall of the Rathor sity. To the Hewson hospital a wing for eye discases was added dynasty of Kanauj in 1194, Sivajī, the grandson of Jāi Chānd, in 1898, and the Jaswant hospital for women is under an English the last king of Kanauj, entered Mārwār on a pilgrimage to lady doctor. Dwarka, and on halting at the town of Pāli he and his followers JOEL. The second book among the minor prophets in the settled there to protect the Brāhman community from the con- Bible is entitled The word of Yahweh that came to Joel the son of stant raids of marauding bands. The Rathor chief thus laid the Pethuel, or, as the Septuagint, Latin, Syriac and other versions foundation of the state, but it was not till the time of Rão Chānda, read, Bethuel. Nothing is recorded as to the date or occasion the tenth in succession from Sivajī, that Mārwār was actually of the prophecy. Most Hebrew prophecies contain pointed conquered. His grandson Jodha founded the city of Jodhpur, references to the foreign politics and social relations of the nation which he made his capital. In 1561 the country was invaded at the time. In the book of Joel there are only scanty allusions by Akbar, and the chief was forced to submit, and to send his to Phoenicians, Philistines, Egypt and Edom, couched in terms son as a mark of homage to take service under the Mogul emperor. applicable to very different ages, while the prophet's own people When this son Udāi Singh succeeded to the chiefship, he gave are exhorted to repentance without specific reference to any of his sister Jodhbāi in marriage to Akbar, and was rewarded by the those national sins of which other prophets speak. The occasion restoration of most of his former possessions. Udāi Singh's son, of the prophecy, described with great force of rhetoric, is no Gaj Singh, held high service under Akbar, and conducted success known historical event, but a plague of locusts, perhaps repeated ful expeditions in Gujarat and the Deccan. The bigoted and in successive seasons; and even here there are features in the intolerant Aurangzeb invaded Mārwār in 1679, plundered Jodh- description which have led many expositors to seek an allegorical pur, sacked all the large towns, and commanded the conversion interpretation. The most remarkable part of the book is the of the Rathors to Mahommedanism. This cemented all the eschatological picture with which it closes; and the way in which Rājput clans into a bond of union, and a triple alliance was the plague of locusts appears to be taken as foreshadowing the formed by the three states of Jodhpur, Udāipur and Jaipur, to final judgment—the great day or assize of Yahweh, in which throw off the Mahommedan yoke. One of the conditions of Israel's enemies are destroyed-is so unique as greatly to com- this alliance was that the chiefs of Jodhpur and Jaipur should plicate the exegetical problem. It is not therefore surprising regain the privilege of marriage with the Udāipur family, which that the most various views are still held as to the date and mean- they had forfeited by contracting alliances with the Mogul em- ing of the book. Allegorists and literalists still contend over the perors, on the understanding that the offspring of Udāipur first and still more over the second chapter, and, while the largest princesses should succeed to the state in preference to all other number of recent interpreters accept Credner's view that the children. The quarrels arising from this stipulation lasted prophecy was written in the reign of Joash of Judah (835– through many generations, and led to the invitation of Mahratta 796 B.C.?), a powerful school of critics (including A. B. Davidson) help from the rival aspirants to power, and finally to the sub- follow the view suggested by Vatke (Bib. Theol. p. 462 seq.), jection of all the Rājput states to the Mahrattās. Jodhpur was and reckon Joel among the post-exile prophets. Other scholars conquered by Sindhia, who levied a tribute of £60,000, and took give yet other dates: see the particulars in the elaborate work from it the fort and town of Ajmere. Internecine disputes and of Merx. The followers of Credner are literalists; the opposite succession wars disturbed the peace of the early years of the school of moderns includes some literalists (as Duhm), while ceniury, until in January 1818 Jodhpur was taken under British others (like Hilgenfeld, and in a modified sense Merx) adopt protection. In 1839 the misgovernment of the räjā led to an the old allegorical interpretation which treats the locusts as a insurrection which compelled the interference of the British. figure for the enemies of Jerusalem. In 1843, the chief having died without a son, and without having There are cogent reasons for placing Joel either earlier or later adopted an heir, the nobles and state officials were left to select than the great series of prophets extending from the time when a successor from the nearest of kin. Their choice fell upon Rājā Amos first proclaimed the approach of the Assyrian down to the Takht Sinh, chief of Ahmednagar. This chief, who did good collectively, and among those specified by name neither Assyria nor Babylonian exile. In Joel the enemies of Israel are the nations service during the Mutiny, died in 1873. Mahārājā Jaswant Chaldaea finds a place. This circumstance might, if it stood alone, Singh, who died in 1896, was a very enlightened ruler. His be explained by placing Joel with Zephaniah in the brief interval brother, Sir Pertab Singh (q.v.), conducted the administration between the decline of the empire of Nineveh and the advance of until his nephew, Sardar Singh, came of age in 1898. The the Babylonians. But it is further obvious that Joel has no part imperial service cavalry formed part of the reserve brigade try which occupied all the prophets from Amos to the captivity. in the internal struggle between spiritual Yahweh-worship and idola. during the Tirah campaign. He presupposes a nation of Yahweh-worshippers, whose religion The state maintains a railway running to Bikanir, and there has its centre in the temple and priesthood of Zion, which is indeed is also a branch railway into Sind. Gold, silver and copper Spirit, but is not visibly divided, as the kingdom of Judah was conscious of sin, and needs forgiveness and an outpouring of the money is coined. The state emblems are a jhar or sprig of seven between the adherents of spiritual prophecy and a party whose branches and a khanda or sword. Jodhpur practically escaped national worship of Yahweh involved for them no fundamental the plague, but it suffered more severely than any other part of separation from the surrounding nations. The book, therefore, Rajputana from the famine of 1899–1900. In February 1900 conceptions of Yahweh came into conscious antagonism, or else must have been written before the ethico-spiritual and the popular more than 110,000 persons were in receipt of famine relief. after the fall of the state and the restoration of the community The city of JODHPUR is 64 m. by rail N.W. of Mārwār junction, of Jerusalem to religious rather than political existence had decided JOEL < 429 the contest in favour of the prophets, and of the Law in which their , Joash. From this time down to the last period of the Hebrew teaching was ultimately crystallized. monarchy Egypt was not the enemy of Judali. The considerations which have given currency to an early date If the arguments chiefly relied on for an early date are so pre- for Joel are of various kinds. The absence of all mention of one great carious or can even be turned against their inventors, there are oppressing world-power seems most natural before the westward others of an unambiguous kind which make for'a date in the Persian march of Assyria involved Israel in the general politics of Asia. period. It appears from ch. iii. 1, 2, that Joel wrote after the exile. The purity of the style is also urged, and a comparison of Amos i. 2, The phrase "to bring again the captivity would not alone suffice Joel lii. 16 (Heb. iv. 16), and Amos ix. 13, Joel iii. 18 (iv. 18), has to prove this, for it is used in a wide sense, and perhaps means been taken as proving that Amos knew our book. The last argument rather to "reverse the calamity," + but the dispersion of Israel might be inverted with much gſeater probability, and numerous among the nations, and the allotment of the Holy Land to new occu- points of contact between Joel and other parts of the Old Testament pants, cannot fairly be referred to any calamity less than that of the (e.g. Joel ii. 2, Exod. x. 14: Joel ii. 3, Ezek. xxxvi, 35; Joel iii, 10, captivity: With this the whole standpoint of the prophecy agrees. Mic. iv. 3) make it not incredible that the purity of his style which To Joel Judah and the people of Yahweh are synonyms; northern is rather elegant than original and strongly marked-is in large Israel has disappeared. Now it is true that those who take their measure the fruit of literary culture. The absence of allusion to a view of the history from Chronicles, where the kingdom of Ephraim hostile or oppressing empire may be fairly taken in connexion with is always treated as a sect outside the true religion, can reconcile the fact that the prophecy gives no indication of political life at this fact with an early date. But in ancient times it was not so; Jerusalem. When the whole people is mustered in ch. i., the elders and under Joash, the contemporary of Elisha, such a limitation or sheikhs of the municipality and the priests of the temple are the of the people of Yahweh is wholly inconceivable. The earliest most prominent figures. The king is not mentioned-which on prophetic books have a quite different standpoint; otherwise indeed Credner's view is explained by assuming that the plague fell in the the books of northern prophets and historians could never have been minority of Joash, when the priest Jehoiada held the reins of power- admitted into the Jewish canon. Again, the significant fact that and the princes, councillors and warriors necessary to an independent there is no mention of a king and princes, but only of sheikhs and state, and so often referred to by the prophets before the exile, priests, has a force not to be invalidated by the ingenious reference are altogether lacking. The nation has only a municipal organiza- of the book to the time of Joash's minority and the supposed tion with a priestly aristocracy, precisely the state of things that regency of Jehoiada. And the assumption that there was a period prevailed under the Persian empire. That the Persians do not appear before the prophetic conflicts of the 8th century B.C. when spiritual as enemies of Yahweh and his people is perfectly natural. They were prophecy had unchallenged sway, when there was no gross idolatry hard masters but not invaders, and under them the enemies of the or superstition, when the priests of Jerusalem, acting in accord with Jews were their neighbours, just as appears in Joel.' Those, however, prophets like Joel, held the same place as heads of a pure worship who place our prophet in the minority of King Joash draw a special which they occupied after the exile (cf. Ewald, Propheten, i. 89), argument from the mention of Phoenicians, Philistines and Edomites is not consistent with history, It rests on the old theory of the (iii. 4 seq., 19), pointing to the revolt of Edom under Joram (2 Kings antiquity of the Levitical legislation, so that in fact all who place viii. 20) and the incursion of the Philistines in the same reign that legislation later than Ezekiel are agreed that the book of Joel (2 Chron. xxi. 16, xxii. 1). These were recent events in the time of is also late. In this connexion one point deserves special notice. Joash, and in like manner the Phoenician slave trade in Jewish | The religious significance of the plague of drought and locusts is children is carried back to an early date by the reference in Amos i. 9. expressed in ch. i. g in the observation that the daily meat and drink This argument is rather specious than sound. Edom's hostility to offering are cut off, and the token of new blessing is the restoration Judah was incessant, but the feud reached its full intensity, only of this service, ch. ii. 14. In other words, the daily offering is the after the time of Deuteronomy (xxiii. 7), when the Edomites joined continual symbol of gracious intercourse between Yahweh and his the Chaldaeans, drew profit from the overthrow of the Jews, whose people and the main office of religion. This conception, which land they partly occupied, and exercised barbarous cruelty towards finds its parallel in Dan. viii. 11, xi. 31, xii. 11, is quite in accordance the fugitives of Jerusalem (Obad. passim; Mal. i. 2 seq.; Isa. Ixni.); with the later law. But under the monarchy the daily oblation was The offence of shedding innocent blood charged on them by Joel the king's private offering, and not till Ezra's reformation did it is natural after these events, but hardly so in connexion with the become the affair of the community and the central act of national revolt against Joram. worship (Neh. x. 33 seq.). That Joel wrote not only after the exile As regards the Philistines, it is impossible to lay much weight on but after the work of Ezra and Nchemiah may be viewed as confirmed the statement of Chronicles, unsupported as it is by the older history, by the allusions to the walls of Jerusalem in ch. ii. 7, 9. Such is and in Joel the Philistines plainly stand in one category, with the the historical basis which we seem to be able to lay for the study of Phoenicians, as slave dealers, not as armed foes. Gaza in fact was a the exegetical problems of the book. slave emporium as early as the time of Amos (i. 6), and continued so till Roman times. The style of Joel is clear (which hardly favours an early date), Thus, if any inference as to date can be drawn from ch. iii., it and his language presents peculiarities which are evidences of a must rest on special features of the trade in slaves, which was always late origin. But the structure of the book, the symbolism and an important part of the commerce of the Levant. In the time of the connexion of the prophet's thoughts have given rise to much Amos the slaves collected by Philistines and Tyrians were sold en masse to Edom, and presumably went to Egypt or Arabia. Joel controversy. It seems safest to start from the fact that the complains that they were sold to the Grecians (Javan, Ionians). prophecy is divided into two well-marked sections by ch. ii. 18, It is probable that some Hebrew and Syrian slaves were exported Iga. According to the Massoretic vocalization, which is in to the Mediterranean coasts from a very early date, and Isa. xi. 11 already speaks of Israelites captive in these districts as well as in harmony with the most ancient exegetical tradition as contained Egypt, Ethiopia and the East. But the traffic in this direction in the LXX, these words are historical: “ Then the Lord was hardly became extensive till a later date. In Deut. xxviii. 68, jealous, and answered and said unto his people, Behold,” Egypt is still the chief goal of the maritime slave trade, and in &c. Such is the natural meaning of the words as pointed. Ezek. xxvii. 13 Javan exports slaves to Tyre, not conversely. Thus the allusion to Javan in Joel better suits a later date, when Syrian Thus the book falls into two parts. In the first the prophet slaves were in special request in Greece. And the name of Javan is speaks in his own name, addressing himself to the people in a not found in any part of the Old Testament certainly older than lively description of a present calamity caused by a terrible plague Ezekiel. In Joel it seems to stand as a general representative of of locusts which threatens the entire destruction of the country, the distant countries reached by the Mediterranean (in contrast and appears to be the vehicle of a final consuming judgment with the southern Arabians, Sabaeans, ch. iii. 8), the farthest nation reached by the fleets of the Red Sea. This is precisely the geographi- (the day of Yahweh). There is no hope save in repentance and cal standpoint of the post-exile author of Gen. x. 4, where (assuming prayer; and in ch. ii. 12 the prophet, speaking now for the first that Elishah = Carthage and Tarshish = Tartessus) Javan includes time in Yahweh's name, calls the people to a solemn fast at the Carthage and Tartessus. Finally, the allusion to Egypt in Joel iii. 19 must on Credner's sanctuary, and invites the intercession of the priests. The theory be explained of the invasion of Shishak a century before calamity is described in the strongest colours of Hebrew hyper- bole, and it seems arbitrary to seek too literal an interpretation 1 In the A.V. of ii. 17 it appears that subjection to a foreign power is not a present fact but a thing feared. But the parallelism and of details, e.g. to lay weight on the four names of locusts, or to v. 19 justify the rendering in margin of R.V. “ use a byword against take ch. i. 20 of a conflagration produced by drought, when it them. appears from ii. 3 that the ravages of the locusts themselves are ? The hypothesis of an Arabian Javan, applied to Joel iii. 6 by compared to those of fire. But when due allowance is made for Credner, Hitzig, and others, may be viewed as exploded (see Stade, "DasVolk Javan,"1880, reprinted in his Akad. Reden u. Abhandlungen, * See Ewald on Jer. xlviii. 47, Kuenen, Theol. Tijdschrift (1873), 1899, pp. 123-142). The question, however, has to be re-examined p. 519; Schwally, Ž.A.T.W., viii. 200, and Briggs on Ps. xiv. 7. later interpreters, e.g: the LXX translators, may have misunder- Stade not unreasonably questions whether 2 Kings xii. 1-3 stood. The text of the passages has to be critically treated anew. implies the paramount political influence of Jehoiada. See Cheyne, Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel (on Gen. x. 2). • See Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels, p. 78 seq.; Prolegomena zur 3 Compare Movers, Phönizisches Alterthum, iii. i. 70 seq. Gesch. Israels (1883), p. 82 seq. 430 JOEL, M.-JOFFRIN Eastern rhetoric, there is no occasion to seek in this section | affinity between Joel and Ezekiel, this word inevitably suggests anything else than literal locusts. Nay, the allegorical interpre- Gog and Magog, and it is difficult to see how a swarm of locusts tation, wilich takes the locusts to be hostile invaders, breaks could receive such a name, or if they came from the north could through the laws of all reasonable writing; for the poetical hyper- perish, as the verse puts it, in the desert between the Mediter- bole which compares the invading swarms to an army (ii. 4 seq.) rancan and the Dead Sea. The verse remains a crux interpretum, would be inconceivably lame if a literal army was already con- and no exegesis hitherto given can be deemed thoroughly satis- cealed under the figure of the locusts. Nor could the prophet so factory; but the interpretation of the whole book must not be far forget himself in his allegory as to speak of a victorious host made to hinge on a single word in a verse which might be alto- as entering the conquered city like a thief (ii. 9). The second gether removed without affecting the general course of the part of the book is Yahweh's answer to the people's prayer. prophet's argument. The answer begins with a promise of deliverance from famine, The whole verse is perhaps the addition of an allegorizing and of fruitful seasons compensating for the ravages of the locusts. glossator. The prediction in v. 19, that the seasons shall hence- In the new prosperity of the land the union of Yahweh and his forth be fruitful, is given after Yahweh has shown his zeal and people shall be sealed anew, and so the Lord will proceed to pity for Israel, not of course by mere words, but by acts, as pour down further and higher blessings. The aspiration of appears in verses 20, 21, where the verbs are properly perfects Moses (Num. xi. 29) and the hope of earlier prophets (Isa. xxxii. recording that Yahweh hath already done great things, and that 15, lix. 21; Jer. xxxi . 33) shall be fully realized in the outpouring vegetation has already revived. In other words, the mercy of the Spirit on all the Jews and even upon their servants (Isa. already experienced in the removal of the plague is taken as a lxi. 5 with lvi. 6, 7); and then the great day of judgment, which pledge of future grace not to stop short till all God's old promises had seemed to overshadow Jerusalem in the now averted plague, are fulfilled. In this context 0. 20 is out of place. Observe shall draw near with awful tokens of blood and fire and darkness. also that in 0. 25 the locusts are spoken of in the plain language But the terrors of that day are not for the Jews but for their of chap. i. enemies. The worshippers of Yahweh on Zion shall be delivered (cf. Obad. v. 17, whose words Joel expressly quotes in ch. ii. 32), (1872), Merx (1879). The last-named gives an elaborate history of See the separate commentaries on Joel by Credner (1831), Wünsche and it is their heathen enemies, assembled before Jerusalem interpretation from the Septuagint down to Calvin, and appends to war against Yahweh, who shall be mowed down in the valley the Ethiopic text edited by Dillmann. Nowackand Martishould also of Jehoshaphat (“ Yahweh judgeth") by no human arm, but Smith, in The Book of the Twelve Prophets, vol. i. (1896), and S. R. be consulted (see their respective series of commentaries); also G. A. by heavenly warriors. Thus definitively freed from the profane Driver, Joel and Amos (1897). On the language of Joel, see Holzinger, foot of the stranger (Isa. lii. 1), Jerusalem shall abide a holy city 2. A. T. W. (1889), pp. 89-131. Of older commentaries the most for ever. The fertility of the land shall be such as was long ago also be consulted. valuable is Pocock's (Oxford, 1691). Bochart's Hierozoïcon may predicted in Amos ix. 13, and streams issuing from the Temple, (W. R. S.; T. K. C.) as Ezekiel had described in his picture of the restored Jerusalem JOEL, MANUEL (1826–1890), Jewish philosopher and preacher. (Ezek. xlvii.), shall fertilize the barren Wādi of Acacias. Egypt After teaching for several years at the Breslau rabbinical semi- and Edom, on the other hand, shall be desolate, because they nary, founded by Z. Frankel, he became the successor of Abraham have shed the blood of Yahweh's innocents. Compare the Geiger in the rabbinate of Breslau. He made important con- similar predictions against Edom, Isa. xxxiv. 9 seq. (Mal. i. 3), tributions to the history of the school of Aqiba (2.v.) as well as and against Egypt, Isa. xix. 5 seq., Ezek. xxix. Joel's eschato- to the history of Jewish philosophy, his essays on Ibn Gabirol logical picture appears indeed to be largely a combination of and Maimonides being of permanent worth. But his most elements from older unfulfilled prophecies. Its central feature, influential work was connected with the relations between the assembling of the nations to judgment, is already found in Jewish philosophy and the medieval scholasticism. He showed, Zeph. iii. 8, and in Ezekiel's prophecy concerning Gog and Magog, how Albertus Magnus derived some of his ideas from Maimonides where the wonders of fire and blood named in Joel ii. 30 are also and how Spinoza was indebted to the same writer, as well as to mentioned (Ezek. xxxviii. 22). The other physical features of the Hasdai Crescas. These essays were collected in two volumes great day, the darkening of the lights of heaven, are a standing of Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie (1876), while another figure of the prophets from Amos v. 6, viii. 9, downwards. It is two volumes of Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte (1880-1883) characteristic of the prophetic eschatology that images suggested threw much light on the development of religious thought in the by one prophet are adopted by his successors, and gradually early centuries of the Christian era. Equally renowned were become part of the permanent scenery of the last times; and it is Joel's pulpit addresses. Though he was no orator, his appeal to a proof of the late date of Joel that almost his whole picture is the reason was effective, and in their published form his three made of such features. In this respect there is a close paral- volumes of Predigten (issued posthumously) have found many lelism, extending to minor details, between Joel and the last readers. (1. A.) chapters of Zechariah. JOFFRIN, JULES FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE (1846–1890), That Joel's delineation of the final deliverance and glory French politician, was born at Troyes on the 16th of March 1846. attaches itself directly to the deliverance of the nation from a He served in the Franco-German War, was involved in the present calamity is quite in the manner of the so-called prophetic Commune, and spent eleven years in England as a political exile. perspective. But the fact that the calamity which bulks so He attached himself to the “ possibilist group of the socialist largely is natural and not political is characteristic of the post-party, the section opposed to the root-and-branch measures of exile period. Other prophets of the same age speak much of Jules Guesde. He became a member of the municipal council dearth and failure of crops, which in Palestine then as now were of Paris in 1882, and vice-president in 1888–1889. Violently aggravated by bad government, and were far more serious to attacked by the Boulangist organs, L'Intransigeant and La a small and isolated community than they could ever have been France, he won a suit against them for libel, and in 1889 he con- to the old kingdom. It was indeed by no means impossible tested the 18th arrondissement of Paris with General Boulanger, that Jerusalem might have been altogether undone by the famine who obtained a majority of over 2000 votes, but was declared caused by the locusts; and so the conception of these visitants ineligible. Joffrin was only admitted to the Chamber after a as the destroying army, executing Yahweh's final judgment, heated discussion, and continued to be attacked by the nation- is really much more ural than appears to us at first sight, and alists. He died in Paris on the 17th of September 1890. does not need to be explained away by allegory. The chief current popular corruption of shimo'n= Ishmael. In Ezek. xxxviii. argument relied upon by those who still find allegory at least in 15 it is distinctly said that Gog is to come from the recesses of ch. ii. is the expression haşşephònī, “ the northerner ”i (if this Şãphon. “Meshech" and Tubal are no hindrance to this view, rendering is correct), in ii. 20. In view of the other points of if the names of the so-called." sons of Japheth " are critically exam- ined. For they, too, as well as Sāphón, can be plausibly shown to " It has been suggested that Șaphon, which is often rather trouble. represent regions of North Arabia. See Cheyne, Traditions and Beliefs some iſ rendered "the north," may be a weakened form of șib'on, a of Anc. Israel, on Gen. x. 2-4. up 00 ? JOGUES—JOHANNESBURG 431 vue. JOGUES, ISAAC (1607-1646), French missionary in North | offices, a handsome block of buildings with a façade 200 ft. long America, was born at Orleans on the roth of January 1607. and a tower 106 ft. high. The square itself, a quarter of a mile He entered the Society of Jesus at Rouen in 1624, and in 1636 long, is the la gest in South Africa. The offices of the Witwaters. was ordained and sent, by his own wish, to the Huron mission. rand chamber of mines face the market buildings. The stock In 1639 he went among the Tobacco Nation, and in 1641 jour- exchange is in Marshall Square. The telephone exchange is in neyed to Sault Sainte Marie, where he preached to the Algon- the centre of the city, in Von Brandis Square. The law courts quins. Returning from an expedition to Three Rivers he was are in the centre of Government Square, The Transvaal captured by Mohawks, who tortured him and kept him as a slave university college is in Plein Square, a little south of Park station. until the summer of 1643, when, aided by some Dutchmen, he In the vicinity is St Mary's (Anglican) parish hall (1905-1907), escaped to the manor of Rensselaerwyck and thence to New the first portion of a large building planned to take the place of Amsterdam. After a brief visit to France, where he was treated “Old” Șt Mary's Church, the “mother” church of the Rand, with high honour, he returned to the Mohawk country in May built in 1887. The chief Jewish synagogue is in the same neigh- 1646 and ratified a treaty between that tribe and the Canadian bourhood. In Kerk Street, on the outskirts of central Johannes- government. Working among them as the founder of the burg, is the Roman Catholic Church of the Immaculate Con- Mission of the Martyrs, he incurred their enmity, was tortured'asception, the headquarters of the vicar apostolic of the Transvaal. ą sorcerer, and finally killed at Ossernenon, near Auriesville, N.Y. North of Joubert's Park is the general hospital, and beyond, See Parkman, The Jesuits in North America (1898). near the crest of the hills, commanding the town and the road JOHANAN BEN ZACCAI, Palestinian rabbi, contemporary used as a gaol. On the hills, some 3 m. E.N.E. of the town, is to Pretoria, is a fort built by the Boer government and now of the Apostles. He was a disciple of Hillel (g.v.), and after the observatory, built in 1903. Johannesburg has several the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Titus was the main instrument in the preservation of the Jewish religion. During a race-course 2 m. south of the town under the control of the theatres and buildings adapted for public meetings. There is the last decades of the Temple Johanan was a member of the Sanhedrin and a skilled controversialist against the Sadducees. Johannesburg Turf Club. The Suburbs.-North, east and west of the city proper are He is also reported to have been head of a great school the capital. In the war with Rome he belonged to the peace party, fashionable are to the east and north-Jeppestown, Belgravia, suburbs, laid out on the same rectangular plan. The most and finding that the Zealots were resolved on carrying their Doornfontein, the Berea, Hillbrow, Parktown, Yeoville and Belle- revolt to its inevitable sequel, Johanan had himself conveyed Braamfontein (with a large cemetery) lies north-west and out of Jerusalem in a coffin. In the Roman camp the rabbi was courteously received, and Vespasian (whose future elevation Fordsburg due west of the city. At Fordsburg are the gas and electric light and power works, and north of Doornfontein there to the imperial dignity Johanan, like Josephus, is said to have is a large reservoir. There are also on the Rand, and dependent foretold) agreed to grant him any boon he desired. Johanan obtained permission to found a college at Jamnia (Jabneh), ties-Germiston and Boksburg (9.v.), respectively 9 m. and 15 m. on the gold-mining, three towns possessing separate municipali- which became the centre of Jewish culture. It practically E. of Johannesburg, and Krugersdorp (9.v.), 21 m. W. exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin (see Jews, $ 40 ad fin.). That chief literary expression of Pharisaism, the city are the gold mines, indicated by tall chimneys, battery The Mines and other Industries.--South, east and west of the Mishnah, was the outcome of the work begun at Jamnia. houses and the compounds of the labourers. The bare veld Johanan solaced his disciples on the fall of the Temple by the is dotted with these unsightly buildings for a distance of over double thought that charity could replace sacrifice, and that a life devoted to the religious law could form a fitting continuation Characteristic of the Rand is the fine white dust arising from the fifty miles. The mines are worked on the most scientific lines. of the old theocratic state. “Johanan felt the fall of his people crushing of the ore, and, close to the batteries, the incessant din more deeply than anyone else, but—and in this lies his historical caused by the stamps employed in that operation. The com- importance—he did more than any one else to prepare the way pounds in general, especially those originally made for Chinese for Israel to rise again” (Bacher). labourers, are well built, comfortable, and fulfil every hygienic See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. ch. xiii. ; requirement. Besides the buildings, the compounds include Weiss, Dor dor ve-doreshav, ii. 36; Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaiten, wide stretches of veld. To enter and remain in the district, vol. i. ch. iii. (I. A.) Kaffirs require a monthly pass for which the employer pays 2s. JOHANNESBURG, à city of the Transvaal and the centre of(For details of gold-mining, see Gold.) A railway traverses the Rand gold-mining industry. It is the most populous city the Rand, going westward past Krugersdorp to Klerksdorp and and the commercial capital of South Africa. It is built on the thence to Kimberley, and eastward past Springs to Delagoa Bay. southern slopes of the Witwatersrand in 26° 11' S. 28° 2' E., at From Springs, 25 m. E. of Johannesburg, is obtained much of an elevation of 5764 ft. above the sea. The distances by rail the coal used in the Rand mines. from Johannesburg to the following seaports are: Lourenço The mines within the municipal area produce nearly half the Marques, 364 m.; Durban, 483 m.; East London, 659 m.; Port total gold output of the Transvaal. The other industries of Elizabeth, 714 m.; Cape Town, 957 m. Pretoria is, by rail, 46 m. Johannesburg include brewing, printing and book binding, N. by E. timber sawing, flour milling, iron and brass founding, brick The town lies immediately north of the central part of the main making and the manufacture of tobacco. gold reef. The streets run in straight lines east and west or Health, Education and Social Conditions.—The elevation of north and south. The chief open spaces are Market Square in Johannesburg makes it, despite its nearness to the tropics, a the west and Government Square in the south of the town. healthy place for European habitation. Built on open undu- Park railway station lies north of the business quarter, and lating ground, the town is, however, subject to frequent dust farther north are the Wanderers' athletic sports ground and storms and to considerable variations in the temperature. The Joubert's Park. The chief business streets, such as Commis- nights in winter are frosty and snow falls occasionally. The sioner Street, Market Street, President Street and Pritchard average day temperature in winter is 53° F., in summer 75°; Street, run east and west. In these thoroughfares and in the average annual rainfall is 28 in. The death-rate among white several of the streets which intersect them are the offices of the inhabitants averages about 17 per thousand. The principal mining companies, the banks, clubs, newspaper offices, hotels causes of death, both among the white and coloured inhabitants, and shops, the majority being handsome stone or brick buildings, are diseases of the lungs—including miners' phthisis and pneu- while the survival of some wooden shanties and corrugated iron monia—diarrhoea, dysentery and enteric. The death-rate buildings recalls the early character of the town. among young children is very high. Chief Buildings, &C.-In the centre of Market Square are the Education is provided. in primary and secondary schools market buildings, and at its east end the post and telegraph maintained by the state. In the primary schools education is 432 JOHANNISBERG—JOHN free but not compulsory. The Transvaal university college, Since 1887 the management of the town had been entrusted to founded in 1904 as the technical institute (the change of title a nominated sanitary board, under the chairmanship of the being made in 1906), provides full courses in science, mining, mining commissioner appointed by the South African Republic. engineering and law. In 1906 Alfred Beit (q.v.) bequeathed In 1890 elected members had been admitted to this board, but £200,000 towards the cost of erecting and equipping university at the end of 1897 an elective stadsraad (town council) was buildings. constituted, though its functions were strictly limited. There In its social life Johannesburg differs widely from Cape Town was a great development in the mining industry during 1897– and Durban. The white population is not only far larger but 1898 and 1899, the value of the gold extracted in 1898 more cosmopolitan, less stationary and more dependent on a exceeding £15,000,000, but the political situation grew worse, single industry; it has few links with the past, and both city and and in September 1899, owing to the imminence of war between citizens bear the marks of youth. The cost of living is much the Transvaal and Great Britain, the majority of the Uitlanders higher than in London or New York. House rent, provisions, fled from the city. Between October 1899, when war broke out, clothing, are all very dear, and more than counterbalance the and the 31st of May 1900, when the city was taken by the British, lowness of rates. The customary unit of expenditure is the the Boer government worked certain mines for their own benefit. threepenny-bit or“ tickey." After a period of military administration and of government by a Sanitary and other Services.—There is an ample supply of water nominated town council, an ordinance was passed in June 1903 to the town and mines, under a water board representing all the providing for elective municipal councils, and in December Rand municipalities and the mining companies. A water-following the first election to the new council took place. In 1905 borne sewerage system began to be introduced in 1906. The the town was divided into wards. In that year the number of general illuminant is electricity, and both electrical and gas municipal voters was 23,338. In 1909 the proportional repre- services are owned by the municipality. The tramway service, sentation system was adopted in the election of town councillors. opened in 1891, was taken over by the municipality in 1904. During 1901-1903, while the war was still in progress or but Up to 1906 the trams were horse-drawn; in that year electric recently concluded, the gold output was comparatively slight. cars began running. Rickshaws are also a favourite means of The difficulty in obtaining sufficient labour for the mines led to conveyance. The police force is controlled by the government. a successful agitation for the importation of coolies from China Area, Government and Rateable Value.—The city proper covers (see TRANSVAAL: History). During 1904-1906 over 50,000 about 6 sq. m. The municipal boundary extends in every coolies were brought to the mines, a greatly increased output direction some 5 m. from Market Square, encloses about 82 sq. m. being the result, the value of the gold extracted in 1905 exceeding and includes several of the largest mines. The local government | £20,000,000. Notwithstanding the increased production of is carried on by an elected municipal council, the franchise gold, Johannesburg during 1905-1907 passed through a period being restricted to white British subjects (men and women) who- of severe commercial depression, the result in part of the un- rent or own property of a certain value. In 1908 the rateable settled political situation. In June 1907 the repatriation of the value of the municipality was £36,466,644, the rate 2 d. in the £, Chinese coolies began; it was completed in February 1910. and the town debt £5,500,000. An excellent compilation, entitled Johannesburg Statistics, dealing Population. In 1887 the population was about 3000. By with almost every phase of the city's life, is issued monthly (since the beginning of 1890 it had increased to over 25,000. A census January 1905) by the town council. See also the Post Office Direc- taken in July 1896 showed a population within a radius of tory, Transvaal (Johannesburg, annually), which contains specially 3 m. from Market Square of 102,078, of whom 50,907 were prepared maps, and the annual reports of the Johannesburg chamber For the political history of Johannesburg, see the whites. At the census of April 1904 the inhabitants of the city bibliography under TRANSVAAL. proper numbered 99,022, the population within the municipal area being 155,642, of whom 83,363 were whites. Of the white. JOHANNISBERG, a village of Germany, in the Prussian inhabitants, 35 % were of British origin, 51,629 were males, province of Hesse-Nassau, in the Rheingau, on the right bank and 31,734 females. Of persons aged sixteen or over, the number of the Rhine, 6 m. S. of Rüdesheim by railway. The place is of males was almost double the number of females. The coloured mainly celebrated for the beautiful Schloss which crowns a hill population included about 7000 British Indians--chiefly small overlooking the Rhine valley, and is surrounded by vineyards traders. A municipal census taken in August 1908 gave the yielding the famous Johannisberger wine. The Schloss, built in following result: whites 95,162; natives and coloured 78,781; 1757-1759 by the abbots of Fulda on the site of a Benedictine Asiatics 6780--total 180,687. monastery founded in 1990, was bestowed, in 1807, by Napoleon History.- Johannesburg owes its existence to the discovery upon Marshal Kellermann. In 1814 it was given by Francis, of gold in the Witwatersrand reefs. The town, named after emperor of Austria, to Prince Metternich, in whose family it Johannes Rissik, then surveyor-general of the Transvaal, was still remains. founded in September 1886, the first buildings being erected on JOHN (Heb. ini), Yoḥānān, “ Yahweh has been gracious,” the part of the reef where are now the Ferreira and Wemmer Gr. 'Iwávens, Lat. Joannes, Ital. Giovanni, Span. Juan, Port. mines. These buildings were found to cover valuable ore, and João, Fr. Jean, Ger. Johannes, Johann (abbr. Hans), Gael. Ian, in December following the Boer government marked out the site Pol. and Czech Jan, Hung. János), a masculine proper name of the city proper, and possession of the plots was given to pur-common in all Christian countries, its popularity being due to chasers on the ist of January 1887. The exploitation of the its having been borne by the “ Beloved Disciple" of Christ, St mines led to a rapid development of the town during the next John the Evangelist, and by the forerunner of Christ, St John the The year 1890 was one of great depression Baptist. It has been the name of twenty-two popes-the style following the exhaustion of the surface ore, but the provision of of Popes John XXII. and XXIII. being due to an error in the better machinery and cheaper coal led to a revival in 1891. By number assumed by John XXI. (q.v.)—and of many sovereigns, 1892 the leading mines had proved their dividend-earning capa- princes, &c. The order followed in the biographical notices city, and in 1895 there was a great “ boom” in the shares of the below is as follows: (1) the Apostle, (2) the Baptist, (3) popes, mining companies. The linking of the town to the seaports by (4) Roman emperors, (5) kings; John of England first, the rest railways during 1892–1895 gave considerable impetus to the gold in the alphabetical order of their countries, (6) other sovereign mining industry. Material prosperity was accompanied, how- princes, (7) non-sovereign princes, (8) saints, (9) theologians, ever, by political, educational and other disadvantages, and the chroniclers, &c. Those princes who are known by a name in desire of the Johannesburgers--most of whom were foreigners addition to John (John Albert, &c.) will be found after the or “ Uitlanders ”--to remedy the grievances under which they | article John, GOSPEL OF. suffered led, in January 1896, to an abortive rising against the JOHN, THE APOSTLE, in the Bible, was the son of Zebedee, a Boer government (see TRANSVAAL: History). One result of this Galilean fisherman, and Salome. It is probable that he was born movement was a slight advance in municipal self-government. I at Bethsaida, where along with his brother James he followed of commerce. three years. JOHN THE BAPTIST 433 (0 <6 "1 his father's occupation. The family appears to have been in | l’Egl., 1906) exhibit, with papal approbation, the inconclusive- easy circumstances; at least we find that Zebedee employed ness of the conservative arguments. hired servants, and that Salome was among those women who The opponents of the tradition lay weight on the absence of contributed to the maintenance of Jesus (Mark i. 20, xv. 40, 41, positive evidence before the latter part of the 2nd century, xvi. 1). John's “call” to follow our Lord occurred simulta- especially in Papias and in the epistles of Ignatius and of neously with that addressed to his brother, and shortly after Irenaeus's authority, Polycarp. They find it necessary to that addressed to the brothers Andrew and Simon Peter (Mark i. assume that Irenaeus mistook Polycarp; but this is not a difficult 19, 20). John speedily took his place among the twelve apostles, task, since already Eusebius (c. 310–313) is compelled to point sharing with James the title of Boanerges (“sons of thunder," out that Papias testifies to two Johns, the Apostle and a perhaps strictly sons of anger," i.e. men readily angered), and presbyter, and that Irenaeus is mistaken in identifying those became a member of that inner circle to which, in addition to two Johns, and in holding that Papias had seen John the his brother, Peter alone belonged (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiv. 33). Apostle (H.E. iii. 39, 5, 2). Irenaeus tells us, doubtless John appears throughout the synoptic record as a zealous, fiery correctly, that Papias was “the companion of Polycarp”: this Jew-Christian. It is he who indignantly complains to Jesus, fact alone would suffice, given his two mistakes concerning “We saw one casting out devils in Thy name, and he followeth Papias, to make Irenaeus decide that Polycarp had seen John not us,” and tells Him, “ We forbade him ” for that reason the Apostle. The chronicler George the Monk (Hamartolus) in (Mark ix. 38); and who with his brother, when a Samaritan the 9th century, and an epitome dating from the 7th or 8th village will not receive Jesus, asks Him, “Wilt thou that we century but probably based on the Chronicle of Philip of Side command fire to come down from heaven and consume them?” (c. 430), declare, on the authority of the second book of Papias, (Luke ix. 54). The book of Acts confirms this tradition. After that John the Zebedean was killed by Jews (presumably in the departure of Jesus, John appears as present in Jerusalem 60-70). Adolf Harnack, Chron. d. altchr. Litt. (1897), pp. 656- with Peter and the other apostles (i. 13); is next to Peter the 680), rejects the assertion; but the number of scholars who most prominent among those who bear testimony to the fact of accept it as correct is distinctly on the increase. (F. v. H.) the resurrection (iii. 12–26, iv. 13, 19–22); and is sent with Peter JOHN THE BAPTIST, in the Bible, the “forerunner " of Jesus to Samaria, to confirm the newly converted Christians there Christ in the Gospel story. By his preaching and teaching he (viii . 14, 25). St Paul tells us similarly that when, on his second evidently made a great impression upon his contemporaries visit to Jerusalem, “ James,” the Lord's brother," and Cephas (cf. Josephus, Ant. xviii., 5). According to the birth-narrative and John, who were considered pillars, perceived the grace that embodied in Luke i. and ii., he was born in " a city of Judah” was given unto me, they gave to me and Barnabas the right in “ the hill country" (possibly Hebron () of priestly parentage. hand of fellowship, that we should go unto the heathen, and His father Zacharias was a priest“ of the course of Abijah," and they unto the circumcision” (Gal. ii. 9). John thus belonged his mother Elizabeth, who was also of priestly descent, was in-46-47 to the Jewish-Christian school; but we do not know related to Mary, the mother of Jesus, whose senior John was by whether to the stricter group of James or to the milder group six months. This narrative of the Baptist's birth seems to of Peter (ibid. ii. 11-14). embody some very primitive features, Hebraic and Palestinian The subsequent history of the apostle is obscure. Polycrates, in character, and possibly at one time independent of the bishop of Ephesus (in Euseb., H. E. iii. 31; V. 24), attests in 196 Christian tradition. In the apocryphal gospels John is some- that John“ who lay on the bosom of the Lord rests at Ephesus ”; times made the subject of special miraculous experiences (e.g. in but previously in this very sentence he has declared that “ Philip the Protevangelium Jacobi, ch. xxii., where Elizabeth fleeing from one of the twelve apostles rests in Hierapolis," although Eusebius Herod's assassins cried: “ Mount of God, receive a mother with (doubtless rightly) identifies this Philip not with the apostle but her child," and suddenly the mountain was divided and received with the deacon-evangelist of Acts xxi. 8. Polycrates also her). declares that John was a priest wearing the métalov (gold In his 30th year (15th year of the emperor Tiberius, ? A.D. plate) that distinguished the high-priestly mitre. Irenaeus in 25-26) John began his public life in the" wilderness of Judaea,"? various passages of his works, 181-191, holds a similar tradition. the wild district that lies between the Kedron and the Dead Sea, He says that John lived up to the time of Trajan and published and particularly in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, where his gospel in Ephesus, and identifies the apostle with John the multitudes were attracted by his eloquence. The central theme disciple of the Lord, who wrote the Apocalypse under Domitian, of his preaching was, according to the Synoptic Gospels, the whom Irenaeus's teacher Polycarp had known personally and of nearness of the coming of the Messianic kingdom, and the whom Polycarp had much to tell. These traditions are accepted consequent urgency for preparation by repentance. John was and enlarged by later authors, Tertullian adding that John was evidently convinced that he himself had received the divine banished to Patmos after he had miraculously survived the commission to bring to a close and complete the prophetic punishment of immersion in burning oil. As it is evident that period, by inaugurating the Messianic age. He identified him- legend was busy with John as early as the time of Polycrates, self with the “ voice" of Isa. xl. 3. Noteworthy features of his the real worth of these traditions requires to be tested by exami- preaching were its original and prophetic character, and its high nation of their ultimate source. This inquiry has been pressed ethical tone, as shown e.g. in its anti-Pharisaic denunciation of upon scholars since the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse trust in mere racial privilege (Matt. iii. 9). Herein also lay, or of the Fourth Gospel, or of both these works, has been probably, the true import of the baptism which he administered disputed. (See JOHN, GOSPEL OF, and REVELATION, BOOK OF.) to those who accepted his message and confessed their sins. It The question has not been strictly one between advanced and was an act symbolizing moral purification (cf. Ezek. xxxvi. 25; conservative criticism, for the Tübingen school recognized the Zech. xiii. 1) by way of preparation for the coming “ kingdom Apocalypse as apostolic, and found in it a confirmation of John's of heaven," and implied that the Jew so baptized no longer residence in Ephesus. On the other hand, Lützelberger (1840), rested in his privileged position as a child of Abraham. John's Th. Keim (Jesus v. Naz., vol. i., 1867), J. H. Scholten (1872), appearance, costume and habits of life, together with the tone H. J. Holtzmann (esp. in Einl. in d. N. T., 3rd ed., 1902), and of his preaching, all suggest the prophetic character. He was other recent writers, wholly reject the tradition. It has had popularly regarded as a prophet, more especially as a second able defenders in Steitz (Stud. u. Krit., 1868), Hilgenfeld (Einl., Elijah. His preaching awoke a great popular response, particu- 1875) and Lightfoot (Essays on Supernatural Religion, collected larly among the masses of the people, " the people of the land.” 1889). W. Sanday (Criticism of Fourth Gospel, 1905) makes He had disciples who fasted (Mark ii. 18, &c.), who visited him passing admissions eloquent as to the strength of the negative position; whilst amongst Roman Catholic scholars, A. Loisy loisa of Luke 1. 39: the tradition which makes 'Ain Karim, near * There is no reason to suppose that Jutta is intended by the roles (Le 4me. Ev., 1903) stands with Holtzmann, and Th. Calmes Jerusalem, the birthplace of the Baptist only dates from the crusad- (Ev. selon S. Jean, 1904, 1906) and L. Duchesne (Hist. anc. de ing period. 2a XV8 434 JOHN (POPES) regularly in prison (Matt. xi. 2, xiv. 12), and to whom he taught | formerly in the chapel of the Virgin, built by him in the basilica special forms of prayer (Luke v. 33, xi. 1). Some of these of St Peter. He was succeeded by Sisinnius. afterwards became followers of Christ (John i. 37). John's JOHN VIII., pope from 872 to 882, successor of Adrian II., activity indeed had far-reaching effects. It profoundly influenced was a Roman by birth. His chief aim during his pontificate the Messianic movement depicted in the Gospels. The preaching was to defend the Roman state and the authority of the Holy of Jesus shows traces of this, and the Fourth Gospel (as well as See at Rome from the Saracens, and from the nascent feudalism the Synoptists) displays a marked interest in connecting the which was represented outside by the dukes of Spoleto and the Johannine movement with the beginnings of Christianity. The marquises of Tuscany and within by a party of Roman nobles. fact that after the lapse of a quarter of a century there were Events, however, were so fatally opposed to his designs that no Christians in Ephesus who accepted John's baptism (Acts xviii. sooner did one of his schemes begin to realize itself in fact than 25, xix. 3) is highly significant. This influence also persisted it was shattered by an unlooked-for chance. To obtain an in later times. Christ's estimate of John (Matt. xi. 7 seq.) was influential alliance against his enemies, he agreed in 875, after a very high one. He also pointedly alludes to John's work and death had deprived him of his natural protector, the emperor the people's relation to it, in many sayings and parables (some-Louis II., to bestow the imperial crown on Charles the Bald; but times in a tone of irony). The duration of John's ministry that monarch was too much occupied in France to grant him cannot be determined with certainty: it terminated in his much effectual aid, and about the time of the death of Charles imprisonment in the fortress of Machaerus, to which he had been he found it necessary to come to terms with the Saracens, who committed by Herod Antipas, whose incestuous marriage with were only prevented from entering Rome by the promise of an Herodias, the Baptist had sternly rebuked. His execution annual tribute. Carloman, the opponent of Charles's son Louis, cannot with safety be placed later than A.D. 28. soon after invaded northern Italy, and, securing the support of In the church calendar this event is commemorated on the the bishops and counts, demanded from the pope the imperial 29th of August. According to tradition he was buried at crown. John attempted to temporize, but Lambert, duke of Samaria (Theodoret, H.E. iii. 3). (G. H. Bo.) Spoleto, a partisan of Carloman, whom sickness had recalled to JOHN I., pope from 523 to 526, was a Tuscan by birth, and Germany, entered Rome in 878 with an overwhelming force, was consecrated pope on the death of Hormisdas. In 525 he and for thirty days virtually held John a prisoner in St Peter's. was sent by Theodoric at the head of an embassy to Constanti. Lambert was, however, unsuccessful in winning any concession nople to obtain from the emperor Justin toleration for the from the pope, who after his withdrawal carried out a previous Arians; but he succeeded so imperfectly in his mission that purpose of going to France. There he presided at the council Theodoric on his return, suspecting that he had acted only half- of Troyes, which promulgated a ban of excommunication against heartedly, threw him into prison, where he shortly afterwards the supporters of Carloman-amongst others Adalbert of died, Felix IV. succeeding him. He was enrolled among the Tuscany, Lambert of Spoleto, and Formosus, bishop of Porto, martyrs, his day being May 27. who was afterwards elevated to the papal chair. In 879 John JOHN II., pope from 533 to 535, also named Mercurius, was returned to Italy accompanied by Boso, duke of Provence, elevated to the papal chair on the death of Boniface II. During whom he adopted as his son, and made an unsuccessful attempt his pontificate a decree against simony was engraven on marble to get recognized as king of Italy. In the same year he was and placed before the altar of St Peter's. At the instance of the compelled to give a promise of his sanction to the claims of emperor Justinian he adopted the proposition unus de Trinitate Charles the Fat, who received from him the imperial crown in passus est in carne as a test of the orthodoxy of certain Scythian 881. Before this, in order to secure the aid of the Greek emperor monks accused of Nestorian tendencies. He was succeeded by against the Saracens, he had agreed to sanction the restoration Agapetus I. of Photius to the see of Constantinople, and had withdrawn his JOHN III., pope from 561 to 574, successor to Pelagius, was consent on finding that he reaped from the concession no descended from a noble Roman family. He is said to have been substantial benefit. Charles the Fat, partly from unwillingness, successful in preventing an invasion of Italy by the recall of the partly from natural inability, gave him also no effectual aid, and deposed exarch Narses, but the Lombards still continued their the last years of John VIII. were spent chiefly in hurling vain incursions, and, especially during the pontificate of his successoi anathemas against his various political enemies. According to Benedict I., inflicted great miseries on the province. the annalist of Fulda, he was murdered by members of his JOHN IV., pope from 640 to 642, was a Dalmatian by birth, household. His successor was Marinus. and succeeded Severinus after the papal chair had been vacant JOHN IX., pope from 898 to 900, not only confirmed the four months. While he adhered to the repudiation of the judgment of his predecessor Theodore II, in granting Christian Monothelitic doctrine by Severinus, he endeavoured to explain burial to Formosus, but at a council held at Ravenna decreed away the connexion of Honorius I. with the heresy. His that the records of the synod which had condemned him should successor was Theodorus I. be burned. Finding, however, that it was advisable to cement JOHN V., pope from 685 to 686, was a Syrian by birth, and on the ties between the empire and the papacy, John gave unhesi-, account of his knowledge of Greek had in 680 been named papal tating support to Lambert in preference to Arnulf, and also legate to the sixth ecumenical council at Constantinople. He induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecra- was the successor of Benedict II., and after a pontificate of tion of the popes should take place only in the presence of the little more than a year, passed chiefly in bed, was followed by imperial legates. The sudden death of Lambert shattered Conon. the hopes which this alliance seemed to promise. John was. JOHN VI., pope from 701 to 705, was a native of Greece, and succeeded by Benedict IV. succeeded to the papal chair two months after the death of JOHN X., pope from 914 to 928, was deacon at Bologna when Sergius I. He assisted the exarch Theophylact, who had been he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, sent into Italy by the emperor Justinian II., and prevented him the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he was from using violence against the Romans. . Partly by persuasion elevated first to the see of Bologna and then to the archbishopric and partly by means of a bribe, John succeeded in inducing of Ravenna. In direct opposition to a decree of council, he was Gisulf, duke of Benevento, to withdraw from the territories of also at the instigation of Theodora promoted to the papal chair the empire. as the successor of Lando. Like John IX. he endeavoured to JOHN VII., pope from 705 to 707, successor of John VI., was secure himself against his temporal enemies through a close also of Greek nationality. He seems to have acceded to the alliance with Theophylact and Alberic, marquis of Camerino, request of the emperor Justinian II. that he should give his then governor of the duchy of Spoleto. In December 915 he sanction to the decrees of the Quinisext or Trullan council of granted the imperial crown to Berengar, and with the assistance 692. There are several monuments of John in the church of of the forces of all the princes of the Italian peninsula he took St Maria Antiqua at the foot of the Palatine hill; others were the field in person against the Saracens, over whom he gained a JOHN (POPES) 435 great victory on the banks of the Garigliano." The defeat and Theophano in Rome from 989 to 991 restrained also the ambition death of Berengar through the combination of the Italian princes, of Crescentius. On her departure the pope, whose venality again frustrated the hopes of a united Italy, and after witnessing and nepotism had made him very unpopular with the citizens, several years of anarchy and confusion John perished through died of fever before the arrival of Otto III., who elevated his the intrigues of Marozia, daughter of Theodora. His successor own kinsman Bruno to the papal dignity under the name of was Leo VI. Gregory V. JOHN XI., pope from 931 to 935, was the son of Marozia and JOHN XVI., pope or antipope from 997 to 998, was a Calabrian the reputed son of Sergius III. Through the influence of his Greek by birth, and a favourite of the empress Theophano, from mother he was chosen to succeed Stephen VII. at the early age whom he had received the bishopric of Placentia. His original of twenty-one. He was the mere exponent of the purposes of name was Philagathus. In 995 he was sent by Otto III. on an his mother, until her son Alberic succeeded in 933 in over-embassy to Constantinople to negotiate a marriage with a Greek throwing their authority. The pope was kept a virtual prisoner princess. On his way back he either accidentally or at the in the Lateran, where he is said to have died in 935, in which special request of Crescentius visited Rome. A little before year Leo VII. was consecrated his successor. this Gregory V., at the end of 996, had been compelled to flee JOHN XII., pope from 955 to 964,' was the son of Alberic, from the city; and the wily and ambitious Greek had now no whom he succeeded as patrician of Rome in 954, being then only scruple in accepting the papal tiara from the hands of Crescentius. sixteen years of age. His original name was Octavian, but the arrival of Otto at Rome in the spring of 998 put a sudden when he assumed the papal tiara as successor to Agapetus II., he end to the teacherous compact. John sought safety in flight, adopted the apostolic name of John, the first example, it is said, but was discovered in his place of hiding and brought back to of the custom of altering the surname in connexion with elevation Rome, where after enduring cruel and ignominious tortures he to the papal chair. As a temporal ruler John was devoid of the was immured in a dungeon. vigour and firmness of his father, and his union of the papal JOHN XVII., whose original name was Sicco, succeeded office-which through his scandalous private life he made a by- Silvester II. as pope in June 1003, but died less than five months word of reproach-with his civil dignities proved a source of afterwards. weakness rather than of strength. In order to protect himself JOHN XVIII., pope from 1003 to 1009, was, during his whole against the intrigues in Rome and the power of Berengar II. of pontificate, the mere creature of the patrician John Crescentius, Italy, he called to his aid Otto the Great of Germany, to whom and ultimately he abdicated and retired to a monastery, where he granted the imperial crown in 962. Even before Otto left he died shortly afterwards. His successor was Sergius IV. Rome the pope had, however, repented of his recognition of a JOHN XIX., pope from 1024 to 1033, succeeded his brother power which threatened altogether to overshadow his authority, Benedict VIII., both being members of the powerful house of and had begun to conspire against the new emperor. His Tusculum. He merely took orders to enable him to ascend the intrigues were discovered by Otto, who, after he had defeated papal chair, having previously been a consul and senator. He and taken prisoner Berengar, returned to Rome and summoned displayed his freedom from ecclesiastical prejudices, if also his a council which deposed John, who was in hiding in the moun-utter ignorance of ecclesiastical history, by agreeing, on the pay. tains of Campania, and elected Leo VIII.in his stead. Anment of a large bribe, to grant to the patriarch of Constantinople attempt at an insurrection was made by the inhabitants of the title of an ecumenical bishop, but the general indignation Rome even before Otto left the city, and on his departure John which the proposal excited throughout the church compelled returned at the head of a formidable company of friends and him almost immediately to withdraw from his agreement. On retainers, and caused Leo to seek safety in immediate flight. the death of the emperor. Henry II. in 1024 he gave his support Otto determined to make an effort in support of Leo, but before to Conrad II., who along with his consort was crowned with he reached the city John had died, in what manner is uncertain, great pomp at St Peter's in Easter of 1027. John died in 1033, and Benedict V. had mounted the papal chair. in the full possession of his dignities. A successor was found for JOHN XIII., pope from 965 to 972, was descended from a him in his nephew Benedict IX., a boy of only twelve years of age. noble Roman family, and at the time of his election as successor (L. D.*) to Leo VIII. was bishop of Narni. He had been somewhat JOHN XXI. (Pedro Giuliano-Rebulo), pope from the 8th of inconsistent in his relations with his predecessor Leo, but his September 1276 to the 20th of May 1277 (should be named election was confirmed by the emperor Otto, and his submissive John XX., but there is an error in the reckoning through the attitude towards the imperial power was so distasteful to the insertion of an antipope), a native of Portugal, educated for the Romans that they expelled him from the city. On account of church, became archdeacon and then archbishop of Braga, and the threatening procedure of Otto, they permitted him shortly so ingratiated himself with Gregory X. at the council of Lyons afterwards to return, upon which, with the sanction of Otto, he (1274) that he was taken to Rome às cardinal-bishop of Frascati, took savage vengeance on those who had formerly opposed him. and succeeded Gregory after an interregnum of twenty days. Shortly after holding a council along with the emperor at As pope he excommunicated Alphonso III, of Portugal for Ravenna in 967, he gave the imperial crown to Otto II. at interfering with episcopal elections and sent legates to the Rome in assurance of his succession to his father; and in 972 he Great Khan. He was devoted to secular science, and his small also crowned Theophano as empress immediately before her affection for the monks awakened the distrust of a large portion marriage. On his death in the same year he was followed by of the clergy. His life was brought to a premature close through Benedict VI. the fall of the roof in the palace he had built at Viterbo. His JOHN XIV., pope from 983 to 984, successor to Benedict VII., successor was Nicholas III. was born at Pavia, and before his elevation to the papal chair JOHN XXI. has been identified since the 14th century, most was imperial chancellor of Otto II. Otto died shortly after his probably correctly, with Petrus Hispanus, a celebrated Portu- election, when Boniface VII., on the strength of the popular guese physician and philosopher, author of several medical feeling against the new pope, returned from Constantinople and works--notably the curious Liber de oculo, trans. into German placed John in prison, where he died either by starvation or and well edited by A. M. Berger (Munich, 1899), and of a popular poison. textbook in logic, the Summulae logicales. John XXI. is JOHN XV., pope from 985 to 996, generally recognized as the constantly referred to as a magician by ignorant chroniclers. successor of Boniface VII., the pope John who was said to have See Les Registres de Grégoire X. et Jean XXI., published by ruled for four months after John XIV., being now omitted by J. Guiraud and E.Cadier in Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes the best authorities. John XV. was the son of Leo, a Roman et de Rome (Paris, 1898); A. Potthast, Regesta pontif: Romon., vol. 2 presbyter. At the time he mounted the papal chair Crescentius (Berlin, 1875): F; Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. V., was patrician of Rome, but, although his influence was on this Johann XXI. (Münster, 1898): J. T. Köhler, Vollständige Nachricht trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); R.Stapper, Papst account very much hampered, the presence of the empress I von Papst Johann XXI. (Göttingen, 1760). (C. H. HA.) 436 JOHN (POPES) JOHN XXII., pope from 1316 to 1334, was born at Cahors, on the 22nd of May 1324, and accused John of being an enemy France, in 1249. His original name was Jacques Duèse, and he to the peace and the law, stigmatizing him as a heretic on the came either of a family of petty nobility or else of well-to-do ground that he opposed the principle of evangelical poverty as middle-class parents, and was not, as has been popularly professed by the strict Franciscans. From this moment Louis supposed, the son of a shoemaker. He began his education appeared in the character of the natural ally and even the with the Dominicans at Cahors, subsequently studied law at protector of the Spirituals against the persecution of the pope. Montpellier, and law and medicine in Paris, and finally taught On the 11th of July 1324 the pope laid under an interdict the at Cahors and Toulouse. At Toulouse he became intimate with places where Louis or his adherents resided, but this bull had the bishop Louis, son of Charles II., king of Naples. In 1300 he no effect in Germany. Equally futile was John's declaration was elevated to the episcopal see of Fréjus by Pope Boniface (April 3, 1327) that Louis had forfeited his crown and abetted VIII. at the instance of the king of Naples, and in 1308 was heresy by granting protection to Marsilius of Padua. Having made chancellor of Naples by Charles, retaining this office under reconciled himself with Frederick of Austria, Louis penetrated Charles's successor, Robert of Anjou. In 1310 Pope Clement V. into Italy and seized Rome on the 7th of January 1328, with summoned Jacques to Avignon and instructed him to advise the help of the Roman Ghibellines led by Sciarra Colonna. After upon the affair of the Templars and also upon the question of installing himself in the Vatican, Louis got himself crowned by condemning the memory of Boniface VIII. Jacques decided the deputies of the Roman people; instituted proceedings for on the legality of suppressing the order of the Templars, holding the deposition of John, whom the Roman people, displeased by that the pope would be serving the best interests of the church the spectacle of the papacy abandoning Rome, declared to have by pronouncing its suppression; but he rejected the condemnation forfeited the pontificate (April 18, 1328); and finally caused of Boniface as a sacrilegious affront to the church and a mon- a Minorite friar, Pietro Rainalucci da Corvara, to be elected strous abuse of the lay power. On the 23rd of December 1312 pope under the name of Nicholas V. John preached a platonic Clement appointed him cardinal-bishop of Porto, and it was crusade against Louis, who burned the pope's effigy at Pisa and while cardinal of Porto that he was elected pope, on the 7th of in Amelia. Soon, however, Louis felt his power waning, and August 1316. Clement had died in April 1314, but the cardinals quitted Rome and Italy (1329). Incapable of independent assembled at Carpentras were unable to agree as to his successor. action, the antipope was abandoned by the Romans and handed As the two-thirds majority requisite for an election could not over to John, who forced him to make a solemn submission be obtained, the cardinals separated, and it was not until the with a halter round his neck (August 15, 1330). Nicholas was 28th of June 1316 that they reassembled in the cloister of the condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and died in obscurity Dominicans at Lyons, and then only in deference to the pressure at Avignon; while the Roman people submitted to King Robert, exerted upon them by Philip V. of France. After deliberating who governed the church through his vicars. In 1317, in execu- for more than a month they elected Robert of Anjou's candidate, tion of a bull of Clement V., the royal vicariate in Italy had been Jacques Duèse, who was crowned on the 5th of September, and conferred by John on Robert of Anjou, and this appointment on the 2nd of October arrived at Avignon, where he remained was renewed in 1322 and 1324, with threats of excommunication for the rest of his life. against any one who should seize the vicariate of Italy without More jurist than theologian, John defended the rights of the the authorization of the pope. One of John's last acts was papacy, with rigorous zeal and as rigorous logic. For the his decision to separate Italy from the Empire, but this bull was restoration of the papacy to its old independence, which had of no avail and fell into oblivion. After his death, however, the been so gravely compromised under his immediate predecessors, interdict was not removed from Germany, and the resistance of and for the execution of the vast enterprises which the papacy Louis and his theologians continued. deemed useful for its prestige and for Christendom, considerable A violent manifestation of this resistance took place in sums were required; and to raise the necessary money John connexion with the accusation of heresy brought against the burdened Christian Europe with new taxes and a complicated pope. On the third Sunday in Advent 1329, and afterwards in fiscal system, which was fraught with serious consequences. public consistory, John had preached that the souls of those For his personal use, however, he retained but a very small who have died in a state of grace go into Abraham's bosom, fraction of the sums thus acquired, and at his death his private sub altari Dei, and do not enjoy the beatific vision (visio facie ad fortune amounted to scarce a million florins. The essentially faciem) of the Lord until after the Last Judgment and the practical character of his administration has led many historians Resurrection; and he had even instructed a Minorite friar, to tax him with avarice, but later research on the fiscal system Gauthier of Dijon, to collect the passages in the Fathers which of the papacy of the period, particularly the joint work of Samaran were in favour of this doctrine. On the 27th of December 1331 and Mollat, enables us very sensibly to modify the severe judg-a Dominican, Thomas of England, preached against this doctrine ment passed on John by Gregorovius and others. at Avignon itself and was thrown into prison. When news of John's pontificate was continually disturbed by his conflict this affair had reached Paris, the pope sent the general of the with Louis of Bavaria and by the theological revolt of the Minorites, Gerard Odonis, accompanied by a Dominican, to Spiritual Franciscans. In October 1314 Louis of Bavaria and sustain his doctrine in that city, but King Philip VI., perhaps at Frederick of Austria had each been elected German king by the the instigation of the refugee Spirituals in Paris, referred the divided electors. Louis was gradually recognized by the whole question to the faculty of theology, which, on the 2nd of January of Germany, especially after his victory at Mühldorf (1322), and 1333, declared that the souls of the blessed were elevated to the gained numerous adherents in Italy, where he supported the beatific vision immediately after death; the faculty, nevertheless, Visconti, who had been condemned as heretics by the pope. were of opinion that the pope should have propounded his John affected to ignore the successes of Louis, and on the 8th erroneous doctrine only “recitando,” and not “determinando, of October 1323 forbade his recognition as king of the Romans. asserendo, seu etiam opinando.” The king notified this decision After demanding a respite, Louis abruptly appealed at Nurem- to the pope, who assembled his consistory in November 1333, berg from the future sentence of the pope to a general council and gave a haughty reply. The theologians in Louis's following (December 8, 1323). The conflict then assumed a grave who were opposed to papal absolutism already spoke of “the doctrinal character. The doctrine of the rights of the lay new heretic, Jacques de Cahors,” and reiterated with increasing monarchy sustained by Occam and John of Paris, by Marsilius insistency their demands for the convocation of a general of Padua, John of Jandun and Leopold of Bamberg, was affirmed council to try the pope. John appears to have retracted shortly by the jurists and theologians, penetrated into the parlements before his death, which occurred on the 4th of December 1334. and the universities, and was combated by the upholders of papal absolutism, such as Alvaro Pelayo and Alonzo Trionfo. long judgment on this point of doctrine, a judgment which he de 'On the 29th of January 1336 Pope Benedict XII. pronounced_a Excommunicated on the 21st of March 1324, Louis retorted by clared had been included by John in a bull whích death had provented appealing for a second time to a general council, which was held I him from sealing. JOHN (POPES) 437 John had kindled very keen animosity, not only among the "Baldassare Cossa succeeded him. Whether the latter had bought upholders of the independence of the lay power, but also among his electors by money and promises, or owed his success to his the upholders of absolute religious poverty, the exalted Francis- dominant position in Bologna, and to the support of Florence cans. Clement V., at the council of Vienne, had attempted to and of Louis II. of Anjou, he seems to have received the unani- bring back the Spirituals to the common rule by concessions; mous vote of all the seventeen cardinals gathered together at John, on the other hand, in the bull Quorundam exigit (April Bologna (May 17). He took the name of John XXIII., and 13, 1317), adopted an uncompromising and absolute attitude, France, England, and part of Italy and Germany recognized him and by the bull Gloriosam ecclesiam (January 23, 1318) con- as head of the Catholic church. demned the protests which had been raised against the bull The struggle in which he and Louis II. of Anjou engaged with Quorundam by a group of seventy-four Spirituals and conveyed Ladislaus of Durazzo, king of Sicily, and Gregory XII.'s chief to Avignon by the monk Bernard Délicieux. Shortly afterwards protector in Italy, at first went in John's favour. After the four Spirituals were burned at Marseilles. These were imme- brilliant victory of Roccasecca (May 19, 1411) he had the diately hailed as martyrs, and in the eyes of the exalted satisfaction of dragging the standards of Pope Gregory and King Franciscans at Naples and in Sicily and the south of France the Ladislaus through the streets of Rome. But the dispersion of pope was regarded as antichrist. In the bull Sancta Romana Louis of Anjou's troops and his carelessness, together with the lack el universa ecclesia (December 28, 1318) John definitively of success which attended the preaching of a crusade in Germany, excommunicated them and condemned their principal book, France and England, finally decided John XXIII. to abandon the Postil (commentary) on the Apocalypse (February 8, the French claimant to the throne of Sicily; he recognized 1326). The bull Quia nonnunquam (March 26, 1322) defined Ladislaus, his former enemy, as king of Naples, and Ladislaus the derogations from the rule punished by the pope, and the did not fail to salute John XXIII. as pope, abandoning Gregory bull Cum inter nonnullos (November 12, 1323) condemned the XII. (June 15, 1412). This was a fatal step: John XXIII. proposition which had been admitted at the general chapter of was trusting in a dishonest and insatiable prince; he would have the Franciscans held at Perugia in 1322, according to which acted more wisely in remaining the ally of the weak but loyal Christ and the Apostles were represented as possessing no Louis of Anjou. However, it seemed desirable that the reforms property, either personal or common. The minister general, announced by the council of Pisa, which the popes set up by Michael of Cesena, though opposed to the exaggerations of the this synod seemed in no hurry to carry into effect, should Spirituals, joined with them in protesting against the condemna- be further discussed in the new council which it had been tion of the fundamental principle of evangelical poverty, and agreed should be summoned about the spring of 1412. But the agitation gradually gained ground. The pope, by the bull John was anxious that this council should be held in Rome, Quia quorundam (November 10, 1324), cited Michael to appear a city where he alone was master; the few prelates and ambassa. at Avignon at the same time as Occam and Bonagratia. dors who very slowly gathered there held only a small number All three fled to the court of Louis of Bavaria (May 26, 1328), of sessions, in which John again condemned the writings of while the majority of the Franciscans made submission and Wycliffe. John was attacked by the representatives of the elected a general entirely devoted to the pope. But the resist- various nations and reprimanded even for his private conduct, ance, aided by Louis and merged as it now was in the cause but endeavoured to extricate himself from this uncomfortable sustained by Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun, became position by gratifying their desires, if not by reforming abuses. daily bolder. Treatises on poverty appeared on every side; the It is, however, only fair to add that he took various half- party of Occam clamoured with increasing imperiousness for the measures and gave many promises which, if they had been put condemnation of John by a general council; and the Spirituals, into execution, would have confirmed or completed the reforms confounded in the persecution with the Beghards and with inaugurated at Pisa. But on the 3rd of Mrach 1413 John ad- Fraticelli of every description, maintained themselves in the journed the council of Rome till December, without even fixing south of France in spite of the reign of terror instituted in that the place where the next session should be held. It was held region by the Inquisition. at Constance in Germany, and John could only have resigned See M. Souchon, Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz VIII. bis Urban VI. himself to accepting such an uncertain meeting place because (Brunswick, 1888); Abbé Albe, Autour de Jean XXII. (Rome, !904); he was forced by distress, isolation and fear to turn towards K. Müller, Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mit der Curie (Tübingen, the head of the empire. Less than a year after the treaty con- 1879. seq.); W. Preger, "Mémoires sur la lutte entre Jean XXII. et Louis de Bavière" in Abhandl. der ba yr. Akad., hist. sec., xv., xvi., cluded with Ladislaus of Durazzo, the latter forced his way into xvii.; S. Riczler, Die litterar. Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwigs Rome (June 8, 1413), which he sacked, expelling John, to whom des Baiers (Leipzig, 1874); F. Ehrle, “ Die Spiritualen" in Archiv even the Florentines did not dare to throw open their gates für Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters (vols. i. and ii.); for fear of the king of Sicily. Sigismund, king of the Romans, C. Samaran and G. Mollat, La Fiscalité pontificale en France au xive siècle (Paris, 1905); A. Coulon and G. Mollat, Lettres secrètes et not only extorted, it is said, a sum of 50,000 forins from the curiales de Jean XXII. se rapportant à la France (Paris, 1899, pontiff in his extremity, but insisted upon his summoning the seq.). (P. A.) council at Constance (December 9). It was in vain that, JOHN XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa), pope, or rather anti-pope on the death of Ladislaus, which took place unexpectedly from 1410 to 1415, was born of a good Neapolitan family, and (August 6, 1414), John was inspired with the idea of breaking began by leading the life of a corsair before entering the service his compact with Sigismund and returning to Rome, at the of the Church under the pontificate of Boniface IX. His same time appealing to Louis of Anjou. It was too late. The abilities, which were mainly of an administrative and military cardinals forced him towards Germany by the most direct order, were soon rewarded by the cardinal's hat and the legation road, without allowing him to go by way of Avignon as he had of Bologna. On the 29th of June 1408 he and seven of his projected, in order to make plans with the princes of France. colleagues broke away from Gregory XII., and together with six On the 5th of November 1414 John opened the council of cardinals of the obedience of Avignon, who had in like manner Constance, where, on Christmas Day, he received the homage of separated from Benedict XIII., they agreed to aim at the assem- the head of the empire, but where his lack of prestige, the defec. bling of a general council, setting aside the two rival pontiffs, tion of his allies, the fury of his adversaries, and the general an expedient which they considered would put an end to the sense of the necessity for union soon showed only too clearly great schism of the Western Church, but which resulted in the how small was the chance of his retaining the tiara. He had to election of yet a third pope. This act was none the less decisive take a solemn oath to abdicate if his two rivals would do the for Baldassare Cossa's future. Alexander V., the first pope same, and this concession, which was not very sincere, gained elected at Pisa, was not perhaps, as has been maintained, merely him for the last time the honour of seeing Sigismund prostrate at a man of straw put forward by the ambitious cardinal of his feet (March 2, 1415). But on the night of the 20th-21st Bologna; but he reigned only ten months, and on his death, of March, having donned the garments of a layman, with a which happened rather suddenly on the 4th of May 1410, cross-bow slung at his side, he succeeded in making his escape 438 JOHN (ROMAN EMPERORS) . from Constance, accompanied only by a single servant, and took | recovered the inland parts of Syria and the middle reaches of refuge first in the castle of Schaffhausen, then in that of Laufen- the Euphrates. He died suddenly in 976 on his return from his burg, then at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and finally at Brisach, second campaign against the Saracens. John's surname was whence he hoped to reach Alsace, and doubtless ultimately apparently derived from the Armenian ishemshkik (red boot). Avignon, under the protection of an escort sent by the duke See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vi. of Burgundy. The news of the pope's escape was received at (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, History of Greece, ii. 334-360 (cd. 1877); Constance with an extraordinary outburst of rage, and led to the G. Schlumberger, L'Épopée Byzantine, i. 1-326 (1896). subversive decrees of the 4th and 5th sessions, which proclaimed JOHN II. (1088-1143), surnamed Comnenus and also Kalo- the superiority of the council over the pope. Duke Frederick of joannes (John the Good), East Roman emperor, was the eldest son Austria had hitherto sheltered John's flight; but, laid under of the East Roman emperor Alexius, whom he succeeded in 1118. the ban of the empire, attacked by powerful armies, and feeling On account of his mild and just reign he has been called the Byzan. that he was courting ruin, he preferred to give up the pontiff tine Marcus Aurelius. By the personal purity of his character who had trusted to him. John was brought back to Freiburg he effected a notable improvement in the manners of his age, (April 27), and there in vain attempted to appease the but he displayed little vigour in internal administration or in wrath which he had aroused by more or less vague promises extirpating the long-standing corruptions of the government. of resignation. His trial, however, was already beginning. Nor did his various successes against the Hungarians, Servians The three cardinals whom he charged with his defence hastily and Scljuk Turks, whom he pressed hard in Asia Minor and pro- declined this compromising task. Seventy-four charges were posed to expel from Jerusalem, add much to the stability of his drawn up, only twenty of which were set aside after the witcmpire. He was accidentally killed during a wild-boar hunt on nesses had been heard. The accusation of having poisoned Mi Taurus, on the 8th of April 1143. Alexander V. and his doctor at Bologna was not maintained. See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, v. 228 But enough decds of immorality, tyranny, ambition and simony seq. (ed. Bury, 1896). were found proved to justify the severest judgment. He was suspended from his functions as pope on the 14th of May 1415, East Roman emperor, earned for himself such distinction as JOHN III. (1193-1254), surnamed Vatatzes and also Ducas, and deposed on the following 29th of May. However irregular this sentence may have been from the in-law Theodore I. Lascaris. He reorganized the remnant a soldier that in 1222 he was chosen to succeed his father- canonical point of view (for the accusers do not seem to have of the East Roman empire, and by his administrative skill actually proved the crime of heresy, which was necessary, made it the strongest and richest principality in the Levant. according to most scholars of the period, to justify the deposi- Having secured his eastern frontier by an agreement with tion of a sovereign pontiff), the condemned pope was not long the Turks, he set himself to recover the European posses- in confirming it. Baldassare Cossa, now as humble and re- signed as he had before been energetic and tenacious, on his in the Aegean Sea and extended his realm to Rhodes, his sions of his predecessors. While his fleet harassed the Latins transference to the castle of Rudolfzell admitted the wrong which army, reinforced by Frankish mercenaries, defeated the Latin he had done by his flight, refused to bring forward anything in his defence, acquiesced entirely in the judgment of the council siege of Constantinople, which he undertook in concert with the emperor's forces in the open field. Though unsuccessful in a which he declared to be infallible, and finally, as an extreme Bulgarians (1235), he obtained supremacy over the despotats of precaution, ratified motu proprio the sentence of deposition, Thessalonica and Epirus. The ultimate recovery of Constanti- declaring that he freely and willingly renounced any rights nople by the Rhomaic emperors is chiefly due to his exertions. which he might still have in the papacy. This fact has subse- quently been often quoted against those who have appealed to See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. the events of 1415 to maintain that a council can depose a popeed. 1877); A. Meliarakes, 'Isropia Toù Baoedelov tñs Nexaias kai 7cê 431-462 (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, History of Greece, iii. 196-320 who is scandalizator ecclesiae. Δεσποτάτου της Ηπείρου, pp. 155-421 (1898). Cossa kept his word never to appeal against the sentence which JOHN IV. (c. 1250-C. 1300), surnamed Lascaris, East Roman stripped him of the pontificate. He was held prisoner for three years in Germany, but in the end bought his liberty from the Palacologus conspired shortly after to make himself regent, and emperor, son of Theodore II. His father dying in 1258, Michael count palatine. He used this liberty only to go to Florence, in 1261 dethroned and blinded the boy monarch, and imprisoned in 1419, and throw himself on the mercy of the legitimate pope. him in a remote castle, where he died a long time after. Martin V. appointed him cardinal-bishop of Tusculum, a dignity which Cossa only enjoyed for a few months. He died on the See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 459- 22nd of December 1419, and all visitors to the Baptistery at 466 cd. Bury, 1896); A. Meliarakes, "loropia toll Baoidciou tñs Noxalas (Athens, 1898), pp. 491-528. Florence may admire, under its high baldacchino, the sombre figure sculptured by Donatello of the dethroned pontiff, who had JOHN V. or VI. (1332–1391), surnamed Palacologus, East at least the merit of bowing his head under his chastisement, and Roman emperor, was the son of Andronicus III., whom he of contributing by his passive resignation to the extinction of the succeeded in 1341. At first he shared his sovereignty with his series of popes which sprang from the council of Pisa. (N.V.) father's friend John Cantacuzene, and after a quarrel with the JOHN 1. (925-976), surnamed Tzimisces, East Roman emperor, latter was practically superseded by him for a number of years was born of a distinguished Cappadocian family. After helping (1347–1355). His reign was marked by the gradual dissolution his uncle Nicephorus Phocas (q.v.) to obtain the throne and to of the imperial power through the rebellion of his son Andronicus restore the empire's eastern provinces he was deprived of his and by the encroachments of the Ottomans, to whom in 1381 command by an intrigue, upon which he retaliated by conspiring John acknowledged himself tributary, after a vain attempt to with Nicephorus' wife Theophania to assassinate him. Elected secure the help of the popes by submitting to the supremacy of ruler in his stead, John proceeded to justify his usurpation by the Roman Church. the energy with which he repelled the foreign invaders of the See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 495 empire. In a series of campaigns against the newly established seq., vii. 38 seq. (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The Destruction of the Russian power (970-973) he drove the enemy out of Thrace, Greek Empire, pp. 70-96 (1903). crossed Mt Haemus and besieged the fortress of Dorystolon on JOHN VI. or V. (c. 1292–1383), surnamed Cantacuzene, East the Danube. In several hard-fought battles he broke the Roman emperor, was born at Constantinople. Connected with strength of the Russians so completely that they left him master the house of Palaeologus on his mother's side, on the accession of of eastern Bulgaria. He further secured his northern frontier by Andronicus III. (1328) he was entrusted with the supreme transplanting to Thrace some colonies of Paulicians whom he administration of affairs. On the death of the emperor in 1341, suspected of sympathising with their Saracen neighbours in the Cantacuzene was left regent, and guardian of his son John east. In 974 he turned against the Abassid empire, and easily | Palaeologus, who was but nine years of age. Being suspected a JOHN PALAEOLOGUS VI.-JOHN OF ENGLAND 439 by the empress and opposed by a powerful party at court, he Henry II. even provoked a civil war by attempting to transfer rebelled, and got himself crowned emperor at Didymoteichos in the duchy of Aquitaine from the hands of Richard Cour de Lion Thrace, while John Palaeologus and his supporters maintained to those of John (1183). In spite of the incapacity which he dis- themselves at Constantinople. The civil war which ensued played in this war, John was sent a little later to govern Ireland lasted six years, during which the rival parties called in the aid (1185); but he returned in a few months covered with disgrace, of the Servians and Turks, and engaged mercenaries of every having alienated the loyal chiefs by his childish insolence and description. It was only by the aid of the Turks, with whom entirely failed to defend the settlers from the hostile septs. he made a disgraceful bargain, that Cantacuzene brought the Remaining henceforth at his father's side he was treated with war to a termination favourable to himself. In 1347 he entered the utmost indulgence. But he joined with his brother Richard Constantinople in triumph, and forced his opponents to an and the French king Philip Augustus in the great conspiracy of arrangement by which he became joint emperor with John 1189, and the discovery of his treason broke the heart of the old Palaeologus and sole administrator during the minority of his king (see HENRY II.). colleague. During this period, the empire, already broken up Richard on his accession confirmed John's existing possessions; and reduced to the narrowest limits, was assailed on every side. married him to Isabella of Gloucester; and gave him, besides There were wars with the Genoese, who had a colony at Galata other grants, the entire revenues of six English shires; but ex- and had money transactions with the court; and with the cluded him from any share in the regency which was appointed Servians, who were at that time establishing an extensive empire to govern England during the third crusade; and only allowed on the north-western frontiers; and there was a hazardous him to live in the kingdom because urged to this concession by alliance with the Turks, who made their first permanent settle their mother. Soon after the king's departure for the Holy ment in Europe, at Callipolis in Thrace, towards the end of the Land it became known that he had designated his nephew, reign (1354). Cantacuzene was far too ready to invoke the aid the young Arthur of Brittany, as his successor. John at of foreigners in his European quarrels; and as he had no money once began to intrigue against the regents with the aim of to pay them, this gave them a ready pretext for seizing upon a securing England for himself. He picked a quarrel with the un- European town. The financial burdens imposed by him had popular chancellor William Longchamp (9.v.), and succeeded, long been displeasing to his subjects, and a strong party had by the help of the barons and the Londoners, in expelling this always favoured John Palaeologus. Hence, when the latter minister, whose chief fault was that of fidelity to the absent entered Constantinople at the end of 1354, his success was easy. Richard. Not being permitted to succeed Longchamp as the Cantacuzene retired to a monastery (where he assumed the name head of the administration, John next turned to Philip Augustus of Joasaph Christodulus)and occupied himself in literary labours. for help. A bargain was struck; and when Richard was captured He died in the Peloponnese and was buried by his sons at by Leopold, duke of Austria (December 1192), the allies en- Mysithra in Laconia. His History in four books deals with the deavoured to prevent his release, and planned a partition of his years 1320-1356. Really an apologia for his own actions, it dominions. They were, however, unable to win either English needs to be read with caution; fortunately it can be supplemented or Norman support and their schemes collapsed with Richard's and corrected by the work of a contemporary, Nicephorus return (March 1194). He magnanimously pardoned his brother, Gregoras. It possesses the merit of being well arranged and and they lived on not unfriendly terms for the next five years. homogeneous, the incidents being grouped round the chief actor On his deathbed Richard, reversing his former arrangements, in the person of the author, but the information is defective on caused his barons to swear fealty to John (1199), although the matters with which he is not directly concerned. hereditary claim of Arthur was by the law of primogeniture Cantacužene was also the author of a commentary on the first undoubtedly superior. five books of Aristotle's Ethics, and of scveral controversial theologi. England and Normandy, after some hesitation, recognized cal treatises, one of which (4gainst Mohammedanism) is printed in John's title; the attempt of Anjou and Brittany to assert the Migne (Patrologia Graeca, cliv.). History, cd. pr. bý, J. Pontanus (1603); in Bonn, Corpus scriplorum hist. Byz., by J. Schopen (1828– rights of Arthur ended disastrously by the capture of the young 1832) and Migne, Cliii., cliv. See also Val Parisot, Cantacuzène, prince at Mirebeau in Poitou (1202). But there was no part of his homme d'état ei historien (1845): E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. dominions in which John inspired personal devotion. Originally lxiii., and C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur accepted as a political necessity, he soon came to be detested by (1897). the people as a tyrant and despised by the nobles for his cowardice JOHN VI. or VII. (1390-1448), surnamed Palaeologus, East and sloth. He inherited great difficulties—the feud with France, Roman emperor, son of Manuel II., succeeded to the throne in the dissensions of the continental provinces, the growing indiffer- 1425. To secure protection against the Turks he visited the ence of England to foreign conquests, the discontent of all his pope and consented to the union of the Greek and Roman subjects with a strict executive and severe taxation. But he churches, which was ratified at Florence in 1439. The union cannot be acquitted of personal responsibility for his misfortunes. failed of its purpose, but by his prudent conduct towards the Astute in small matters, he had no breadth of view or foresight; Ottomans he succeeded in holding possession of Constantinople, his policy was continually warped by his passions or caprices; he and in 1432 withstood a siege by Sultan Murad I. flaunted vices of the most sordid kind with a cynical indifference See TURKEY: History; and also E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall to public opinion, and shocked an age which was far from tender- of the Roman Empire, vi. 97-107 (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The hearted by his ferocity to vanquished enemies. He treated his Destruction of the Greek Empire, pp. 115-130 (1903). most respectable supporters with base ingratitude, reserved his JOHN (1167-1216), king of England, the youngest son of favour for unscrupulous adventurers, and gave a free rein to the Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born at Oxford on the licence of his mercenaries. While possessing considerable gifts 24th of December 1167. He was given at an early age the nick- of mind and a latent fund of energy, he seldom acted or reflected name of Lackland because, unlike his elder brothers, he received until the favourable moment had passed. Each of his great no apanage in the continental provinces. But his future was a humiliations followed as the natural result of crimes or blunders. subject of anxious thought to Henry II. When only five years By his divorce from Isabella of Gloucester he offended the old John was betrothed (1173) to the heiress of Maurienne and English baronage (1200); by his marriage with Isabella of Savoy, a principality which, as dominating the chief routes from Angoulême, the betrothed of Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an France and Burgundy to Italy, enjoyed a consequence out of all opportunity to the discontented Poitevins for invoking French proportion to its area. Later, when this plan had fallen through, assistance and to Philip Augustus for pronouncing against him he was endowed with castles, revenues and lands on both sides a sentence of forfeiture. The murder of Arthur (1203) ruined his of the channel; the vacant earldom of Cornwall was reserved for cause in Normandy and Anjou; the story that the court of the him (1175); he was betrothed to Isabella the heiress of the earl-peers of France condemned him for the murder is a fable, but no dom of Gloucester (1176); and he was granted the lordship of legal process was needed to convince men of his guilt. In the Ireland with the homage of the Anglo-Irish baronage (1177). I later quarrel with Innocent III. (1207-1213; see LANGTON, 440 JOHN OF ARAGON—JOHN OF BOHEMIA STEPHEN) he prejudiced his case by proposing a worthless of Navarre, and on her death in 1441 he was left in possession favourite for the primacy and by plundering those of the clergy of the kingdom for his life. But a son Charles, called, as heir of who bowed to the pope's sentences. Threatened with the Navarre, prince of Viana, had been born of the marriage. John desertion of his barons he drove all whom he suspected to despera- from the first regarded his son with jealousy, which after his tion by his terrible severity towards the Braose family (1210); second marriage with Joan Henriquez, and under her influence, and by his continued misgovernment irrevocably estranged the grew into absolute hatred. He endeavoured to deprive his son lower classes. When submission to Rome had somewhat im- of his constitutional right to act as lieutenant-general of Aragon proved his position he squandered his last resources in a new and during his father's absence. The cause of the son was taken up unsuccessful war with France (1214), and enraged the feudal by the Aragonese, and the king's attempt to join his second wife classes by new claims for military service and scutages. The in the lieutenant-generalship was set aside. There followed a barons were consequently able to exact, in Magna Carta (June long conflict, with alternations of success and defeat, which was 1215), much more than the redress of legitimate grievances; and not terminated till the death of the prince of Viana, perhaps by the people allowed the crown to be placed under the control of poison given him by his stepmother, in 1461. The Catalans, an oligarchical committee. When once the sovereign power had who had adopted the cause of Charles and who had grievances of been thus divided, the natural consequence was civil war and the their own, called in a succession of foreign pretenders. In conflict intervention of the French king, who had long watched for some with these the last years of King John were spent. He was such opportunity. John's struggle against the barons and Prince forced to pawn Rousillon, his possession on the north-east of the Louis (1216), afterwards King Louis VIII., was the most credit- Pyrenees, to Louis XI., who refused to part with it. In his old able episode of his career. But the calamitous situation of age he was blinded by cataract, but recovered his eyesight by the England at the moment of his death, on the 19th of October 1216, operation of couching. The Catalan revolt was pacified in 1472, was in the main his work; and while he lived a national reaction but John had war, in which he was generally unfortunate, with in favour of the dynasty was out of the question. his neighbour the French king till his death on the 20th of John's second wife, Isabella of Angoulême (d. 1246), who January 1479. He was succeeded by Ferdinand, his son by his married her former lover, Hugh of Lusignan, after the second marriage, who was already associated with his wife Isabella English king's death, bore the king two sons, Henry III. and as joint sovereign of Castile. Richard, earl of Cornwall; and three daughters, Joan (1210-1238), For the history, see Rivadeneyra, “Cronicas de los reyes de wife of Alexander II., king of Scotland, Isabella (d. 1241), wife of Castilla,” Biblioteca de autores españoles, vols. Ixvi, lxviii (Madrid, the emperor Frederick II., and Eleanor (d. 1274), wiſe of William 1845, &c.); G., Zurita, Anales de Aragon (Saragossa, 1610). The Marshal , earl of Pembroke, and then of Simon de Montfort, earl reign of John J. of Aragon is largely dealt with in W. H. Prescott's of Leicester. John had also two illegitimate sons, Richard History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1854). and Oliver, and a daughter, Joan or Joanna, who married JOHN (1296–1346), king of Bohemia, was a son of the emperor Llewelyn I. ab Iorwerth, prince of North Wales, and who died Henry VII. by his wife Margaret, daughter of John I., duke of in 1236 or 1237. Brabant, and was a member of the family of Luxemburg. Born AUTHORITIES.-The chief chronicles for the reign are Gervase of on the 10th of August 1296, he became count of Luxemburg in Canterbury's Gesta regum, Ralf of Coggeshall's Chronicon, Walter 1309, and about the same time was offered the crown of Bohemia, of Coventry's Memoriale, Roger of Wendover's Flores historiarum, the Annals of Burton, Dunstaple and Margan-all these in the Roms which, after the death of Wenceslas III., the last king of the Series. The French chronicle of the so-called " Anonyme de Bé- Premyslides dynasty in 1306, had passed to Henry, duke of thune (Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, Carinthia, under whose weak rule the country was in a very vol. xxiv.), the Histoire des ducs de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre disturbed condition. The emperor accepted this offer on behalf (ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840) and the metrical biography of William of his son, who married Elizabeth (d. 1330), a sister of Wenceslas, the Marshal (Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal, cd. Paul Meyer, and after Henry's departure for Italy, John was crowned king 3 vols., Paris, 1891, &c.) throw valuable light on certain episodes. 8. S. Sweetman's Calendar of Documents relating to Ireland, vol. i. of Bohemia at Prague in February 1311. Henry of Carinthia (Rolls Series); W.H. Bliss's Calendar of Entries in the Papul Registers, was driven from the land, where a certain measure of order was vol. i. (Rolls Series); Potthast's Regesta pontificum, vol. i. (Berlin, restored, and Moravia was again united with Bohemia. As 1874); Sir T. D. Hardy's Rotuli litterarum clausarum (Rec. Commis- sion, 1835) and Rotuli litterarum patentium (Rec. Commission, 1835) | imperial vicar John represented his father at the diet of Nurem- and L. Delisle's Catalogue des actes de Philippe Auguste (Paris, 1856) berg in January 1313, and was leading an army to his assistance are the most important guides to the documents. Of modern works in Italy when he heard of the emperor's death, which took place W. Stubbs's Constitutional history, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); the same in August 1313. John was now a candidate for the imperial writer's preface to Walter, of Coventry, vol. ii. (Rolls Series): Miss K. Norgate's John Lackland (London, 1902); C. Petit-Dutailiis' Etude throne; but, on account of his youth, his claim was not regarded sur la vie et le règne de Louis viii. (Paris, 1894) and w. s. seriously, and he was persuaded to give his support to Louis, McKechnie's Magna Carla (Glasgow, 1905) are among the most duke of Upper Bavaria, afterwards the emperor Louis the useful. (H. W. C. D.) Bavarian. At Esslingen and elsewhere he aided Louis in his JOHN I. (1350–1395), king of Aragon, was the son of Peter IV. struggle with Frederick the Fair, duke of Austria, who also and his third wife Eleanor of Sicily. He was born on the claimed the Empire; but his time was mainly passed in quelling 27th of December 1350, and died by a fall from his horse, like disturbances in Bohemia, where his German followers were his namesake, cousin and contemporary of Castile. He was a greatly disliked and where he himself soon became unpopular, man of insignificant character, with a taste for artificial verse. especially among the nobles; or in Luxemburg, the borders of JOHN II. (1397–1479), king of Aragon, son of Ferdinand I. and which county he was constantly and successfully striving to of his wife Eleanor of Albuquerque, born on the 29th of June exiend. Restless, adventurous and warlike, John had soon 1397, was one of the most stirring and most unscrupulous kings tired of governing his kingdom, and even discussed exchanging of the 15th century. In his youth he was one of the inſanles it with the emperor Louis for the Palatinate; and while Bohemia (princes) of Aragon who took part in the dissensions of Castile was again relapsing into a state of anarchy, her king was winning during the minority and reign of John II. Till middle life he was faine as a warrior in almost every part of Europe. He fought also lieutenant-general in Aragon for his brother and predecessor against the citizens of Metz and against his kinsman, John III., Alphonso V., whose reign was mainly spent in Italy. In his old duke of Brabant; he led the knights of the Teutonic Order against age he was engaged in incessant conflicts with his Aragonese and the heathen in Lithuania and Pomerania and promised Pope Catalan subjects, with Louis XI. of France, and in preparing the John XXII. to head a crusade; and claiming to be king of Poland way for the marriage of his son Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile, he attacked the Poles and brought Silesia under his rule. He which brought about the union of the crowns. His troubles obtained Tirol by marrying his son, John Henry, to Margaret with his subjects were closely connected with the tragic dissensions Maultasch, the heiress of the county, assisted the emperor to in his own family. John was first married to Blanche of Navarre, defeat and capture Frederick the Fair at the battle of Mühldorf of the house of Evreux. By right of Blanche he became king | in 1322, and was alternately at peace and at war with the dukes 1 JOHN OF CASTILE-JOHN OF FRANCE 441 a of Austria and with his former foe, Henry of Carinthia. He was people, and was utterly defeated at the battle of Aljubarrota, a frequent and welcome visitor to France, in which country he on the 14th of August 1385. King John was killed at Alcalá on had a personal and hereditary interest; and on several occasions the oth of October 1390 by the fall of his horse, while he was his prowess was serviceable to his brother-in-law King Charles IV., riding in a fantasia with some of the light horsemen known as the and to Charles's successor Philip VI., whose son John, afterwards farfanes, who were mounted and equipped in the Arab style. King John II., married a daughter of the Bohemian king. Soon JOHN II. (1405-1454), king of Castile, was born on the 6th of after the battle of Mühldorf, the relations between John and the March 1405, the son of Henry III. of Castile and of his wife emperor became somewhat strained, partly owing to the king's Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt. He succeeded his father growing friendship with the Papacy and with France, and partly on the 25th of December 1406 at the age of a year and ten months. owing to territorial disputes. An agreement, however, was con- It was one of the many misfortunes of Castile that the long reign cluded, and John undertook his invasion of Italy, which was of John II.-forty-nine years—should have been granted to one perhaps the most dazzling of his exploits. Invited by the of the most incapable of her kings. John was amiable, weak and citizens of Brescia, he crossed the Alps with a meagre following dependent on those about him. He had no taste except for in 1331, quickly received the homage of many of the cities of ornament, and no serious interest except in amusements, verse- northern Italy, and soon found himself the ruler of a great part making, hunting and tournaments. He was entirely under the of the peninsula. But his soldiers were few and his enemies were influence of his favourite, Alvaro de Luna, till his second wife, many, and a second invasion of Italy in 1333 was followed by the Isabella of Portugal, obtained control of his feeble will. At her dissipation of his dreams of making himself king of Lombardy, instigation he threw over his faithful and able favourite, a mean- and Tuscany, and even of supplanting Louis on the imperial ness which is said to have caused him well-deserved remorse. He throne. The fresh trouble between king and emperor, caused by died on the 20th of July 1454 at Valladolid. By his second this enterprise, was intensified by a quarrel over the lands left marriage he was the father of Isabella “ the Catholic.” by Henry of Carinthia, and still later by the interference of Louis JOHN I. (b. and d. 1316), king of France, son of Louis X. and in Tirol; and with bewildering rapidity John was allying himself Clemence, daughter of Charles Martel, who claimed to be king with the kings of Hungary and Poland, fighting against the of Hungary, was born, after his father's death, on the 15th of emperor and his Austrian allies, defending Bohemia, governing November 1316, and only lived seven days. His uncle, after- Luxemburg, visiting France and negotiating with the pope. wards Philip V. has been accused of having caused his death, or About 1340 the king was overtaken by blindness, but he con- of having substituted a dead child in his place; but nothing was tinued to lead an active life, successfully resisting the attacks of ever proved. An impostor calling himself John I., appeared in Louis and his allies, and campaigning in Lithuania. In 1346 he Provence, in the reign of John II., but he was captured and died made a decisive move against the emperor. Acting in union with in prison. Pope Clement VI. he secured the formal deposition of Louis and JOHN II. (1319–1364), surnamed the Good, king of France, son the election of his own son Charles, margrave of Moravia, as of Philip VI. and Jeanne of Burgundy, succeeded his father in German king, or king of the Romans, in July 1346. Then 1350. At the age of 13 he married Bona of Luxemburg, daughter journeying to help Philip of France against the English, he of John, king of Bohemia. His early exploits against the English fought at the battle of Crécy, where his heroic death on the 26th were failures and revealed in the young prince both avarice and of August 1346 was a fitting conclusion to his adventurous stubborn persistence in projects obviously ill-advised. It was life. especially the latter quality which brought about his ruin. His John was a chivalrous and romantic personage, who enjoyed a first act upon becoming king was to order the execution of the great reputation for valour both before and after his death; but constable, Raoul de Brienne. The reasons for this are unknown, as a ruler he was careless and extravagant, interested only in but from the secrecy with which it was carried out and the readi- his kingdom when seeking relief from his constant pecuniary ness with which the honour was transferred to the king's close embarrassments. After the death of his first wife, who bore him friend Charles of La Cesda, it has been attributed to the influence two sons, Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles IV., and John and ambition of the latter. John surrounded himself with evil Henry (d. 1375), and who had been separated from her husband counsellors, Simon de Buci, Robert de Lorris, Nicolas Braque, for some years, the king married Beatrice (d. 1383), daughter of men of low origin who robbed the treasury and oppressed the Louis I., duke of Bourbon, by whom he had a son, Wenceslas people, while the king gave himself up to tournaments and (d. 1383). According to Camden the crest or badge of three festivities. In imitation of the English order of the Garter, he ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich dien, borne by the prince of established the knightly order of the Star, and celebrated its Wales was originally that of John of Bohemia and was first festivals with great display. Raids of the Black Prince in Langue- assumed by Edward the Black Prince after the battle of Crécy. doc led to the states-general of 1355, which readily voted money, There is no proof, however, that this badge was ever worn by but sanctioned the right of resistance against all kinds of pillage John-it certainly was not his crest-and its origin must be -a distinct commentary on the incompetence of the king. In sought elsewhere. September 1356 John gathered the flower of his chivalry and See J. Schötter, Johann, Graf von Luxemburg and König von attacked the Black Prince at Poitiers. The utter defeat of the Böhmen (Luxemburg, 1865); F. von Weech, Kaiser Ludwig der French was made the more humiliating by the capture of their Bayer und König. Johann von Böhmen (Munich, 1860), and u. king, who had bravely led the third line of battle. Taken to Chevalier, Répertoire des sources historiques, tome v. (Paris, 1905). England to await ransom, John was at first installed in the Savoy JOHN I. (1358-1390), king of Castile, was the son of Henry II., Palace, then at Windsor, Hertford, Somerton, and at last in and of his wife Joan, daughter of John Manuel of Villena, head the Tower. He was granted royal state with his captive com- of a younger branch of the royal house of Castile. In the be- panions, made a guest at tournaments, and supplied with ginning of his reign he had to contend with the hostility of John luxuries imported by him from France. The treaty of Brétigny of Gaunt, who claimed the crown by right of his wife Constance, (1360), which fixed his ransom at 3,000,000 crowns, enabled him daughter of Peter the Cruel. . The king of Castile finally bought to return to France, but although he married his daughter off the claim of his English competitor by arranging a marriage Isabella to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, for a gift of 600,000 between his son Henry and Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt, golden crowns, imposed a heavy feudal “ aid in 1387. Before this date he had been engaged in hostilities with and various other taxes, John was unable to pay more than Portugal which was in alliance with John of Gaunt. His first 400,000 crowns to Edward III. His son Louis of Anjou, who had quarrel with Portugal was settled by his marriage, in 1382, with been left as hostage, escaped from Calais in the summer of 1363, Beatrix, daughter of the Portuguese king Ferdinand. On the and John, far in arrears in the payments of the ransom, sur- death of his father-in-law in 1383, John endeavoured to enforce rendered himself again “ to maintain his royal honour which his the claims of his wife, Ferdinand's only child, to the crown of son had sullied.” He landed in England in January 1364 and was Portugal. He was resisted by the national sentiment of the I received with great honour, lodged again in the Savoy, and was a " on merc 442 JOHN OF HUNGARY-JOHN III. OF POLAND in frequent guest of Edward at Westminster. He died on the 8th of he contributed to the subsequent conquest of Hungary by April, and the body was sent back to France with royal honours. admitting the Turk as a friend. See Froissart's Chronicles; Duc d'Aumale, Notes et documents See Vilmos Fraknoi, Ungarn vor der Schlacht bei Mohács (Buda- relatifs à Jean, roi de France, et à sa captivité (1856); A. Coville, pest, 1886); L. Kupelwieser, Die Kämpfe Ungarns mit den Osmanen Lavisse's Histoire de France, vol. iv., and authorities cited there. bis zur Schlacht bei Mohács (Vienna, 1895); Ignacz Acsády, History JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540), king of Hungary, was the of the Hungarian Realm, vol. i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1902–1904). son of the palatine Stephen Zapolya and the princess Hedwig of JOHN OP BRIENNE (c. 1148–1237), king of Jerusalem and Teschen, and was born at the castle of Szepesvár. He began his Latin emperor of Constantinople, was a man of sixty years of public career at the famous Rákos diet of 1505, when, on bis age before he began to play any considerable part in history. motion, the assembly decided that after the death the reigning Dest ed originally for the Church, he had preferred to become a king, Wladislaus II., no foreign prince should be elected king knight, and in forty years of tournaments and fights he had of Hungary. Henceforth he became the national candidate for won himself a considerable reputation, when in 1208 envoys the throne, which his family had long coveted. As far back as came from the Holy Land to ask Philip Augustus, king of 1491 his mother had proposed to the sick king that his daughter France, to select one of his barons as husband to the heiress, Anne should be committed to her care in order, subsequently, and ruler of the kingdom, of Jerusalem. Philip selected John to be married to her son; but Wladislaus frustrated this project of Brienne, and promised to support him in his new dignity. by contracting a matrimonial alliance with the Habsburgs. In 1210 John married the heiress Mary (daughter of Isabella and In 1510 Zapolya sued in person for the hand of the Princess Conrad of Montferrat), assuming the title of king in right of his Anne in vain, and his appointment to the voivody of Tran- wife. In 1211, after some desultory operations, he concluded sylvania (1511) was with the evident intention of removing a six years' truce with Malik-el-Adil; in 1212 he lost his wife, him far from court. In 1513, after a successful raid in Turkish who left him a daughter, Isabella; soon afterwards he married territory, he hastened to Buda at the head of 1000 horsemen and an Armenian princess. In the fifth crusade (1218-1221) be was renewed his suit, which was again rejected. In 1514 he stamped a prominent figure. The legate Pelagius, however, claimed the out the dangerous peasant rising under Dozsa (q.v.) and the command; and insisting on the advance from Damietta, in infernal torments by means of which the rebel leader was spite of the warnings of King John, he refused to accept the slowly done to death were the invention of Zapolya. With the favourable terms of the sultan, as the king advised, until it was gentry, whose hideous oppression had moved the peasantry to too late. After the failure of the crusade, King John came to revolt, he was now more than ever popular, and, on the death of the West to obtain help for his kingdom. In 1223 he met Wladislaus II., the second diet of Rákos (1516) appointed him Honorius III. and the emperor Frederick II. at Ferentino, where, the governor of the infant king Louis II. He now aimed at the in order that he might be connected more closely with the Holy dignity of palatine also, but the council of state and the court Land, Frederick was betrothed to John's daughter Isabella, party combined against him and appointed István Báthory now heiress of the kingdom. After the meeting at Ferentino, instead (1519). The strife of factions now burnt more fiercely John went to France and England, finding little consolation; than ever at the very time when the pressure of the Turk de- and thence he travelled to Compostella, where he married a manded the combination of all the national forces against a new wife, Berengaria of Castile. After a visit to Germany he common danger. It was entirely due to the dilatoriness and returned to Rome (1225). Here he received a demand from dissensions of Zapolya and Báthory that the great fortress of Frederick II. (who had now married Isabella) that he should Belgrade was captured in 1521, a loss which really sealed the abandon his title and dignity of king, which-so Frederick fate of Hungary. In 1522 the diet would have appointed both claimed-had passed to himself along with the heiress of the Zapolya and Báthory captains-general of the realm, but the kingdom. John was now a septuagenarian "king in exile," but court set Zapolya aside and chose Báthory only. At the diets he was still vigorous enough to revenge himself on Frederick, of Hátvan and Rákos in 1522, Zapolya placed himself at the head by commanding the papal troops which attacked southern Italy of a coníederation to depose the palatine and the other great during the emperor's absence on the sixth crusade (1228-1229). officers of state, but the attempt failed. In the following year, In 1229 John, now eighty years of age, was invited by the barons however, the revolutionary Hátvan diet drove out all the members of the Latin empire of Constantinople to become emperor, on of the council of state and made István Verböczy, the great condition that Baldwin of Courtenay should marry his second jurist, and a friend of Zapolya, palatine. In the midst of this daughter and succeed him. For nine years he ruled in Constanti. hopeless anarchy, Suleiman I., the Magnificent, invaded Hungary nople, and in 1235, with a few troops, he repelled a great siege with a countless army, and the young king perished on the field of of the city by Vataces of Nicaea and Azen of Bulgaria. After Mohács in a vain attempt to stay his progress, the contradictory this last feat of arms, which has perhaps been exaggerated by orders of Louis II. preventing Zapolya from arriving in time to the Latin chroniclers, who compare him to Hector and the turn the fortunes of the day. The court party accused him of Maccabees, John died in the habit of a Franciscan friar. An deliberate treachery on this occasion; but the charge must be aged paladin, somewhat uxorious and always penniless, he was a pronounced groundless. His younger brother George was killed typical knight errant, whose wanderings led him all over Europe, at Mohács, where he was second commander-in-chief. Zapolya and planted him successively on the thrones of Jerusalem and was elected king of Hungary at the subsequent diet of Tokaj Constantinople. (Oct. 14), the election was confirmed by the diet of Székes- fehérvár (10th of November), and he was crowned on the follow- The story of John's career must be sought partly in histories of the kingdom of Jerusalem and of the Latin Empire of the East, ing day with the holy crown. partly in monographs. Among these, of which R. Röhricht gives a A struggle with the rival candidate, the German king Ferdi- list (Geschichte des Königreichs Jerusalem, p. 699, n. 3), see especially nand I., at once ensued (see HUNGARY: History) and it was only that of E. de Montcarmet, Un chevalier du temps passé (Limoges, 1876 and 1881). with the aid of the Turks that king John was able to exhaust his opponent and compel him to come to terms. Finally, in 1538, JOHN III. (SOBIESKI) (1624-1696), king of Poland, was the by the compact of Nagyvárad, Ferdinand recognized John as king eldest son of James Sobieski, castellan of Cracow, and Theofila of Hungary, but secured the right of succession on his death. Danillowiczowna, grand-daughter of the reat Hetman Zol- Nevertheless John broke the compact by bequeathing the king- kiewski. After being educated at Cracow, he made the grand dom to his infant son John Sigismund under Turkish protection. tour with his brother Mark and returned to Poland in 1648. John was the last national king of Hungary. His merit, as a He served against Chmielnicki and the Cossacks and was present statesman, lies in his stout vindication of the national indepen- at the battles of Beresteczko (1651) and Batoka (1652), but dence, though without the assistance of his great minister György was one of the first to desert his unhappy country when invaded Utiesenovich, better known as “ Frater George” (Cardinal by the Swedes in 1654, and actually assisted them to conquer the Martinuzzi q.2.), this would have been impossible. Indirectly | Prussian provinces in 1655. He returned to his lawful allegiance JOHN I. OF PORTUGAL 443 60 in the following year and assisted Czarniecki in his difficult behind the walls of Trembowla-enabled the king to remove task of expelling Charles X. of Sweden from the central Polish the pagan yoke from our shoulders ”; and he returned to be provinces. For his subsequent services to King John Casimir, crowned at Cracow on the 14th of February 1676. In October especially in the Ukraine against the Tatars and Cossacks, 1676, in his entrenched camp at Zaravno, he with 13,000 men he received the grand bâton of the crown, or commandership withstood 80,000 Turks for three weeks, and recovered by special in-chief (1668). He had already (1665) succeeded Czarniecki treaty two-thirds of the Ukraine, but without Kamieniec (treaty as acting commander-in-chief. Sobieski had well earned of Zaravno, Oct. 16, 1676). these distinctions by his extraordinary military capacity, but Having now secured peace abroad Sobieski was desirous of he was now to exhibit a less pleasing side of his character. He strengthening Poland at home by establishing absolute mon- was in fact a typical representative of the unscrupulous self- archy; but Louis XIV. looked coldly on the project, and from seeking Polish magnates of the 17th century who were always this time forth the old familiar relations between the republic ready to sacrifice everything, their country included, to their and the French monarchy were strained to breaking point, own private ambition. At the election diet of 1669 he accepted though the final rupture did not come till 1682 on the arrival large bribes from Louis XIV. to support one of the French candi- of the Austrian minister, Zerowski, at Warsaw. After resisting dates; after the election of Michael Wisniowiecki (June 19, every attempt of the French court to draw him into the anti- 1669) he openly conspired, again in the French interest, against Habsburg league, Sobieski signed the famous treaty of alliance his lawful sovereign, and that too at the very time when with the emperor Leopold against the Turks (March 31, 1683), the Turk was ravaging the southern frontier of the republic. which was the prelude to the most glorious episode of his life, Michael was the feeblest monarch the Poles could have placed the relief of Vienna and the liberation of Hungary from the upon the throne, and Sobieski deliberately attempted to make Ottoman yoke. The epoch-making victory of the 12th of Sep- government of any kind impossible. He formed a league with tember 1683 was ultimately decided by the charge of the Polish the primate Prazmowski and other traitors to dethrone the cavalry led by Sobieski in person. Unfortunately Poland king; when (1670) the plot was discovered and participation profited little or nothing by this great triumph, and now that in it repudiated by Louis XIV., the traitors sought the help of she had broken the back of the enemy she was left to fight the elector of Brandenburg against their own justly indignant the common enemy in the Ukraine with whatever assistance countrymen. Two years later the same traitors again conspired she could obtain from the unwilling and unready Muscovites. against the king, at the very time when the Turks had defeated The last twelve years of the reign of John III. were a period of Sobieski's unsupported lieutenant, Luzecki, at Czertwerty- unmitigated humiliation and disaster. He now reaped to the worska and captured the fortress of Kamieniec (Kamenetz- full the harvest of treason and rebellion which he himself had Podolskiy), the key of south-eastern Poland, while Lemberg was sown so abundantly during the first forty years of his life. A only saved by the valour of Elias Lancki. The unhappy king treasonable senate secretly plotting his dethronement, a mutinous did the only thing possible in the circumstances. He summoned diet rejecting the most necessary reforms for fear of “absolu- the tuszenia pospolite, or national armed assembly; but it failed tism," ungrateful allies who profited exclusively by his victories to assemble in time, whereupon Michael was constrained to these were his inseparable companions during the remainder of sign the disgraceful peace of Buczacz (Oct. 17, 1672) whereby his life. Nay, at last his evil destiny pursued him to the battle- Poland ceded to the Porte the whole of the Ukraine with Podolia field and his own home. His last campaign in 1690) was an and Kamieniec. Aroused to duty by a series of disasters for utter failure, and the last years of his life were embittered which he himself was primarily responsible, Sobieski now by the violence and the intrigues of his dotingly beloved wife, hastened to the frontier, and won four victories in ten days. Marya Kazimiera d’Arquien, by whom he had three sons, But he could not recover Kamieniec, and when the luszenia pos- James, Alexander and Constantine. He died on the 17th of polite met at Golenba and ordered an inquiry into the conduct June 1696, a disillusioned and broken-hearted old man. of Sobieski and his accomplices he frustrated all their efforts by See Tadeusz Korzon, Fortunes and Misfortunes of John Sobieski summoning a counter confederation to meet at Szczebrzeszyn. (Pol.) (Cracow, 1898): E. H. R. Tatham, John Sobieski (Oxford, Powerless to oppose a rebel who was at the same time com- 1881); Kazimierz Waliszewski, Archives of French Foreign Affairs, mander-in-chief, both the king and the diet had to give way, and and His Times (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882-1885); Kazimierz Waliszewski, 1674-1696, v. (Cracow, 1881); Ludwik Piotr Leliwa, John Sobieski a compromise was come to whereby the peace of Buczacz was Marysienka Queen of Poland (London, 1898); Georg Rieder, Johann repudiated and Sobieski was given a chance of rehabilitating Sobieski in Wien (Vienna, 1882). (R. N. B.) himself, which he did by his brilliant victory over an immense JOHN I. (1357–1433), king of Portugal, the natural son of Turkish host at Khotin (Nov. 10, 1673). The same day King Pedro I. (el Justicieiro), was born at Lisbon on the 22nd of Michael died and Sobieski, determined to secure the throne April 1357, and in 1364 was created grand-master of Aviz. On for himself, hastened to the capital, though Tatar bands were the death of his lawful brother Ferdinand I., without male issue, swarming over the frontier and the whole situation was acutely in October 1383, strenuous efforts were made to secure the perilous. Appearing at the elective diet of 1674 at the head succession for Beatrice, the only child of Ferdinand I., who as of 6000 veterans he overawed every other competitor, and heiress-apparent had been married to John I. of Castile (Spain), despite the persistent opposition of the Lithuanians was elected but the popular voice declared against an arrangement by which king on the 21st of May. By this time, however, the state of Portugal would virtually have become a Spanish province, and things in the Ukraine was so alarming that the new king had to John was after violent tumults proclaimed protector and regent hasten to the front. Assisted by French diplomacy at the Porte in the following December. In April 1385 he was unanimously (Louis XIV. desiring to employ Poland against Austria), and his chosen king by the estates of the realm at Coimbra. The king of own skilful negotiations with the Tatar khan, John III now Castile invaded Portugal, but his army was compelled by tried to follow the example of Wladislaus IV by leaving the pestilence to withdraw, and subsequently by the decisive guardianship of the Ukraine entirely in the hands of the Cossacks, battle of Aljubarrota (Aug. 14, 1385) the stability of John's while he assembled as many regulars and militiamen as possible throne was permanently secured. Hostilities continued inter- at Lemberg, whence he might hasten with adequate forces to millently until John of Castile died, without leaving issue by defend whichever of the provinces of the Republic might be in Beatrice, in 1390. Meanwhile the king of Portugal went on most danger But the appeal of the king was like the voice of consolidating the power of the crown at home and the influence one crying in the wilderness, and not one gentleman in a hundred of the nation abroad. In 1415 Ceuta was taken from the Moors hastened to the assistance of the fatherland Even at the end by his sons who had been born to him by his wife Philippa, of August Sobieski had but 3000 men at his disposal to oppose to daughter of John, duke of Lancaster, specially distinguished 60,000 Turks. Only his superb strategy and the heroic devo- in the siege was Prince Henry (9.0.) afterwards generally known tion of his lieutenants-notably the converted Jew, Jan Samuel as " the Navigator.” John I., sometimes surnamed “the Chrzanowski, who held the Ottoman army at bay for eleven days | Great,” and sometimes “father of his country,” died on the 444 JOHN II. OF PORTUGAL-JOHN OF SAXONY rith of August 1433, in the forty-eighth year of a reign which recognized as king of Portugal but he continued to reside in had been characterized by great prudence, ability and success; Brazil; the consequent spread of dissatisfaction resulted in he was succeeded by his son Edward or Duarte, so named out of the peaceful revolution of 1820, and the proclamation of a compliment to Edward III. of England. constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity on his See J. P. Oliveira Martins, Os filhos de D. João I. and A vida de return to Portugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in Nun' Alvares (Lisbon, 2nd ed. 1894): 1823, he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son Dom Miguel, JOHN II. (1455-1495), the Perfect, king of Portugal, succeeded whom he ultimately was compelled to banish in 1824. He died his father, Alphonso V., in August 1481. His first business at Lisbon on the 26th of March 1826, and was succeeded by was to curtail the overgrown power of his aristocracy; note- Pedro IV. worthy incidents in the contest were the execution (1483) of JOHN (1801-1873), king of Saxony, son of Prince Maxi- the duke of Braganza for correspondence with Castile, and the milian of Saxony and his wife Caroline of Parma (d. 1804), was murder, by the king's own hand, of the youthful duke of Viseu born at Dresden on the 12th of December 1801. As a boy he for conspiracy. This reign was signalized by Bartholomeu took a keen interest in literature and art (also in bistory, law, Diaz's discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. Maritime and political science), and studied with the greatest ardour rivalry led to disputes between Portugal and Castile until classical and German literature (Herder, Schiller, Goethe). their claims were adjusted by the famous treaty of Tordesillas He soon began to compose poetry himself, and drew great (June 7, 1494). John II. died, without leaving male issue, in inspiration from a journey in Italy (1821-1822), the pleasure October 1495, and was succeeded by his brother-in-law of which was however darkened by the death of his brother Emmanuel (Manoel) I. Clemens. In Pavia the prince met with Biagioli's edition of See J. P. Oliveira Martins, O principe perfeito (Lisbon, 1895). Dante, and this gave rise to his lifelong and fruitful studies of JOHN III. (1502-1557), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon, Dante. The first part of his German translation of Dante was on the 6th of June 1502, and ascended the throne as successor of published in 1828, and in 1833 appeared the complete work, his father Emmanuel I. in December 1521. In 1524 he married with a valuable commentary, which met with a great success. Catherine, sister to the Emperor Charles V., who shortly after- Several new editions appeared under his constant supervision, wards married the infanta Isabella, John's sister. Succeeding and he collected a complete library of works on Dante. to the crown at a time when Portugal was at the height of its On his return from Italy he was betrothed to Princess Amalia political power, and Lisbon in a position of commercial impor- of Bavaria, daughter of King Maximilian Joseph. He thus tance previously unknown, John III., unfortunately for his became the brother-in-law of Frederick William IV., king of dominions, became subservient to the clerical party among Prussia, with whom he had a deep and lasting friendship. his subjects, with disastrous consequences to the commercial His wife Amalia died on the 8th of November 1877, having and social prosperity of his kingdom. He died of apoplexy on borne him nine children, two of whom, Albert and George, the 6th of June 1557, and was succeeded by his grandson later became kings of Saxony. Sebastian, then a child of only three years. On his return to Dresden, John was called in 1822 to the privy JOHN IV. (1603-1656), the Fortunate, king of Portugal, was board of finance (Geheimes Finanzkollegium) and in 1825 became born.at Villaviciosa in March 1603, succeeded to the dukedom its vice-president. Under the leadership of the president, of Braganza in 1630, and married Luisa de Guzman, eldest Freiherr von Manteuffel, he acquired a thorough knowledge of daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia, in 1633. By the administration and of political economy, and laid the founda- unanimous voice of the people he was raised to the throne of tions of that conservatism which he retained throughout life. Portugal (of which he was held to be the legitimate heir) at the These new activities did not, however, interrupt his literary and revolution effected in December 1640 against the Spanish king, artistic studies. He came into still closer relations with politics Philip IV. His accession led to a protracted war with Spain, and government after his entry into the privy council in 1830. which only ended with the recognition of Portuguese inde During the revolution in Saxony he helped in the pacification of pendence in a subsequent reign (1668). He died on the 6th of the country, became commandant of the new national guard, November 1656, and was succeeded by his son Alphonso VI. the political tendencies of which he tried to check, and took JOHN V. (1689-1750), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon an exceptionally active part in the organization of the con- on the 22nd of October 1689, and succeeded his father Pedro II. stitution of the 4th of September 1831 and especially in the in December 1706, being proclaimed on the ist of January 1707. deliberations of the upper chamber, where he worked with un- One of his first acts was to intimate his adherence to the Grand flagging energy and great ability. Following the example of his Alliance, which his father had joined in 1703. Accordingly his father, he taught his children in person, and had a great influence general Das Minas, along with Lord Galway, advanced into on their education. On the 12th of August 1845, during a stay Castile, but sustained the defeat of Almanza (April 14). In at Leipzig, the prince was the object of hostile public demon- October 1708 he married Maria Anna, daughter of Leopold I., strations, the people holding him to be the head of an alleged thus strengthening the alliance with Austria; the series of un- ultramontane party.at court, and the revolution of 1848 com- successful campaigns which ensued ultimately terminated in a pelled him to interrupt his activities in the upper chamber. favourable peace with France in 1713 and with Spain in 1715. Immediately after the suppression of the revolution he resumed The rest of his long reign was characterized by royal subservience his place and took part chiefly in the discussion of legal questions. to the clergy, the kingdom being administered by ecclesiastical He was also interested in the amalgamation of the German his- persons and for ecclesiastical objects to an extent that gave torical and archaeological societies. On the death of his brother him the best of rights to the title “ Most Faithful King,” Frederick Augustus II., John became, on the 9th of August 1854, bestowed upon him and his successors by a bull of Pope Bene- king of Saxony. As king he soon won great popularity owing dict XIV. in 1748. John V. died on the 31st of July 1759, and to his simplicity, graciousness and increasingly evident know- was succeeded by his son Joseph. ledge of affairs. In his policy as regards the German confedera- · JOHN VI. (1769-1826), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon tion he was entirely on the side of Austria. Though not opposed on the 13th of May 1769, and received the title of prince of to a reform of the federal constitution, he held that its main- Brazil in 1788. In 1792 he assumed the reins of government tenance under the presidency of Austria was essential. This in name of his mother Queen Mary I., who had become insane. view he supported at the assembly of princes at Frankfort in He had been brought up in an ecclesiastical atmosphere, and, August and September 1863. He was unable to uphold his being naturally of a somewhat weak and helpless character, views against Prussia, and in the war of 1866 fought on the side was but ill adapted for the responsibilities he was thus called of Austria. It was with difficulty that, on the conclusion of on to undertake. In 1799 he assumed the title of regent, which peace, Austrian diplomacy succeeded in enabling the king to he retained until his mother's death in 1816. (For the retain his crown. After 1866 King John gradually became recon- political history of his regency, see PORTUGAL.) In.1816 he was I ciled to the new state of affairs. He entered the North German JOHN I. OF BRABANT-JOHN THE FEARLESS 445 confederation, and in the war of 1870-71 with France his troops | The margrave opposed the Interim, issued from Augsburg in fought with conspicuous courage. He died at Dresden on the May 1548; and he was the leader of the princes who formed a 29th of October 1873. league for the defence of the Lutheran doctrines in February See J. Petzholdt,.“ Zur Litteratur des Königs Johann," Neuer 1550. The alliance of these princes, however, with Henry II., Anzeiger für Bibliographie (1858,1859,1871,1873, 1874): "Aphorismen king of France, does not appear to have commended itself to über unsern König J.; " Bote von Geising (1866–1869); Das Büchlein vom König Johann Leipzig, 1867); H. v. Treitschke, Preussische him and after some differences of opinion with Maurice, elector Jahrbücher 23 (1869); A. Reumont, “ Elogio di, Giovanni, Rè di of Saxony, he returned to the emperor's side. His remaining Sassonia," Dagli Atli della Accademia della Crusca (Florence, 1874); years were mainly spent in the new mark, which he ruled care- J. P. von Winterstein, Johann, König von Sachsen (Dresden, 1878), fully and economically. He added to its extent by the purchase and in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (1881); H, Ermisch, Die Wes-of Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Cüstrin and tiner und die Landesgeschichte (Leipzig, 1902):0. Kaemmel, Sächsische Geschichte (Leipzig, 1899, Sammlung Göschen). (J. Hr.) Peitz. He died at Cüstrin on the 13th of January 1571. His wife Catherine was a daughter of Henry II., duke of Brunswick, | JOHN 1. (d. 1294), duke of Brabant and Lorraine, surnamed and as he left no sons the new mark passed on his death to his the Victorious, one of the most gifted and chivalrous princes of nephew John George, elector of Brandenburg. his time, was the second son of Duke Henry III. and Aleidis of See Berg, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Markgrafen Johann von Burgundy. In. 1267 his elder brother Henry, being infirm of Rüstrin (Landsberg, 1903). mind and body, was deposed in his favour. In 1271 John mar- JOHN (1371-1419), called the Fearless (Sans Peur), duke of ried Margaret, daughter of Louis IX. of France, and on her death Burgundy, son of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy; and Mar- in childbirth he took as his second wife (1273) Margaret of Flan- garet of Flanders, was born at Dijon on the 28th of May 1371. ders, daughter of Guy de Dampierre. His sister Marie was es- On the death of his maternal grandfather in 1384 he received the poused in 1275 to Philip III. (the Bold) of France, and during title of count of Nevers, which he bore until his father's death. the reign of Philip and his son Philip IV. there were close rela- Though originally destined to be the husband of Catherine, tions of friendship and alliance between Brabant and France. sister of Charles VI. of France, he married in 1385 Margaret, In 1285 John accompanied Philip III. in his expedition against daughter of Duke Albert of Bavaria, an alliance which con- Peter III., king of Aragon, but the duchy of Limburg was the solidated his position in the Netherlands. In the spring of scene of his chief activity and greatest successes. After the 1396 he took arms for Hungary against the Turks and on the death of Waleran IV. in 1279 the succession to this duchy was 28th of September was taken prisoner by the Sultan Bayezid I. disputed. His heiress, Ermengarde, had married Reinald I. at the bloody battle of Nicopolis, where he earned his surname count of Gelderland. She died childless, but her husband con- of “the Fearless." He did not recover his liberty until 1397, tinued to rule in Limburg, although his rights were disputed and then only by paying an enormous ransom. He succeeded by Count Adolph of Berg, nephew to Waleran IV. (see LIMBÚRG). his father in 1404, and immediately found himself in conflict Not being strong enough to eject his rival, Adolph sold his with Louis of Orleans, the young brother of Charles VI. The rights to John of Brabant, and hostilities broke out in 1283. history of the following years is filled with the struggles between Harassed by desultory warfare and endless negotiations, and these two princes and with their attempts to seize the authority seeing no prospect of holding his own against the powerful duke in the name of the demented king. John endeavoured to of Brabant, Reinald made over his rights to Henry III. count of strengthen his position by marrying his daughter Margaret to Luxemburg, who was a descendant of Waleran III. of Limburg. the dauphin Louis, and by betrothing his son Philip to a daugh. Henry III. was sustained by the archbishop of Cologne and other ter of Charles VI. Like his father, he looked for support to allies, as well as by Reinald of Gelderland. The duke of Brabant the popular party, to the tradesmen, particularly the powerful at once invaded the Rhineland and laid siege to the castle of gild of the butchers, and also to the university of Paris. In 1405 Woeringen near Bonn. Here he was attacked by the forces he opposed in the royal council a scheme of taxation proposed of the confederacy on the 5th of June 1288. After a bloody by the duke of Orleans, which was nevertheless adopted, struggle John of Brabant, though at the head of far inferior Louis retaliated by refusing to sanction the duke of Burgundy's numbers, was completely victorious. Limburg was henceforth projected expedition against Calais, whereupon John quitted attached to the duchy of Brabant. John consolidated his the court in chagrin on the pretext of taking up his mother's conquest by giving his daughter in marriage to Henry of Luxem- heritage. He was, however, called back to the council to find burg (1291) John the Victorious was a perfect model of a that the duke of Orleans and the queen had carried off the feudal prince in the days of chivalry, brave, adventurous, ex- dauphin, John succeeded in bringing back the dauphin to celling in every form of active exercise, fond of display, generous Paris, and open war seemed imminent between the two princes. in temper. He delighted in tournaments, and was always eager But an arrangement was effected in October 1405, and in 1406 personally to take part in jousts. On the 3rd of May 1294, on John was made by royal decree guardian of the dauphin and the the occasion of some marriage festivities at Bar, he was wounded king's children. in the arm in an encounter by Pierre de Bausner, and died from The struggle, however, soon revived with increased force. the effects of the hurt. Hostilities had been resumed with England; the duke of Orleans BIBLIOGRAPHY.-H. Barlandus, Rerum gestarum a Brabantiae had squandered the money raised for John's expedition against ducibus historia usque in annum 1526 (Louvain, 1566); G. C. van der Calais; and the two rivals broke out into open threats. On the Berghe, Jean le Victorieux, duc de Brabant (1259-1294), (Louvain, 1857); K. F. Stallaert, Gesch. v. Jan 1. van Braband en zijne tijdvak 20th of November 1407 their uncle, the duke of Berry, brought (Brussels, 1861); A. Wauters, Le Duc Jean Ier et le Brabant sous le about a solemn reconciliation, but three days later Louis was règne de ce prince (Brussels, 1859). assassinated by John's orders in the Rue Barbette, Paris. John JOHN, or HANS (1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg at first sought to conceal his share in the murder, but ultimately Cüstrin, was the younger son of Joachim I., elector of Branden- decided to confess to his uncles, and abruptly left Paris. His burg, and was born at Tangermünde on the 3rd of August 1513. vassals, however, showed themselves determined to support him In spite of the dispositio Achillea which decreed the indivisi- in his struggle against the avengers of the duke of Orleans. bility of the electorate, John inherited the new mark of Branden- The court decided to negotiate, and called upon the duke to burg on his father's death in July 1535. He had been brought up return. John entered Paris in triumph, and instructed the as a strict Catholic, but soon wavered in his allegiance, and in Franciscan theologian Jean Petit (d. 1411) to pronounce an 1538 ranged himself definitely on the side of the Reformers. apology for the murder. But he was soon called back to his About the same time he joined the league of Schmalkalden;. estates by a rising of the people of Liége against his brother-in-law, but before the war broke out between the league and the em- the bishop of that town. The queen and the Orleans party toox peror Charles V. the promises of the emperor had won him over every advantage of his absence and had Petit's discourse solemnly to the imperial side. After the conclusion of the war, the rela- refạted. John's victory over the Liégeois at Hasbain on the tions between John and Charles became somewhat strained. I 23rd of September 1408, enabled him to return to Paris, where he 446 JOHN OF SAXONY-JOHN, DON son, was reinstated in his ancient privileges. By the peace of | in May 1525, was soon prominent among the Reformers. Having Chartres (March 9, 1409) the king absolved him from the assisted to suppress the rising led by Thomas Munzer in 1525, crime, and Valentina Visconti, the widow of the murdered duke, he helped Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to found the league of and her children pledged themselves to a reconciliation; while an Gotha, formed in 1526 for the protection of the Reformers. He edict of the 27th of December 1409 gave John the guardianship was active at the diet of Spires in 1526, and the “recess" of this of the dauphin. Nevertheless, a new league was formed against diet gave him an opportunity to reform the church in Saxony, the duke of Burgundy in the following year, principally at the where a plan for divine service was drawn up by Luther. The instance of Bernard, count of Armagnac, from whom the party assertions of Oito von Pack that a league had been formed opposed to the Burgundians took its name. The peace of against the elector and his friends induced John to ally himself Bicêtre (Nov. 2, 1410) prevented the outbreak of hostilities, again with Philip of Hesse in March 1528, but he restrained inasmuch as the parties were enjoined by its terms to return Philip from making an immediate attack upon their opponents. to their estates; but in 1411, in consequence of ravages com- He signed the protest against the “recess" of the diet of Spires mitted by the Armagnacs in the environs of Paris, the duke of in 1529, being thus one of the original Protestants, and was Burgundy was called back to Paris. He relied more than ever actively hostile to Charles V. at the diet of Augsburg in 1530. on the support of the popular party, which then obtained the Having signed the confession of Augsburg, he was alone among reforming Ordonnance Cabochienne (so called from Simon the electors in objecting to the election of Ferdinand, afterwards Caboche, a prominent member of the gild of the butchers). the emperor Ferdinand I., as king of the Romans. He was But the bloodthirsty excesses of the populace brought a change. among the first members of the league of Schmalkalden, assented John was forced to withdraw to Burgundy (August 1413), to the religious peace of Nuremberg in 1532, and died at Schweid. and the university of Paris and John Gerson once more cen- nitz on the 16th of August 1532. John was twice married and sured Petit's propositions, which, but for the lavish bribes of left two sons and two daughters. His elder John Frederick, money and wines offered by John to the prelates, would have succeeded him as elector, and his younger son was John Ernest been solemnly condemned at the council of Constance. John's(d. 1553). He rendered great services to the Protestant cause attitude was undecided; he negotiated with the court and also in its infancy, but as a Lutheran resolutely refused to come to with the English, who had just renewed hostilities with France. any understanding with other opponents of the older faith, Although he talked of helping his sovereign, his troops took no See J. Becker, Kurfürst Johann von Sachsen und seine Beziehungen part in the battle of Agincourt (1415), where, however, two of his zu Luther (Leipzig, 1890); J. Janssen, History of the German People brothers, Anthony, duke of Brabant, and Philip, count of (English translation), vol. v. (London, 1903); L. von Ranke, Deutsche Nevers, fell fighting for France. Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882). In 1417 John made an attack on Paris, which failed through JOHN, DON (1545-1578), of Austria, was the natural son of his loitering at Lagny;? but on the 30th of May 1418 a traitor, the emperor Charles V. by Barbara Blomberg, the daughter of one Perrinet Leclerc, opened the gates of Paris to the Burgundian an opulent citizen of Regensburg. He was born in that free captain, Villiers de l'Isle Adam. The dauphin, afterwards King imperial city on the 24th of February 1545, the anniversary of Charles VI., fled from the town, and John betook himself to the his father's birth and coronation and of the battle of Pavia, king, who promised to forget the past. John, however, did and was at first confided under the name of Geronimo to foster nothing to prevent the surrender of Rouen, which had been parents of humble birth, living at a village near Madrid; but in besieged by the English, and on which the fate of the kingdom 1554 he was transferred to the charge of Madalena da Ulloa, seemed to depend; and the town was taken in 1419. The the wife of Don Luis de Quijada, and was brought up in ignorance dauphin then decided on a reconciliation, and on the nth of of his parentage at Quijada's castle of Villagarcia not far from July the two princes swore peace on the bridge of Pouilly, near Valladolid. Charles V. in a codicil of his will recognized Gero- Melun. On the ground that peace was not sufficiently assured nimo as his son, and recommended him to the care of his successor. by the Pouilly meeting, a fresh interview was proposed by the In September 1559 Philip II. of Spain publicly recognized the dauphin and took place on the roth of September 1419 on the boy as a member of the royal family, and he was known at court bridge of Montereau, when the duke of Burgundy was felled as Don Juan de Austria. For three years he was educated at with an axe by Tanneguy du Chastel, one of the dauphin's Alcalá, and had as school companions his nephews, the inſante companions, and done to death by the other members of the Don Carlos and Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma. With dauphin's escort. His body was first buried at Montereau and Don Carlos his relations were especially friendly. It had been afterwards removed to the Chartreuse of Dijon and placed in Philip's intention that Don John should become a monk, but he a magnificent tomb sculptured by Juan de la Huerta; the tomb showed a strong inclination for a soldier's career and the king was afterwards transferred to the museum in the hôtel de ville. yielded. In 1568 Don John was appointed to the command of By his wife, Margaret of Bavaria, he had one son, Philip thea squadron of 33 galleys, and his first operations were against the Good, who succeeded him; and seven daughters-Margaret, | Algerian pirates. His next services were (1569–70) against the who married in 1404 Louis, son of Charles VI., and in 1423 rebel Moriscos in Granada. In 1571 a nobler field of action was Arthur, earl of Richmond and afterwards duke of Brittany; opened to him. The conquest of Cyprus by the Turks had led Mary, wife of Adolph of Cleves; Catherine, promised in 1410 the Christian powers of the Mediterranean to fear for the safety to a son of Louis of Anjou; Isabella, wife of Olivier de Châtillon, of the Adriatic. A league between Spain and Venice was count of Penthièvre; Joanna, who died young; Anne, who mar- effected by the efforts of Pope Pius V. to resist the Turkish ried John, duke of Bedford, in 1423; and Agnes, who married advance to the west, and Don John was named admiral in chief Charles I., duke of Bourbon, in 1425. of the combined fleets. At the head of 208 galleys, 6 galleasses See A. G. P. Baron de Barante, Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne, and a number of smaller craft, Don John encountered the (Brussels, 1835-1836); B. Zeller, Louis de France el Jean sans Peur Turkish fleet at Lepanto on the 7th of October 1571, and gained (Paris, 1886); and E. Petit, Itinéraire de Philippe le Hardi et de Jean a complete victory. Only forty Turkish vessels effected their sans Peur (Paris, 1888). (R. Po.) escape, and it was computed that 35,000 of their men were slain JOHN (1468-1532), called the Steadfast, elector of Saxony, or captured while 15,000 Christian galley slaves were released. fourth son of the elector Ernest, was born on the 30th of June Unfortunately, through divisions and jealousies between the 1468. In 1486, when his eldest brother became elector as allies, the fruits of one of the most decisive naval victories in Frederick III., John received a part of the paternal inheritance history were to a great extent lost. and afterwards assisted his kinsman, the German king Maxi- This great triumph aroused Don John's ambition and filled milian I., in several campaigns. He was an early adherent of his imagination with schemes of personal aggrandizement. Luther, and, becoming elector of Saxony by his brother's death He thought of erecting first a principality in Albania and the 'This incident earned for him among the Parisians the con. Morea, and then a kingdom in Tunis. But the conclusion by temptuous nickname of " John of Lagny, who does not hurry." Venice of a separate peace with the sultan put an end to the JOHN, DON-JOHN OF THE CROSS 4.47 league, and though Don John captured Tunis in 1573, it was on both occasions he had played the peacemaker, and this again speedily lost. The schemes of Don John found no support sympathetic part, combined with his own pleasant manners in Philip II., who refused to entertain them, and even withheld and handsome person with bright eyes and abundant raven, from his half-brother the title of infante of Spain. At last, black hair-a complete contrast to the fair complexions of the however, he was appointed (1576) governor-general of the Nether. Habsburgs--made him a popular favourite. In 1656 he was lands, in succession to Luis de Requesens. The administration sent to command in Flanders, in combination with the prince of of the latter had not been successful, the revolt headed by the Condé, then in revolt against his own sovereign. At the storming prince of Orange had spread, and at the time of Don John's of the French càmp at Valenciennes in 1656, Don John displayed nomination the Pacification of Ghent appeared to have united brilliant personal courage at the head of a cavalry charge. the whole of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands in deter- When, however, he took a part in the leadership of the army at mined opposition to Spanish rule and the policy of Philip II. the Dunes in the battle fought against Turenne and the British The magic of Don John's name, and the great qualities of which forces sent over by Cromwell in 1658, he was completely beaten, he had given proof, were to recover what had been lost. He in spite of the efforts of Condé, whose advice he neglected, and was, however, now brought into contact with an adversary of of the hard fighting of English Royalist exiles. During 1661 and a very different calibre from himself, This was William of 1662 he commanded against the Portuguese in Estremadura. Orange, whose influence was now supreme throughout the Nether- The Spanish troops were ill-appointed, irregularly paid and un- lands. The Pacification of Ghent, which was really a treaty trustworthy, but they were superior in numbers and some between Holland and Zeeland and the other provinces for the successes were gained. If Don John had not suffered from the defence of their common interests against Spanish oppression, indolence which Clarendon, who knew him, considered his chief had been followed by an agreement between the southern pro- defect, the Portuguese would have been hard pressed. The vinces, known as the Union of Brussels, which, though maintain- greater part of the south of Portugal was overrun, but in 1663 ing the Catholic religion and the king's authority, aimed at the the Portuguese were reinforced by a body of English troops, expulsion of the Spanish soldiery and officials from the Nether- and were put under the command of the Huguenot Schomberg. lands. Confronted by the refusal of the states general to accept By him Don John was completely beaten at Estremos. Even him as governor unless he assented to the conditions of the Paci- now he might not have lost the confidence of his father, if fication of Ghent, swore to maintain the rights and privileges Queen Mariana, mother of the sickly infante Carlos, the only of the provinces, and to employ only Netherlanders in his surviving legitimate son of the king, had not regarded the bastard service, Don John, after some months of fruitless negotiations, with distrust and dislike. Don John was removed from command saw himself compelled to give way. At Huey on the 12th of and sent to his commandery at Consuegra. After the death of February 1577 he signed a treaty, known as the “ Perpetual Philip IV. in 1665 Don John became the recognized leader of Edict,” in which he complied with these terms. On the ist of the opposition to the government of Philip's widow, the queen May he made his entry into Brussels, but he found himself regent. She and her favourite, the German Jesuit Nithard, governor-general only in name, and the prince of Orange master seized and put to death one of his most trusted servants, Don of the situation. In July he suddenly betook himself to Namur José Malladas. Don John, in return, put himself at the head of and withdrew his concessions. William of Orange forthwith a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, which led to the expulsion of took up his residence at Brussels, and gave his support to the Nithard on the 25th of February 1669. Don John was, however, archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor, whom the states forced to content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In general accepted as their sovereign. Meanwhile Philip had sent 1677, the queen mother having aroused universal opposition by large reinforcements to Don John under the leadership of his her shameless favour for Fernando de Valenzuela, Don John cousin Alexander Farnese. At the head of a powerful force was able to drive her from court, and establish himself as prime Don John now suddenly attacked the patriot army at Gem- minister. Great hopes were entertained of his administration, blours, where, chiefly by the skill and daring of Farnese, a com- but it proved disappointing and short. Don John died on the plete victory was gained on the 31st of January 1578. He 17th of September 1679. could not, however, follow up his success for lack of funds, and The career of Don John can be followed in J. C. Dunlop's Memoirs was compelled to remain inactive all the summer, chafing with of Spain 1621-1700 (Edin. 1834). impatience at the cold indifference with which his appeals for the sinews of war were treated by Philip. Hiş health gave way, to have been born of noble parents at Harpham, in the east riding JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST (d. 721), English bishop, is said he was attacked with fever, and on the ist of October 1578, at of Yorkshire. He received his education at Canterbury under the early age of 33, Don John died, heartbroken at the failure of all his soaring ambitions, and at the repeated proofs that he Archbishop Theodore, the statement that he was educated at Oxford being of course untrue. He was for a time a member of had received of the king his brother's jealousy and neglect. See Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Don John of Austria 1547-1575 (1883) crated bishop of Hexham and in 705 was promoted to the bishop- the Whitby community, under St Hilda, and in 687 he was conse- and the bibliography under PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. ric of York. He resigned the latter see in 718, and retired to a . JOHN, DON (1629-1679), of Austria, the younger, recognized monastery which he had founded at Beverley, where he died on as the natural son of Philip IV., king of Spain, his mother, the 7th of May 721. He was canonized in 1037, and his feast Maria Calderon, or Calderona, being an actress. Scandal is celebrated annually in the Roman Church on the 7th of May, accused her of a prodigality of favours which must have rendered Many miracles of healing are ascribed to John, whose pupils were the paternity of Don John very dubious. He was, however, numerous and devoted to him. He was celebrated for his recognized by the king, received a princely education at Ocaña, scholarship as well as for his virtues. and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military orders , and other forms of income. Don John was sent in 1647 exponendo (an exposition of Luke): Homiliae in Evangelia; Epistolae The following works are ascribed to John by J. Bale: Pro Luca to Naples--then in the throes of the popular rising first led by ad Herebaldum, Audenam, et Bertinum; and Epistolae ad Hyldam Masaniello-with a squadron and a military force, to support abbatissam. See life by Folcard, based on Bede, in Acta SS. Bolland.; the viceroy. The restoration of royal authority was due rather and J. Raine's Fasti eboracenses (1863). to the exhaustion of the insurgents and the follies of their French JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST (1542–1591), Spanish mystic, leader, the duke of Guise, than to the forces of Don John. He was born at Ontiveros (Old Castile) on the 24th of June 1542. was next sent as viceroy to Sicily, whence he was recalled in 1651 He became a professed Carmelite in 1564, and was ordained to complete the pacification of Catalonia, which had been in priest at Salamanca in 1567. He met with much opposition in revolt since 1640. The excesses of the French, whom the Catalans his efforts to introduce the reforms proposed by St Theresa, and had called in, had produced a reaction, and Don John had not was more than once imprisoned. His real name was Juan de much more to do than to preside over the final siege of Barcelona Yepez y Álvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San and the convention which terminated the revolt in October 1652. I Matias till 1568, when he adopted the name of Juan de la Cruz. 448 JOHN OF ASIA--JOHN OF DAMASCUS Broken by persecution, he was sent to the monastery of Ubeda, arrangement, and the occasional repetition of accounts of the same where he died in 1591; his Obras espiriluales were published events are due, as the author himself informs us (ii. 50), to the work posthumously in 1618. He was beatified in 1674 and canonized The same cause may account for the somewhat slovenly Syriac style being almost entirely composed during the times of persecution, on the 27th of December 1726. The lofty symbolism of his prose The writer claims to have treated his subject impartially, and though is frequently obscure, but his lyrical verses are distinguished for written from the narrow point of view of one to whom Monophysite their rapturous ecstasy and beauty of expression. orthodoxy was all-important, it is evidently a faithful reproduc. Some of his poems have been translated with great success by Cureton (Oxford, 1853), and was translated into English by R. Payne- tion of events as they occurred. This third part was edited by Arthur Symons in Images of Good and Evil; the most convenient Smith (Oxford, 1860) and into German by J. M. Schonfelder (Munich, edition of his works, which have been frequently reprinted, is that 1862). contained in vol. xvi. of the Biblioteca de autores españoles. John's other known work was a series of Biographies of Eastern JOHN OF ASIA (or Of EPHESUS), a leader of the Monophysite Saints, compiled about 569. These have been edited by Land in Syriac-speaking Church in the 6th century, and one of the earliest and Land (Amsterdam, 1889). An interesting estimate of John Anecdota Syriaca, il. 1-288, and translated into Latin by Douwen and most important of Syriac historians. Born atĀmid (Diarbekr) as an ecclesiastic and author was given by the Åbbé Duchesne in a about 505, he was there ordained as a deacon in 529; but in 534 memoir read before the five French Academies on the 25th of October 1892. we find him in Palestine, and in 535 he passed to Constantinople. The cause of his leaving Amid was probably either the great JOHN OF DAMASCUS (JOHANNES DAMASCENUS) (d. before pestilence which broke out there in 534 or the furious persecution 754), an eminent theologian of the Eastern Church, derives his directed against the Monophysites by Ephraim (patriarch of surname from Damascus, where he was born about the close of Antioch 529-544) and Abraham (bishop of Amid C. 520-541). / the 7th century. His Arabic name was Mansur (the victor), and In Constantinople he seems to have early won the notice of he received the epithet Chrysorrhoas (gold-pouring) on account Justinian, one of the main objects of whose policy was the con- of his eloquence. The principal account of his life is contained solidation of Eastern Christianity as a bulwark against the in a narrative of the roth century, much of which is obviously heathen power of Persia. John is said by Barhebraeus (Chron. legendary. His father Sergius was a Christian, but notwithstand- eccl. i. 195) to have succeeded Anthimus as Monophysite bishop ing held a high office under the Saracen caliph, in which he was of Constantinople, but this is probably a mistake." Anyhow he succeeded by his son. John is said to have owed his education enjoyed the emperor's favour until the death of the latter in 565 in philosophy, mathematics and theology to an Italian monk and (as he himself tells us) was entrusted with the administration named Cosmas, whom Sergius had redeemed from a band of of the entire revenues of the Monophysite Church. He was also captive slaves. · About the year 730 he wrote several treatises sent, with the rank of bishop, on a mission for the conversion of in defence of image-worship, which the emperor, Leo the Isaurian, such heathen as remained in Asia Minor, and informs us that the was making strenuous efforts to suppress. number of those whom he baptized amounted to 70,000. He also Various pieces of evidence go to show that it was shortly after built a large monastery at Tralles on the hills skirting the valley this date that he resolved to forsake the world, divided his fortune of the Meander, and more than 90 other monasteries. Of the among his friends and the poor, and betook himself to the monas- mission to the Nubians which he promoted, though he did not tery of St Sabas, near Jerusalem, where he spent the rest of his himself visit their country, an interesting account is given in life. After the customary probation he was ordained priest by the 4th book of the 3rd part of his History.? In 546 the emperor the patriarch of Jerusalem. In his last years he travelled entrusted him with the task of rooting out the secret practice of through Syria contending against the iconoclasts, and in the same idolatry in Constantinople and its neighbourhood. But his cause he visited Constantinople at the imminent risk of his life fortunes changed soon after the accession of Justin II. About during the reign of Constantine Copronymus. With him the 571 Paul of Asia, the orthodox or Chalcedonian patriarch, began "mysteries," the entire ritual, are an integral part of the Orthodox (with the sanction of the emperor) a rigorous persecution of the system, and all dogma culminates in image-worship. The date Monophysite Church leaders, and John was among those who of his death is uncertain; it is probably about 752. John Damas- suffered most. He gives us a detailed account of his sufferings cenus is a saint both in the Greek and in the Latin Churches, in prison, his loss of civil rights, &c., in the third part of his his festival being observed in the former on the 29th of November History. The latest events recorded are of the date 585, and the and on the 4th of December, and in the latter on the 6th of May. author cannot have lived much longer; but of the circumstances theologians of the early Eastern Church, and, according to Dorner, The works of Damascenus give him a foremost place among the of his death nothing is known. he “ remains in later times the highest authority in the theological John's main work was his Ecclesiastical History, which covered literature of the Greeks.” This is not because he is an original more than six centuries, from the time of Julius Caesar to 585. thinker but because he compiled into systematic form the scattered It was composed in three parts, each containing six books. The teaching of his theological predecessors. Several treatises attributed first part seems to have wholly perished. The second, which to him are probably spurious, but his undoubted works are numerous extended from Theodosius II. to the 6th or 7th year of Justin II., and embrace a wide range. The most important contains three parts was (as F. Nau has recently proved), reproduced in full or almost.in under the general title Inyn yvárews (“The Fountain of Knowledge"). full, in John's own words, in the third part of the Chronicle which was The first part, entitled Kepalala piloooolká, is an exposition and appli. till lately attributed to the patriarch Dionysius Telmaharensis, but cation of theology of Aristotle's Dialeclic. The second, entitled Ilepl is really the work of an unknown compiler. Of this second division aipcoeur ("Of Heresies"), is a reproduction of the earlier work of Epiph- of John's History, in which he had probably incorporated the so- anius, with a continuation giving an account of the heresies that called Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite, considerable portions are arose after the time of that writer. The third part, entitled "Exdogus found in the British Museum MSS. Add. 14647 and 14650, and these axpeßis rîş opo osógov riotews ("An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox have been published in the second volume of Land's Anecdota Faith"), is much the most important, containing as it does a complete Syriaca. But the whole is more completely presented in the Vatican system of theology founded on the teaching of the fathers and church MS. (clxii.), which contains the third part of the Chronicle of councils, from the 4th to the 7th century. It thus embodies the pseudo-Dionysius. The third part of John's history, which is a finished result of the theological thought of the early Greck Church. detailed account of the ecclesiastical events which' happened in Through a Latin translation made by Burgundio of Pisa in the 12th 571-585, as well as of some earlier occurrences, survives in a fairly century, it was well known to Peter Lombard and Aquinas, and in complete state in Add. 14640, a British Museum MS. of the 7th this way it influenced the scholastic theology of the West. century. It forms a contemporary record of great value to the well-known work is the Sacra parallela, a collection of biblical passages historian. Its somewhat disordered state, the want of chronological followed by illustrations drawn from other scriptural sources and from the fathers. There is much merit in his hymns and “canons " 1 Sec Land, Joannes Bischof von Ephesos, pp. 57 seq. ? Cf. Land's Appendix (op. cit. 172-193). one of the latter is very familiar as the hymn“ The Day of Resurrec- tion, Earth tell it out abroad.". John of Damascus has sometimes * See Bulletin critique, 15th June and 25th Aug. 1896, and 25th Jan. been called the “ Father of Scholasticism," and the “ Lombard of the Journal asiatique, 9th series, vol. viii. (1896) pp. 346 sqq. and Greeks," but these epithets are appropriate only in a limited sense. vol. ix. (1897) p. 529; also Revue de l'Orient chrétien, Suppl. trimestriel The Christological position of John may be summed up in the (1897), pp. 41-54, 455-493; and compare Nöldeke in Vienna Oriental following description: Journal (1896), pp. 160 sqq. He tries to secure the unity of the two The facts are briefly stated in Duval's Littérature syriaque, p. 192. A full analysis of this second part of "G. P. Fisher, Hist. of Chr. Doctrine, 159 seq. More fully in R. L. John's history has been given by M. Nau. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation, ii. 138-146. Another 1897; JOHN OF HEXHAM—JOHN OF SALISBURY 449 natures by relegating to the divine Logos the formative and control he is referred to by the Scottish historians, Leslic and ling agency. It is not a human individual that the Logos assumes, Dempster. nor is it humanity, or human nature in general. It is rather a potential human individual, a nature not yet developed into a person See the notices in John Lyden's Introduction to his edition of or hypostasis. The hypostasis through which this takes place is the Complaynt of Scotlande (1801), pp. 85 seq.; The Scottish the personal Logos through whose union with this potential man, Antiquary, xiii. 111-115 and xv. 1-14. Annotated extracts are in the womb of Mary, the potential man acquires a concrete reality, given in Gregory Smith's Specimens of Middle Scots (1902). an individual existence. He has, therefore, no hypostasis of himself JOHN OF RAVENNA. Two distinct persons of this name, but only in and through the Logos. It is denied that he is non-hypo- static (á vonóstar OS); it is affirmed that he is en-hypostatic (drabotatos). formerly confused and identified with a third (anonymous) Two natures may form a unity, as the body and soul in man. So man, Ravennese in Petrarch's letters, lived at the end of the 14th both soul and body, is brought into unity with the Logos; there being and the beginning of the 15th century. then one hypostasis for both natures. There is an interchange of the divine and human attributes, a communication of the former 1. A young Ravennese born about 1347, who in 1364 went which deifies the receptive and passive human nature. In Christ to live with Petrarch as secretary. In 1367 he set out to see the human will has become the organ of the divine will. Thus while the world and make a name for himself, returned in a state of John is an adherent of Chalcedon and a dyothelite, the drift of his destitution, but, growing restless again, left his employer for teaching is in the monophysite direction. " The Chalcedonian Definition is victorious, but Apollinaris is not overcome "; what good in 1368. He is not mentioned again in Petrarch's corre- John gives with the one hand he takes away with the other. On spondence, unless a letter“ to a certain wanderer" (vago cuidam), the question of the Atonement he regards the death of Christ as a congratulating him on his arrival at Rome in 1373, is addressed sacrifice offered to God and not a ransom paid to the devil. to him. LITERATURE.-The Life of John of Damascus was written by 2. Son of Conversanus (Conversinus, Convertinus). He is John, patriarch of Jerusalem in the 10th century, (Migne, Patrol. first heard of (Nov. 17, 1368) as appointed to the professor- Graec., xciv. 429-489). The works were edited by Le Quien (2 vols., ship of rhetoric at Florence, where he had for some time held fol., Paris, 1712) and form vols. 94 to 96 in Migne's Greek series. A monograph by J. Langen was published in 1879: A. Harnack's the post of notary at the courts of justice. This differentiates History of Dogma is very full (see especially vols. iii. and iv.; on the him from (1). He entered (c. 1370) the service of the ducal house image-worship controversy, iv. 322 seq.), and so are the similar works of Padua, the Carraras, in which he continued at least until 1404, of F. Loofs-Seeberg and A. Porner. See also 0. Bardenhewer's although the whole of that period was not spent in Padua. From Patrologie, and other literature cited in F. Kattenbusch's excellent article in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyklopädie, vol. ix. 1375 to 1379 he was a schoolmaster at Belluno, and was dismissed as too good for his post and not adapted for teaching boys. On JOHN OF HEXHAM (c. 1160–1209), English chronicler, is the 22nd of March 1382, he was appointed professor of rhetoric known to us merely as the author of a work called the Historia at Padua. During the struggle between the Carraras and XXV. annorum, which continues the Historia regum of Simeon Viscontis, he spent five years at Udine (1387-1392). From of Durham and contains an account of English events 1130-1153. 1395-1404 he was chancellor of Francis of Carrara, and is heard From the title, as given in the only manuscript, we learn John's of for the last time in 1406 as living at Venice. His history of name and the fact that he was prior of Hexham. It must have the Carraras, a tasteless production in barbarous Latin, says little been between 1160 and 1209 that he held this position; but the for his literary capacity; but as a teacher he enjoyed a great date at which he lived and wrote cannot be more accurately reputation, amongst his pupils being Vittorino da Feltre and determined. Up to the year 1139 he follows closely the history Guarino of Verona. written by his predecessor, Prior Richard; thenceforward he is 3. Malpaghini (De Malpaghinis), the most important. Born an independent though not a very valuable authority. He is about 1356, he was a pupil of Petrarch from a very early age to best informed as to the events of the north country; bis want of 1374. On the 19th of September 1397 he was appointed pro- care, when he ventures farther afield, may be illustrated by the fessor of rhetoric and eloquence at Florence. On the oth of June fact that he places in 1145 King Stephen's siege of Oxford, which 1412, on the re-opening of the studio, which had been shut from really occurred in 1142. Even for northern affairs his chronology 1405 to 1411 owing to the plague, his appointment was renewed is faulty; from 1140 onwards his dates are uniformly one year for five years, before the expiration of which period he died (May too late. Prior Richard is not the only author to whom John is 1417). Although Malpaghini left nothing behind him, he did indebted; he incorporates in the annal of 1138 two other narra- much to encourage the study of Latin; among his pupils was tives of the battle of the Standard, one in verse by the Poggio Bracciolini. monk Serlo, another in prose by Abbot Ailred of Rievaux; and The local documents and other authorities on the subject will be also a poem, by a Glasgow clerk, on the death of Sumerled of the found in E. T. Klette, Beitrage zur Geschichte und Litteratur der Isles. italienischen Gelehrtenrenaissance, vol. i. (1888); see also G. Voigt, The one manuscript of John's chronicle is a 13th century, copy; (1) and (2). Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums, who, however, identines MS. C. C. C. Cambridge, cxxxix. 8. The best edition is that of T. Arnold in Symeonis mona opera, vol. ii. (Ro Series, 1885). JOHN OF SALISBURY (c. 1115-1180), English author, There is an English translation in J. Stevenson's Church Historians of diplomatist and bishop, was born at Salisbury between the years England, vol. iv. (London, 1856). (H. W. C. D.) 1115 and 1120. Beyond the fact that he was of Saxon, not of JOHN OF IRELAND (JOHANNIS DE IRLANDIA), (1. 1480), Norman race, and applies to himself the cognomen of Pardus, Scottish writer, perhaps of Lowland origin, was resident for thirty short,” or small,” few details are known regarding his early years in Paris and later a professor of theology. He was confessor life; but from his own statements it is gathered that he crossed to James IV. and also to Louis XI. of France, and was rector of to France about 1136, and began regular studies in Paris under Yarrow (de Foresta) when he completed, at Edinburgh, the work Abelard, who had there for a brief period re-opened his famous on which rests his sole claim as a vernacular writer. This book, school on Mont St Geneviève. After Abelard's retirement, John preserved in MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh (MS. 18, carried on his studies under Alberich of Reims and Robert of 2,8), and labelled “ Johannis de Irlandia opera theologica,” is a Melun. From 1138 to 1140 he studied grammar and the treatise in Scots on the wisdom and discipline necessary to a classics under William of Conches and Richard l'Evêque, the prince, especially intended for the use of the young James IV. disciples of Bernard of Chartres, though it is still a matter of The book is the earliest extant example of original Scots prose. controversy whether it was in Chartres or not (cf. A. Clerval, It was still in MS. in 1910, but an edition was promised by the .Les Écoles de Chartres au moyen âge, 1895). Bernard's teaching Scottish Text Society. In this book John refers to two other was distinguished partly by its pronounced Platonic tendency, vernacular writings, one of the commandementis and uthir partly by the stress laid upon literary study of the greater Latin thingis pretenand to the salvacioune of man," the other, " of the writers; and the influence of the latter feature is noticeable in tabill of confessioune.” No traces of these have been discovered. all John of Salisbury's works. About 1140 he was at Paris The author's name appears on the registers of the university studying theology under Gilbert de la Porrée, then under of Paris and on the rolls of the Scottish Parliaments, and Robert Pullus and Simon of Poissy. In 1148 he resided at 4 450 JOHN OF SWABIA-JOHN, EPISTLES OF 1) as common sense. Moutiers la Celle in the diocese of Troyes, with his friend Peter | general Johannine problem, yet even when it is held that John of Celle. He was present at the council of Reims, presided over the apostle (9.v.) survived to old age in Ephesus, the second by Pope Eugenius III., and was probably presented by Bernard and third epistles may be fairly ascribed (with Erasmus, Grotius, of Clairvaux to Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, at whose Credner, Bretschneider, Reuss, &c.) to John the presbyter', as court he settled, probably about 1150. Appointed secretary to several circles in the early church held (“Opinio a plerisque Theobald, he was frequently sent on missions to the papal see. tradita,” Jerome: De vir. ill. 18). An apostle indeed might During this time he composed his greatest works, published call himself a presbyter (cf. 1 Pet. V. I). But these notes imply almost certainly in 1159, the Policraticus, sive de nugis curialium no apostolic claim on the part of the author, and, although their et de vestigiis philosophorum and the Metalogicus, writings author is anonymous, the likelihood is that their composition invaluable as storehouses of information regarding the matter by the great Asiatic presbyter John led afterwards to their and form of scholastic education, and remarkable for their incorporation in the “instrumentum of John the apostle's cultivated style and humanist tendency. After the death of writings, when the prestige of the latter had obscured the Theobald in 1161, John continued as secretary to Thomas former. All hypotheses as to their pseudonymity or composition Becket, and took an active part in the long disputes between by different hands may be dismissed. They would never have that primate and his sovereign, Henry II. His letters throw floated down the stream of tradition except on the support of light on the constitutional struggle then agitating the English some primitive authority. If this was not connected with John world. With Becket he withdrew to France during the king's the apostle the only feasible alternative is to think of John the displeasure; he returned with him in 1170, and was present at presbyter, for Papias refers to the latter in precisely this fashion his assassination. In the following years, during which he (Euseb. H. E. iii. 39, 15; kai TOÛTO Ó 7. čleye). continued in an influential situation in Canterbury, but at what The period of all three lies somewhere within the last decade precise date is unknown, he drew up the Life of Thomas Beckel. of the ist century and the first decade of the 2nd. No evidence In 1976 he was made bishop of Chartres, where he passed is available to determine in what precise order they were written, the remainder of his life. In 1179 he took an active part in the but it will be convenient to take the two smaller notes before council of the Lateran. He died at or near Chartres on the the larger. The so-called Second Epistle of John is one of the 25th of October 1180. excommunicating notes occasionally despatched by early Christian leaders to a community (cf. 2 Cor. v. 9). The presbyter John's writings enable us to understand with much completeness the literary and scientific position of the 12th century.. His views or elder warns a Christian community, figuratively addressed imply a cultivated intelligence well versed in practical affairs, the elect lady" (cf. 13 with 1 Pet. i. 1; v, 13; also the plural opposing to the extremes of both nominalism and realism a practical of 6, 8, 10 and 13), against some itinerant (cf. Didache xi. 1-23 His doctrine is a kind of utilitarianism, with a strong leaning on the speculative side to the modified' literary teachers who were promulgating advanced Docetic views (7) scepticism of Cicero, for whom he had unbounded admiration. upon the person of Christ. The note is merely designed to He was a humaníst before the Renaissance, surpassing all other serve (12) until the writer arrives in person. He sends greetings representatives of the school of Chartres in his knowledge of the to his correspondents from some community in which he is Latin classics, as in the purity of his style, which was evidently residing at present (13), and with which they had evidently moulded on that of Cicero. Of Greek writers he appears to have known nothing at first hand, and very little in translations. The some connexion. Timaeus of Plato in the Latin version of Chalcidius was known to The note was familiar to Irenaeus? who twice (i. 10, 3, üi. 16,8) , him as to his contemporaries and predecessors, and probably he cites 10-11, once quoting it from the first epistle by mistake, had access to translations of the Phaedo and Meno. Of Aristotle but no tradition has preserved the name of the community in he possessed the whole of the Organon in Latin; he is, indeed, the first of the medieval writers of note to whom the whole was known. question, and all opinions on the matter are guess-work. The Of other Aristotelian writings he appears to have known nothing. reference to “ all who know the truth " (ver. 1) is, of course, to The collected editions of the works are by J. A. Giles (5 vols., be taken relatively (cf. Rev. ii. 23); it does not necessarily imply Oxford, 1848), and by Migne, in the Patrologiae cursus, vol. 1993 a centre like Antioch or Rome (Chapman). Whiston thought neither accurate. The Policraticus was edited with notes and introductions by C. C. I. Webb, Ioannis Saresberiensis episcopi of Philadelphia, and probably it must have been one of the Carnolensis Policratici (Oxford, 1909), 2 vols. The most complete Asiatic churches. study of John of Salisbury is the monograph by C. Schaarschmidt, The so-called Third Epistle of John belongs to the énioto) at Johannes Sarisberiensis nach Leben und Studien, Schriften und Philosophie, 1862, which is a model of accurate and complete work is a private note addressed by the presbyter to a certain Gaius, ovotátiKaL (2 Cor iii. 1) of the early church, like Rom. xvi. It manship. See also the article in the Dici. Nat. Błog. a member of the same community or house-church (9) as that JOHN (1290-6. 1320), surnamed the Parricide, and called also to which 2 John is written. A local errorist, Diotrephes (9-10) John of Swabia, was a son of Rudolph II. count of Habsburg had repudiated the authority of the writer and his party, and Agnes daughter of Ottakar II. king of Bohemia, and threatening even to excommunicate Gaius and others from consequently a grandson of the German king Rudolph I. Having the church (cf. Abbott's Diatessarica, 2258). With this passed his early days at the Bohemian court, when he came of opponent the writer promises (10) to deal sharply in person age he demanded a portion of the family estates from his uncle, before very long Meantime (14) he despatches the present the German king Albert I. His wishes were not gratified, and note, in hearty appreciation of his correspondent's attitude with three companions he formed a plan to murder the king and character. On the ist of May 1308 Albert in crossing the river Reuss at The allusion in . (čypaya) refers in all likelihood to the Windisch became separated from his attendants, and was at "second" epistle (so Ewald, Wolf, Salmon, &c.). In order to once attacked and killed by the four conspirators. John avoid the suggestion that it implied a lost epistle, äv was inserted escaped the vengeance of Albert's sons, and was afterwards at an early stage in the textual history of the note. If ékklúcias found in a monastery at Pisa, where in 1313 he is said to have could be read in 12, Demetrius would be a presbyter, in any been visited by the emperor Henry VII., who had placed him case, he is not to be identified with Demas (Chapman), nor is under the ban. From this time he vanishes from history. So Selwyn, Christian Prophets (pp. 133-145), Harnack, Heinrici The character of John is used by Schiller in his play Wilhelm (Das Urchristenthum, 1902, pp. 129 seq.), and von Soden (History of Tell. Early Christian Literature, pp. 445-446), after Renan (L'Eglise JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF. The so-called epistles of John, Primitive' Church, pp. 218. seq.) and R. Knopf (Das nacha post. chrétienne, pp. 78 seq.). Von Dobschutz (Christian Life in the in the Bible, are not epistles in the strict sense of the term, for Zeitalter, 1905, pp. 32 seq., &c.) are among the most recent critics the first is a homily, and encyclical or pastoral (as has been recog- who ascribe all ihree epistles to the presbyter. nized since the days of Bretschneider and Michaelis), while ? On the early allusions to these brief notes, cf. Gregory: The the other two are brief notes or letters. Nor are they John's, cott's Canon of the New Testament, pp. 218 seq.. 355, 357, 366. &c Canon and Text of the New Testament (1907). pp. 131, 190 seq., West- if John means the son of Zebedee. The latter conclusion depends and Leipoldt's Geschichte d. neut. Kanons (1907), i. pp. 66 seq., 78 upon the particular hypothesis adopted with regard to the seq.. 99 seq., 151 seq., 192 seq., 232 seq. JOHN, EPISTLES OF 451. 5 there any reason to suppose (with Harnack) that the note of 9 | Christ. The characteristics of the fellowship are then developed was written to, and suppressed by, him. What the presbyter (iii . 1-12), as sinlessness and brotherly love, under the antithesis is afraid of is not so much that his note would not be read of children of God (cf. ii. 29, “ born of Him”) and children of (Ewald, Harnack), as that it would not be acted upon. the devil. This brotherly love bulks so largely in the writer's These notes, written originally on small sheets of papyrus, mind that he proceeds to enlarge upon its main elements of reveal the anonymous presbyter travelling (so Clem. Alex. Quis confidence towards God (iii. 13-24), moral discernment (iv, 1-6); dives salv. xlii.) in his circuit or diocese of churches, and writing and assurance of union with God (iv. 7-21), all these being bound occasional pastoral letters, in which he speaks not only in his up with a true faith in Jesus as the Christ (v. 1-12). A brief own name but in that of a coterie of like-minded Christians.? cpilogue gives what is for the most part a summary (v. 13-21) of It is otherwise with the brochure or manifesto known as the the leading ideas of the homily? “first epistle.” This was written neither at the request of its Disjointed as the cause of the argument may seem, a close readers nor to meet any definite local emergency, but on the scrutiny of the context often reveals a subtle connexion between initiative of its author (i. 4) who was evidently concerned about paragraphs which at first sight appear unlinked. Thus the idea the effect produced upon the Church in general by certain of the Kóo uos passing away (ii. 17) suggests the following sen- contemporary phases of semi-gnostic teaching. The polemic is tences upon the nearness of the tapoiola (ii. 18 seq.), whose signs directed against a dualism which developed theoretically into are carefully noted in order to reassure believers, and whose docetic views of Christ's person (ii. 22, iv 2, &c.), and practically moral demands are underlined (ii. 28, iii. 3). Within this into libertinism (ii. 4, &c.). It is natural to think, primarily, paragraph 8 even the abrupt mention of the xploua has its of the churches in Asia Minor as the circle addressed, but all genetical place (ii. 20). The heretical &vtixplotai, it is implied, indications of date or place are absent, except those which may have no xploua from God; Christians have (note the emphasis on be inferred from its inner connexion with the Fourth Gospel úucis), owing to their union with the true Xplotos. Again, the The plan of the brochure is unstudied and unpremeditated, genetic relation of iii. 4 seq. to what precedes becomes evident resembling a series of variations upon one or two favourite when we consider that the norm of Christian purity (iii. 3) is themes rather than a carefully constructed melody. Fellowship the keeping of the divine commandments, or conduct resembling (Kolvwvia) with God and man is its dominant note. After Christ's on earth (iii. 3-ii. 4-6), so that the Gnostic' breach of defining the essence of Christian Kouvwvia (i. 1-3),* the writer this law not only puts a man out of touch with Christ (iii. 6 seq.), passes on to its conditions (i. 5-ii. 17), under the antithesis of but defeats the very end of Christ's work, i.e: the abolition of light and darkness. These conditions are twofold: (a) a sense sin (iii. 8). Thus iii. 7-10 resumes and completes the idea of of sin, which leads Christians to a sense of forgiveness through ii. 29; the Gnostic is shown to be out of touch with the righteous Jesus Christ, (b) and obedience to the supreme law of brotherly God, partly because he will not share the brotherly love which love (cf. Ignat. Ad Smyrn. 6). If these conditions are unfulfilled, is the expression of the righteousness, and partly because his moral darknėss is the issue, a darkness which spells ruin to the claims to sinlessness render God's righteous forgiveness (i. 9) soul. This prompts the writer to explain the dangers of kolvwvia superfluous. Similarly the mention of the Spirit (iii. 24) opens (ii. 18–29), under the antithesis of truth and falsehood, the naturally into a discussion of the decisive test for the false immediate peril being a novel heretical view of the person of claims of the heretics or gnostic illuminati to spiritual powers and gifts (iv i seq.); and, as this test of the genuine Spirit of God 1 In his ingenious study (Texte und Untersuchungen, xv. 3), whose is the confession of Jesus Christ as really human and incarnate, main contention is adopted by von Dobschütz and Knopf. On this view (for criticism see Belser in the Tubing. Quartalschrift, 1897, the writer, on returning (in iv. 17 seq.) to his cardinal idea of pp. 150 seq., Krüger in Zeitschrift für die wiss. Theologie, 1898, pp. brotherly love, expresses it in view of the incarnate Son (iv. 9), 307-311, and Hilgenfeld: ibid. 316–320), Diotrephes was voicing a successful protest of the local monarchical bishops against the 8 Cf. Denney, The Death of Christ (1902), pp. 269–281. The polemi. older itinerant authorities (cf. Schmiedel, Ency. Bib., 3146-3147). cal reference to Cerinthus is specially clear at this point. The death As Wilamowitz-Moellendorf (Hermes, 1898, pp. 529 seq.) points out, of Jesus was not that of a phantom, nor was his ministry from the there is a close connexion between ver.'il and ver. 10. The same baptism to the crucifixion that of a heavenly aeon which suffered writer argues that, as the substitution of αγαπήτος for φίλτάτος nothing: such is the writer's contention. "In every case the his- (ver. 1)" ist Schönrednerei und nicht vom besten Geschmacke," the torical is asserted, but care is taken that it shall not be material- writer adds όν εγώ αγαπώ εν αληθεία. ized: a primacy is given to the spiritual. Except through the ? This is the force of the nuces' in 3 John 9-10 (cf. 1 John iv. 6, 14) historical, there is no Christianity at all, but neither is there any, “The truth" (3 John 3-5) seems to mean a lile answering to the Christianity till the historical has been spiritually comprehended. apostolic standard thus enforced and exemplified. The well-known interpolation of the three heavenly witnesses (v. 7) 3 Several of these traits were reproduced in the teaching of Cerin- has now been proved by Karl Künstle (Das Comma Johanneum, thus, others may have been directly Jewish or Jewish Christian. 1905) to have originally come from the pen of the 4th century Span. The opposition to the Messianic rôle of Jesus had varied adherents. iard, Priscillian, who himself denied all distinctions of person in the The denial of the Virgin-birth, which also formed part of the Godhead. system of Cerinthus, was met by anticipation in the stories of ? On the “ sin to death "(v. 16) cf. Jubilees xxi. 22, xxvi. 34 with Matthew and Luke, which pushed back the reception of the spirit Karl's Johann. Studien (1898), i. 97 seq. and M. Goguel's La from the baptism to the birth, but the Johannine school evidently Notion johannique de l'esprit (1902), pp. 147-153, for the general preferred to answer this heresy by developing the theory of the theology of the epistle. The conceptions of light and life are best Logos, with its implicate of pre-existence. handled by Grill in his Untersuchungen über die Entstehung des vierten On the vexed question whether the language of this paragraph Ergliums (1902), pp. 301 seq: 312 seq. is purely spiritual or includes a realistic reference, çf. G. E. Findlay s In Preuschen's Zeitschrift für die neutest. Wissenschaft (1907), (Expositor, 1893, pp. 97 seq.), and Dr E. A. Abbott's recent study in pp. 1-8, von Dobschütz tries to show that the present text of ii. 28- Diatessarica, 8 & 1615-1620. The writer is controverting the Docetic 12 indicates a revision or rearrangement of an earlier text. heresy, and at the same time keeping up the line of communications Cludius (Uransichten des Christentums, Altona, 1808) had already with the apostolic base. conjectured that a Gnostic editor must have worked over a Jewish • The universal range (ii. 2) ascribed to the redeeming work of Christian document. Christ is directed against Gnostic dualism and the Ebionitic narrow- • Dr Alois Wurm's attempt (Die Irrlehrer im ersten Johannesbriefe, ing of salvation to Israel; only jueis here denotes Christians in 1903) to read the references to errorists solely in the light of Jewish general, not Jewish Christians. On the answer to the Gnostic Christianity ignores or underrates several of the data. pride of perfectionism (i. 8); cf. Epict. iv. 12, 19: The emphasis on ported on the whole by Clemen, in Preuschen's Zeitschrift (1905). you all”. (ii. 20) hints at the Gnostic aristocratic system of degrees pp. 271-281. There is certainly an anti-Jewish touch, e.g. in the among believers, which naturally tended to break up brotherly love claim of i. ! (note the emphatic spir), when one recollects the (cf. 1 Cor. viii. i seq.). The Gnostics also held that a spiritual seed saying of Aqiba (Aboth iïi. 12) and Philo's remark, kai ydp e umwa cf. iii. 9) was implanted in man, as the germ of his higher develop- ίκανοι θεού παίδες νομίζεσθαι γεγόναμεν, αλλά τοι της αειυούς εικόνος αυτού, ment into the divine life; for the Valentinian idea cf. Iren. Ado. λόγου του ιερωτάτου θεού γάρ εικών λόγος ο πρεσβύτατος (De comf. ling, Haer. i. 64, and Tertull. De anima, 11 [haeretici] " nescio quod 28). But the antithesis of John and Cerinthus, unlike that of spiritale semen infulciunt animae "). Cf. the general discussions Paul and Cerinthus (Epiph. Hoer. xxviii.), is too well based in the by Häring in Theologische Abhandlungen C. von Weizsäcker gewidmet tradition of the early Church to be dismissed as a later dogmatic (1892). pp. 188 seq., and Zahn in Wanderungen durch Schrift u. reflection, and the internal evidence of this manifesto corroborates Geschichie (1892), pp. 3-74. it clearly. 14 I 111. He is sup 452 JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST 2 whose mission furnishes the proof of God's love as well as the 1862), C. A. Wolf (2nd ed., 1885), Ewald (Die Joh. Briefe übersetzt und example and the energy of man's (iv. 10 seq.). The same concep- erklaeri, Göttingen, 1861–1862), and Lücke (3rd ed., revised by Bertheau, 1856) still repay the reader, and among previous editions tion of the roal humanity of Jesus Christ as essential to faith's those of w. Whiston (Comm. on St John's Three Catholic Epistles, being and well-being is worked out in the following paragraph 1719) and de Wette (1837, &c.) contain material of real exegetical (v. 1-12), while the allusion to eternal life (v. 11-12) leads to interest. Special editions of the first epistle have been published by the closing recapitulation (v. 13-21) of the homily's leading John Cotton (London, 1655), Neander (185!; Eng. trans. New York, 1853), E. Haupt (1869; Eng. trans. 1879), Lias (1887) and C. Watson ideas under this special category. (1891, expository) among others. Special studies by F. H. Kern The curious idea, mentioned by Augustinc (Quaest. evang. ii. De epistolae Joh. consilio, Tübingen, 1830), Erdmann (Primae Joh. 39), that the writing was addressed ad Parthos, has been literally epistolae argumentum, nexus et consilium, Berlin, 1855), Ç. E. Lu- taken by several Latin fathers and later writers (e.g. Grotius, thardt (De primae Joannis epistolae compositione, 1860), J. Stock- meyer (Die Structur des ersten Joh. Briefes, Basel, 1873) and, most Paulus, Hammond), but this title probably was a corruption of ad elaborately, by H. J. Holtzmann (Jahrb. für protest. Theologie, 1881, sparsos (Wetstein, Wegschneider) or of apòs ita pdévous (Whiston: pp. 690 seq.; 1882, pp. 128 seq.,316 seq., 460 seq.). To the monographs the Christians addressed as virgin, i.e. free from heresy), if already noted in the course of this article may be added the essays by not of tapdevos, as applied in early tradition to John the apostle. Wiesinger (Studien und Kritiken, 1899, pp. 575 seq.) and Wohlenberg (“Glossen zum ersten Johannisbriel," Neue Kirchliche Zeitschriji, The circle for which the homily was meant was probably, in the 1902, pp: 233 seq., 632 seq.). On 2 John there are special comment- first instance, that of the Fourth Gospel, but it is impossible to aries and studies by Řitmeier (De electa domina, 1706), C. A. Kriegele determine whether the epistle preceded or followed the larger (De xupia Johannis, 1758), Carpzov (Theolog. exegetica, pp. 105-208), treatise. The division of opinion on this point (cf. J. Moffat, H. G. B. Müller (Comment. in secundam epistolam Joannis, 1783), Historical New Testament, 1901, p. 534) is serious, but the series, 1901, pp. 194 seq.), W. M. Ramsay. (ibid., pp. 354 scq.) and C. Klug (De authentia, &c., 1823), J. Rendel Harris (Expositor, 6th evidence for either position is purely subjective. There are Gibbins (ibid., 1902, pp. 228-236), while, in addition to Hermann's sufficient peculiarities of style and conception to justify Comment. in Joan. ep. III. (1778), P. L. Gachon (A uthenticité de la provisionally some hesitation on the matter of the authorship. I dritte Briefe d. A postel Johannis, 1896), and Chapman (Journal of deuxième et troisième épitres de Jean, 1851), Poggel (Der zweite und The epistle may have been written by a different author, or, Theological Studies, 1904,“ The Historical Setting of the Second and from a more popular standpoint, by the author of the gospel, the Third Epistles of St John "), have discussed both of the minor possibly (as some critics hold) by the author of John xxi. But epistles togeiher. General studies of all three are furnished by H. J. res lubrica, opinio incerta. Holtzmann in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon, iii. 342-352, Sabatier (Ency- It is unsafe to lay much stress .upon the apparent reminiscence of si Paul and St Jolin, 1867), Farrar (Early Days of Christianity, chs. clop. des sciences religieuses, vii. 177 seq.), S. Cox (The Privale Letters of iv. 2-3 (or of 2 John 7) in Polycarp, ad Phil. 7 reading élnivåóta xxxi., xxxiv. seq.), Gloag (Introduction to Catholic Epistles, 1887, pp. instead of endvo eval), though, if a literary filiation is assumed, Gilbertº (The First Interpreters of Jesus, 1901, pp. 301-332), and Vi 256-350), S. D. F. Salmond in Hasting's Dict. Bible (vol. ii), G, H. the probability is that Polycarp is quoting from the epistle, not vice versa (as Volkmar contends, in his Ursprung d. unseren critical position by Cone (The Gospel and its Earliest Interpretations, •Bartlet (The Apostolic Age, 1900, pp. 418 seq.; from a more advanced Evglien 47 seq.). But Papias is said by Eusebius (H. E. iii. 39) to 1893, pp. 320-327), P. W. Schmiedel (Ency. Bib., 2556–2562, also in a have used 'Iwávvou a potépa (= 'Iwávvou atpúrn, v. 8?), i.e. the pamphlet, Evangelium, Briefe, und Offenbarung des Johannes, 1906; anonymous tract, which, by the time of Eusebius, had come to Eng. trans. 1908), J. Réville (Le Quatrième Evangile, 1901, pp. 49 seq.) and Pleiderer (Das Urchristentum, 2nd ed., 1902, pp. 390 seq.). be known-as 1 John, and we have no reason to suspect or reject The problem of the epistles is discussed incidentally by many writers this statement, particularly as Justin Martyr, another Asiatic on the Fourth Gospel, as well as by writers on New Testament writer, furnishes clear echoes of the epistle (Dial. 123). The introduction like Zahn, Jacquier, Barth and Belser, on the Conserva- tract must have been in circulation throughout Asia Minor at tive side, and Hilgenfeld, Jülicher and von Soden on the Liberal. On any rate before the end of the first quarter of the 2nd century, Hermathena (1890), pp. 281 seq. the older Syriac version of 2 and 3 John, see Gwynn's article in On the general reception of the The terminus a quo is approximately the period of the Fourth three epistles in the early Church, Zahn's paragraphs (in his Gospel's composition, but there is no valid evidence to indicate Geschichte d. N. T. Kanons, i. 209 seq., 374 seq., 905 seq.; ii. 48 seq., the priority of either, even upon the hypothesis that both came 88 seq.) are the most adequate. (J. Mt.) from the same pen. The aim of each is too special to warrant JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST, the fourth and latest of the Gospels, the conclusion that the epistle was intended to accompany or to in the Bible, and, next to that of St Mark, the shortest. The introduce the gospel. present article will first describe its general structure and more LITERATURE.-The most adequate modern editions of the three obvious contents; compare it with the Synoptic Gospels; and epistles are by Westcott (3rd ed., 1892), H. J. Holtzmann (Hand draw out its leading characteristics and final object. It will Commentar zum N.T., 3rd ed., 1908), B.Weiss (in Meyer, 6th ed.,1900), then apply the tests thus gained to the narratives special to this Baljon (1904) and J. E. Belser (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906)... Briefer Gospel; and point out the book's special difficulties and limits, English notes are furnished by W. Alexander (Speaker's Commentary, 1881), W, H. Bennett (Century Bible, 1901) and H.P.Forbes (Internat. and its abiding appeal and greatness. And it will finally con- Handbooks to New Testament, vol. iv. 1907), while Plummer has sider the questions of its origin and authorship. a concise edition of the Greek text (in The Cambridge Greek Testament, Analysis of Contents.-The book's chief break is at xiii. i, the 1886). Huther's edition (in Meyer, 1880) has been translated into solemn introduction to the feet-washing: all up to here reports Jesus' English (Edinburgh, 1882), like Rothe's (1878) invaluable commen- signs and apologetic or polemical discourses to the outer world; hence tary on the first epistle (cf. Expository Times, vols. iii. v.). Otto onwards it pictures the manifestation of His glory to the inner Baumgarten's popular edition in Die Schriften des N.T. (1907) is, circle of His disciples. These two parts contain three sections each. like that of Forbes, written from practically the same standpoint 1. (i.) Introduces the whole work (i. 1-ii. 11). (a) The prologut, as Holtzmann's. The earlier commentaries of Alford (2nd ed., i. 1-18. The Logos existed before creation and time; was with the very God and was God; and all things were made through Him. For !" The style is not flowing and articulated; the sentences come like in this Logos is Life, and this Life is a Light which, though shining minute-guns, as they would drop from a natural Hebrew. The in darkness, cannot be suppressed by it. This true Light became writer moves, indeed, amidst that order of religious ideas which flesh and tabernacled amongst us; and we beheld His glory, as of an meets us in the Fourth Gospel, and which was that of the Greek Only-Begotten from the Father, full of grace and truth. John the world wherein he found himself. He moves amongst these new Baptist testified concerning Him, the Logos-Light and Logos-Liſe ideas, however, not with the practised felicity of ihe evangelist, incarnate; but this Logos alone, who is in the bosom of the Father, but with something of helplessness, although the depth and serene hath declared the very God. (6) The four days' work (i. 19-51). beauty of his spirit give to all he says an infinite impressiveness and On the first three days John declares that he is not the Christ, charm " (M. Arnold; God and the Bible, ch, vi.). proclaims Jesus to be the Christ, and sends his own disciples away to 2 By the end of the 2nd century it appears to have been fairly Jesus. On the fourth day, Jesus Himself calls Philip and Nathanael. well-known, to judge from Origen, Irenaeus (iii. 16,8), and Clement of (c) The seventh day's first manifestation of the Incarnate Light's Alexandria (Stran. ii. 15, 66). In the Muratorian canon, which glory (ii. 1-11); Jesus at Cana turns water into wine. mentions two epistles of John, it seems to be reckoned (cf. Kuhn, (ii.) Records the manifestations of the Light's and Liſe's glory Das Murat. Fragment, pp. 58 f.) as an appendix or sequel to the and power to friend and foe (ii. 22-vi. 71). (d) Solemn inauguration Fourth Gospel. The apparent traces of its use in Ignatius_(cf. of the Messianic ministry (ii. 12-iii. 21): cleansing of the Temple and Smyrn. vi. 2 = 1 John iii. 17; Smyrn. vii = 1 John iii. 14, and Eph. prophecy of His resurrection; discourse to Nicodemus on baptismal xviii.- 1 John v. /) seem too insecure, of themselves, to warrant any regeneration. (e) Three scenes in Judea, Samaria, Galilee respec- hypothesis of filiation. tively (iii. 32-iv. 54): the Baptist's second testimony; Jesus' discourse JOHN, 453 , GOSPEL OF ST with the woman at the well concerning the spiritual, universal | them for the apostolate by the words, “ As the Father hath sent character of the new religion; and cure of the ruler's son, the reward Me, so I send you,"and by breathing upon them saying "Receive the of faith in the simple word of Jesus. (f) Manifestation of Jesus as Holy Spirit: whose sins ye remit, they are remitted to them; whose the vivifying Life-Logos and its contradiction in Judea, v.: the sins ye retain, they are retained." (v) Third apparition and culmina. paralytic's cure. (8) Manifestation of Jesus as the heaven-descended ting saying;conclusion of entire book (xx. 24-31). Thomas, who had living Bread and its contradiction in Galilee, vi.: multiplication of been absent, doubts the resurrection; Jesus comes and submits to the the loaves; walking on the waters; and His discourse on the holy doubter's tests. Thomas exclaims,“ My Lord and my God "; Eucharist. but Jesus declares “ Blessed are they that have not seen and yet (iii.) Acute conflict between the New Light and the old darkness have believed." “Now Jesus," concludes the writer, “ did many (vii.-xii). (h). Self-manifestation of the Logos-Light in the Temple other signs, but these are written, that ye may believe that (vii . 1-x. 39). Journey to the feast of tabernacles; invitation to the Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing ye may have soul athirst to come to Him (the fountain of Life) and drink, and life in His name.' proclamation of Himself as the Light of the world; cure of the man The above analysis is rough, since even distantly placed sections, born blind; allegory of the good shepherd. The allegory continued | indeed the two parts themselves, are interrelated by delicate com at the feast of the dedication. They strive to stone or to take Him. plex references on and back. And it omits the account of the () The Logos-Life brings Lazarus to life; effects of the act (X. 40-xii. adulteress (vii. 53-viii. 11): (a valuable report of an actual occurrence 50)., Jesus withdraws beyond Jordan, and then comes to Bethany, which probably belonged to some primitive document otherwise His friend Lazarus being buried three days; proclaims Himself the incorporated by the Synoptists), because it is quite un-Johannine Resurrection and the Life; and calls Lazarus back to life. Some who in vocabulary, style and character, intercepts the Gospel's thread saw it report the act to the Pharisees; the Sanhedrim meets, Caiaphas wherever placed, and is absent from its best MSS. It also omits xxi. declares that one man must die for the people, and henceforward they This chapter's first two stages contain an important early historical ceaselessly plan His death. Jesus withdraws to the Judaean desert, document of Synoptic type: Jesus' apparition to seven disciples but soon returns, six days before Passover, to Bethany;, Mary by the Lake of Galilee and the miraculous draught of fishes; and anoints Him, a crowd comes to see Him and Lazarus, and the hier- Peter's threefold confession and Jesus' threefold commission to archs then plan the killing of Lazarus also. Next morning He rides him. And its third stage, Jesus' prophecies to Peter and to the into Jerusalem on an ass's colt. Certain Greeks desire to see Him: beloved disciple concerning their future, and the declaration “This He declares the hour of His glorification to have come: “Now My is the disciple who testifies to these things and who has written them, soul is troubled. Father, save Me from this hour. But for and we know that his testimony is true," is doubtless written by the this have I come unto this hour: Father, glorify Thy Name." A redactor of the previous two stages. This writer imitates, but is voice answers, “ I have glorified it and will glorify it again ": some different from, the great author of the first twenty chapters. think that an angel spoke; but Jesus explains that this voice was Comparison with the Synoptists. --The following are the most not for His sake but for theirs. When lifted up from earth, He will obvious differences between the original book and the Synoptists. draw all men to Himself; they are to believe in Him, the Light. John has a metaphysical prologue; Matthew and Luke have historical The writer's concluding reflection: the small success of Jesus'activity prologues; and Mark is without any prologue. The earthly scene among the Jews. Once again He cries: "I am come a Light into is here Judea, indeed Jerusalem, with but five breaks (vi. 1-vii. 10) the world, that whoso believeth in Me should not abide in darkness." is the only long one; whilst over two-thirds of each Synoptist deal 2. The Logos-Christ's manifestation of His life and love to His with Galilee or Samaria. The ministry here lasts about three and a disciples, during the last supper, the passion, the risen life (xiii.-xx). half years (it begins some months before the first Passover, ii. 13; (iv.) The Last Supper (xiii.-xvii.) (j) Solemn washing of the dis- the feast of v. 1 is probably a second; the third occurs vi. 4; and on ciples' feet; the beloved disciple; designates the traitor; Judas goes the fourth, xi. 55, He dies): whilst the Synoptists have but the one forth, it is night (xiii. 1-30). (k) Last discourses, first series (xiii . Passover of His death, after barely a year of ministry. Here Jesus' 31-xiv. 31): the new commandment, the other helper; Arise, let teaching contains no parables and but three allegories, the Synop- us go hence." Second series. (xv. 1-xvi. 33): allegory of the true tists present it as, parabolic through and through. Here not one vine; Greater love than this hath no man, that he lay down his exorcism occurs; in the Synoptists the exorcisms are as prominent life for his friend "; the world's hatred; the spirit of truth shall lead as the cures and the preaching. John has, besides the passion, seven them into all truth; "I came forth from the Father and am come accounts in common with the Synoptists: the Baptist and Jesus, into the world, again ! leave the world and go to the Father"'; (i. 19-34); cleansing of the Temple (ii. 13-16); cure of the centurion's “Be of good cheer, I have overcome the world." (1) The high- (ruler's) servant (son) (iv. 46–54); multiplication of the loaves (vi. priestly prayer (xvii). “Father, glorify Thy Son ... with the 1-13); walking upon the water (vi. 16-21); anointing at Bethany, glory which I had with Thee before the world was . that to as (xii. 1-8); entry into Jerusalem (xii. 12-16): all unique occurrences. many as Thou hast given Him, He should give eternal life." "I in the first, John describes how the Baptist, on Jesus' approach, cries pray for them, I pray not for the world. I pray also for them that “Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world"; shall believe in Me through their word, that they may be all one, as and how he says " I saw the spirit descending upon Him, and I bore Thou Father art in Me, and I in Thee." witness that this is the Son of God.". But the Synoptists, especially (v.) The Passion (xviii. xix.). (ni) In the garden: the Roman soldiers Mark, give the slow steps in even the apostles' realization of Jesus' come to apprehend Him, fall back upon the ground at His declara- Messianic character; only at Caesarea Philippi Simon alone, for the tion “ I am He." Peter and Malchus. (n) Before Annas at night first time, clearly discerns it, Jesus declaring that His Father has and Caiaphas at dawn; Peter's denials (xviii. 12-27). (o) Before revealed it to Him, and yet Simon is still scandalized at the thought Pilate (xviii. 28-40). Jesus declares, "My kingdom is not of this of a suffering Messiah (Mark viii. 28–34). Only some two weeks world. I have come into the world that I may bear witness to the before the end is He proclaimed Messiah at Jericho (x. 46–48); then truth: everyone that is of the truth, heareth My voice "; Pilate asks in Jerusalem, five days before dying for this upon the cross (xi. 1-10, sceptically " What is truth?" and the crowd prefers Barabbas. xv. 37). As to the Baptist, in all three Synoptists, he baptizes Jesus, () The true king presented to the people as a mock-king; His and in Mark i, 10, 11 it is Jesus who sees the Spirit descending upon rejection by the Jews and abandonment to them (xix. 1-16). (9) Himself on His emerging from beneath the water, and it is to Jesus carries His cross to Golgotha, and is crucified there between two Himself that God's voice is addressed; in John, Jesus' baptism is others; the cross's title and Pilate's refusal to alter it (xix. 17-22). ignored, only the Spirit remains hovering above Him, as a sign for (v) The soldiers cast lots upon His garments and seamless tunic; the Baptist's instruction. And in Matt. xi. 2–6, the Baptist, several His mother with two faithful women and the beloved disciple at months after the Jordan scene, sends from his prison to ascertain if the cross's foot; His commendation of His mother and the disciple Jesus is indeed the Messiah; in John, the Baptist remains at large to each other; His last two sayings in deliberate accomplishment so as again (iii . 22-36) to proclaim Jesus' heavenly provenance. of scripture " I thirst," " It is accomplished.”. He gives up the The cleansing of the Temple occurs in the Synoptists four days spirit; His bones remain unbroken; and from His spear-lanced side before His death, and instantly determines the hierarchs to seek His blood and water issue (xix. 23–37), (s) The two nobles, Joseph of destruction (Mark xi. 15-18), John puts it three years back, as an Arimathaea and Nicodemus, bind the dead body in a winding appropriate frontispiece to His complete claims and work. sheet with one hundred pounds of precious spices, and place it in a The passion-narratives reveal the following main differences. new monument in a near garden, since the sabbath is at hand. John omits, at the last supper, its central point, the great historic (vi.) The risen Jesus, Lord and God (xx.). (1) At early dawn on the act of the holy eucharist, carefully given by the Synoptists and first day of the week, Mary Magdalen, finding the stone rolled away St Paul, having provided a highly doctrinal equivalent in the discourse from the monument, runs to tell Peter and the beloved disciple that on the living bread, here spoken by Jesus in Capernaum over a year the Lord's body has been removed. Peter and the other disciple before the passion (vi. 4), the day after the multiplication of the run to the grave; the latter, arriving first, enters only after Peter loaves. This transference is doubtless connected with the change in has gone in and noted the empty grave-clothes-enters and believes. the relations between the time of the Passover meal and that of His After their departure, Mary sees two angels where His body had lain death: in the Synoptists, the Thursday evening's supper is a true and turning away beholds Jesus standing, yet recognizes Him only Passover meal, the lamb had been slain that afternoon and Jesus dies when He addresses her. He bids her “ Do not touch Me, for I have some twenty-four hours later; in John, the supper is not a Passover- not yet ascended"; but to tell His brethren " I ascend to My Father meal, the Passover is celebrated on Friday, and Jesus, proclaimed and to your Father, to My God and to your God." And she does so. here from the first, the Lamb of God, dies whilst the paschal lambs, (u) Second apparition (xx. 19-23). Later on the same day, the doors His prototypes, are being slain. The scene in the garden is without being shut, Jesus appears amongst His disciples, shows them His the agony of Gethsemane; a faint echo of this historic anguish appears (pierced) hands and side, and solemnly commissions and endows in the scene with the Greeks four days earlier, and even that peaceful 454 JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST 6 6 06 " 4 use. appeal to, and answer of, the Father occurs only for His followers' meanings: e.g. the “ again " in iii. 2, means, literally, " from sakes. In the garden Jesus here Himself goes forth to meet His captors, and these fall back upon the ground, on His revealing Him. the beginning,” to be physically born again; morally, to become self as Jesus of Nazareth. The long scenes with Pilate culminate as a little child; mystically, “ from heaven, God," to be spiritu- in the great sayings concerning His kingdom not being of this world ally renewed. “ Judgment” («piois), in the popular sense, and the object of this His coming being to bear witness to the truth, condemnation, a future act; in the mystical sense, discrimination, thus explaining how, though affirming kingship (Mark xv. 2) He could be innocent. In John He does not declare Himself Messiah a present fact. There is everywhere the influence of certain before the Jewish Sanhedrin (Mark xiv. 61) but declares Himself central ideas, partly identical with, but largely developments supermundane regal witness to the truth before the Roman governor. of, those less reflectively operative in the Synoptists. Thus six The scene on Calvary differs as follows: In the Synoptists the great terms are characteristic of, or even special to, this Gospel. soldiers divide His garments among them, casting lots (Mark xv. “The Only-Begotten 24); in John they make four parts of them and cast lots concerning is most nearly reached by St Paul's term His seamless tunic, thus fulfilling the text, “ They divided My gar- “His own Son.” The Word,” or “ Logos,” is a term ments among them and upon My vesture they cast lots : 'the derived from Heracleitus of Ephesus and the Stoics, through parallelism of Hebrew poetry, which twice describes one fact, the Alexandrian Jew Philo, but conceived here throughout as being taken as witnessing to two, and the tunic doubtless symbols definitely personal. izing the unity of the Church, as in Philo the high priest's seamless Logos here proclaims Himself to be; in the Synoptists He only “ The Light of the World ” the Jesus- robe symbolizes the indivisible unity of the universe, expressive of the Logos (De ebrietate, xxi.). In the Synoptists, of His followers declares His disciples to be such. “ The Paraclete," as in only women--the careful, seemingly exhaustive lists do not include Philo, is a “helper," "intercessor "'; but in Philo he is the His mother-remain, looking on 40); in John, His mother stands with the two other Marys and the beloved intelligible universe, whilst here He is a self-conscious Spirit. disciple beneath the cross, and “ from that hour the disciple took her “Truth,” “the truth,” “ to know," have here a prominence unto his own (house),” while in the older literature His inother does and significance far beyond their Synoptic or even their Pauline not appear in Jerusalem till just before Pentecost, and with “ His And above all stand the uses of “ Life,” “ Eternal Life.” brethren" (Acts i. 14). And John alone tells how the bones of the The living ever-working Father (vi. 57; V. 17) has a Logos in dead body remained unbroken, fulfilling the ordinance as to the paschal lamb (Exod. xii. 46) and how blood and water flow from His whom is Life (i. 4), an ever-working Son (v. 17), who declares spear-pierced side: thus the Lamb “taketh away the sins of the Himself “the living Bread,” “the Resurrection and the Life,” world” by shedding His blood which“ cleanseth us from every sin "; “the Way, the Truth and the Life” (vi. 51; xi. 25; xiv. 16): 50 and “ He cometh by water and blood," historically at His baptism that Father and Son quicken whom they will (v. 21); the Father's and crucifixion, and mystically to each faithful soul in baptism and the eucharist. The story of the risen Christ (xx.) shows dependence commandment is life everlasting, and Jesus' words are spirit on and contrast to the Synoptic accounts. Its two halves have each and life (xii. 50; vi. 63, 68). The term, already Synoptic, takes a negative and a positive scene. The empty grave (1-10) and the over here most of the connotations of the “ Kingdom of God," apparition to the Magdalen (11-18) together correspond to the mes- the standing Synoptic expression, which appears here only in sage brought by the women (Matt. xxviii. 1-10); and the apparition iii. 3-5; xviii. 36. Note that the term “ the Logos” is peculiar to the ten joyously believing apostles (19-23) and then to the sadly to the Apocalypse (xix. 13), and the prologue here; but that, as doubting Thomas (24-29) together correspond to Luke xxiv. 36-43, where the eleven apostles jointly receive one visit from the risen | Light and Life, the Logos-conception is present throughout the One, and both doubt and believe, mourn and rejoice. book. And thus there is everywhere a striving to contemplate The Johannine discourses reveal differences from the Synoptists so profound as to be admitted by all. Here Jesus, the Baptist and history sub specie aeternitatis and to englobe the successiveness the writer speak so much alike that it is sometimes impossible to of man in the simultaneity of God. say where cach speaker begins and ends: e.g. in iii. 27-30, 31-36. Narratives Peculiar to John. Of his seven great symbolical, The speeches dwell upon Jesus' person and work, as we shall find, doctrinally interpreted “signs,” John shares three, the cure of with a didactic directness, philosophical terminology and denuncia- tory exclusiveness unmatched in the Synoptist sayings. the ruler's son, the multiplication of the loaves, the walking on “ This is eternal life, that they may know Thee the only true God and Jesus the waters, with the Synoptists: yet here the first is transformed Christ whom Thou hast sent " (xvii. 3), is part of the high-priestly almost beyond recognition; and the two others only typiſy and prayer; yet Père Calmes, with the papal censor's approbation, says, prepare the eucharistic discourse. Of the four purely Johannine It seems to us impossible not to admit that we have here dogmatic signs, two-the cures of the paralytic (v. 1-16), and of the man developments explicable rather by the evangelist's habits of mind than by the actual words of Jesus." “I have told you of earthly born blind (ix. 1-34)--are, admittedly, profoundly symbolical. things and you believe not; how shall ye believe if I tell you of In the first case, the man's physical and spiritual lethargy are heavenly things ?”.(iii . 12), and " Ye are from beneath, I am from closely interconnected and strongly contrasted with the ever- above" (viii. 23), give us a Plato,(Philo-), like upper, 4 true" world, active God and His Logos. In the second case there is also the and a lower, delusive world. “Ye shall die in your sins” (viii. 21); closest parallel between physical blindness cured, and spiritual ye are from your father the devil ” (viii. 44); “ I am the door of the sheep, all they that came before Me are thieves and robbers,”. darkness dispelled, by the Logos-Light as described in the (x. 7, 8); "they have no excuse for their sin " (xv. 22)-contrast accompanying discourse. Both narratives are doubtless based strongly with the yearning over Jerusalem: “The blood of Abel the upon actual occurrences--the cures narrated in Mark ii., iii., viii., just " and " the blood of Zacharias son of Barachias" (Matt. xxiii, 35-37; and “ Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do" x. and scenes witnessed by the writer in later times; yet here Luke xxiii. 34). And whilst the Synoptist speeches and actions stand they do but picture our Lord's spiritual work in the human soul in loose and natural relation to each other, the Johannine deeds so achieved throughout Christian history. We cannot well claim closely illustrate the sayings that each set everywhere supplements more than these three kinds of reality for the first and the last the other: the history itself here tends to become one long allegory. So with the woman at the well and the living water"; the multipla: signs, the miracle at Cana and the resurrection of Lazarus. cation of the loaves and “the living Bread ";"I am the Light of the For the marriage-feast sign yields throughout an allegorical world " and the blind man's cure; " I am the Resurrection and the meaning. Water stands in this Gospel for what is still but Life and the raising of Lazarus; indeed even with the Temple symbol; thus the water-pots serve here the external Jewish cleansing and the prophecy, as to His resurrection, Nicodemus's ablutions--old bottles which the “new wine” of the Gospel is night visit and ." men loved the darkness rather than the light," the cure of the inoperative paralytic and My Father and I work to burst (Mark ii. 22). Wine is the blood of the new covenant, hitherto," the walking phantom-like upon the waters (John vi. and He will drink the fruit of the vine new in the Kingdom of 15-21; Mark vi. 49), and the declaration concerning the eucharist, God (Mark xiv. 23-25); the vineyard where He Himself is the " the spirit it is that quickeneth " (John vi. 63). Only some six- teen Synoptic sayings reappear here; but we are given some great true Vine (Mark xii. 1; John xv. 1). And “the kingdom of new sayings full of the Synoptic spirit. heaven is like to a marriage-feast” (Matt. xxii.2); Jesus is the Bridegroom (Mark ii. 19); “the marriage of the Lamb has Characteristics and Object. The book's character results from (Rev. xix. 7). “They have no wine": the hopelessness the continuous operation of four great tendencies. There is of the old conditions is announced here by the true Israel, the everywhere a readiness to handle traditional, largely historical, Messiah's spiritual mother, the same“ woman " who in Rev. xii. materials with a sovereign freedom, controlled and limited by 2,5“ brought forth a man-child who was to rule all nations." doctrinal convictions and devotional experiences alone. There Cardinal Newman admits that the latter woman “represents is everywhere the mystic's deep love for double, even treble the church, this is the real or direct sense"; yet as her man-child ! 44 10 come JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST 455 << woman ". a is certainly the Messiah, this church must be the faithful Jewish | Origen we have a long Hellenistic, Jewish and Christian applica- church. Thus also the at the wedding and beneath tion of that all-embracing allegorism, where one thing stands the cross stands primarily for the faithful Old Testament for another and where no factual details resist resolution into a community, corresponding to the beloved disciple, the typical symbol of religious ideas and forces. Thus Philo had, in his New Testament follower of her Son, the Messiah: in each case life of Moses, allegorized the Pentateuchal narratives so as to the devotional accommodation to His earthly mother is equally represent him as mediator, saviour, intercessor of his people, ancient and legitimate. He answers her " My hour is not yet the one great organ of revelation, and the soul's guide from the come, ," i.e. in the symbolic story, the moment for working the false lower world into the upper true one. The Fourth Gospel miracle; in the symbolized reality, the hour of His death, con- is the noblest instance of this kind of literature, of which the dition for the spirit's advent; and “what is there between Me truth depends not on the factual accuracy of the symbolizing and thee?” i.e. “My motives spring no more from the old appearances but on the truth of the ideas and experiences thus religion," words devoid of difficulty, if spoken thus by the symbolized. And Origen is still full of spontaneous sympathy Eternal Logos to the passing Jewish church. The transformation with its pervading allegorism. But this method has lost its is soon afterwards accomplished, but in symbol only; the "hour” attraction; the Synoptists, with their rarer and slighter pragmatic of the full sense is still over three years off. Already Philo says rearrangements and their greater closeness to our Lord's actual " the Logos is the master of the spiritual drinking-feast," and words, deeds, experiences, environment, now come home to us "let Melchisedeck”-the Logos~" in lieu of water offer wine to as indefinitely richer in content and stimulative appeal. Yet souls and inebriate them” (De somn. ii. 37; Legg. all. iii. 26). mysticism persists, as the intuitive and emotional apprehension But in John this symbolism figures a great historic fact, the of the most specifically religious of all truths, viz. the already joyous freshness of Jesus' ministerial beginnings, as indicated full, operative existence of eternal beauty, truth and goodness, in the sayings of the Bridegroom and of the new wine, a fresh- of infinite Personality and Spirit independently of our action, ness typical of Jesus' ceaseless renovation of souls. and not, as in ethics, the simple possibility and obligation for The raising of Lazarus, in appearance a massive, definitely ourselves to produce such-like things. And of this elemental localized historical fact, requires a similar interpretation, unless mode of apprehension and root-truth, the Johannine Gospel is we would, in favour of the direct historicity of a story peculiar the greatest literary document and incentive extant: its ulti- to a profoundly allegorical treatise, ruin the historical trust- mate aim and deepest content retain all their potency. worthiness of the largely historical Synoptists in precisely their The book contains an intellectualist, static, determinist, most complete and verisimilar part. For especially in Mark, abstractive trend. In Luke x. 25-28, eternal life depends upon the passing through Jericho, the entry into Jerusalem, the loving God and man; here it consists in knowing the one true Temple-cleansing and its immediate effect upon the hierarchs, God and Christ whom He has sent. In the Synoptists, Jesus their next day's interrogatory, " By what authority doest thou grows in favour with God and man," passes through true these things?” i.e. the cleansing (X. 46-xi. 33), are all closely human experiences and trials, prays alone on the mountain-side, interdependent and lead at once to His discussions with His and dies with a cry of desolation; here the Logos' watchword is Jerusalem opponents (xii. xiii.), and to the anointing, last "I am,” He has deliberately to stir up emotion in Himself, supper, and passion (xiv. xv). John's last and greatest symbolic never prays for Himself, and in the garden and on the cross sign replaces those historic motives, since here it is the raising shows but power and self-possession. Here we find “ye cannot of Lazarus which determines the hierarchs to kill Jesus (xi. 46– hear, cannot believe, because ye are not from God, not of My 52), and occasions the crowds which accompany and meet Him sheep” (viii. 47, x. 26); "the world cannot receive the spirit on His entry (xii. 9–19). The intrinsic improbabilities of the of truth” (xiv. 17). Yet the ethical current appears here also narrative, if taken as direct history, are also great: Jesus' strongly: “ he who doeth the truth, cometh to the light deliberate delay of two days to secure His friend's dying, and (iii, 21), “ if you love Me, keep My commandments ” (xiv. 15). His rejoicing at the death, since thus He can revivify His friend Libertarianism is here: “the light came, but men loved the and bring His disciples to believe in Himself as the Life, His darkness better than the light,” “ ye will not come to Me" deliberate weeping over the death which He has thus let happen, (iii. 19, V. 40); hence the appeal “abide in Me”-the branch yet His anger at the similar tears of Lazarus's other friends; and can cease to be in Him the Vine (xv. 4, 2). Indeed even those His praying, as He tells the Father in the prayer itself, simply first currents stand here for the deepest religious truths, the to edify the bystanders: all point to a doctrinal allegory. prevenience of God and man's affinity to Him. “Not we loved Indeed the climax of the whole account is already reached in God (first), but He (first) loved us ";" let us love Him, because Jesus' great saying: “I am the Resurrection and the Life, he He first loved us” (1 John iv. 10, 19); “ no man can come to that believeth in Me ... shall not die for ever,” and in Martha's Me, unless the Father draw him” (vi. 44), a drawing which answer: “I believe that Thou art the Christ, the Son of God, effects a hunger and thirst for Christ and God (iv. 14, vi. 35). who hast come into the world ” (xi. 26, 27), the sign which thus man's spirit, ever largely but potential, can respond follows is but the pictorial representation of this abiding truth. actively to the historic Jesus, because already touched and made The materials for the allegory will have been certain Old Testa- hungry by the all-actual Spirit-God who made that soul akin ment narratives, but especially the Synoptic accounts of Jesus' unto Himself. raisings of Jairus's daughter and of the widow's son (Mark v.; The book has an outer protective shell of acutely polemical (Luke vii.). Mary and Martha are admittedly identical with the and exclusive moods and insistences, whilst certain splendid sisters in Luke x. 38-42, and already some Greek fathers connect Synoptic breadths and reconciliations are nowhere reached, but the Lazarus of this allegory with the Lazarus of the parable this is primarily because it is fighting, more consciously than (Luke xvi. 19-31). In the parable Lazarus returns not to earth, they, for that inalienable ideal of all deepest religion, unity, even since Abraham foresees that the rich man's brethren would external and corporate, amongst all believers. The “ Pneu- disbelieve even if one rose from the dead, in the corresponding matic” Gospel comes thus specially to emphasize certain central allegory, Lazarus does actually return to life, and the Jews historical facts; and, the most explicitly institutional and believe so little as to determine upon killing the very Life sacramental of the four, to proclaim the most universalistic and Himself. developmental of all Biblical sayıngs. Here indeed Jesus will Special Difficulties and Special Greatness. The difficulties, not pray for the world (xvii. 9); " ye shall die in your sins," He limitations and temporary means special to the book are insists to His opponents (viii. 44, 24), it is the Jews generally closely connected with its ready appeal and abiding power; let who appear throughout as such, nowhere is there a word as to us take both sets of things together, in three couples of inter- forgiving our enemies; and the commandment of love is desig- related price and gift. nated by Jesus as His, as new, and as binding the disciples to The book's method and form are pervadingly allegorical; its “ love one another" within the community to which He gives instinct and aim are profoundly mystical. Now from Philo to His "example” (XV. 12, xiii. 34, 15). In the Synoptists, the >) " 456 JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST " 13 profound work. Only some such position as Abbé Loisy's critical summing up (1903) brings out its specific greatness. "What the author was, his book, in spite of himself, tells us to some extent: a Christian of Judeo-Alexandrine formation; a believer without, apparently, any personal reminiscence of what had actually been the life, preaching and death of Jesus; a theologian far removed from every historical preoccupation, though he retains certain principal facts of tradition without which Christianity would evaporate into pure ideas; and a seer who has lived the Gospel which he propounds.' "To find his book beautiful and true, we need but take it as it is and under- stand it." "The church, which has never discussed the literary problem of this Gospel, in nowise erred as to its worth." disciples' intolerance is rebuked (Mark ix. 38-41); Jesus' | a book." We thus get at cross-purposes with this powerful, opposition is everywhere restricted to the Pharisees and the worldly Sadducees; He ever longs for the conversion of Jerusalem; the great double commandment of love is proclaimed as already formulated in the Mosaic law (Mark xii. 28–34); the neighbour to be thus loved and served is simply any and every suffering fellow-man; and the pattern for such perfect love is found in a schismatical Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Yet the deepest strain here is more serenely universalist even than St Paul, for here Jesus says: "God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should have everlasting life (iii. 16). True, the great prologue passage (i. 9) probably reads "He was the true Light coming into the world, that enlighteneth every man," so that the writer would everywhere concentrate his mind upon the grace Several traditional positions have indeed been approximately attendant upon explicit knowledge of the incarnate, historic maintained or reconquered against the critics. As to the Christ. Yet Christian orthodoxy, which itself has, all but Gospel's date, critics have returned from 160-170 (Baur), 150 uniformly, understood this passage of the spiritual radiation (Zeller), 130 (Keim), to 110-115 (Renan) and 80-110 (Harnack): throughout the world of the Word before His incarnation, has since Irenaeus says its author lived into the times of Trajan been aided towards such breadth as to the past by the Johannine | (90-117), a date somewhere about 105 would satisfy tradition. outlook into the future. For, in contrast to the earliest Synoptic | As to the place, the critics accept proconsular Asia with practical tradition, where the full Christian truth and its first form remain unanimity, thus endorsing Irenaeus's declaration that the undistinguished, and where its earthly future appears restricted Gospel was published in Ephesus. As to the author's ante- to that generation, in John the Eternal Life conception largely cedents, critics have ceased to hold that he could not have been a absorbs the attention away from all successiveness; Jesus' Jew-Christian (so Bretschneider, 1820), and admit (so Schmiedel, earthly life does not limit the religion's assimilation of further (1901) that he must have been by birth a Jew of the Dispersion, truth and experience: “I have many things to tell you, but you or the son of Christian parents who had been such Jews. And cannot bear them now," "the Father will give you another as to the vivid accuracy of many of his topographical and social Helper, the spirit of truth, who will abide with you for ever details, the predominant critical verdict now is that he betrays (xvi. 12, xiv. 15). This universalism is not simply spiritual; an eye-witness's knowledge of the country between Sichem and the external element, presupposed in the Synoptists as that of Jordan and as to Jerusalem; he will have visited these places, the Jewish church within which Jesus' earthly life was spent, say in 90, or may have lived in Jerusalem shortly before its fall. is here that of the now separate Christian community: He has But the reasons against the author being John the Zebedean or other sheep not of this fold-them also He must bring, there any other eyewitness of Jesus' earthly life have accumulated will be one fold, one shepherd; and His seamless tunic, and to a practical demonstration. Peter's net which, holding every kind of fish, is not rent, are symbols of this visible unity. Ministerial gradations exist in this church; Jesus begins the feet-washing with Peter, who alone speaks and is spoken to; the beloved disciple outruns Peter to Jesus' monument, yet waits to go in till Peter has done so first; and in the appendix the treble pastoral commission is to Peter alone: a Petrine pre-eminence which but echoes the Synoptists. And sacramentalism informs the great discourses concerning rebirth by water and the spirit, and feeding on the Living Bread, Jesus' flesh and blood, and the narrative of the issue of blood and water from the dead Jesus' side. Indeed so severe a stress is laid upon the explicitly Christian life and its specific means, that orthodoxy itself interprets the rebirth by water and spirit, and the eating the flesh and drinking the blood to which entrance into the Kingdom and possession of interior life are here exclusively attached, as often represented by a simple sincere desire and will for spiritual purification and a keen hunger and thirst for God's aid, together with such cultual acts as such souls can know or find, even without any knowledge of the Christian rites. Thus there is many (C a pedagogue to Christ," and the Christian visible means and expressions are the culmination and measure of what, in various degrees and forms, accompanies every sincerely striving soul throughout all human history. Origin and Authorship.—The question as to the book's origin has lost its poignancy through the ever-increasing recognition of the book's intrinsic character. Thus the recent defenders of the apostolic authorship, the Unitarian James Drummond (1903), the Anglican William Sanday (1905), the Roman Catholic Theodore Calmes (1904), can tell us, the first, that "the evangelist did not aim at an illustrative picture of what was most charac- teristic of Jesus"; the second, that "the author sank into his own consciousness and at last brought to light what he found there"; the third, that "the Gospel contains an entire theological system,' history is seen through the intervening dogmatic development,' the Samaritan woman is . . . a personifica tion," " the behaviour of the Greeks is entirely natural in such "} " "} | • As to the external evidence for the book's early date, we must remember that the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation, though admittedly earlier, are of the same school, and, with the great Pauline Epistles, show many preformations of Johannine phrases and ideas. Other slighter prolusions will have circulated in that Philonian centre Ephesus, before the great Gospel englobed and superseded them. Hence the pre- cariousness of the proofs derived from more or less close parallels to Johannine passages in the apostolic fathers. Justin Martyr (163-167) certainly uses the Gospel; but his conception of Jesus' life is so strictly Synoptic that he can hardly have accepted it as from an apostolic eyewitness. Papias of Hierapolis, in his Exposition of the Lord's Sayings (145-160) appears nowhere to have mentioned it, and clearly distinguishes between what Andrew, Peter, John or Matthew or any other of the Lord's disciples spoke," and-" what Aristion and the presbyter John, the Lord's disciples, say." Thus Papias, as Eusebius about 314 insists, knew two Johns, and the apostle was to him a far-away figure; indeed early medieval chroniclers recount that Papias" in the second book of the Lord's sayings" asserted that both the sons of Zebedee were slain by Jews," so that the apostle John would have died before 70. Irenaeus's-testi- mony is the earliest and admittedly the strongest we possess for the Zebedean authorship; yet, as Calmes admits, "it cannot be considered decisive." In his work against the Heresies and in his letter to Florinus, about 185-191, he tells how he had himself known Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna, and how Polycarp "used to recount his familiar intercourse with John and the others who had seen the Lord "; and explicitly identifies this John with the Zebedean and the evangelist. But Irenaeus was at most fifteen when thus frequenting Polycarp; writes thirty-five to fifty years later in Lyons, admitting that he noted down nothing at the time; and, since his mistaken description of Papias as "a hearer of John " the Zebedean was certainly reached by mistaking the presbyter for the apostle, his additional words" and a companion of Polycarp" point to this same mistaken identification having also operated in his mind with regard to Polycarp. In any case, JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST 457 " the very real and important presbyter is completely unknown to Christian circle; and that the Ephesian church officials added Irenaeus, and his conclusion as to the book's authorship resulted to it the appendix and published it in 110-120. But however apparently from a comparison of its contents with Polycarp's different or more complicated may have been the actual origins, teaching. If the presbyter wrote Revelation and was Polycarp's three points remain certain. The real situation that confronts us master, such a mistake could easily arise. Certainly Polycrates, is not an unbroken tradition of apostolic eye-witnesses, in- bishop of Ephesus, made a precisely similar mistake when about capable of re-statement with any hope of ecclesiastical accep- 190 he described the Philip "who rests in Hierapolis " as one tance, except by another apostolic eye-witness. On one side of the twelve apostles," since Eusebius rightly identifies this indeed there was the record, underlying the Synoptists, of at Philip with the deacon of Acts xxi. A positive testimony for least two eye-witnesses, and the necessity of its preservation the critical conclusion is derived from the existence of a group and transmission; but on the other side a profound double of Asia Minor Christians who about 165 rejected the Gospel as change had come over thè Christian outlook and requirements. not by John but by Cerinthus. The attribution is doubtless St Paul's heroic labours (30-64) had gradually gained full mistaken. But could Christians sufficiently numerous to recognition and separate organization for the universalist deserve a long discussion by St Epiphanius in 374-377, who strain in our Lord's teaching; and he who had never seen the upheld the Synoptists, stoutly opposed the Gnostics and Mon- earthly Jesus, but only the heavenly Christ, could even declare tanists, and had escaped every special designation till the that Christ "though from the Jewish fathers according to the bishop nicknamed them the "Alogoi" (irrational rejectors of flesh" had died, "so that henceforth, even if we have known the Logos-Gospel), dare, in such a time and country, to hold Christ according to the flesh, now we no further know Him such views, had the apostolic origin been incontestable? Surely thus," "the Lord is the Spirit," and "where the Spirit of the not. The Alexandrian Clement, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, Lord is, there is liberty." And the Jewish church, within which Jerome and Augustine only tell of the Zebedean what is trace- | Christianity had first lived and moved, ceased to have a visible able to stories told by Papias of others, to passages of Revelation centre. Thus a super-spatial and super-temporal interpretation and the Gospel, or to the assured fact of the long-lived Asian of that first markedly Jewish setting and apprehension of the presbyter. Christian truth became as necessary as the attachment to the original contingencies. The Fourth Gospel, inexplicable without St Paul and the fall of Jerusalem, is fully understandable with them. The attribution of the book to an eye-witness nowhere resolves, it everywhere increases, the real difficulties; and by insisting upon having history in the same degree and way in John as in the Synoptists, we cease to get it sufficiently anywhere at all. And the Fourth Gospel's true greatness lies well within the range of this its special character. In character it is pro- foundly "pneumatic "; Paul's super-earthly Spirit-Christ here breathes and speaks, and invites a corresponding - spiritual comprehension. And its greatness appears in its inexhaustibly deep teachings concerning Christ's sheep and fold; the Father's drawing of souls to Christ; the dependence of knowledge as to Christ's doctrine upon the doing of God's will; the fulfilling of the commandment of love, as the test of true discipleship; eternal life, begun even here and now; and God a Spirit, to be. served in, spirit and in truth. " As to the internal evidence, if the Gospel typifies various im- perfect or sinful attitudes in Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman and Thomas; if even the mother appears to symbolize faithful Israel: then, profoundly spiritual and forward-looking as it is, a type of the perfect disciple, not all unlike Clement's perfect Gnostic," ," could hardly be omitted by it; and the precise details of this figure may well be only ideally, mystically true. The original work nowhere identifies this disciple with any particular historic figure." He who saw" the lance-thrust "hath borne witness, and his witness is true," is asserted (xix. 35) of the disciple. Yet to see " is said also of intuitive faith, "whoso hath seen Me, hath seen the Father" (xiv. 9); and “ true appears also in " the true Light," ,"" the true Bread from heaven," as characterizing the realities of the upper, alone fully true world, and equals "heavenly (iii. 12); thus a true wit- ness" testifies to some heavenly reality, and appeals to the reader's "pneumatic," i.e. allegorical, understanding. " "" Only in the appendix do we find any deliberate identification with a particular historic person: this is the disciple who witnessed to and who wrote these things" (24) refers doubtless to the whole previous work and to "the disciple whom Jesus loved," identified here with an unnamed historic personage whose recent death had created a shock, evidently because he was the last of that apostolic generation which had so keenly expected the second coming (18-23). This man was so great that the writer strives to win his authority for this Gospel; and yet this man was not John the Zebedean, else why, now he is dead and gone, not proclaim the fact? If the dead man was John the presbyter-if this John had in youth just seen Jesus and the Zebedean, and in extreme old age had still seen and approved the Gospel-to attribute this Gospel to him, as is done here, would not violate the literary ethics of those times. Thus the heathen philosopher Iamblichus (d. c. 330) declares: "this was admirable" amongst the Neo-Pythagoreans "that they ascribed everything to Pythagoras; but few of them acknowledge their own works as their own (de Pythag. vita, 198). And as to Christians, Tertullian about 210 tells how the presbyter who, in proconsular Asia, had "composed the Acts of Paul and Thecla was convicted and deposed, for how could it be credible that Paul should confer upon women the power to teach and baptize " as these Acts averred? The attribution as such, then, was not condemned. "} The facts of the problem would all appear covered by the hypothesis that John the presbyter, the eleven being all dead, wrote the book of Revelation (its more ancient Christian por- tions) say in 69, and died at Ephesus say in 100; that the author of the Gospel wrote the first draft, here, say in 97; that this book, expanded by him, first circulated within a select Ephesian | | BIBLIOGRAPHY.-See also the independent discussion, under REVELATION, BOOK OF, of the authorship of that work. Among the immense literature of the subject, the following books will be found especially instructive by the classically trained reader: Origen's commentary, finished (only to John xiii. 33) in 235-237 (best ed. by Preuschen, 1903). St Augustine's Tractatus in Joannis Ev. et Ep., about 416. The Spanish Jesuit Juan Maldonatus' Latin com- mentary, published 1596 (critical reprint, edited by Raich, 1874), a pathfinder on many obscure points, is still a model for tenacious de Evangelii... Joannis Apostoli indole et origine (1820), the first penetration of Johannine ideas. Bretschneider's short Probabilia systematic assault on the traditional attribution, remains unrefuted in its main contention. The best summing up and ripest fruit of kommentar (2nd ed., 1893) and the respective sections in his Einlei the critical labour since then are Professor H. J. Holtzmann's Hand- tung in d. N. T. (3rd ed., 1892) and his Lehrbuch der N. T. Theologie (1897), vol. 2. Professor C. E. Luthardt's St John,Author of the Fourth Gospel (Eng. trans., with admirable bibliography by C. R. Gregory, 1875), still remains the best conservative statement. Among the few critically satisfactory French books, Abbé Loisy's Le Quatrième évangile (1903) stands pre-eminent for delicate psychological analysis and continuous sense of the book's closely knit unity; whilst Père Th. Calmes' Evangile selon S. Jean (1904) indicates how numerous are the admissions as to the book's character and the evidences for Rome's explicit approbation. In England a considerably less docile its authorship, made by intelligent Roman Catholic apologists with conservatism has been predominant. Bp Lightfoot's Essays on Supernatural Religion (1874–1877; collected 1889) are often masterly conservative interpretations of the external evidence; but they leave this evidence still inconclusive, and the formidable contrary internal evidence remains practically untouched. Much the same applies to Bp Westcott's Gospel according to St John (1882), devotionally so attractive, and in textual criticism excellent. Dr James Drummond's Inquiry into the Character and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel (1903) giving credibility to the eyewitness origin of such a book as this is does not, by its valuable survey of the external evidence, succeed in admitted to be. Professor W. Sanday's slighter Criticism of the Fourth Gospel (1905) is in a similar position. Professor P. W. Schmiedel's 458 JOHN ALBERT-JOHN FREDERICK . article " John s. of Zebedee " in the Ency. Bib. (1901) is the work of in 1542 Coburg was surrendered to form an apanage for his a German of the advanced left. Dr E, A, Abbott's laborious From brother, John Ernest (d. 1553). John Frederick, who was an Letter to Spirit (1903), Joannine Vocabulary (1904) and Grammar (1906) overflow with statistical details and ever acute, often fanciful, ardent Lutheran and had a high regard for Luther, continued conjecture. Professor F. C. Burkitt's The Gospel History (1906) vigor- the religious policy of his father. In 1534 he assisted to make ously sketches the book's dominant characteristics and true function. peace between the German king Ferdinand I. and Ulrich, E. F. Scott's The Fourth Gospel (1906) gives a lucid, critical and religiously tempered account of the Gospel's ideas, aims, affinities, vacillation between the emperor and his own impetuous col- duke of Württemberg, but his general attitude was one of difficulties and abiding significance. v. ) league in the league of Schmalkalden, Philip, landgrave of JOHN ALBERT (1459-1501), king of Poland; third son of Hesse. He was often at variance with Philip, whose bigamy he Casimir IV. king of Poland and Elizabeth of Austria. As disliked, and his belief in the pacific intentions of Charles V. crown prince he distinguished himself by his brilliant victory and his loyalty to the Empire prevented him from pursuing any over the Tatars at Kopersztyn in 1487. He succeeded his father definite policy for the defence of Protestantism. In 1541 his in 1492. The loss of revenue consequent upon the secession of kinsman Maurice became duke of Saxony, and cast covetous Lithuania, placed John Albert at the mercy of the Polish Sejmiki eyes upon the electoral dignity. A cause of quarrel soon arose. or local diets, where the szlachta, or country gentry, made their In 1541 John Frederick forced Nicholas Amsdorf into the see of subsidies dependent upon the king's subservience. Primarily a Naumburg in spite of the chapter, who had elected a Roman warrior with a strong taste for heroic adventure, John Albert Catholic, Julius von Pflug; and about the same tiine he seized desired to pose as the champion of Christendom against the Wurzen, the property of the bishop of Meissen, whose see was Turks. Çircumstances seemed, moreover, to favour him. In under the joint protection of electoral and ducal Saxony. his brother Wladislaus, who as king of Hungary and Bohemia Maurice took up arms, and war was only averted by the efforts of possessed a dominant influence in Central Europe, he found a Philip of Hesse and Luther. In 1542 the elector assisted to drive counterpoise to the machinations of the emperor Maximilian, Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, from his duchy, but in who in 1492 had concluded an alliance against him with Ivan III. spite of this his relations with Charles V. at the diet of Spires in of Muscovy, 'while, as suzerain of Moldavia, John Albert was 1544 were very amicable. This was, however, only a lull in the favourably situated for attacking the Turks. At the conference storm, and the emperor soon began to make preparations for of Leutschau in 1494 the details of the expedition were arranged attacking the league of Schmalkalden, and especially John between the kings of Poland and Hungary and the elector Frederick and Philip of Hesse. The support, or at least the Frederick of Brandenburg, with the co-operation of Stephen, neutrality, of Maurice was won by the hope of the electoral hospodar of Moldavia, who had appealed to John Albert for dignity, and in July 1546 war broke out between Charles and assistance. In the course of 1496 John Albert with great the league. In September John Frederick was placed under the difficulty collected an army of 80,000 men in Poland, but the imperial ban, and in November Maurice invaded the electorate. crusade was deflected from its proper course by the sudden Hastening from southern Germany the elector drove Maurice from invasion of Galicia by the hospodar, who apparently-for the the land, took his ally, Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth, whole subject is still very obscure—had been misled by reports prisoner at Rochlitz, and overran ducal Saxony. His progress, from Hungary that John Albert was bent upon placing his however, was checked by the advance of Charles V. Notwith- younger brother Sigismund on the throne of Moldavia. Be standing his valour he was wounded and taken prisoner at that as it may, the Poles entered Moldavia not as friends, but Mühlberg on the 24th of April 1547, and was condemned to death as foes, and, after the abortive siege of Suczawa, were compelled in order to induce Wittenberg to surrender. The sentence was to retreat through the Bukowina to Sniatyn, harassed all the not carried out, but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May way by the forces of the hospodar. The insubordination of 1547) he renounced the electoral dignity and a part of his the szlachta seems to have been one cause of this disgraceful lands in favour of Maurice, steadfastly refusing however to collapse, for John Albert confiscated hundreds of their estates make any concessions on religious matters, and remained in after his return; in spite of which, to the end of his life he captivity until May 1552, when he returned to the Thuringian retained his extraordinary popularity. When the new grand lands which his sons had been allowed to retain, his return master of the Teutonic order, Frederic of Saxony, refused to being hailed with wild enthusiasm. During his imprisonment render homage to the Polish crown, John Albert compelled he had refused to accept the Interim, issued from Augsburg him to do so. His intention of still further humiliating the in May 1548, and had urged his sons to make no peace with Teutonic order was frustrated by his sudden death in 1501. AMaurice. After his release the emperor had restored his valiant soldier and a man of much enlightenment, John Albert dignities to him, and his assumption of the electoral arms and was a poor politician, recklessly sacrificing the future to the title prevented any arrangement with Maurice. However, after present. the death of this prince in July 1553, a treaty was made at See V. Czerny, The Reigns of John Albert and Alexander Jagiello Naumburg in February 1554 with his succe sor Augustus. John (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882). Frederick consented to the transfer of the electoral dignity, but JOHN ANGELUS (d. 1244), emperor of Thessalonica. In retained for himself the title of “born elector,” and received some 1232 he received the throne from his father Theodore, who, lands and a sum of money. He was thus the last Ernestine after a period of exile, had re-established his authority, but elector of Saxony. He died at Weimar on the 3rd of March owing to his loss of eyesight resolved to make John the nominal 1554, having had three sons by his wife, Sibylla (d. 1554), sovereign. His reign is chiefly marked by the aggressions of the daughter of John III., duke of Cleves, whom he had married in rival emperor of Nicaea, John Vatatzes, who laid siege to 1527, and was succeeded by his eldest son, John Frederick. The Thessalonica in 1243 and only withdrew upon John Angelus con- elector was a great hunter and a hard drinker, whose brave and senting to exchange the title emperor for the subordinate dignified bearing in a time of misfortune won for him his surname one of “despot.” of Magnanimous, and drew eulogies from Roger Ascham and Melanchthon. He founded the university of Jena and was a See G. Finlay, History of Greece, vol. iii. (1877). benefactor to that of Leipzig. JOHN FREDERICK I. (1503-1554), called the Magnanimous, See Mentz, Johann Friedrich der Grossmütige (Jena, 1903); Rogge, elector of Saxony, was the elder son of the elector, John the Johann Friedrich der Grossmütigę (Halle, 1902) and L. von Ranke, Steadfast, and belonged to the Ernestine branch of the Wettin Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882). family. Born at Torgau on the 30th of June 1503 and educated JOHN FREDERICK (1529–1595), called der Mittlere, duke of as a Lutheran, he took some part in imperial politics and in the Saxony, was the eldest son of John Frederick, who had been business of the league of Schmalkalden before he became deprived of the Saxon electorate by the emperor Charles V. in elector by his father's death in August 1532. His lands com- 1547. Born at Torgau on the 8th of January 1529, he received prised the western part of Saxony, and included Thuringia, but I a good education, and when his father was imprisoned in 1547 ( JOHN GEORGE 459 undertook the government of the remnant of electoral Saxony had refused to allow him to cross the Elbe at Wittenberg, thus which the.emperor allowed the Ernestine branch of the Wettin hindering his attempt to relieve Magdeburg. But John George's family to keep. Released in 1552 John Frederick the elder reluctance to join the Protestants disappeared when the imperial died two years later, and his three sons ruled Ernestine Saxony troops under Tilly began to ravage Saxony, and in September together until 1557, when John Frederick was made sole ruler. 1631 he concluded an alliance with the Swedish king. The This arrangement lasted until 1565, when John Frederick shared Saxon troops were present at the battle of Breitenfeld, but were his lands with his surviving brother, John William (1530-1573), routed by the imperialists, the elector himself seeking safety in retaining for himself Gotha and Weimar. The duke was a strong, fight. Nevertheless he soon took the offensive. Marching into even a fanatical, Lutheran, but his religious views were gradually Bohemia the Saxons occupied Prague, but John George soon subordinated to the one idea of regaining the electoral dignity began to negotiate for peace and consequently his soldiers then held by Augustus I. To attain this end he lent a willing offered little resistance to Wallenstein, who drove them back ear to the schemes of Wilhelm von Grumbach, who came to his into Saxony. However, for the present the efforts of Gustavus court about 1557 and offered to regain the electoral dignity and Adolphus prevented the elector from deserting him, but the even to acquire the Empire for his patron. In spite of repeated position was changed by the death of the king at Lützen in 1632, warnings from the emperor Ferdinand I., John Frederick con- and the refusal of Saxony to join the Protestant league under tinued to protect Grumbach, and in 1966 his obstinacy caused Swedish leadership. Still letting his troops fight in a desultory him to be placed under the imperial ban. Its execution was fashion against the imperialists, John George again negotiated entrusted to Augustus who, aided by the duke's brother, John for peace, and in May 1635 he concluded the important treaty William, marched against Gotha with a strong force. In conse- of Prague with Ferdinand II. His reward was Lusatia and quence of a mutiny the town surrendered in April 1567, and certain other additions of territory; the retention by his son John Frederick was delivered to the emperor Maximilian II. Augustus of the archbishopric of Magdeburg; and some conces- He was imprisoned in Vienna, his lands were given to his sions with regard to the edict of restitution. Almost at once he brother, and he remained in captivity until his death at Steyer declared war upon the Swedes, but in October 1636 he was beaten on the 6th of May 1595. These years were mainly occupied at Wittstock; and Saxony, ravaged impartially by both sides, with studying theology and in correspondence. John Frederick was soon in a deplorable condition. At length in September married firstly Agnes (d. 1555) daughter of Philip, landgrave of 1645 the elector was compelled to agree to a truce with the Hesse, and widow of Maurice, elector of Saxony, and secondly Swedes, who, however, retained Leipzig; and as far as Saxony Elizabeth (d. 1594) daughter of Frederick III., elector palatine was concerned this ended the Thirty Years' War. After the of the Rhine, by whom he left two sons, John Casimir (1564- peace of Westphalia, which with regard to Saxony did little 1633) and John Ernest (1566-1638). Elizabeth shared her more than confirm the treaty of Prague, John George died husband's imprisonment for twenty-two years. on the 8th of October 1656. Although not without political See A. Beck, Johann Friedrich der Mittlere, Herzog zu Sachsen acumen, he was not a great ruler; his character appears to (Vienna, 1858); and F. Ortloff, Geschichte der Grumbachischen have been harsh and unlovely, and he was addicted to drink. Händel (Jena, 1868-1870). He was twice married, and in addition to his successor John JOHN GEORGE I. (1585-1656), elector of Saxony, second son George II. he left three sons, Augustus (1614-1680), Christian of the elector Christian I., was born on the 5th of March 1585, (d. 1691) and Maurice (d. 1681) who were all endowed with succeeding to the electorate in June 1611 on the death of his lands in Saxony, and who founded cadet branches of the Saxon elder brother, Christian II. The geographical position of house. electoral Saxony hardly less than her high standing among the JOHN GEORGE II. (1613-1680), elector of Saxony, was born German Protestants gave her ruler much importance during on the 31st of May 1613. In 1657, just after his accession, he the Thirty Years' War. At the beginning of his reign, however, made an arrangement with his three brothers with the object of the new elector took up a somewhat detached position. His preventing disputes over their separate territories, and in 1664 he personal allegiance to Lutheranism was sound, but he liked entered into friendly relations with Louis XIV. He received neither the growing strength of Brandenburg nor the increasing money from the French king, but the existence of a strong anti- prestige of the Palatinate; the adherence of the other branches French party in Saxony induced him occasionally to respond of the Saxon ruling house to Protestantism seemed to him to to the overtures of the emperor Leopold I. The elector's suggest that the head of electoral Saxony should throw his weight primary interests were not in politics, but in music and art. into the other scale, and he was prepared to favour the advances He adorned Dresden, which under him became the musical centre of the Habsburgs and the Roman Catholic party. Thus he was of Germany; welcoming foreign musicians and others he easily induced to vote for the election of Ferdinand, archduke gathered around him a large and splendid court, and his capital of Styria, as emperor in August 1619, an action which nullified was the constant scene of musical and other festivals. His the anticipated opposition of the Protestant electors. The new enormous expenditure compelled him in 1661 to grant greater emperor secured the help of John George for the impending control over monetary matters to the estates, a step which campaign in Bohemia by promising that he should be undisturbed laid the foundation of the later system of finance in Saxony. in his possession of certain ecclesiastical lands. Carrying out John George died at Freiberg on the 22nd of August 1680. his share of the bargain by occupying Silesia and Lusatia, where JOHN GEORGE III. (1647-1691), elector of Saxony, the he displayed much clemency, the Saxon elector had thus some only son of John George II., was born on the 20th of June 1647. part in driving Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, from He forsook the vacillating foreign policy of his father and in Bohemia and in crushing Protestantism in that country, the June 1683 joined an alliance against France. Having raised the crown of which he bimself had previously refused. Gradually, first standing army in the electorate he helped to drive the Turks however, he was made uneasy by the obvious trend of the im. from Vienna in September 1680, leading his men with great perial policy towards the annihilation of Protestantism, and by gallantry; but disgusted with the attitude of the emperor a dread lest the ecclesiastical lands should be taken from him; Leopold I. after the victory, he returned at once to Saxony. and the issue of the edict of restitution in March 1629 put the However, he sent aid to Leopold in 1685. When Louis XIV.'s coping-stone to his fears. Still, although clamouring vainly armies invaded Germany in September 1688 John George was one for the exemption of the electorate from the area covered by the of the first to take up arms against the French, and after sharing edict, John George took no decided measures to break his in the capture of Mainz he was appointed commander-in-chief alliance with the emperor. He did, indeed, in February 1631 of the imperial forces. He had not, however, met with any call a meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, but in spite notable success when he died at Tübingen on the 12th of Septem- of the appeals of the preacher Matthias Hoë von Hohenegg ber 1691. Like his father, he was very fond of music, but he (1580-1645) he contented himself with a formal protest. Mean- appears to have been less extravagant than John George II. while Gustavus Adolphus had landed in Germany, and the elector His wife was Anna Sophia, daughter of Frederick III. king of 460 JOHN MAURICE-JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY Denmark, and both his sons, John George and Frederick Augustus, became electors of Saxony, the latter also becoming king of Poland as Augustus II. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Caspar Barlaeus, Rerum per octennium in Brasilia J. Mauritii Nassoviae (Amsterdam, 1647); L. Driessen, Leben des et alibi nuper gestarum historia, sub praefectura illustrissimi comitis Fürsten Johann Moritz von Nassau (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens, Leven van Jaan Maurits, Graaf van Nassau-Siegen (Haarlem, 1840). JOHN GEORGE IV. (1668-1694), elector of Saxony, was born on the 18th of October 1668. At the beginning of his reign his chief adviser was Hans Adam von Schöning (1641-1696), who counselled a union between Saxony and Brandenburg and a more independent attitude towards the emperor. In accordance with this advice certain proposals were put before Leopold I. to which he refused to agree; and consequently the Saxon troops withdrew from the imperial army, a proceeding which led the chagrined emperor to seize and imprison Schöning in July 1692. Although John George was unable to procure his minister's release, Leopold managed to allay the elector's anger, and early in 1693 the Saxon soldiers rejoined the imperialists. This elector is chiefly celebrated for his passion for Magdalene Sibylle von Neidschütz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of Rochlitz, whom on his accession he publicly established as his mistress. John George left no legitimate issue when he died on the 27tho' of April 1694. JOHN¹ MAURICE OF NASSAU (1604-1679), surnamed the Brazilian, was the son of John the Younger, count of Nassau- Siegen-Dillenburg, and the grandson of John, the elder brother of William the Silent and the chief author of the Union of Utrecht. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of his cousin, the stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange, and was by him recommended to the directors of the Dutch West India company in 1636 to be governor-general of the new dominion in Brazil recently conquered by the company. He landed at the Recife, the port of Pernambuco, and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in January 1637. By a series of successful expeditions he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to S. Luis de Maranham in the north. He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of St George del Mina and St Thomas on the west coast of Africa. With the assistance of the famous architect, Pieter Post of Haarlem, he transformed the Recife by building a new town adorned with splendid public edifices and gardens, which was called after his name Mauritstad. By his statesmanlike policy he brought the colony into a most flourishing condition and succeeded even in reconciling the Portuguese settlers to submit quietly to Dutch rule. His large schemes and lavish expenditure alarmed however the parsi- monious directors of the West India company, but John Maurice refused to retain his post unless he was given a free hand, and he returned to Europe in July 1644. He was shortly afterwards appointed by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry in the States army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and 1646. When the war was ended by the peace of Münster in January 1648, he accepted from the elector of Brandenburg the post of governor of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg, and later also of Minden. His success in the Rhineland was as great as it had been in Brazil, and he proved himself a most able and wise ruler. At the end of 1652 he was appointed head of the order of St John and made a prince of the Empire. In 1664 he came back to Holland; when the war broke out with England supported by an invasion from the bishop of Münster, he was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Dutch forces on land. Though hampered in his command by the restrictions of the states-general, he repelled the invasion, and the bishop, Christoph von Galen, was forced to conclude peace. His campaigning was not yet at an end, for in 1673 he was appointed by the stadtholder William III. to command the forces in Friesland and Groningen, and to defend the eastern frontier of the Provinces. In 1675 his health com- pelled him to give up active military service, and he spent his last years in his beloved Cleves, where he died on the 20th of December 1679. The house which he built at the Hague, named after him the Maurits-huis, now contains the splendid collections of pictures so well known to all admirers of Dutch art. 'This name is usually written Joan, the form used by the man himself in his signature-see the facsimile in Netscher's Les Hollandais en Brésil. JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE, a spot on the north coast of Caith- ness, Scotland, 14 m. N. of Wick and 14 m. W. of Duncansby Head. It is the mythical site of an octagonal house said to have been erected early in the 16th century by one John Groot, a Dutchman who had migrated to the north of Scotland by per- mission of James IV. According to the legend, other members of the Groot family followed John, and acquired lands around Duncansby. When there were eight Groot families, disputes began to arise as to precedence at annual feasts. These squabbles | John Groot is said to have settled by building an octagonal house which had eight entrances and eight tables, so that the head of each family could enter by his own door and sit at the head of his own table. Being but a few miles south of Dunnet Head, John Groat's is a colloquial term for the most northerly point of Scotland. The site of the traditional building is marked by an outline traced in turf. Descendants of the Groot family, now Groat, still live in the neighbourhood. The cowry-shell, Cypraea europaea, is locally known as “ John o' Groat's bucky." JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, an American educational institution at Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. Its trustees, chosen by Johns Hopkins (1794-1873), a successful Baltimore merchant, were incorporated on the 24th of August 1867 under a general act "for the promotion of education in the state of Mary- land." But nothing was actually done until after the death of Johns Hopkins (Dec. 24, 1873), when his fortune of $7,000,000 was equally divided between the projected university and a hospital, also to bear his name, and intended to be an auxiliary to the medical school of the university. The trustees of the university consulted with many prominent educationists, notably Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, and James B. Angell of the university of Michigan; on the 30th of December 1874 they elected Daniel Coit Gilman (q.v.) president. The university was formally opened on the 3rd of October 1876, when an address was delivered by T. H. Huxley. The first year was largely given up to consultation among the newly chosen professors, among whom were-in Greek, B. L. Gildersleeve; in mathematics, J. J. Sylvester; in chemistry, Ira Remsen; in biology, Henry Newell Martin (1848-1896); in zoology, William Keith Brooks (1848-1908); and in physics, Henry Augustus Rowland (1848-1901). Prominent among later teachers were Arthur Cayley in mathematics, the Semitic scholar Paul Haupt (b. 1858), Granville Stanley Hall in psychology, Maurice Bloomfield in Sanskrit and comparative philology, James Rendel Harris in Biblical philology, James Wilson Bright in English philology, Herbert B. Adams in history, and Richard T. Ely (b. 1854) in economics. The university at once became a pioneer in the United States in teaching by means of seminary courses and laboratories, and it has been eminently successful in encouraging research, in scientific production, and in preparing its students to become instructors in other colleges and univer- sities. It includes a college in which each of five parallel courses leads to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, but its reputation has been established chiefly by its other two departments, the graduate school and the medical school. The graduate school offers courses in philosophy and psychology, physics, chemistry and biology, historical and economic science, language and literature, and confers the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after at least three years' residence. From its foundation the university had novel features and a liberal administration. Twenty annual fellow- ships of $500 each were opened to the graduates of any college. Petrography and laboratory psychology were among the new sciences fostered by the new university. Such eminent out- siders were secured for brief residence and lecture courses as J. R. Lowell, F. J. Child, Simon Newcomb, H. E. von Holst, F. A. Walker, William James, Sidney Lanier, James Bryce, E. A. Freeman, W. W. Goodwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace. President Gilman gave up his presidential duties on the 1st of JOHNSON, A. 461 September 1901, Ira Remsen¹ succeeding him in the office. The medical department, inaugurated in 1893, is closely affiliated with the excellently equipped Johns Hopkins Hospital (opened in 1889), and is actually a graduate school, as it admits only students holding the bachelor's degree or its equivalent. The degree of Doctor of Medicine is conferred after four years of successful study, and advanced courses are offered. The depart- ment's greatest teachers have been William Osler (b. 1849) and William Henry Welch (b. 1850). The buildings of the university were in 1901 an unpretentious group on crowded ground near the business centre of the city. In 1902 a new site was secured, containing about 125 acres amid pleasant surroundings in the northern suburbs, and new build- ings were designed in accordance with a plan formed with a view to secure harmony and symmetry. In 1907 the library contained more than 133,000 bound volumes. Among the numerous publications issued by the university press are: American Journal of Mathematics, Studies in Historical and Political Science, Reprint of Economic Tracts, American Journal of Philo- logy, Contributions to Assyriology and Semitic Philology, Modern Language Notes, American Chemical Journal, American Journal of Insanity, Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, Reports of the Maryland Geological Survey, and Reports of the Maryland Weather Service. The institution is maintained chiefly with the proceeds of the endowment fund. It also receives aid from the state, and charges tuition fees. Its government is entrusted to a board of trustees, while the direction of affairs of a strictly academic nature is delegated to an academic council and to department boards. In 1907-1908 the regular faculty numbered 175, and there was an enrolment of 683 students, of whom 518 were in post-graduate courses. On the history of the university see Daniel C. Gilman, The Launch- ing of a University (New York, 1906), and the annual reports of the president. JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875), seventeenth president of the United States, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, on the 29th of December 1808. His parents were poor, and his father died when Andrew was four years old. At the age of ten he was apprenticed to a tailor, his spare hours being spent in acquiring the rudiments of an education. He learned to read from a book which contained selected orations of great British and American statesmen. The young tailor went to Laurens Court House, South Carolina, in 1824, to work at his trade, but returned to Raleigh in 1826 and soon afterward removed to Greeneville in the eastern part of Tennessee. He married during the same year Eliza McCardle (1810-1876), much his superior by birth and education, who taught him the common school branches of learning and was of great assistance in his later career. In East Tennessee most of the people were small farmers, while West Tennessee was a land of great slave plantations. Johnson began in politics to oppose the aristocratic element and became the spokesman and champion of the poorer and labouring classes. In 1828 he was elected an alderman of Greeneville and in 1830- 1834 was mayor. In 1834, in the Tennessee constitutional con- vention he endeavoured to limit the influence of the slaveholders vention he endeavoured to limit the influence of the slaveholders by basing representation in the state legislature on the white population alone. In 1835-1837 and 1839-1841 Johnson was a Democratic member of the state House of Representatives, and in 1841-1843 of the state Senate; in both houses he uniformly upheld the cause of the "common people," and, in addition, opposed legislation for "internal improvements." He soon was recognized as the political champion of East Tennessee. Though his favourite leaders became Whigs, Johnson remained a Democrat, and in 1840 canvassed the state for Van Buren for president. Ira Remsen was born in New York City on the 10th of February 1846, graduated at the college of the City of New York in 1865, studied at the New York college of physicians and surgeons and at the university of Göttingen, was professor of chemistry at Williams College in 1872-1876, and in 1876 became professor of chemistry at Johns Hopkins University. He published many textbooks of chemistry, organic and inorganic, which were republished in England and were translated abroad. In 1879 he founded the American Chemical Journal. In 1843 he was elected to the national House of Representatives and there remained for ten years until his district was gerry- mandered by the Whigs and he lost his seat. But he at once offered himself as a candidate for governor and was elected and re-elected, and was then sent to the United States Senate, serving from 1857 to 1862. As governor (1853-1857) he proved to be able and non-partisan. He championed popular education and recom- mended the homestead policy to the national government, and from his sympathy with the working classes and his oft-avowed pride in his former calling he became known as the “ mechanic governor.' ." In Congress he proved to be a tireless advocate of the claims of the poorer whites and an opponent of the aristo- cracy. He favoured the annexation of Texas, supported the Polk administration on the issues of the Mexican War and the Oregon boundary controversy, and though voting for the admis- sion of free California demanded national protection for slavery. He also advocated the homestead law and low tariffs, opposed the policy of " internal improvements," and was a zealous worker for budget economies. Though opposed to a monopoly of politi- cal power in the South by the great slaveholders, he deprecated anti-slavery agitation (even favouring denial of the right of petition on that subject) as threatening abolition or the dissolu- tion of the Union, and went with his sectional leaders so far as to demand freedom of choice for the Territories, and protection for slavery where it existed-this even so late as 1860. He supported in 1860 the ultra-Democratic ticket of Breckinridge and Lane, but he did not identify the election of Lincoln with the ruin of the South, though he thought the North should give renewed guarantees to slavery. But he followed Jackson rather than Calhoun,.and above everything else set his love of the Union, though believing the South to be grievously wronged. He was the only Southern member of Congress who opposed secession and refused to "go with his state" when it withdrew from the Union in 1861. In the judgment of a leading opponent O. P. Morton) " perhaps no man in Congress exerted the same influence on the public sentiment of the North at the beginning of the war "" as Johnson. During the war he suffered much for military governor of the part of Tennessee captured from the his loyalty to the Union. In March 1862 Lincoln made him Confederates, and after two years of autocratic rule (with much danger to himself) he succeeded in organizing a Union govern- ment for the state. In 1864, to secure the votes of the war in the Union, Johnson was nominated for vice-president on the Democrats and to please the border states that had remained ticket with Lincoln. him president, with the great problem to solve of reconstruction A month after the inauguration the murder of Lincoln left of the Union. All his past career and utterances seemed to indicate that he would favour the harshest measures toward ex- Confederates, hence his acceptability to the most radical republi- cans. But, whether because he drew a distinction between the or simply, once in responsible position, separated Republican treason of individuals and of states, or was influenced by Seward, party politics from the question of constitutional interpretation, at least he speedily showed that he would be influenced by Lincoln. In this he had for some time the cordial support of no acrimony, and adopted the lenient reconstruction policy of his cabinet. During the summer of 1865 he set up provisional civil governments in all the seceded states except Texas, and within a few months all those states were reorganized and applying for readmission to the Union. The radical congress (Republican by a large majority) sharply opposed, this plan of restoration, as they had opposed Lincoth's plan: first, because the members of Congress from, the Southern States (when readmitted) would almost certainly vote with the Demo- Crats; secondly, because relatively few of the Confederates were punished; and thirdly, because the newly organized Southern States did not give political rights to the negroes. The question of the status of the negro proved the crux of the issue. Johnson was opposed to general or immediate negro suffrage. A bitter contest began in Feb. 1866, between the presi- dent and the Congress, which refused to admit representatives 462 JOHNSON, B.-JOHNSON, R. from the South and during 1866 passed over his veto a President Johnson's leading political principles were a rever- number of important measures, such as the Freedmen's Bureau ence of Andrew Jackson, unlimited confidence in the people, and Act and the Civil Rights Act, and submitted to the States the an intense veneration for the constitution. Throughout his life Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Johnson took a he remained in some respects a “backwoodsman.” He lacked prominent and undignified part in the congressional campaign the finish of systematic education. But his whole career suffi. of 1866, in which his policies were voted down by the North. ciently proves him to have been a man of extraordinary qualities. In 1867 Congress threw aside his work of restoration and pro- He did not rise above untoward circumstances by favour, nor- ceeded with its own plan, the main features of which were the until after his election as senator-by fortunate and fortuitous disfranchisement of ex-Confederates and the enfranchisement of connexion with great events, but by strength of native talents, negroes. On the end of March 1867 Congress passed over the persistent purpose, and an iron will. He had strong, rugged president's veto the Tenure of Office Act, prohibiting the presi- powers, was a close reasoner and a forcible speaker. Unfor- dent from dismissing from office without the consent of the tunately his extemporaneous speeches were commonplace, in very Senate any officer appointed by and with the advice and consent bad taste, fervently intemperate and denunciatory; and though of that body, and in addition a section was inserted in the army this was probably due largely to temperament and habits of appropriation bill of this session designed to subordinate the stump-speaking formed in early life, it was attributed by his president to the Senate and the general-in-chief of the army in enemies to drink. Resorting to stimulants after illness, his military matters. The president was thus deprived of practi- marked excess in this respect on the occasion of his inauguration cally all power. Stanton and other members of his cabinet and as vice-president undoubtedly did him harm with the public. General Grant became hostile to him, the president attempted Faults of personality were his great handicap. Though approach- to removę Stanton without regard to the Tenure of Office Act, able and not without kindliness of manner, he seemed hard and and, finally, to get rid of the president, Congress in 1868 (Feb- inflexible; and while president, physical pain and domestic ruary-May) made an attempt to impeach and remove him, his anxieties, added to the struggles of public life, combined to accen- disregard of the Tenure of Office Act being the principal charge tuate a naturally somewhat severe temperament. A lifelong against him. The charges were in part quite trivial, and the Southern Democrat, he was forced to lead (nominally at least) a evidence was ridiculously inadequate for the graver charges. party of Northern Republicans, with whom he had no bond of A two-thirds majority was necessary for conviction; and the sympathy save a common opposition to secession; and his votes being 35 to 19(7 Republicans and 12 Democrats voting in his ardent, aggressive convictions and character, above all his favour on the crucial clauses) he was acquitted. The misguided complete lack of tact, unfitted him to deal successfully with the animus of the impeachment as a piece of partisan politics was passionate partisanship of Congress. The absolute integrity soon very generally admitted; and the importance of its failure, and unflinching, courage that marked his career were always in securing the continued power and independence of the presi- ungrudgingly admitted by his greatest enemies. dential element in the constitutional system, can hardly See L. Foster, The Life and Speeches of Andrew Johnson (1866); over-estimated. The rest of his term as president was compara- D. M. De Witt, The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson (1903); tively quiet and uneventful. In 1869 he retired into private life C. E. Chadsey, The Struggle between President Johnson and Congress in Tennessee, and after several unsuccessful efforts was elected over Reconstruction (1896); and W. A. Dunning, Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction (1898). Also sce W. A. Dunning's paper to the United States Senate, free of party trammels, in 1875, but “More Light on Andrew Johnson" (in the American Historical Review, died at Carter's Station, Tenn., on the 31st of July 1875. The April 1906), in which apparently conclusive evidence is presented only speech he made was a skilful and temperate arraignment of to prove that Johnson's first inaugural, a notable state paper, was President Grant's policy towards the South. written by the historian George Bancroft. JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742), English actor, was first 1 The charges centred in the president's removal of Secretary Stanton, his ad interim appointment of Lorenzo Thomas, his cam- a scene painter, then acted in the provinces, and appeared in paign speeches in 1866, and the relation of these three things to the London in 1695 at Drury Lane after Betterton's defection. He Tenure of Office Act. Of the eleven charges of impeachment was the original Captain Driver in Oronooko (1696), Captain the first was that Stanton's removal was contrary to the Tenure Fireball in Farquhar's Sir Harry Wildair (1701), Sable in Steele's of Office Act; the second, that the appointment of Thomas was a violation of the same law; the third, that the appointment violated Funeral (1702), &c.; as the First Gravedigger in Hamlet and the Constitution; the fourth, that Johnson conspired with Thomas in several characters in the plays of Ben Jonson he was particu- "to hinder and prevent Edwin M. Stanton...from holding ... Office larly good. He succeeded, also, to Thomas Doggett's rôles. of secretary for the department of war"; the fifth, that Johnson had JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824-1906), American artist, was born conspired with Thomas to prevent and hinder the execution" of the Tenure of Office Act; the sixth, that he had conspired with at Lovell, Maine, on the 29th of July 1824. He studied at Thomas " to seize, take and possess the property of the United Düsseldorf, Paris, Rome and The Hague, the last city being his States in the department of war," in violation of the Tenure of Office home for four years. In 1860 he was elected to the National Act; the seventh, that this action was a high misdemeanour"; Academy of Design, New York. A distinguished portrait and the eighth, that the appointment of Thomas was with intent unlawfully to control the disbursements of the moneys appropriated genre painter, he made distinctively American themes his own, for the military service and for the department of war ; the ninth, depicting the negro, fisherfolk and farm life with unusual interest. that he had instructed Major-General Emory, in command of the Such pictures as Old Kentucky Home” (1867), “Husking department of Washington, that an act of 1867 appropriating money Bee” (1876), "Cranberry Harvest, Nantucket” (1880), and his for the army was unconstitutional; the tenth, that his speeches, in portrait group “The Funding Bill ” (1881) achieved a national 1866 constituted "a high misdemeanour in office"; and the eleventh, the " omnibus" article, that he had committed high misdemeanours reputation. Among his sitters were many prominent- men, in saying that the 39th Congress was not an authorized Congress, including Daniel Webster; Presidents Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland that its legislation was not binding upon him, and that it was and Harrison; William M. Evarts, Charles J. Folger; Emerson, incapable of proposing amendments. The actual trial began on the 30th of March (from the 5th of March it was adjourned to the 23rd, Longfellow, Hawthorne, James McCosh. Noah Porter and Sir and on the 24th of March to the 30th). On the 16th of May, after Edward Archbald. He died in New York City on the sth of sessions in which the Senate repeatedly reversed the rulings of the April 1906. chief justice as to the admission of evidence, in which the president's counsel showed that their case was excellently prepared and the and jurist, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 21st of May JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876), American political leader prosecuting.counsel appealed in general to political passions rather than to judicial impartiality, the eleventh article was voted on and 1796. His father, John Johnson (1770-1824), was a distinguished impeachment failed by a single vote (35 to 19; 7 republicans and 12 lawyer, who served in both houses of the Maryland General democrats voting "Not guilty") of the necessary two-thirds. Assembly, as attorney-general of the state (1806-1811), as a judge After ten days' interval, during which B. F. Butler of the prosecuting of the court of appeals (1811-1821), and as a chancellor of his counsel attempted to prove that corruption had been practised on some of those voting.Not guilty," on the 26th of May a vote was state (1821–1824). Reverdy graduated from St John's college in iaken on the second and third articles with the same result as on 1812. He then studied law in his father's office, was admitted the eleventh article. There was no vote on the other articles. to the bar in 1815 and began to practise in Upper Marlborough, a JOHNSON, R.-JOHNSON, SAMUEL 463 Prince George's county. In 1817 he removed to Baltimore, oracle on points of learning. Between him and the clergy, where he became the professional associate of Luther Martin, indeed, there was a strong religious and political sympathy. He William Pinkney and Roger B. Taney; with Thomas Harris he was a zealous churchman, and, though he had qualified himself reported the decisions of the court of appeals in Harris and for municipal office by taking the oaths to the sovereigns in Johnson's Reports (1820-1827); and in 1818 he was appointed possession, was to the last a Jacobite in heart. The social chief commissioner of insolvent debtors. From 1821 to 1825 position of Samuel's paternal grandfather, William Johnson, he was a state senator; from 1825 to 1845 he devoted himself to remains obscure; his mother was the daughter of Cornelius Ford, his practice; from 1845 to 1849, as a Whig, he was a member of a little Warwickshire Gent." the United States Senate; and from March 1849 to July 1850 At a house (now the Johnson Museum) in the Market Square, he was attorney-general of the United States. In 1856 he became Lichfield, Samuel Johnson was born on the 18th of September identified with the conservative wing of the Democratic party, 1709 and baptized on the same day at St Mary's, Lichfield. In and four years later supported Stephen A. Douglas for the the child the physical, intellectual and moral peculiarities which presidency. In 1861 he was a delegate from Maryland to the afterwards distinguished the man were plainly' discernible: peace convention at Washington; in 1861–1862 he was a member great muscular strength accompanied by much awkwardness and of the Maryland House of Delegates. After the capture of New many infirmities; great quickness of parts, with a morbid pro- Orleans he was commissioned by Lincoln to revise the decisions pensity to sloth and procrastination; a kind and generous heart, of the military commandant, General B. F. Butler, in regard with a gloomy and irritable temper. He had inherited from his to foreign governments, and reversed all those decisions to the ancestors a scrofulous taint, and his parents were weak enough entire satisfaction of the administration. In 1863 he again to believe that the royal touch would.cure him. In his third took his seat in the United States Senate. In 1868 he was year he was taken up to London, inspected by the court surgeon, appointed minister to Great Britain and soon after his arrival prayed over by the court chaplains and stroked and presented in England negotiated the Johnson-Clarendon treaty for the with a piece of gold by Queen Anne. Her hand was applied in settlement of disputes arising out of the Civil War; this, however, vain. The boy's features, which were originally noble and not the Senate refused to ratify, and he returned home on the acces- irregular, were distorted by his malady. His cheeks were sion of General U. S. Grant to the presidency. Again resuming deeply scarred. He lost for a time the sight of one eye; and he his practice he was engaged by the government in the prosecu- saw but very imperfectly with the other. But the force of his tion of Ku-Klux cases. He died on the roth of February mind overcame every impediment. Indolent as he was, he 1876 at Annapolis. He repudiated the doctrine of secession, acquired knowledge with such ease and rapidity that at every and pleaded for compromise and conciliation. Opposed to the school (such as those at Lichfield and Stourbridge) to which he Reconstruction measures, he voted for them on the ground that was sent he was soon the best scholar. From sixteen to eighteen it was better to accept than reject them, since they were probably he resided at home, and was left to his own devices. He learned the best that could be obtained. As a lawyer he was engaged much at this time, though his studies were without guidance and during his later years in most of the especially important cases without plan. He ransacked his father's shelves, dipped into a in the Supreme Court of the United States and in the courts of multitude of books, read what was interesting, and passed over Maryland. what was dull An ordinary lad would have acquired little or JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573-1659 ?), English romance writer, no useful knowledge in such a way; but much that was dull to was baptized in London on the 24th of May 1573. His most ordinary lads .was interesting to Samuel. He read little Greek; famous romance is The Famous Historie of the Seaven Champions for his proficiency in that language was not such that he could of Christendom (1596 ?). The success of this book was so great take much pleasure in the masters of Attic poetry and eloquence. that the author added a second and a third part in 1608 and 1616. But he had left school a good Latinist, and he soon acquired an His other stories include: The Nine Worthies of London (1592); extensive knowledge of Latin literature. He was peculiarly The Pleasant Walks of Moorefields (1607); The Pleasant Conceites attracted by the works of the great restorers of learning. Once, of Old Hobson (1607), the hero being a well-known haberdasher while searching for some apples, he found a huge folio volume of in the Poultry; The Most Pleasant History of Tom a Lincolne Petrarch's works. The name excited his curiosity, and he eagerly (1607); A Remembrance of ... Robert Earle of Salisbury (1612); devoured hundreds of pages. Indeed, the diction and versifi- Looke on Me, London (1613); The History of Tom Thumbe (1621). cation of his own Latin compositions show that he had paid at The Crown Garland Golden Roses set forth in Many least as much attention to modern copies from the antique as to Pleasant new Songs and Sonnets (1612) was reprinted for the the original models. Percy Society (1842 and 1845). While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his family was JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781-1850), ninth vice- sinking into hopeless poverty. Old Michael Johnson was much president of the United States, was born at Bryants Station, better qualified to pore over books, and to talk about them, than Kentucky, on the 17th October 1781. He was admitted to to trade in them. His business declined; his debts increased; the bar in 1800, and became prominent as a lawyer and Democratic it was with difficulty that the daily expenses of his household politician, serving in the Federal House of Representatives and were defrayed. It was out of his power to support his son at in the Senate for many years. From 1837 to 1841 he was vice- cither university; but a wealthy neighbour offered assistance; president of the United States, to which position he was elected and, in reliance on promises which proved to be of very little over Francis Granger, by the Senate, none of the four candidates value, Samuel was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford. When for the vice-presidency having received a majority of the elec- the young scholar presented himself to the rulers of that society, toral votes. The opposition to Johnson within the party greatly they were amazed not more by his ungainly figure and eccentric increased during his term, and the Democratic national conven- manners than by the quantity of extensive and curious inform- tion of 1840 adopted the unprecedented course of refusing to ation which he had picked up during many months of desultory nominate anyone for the vice-presidency. In the ensuing elec- but not unprofitable study. On the first day of his residence he tion Johnson received most of the Democratic electoral votes, surprised his teachers by quoting Macrobius; and one of the most but was defeated by the Whig candidate, John Tyler. He died learned among them declared that he had never known a fresh- in Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1850. man of equal attainments. JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784), English writer and lexico- At Oxford Johnson resided barely over two years, possibly grapher, was the son of Michael Johnson (1656-1731), bookseller less. He was poor, even to raggedness; and his appearance and magistrate of Lichfield, who married in 1706 Sarah Ford excited a mirth and a pity which were equally intolerable to his (1669-1759). Michael's abilities and attainments seem to have haughty spirit. He was driven from the quadrangle of Christ been considerable. He was so well acquainted with the con- Church by the sneering looks which the members of that aristo- tents of the volumes which he exposed for sale that the country cratical society cast at the holes in his shoes. Some charitable rectors of Staffordshire and Worcestershire thought him an person placed a new pair at his door; but he spurned them away 464 JOHNSON, SAMUEL in a fury. Distress made him, not servile, but reckless and un- ledge of the world, did himself honour by patronizing the young governable. No opulent gentleman commoner, panting for one adventurer, whose repulsive person, unpolished manners and and-twenty, could have treated the academical authorities with squalid garb moved many of the petty aristocracy of the more gross disrespect. The needy scholar was generally to be neighbourhood to laughter or disgust. At Lichfield, however, seen under the gate of Pembroke, a gate now adorned with his Johnson could find no way of earning a livelihood. He became effigy, haranguing a circle of lads, over whom, in spite of his usher of a grammar school in Leicestershire; he resided as a tattered gown and dirty linen, his wit and audacity gave him an humble companion in the house of a country gentleman; but a undisputed ascendancy. In every mutiny against the discipline life of dependence was insupportable to his haughty spirit. of the college he was the ringleader. Much was pardoned, how- He repaired to Birmingham, and there earned a few guineas by ever, to a youth so highly distinguished by abilities and acquire literary drudgery. In that town he printed a translation, little ments. He had early made himself known by turning Pope's noticed at the time, and long forgotten, of a Latin book about “Messiah"into Latin verse. The style and rhythm, indeed, were Abyssinia. He then put forth proposals for publishing by sub- not exactly Virgilian; but the translation found many admirers, scription the poems of Politian, with notes containing a history, and was read with pleasure by Pope himself. of modern Latin verse; but subscriptions did not come in, and The time drew near at which Johnson would, in the ordinary the volume never appeared. course of things, have become a Bachelor of Arts; but he was at While leading this vagrant and miserable life, Johnson fell in the end of his resources. Those promises of support on which he love. The object of his passion was Mrs Elizabeth Porter (1688- had relied had not been kept. His family could do nothing 1752), widow of Harry Porter (d. 1734), whose daughter Lucy for him. His debts to Oxford tradesmen were small indeed, yet was born only six years after Johnson himself. To ordinary larger than he could pay. In the autumn of 1731 he was under spectators the lady appeared to be a short, fat, coarse woman, the necessity of quitting the university without a degree. In painted half an inch thick, dressed in gaudy colours, and fond the following winter his father died. The old man left but a of exhibiting provincial airs and graces which were not exactly pittance; and of that pittance almost the whole was appro- those of the Queensberrys and Lepels. To Johnson, however, priated to the support of his widow. The property to which whose passions were strong, whose eyesight was too weak to Samuel succeeded amounted to no more than twenty pounds. distinguish rouge from natural bloom, and who had seldom or His life, during the thirty years which followed, was one hard never been in the same room with a woman of real fashion, his struggle with poverty. The misery of that struggle needed no Tetty, as he called her, was the most beautiful, graceful and ac- aggravation, but was aggravated by the sufferings of an unsound complished of her sex. That his admiration was unfeigned cannot body and an unsound mind. Before the young man left the be doubted; she had, however, a jointure of £600 and perhaps a university, his hereditary malady had broken forth in a singu- little more; she came of a good family, and her son Jervis larly cruel form. He had become an incurable hypochondriac. (d. 1763) commanded H.M.S.“ Hercules.” The marriage, in spite He said long after that he had been mad all his life, or at least of occasional wranglings, proved happier than might have been not perfectly sane; and, in truth, eccentricities less strange than expected. The lover continued to be under the illusions of the his have often been thought ground sufficient for absolving wedding-day (July 9, 1735) till the lady died in her sixty-fourth , ſelons and for setting aside wills. His grimaces, his gestures, year. On her monument at Bromley he placed an inscription his mutterings, sometimes diverted and sometimes terrified extolling the charms of her person and of her manners; and people who did not know him. At a dinner table he would, in a when, long after her decease, he had occasion to mention her, he fit of absence, stvop down and twitch off a lady's shoe. He would exclaimed with a tenderness half ludicrous, half pathetic, “ Pretty amaze a drawing-room by suddenly ejaculating a clause of the creature !” Lord's Prayer. He would conceive an unintelligible aversion to His marriage made it necessary for him to exert himself more a particular alley, and perform a great circuit rather than see strenuously than he had hitherto done. He took a house at the hateful place. He would set his heart on touching every post Edial near Lichfield and advertised for pupils. But eighteen in the streets through which he walked. If by any chance he months passed away, and only three pupils came to his academy. missed a post, he would go back a hundred yards and repair the The “faces” that Johnson habitually made (probably nervous omission. Under the influence of his disease, his senses became contortions due to his disorder) may well have alarmed parents. morbidly torpid, and his imagination morbidly active. At one Good scholar though he was, these twitchings had lost him usher- time he would stand poring on the town clock without being able ships in 1735 and 1736. David Garrick, who was one of the to tell the hour. At another he would distinctly hear his mother, pupils, used, many years later, to throw the best company of who was many miles off, calling him by his name. But this was not London into convulsions of laughter by mimicking the master the worst. A deep melancholy took possession of him, and gave and his lady. a dark tinge to all his views of human nature and of human des- At length Johnson, in the twenty-eighth year of his age, tiny. Such wretchedness as he endured has driven many men to determined to seek his fortune in London as a literary adventurer. shoot themselves or drown themselves. But he was under no He set out with a few guineas, three acts of his tragedy of Irene temptation to commit suicide. He was sick of life; but he was in manuscript, and two or three letters of introduction from his afraid of death; and he shuddered at every sight or sound which friend Walmesley. Never since literature became a calling in reminded him of the inevitable hour. ' In religion he found but England had it been a less gainful calling than at the time when little comfort during his long and frequent fits of dejection; for Johnson took up his residence in London. In the preceding his religion partook of his own character. The light from heaven generation a writer of eminent merit was sure to be munificently shone on him indeed, but not in a direct line, or with its own pure rewarded by the Government. The least that he could expect splendour. The rays had to struggle through a disturbing was a pension or a sinecure place; and, if he showed any apti- medium; they reached him refracted, dulled and discoloured by tude for politics, he might hope to be a member of parliament, a the thick gloom which had settled on his soul, and, though they lord of the treasury, an ambassador, a secretary of state. But might be sufficiently clear to guide him, were too dim to cheer literature had ceased to flourish under the patronage of the great, him. and had not yet begun to flourish under the patronage of the With such infirmities of body and of mind, he was left, at two- public. One man of letters, indeed, Pope, had acquired by his and-zwenty, to fight his way through the world. He remained pen what was then considered as a handsome fortune, and lived during about five years in the midland counties. At Lichfield, on a footing of equality with nobles and ministers of state. But his birthplace and his early home, he had inherited some friends this was a solitary exception. Even an author whose reputation and acquired others. He was kindly noticed by Henry Hervey, was established, and whose works were popular-such an author a gay officer of noble family, who happened to be quartered as Thomson, whose Seasons was in every library, such an author there. Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the ecclesiastical court as Fielding, whose Pasquin had had a greater run than any drama of the diocese, a man of distinguished parts, learning and know. I since The Beggar's Opera--was sometimes glad to obtain, by JOHNSON, SAMUEL 465 pawning his best coat, the means of dining on tripe at a cookshop | when Johnson resided there, was the most Jacobitical place in underground, where he could wipe his hands, after his greasy England; and Pembroke was one of the most Jacobitical colleges meal, on the back of a Newfoundland dog. It is easy, therefore, in Oxford. The prejudices which he brought up to London to imagine what humiliations and privations must have awaited were scarcely less absurd than those of his own Tom Tempest. the novice who had still to earn a name. One of the publishers Charles II. and James II. were two of the best kings that ever to whom Johnson applied for employment measured with a reigned. Laud was a prodigy of parts and learning over scornful eye that athletic though uncouth frame, and exclaimed, whose tomb Art and Genius still continued to weep. Hampden “ You had better get a porter's knot and carry trunks.". Nor deserved no more honourable name than that of the “ zealot of was, the advice bad, for a porter was likely to be as plentifully rebellion.” Even the ship-money Johnson would not pronounce fed, and as comfortably lodged, as a poet. to have been an unconstitutional impost. Under a government Some time appears to have elapsed before Johnson was able which allowed to the people an unprecedented liberty of speech to form any literary connexion from which he could expect more and action, he fancied that he was a slave. He hated Dissenters than bread for the day which was passing over him. He never and stock-jobbers, the excise and the army, septennial parlia- forgot the generosity with which Hervey, who was now residing ments, and Continental connexions. He long had an aversion in London, relieved his wants during this time of trial. Harry to the Scots, an aversion of which he could not remember the Hervey,” said Johnson many years later," was a vicious man; commencement, but which, he owned, had probably originated but he was very kind to me. If you call a dog Hervey, I shall in his abhorrence of the conduct of the nation during the Great love him.” At Hervey's table Johnson sometimes enjoyed Rebellion. It is easy to guess in what manner debates on great feasts which were made more agreeable by contrast. But in party questions were likely to be reported by a man whose general he dinea, and thought that he dined well, on sixpenny- judgment was so much disordered by party spirit. A show of worth of meat and a pennyworth of bread at an alehouse near fairness was indeed necessary to the prosperity of the Magazine. Drury Lane. But Johnson long afterwards owned that, though he had saved The effect of the privations and sufferings which he endured appearances, he had taken care that the Whig dogs should not at this time was discernible to the last in his temper and his have the best of it; and, in fact, every passage which has lived, deportment. His manners had never been courtly. They now every passage which bears the marks of his higher faculties, is became almost savage. Being frequently under the necessity of put into the mouth of some member of the opposition. wearing shabby coats and dirty shirts, he became a confirmed A few weeks after Johnson had entered on these obscure sloven. Being often very hungry when he sat down to his labours, he published a work which at once placed him high meals, he contracted a habit of eating with ravenous greediness. among the writers of his age." It is probable that what he had Even to the end of his life, and even at the tables of the great, suffered during his first year in London had often reminded him the sight of food affected him as it affects wild beasts and birds of some parts of the satire in which Juvenal had described the of prey. His taste in cookery, formed in subterranean ordinaries misery and degradation of a needy man of letters, lodged among and à la mode beef shops, was far from delicate. Whenever he the pigeons' nests in the tottering garrets which overhung the was so fortunate as to have near him a hare that had been kept streets of Rome. Pope's admirable imitations of Horace's too long, or a meat pie made with rancid butter, he gorged himself Satires and Epistles had recently appeared, were in every hand, with such violence that his veins swelled and the moisture broke and were by many readers thought superior to the originals. out on his forehead. The affronts which his poverty emboldened What Pope had done for Horace, Johnson aspired to do for stupid and low-minded men to offer to him would have broken a Juvenal. mean spirit into sycophancy, but made him rude even to ferocity. Johnson's London appeared without his name in May 1738. Unhappily the insolence which, while it was defensive, was par- He received only ten guineas for this stately and vigorous poem; donable, and in some sense respectable, accompanied him into but the sale was rapid and the success complete. A second societies where he was treated with courtesy and kindness. He edition was required within a week. Those small critics who was repeatedly provoked into striking those who had taken are always desirous to lower established reputations ran about liberties with him. All the sufferers, however, were wise enough proclaiming that the anonymous satirist was superior to Pope to abstain from talking about their beatings, except Osborne, in Pope's own peculiar department of literature. It ought to the most rapacious and brutal of booksellers, who proclaimed be remembered, to the honour of Pope, that he joined heartily everywhere that he had been knocked down by the huge fellow in the applause with which the appearance of a rival genius was whom he had hired to puff the Harleian Library. welcomed. He made inquiries about the author of London. About a year after Johnson had begun to reside in London he Such a man, he said, could not long be concealed. The name was fortunate enough to obtain regular employment from Edward was soon discovered; and Pope, with great kindness, exerted Cave (q. v.) on the Gentleman's Magazine. That periodical, just himself to obtain an academical degree and the mastership of a entering on the ninth year of its long existence, was the only one grammar school for the poor young poet. The attempt failed, in the kingdom which then had what would now be called a large and Johnson remained a bookseller's hack. circulation. Johnson was engaged to write the speeches in the It does not appear that these two men, the most eminent “Reports of the Debates of the Senate of Lilliput” (see REPORT- writer of the generation which was going out, and the most ING), under which thin disguise the proceedings of parliament eminent writer of the generation which was coming in, ever saw were published. He was generally furnished with notes, meagre each other. They lived in very different circles, one surrounded indeed and inaccurate, of what had been said; but sometimes he by dukes and earls, the other by starving pamphleteers and index- had to find arguments and eloquence both for the ministry and makers. Among Johnson's associates at this time may be men- for the opposition. He was himself a Tory, not from rational tioned Boyse, who, when his shirts were pledged, scrawled Latin conviction-for his serious opinion was that one form of govern- verses sitting up in bed with his arms through two holes in his ment was just as good or as bad as another—but from mere blanket, who composed very respectable sacred poetry when he passion, such as inflamed the Capulets against the Montagues, or was sober, and who was at last run over by a hackney coach when the Blues of the Roman circus against the Greens. In his infancy he was drunk; Hoole, surnamed the metaphysical tailor, who, he had heard so much talk about the villainies of the Whigs, and instead of attending to his measures, used to trace geometrical the dangers of the Church, that he had become a furious partisan diagrams on the board where he sat cross-legged; and the penitent when he could scarcely speak. Before he was three he had in- impostor, George Psalmanazar, who, after poring all day, in a sisted on being taken to hear Sacheverel preach at Lichfield humble lodging, on the folios of Jewish rabbis and Christian Cathedral, and had listened to the sermon with as much respect fathers, indulged himself at night with literary and theological and probably with as much intelligence, as any Staffordshire conversation at an alehouse in the City. But the most remark- squire in the congregation. The work which had been begun able of the persons with whom at this time Johnson consorted in the nursery had been completed by the university. Oxford, I was Richard Savage, an earl's son, a shoemaker's apprentice, XV 8* 466 JOHNSON, SAMUEL who had seen life in all its forms, who had feasted among blue years which he passed in the drudgery of penning definitions ribands in St James's Square, and had lain with fifty pounds and marking quotations for transcription, he sought for relaxa- weight of irons on his legs in the condemned ward of Newgate. tion in literary labour of a more agreeable kind. In January 1749 This man had, after many vicissitudes of fortune, sunk at last he published The Vanity of Human Wishes, an excellent imitation into abject and hopeless poverty. His pen had failed him. of the tenth satire of Juvenal, for which he received fifteen His patrons had been taken away by death, or estranged by the guineas. riotous profusion with which he squandered their bounty, and A few days after the publication of this poem, his tragedy of the ungrateful insolence with which he rejected their advice. Irene, begun many years before, was brought on the stage by his He now lived by begging. He dined on venison and champagne old pupil, David Garrick, now manager of Drury Lane Theatre. whenever he had been so fortunate as to borrow a guinea. If The relation between him and his old preceptor was of a very his questing had been unsuccessful, he appeased the rage of singular kind. They repelled each other strongly, and yet attracted hunger with some scraps of broken meat, and lay down to rest each other strongly. Nature had made them of very different under the piazza of Covent Garden in warm weather, and, in clay; and circumstances had fully brought out the natural cold weather, as near as he could get to the furnace of a glass peculiarities of both. Sudden prosperity had turned Garrick's house. Yet in his misery he was still an agreeable companion. head. Continued adversity had soured Johnson's temper. He had an inexhaustible store of anecdotes about that gay and Johnson saw with more envy than became so great a man the brilliant world from which he was now an outcast. He had villa, the plate, the china, the Brussels carpet, which the little observed the great men of both parties in hours of careless mimic had got by repeating, with grimaces and gesticulations, relaxation, had seen the leaders of opposition without the mask what wiser men had written; and the exquisitely sensitive vanity of patriotism, and had heard the prime minister roar with of Garrick was galled by the thought that, while all the rest of the laughter and tell stories not over-decent. During some months world was applauding him, he could obtain from one morose Savage lived in the closest familiarity with Johnson; and then cynic, whose opinion it was impossible to despise, scarcely any the friends parted, not without tears. Johnson remained in compliment not acidulated with scorn. Yet the two Lichfield London to drudge for Cave. Savage went to the west of Eng- men had so many early recollections in common, and sympathized land, lived there as he had lived everywhere, and in 1743 died, with each other on so many points on which they sympathized penniless and heartbroken, in Bristol Gaol. with nobody else in the vast population of the capital, that, Soon after his death, while the public curiosity was strongly though the master was often provoked by the monkey-like excited about his extraordinary character and his not less extra- impertinence of the pupil, and the pupil by the bearish rudeness ordinary adventures, a life of him appeared widely different from of the master, they remained friends till they were parted by the catchpenny lives of eminent men which were then a staple death. Garrick now brought Irene out, with alterations sufficient article of manufacture in Grub Street. The style was indeed to displease the author, yet not sufficient to make the piece deficient in ease and variety; and the writer was evidently too pleasing to the audience. After nine representations the play partial to the Latin element of our language. But the little work, was withdrawn. The poet however cleared by his benefit nights, with all its faults, was a masterpiece. No finer specimen of and by the sale of the copyright of his tragedy, about three literary biography existed in any language, living or dead; and a hundred pounds, then a great sum in his estimation. discerning critic might have confidently predicted that the About a year after the representation of Irene, he began to author was destined to be the founder of a new school of English publish a series of short essays on morals, manners and literature. eloquence. This species of composition had been brought into fashion by the The Life of Savage was anonymous; but it was well known in success of the Tatler, and by the still more brilliant success of the literary circles that Johnson was the writer. During the three spectator. A crowd of small writers had vainly attempted to rival years which followed, he produced no important work; but he Addison. The Lay Monastery, the Censor, the Freethinker, the was not, and indeed could not be, idle. The fame of his abilities Plain Dealer, the Champion, and other works of the same kind and learning continued to grow. Warburton pronounced him a had had their short day. At length Johnson undertook the man of parts and genius; and the praise of Warburton was then adventure in which so many aspirants had failed. In the thirty- no light thing. Such was Johnson's reputation that, in 1747, sixth year after the appearance of the last number of the Specialor several eminent booksellers combined to employ him in the appeared the first number of the Rambler. From March 1750 arduous work of preparing a Dictionary of the English Language, to March 1752 this paper continued to come out every Tuesday in two folio volumes. The sum which they agreed to pay him and Saturday. was only fifteen hundred guineas; and out of this sum he had to From the first the Rambler was enthusiastically admired by a pay several poor men of letters who assisted him in the humbler few eminent men. Richardson, when only five numbers had parts of his task. appeared, pronounced it equal if not superior to the Spectator. The prospectus of the Dictionary he addressed to the earl of Young and Hartley expressed their approbation not less warmly. Chesterfield. Chesterfield had long been celebrated for the In consequence probably of the good offices of Bubb Dodington, politeness of his manners, the brilliancy of his wit, and the delicacy who was then the confidential adviser of Prince Frederick, two of his taste. He was acknowledged to be the finest speaker in the of his royal highness's gentlemen carried a gracious message to House of Lords. He had recently governed Ireland, at a momen- the printing office, and ordered seven copies for Leicester House. tous conjuncture, with eminent firmness, wisdom and humanity; But Johnson had had enough of the patronage of the great to last and he had since become secretary of state. He received John- him all his life, and was not disposed to haunt any other door as son's homage with the most winning affability, and requited it he had haunted the door of Chesterfield. with a few guineas, bestowed doubtless in a very graceful manner, By the public the Rambler was at first very coldly received. but was by no means desirous to see all his carpets blackened with Though the price of a number was only twopence, the sale did the London mud, and his soups and wines thrown to right and not amount to five hundred. The profits were therefore very left over the gowns of fine ladies and the waistcoats of fine gentle- small. But as soon as the flying leaves were collected and re- men, by an absent, awkward scholar, who gave strange starts and printed they became popular. The author lived to see thirteen uttered strange growls, who dressed like a scarecrow and ate like thousand copies spread over England alone. Separate editions a cormorant. During some time Johnson continued to call on were published for the Scotch and Irish markets. A large party his patron, but after being repeatedly told by the porter that pronounced the style perfect, so absolutely perfect that in some his lordship was not at home, took the hint, and ceased to present essays it would be impossible for the writer himself to alter a himself at the inhospitable door, single word for the better. Another party, not less numerous, Johnson had flattered himself that he should have completed vehemently accused him of having corrupied the purity of the his Dictionary by the end of 1750; but it was not till 1755 that be English tongue. The best critics admitted that his diction was at length gave his huge volimes to the world. During the seven too monotonous, too obviously artificial, and now and then turgid JOHNSON, SAMUEL 467 even to absurdity. But they did justice to the acuteness of his as dictator of the English language to supply his wants by con- observations on morals and manners, to the constant precision stant toil. He abridged his Dictionary. He proposed to bring out and frequent brilliancy of his language, to the weighty and an edition of Shakespeare by subscription, and many subscribers magnificent eloquence of many serious passages, and to the solemn sent in their names and laid down their money; but he soon yet pleasing humour of some of the lighter papers. found the task so little to his taste that he turned to more attrac- The last Rambler was written in a sad and gloomy hour. Mrs tive employments. He contributed many papers to a new Johnson had been given over by the physicians. Three days monthly journal, which was called the Literary Magazine. Few later she died. She left her husband almost broken-hearted. of these papers have much interest; but among them was one of Many people had been surprised to see a man of his genius and the best things that he ever wrote, a masterpiece both of reason- learning stooping to every drudgery, and denying himself almost ing and of satirical pleasantry, the review of Jenyns' Inquiry every comfort, for the purpose of supplying a silly, affected old into the Nature and Origin of Evil. woman with superfluities, which she accepted with but little In the spring of 1758 Johnson put forth the first of a series of gratitude. But all his affection had been concentrated on her. essays, entitled the Idler. During two years these essays con- He had neither brother nor sister, neither son nor daughter. tinued to appear weekly. They were eagerly read, widely Her opinion of his writings was more important to him than the circulated, and indeed impudently pirated, while they were still voice of the pit of Drury Lane Theatre, or the judgment of the in the original form, and had a large sale when collected into Monthly Review. The chief support which had sustained him volumes. The Idler may be described as a second part of the through the most arduous labour of his life was the hope that she Rambler, somewhat livelier and somewhat weaker than the first would enjoy the fame and the profit which he anticipated from part. his Dictionary. She was gone; and in that vast labyrinth of While Johnson was busied with his Idlers, his mother, who streets, peopled by eight hundred thousand human beings, he had accomplished her ninetieth year, died at Lichfield. It was was alone. Yet it was necessary for him to set himself, as he long since he had seen her, but he had not failed to contribute expressed it, doggedly to work. After three more laborious largely out of his small means to her comfort. In order to defray years, the Dictionary was at length complete. the charges of her funeral, and to pay some debts which she had It had been generally supposed that this great work would be left, he wrote a little book in a single week, and sent off the sheets dedicated to the eloquent and accomplished nobleman to whom to the press without reading them over. A hundred pounds the prospectus had been addressed. Lord Chesterfield well knew were paid him for the copyright, and the purchasers had great the value of such a compliment; and therefore, when the day of cause to be pleased with their bargain, for the book was Rasselas, publication drew near, he exerted himself to soothe, by a show and it had a great success. of zealous and at the same time of delicate and judicious kindness, The plan of Rasselas might, however, have seemed to invite the pride which he had so cruelly wounded. Since the Rambler severe criticism. Johnson has frequently blamed Shakespeare had ceased to appear, the town had been entertained by a journal for neglecting the proprieties of time and place, and for ascribing called the World, to which many men of high rank and fashion to one age or nation the manners and opinions of another. Yet contributed. In two successive numbers of the World, the Shakespeare has not sinned in this way more grievously than Dictionary was, to use the modern phrase, puffed with wonderful Johnson. Rasselas and Imlac, Nekayah and Pekuah, are skill. The writings of Johnson were warmly praised. It was pro- evidently meant to be Abyssinians of the 18th century; for the posed that he should be invested with the authority of a dictator, Europe which Imlac describes is the Europe of the 18th century, nay, of a pope, over our language, and that his decisions about and the inmates of the Happy Valley talk familiarly of that law the meaning and the spelling of words should be received as of gravitation which Newton discovered and which was not fully final. His two folios, it was said, would of course be bought by received even at Cambridge till the 18th century. Johnson, not everybody who could afford to buy them. It was soon known content with turning filthy savages, ignorant of their letters, and that these papers were written by Chesterfield. But the just gorged with raw steaks cut from living cows, into philosophers resentment of Johnson was not to be so appeased. In a letter as eloquent and enlightened as himself or his friend Burke, and written with singular energy and dignity of thought and language, into ladies as highly accomplished as Mrs Lennox or Mrs Sheridan, he repelled the tardy advances of his patron. The Dictionary transferred the whole domestic system of England to Egypt. came forth without a dedication. In the Preface the author truly Into a land of harems, a land of polygamy, a land where women declared that he owed nothing to the great, and described the are married without ever being seen, he introduced the flirtations difficulties with which he had been left to struggle so forcibly and and jealousies of our ball-rooms. In a land where there is bound- pathetically that the ablest and most malevolent of all the enemies less liberty of divorce, wedlock is described as the indissoluble of his fame, Horne Tooke, never could read that passage without compact. “A youth and maiden meeting by chance, or brought tears. together by artifice, exchange .glances, reciprocate civilities, go Johnson's Dictionary was hailed with an enthusiasm such as home, and dream of each other. Such," says Rasselas, “is the no similar work has ever excited. It was indeed the first common process of marriage.” A writer who was guilty of such dictionary which could be read with pleasure. The definitions improprieties had little right to blame the poet who made Hector show so much acuteness of thought and command of language, quote Aristotle, and represented Julio Romano as flourishing in and the passages quoted from poets, divines and philosophers are the days of the Oracle of Delphi. so skilfully selected, that a leisure hour may always be very agree- By such exertions as have been described Johnson supported ably spent in turning over the pages. The faults of the book himself till the year 1762. In that year a great change in his resolve themselves, for the most part, into one great fault. John- circumstances took place. He had from a child been an enemy son was a wretched etymologist. He knew little or nothing of of the reigning dynasty. His Jacobite prejudices had been any Teutonic language except English, which indeed, as he wrote exhibited with little disguise both in his works and in his con- it, was scarcely a Teutonic language; and thus he was absolutely versation. Even in his massy and elaborate Dictionary he had, at the mercy of Junius and Skinner. with a strange want of taste and judgment, inserted bitter and The Dictionary, though it raised Johnson's fame, added no- contumelious reflexions on the Whig party. The excise, which thing to his pecuniary means. The fifteen hundred guineas which was a favourite resource of Whig financiers, he had designated the booksellers had agreed to pay him had been advanced and as a hateful tax. He had railed against the commissioners of spent before the last sheets issued from the press. It is painful excise in language so coarse that they had seriously thought of to relate that twice in the course of the year which followed the prosecuting him. He had with difficulty been prevented from publication of this great work he was arrested and carried to holding up the lord privy seal by name as an example of the sponging-houses, and that he was twice indebted for his liberty meaning of the word “renegade.” A pension he had defined as to his excellent friend Richardson. It was still necessary for pay given to a state hireling to betray his country; a pensioner the man who had been formerly saluted by the highest authority as a slave of state hired by a stipend to obey a master. It а 468 JOHNSON, SAMUEL seemed unlikely that the author of these definitions would him- passage quoted from any dramatist of the Elizabethan age except self be pensioned. But that was a time of wonders. George III. Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Even from Ben the quotations had ascended the throne, and had, in the course of a few months, are few. Johnson might easily in a few months have made him. disgusted many of the old friends, and conciliated many of the old self well acquainted with every old play that was extant. But enemies of his house. The city was becoming mutinous; Oxford it never seems to have occurred to him that this was a necessary was becoming loyal. Cavendishes and Bentincks were murmur- preparation for the work which he had undertaken. He would ing; Somersets and Wyndhams were hastening to kiss hands. doubtless have admitted that it would be the height of absurdity The head of the treasury was now Lord Bute, who was a Tory, in a man who was not familiar with the works of Aeschylus and and could have no objection to Johnson's Toryism. Bute wished Euripides to publish an edition of Sophocles. Yet he ventured to be thought a patron of men of letters; and Johnson was one of to publish an edition of Shakespeare, without having ever in his the most eminent and one of the most needy men of letters in life, as far as can be discovered, read a single scene of Massinger, Europe. A pension of three hundred a year was graciously Ford, Dekker, Webster, Marlow, Beaumont or Fletcher. His offered, and with very little hesitation accepted. detractors were noisy and scurrilous. He had, however, acquitted This event produced a change in Johnson's whole way of life. himself of a debt which had long lain heavy on his conscience and For the first time since his boyhood he no longer felt the daily he sank back into the repose from which the sting of satire had goad urging him to the daily toil. He was at liberty, after thirty roused him. He long continued to live upon the fame which he years of anxiety and drudgery, to indulge his constitutional had already won. He was honoured by the university of Oxford indolence, to lie in bed till two in the afternoon, and to sit up with a doctor's degree, by the Royal Academy with a professor- talking till four in the morning, without fearing either the ship, and by the king with an interview, in which his majesty printer's devil or the sheriff's officer. most graciously expressed a hope that so excellent a writer would One laborious task indeed he had bound himself to perform. not cease to write. In the interval between 1765 and 1775 John- He had received large subscriptions for his promised edition of son published only two or three political tracts. Shakespeare; he had lived on those subscriptions during some But, though his pen was now idle, his tongue was active. The years; and he could not without disgrace omit to perform his influence exercised by his conversation, directly upon those with part of the contract. His friends repeatedly exhorted him to whom he lived, and indirectly on the whole literary world, was make an effort, and he repeatedly resolved to do so. But, not- altogether without a parallel. His colloquial talents were indeed withstanding their exhortations and his resolutions, month of the highest order. He had strong sense, quick discernment, followed month, year followed year, and nothing was done wit, humour, immense knowledge of literature and of life, and an He prayed fervently against his idleness; he determined, as often infinite store of curious anecdotes. As respected style, he spoke as he received the sacrament, that he would no longer doze away far better than he wrote. Every sentence which dropped from and trifle away his time; but the spell under which he lay resisted his lips was as correct in structure as the most nicely balanced prayer and sacrament. Happily for his honour, the charm which period of the Rambler. But in his talk there were no pompous held him captive was at length broken by no gentle or friendly triads, and little more than a fair proportion of words in -osity hand. He had been weak enough to pay serious attention to a and -ation. All was simplicity, ease and vigour. He uttered story about a ghost which haunted a house in Cock Lane, and had his short, weighty, and pointed sentences with a power of voice, actually gone himself, with some of his friends, at one in the and a justness and energy of emphasis, of which the effect was morning, to St John's Church, Clerkenwell, in the hope of receiving rather increased than diminished by the rollings of his huge form, a communication from the perturbed spirit. But the spirit, and by the asthmatic gaspings and puffings in which the peals of though adjured with all solemnity, remained obstinately silent; his eloquence generally ended. Nor did the laziness which made and it soon appeared that a naughty girl of eleven had been amus- him unwilling to sit down to his desk prevent him from giving in- ing herself by making fools of so many philosophers. Churchill, struction or entertainment orally. To discuss questions of taste, who, confident in his powers, drunk with popularity, and burning of learning, of casuistry, in language so exact and so forcible that with party spirit, was looking for some man of established fame it might have been printed without the alteration of a word, was and Tory politics to insult, celebrated the Cock Lane ghost in to him no exertion, but a pleasure. He loved, as he said, to fold three cantos, nicknamed Johnson Pomposo, asked where the book his legs and have his talk out. He was ready to bestow the over- was which had been so long promised and so liberally paid for, flowings of his full mind on anybody who would start a subject: and directly accused the great moralist of cheating.. This terrible on a fellow-passenger in a stage coach, or on the person who sat word proved effectual, and in October 1765 appeared, after a at the same table with him in an eating-house. But his conversa- delay of nine years, the new edition of Shakespeare. tion was nowhere so brilliant and striking as when he was sur- This publication saved Johnson's character for honesty, but rounded by a few friends, whose abilities and knowledge enabled added nothing to the fame of his abilities and learning. The them, as he once expressed it, to send him back every ball that Preface, though it contains some good passages, is not in his best he threw. Some of these, in 1764, formed themselves into a club, manner. The most valuable notes are those in which he had an which gradually became a formidable power in the common- opportunity of showing how attentively he had during many wealth of letters. The verdicts pronounced by this conclave on years observed human life and human nature. The best speci- new books were speedily known over all London, and were suffi- men is the note on the character of Polonius. Nothing so good cient to sell off a whole edition in a day, or to condemn the sheets is to be found even in Wilhelm Meister's admirable examination to the service of the trunkmaker and the pastrycook. Gold- of Hamlet. But here praise must end. It would be difficult to smith was the representative of poetry and light literature, name a more slovenly, a more worthless edition of any great | Reynolds of the arts, Burke of political eloquence and political classic. Johnson had, in his prospectus, told the world that he philosophy. There, too, were Gibbon the greatest historian was peculiarly fitted for the task which he had undertaken, be- and Sir William Jones the greatest linguist of the age. Garrick cause he had, as a lexicographer, been under the necessity of brought to the meetings his inexhaustible pleasantry, his incom- taking a wider view of the English language than any of his pre- parable mimicry, and his consummate knowledge of stage effect. decessors. But, unfortunately, he had altogether neglected that Among the most constant attendants were two high-born and very part of our literature with hich it is especially desirable high-bred gentlemen, closely bound together by friendship, but that an editor of Shakespeare should be conversant. In the two of widely different characters and habits-Bennet Langton, folio volumes of the English Dictionary there is not a single distinguished by his skill in Greek literature, by the orthodoxy *This famous dictum of Macaulay, though endorsed by Lord of his opinions, and by the sanctity of bis life, and Topham Rosebery, has been energetically rebutted by Professor W. Raleigh Beauclerk, renowned for his amours, his knowledge of the gay and others, who recognize both sagacity and scholarship in Johnson's world, his fastidious taste and his sarcastic wit. Preface and Notes." Johnson's wide grasp of the discourse and knowledge of human nature enable him in a hundred entangled Among the members of this celebrated body was one to whom passages to go straight to the dramatist's meaning.-(T. Se.) it has owed the greater part of its celebrity, yet who was JOHNSON, SAMUEL 469 regarded with little respect by his brethren, and had not without | in spite of her murmurs and reproaches, he gave an asylum to difficulty obtained a seat among them. This was James Boswell another lady who was as poor as herself, Mrs Desmoulins, whose (q.v.), á young Scots lawyer, heir to an honourable name family he had known many years before in Staffordshire. Room and a fair estate. That he was a coxcomb and a bore, weak, was found for the daughter of Mrs Desmoulins, and for another vain, pushing, curious, garrulous, was obvious to all who were destitute damsel, who was generally addressed as Miss Car- acquainted with him. michael, but whom her generous host called Polly. An old quack To a man of Johnson's strong understanding and irritable doctor named Levett, who had a wide practice, but among the temper, the silly egotism and adulation of Boswell must have very poorest class, poured out Johnson's tea in the morning and been as teasing as the constant buzz of a fly. Johnson hated to completed this strange menagerie. All these poor creatures be questioned; and Boswell was eternally catechizing him on all were at constant war with each other, and with Johnson's negro kinds of subjects, and sometimes propounded such questions as, servant Frank. Sometimes, indeed, they transferred their “What would you do, sir, if you were locked up in a tower with hostilities from the servant to the master, complained that a a baby?” Johnson was a water-drinker and Boswell was a wine- better table was not kept for them, and railed or maundered bibber, and indeed little better than an habitual sot. It was im- till their benefactor was glad to make his escape to Streatham possible that there should be perfect harmony between two such or to the Mitre Tavern. And yet he, who was generally the companions. Indeed, the great man was sometimes provoked haughtiest and most irritable of mankind, who was but too prompt into fits of passion, in which he said things which the small man, to resent anything which looked like a slight on the part of a during a few hours, seriously resented. Every quarrel, how- purse-proud bookseller, or of a noble and powerful patron, bore ever, was soon made up. During twenty years the disciple con patiently from mendicants, who, but for his bounty, must have tinued to worship the master; the master continued to scold the gone to the workhouse, insults more provoking than those for disciple, to sneer at him, and to love him. The two friends which he had knocked down Osborne and bidden defiance to ordinarily resided at a great distance from each other. Boswell Chesterfield. Year after year Mrs Williams and Mrs Desmoulins, practised in the Parliament House of Edinburgh, and could pay Polly and Levett, continued to torment him and to live upon him. only occasional visits to London. During those visits his chief The course of life which has been described was interrupted business was to watch Johnson, to discover all Johnson's habits, in Johnson's sixty-fourth year by an important event. He to turn the conversation to subjects about which Johnson was had early read an account of the Hebrides, and had been much likely to say something remarkable, and to fill quarto notebooks interested by learning that there was so near him a land peopled with minutes of what Johnson had said. In this way were by a race which was still as rude and simple as in the Middle Ages, gathered the materials out of which was afterwards constructed | A wish to become intimately acquainted with a state of society the most interesting biographical work in the world. so utterly unlike all that he had ever seen frequently crossed his Soon after the club began to exist, Johnson formed a connexion mind. But it is not probable that his curiosity would have over; less important indeed to his fame, but much more important come his habitual sluggishness, and his love of the smoke, the to his happiness, than his connexion with Boswell. Henry mud, and the cries of London, had not Boswell importuned him to Thrale, one of the most opulent brewers in the kingdom, a man attempt the adventure, and offered to be his squire. At length, of sound and cultivated understanding, rigid principles, and in August 1773, Johnson crossed the Highland line, and plunged liberal spirit, was married to one of those clever, kind-hearted, courageously into what was then considered, by most Englishmen, engaging, vain, pert young women who are perpetually doing or as a dreary and perilous wilderness. After wandering about two saying what is not exactly right, but who, do or say what they months through the Celtic region, sometimes in ru boats which may, are always agreeable. In 1765 the Thrales became ac. did not protect him from the rain, and sometimes on small shaggy quainted with Johnson, and the acquaintance ripened fast into ponies which could hardly bear his weight, he returned to his old friendship. They were astonished and delighted by the brilliancy haunts with a mind full of new images and new theories. During of his conversation. They were flattered by finding that a man the following year he employed himself in recording his adven- so widely celebrated preferred their house to any other in London. tures. About the beginning of 1775 his Journey to the Hebrides Johnson soon had an apartment at the brewery in Southwark, was published, and was, during some weeks, the chief subject and a still more pleasant apartment at the villa of his friends on of conversation in all circles in which any attention was paid to Streatham Common. A large part of every year he passed in literature. His prejudice against the Scots had at length those abodes, which must have seemed magnificent and luxurious become little more than matter of jest; and whatever remained indeed, when compared with the dens in which he had generally of the old feeling had been effectually removed by the kind and been lodged. But his chief pleasures were derived from what respectful hospitality with which he had been received in every the astronomer of his Abyssinian tale called “the endearing part of Scotland. It was, of course, not to be expected that an elegance of female friendship.” Mrs Thrale rallied him, soothed Oxonian Tory should praise the Presbyterian polity and ritual, him, coaxed him, and if she sometimes provoked him by her or that an eye accustomed to the hedgerows and parks of England flippancy, made ample amends by listening to his reproofs with should not be struck by the bareness of Berwickshire and East angelic sweetness of temper. When he was diseased in body Lothian. But even in censure Johnson's tone is not unfriendly. and in mind, she was the most tender of nurses. No comfort | The most enlightened Scotsmen, with Lord Mansfield at their that wealth could purchase, no contrivance that womanly in- head, were well pleased. But some foolish and ignorant Scots- genuity, set to work by womanly compassion, could devise, was men were moved to anger by a little unpalatable truth which was wanting to his sick room. It would seem that a full half of mingled with much eulogy, and assailed him whom they chose to Johnson's life during about sixteen years' was passed under the consider as the enemy of their country with libels much more roof of the Thrales. He accompanied the family sometimes to dishonourable to their country than anything that he had ever Bath, and sometimes to Brighton, once to Wales and once to said or written.· They published paragraphs in the newspapers, Paris. But he had at the same time a house in one of the articles in the magazines, sixpenny pamphlets, five-shilling books. narrow and gloomy courts on the north of Fleet Street. In the One scribbler abused Johnson for being blear-eyed, another for garrets was his library, a large and miscellaneous collection of being a pensioner; a third informed the world that one of the doc- books, falling to pieces and begrimed with dust. On a lower tor's uncles had been convicted of felony in Scotland, and had floor he sometimes, but very rarely, regaled a friend with a plain found that there was in that country one tree capable of support- dinner-a veal pie, or a leg of lamb and spinach, and a rice puding the weight of an Englishman. Macpherson, whose Fingal had ding. Nor was the dwelling uninhabited during his long absences. | been treated in the Journey as an impudent forgery, threatened It was the home of the most extraordinary assemblage of inmates to take vengeance with a cane. The only effect of this threat was that ever was brought together. At the head of the establish that Johnson reiterated the charge of forgery in the most con- ment Johnson had placed an old lady named Williams, whose temptuous terms, and walked about, during some time, with a chief recommendations were her blindness and her poverty. But, I cudgel. . 470 JOHNSON, SAMUEL Of other assailants Johnson took no notice whatever. He had rendered services of no very honourable kind to Pope. The had early resolved never to be drawn into controversy; and he biographer therefore sat down to his task with a mind full of adhered to his resolution with a steadfastness which is the more matter. He had at first intended to give only a paragraph to extraordinary because he was, both intellectually and morally, every minor poet, and only four or five pages to the greatest name. of the stuff of which controversialists are made. In conversation But the flood of anecdote and criticism overflowed the narrow he was a singularly eager, acute and pertinacious disputant. channel. The work, which was originally meant to consist only When at a loss for good reasons, he had recourse to sophistry; of a few sheets, swelled into ten volumes--small volumes, it is true, and when heated by altercation, he made unsparing use of sar- and not closely printed. The first four appeared in 1779, the casm and invective. But when he took his pen in his hand, his remaining six in 1781. whole character seemed to be changed. A hundred bad writers The Lives of the Poets are, on the whole, the best of Johnson's misrepresented him and reviled him; but not one of the hundred works. The narratives are as entertaining as any novel. The could boast of having been thought by him worthy of a refuta- remarks on life and on human nature are eminently shrewd and tion, or even of a retort. One Scotsman, bent on vindicating profound. The criticisms are often excellent, and, even when the fame of Scots learning, defied him to the combat in a detest- grossly and provokingly unjust, well deserve to be studied. able Latin hexameter:- Savage's Life Johnson reprinted nearly as it had appeared in 1744. " Maxime, si tu vis, cupio contendere tecum." Whoever, after reading that life, will turn to the other lives will be struck by the difference of style. Since Johnson had been at But Johnson took no notice of the challenge. He always main- ease in his circumstances he had written little and had talked tained that fame was a shuttlecock which could be kept up only much. When therefore he, after the lapse of years, resumed his by being beaten back as well as beaten forward, and which would pen, the mannerism which he had contracted while he was in the soon fall if there were only one battledore. No saying was constant habit of elaborate compošition was less perceptible than oftener in his mouth than that fine apophthegm of Bentley, that formerly, and his diction frequently had a colloquial ease which no man was ever written down but by himself. it had formerly wanted. The improvement may be discerned Unhappily, a few months after the appearance of the Journey by a skilful critic in the Journey to the Hebrides, and in the Lives to the Hebrides, Johnson did what none of his envious assailants of the Poets is so obvious that it cannot escape the notice of the could have done, and to a certain extent succeeded in writing most careless reader. Among the Lives the best are perhaps himself down. The disputes between England and her American those of Cowley, Dryden and Pope. The very worst is, beyond all colonies had reached a point at which po amicable adjustment doubt, that of Gray; the most controverted that of Milton. was possible. War was evidently impending; and the ministers This great work at once became popular. There was, indeed, seem to have thought that the eloquence of Johnson might with much just and much unjust censure; but even those who were advantage be employed to inflame the nation against the opposi- loudest in blame were, attracted by the book in spite of them- tion at home, and against the rebels beyond the Atlantic. He selves. Malone computed the gains of the publishers at five or had already written two or three tracts in defence of the foreign six thousand pounds. But the writer was very poorly remuner- and domestic policy of the government; and those tracts, though ated. Intending at first to write very short prefaces, he had hardly worthy of him, were much superior to the crowd of stipulated for only two hundred guineas. The booksellers, when pamphlets which lay on the counters of Almon and Stockdale. they saw how far his performance had surpassed his promise, But his Taxation no Tyranny was a pitiable failure. Even added only another hundred. Indeed Johnson, though he did Boswell was forced to own that in this unfortunate piece he could not despise or affect to despise money, and though his strong detect no trace of his master's powers. The general opinion was sense and long experience ought to have qualified him to protect that the strong faculties which had produced the Dictionary and his own interests, seems to have been singularly unskilful and the Rambler were beginning to feel the effect of time and of unlucky in his literary bargains. He was generally reputed the disease, and that the old man would best consult his credit by first English writer of his time. Yet several writers of his time writing no more. But this was a great mistake. Johnson had sold their copyrights for sums such as he never ventured to ask. failed, not because his mind was less vigorous than when he To give a single instance, Robertson received £4500 for the wrote Rasselas in the evenings of a week, but because he had History of Charles V. foolishly chosen, or suffered others to choose for him, a subject Johnson was now in his seventy-second year. The infirmities such as he would at no time have been competent to treat. He of age were coming fast upon him. That inevitable event of was in no sense a statesman. He never willingly read or thought which he never thought without horror was brought near to him; or talked about affairs of state. He loved biography, literary and his whole life was darkened by the shadow of death. The history, the history of manners; but political history was posi- strange dependants to whom he had given shelter, and to whom, tively distasteful to him. The question at issue between the in spite of their faults, he was strongly attached by habit, colonies and the mother country was a question about which he dropped off one by one; and, in silence of his home, he re- had really nothing to say. Happily, Johnson soon had an gretted even the noise of their scolding matches. The kind and opportunity of proving most signally that his failure was not to generous Thrale was no more; and it was soon plain that the old be ascribed to intellectual decay. Streatham intimacy could not be maintained upon the same foot. On Easter Eve 1777 some persons, deputed by a meeting which ing. Mrs Thrale herself confessed that without her husband's consisted of forty of the first booksellers in London, called upon assistance she did not feel able to entertain Johnson as a constant him. Though he had some scruples about doing business at that inmate of her house. Free from the yoke of the brewer, she fell season, he received his visitors with much civility. They came in love with a music master, high in his profession, from Brescia, to inform him that a new edition of the English poets, from named Gabriel Piozzi, in whom nobody but herself could discover Cowley downwards, was in contemplation, and to ask him to anything to admire. The secret of this attachment was soon furnish short biographical prefaces. He readily undertook the discovered by Fanny Burney, but Johnson at most only sus. task for which he was pre-eminently qualified. His knowledge pected it. of the literary history of England since the Restoration was. In September 1782 the place at Streatham was from motives unrivalled. That knowledge he had derived partly from books, of economy let to Lord Shelburne, and Mrs Thrale took a house and partly from sources which had long been closed: from old at Brighton, whither Johnson accompanied her; they remained Grub Street traditions; from the talk of forgotten poetasters for six weeks on the old familiar footing. In March 1783 Boswell and pamphleteers, who had long been lying in parish vaults; was glad to discover Johnson well looked after and staying with from the recollections of such men as Gilbert Walmesley, who Mrs Thrale in Argyll Street, but in a bad state of health. Im- had conversed with the wits of Button, Cibber, who had patience of Johnson's criticisms and infirmities had been steadily mutilated the plays of two generations of dramatists, Orrery, growing with Mrs Thrale since 1774. She now went to Bath who had been admitted to the society of Swiſt and Savage, who I with her daughters, partly to escape his supervision. Johnson JOHNSON, SIR, T. 471 66 a secret. was very ill in his lodgings during the summer, but he still corre- natural home of Johnsonian study. Sir Walter Scott, Croker, Hay- sponded affectionately with his mistress” and received many reprinted in 1853) and Whitwell Elwin have done as much as any- ward, Macaulay, Thomas Carlyle (whose famous Fraser article was favours from her. He retained the full use of his senses during body perhaps to sustain the zest for Johnsonian studies. Macaulay's the paralytic attack, and in July he was sufficiently recovered prediction that the interest in the man would supersede that in his to renew his old club life and to meditate further journeys. In Works" seemed and seems likely enough to justify itself; but June 1784 he went with Boswell to Oxford for the last time. In by the hand of an inspired idiot was a true measure of the man has his theory that the man alone mattered and that a portrait painted September he was in Lichfield. On his return his health was not worn better than the common run of literary propositions, rather worse; but he would submit to no dietary régime. His Johnson's prose is not extensively read. But the same is true of asthma tormented him day and night, and dropsical symptoms nearly all the great prose masters of the 18th century. As in the made their appearance. His wrath was excited in no measured case of all great men, Johnson has suffered a good deal at the hands terms against the re-marriage of his old friend Mrs Thrale, the uniformly monotonous or polysyllabic as the parodists would have of his imitators and admirers. His prose, though not nearly so news of which he heard this summer. The whole dispute seems, us believe, was at one time greatly overpraised. From the “ Life to-day, entirely uncalled-for, but the marriage aroused some of of Savage" to the “ Life of Pope it developed a great deal, and in Johnson's strongest prejudices. He wrote inconsiderately on the main improved. To the last he sacrificed expression rather too the subject, but we must remember that he was at the time much to style, and he was perhaps over conscious of the balanced afflicted in body and mentally haunted by dread of impending the prose movement of his period. epithet. But he contributed both dignity and dialectical force to change. Throughout all his troubles he had clung vehemently The best edition of his works is still the Oxford edition of 1825 in to life. The feeling described in that fine but gloomy paper neglected, and all that can be said to excite interest are, first the 9 vols. At the present day, however, his periodical writings are which closes the series of his Idlers seemed to grow stronger in Lives of the Poets (best edition by Birkbeck Hill and H. S. Scott, 3 vols., him as his last hour drew near. He fancied that he should be 1905), and then the Letters, the Prayers and Meditations, and the able to draw his breath more easily in a southern climate, and Poems, to which may doubtfully be added the once idolized Rasselas. would probably have set out for Rome and Naples but for his The Poems and Rasselas have been reprinted times without number. fear of the expense of the journey. That expense, indeed, he University Press by the pious diligence of that most enthusiastic of The others have been re-edited with scrupulous care for the Oxford had the means of defraying; for he had laid up about two thou- all Johnsonians, Dr Birkbeck Hill. But the tendency at the present sand pounds, the fruit of labours which had made the fortune of day is undoubtedly to prize Johnson's personality and sayings more several publishers. But he was unwilling to break in upon this than any of his works. These are preserved to us in a body of hoard, and he seems to have wished even to keep its existence biographical writing, the efficiency of which is unequalled in the whole range of literature. The chief constituents are Johnson's Some of his friends hoped that the Government might own Letters and Account of his Life from his Birth to his Eleventh be induced to increase his pension to six hundred pounds a year, Year (1805), a fragment saved from papers burned in 1784 and not but this hope was disappointed, and he resolved to stand one seen by Boswell; the life by his old but not very sympathetic friend English winter more. and club-fellow, Sir John Hawkins (1787); Mrs Thrale-Piozzi's Anecdotes (1785) and Letters; the Diary and Letters of Fanny That winter was his last. His legs grew.weaker; his breath Burney (D'Arblay) (1841); the shorter Lives of Arthur Murphy, grew shorter; the fatal water gathered fast, in spite of incisions T. Tyers, &c.; far above all, of course, the unique Life by James which he, courageous against pain but timid against death, urged | Boswell, first published in 1791, and subsequently encrusted with vast masses of Johnsoniana in the successive editions of Malone, his surgeons to make deeper and deeper. Though the tender Croker, Napier, Fitzgerald, Mowbray Morris (Globe), Birrell, Ingpen care which had mitigated his sufferings during months of sickness (copiously illustrated) and Dr Birkbeck Hill (the most exhaustive). at Streatham was withdrawn, and though Boswell was absent, The sayings and Johnsoniana have been reprinted in very many he was not left desolate. The ablest physicians and surgeons and various forms. Valuable work has been done in Johnsonian attended him, and refused to accept fees from him. Burke genealogy and topography by Aleyn Lyell Reade in his Johnsonian Gleanings, &c., and in the Memorials of Old Staffordshire (ed. W. parted from him with deep emotion. Windham sat much in the Beresford). The most excellent short Lives are those by F. Grant sick-room. Frances Burney, whom the old man had cherished (Eng. Writers) and Sir Leslie Stephen (Eng. Men of Letters). Pro- with fatherly kindness, stood weeping at the door; while Langton, fessor.. W. Raleigh's essay (Stephen Lecture), Lord Rosebery's whose piety eminently qualified him to be an adviser and com- estimate (1909), and Sir Leslie Stephen's article in the Dictionary of National Biography, with bibliography and list of portraits, should forter at such a time, received the last pressure of his friend's be consulted. Johnson's " Club" ( The Club ") still exists, and hand within. When at length the moment, dreaded through has contained ever since his time a large proportion of the public so many years, .came close, the dark cloud passed away from celebrities of its day., A." Johnson Club," which has included many Johnson scholars and has published papers, was founded in 1885. Johnson's mind. Windham's servant, who sat up with him Lichfield has taken an active part in the commemoration of Johnson during his last night, declared that " no man could appear more since 1887, when Johnson's birthplace was secured as a municipal collected, more devout or less terrified at the thoughts of the museum, and Lichfield was the chief scene of the Bicentenary approaching minute." At hour intervals, often of much pain, Celebrations of September 1909 (fully described in A. M. Broadley's he was moved in bed and addressed himself vehemently to Dr Johnson and Mrs Thrale, 1909), containing, together with new materials and portraits, an essay dealing with Macaulay's treatment prayer. In the morning he was still able to give his blessing, of the Johnson-Thrale episodes by T. Seccombe). Statues both of but in the afternoon he became drowsy, and at a quarter past Johnson and Boswell are in the market-place at Lichfield. A statue seven in the evening on the 13th of December 1784, in his seventy- was erected in St Paul's in 1825, and there are commemorative sixth year, he passed away. He was laid, a week later, in West-tablets in Lichfield Cathedral, St Nicholas (Brighton), Uttoxeter, St Clement Danes (London), Gwaynynog and elsewhere. (T. Se.) minster Abbey, among the eminent men of whom he had been the historian-Cowley and Denham, Dryden and Congreve, JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729), English merchant, was Gay, Prior and Addison. (M.) born in Liverpool in November 1664. He succeeded his father · BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The splendid example of his style which Macaulay in 1689 as bailiff and in 1695 as mayor. From 1701. to 1723 he contributed in the article on Johnson to the 8th edition of this ency represented Liverpool in parliament, and he was knighted by clopaedia has become classic, and has therefore been retained above Queen Anne in 1708. He effected the separation of Liverpool with a few trifling modifications in those places in which his invincible from the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill; from the Crown he ob- love of the picturesque has drawn him demonstrably aside from the dull line of veracity. Macaulay, it must be noted, exaggerated tained the grant to the corporation of the site of the old castle persistently the poverty of Johnson's pedigree, the squalor of his where he planned the town market; while the construction of the early married life, the grotesqueness of his entourage in Fleet Street, first floating dock (1708) and the building of St Peter's and St the decline and fall from complete virtue of Mrs Thrale, the novelty George's churches were due in grea measure to his efforts. He and success of the Dictionary, the complete failure of the Shakespeare and the political tracts. Yet this contribution is far more mellow was interested in the tobacco trade; in 1715 he conveyed 130 than the article contributed on Johnson twenty-five years before Jacobite prisoners to the American plantations. In 1723, having to the Edinburgh Review in correction of Croker. Matthew Arnold, lost in speculation the fortune which he had inherited from his who edited six selected Lives of the poets, regarded it as one of father, he went himself to Virginia as collector of customs on Macaulay's happiest and ripest efforts." It was written out of friend- He died in Jamaica in 1729. А ship for Adam Black, and" the Rappahannock river. payment was not so much as mentioned." The big reviews, especially the quarterlies, have always been the Liverpool street is named Sir Thomas Buildings after him, 472 JOHNSON, T.-JOHNSTON, A. S. man. JOHNSON, THOMAS, English 18th-century wood-carver and Pontiac in his conspiracy, and he was instrumental in arranging furniture designer. Of excellent repute as a craftsman and the treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768. After the war Sir William an artist in wood, his original conceptions and his adaptations retired to his estates, where, on the site of the present Johnstown, of other men's ideas were remarkable for their extreme flam- he built his residence, Johnson Hall, and lived in all the style of boyance, and for the merciless manner in which he overloaded an English baron. He devoted himself to colonizing his exten- them with thin and meretricious ornament. Perhaps his most sive lands, and is said to have been the first to introduce sheep inept design is that for a table in which a duck or goose is dis- and blood horses into the province. He died at Johnstown, placing water that falls upon a mandarin, seated, with his head on N.Y., on the 11th of July 1774. In 1739 Johnson had married one side, upon the rail below. No local school of Italian rococo Catherine Wisenberg, by whom he had three children. After ever produced more extravagant absurdities. His clocks bore her death he had various mistresses, including a niece of the scythes and hour-glasses and flashing sunbeams, together with Indian chief Hendrick, and Molly Brant, a sister of the famous whirls and convolutions and floriated adornments without end. chief Joseph Brant. On the other hand, he occasionally produced a mirror frame or His son, SIR JOHN JOHNSON (1742–1830), who was knighted a mantelpiece which was simple and dignified. The art of in 1765 and succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death, artistic plagiarism has never been so well understood or so took part in the French and Indian War and in the border warfare dexterously practised as by the 18th-century designers of English during the War of Independence, organizing a loyalist regiment furniture, and Johnson appears to have so far exceeded his known as the “ Queen's Royal Greens,” which he led at the battle contemporaries that he must be called a barefaced thief. The of Oriskany and in the raids (1778 and 1780) on Cherry Valley three leading“ motives "of the time-Chinese, Gothic and Louis and in the Mohawk Valley. He was also one of the officers of Quatorze-were mixed up in his work in the most amazing the force defeated by General John Sullivan in the engagement manner; and he was exceedingly fond of introducing human at Newtown (Elmira), N.Y., on the 29th of August 1779. He was figures, animals, birds and fishes in highly incongruous places. made brigadier-general of provincial troops in 1782. His estales He appears to have defended his enormities on the ground that had been confiscated, and after the war he lived in Canada, where all men vary in opinion, and a fault in the eye of one may be he held from 1791 until his death the office of superintendent- a beauty in that of another; 'tis a duty incumbent on an author general of Indian affairs for British North America. He received to endeavour at pleasing every taste.” Johnson, who was in £45,000 from the British government for his losses. business at the “ Golden Boy" in Grafton Street, Westminster, Sir William's nephew, GUY JOHNSON (1740-1788), succeeded published a folio volume of Designs for Picture Frames, Candelabra, his uncle as superintendent of Indian affairs in 1774, and served Ceilings, &c. (1758); and One Hundred and Fifty New Designs in the French and Indian War and, on the British side, in the (1761). War of Independence. JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715-1774), British soldier and See W. L. Stone, Life of Sir William Johnson (2 vols., 1865); American pioneer, was born in Smithtown, County Meath, Ire- W. E. Griffis, Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations (1891) land, in 1715, the son of Christopher Johnson, a country gentle Johnson (1903) in “Historic Lives Series,"; and J. Watts De Peyster, in Makers of America series; Augustus C. Buell, Sir William As a boy he was educated for a commercial career, but “The Life of Sir John Johnson, Bart.," in The Orderly Book of Sir in 1738 he removed to America for the purpose of managing a John Johnson during the Oriskany Campaign, 1776-1777, annotated tract of land in the Mohawk Valley, New York, belonging to his by William L. Stone (1882). uncle, Admiral Sir Peter Warren (1703-1752). He established JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803-1862), American Con- himself on the south bank of the Mohawk river, about 25 m. federate general in the Civil War, was born at Washington, W. of Schenectady. Before 1743 he removed to the north side Mason county, Kentucky, on the 3rd of February 1803. He of the river. The new settlement prospered from the start, and graduated from West Point in 1826, and served for eight years a valuable trade was built up with the Indians, over whom in the U.S. infantry as a company officer, adjutant, and staff Johnson exercised immense influence. The Mohawks officer. In 1834 he resigned his commission, emigrated in 1838 adopted him and elected him a sachem. In 1744 he was ap- to Texas, then a republic, and joined its army as a private. His rise pointed by Governor George Clinton (d. 1761) superintendent was very rapid, and before long he was serving as commander- of the affairs of the Six Nations (Iroquois). In 1746 he was made in-chief in preference to General Felix Huston, with whom he commissary of the province for Indian affairs, and was influential fought a duel. From 1838 to 1840 he was Texan secretary for war, in enlisting and equipping the Six Nations for participation in and in 1839 he led a successful expedition against the Cherokee the warfare with French Canada, two years later (1748) being Indians. From 1840 to the outbreak of the Mexican War he lived placed in command of a line of outposts on the New York in retirement on his farm, but in 1846 he led a regiment of Texan frontier. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle put a stop to offensive volunteers in the field, and at Monterey, as a staff officer, he had operations, which he had begun. In May 1750 by royal appoint-three horses shot under him. In 1849 he returned to the United ment he became a member for life of the governo council, and States army as major and paymaster, and in 1855 became colonel in the same year he resigned the post of superintendent of of the 2nd U.S. Cavalry (afterwards 5th), in which his lieut.- Indian affairs. In 1754 he was one of the New York delegates colonel was Robert E. Lee, and his majors were Hardee and Thomas. to the inter-colonial convention at Albany, N.Y. In 1755 General In 1857 he commanded the expedition sent against the Mormons, Edward Braddock, the commander of the British forces in and performed his difficult and dangerous mission so successfully America, commissioned him major-general, in which capacity he that the objects of the expedition were attained without blood- directed the expedition against Crown Point, and in September shed. He was rewarded with the brevet of brigadier-general. defeated the French and Indians under Baron Ludwig A. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 Johnston, then in Dieskau (1701-1767) at the battle of Lake George, where he command of the Pacific department, resigned his commission and himself was wounded. For this success he received the thanks made his way to Richmond, where Pres. Jefferson Davis, whom of parliament, and was created a baronet (November 1755). he had known at West Point, at once made him a full general in From July 1756 until his death he was “ sole superintendent of the Confederate army and assigned him to command the depart- the Six Nations and other Northern Indians.” He took part in ment of Kentucky. Here he had to guard a long and weak line General James Abercrombie's disastrous campaign against Ticon- from the Mississippi to the Alleghany Mountains, which was deroga (1758), and in 1759 he was second in command in General dangerously advanced on account of the political necessity of John Prideaux's expedition against Fort Niagara, succeeding to covering friendly country. The first serious advance of the the chief command on that officer's death, and capturing the fort. Federals forced him back at once, and he was freely criticized In 1760 he was with General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) at the and denounced for what, in ignorance of the facts, the Southern capture of Montreal. As a reward for his services the king granted press and people regarded as a weak and irresolute defence, him a tract of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk river. Johnston himself, who had entered upon the Civil War with the It was due to his influence that the Iroquois refused to join 1 reputation of being the foremost soldier on either side, bore with an JOHNSTON, A.-JOHNSTON, ŞIR H. H. 473 His son, ment. fortitude the reproaches of his countrymen, and Davis loyally author of various geographical works and papers; in 1873-1875 supported his old friend. Johnston then marched to join he was geographer to a commission for the survey of Paraguay; Beauregard at Corinth, Miss., and with the united forces took and he died in Africa while leading the Royal Geographical the offensive against Grant's army at Pittsburg Landing. The Society's expedition to Lake Nyasa. battle of Shiloh (90.) took place on the 6th and 7th of April, 1862. JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641), Scottish physician and The Federals were completely surprised, and Johnston was in the writer of Latin verse, was the son of an Aberdeenshire laird full tide of success when he fell mortally wounded. He died a few Johnston of Johnston and Caskieben, and on his mother's side minutes afterwards. President Davis said, in his message to the a grandson of the seventh Lord Forbes. It is probable that he Confederate Congress,“Without doing injustice to the living, it began his university studies at one, or both, of the colleges at may safely be said that our loss is irreparable," and the subse- Aberdeen, but in 1608 he proceeded to Italy and graduated quent history of the war in the west went far to prove the truth M.D. at Padua in 1610. Thereafter he resided at Sedan, in of his eulogy. the company of the exiled Andrew Melville (q.v.), and in 1619 WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON (1838–1899), who was in practice in Paris. He appears to have returned to served on the staff of General Johnston and subsequently on that England about the time of James I.'s death and to have been of President Davis, was a distinguished professor and president in Aberdeen about 1628. He met Laud in Edinburgh at the of Tulane University. His chief work is the Life of General time of Charles I.'s Scottish coronation (1633) and was en- Albert Sidney Johnston (1878), a most valuable and exhaustive couraged by him in his literary efforts, partly, it is said, for the biography. undoing of Buchanan's reputation as a Latin poet. He was JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1889), American historian, appointed rector of King's College, Aberdeen, in June 1637. was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the 29th of April 1849. He Four years later he died at Oxford, on his way to London, studied at the Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, graduated at whither Laud had invited him. Rutgers College in 1870, and was admitted to the bar in 1875 in Johnston left more than ten works, all in Latin. On two of New Brunswick, New Jersey, where he taught in the Rutgers these, published in the same year, his reputation entirely rests: College grammar school from 1876 to 1879. He was principal (a) his version of the Psalms (Psalmorum Da dis paraphrasis poetica of the Latin school of Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1879-1883, and et canticorum evangelicorum, Aberdeen, 1637), and (6) his anthology of contemporary Latin verse by Scottish poets (Deliciae poetarum was professor of jurisprudence and political economy in the scotorum hujus aevi illustrium, Amsterdam, 1637). He had published College of New Jersey (Princeton University) from 1884 until in 1633 a volume entitled Cantici Salomonis paraphrasis poetica, his death in Princeton, N.J., on the 21st of July 1889. He which, dedicated to Charles I., had brought him to the notice of Laud. wrote A History of American Politics (1881); The Genesis of The full version of the Psalms was the result of Laud's encourage. a New England State-Connecticut (1883), in " Johns Hopkins work, though its good Latinity was not superior to that of the latter. The book was for some time a strong rival of Buchanan's University Studies ”; A History of the United Stales for Schools The Deliciae, in two small thick volumes of 699 and 575 pages, was a (1886); Connecticut (1887) in the “ American Commonwealths patriotic effort in imitation of the various volumes (under a similar Series ", the article on the history of the United States for the title), which had been popular on the Continent during the second decade of the century. The volumes are dedicated by Johnston 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, reprinted as The to John Scot of Scotstarvet, at whose expense the collected works United States: Its History and Constitution (1887); a chapter were published after Johnston's death, at Middelburg (1642). Selec- on the history of American political parties in the seventh tions from his own poems occupy pages 439-647 of the first volume. volume of Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America, divided into three sections, Parerga, Epigrammala and Musae and many articles on the history of American politics in Lalor's In these pieces he shows himself at his best . A ulicae. He published a volume of epigra ms at Aberdeen in 1632. His sacred poems, Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political which had appeared in the Opera (1642), were reprinted by Lauder History of the United States (1881–1884). These last articles, in his Poetarum Scotorum musae sacrae (1739). The earliest lives which like his other writings represent much original research are by Lauder (u.s.) and Benson (in Psalmi Davidici, 1741). Ruddi- and are excellent examples of Johnston's rare talent for terse man's Vindication of Mr George Buchanan's Paraphrase (1745) began a pamphlet controversy regarding the merits of the rival poets. narrative and keen analysis and interpretation of facts, were republished in two volumes entitled American Political History JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858–. ), British 1763-1876 (1905-1906), edited by Professor J. A. Woodburn. administrator and explorer, was born on the 12th of June 1858 at JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871), Scottish Kennington, London, and educated at Stockwell grammar school geographer, was born at Kirkhill near Edinburgh on the 28th and King's College, London. He was a student for four years in of December 1804. After an education at the high school and the the painting schools of the Royal Academy. At the age of universily of Edinburgh he was apprenticed to an engraver; eighteen he began a series of travels in Europe and North Africa, and in 1826 joined his brother (afterwards Sir William Johnston, chicfly as a student of painting, architecture and languages. lord provost of Edinburgh) in a printing and engraving business, In 1879-1880 he visited the then little known interior of Tunisia. the well-known cartographical firm of W. and A. K. Johnston. He had also a strong bent towards zoology and comparative His interest in geography had early developed, and his first anatomy, and carried on work of this description at the Royal important work was the National Atlas of general geography, College of Surgeons, of whose Hunterian Collection he afterwards which gained for him in 1843 the appointment of Geographer became one of the trustees. In 1882 he joined the earl of Mayo Royal for Scotland. Johnston was the first to bring the study in an expedition to the southern part of Angola, a district then of physical geography into competent notice in England. His much traversed by Transvaal Boers. In 1883 Johnston visited attention had been called to the subject by Humboldt; and after H. M. Stanley on the Congo, and was enabled by that explorer to years of labour he published his magnificent Physical Allas in visit the river above Stanley Pool at a time when it was scarcely 1848, followed by a second and enlarged edition in 1856. Thís, known to other Europeans than Stanley and De Brazza. These by means of maps with descriptive letterpress, illustrates the journeys attracted the attention of the Royal Geographical geology, hydrography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and Society and the British Association, and the last-named in con- ethnology of the globe. The rest of Johnston's life was devoted cert with the Royal Society conferred on Johnston the leadership to geography, his later years to its educational aspects especially of the scientific expedition to Mount Kilimanjaro which started His services were recognized by the leading scientific societies of from Zanzibar in April 1884. Johnston's work in this region Europe and America. He died at Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire, was also under the direction of Sir John Kirk, Britishi consul on the 9th of July 1871. Johnston published a Dictionary of at Zanzibar. While in the Kilimanjaro district Johnston con- Geography in 1850, with many later editions; The Royal Atlas of cluded treaties with the chiefs of Moshi and Taveta (Taveita). Modern Geography, begun in 1855; an atlas of military geography These treaties or concessions were transferred to the merchants to accompany Alison's History of Europe in 1848 seq.; and a who founded the British East Africa Company, and in the final variety of other atlases and maps for educational or scientific agreement with Germany Taveta fell to Great Britain. In purposes. His son of the same name (1844-1879) was also the October 1885 Johnston was appointed British vice-consul in 474 JOHNSTON, J. E. 1 Cameroon and in the Niger delta, and he became in 1887 acting | George Grenfell and the Congo (1908). During his travels in consul for that region. A British protectorate over the Niger the north-eastern part of the Congo Free State in 1900 he was delta had been notified in June 1885, and between the date of instrumental in discovering and naming the okapi, á mammal his appointment and 1888, together with the consul E. H. nearly allied to the giraffe. His name has been connected Hewett, Johnston laid the foundations of the British administra- with many other discoveries in the African fauna and flora. tion in that part of the delta not reserved for the Royal Niger JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891), American Company. His action in removing the turbulent chief Ja-ja (an Confederate general in the Civil War, was born near Farmville, ex-slave who had risen to considerable power in the palm-oil Prince Edward county, Virginia, on the 3rd of February 1807. trade) occasioned considerable criticism but was approved by the His father, Peter Johnston (1763-1841), a Virginian of Scottish Foreign Office. It led to the complete pacification of a region long descent, served in the War of Independence, and afterwards disturbed by trade disputes. During these three years of resi- became a distinguished jurist; his mother was a niece of Patrick dence in the Gulf of Guinea Johnston ascended the Cameroon Henry. He graduated at West Point, in the same class with Mountain, and made large collections of the flora and fauna of Robert E. Lee, and was made brevet second lieutenant, 4th Cameroon for the British Museum. Artillery, in 1829. He served in the Black Hawk and Seminole In the spring of 1889 he was sent to Lisbon to negotiate an wars, and left the army in 1837 to become a civil engineer, but arrangement for the delimitation of the British and Portuguese a year afterwards he was reappointed to the army as first spheres of influence in South-East Africa, but the scheme drawn lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, and breveted capiain for his up, though very like the later arrangement of those regions, conduct in the Seminole war. During the Mexican war he was was not given effect to at the time. On his return from Lisbon twice severely wounded in a reconnaissance at Cerro Gordo, 1847, he was despatched to Mozambique as consul for Portuguese East was engaged in the siege of Vera Cruz, the battles of Contreras, Africa, and was further charged with a mission to Lake Nyasa to Churubusco, and Molino del Rey, the storming of Chapultepec, pacify that region, then in a disturbed state owing to the attacks and the assault on the city of Mexico, and received three brevets of slave-trading Arabs on the stations of the African Lakes for gallant and meritorious service. From 1853 to 1855 he was rading Company-an unofficial war, in which Captain (after- employed on Western river improvements, and in 1855 he wards Colonel Sir Frederick) Lugard and Mr (afterwards became lieut.-colonel of the ist U.S Cavalry. In 1860 he Sir Alfred) Sharpe distinguished themselves. Owing to the was made quartermaster-general, with the rank of brigadier- unexpected arrival on the scene of Major Serpa Pinto, Johnston general. In April 1861 he resigned from the United States was compelled to declare a British protectorate over the army and entered the Confederate service. He was commis- Nyasa region, being assisted in this work by John Buchanan sioned major-general of volunteers in the Army of Virginia, and (vice-consul), Sir Alfred Sharpe, Alfred Swann and others. assisted in organizing the volunteers. He was later appointed a A truce was arranged with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa, and general officer of the Confederacy, and assigned to the command within twelve months the British flag, by agreement with of the Army of the Shenandoah, being opposed by the Federal the natives, had been hoisted over a very large region which army under Patterson. When McDowell advanced upon the extended north of Lake Tanganyika to the vicinity of Uganda, Confederate forces under Beauregard at Manassas, Johnston to Katanga in the Congo Free State, the Shiré Highlands moved from the Shenandoah Valley with great rapidity to and the central Zambezi. Johnston's scheme, in fact, was that Beauregard's assistance. As senior officer he took command on known as the “ Cape-to-Cairo,” a phrase which he had brought the field, and at Bull Run (Manassas) (q.v.) won the first impor- into use in an article in The Times in August 1888. According tant Confederate victory. In August 1861 he was made one of to his arrangement there would have been an all-British route the five full generals of the Confederacy remaining in command from Alexandria to Cape Town. But by the Anglo-German of the main army in Virginia. He commanded in the battle agreement of the ist of July 1890 the British sphere north of of Fair Oaks (May 31, 1862), and was so severely wounded as Tanganyika was abandoned to Germany, and the Cape-to-Cairo to be incapacitated for several months. In March 1863, route broken by a wedge of German territory. Johnston still troubled by his wound, he was assigned to the command of returned to British Central Africa as commissioner and consul- the south-west, and in May was ordered to take immediate general in 1891, and retained that post till 1896, in which year command of all the Confederate forces in Mississippi, then he was made a K.C.B. His health having suffered much from threatened by Grant's movement on Vicksburg. When Pember- African fever, he was transferred to Tunis as consul-general ton's army was besieged in Vicksburg by Grant, Johnston used (189,7). In the autumn of 1899 Sir Harry Johnston was every effort to relieve it, but his force was inadequate. Later despatched to Uganda as special commissioner to reorganize in 1863, when the battle of Chattanooga brought the Federals the administration of that protectorate after the suppression of to the borders of Georgia, Johnston was assigned to command the mutiny of the Sudanese soldiers and the long war with the Army of Tennessee at Dalton, and in the early days of May Unyoro. His two years' work in Uganda and a portion of what 1864 the combined armies of the North under Sherman advanced is now British East Africa were rewarded at the close of 1901 by against his lines. For the main outlines of the famous campaign a G.C.M.G. In the spring of the following year he retired from between Sherman and Johnston see AMERICAN Civil War ($ 29). the consular service. After 1904 he interested himself greatly From the 9th of May to the 17th of July there were skirmishes, in the affairs of the Liberian republic, and negotiated various actions and combats almost daily. The great numerical superi. arrangements with that negro state by which order was brought ority of the Federals enabled Sherman to press back the Con- into its finances, the frontier with France was delimited, and the federates without a pitched battle, but the severity of the development of the interior by means of roads was commenced. skirmishing may be judged from the casualties of the two In 1903 he was defeated as Liberal candidate for parliament armies (Sherman's about 26,000: men, Johnston's over 10,000), at a by-election at Rochester. He met with no better success at and the obstinate steadiness of Johnston by the fact that his West Marylebone at the general election of 1906. opponent hardly progressed more than one mile a day. But For his services to zoology he was awarded the gold medal a Fabian policy is never acceptable to an eager people, and when of the Zoological Society in 1902, and in the same year was Johnston had been driven back to Atlanta he was superseded made an honorary doctor of science at Cambridge. He received by Hood with orders to fight a battle. The wisdom of John. the gold medal of the Royal Geographical and the Royal Scottish ston's plan was soon abundantly clear, and the Confederate Geographical societies, and other medals for his artistic work cause was already lost when Lee reinstated him on the 23rd of from South Kensington and the Society of Arts. His pictures, February 1865. With a handful of men he opposed Sherman's chiefly dealing with African subjects, were frequently exhibited march through the Carolinas, and at Bentonville, N.C., fought at the Royal Academy. He was the author of numerous books on and almost won a most gallant and skilful battle against heavy Africa, including British Central Africa (1897); The Colonization odds. But the Union troops steadily advanced, growing in of Africa (1899); The Uganda Protectorate (1902); Liberia (1906); I strength as they went, and a few davs after Lee's surrender at > JOHNSTONE JOHOR 475 Appomattox Johnston advised President Davis that it was in | Edwards, who was buried there in the colonial cemetery. The his opinion wrong and useless to continue the conflict, and he was value of the total factory product in 1905 was $4,543,272 (a authorized to make terms with Sherman. The terms entered decrease of 11.3% since 1900). Johnstown was settled about into between these generals, on the 18th of April, having been 1760 by a colony of Scots brought to America by Sir William rejected by the United States government, another agreement Johnson, within whose extensive grant it was situated, and in was signed on the 26th of April, the new terms being similar to whose honour, in 1771, it was named. A number of important those of the surrender of Lee. After the close of the war conferences between the colonial authorities and the Iroquois Johnston engaged in civil pursuits. In 1874 he published a Indians were held here, and on the 28th of October 1781, during Narrative of Military Operations during the Civil War. In 1877 the War of Independence, Colonel Marinus Willett (1740-1830) he was elected to represent the Richmond district of Virginia in defeated here a force of British and Indians, whose leader, Congress. In 1887 he was appointed by President Cleveland Walter Butler, a son of Colonel John Butler, and, with him, a U.S. commissioner of railroads. Johnston was married in participant in the Wyoming massacres, was mortally wounded early life to Louisa (d. 1886), daughter of Louis MʻLane. He near West Canada creek during the pursuit. Johnstown was died at Washington, D.C., on the 21st of March 1891, leaving no incorporated as a village in 1808, and was chartered as a city children. in 1895. It was not the good fortune of Johnston to acquire the prestige JOHNSTOWN, a city of Cambria county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., which so much assisted Lee and Jackson, nor indeed did he pos- at the confluence of the Conemaugh river and Stony creek, about sess the power of enforcing his will on others in the same degree, 75 m. E. by S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 21,805; (1900), 35,936, but his methods were exact, his strategy calm and balanced, and, of whom 7318 were foreign-born, 2017 being Hungarians, if he showed himself less daring than his comrades, he was un- 1663 Germans, and 923 Austrians; (1910 census) 55,482. surpassed in steadiness. The duel of Sherman and Johnston It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio is almost as personal a contest between two great captains as railways. The city lies about 1170 ft. above the sea, on level were the campaigns of Turenne and Montecucculi. To Monte-ground extending for some distance along the river, and nearly cucculi, indeed, both in his military character and in the incidents enclosed by high and precipitous hills. Among the public of his career, Joseph Johnston bears a striking resemblance. buildings and institutions are the Cambria free library (containing See Hughes, General Johnston, in " Great Commanders Series" about 14,000 volumes in 1908), the city hall, a fine high school, (1893). and the Conemaugh Valley memorial hospital. Roxbury Park, JOHNSTONE, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on about 3 m. from the city, is reached by electric lines. Coal, the Black Cart, 11 m. W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South- iron ore, fire clay and limestone abound in the vicinity, and the Western railway. Pop. (1901), 10,503. The leading industries city has large plants for the manufacture of iron and steel. include flax-spinning, cotton manufactures (with the introduction The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $28,891,806, of which in 1781 the prosperity of the town began), paper-making, an increase of 35.2% since 1900. A settlement was established shoe-lace making, iron and brass foundries and engineering here in 1791 by Joseph Jahns, in whose honour it was named, works. There are also coal mines and oil works in the vicinity. and the place was soon laid out as a town, but it was not incor- Elderslie, i m. E., is the reputed birthplace of Sir William porated as a city until 1889, the year of the disastrous Johnstown Wallace, but it is doubtful if “ Wallace's Yew,” though of flood. In 1852 a dam (700 ft. long and 100 ft. high), intended great age, and "Wallace's Oak,” a fine old tree that perished to provide a storage reservoir for the Pennsylvania canal, had in a storm in 1856, and the small castellated building (tradi- been built across the South Fork, a branch of the Conemaugh tionally his house) which preceded the present mansion in the river, 12 m. above the city, but the Pennsylvania canal was west end of the village, existed in his day. subsequently abandoned, and in 1888 the dam was bought and JOHNSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Fulton county, repaired by the South Fork hunting and fishing club, and Cone- New York, U.S.A., on Cayadutta Creek, about 4 m. N. of the maugh lake was formed. On the 31st of May 1889, during a 4 Mohawk river and about 48 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890), heavy rainfall, the dam gave way and a mass of water 20 ft. or 7768; (1900), 10,130 (1653 foreign-born); (1905, state census), more in height at its head swept over Johnstown at a speed of 9765; (1910) 10.447. It is served by the Fonda, Johnstown & about 20 m. an hour, almost completely destroying the city. Gloversville railroad, and by an electric line to Schenectady. The Pennsylvania railroad bridge withstood the strain, and The city has a Federal building, a Y.M.C.A. building, a city against it the flood piled up a mass of wreckage many feet in hall, and a Carnegie library (1902). The most interesting building height and several acres in area. On or in this confused mass is Johnson Hall, a fine old baronial mansion, built by Sir William many of the inhabitants were saved from drowning, only to be Johnson in 1762 and his home until his death; his grave is just burned alive when it caught fire. Seven other towns and outside the present St John's episcopal church. Originally villages in the valley were also swept away, and the total loss the hall was flanked by two stone forts, one of which is still of lives was 2000 or more. A relief fund of nearly $3,000,000 standing. In 1907 the hall was bought by the state and was was raised, and the city was quickly rebuilt. placed in the custody of the Johnstown Historical Society, JOHOR (Johore is the local official, but incorrect spelling), which maintains a museum here. In the hall Johnson estab- an independent Malayan state at the southern end of the lished in 1766 a Masonic lodge, one of the oldest in the United peninsula, stretching from 2° 40' S. to Cape Romania (Ramūnya), States. Other buildings of historical interest are the Drumm the most southerly point on the mainland of Asia, and including House and the Fulton county court house, built by Sir William all the small islands adjacent to the coast which lie to the south Johnson in 1763 and 1772 respectively, and the gaol (1772); at first of parallel 2° 40' S. It is bounded N. by the protected native used for all New York west of Schenectady county, and during state of Pahang, N.W. by the Negri Sembilan and the territory the War of Independence as a civil and a military prison. The of Malacca, S. by the strait which divides Singapore island from court house is said to be the oldest in the United States. Three the mainland, E. by the China Sea, and W. by the Straits of miles south of the city is the Butler House, built in 1742 by Malacca. The province of Múar was placed under the admin- Colonel John Butler (d. 1794), a prominent Tory leader during the istration of Johor by the British government as a temporary War of Independence. A free school, said to have been the first measure in 1877, and was still a portion of the sultan's dominions in New York state, was established at Johnstown by Sir William in 1910. The coast-line measures about 250 m. The greatest Johnson in 1764. The city is (after Gloversville, 3 m. distant) length from N.W. to S.E. is 165 m., the greatest breadth from the principal glove-making centre in the United States, the E. to W. 100 m. The area is estimated at about 9000 sq. m. product being valued at $2,581,274 in 1905 and being 14.6% The principai rivers are the Mūar, the most important waterway of the total value of this industry in the United States. The in the south of the peninsula; the Johor, up which river the old manufacture of gloves in commercial quantities was introduced capital of the state was situated; the Endau, which marks the into the United States and Johnstown in 1809 by Talmadge I boundary with Pahang; and the Bātu' Pāhat and Sěděli, of 476 JOIGNY-JOINERY (H. Cl.) numerous. to one. comparative unimportance. Johor is less mountainous than or the serious devotion to dull duties which is the distinguishing any other state in the peninsula. The highest peak is Gūnong mark of the English civil service. Mūar, in imitation of the Lēdang, called Mt Ophir by Europeans, which measures some British system, is ruled by a rāja of the house of Johor, who 4000 ft. in height. Like the rest of the peninsula, Johor is bears the title of resident. covered from end to end by one vast spread of forest, only JOIGNY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse- broken here and there by clearings and settlements of insig- ment in the department of Yonne, 18 m. N.N.W. of Auxerre nificant area. The capital is Johor Bharu (pop. about 20,000), by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906), 4888. situated at the nearest point on the mainland to the island of It is situated on the flank of the hill known as the Côte St Singapore. The fine palace built by the sultan Abubakar is Jacques on the right bank of the Yonne. Its streets are steep the principal feature of the town. It is a kind of Oriental and narrow, and old houses with carved wooden façades are Monte Carlo, and is much resorted to from Singapore. The The church of St Jean (16th century), which once capital of the province of Mūar is Bandar Maharani, named after stood within the enceinte of the old castle, contains a represen- the wife of the sultan before he had assumed his final title. tation (15th century) of the Holy Sepulchre in white marble. The climate of Johor is healthy and equable for a country situ- | Other interesting buildings are the church of St André (12th, ated so near to the equator; it is cooler than that of Singapore. 16th and 17th centuries), of which the best feature is the The shade temperature varies from 98.5° F. to 68.2° F. The Renaissance portal with its fine bas-reliefs; and the church of rainfall averages 97.28 in. per annum. No exact figures can St Thibault (16th century), in which the stone crown suspended be obtained as to the population of Johor, but the best estimates from the choir vaulting is chiefly noticeable. The Porte du place it at about 200,000, of whom 150,000 are Chinese, 35,000 Bois, a gateway with two massive flanking towers, is a relic of Malays, 15,000 Javanese. We are thus presented with the the roth century castle; there is also a castle of the 16th and curious spectacle of a country under Malay rule in which the 17th centuries, in part demolished. The hôtel de ville (18th Chinese outnumber the people of the land by more than four century) shelters the library; the law-court contains the sepul- It is not possible to obtain any exact data on the subject chral chapel of the Ferrands (16th century). The town is the of the revenue and expenditure of the state. The revenue, seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of however, is probably about 750,000 dollars, and the expenditure commerce, and a communal college for boys. It is industrially under public service is comparatively small. The revenue is unimportant, but the wine of the Côte St Jacques is much chiefly derived from the revenue farms for opium, spirits, esteemed. gambling, &c., and from duty on pepper and gambier exported Joigny (Joviniacum) was probably of Roman origin. In the by the Chinese. The cultivation of these products forms the 10th century it became the seat of a countship dependent on principal industry. Areca-nuts and copra are also exported in that of Champagne, which after passing through several hands some quantities, more especially from Múar. There is little came in the 18th century into the possession of the family of mineral wealth of proved value. Villeroi.. A fragment of a ladder preserved in the church of St History.—It is claimed that the Mahommedan empire of André commemorates the successful resistance offered by the Johor was founded by the sultan of Malacca after his expulsion town to the English in 1429. from his kingdom by the Portuguese in 1511. It is certain that JOINDER, in English law, a term used in several connexions. Johor took an active part, only second to that of Achin, in the Joinder of causes of action is the uniting in the same action protracted war between the Portuguese and the Dutch for the several causes of action. Save in actions for the recovery of possession of Malacca. Later we find Johor ruled by an officer land and in actions by a trustee in bankruptcy a plaintiff may of the sultan of Riouw (Riau), bearing the title of Tuměnggong, without leave join in one action, not several actions, but several and owing feudal allegiance to his master in common with the causes of action.” Claims by or against husband and wife Běndahāra of Pahang. In 1812, however, this officer seems to may be joined with claims by or against either of them separately. have thrown off the control of Riouw, and to have assumed the Claims by or against an executor or administrator as such may title of sultan, for one of his descendants, Sultan Husain, ceded be joined with claims by or against him personally, provided the island of Singapore to the East India Company in 1819. In such claims are alleged to arise with reference to the estate of 1855 the then sultan, Ali, was deposed, and his principal chief, which the plaintiff or defendant sues or is sued as executor or the Tuměnggong, was given the supreme rule by the British. administrator. Claims by plaintiffs jointly may be joined with His son Tuměnggong Abubakar proved to be a man of excep- claims by them or any of them separately against the same tional intelligence. He made numerous visits to Europe, took defendant. considerable interest in the government and development of his Joinder in pleading is the joining by the parties on the point country, and was given by Queen Victoria the title of maharaja of matter issuing out of the allegations and pleas of the plaintiff in 1879. On one of his visits to England he was made the and the defendant in a cause and the putting the cause upon defendant in a suit for breach of promise of marriage, but the trial. plaintiff was non-suited, since it was decided that no action lay Joinder of parties.-Where parties may jointly, severally or against a foreign sovereign in the English law courts. In 1885 | in the alternative bring separate actions in respect of or arising he entered into a new agreement with the British government, out of the same transaction or series of transactions they may, and was allowed to assume the title of sultan of the state and by Order XVI. of the rules of the supreme court, be joined in territory of Johor. He was succeeded in 1895 by his son one action as plaintiffs. Sultan Ibrahim, The government of Johor has been compara- JOINERY, one of the useful arts which contribute to the tively so free from abuses under its native rulers that it has comfort and convenience of man. As the arts of joinery and never been found necessary to place it under the residential carpentry are often followed by the same individual, it appears system in force in the other native states of the peninsula which natural to conclude that the same principles are common to are under British control, and on several occasions Abubakar both, but a closer examination leads to a different conclusion. used his influence with good effect on the side of law and order. The art of carpentry is directed almost wholly to the support of The close proximity of Johor to Singapore has constantly weight or pressure, and therefore its principles must be sought subjected the rulers of the former state to the influence of in the mechanical sciences. In a building it includes all the European pub opinion. None the less, the Malay is by nature rough timber work necessary for support, division or connexion, but ill fitted for the drudgery which is necessary if proper and its proper object is to give firmness and stability. The art attention is to be paid to the dull details whereby government of joinery has for its object the addition in a building of all the is rendered good and efficient. Abubakar's principal adviser, fixed woodwork necessary for convenience or ornament. The the Dāto 'Měntri, was a worthy servant of his able master, joiner's works are in many cases of a complicated nature, and often Subsequently, however, the reins of government came chiefly require to be executed in an expensive material, therefore joinery into the hands of a set of young men who lacked either experience requires much skill in that part of geometrical science which (6 JOINERY 477 treats of the projection and description of lines, surfaces and work for fitting up and makes any small portions that may still solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the structure and be required. nature of wood. A man may be a good carpenter without being The preparation of joinery entirely by hand is now the excep- a joiner at all, but he cannot be a joiner without being competent, tion-a fact due to the ever-increasing use of machines, which at least, to supervise all the operations required in carpentry. have remarkably shortened the time required to execute the The rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree ordinary operations. Various machines rapidly and perfectly unfit to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is execute planing and surfacing, mortising and moulding, leaving expected from a modern joiner, but it is no less true that the the craftsman merely to fit and glue up. Large quantities of habit of neatness and the great precision of the joiner make him machine-made flooring, window-frames and doors are now a much slower workman than the man practised in works of imported into England from Canada and the continent of Europe. carpentry. In carpentry framing owes its strength mainly to The timber is grown near the place of manufacture, and this, the form and position of its parts, but in joinery the strength of coupled with the fact that labour at a low rate of wages is easily a frame depends to a larger extent upon the strength of the obtainable on the Continent, enables the cost of production to joinings. The importance of fitting the joints together as be kept very low. accurately as possible is therefore obvious. It is very desirable The structure and properties of wood should be thoroughly that a joiner shall be a quick workman, but it is still more so understood by every joiner. The man who has made the nature that he shall be a good one, and that he should join his materials of timber his study has always a decided advantage over those with firmness and accuracy. It is also of the greatest importance who have neglected this. Timber shrinks considerably in the that the work when thus put together shall be constructed of width, but not appreciably in the length. Owing to this shrink- such sound and dry materials, and on such principles, that the age certain joints and details, hereinafter described and illus- whole shall bear the various changes of temperature and of trated, are in common use for the purpose of counteracting the moisture and dryness, so that the least possible shrinkage or bad effect this movement would otherwise have upon all joinery swelling shall take place; but provision must be made so that, work. if swelling or shrinking does occur, no damage shall be done to the work. The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are the different species of North European and North American pine, oak, teak and In early times every part was rude, and jointed in the most mahogany (see Timber). The greater part of English joiners' work artless manner. The first dawnings of the art of modern is execul d in the northern pine exported from the Baltic countries. joinery appear in the thrones, stalls, pulpits and screens of early Hence the joiner obtains the planks, deals, battens and strips from Gothic cathedrals and churches, but even in these it is indebted the sawmills in a size convenient for the use he intends, considerable which he shapes his work. The timber reaches the workman from to the carver for everything that is worthy of regard. With the time and labour being saved in this way. revival of classic art, however, great changes took place in every A log of timber sawn to a square section is termed a balk. In sort of construction. Forms began to be introduced in architec- section it may range from 1 to 1 ft. square. Planks are formed by ture which could not be executed at a moderate expense without sawing the balk into sections from 11 to 18 in. wide and 3 to 6 in. thick, and the term deal is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2 to the aid of new principles, and these principles were discovered 41 in thick. Ballens are boards running not more than 3 in. thick and published by practical joiners. These authors, with their and 4 to 7 in. wide. A strip is not thicker than 1į in., the width scanty geometrical knowledge, had but confused notions of being about 4 in. these principles, and accordingly their descriptions are often edge to edge, and are widely employed in flooring. In the square Joints.--Side joints (fig: 1) are used for joining boards together obscure, and sometimes erroneous. The framed wainscot of joint the edges of the boards are carefully shot, the two edges to be small panels gave way to the large bolection moulded panelling. joined brought together with glue applied hot, and the boards Doors which were formerly heavily framed and hung on massive tightly, clamped and left to dry, posts or in jambs of cut stone, were now framed in light panels the smoothing plane. A joint in when the surface is cleaned off with ASW and hung in moulded dressings of wood. The scarcity of oak general use for joining up boards Square timber, and the expense of working it, subsequently led to for fascias, panels, linings, window- tle importation of fir timber from northern Europe, and boards, and other work of a like this gradually superseded all other material save for special nature is formed in a similar manner to the above, but with a cross- work. Tools and Materials.—The joiner operates with saws, planes, greatly strengthening the work at chisels, gouges, hatchet, adze, gimlets and other boring instru- 1 an otherwise naturally weak point. Crooved & tongued ments (aided and directed by chalked lines), gauges, squares, glued joint. The dowelled joint is This is termed a cross-tonguedand WASIL hammers, wallets, floor cramps and a great many other tools. a square glued joint strengthened Splayed, rebated, His operations consist principally of sawing and planing in all with hard wood or iron dowels their each eties, and of setting out and making joints of all inserted in the edge of kinds. There is likewise a great range of other operations- board to a depth of about in. such as paring, gluing up, wedging, pinning, fixing, fitting the matched joint is shown in and placed about 18 in. apart. and hanging—and many which depend on nailing and screwing, two forms, beaded and jointed. such as laying floors, boarding ceilings, wainscoting walls, Matched boarding is frequently FIG. I. bracketing, cradling, firring, and the like. In addition to the used as a less expensive substitute wood on which the joiner works, he requires also glue, white for panelled framing. Although of course in appearance it cannot compare with the latter, it has a somewhat ornamental appearance, lead, nails, brads, screws and hinges, and accessorily he applies and the moulded joints allow shrinkage to take place without detri- bolts, locks, bars and other fastenings, together with pulleys, ment to the appearance of the work. The rebated joint is used in lines, weights, holdfasts, wall hooks, &c. The joiner's work for the meeting styles of casements and folding doors, and it is useful in a house is for the most part prepared at the shop, where there excluding draughts and preventing observation through the joint Of thc angle joints (fig. 2) in common use by the joiner the following should be convenience for doing everything in the best and are the most important. The mitre is shown in the drawing, and is rcadiest manner, so that little remains when the carcase is ready so well known as to need little description. Although simple, it and the floors laid but to fit, fix and hang. The sashes, frames, needs a practised and accurate hand for its proper execution. The doors, shutters, linings and soffits are all framed and put together, into the angle at the back of it, and is therefore often strengthened common mitre is essentially weak unless reinforced with blocks glued i.e. wedged up and cleaned off at the shop; the flooring is planed with a feather of wood or iron. Other variations of the mitre are the and prepared with rebated or grooved edges ready for laying, mitre and butt , used where the pieces connected are of unequal thick- and the moulded work—the picture and dado rails, architraves, ness; the mitre and rebate, with a square section which facilitates skirtings and panelling—is all got out at the shop. On a new nailing or screwing; the mitre rebate and feather, similar to the latter, with a feather giving additional strength to the joint; and the mitre building the joiner fits up a temporary workshop with benches, groove and tongue, having a tongue worked on the material itself in sawing stools and a stove for his glue pot. Here he adjusts the place of the leather of the last-named joint. The last two methods 4 Rebated WINT Filleted Ploughed & tongaed grained tongue inserted, thereby Yukis Rebated grooved, & tongued Laut Dowelled joint grooved. & tongued Matched & beaded joint Matched & V-Jointed 478 JOINERY Cyma Scotia Recla Mitre & feather on Torus Mitre .Cavetto Ovolo Birds Beak qutrk Fillet Edge Mitre & butt Plush Bead or Reeds Sufr Bead quick Hollow Flutes Torus and Bead screw's. are used in the best work, and, carefully worked and glued, with with full-sized detail drawings prepared by the architect, and are the assistance of angle blocks glued at the back, obviate the neces: designed by him to conform with the style and class of building. sity of face screws or nails. The keyed mitre consists of a simple There are, however, a number of moulded forms in common use mitre joint, which after being glued up has a number of pairs of which have particular names; sections are shown of many of these saw cuts made across the angle, in fig. 5. Most of them occur in the classic architecture of both into which are fitted and glued Grecks and Romans. A thin triangular slips of hard wood, striking distinction, how- or as an alternative, pieces of brass ever, existed in the mould- Cynia or other metal. Other forms of ings of these two peoples; Reversa angle joints are based the thc curves of the Greek rebate with a bead worked on in mouldings were either de. such a position as to hide any rived from conic sections bad effects caused by the joint or drawn in freehand, opening by shrinkage. They may while in typical Roman be secured either by nailing or work the curved compo- Astragal Rounded Bead & Mitre & rebare screwing, or by glued angle blocks. nents were segments of a Quirk quirk The dovetail is a most important circle., Numerous exam. joint; its most usual forms are ples of the use of these Double illustrated in fig. 3. The mitre forms occur in ordinary Quirk dovelail is used in the best work.joinery work, and may It will be seen that the dovetail be recognized on refer. Mitre rebate & Mitre grooved leather is a tenon, shaped as a wedge, and it ence to the illustrations, & tongued is this distinguishing feature which which will be easily un- gives it great strength irrespec- derstood without further tive of glue or screws. It is invalu. description. FIG. 5.—Mouldings. able in framing together joiners' Mouldings may be either stuck or planted on. A stuck moulding fittings; its use in drawers espe is worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament; a planted cially provides a good example of moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or its purpose and structure. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck; Warping in Wide Boards.-It is larger ones are usually planted on. In the case of mouldings planted Keyed miure necessary to prevent the tendency on panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding FIG. 2. to warp, twist and split, which into the style or rail of the framing, and on no account into the panel. boards of great width, or several | By adopting the former method the panel is free to shrink-as it boards glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other undoubtedly will do-without altering the good appearance of the hand, swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the work, but should the moulding be fixed to the panel it will, when the atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be disastrous. latter shrinks, be pulled out of place, leaving an unsightly gap To effect this end various simple devices are available. The direction between it and the framing. Flooring:-When the bricklayer, mason and carpenter have prepared the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first operations is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been stacked under cover on the site for some considerable time, in order to be thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives. The work of laying should take place in warm dry weather. The joints of fooring laid in winter time or during wet weather are sure to open in the following summer, however tightly they may be cramped up during the process of laying... An additional expense will then be incurred by ihe necessity of filling in the opened joints with wood slips glued and driven into place. Boards of narrow width Mitre or Common dovetail. Lapped dovetail. are better and more expensive than wide ones. They may be of Secret dovetail various woods, the kinds generally preferred, on account of their FIG. 3.-Dovetails. low comparative cost and ease of working, being yellow deal and white deal. White deal or spruce is an inferior wood, but is fre- of the annular rings in alternate boards may be reversed, and when quently used with good results for the floors of less important apart. the boards have been carefully jointed with tongues or dowels and ments. A better floor is obtained with yellow deal, which, when of glued up, a hard-wood tapering key, dovetail in section, may be let good quality and well seasoned, is lasting and wears well. For into a wide dovetail at the back (fig. 4). It must be accurately fitted Hoors where a fine appearance is desired, or which will be subjected and driven tightly home, but, to heavy wear, some harder and tougher material, such as pitch of course, not glucd. Battens pine, oak, ash, maple or teak, should be laid. These woods are of hard wood may be used for capable of taking a fine polish and, finished in this way, form a the same purpose, fixed either beautiful as well as a durable floor. with hard-wood buttons or by Many of the side joints illustrated in fig. I are applied to flooring means of brass slots and boards, which, however, are not usually glued up. The heart side Tb screws, the slots allowing for of the board should be placed downwards so that in drying the ten. any slight movement that dency will be for the edges to press more tightly to the joists instead may take place. With boards of curling upwards. The square joint should be used only on ground of a substantial thickness light foors; if it is used for the upper rooms, dust and water will drop Tapering Hardwood battep iron rods may be used, holes through the crevices and damage the ceiling þencath. Dowelled being bored through the thick joints are open to the same objection. One of the best and most econo- ness of the boards and rods mical methods is the ploughed and tongued joint. The tongue may passed through; the edges are be of hard wood or iron, preferably the latter, which is stronger and (6) then glued up. This method occupies very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as near the bottom of the board as is practicable, leaving as much Fig. 4.—Prevention of Warping. is very effective and neat in appearance, and is specially wcaring material as possible. Two varieties of secret joints are suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of the work. shown in fig. 1.-the splayed, rebated, grooved and tongued, and the Mouldings are used in joinery to relieve plain surfaces by the rebated, grooved and tongued. Owing to the waste of material in contrasts of light and shade formed by their members, and to orna- forming these joints and the extra labour involved in laying the boards, ment or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may they are costly and are only used when it is required that no heads wish to bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are of nails or screws should appear on the surface.' The heading joints required in designing and applying mouldings, but that matter falls of flooring are often specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is to the qualified designer and is perhaps outside the province of the far better to rebate them. practical workman, whose work is to carry out in an accurate Wood block floors are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The and finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The character blocks are laid directly on a smoothed concrete bed or floor in a of a moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the damp-proof mastic having bitumen as its base; this fulfils the double wood in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks grained wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however, if worked in a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings the edges of the blocks in the better class of foors are connected by worked on woods of the former type may consist of small and delicate dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be members; woods of the latter class require bold treatment. from 1 to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by in. wide. The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work Parquet floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in used in connexion with a building, are usually worked in accordance patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from to key with (a)buttons. (b)slots Iron rod. JOINERY 479 1} in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially and a protective sense. It is filled in to ornament and protect that for the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths portion of the wall between the chair or dado rail and the skirting. of well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in the sub- It may be of horizontal boards battened at the back and with cross floor due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on the tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface, or parquet which is laid upon it. Plated parquet consists of selected of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The hard woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made last method is of course the most ornate and admits of great variety in sections for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the of design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which apartment for which they are intended. When secu secured to the joists are nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig. 7 . shows an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and Skirtings.--In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the skirting. A picture rail also is shown; it is a small moulding with the base of internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall top edge grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are (see fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the hung. erluanto a wall, and protects the base of the wall from injury. Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very be w Skirtings may be placed in two classes--those fine effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough rformed from a plain board with its upper edge grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In els either left square or moulded, and those formed of England the architects of the Tudor period made great use of oak two or more separate members and termed a framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and decora- a built-up skirting (fig. 6). Small angle fillets or tion, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining sed mouldings are often used as skirtings. The skirt buildings of that period. ting should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed Windows.-The parts of a window sash are distinguished by the Die with the heart side of the wood outwards; any ten- same terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing, dency to warp will then only serve to press the top being formed of rails and styles, with sash bars rebated for glazing: edge more closely to the wall. In good work a The upright sides are styles; the horizontal ones, which are tenoned Wat voist, groove should be formed in the floor and the skirt into the styles, are rails (fig. 7). Fig. 6.-Built- ing tongued into it so that an open joint is avoided Sashes hung by one of their vertical edges are called casements up Skirting should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be (fig. 8). They are really a kind of glazed door and sometimes indeed tongued to nailed only near the top to wood grounds fixed to are used as such, as for example French casements (fig. 9). They may floor. 194001 wood plugs in the joints of the brickwork. These be made to open either outwards or inwards. It is very difficult Motosino grounds are about to 1 in. thick, i.e. the same with the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints; with those opening thickness as the plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on outwards the trouble does not exist to so great an extent. This the edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster form of window, though almost superseded in England by the should always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to case frame with hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the prevent the space becoming a harbourage for vermin. Continent Yorkshire sliding sashes move in a horizontal direction La Dados.-A dado, like a skirting, is useful both in a decorative I upon grooved runners with the meeting styles vertical. They are doon nale landt ang 2 Istiny S6 de Ismax dana od 2 Gaung? Plaster Walli Kod 104 199 Cle 990 Wood cornice 1 b Aronom tid oude bexit ylianz ind i Lintels սիրիր քո Զ bntion badaiw 100 bin 07 S 70 Slasa 201 Dns al mund bo Arab 27 - bod ES steit Picture rail PS Top rail od ob brow i 919 boxen 1o Id Best od 119 egitenz des lotstugan v ty lid saabuild its door nud Tot bodia ad izvobni 9 otiq ad II adta Low din fo 19923-aishoitibergworte dus no aurynsb s ptines trodiv cesty ibad woll e batlog inol319 V To su Style syd ytle UVRE Tachitrave ove 08 Too You DITIO nii 10+ Overdoor lese TV svods La Meeting ralls L-402 sfat Top rail 167692 Boogiast 2015 975 abst v tedale di | 29223376 ats 2 dni od bon Sash bars Jos Id 19 omdb busa IN 97 99 100 not 159 012 |leiosys lined as again noul doila tilaan es rar Chair or dado rail Bottom raits owsing mol Enlarged details of vertical section A. bo ΠΟΥ to S 291 0 0 Deep bead SOP pentilation Oak call 0000 Lock rail OD DO Stone cill 0000000 Style Brick wall DEN SE Joists -90 DOVOGT Bottom rail Floor 3.gro Bus skirting Skirting block 12 How dug Ud Internal Elevation of cased double-hung window. Elevation of internal door. bhd Section To nozi i roni ne 10 aum Sdra mort gabi Section. 2 zi dhido 01 at et promo Outside Outside lining Plaster bis dgis Balt 2792 biw Stone cill Pulley style. Raised Bolection Wood cill Parting bead Panel moulding pou w box Bred Enlargement of B. WOZIE 10 65 as Backings LIST is boonid Nindow board ist in Shannen 3d, prositasyon noi sunoid Weights Taroj 799 35 sai didt berdi 16 Fotoga banane nome painit Plan of window. back lining i zwolls hou Plan of door. bol zisizor ogs Gani srl bursdosid quota no boxa ylist FIG. 7. .733373er med quali 3 480 JOINERY Lintel di Architravel Cent, Mesas Writteyyit fan Fligh Cocmeropening onwar edith cemer Pays Stone sill elevation. elevation fitted with Shutters, Flap casement. little used, and are apt to admit draughts and wet unless efficient Bay windows with cased frames and double hung sashes often checks are worked upon the sashes and frames. No require the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction Lights in a position difficult of access are often hung on centre in order that the mullions shall be so small as not to intercept more pivots. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8; metal pivots light than necessary; at the same time the sashes must work easily are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work and the whole framing be stable and strong. The sills should be are screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a cord mitred and tongued at the angles and secured by a hand-rail bolt. 1 Frequently it is not desired to hang all the sashes of a bay window, od the side lights being fixed. To enable smaller angle mullions wil to be obtained, the cords of the front windows may be taken by - means of pulleys over the heads of the side lights and attached to counter-balance weights working in casings at the junction of the window with the wall. This enables solid angle mullions to be employed. If all the lights are required to be hung the difficulty son may be surmounted by hanging two sashes to one weight. Lead non | weights take up less space than iron, and are used for heavy sashes. berland In framing and fixing skylights and lantern lights also great care guman is necessary to ensure the result being capable of resisting rough on weather and standing firm in high winds. Glue should not be used in got time any of the joints, as it would attract moisture from the atmosphere and set up decay. Provision must be made for the escape of the ஜin water which condenses on and runs down the under side of the glass, tingu by means of a lead-lined channelled moulding, provided with zinc Luo gust or copper pipe outlets. The skylight stands on a curb raised at or least 6 in. to allow of the exclusion of rain by proper flashing. The He sashes of the lantern usually take the form of fixed or hung casements Hall internal Techfitted to solid mullions and angle posts which are framed into and Half external de by support a solid head. The glazed framing of the roof is made up of moulded sash bars framed to hips and ridges of stronger section, artino Section. these rest on the head, projecting well beyond it in order to throw off the water. Casement window TO Shutters for domestic windows have practically fallen into disuse, nov but a reference to the different forms they may take is perhaps neces- nori Nomor sary, They may be divided into two classes--those fixed to the 07: COT BV Hinges wanny nog outside of the window and those fixed inside. They may be battened, Hall plan through Half plan through panelled or formed with louvres, the latter form admitting air and a centre hung sash. little light. External shutters are generally hung by means of FIG. 8.--Casement window fitted with shutters. 19 hinges to the frame of the window: when the window is set in a reveal these hinges are necessarily of special shape, being of large fixed so that a slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired projection to enable the shutters to fold back against the face of the extent, and the cord is then held by being tied to, or twisted round, wall. Internally fixed shutters may be hinged or may slide either a small metal button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be vertically or horizontally. Hinged folding boxed shutters are shown used. For the side sashes of lantern lights and for stables and in the illustration of a casement window (fig. 8), where the method factories this form of window is in general use. In the British Isles and in America the most usual form of window means of a hinged iron bar secured with a special catch. Lifting of working is clearly indicated; they are usually held in position by is the cased frame with double hung sliding sashes. This style has shutters are usually fitted in a casing formed in the window back, many advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts, and the window board is hinged to lift up, to allow the shutters to be ventilation may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered raised by means of rings fixed in their upper edges. The shutters and raised with ease without interference with any blinds, curtains are balanced by weights enclosed with casings in the manner de- or other fittings, that may be applied to the windows. In the scribed for double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in ordinary window of this style, however, difficulty is experienced with wood and not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a in cleaning the external glass without assuming a dangerous position thumb-screw through the meeting rails, the lower sash being sup- on the sill, but there are many excellent inventions now on the market ported on the window board which is closed down when the sashes which obviate this difficulty by allowing-usually on the removal have been lifted out. Shutters sliding horizontally are also used in of a small thumb-screw—the reversal of the sash on a pivot or hinge. some cases, but they are not so convenient as the forms described above. Shop-fronts. The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered a separate branch of joiner's work. The design and construction are attended by many minor difficulties, and, the requirements greatly varying with almost every trade, careful study and close attention to detail are necessary. In the erection of shop-fronts, in order to allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum amount of obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and Plan stanchions are used, the former often being reinforced by cast iron Section. Details of A. Details of B. or steel of suitable form. For these reasons the construction of shop-fronts and fittings has been specialized by makers having a FIG. 9.—Details of French Casement to open inwards. knowledge of the requirements of different trades and with facilities For a small extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they for making the special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary. will be greatly appreciated by those who clean the windows. The Fig. 10 shows an example of a simple shop-front in Spanish mahogany cased frames are in the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead with rolling shutters and spring roller blind; it indicates the typical weights which balance the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a pulley style construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on -which takes the wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on many points which need no further description. The London Build- this account-an inside lining, and an outside lining; these three ing Act 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied members are continued to form the head of the frame. The sashes are with in shop-fronts:-(1) In streets of a width not greater than 30 ft. connected with the weights by flax lines working over metal pulleys a shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the build- fixed in the pulley styles. For heavy sashes with plate glass, chains ing to which it belongs, and the cornice may project 13 in. (2) In are sometimes used instead of lines. Access to the weights for the streets of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop- purpose of fitting new cords is obtained by removing the pocket front may be 10 in. and of the cornice 18 in. beyond the building piece. A thin back lining is provided to the sides only and is not line. No woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft. required in the head. The sill is of oak weathered to throw off above the level of the public pavement. No woodwork shall be the water. A parting bead separates the sashes, and the inside fixed nearer than 4 in. to the centre of the party wall. The pier of bead keeps them in position. A parting slip hung from the head brick or stone must project at least an inch in front of the woodwork. inside the cased frame separates the balancing weights and ensures These by-laws will be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of their smooth working. The inside lining is usually grooved to take a shop-front designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide. the elbow and soffit linings, and the window board is fitted into a Rolling shutters for shop-fronts are made by a number of firms, groove formed in the sill. The example shown in fig. 7 has an extra and are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the deep bottom rail and bead; this enables the lower sash to be raised makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow so as to permit of ventilation between the meeting rails without strips of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at causing a draught at the bottom of the sash. This is a considerable every joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction improvement upon the ordinary form, and the cost of constructing allows it to be coiled upon a cylinder containing a strong spring and the sashes in this manner is scarcely greater. usually fixed on strong brackets behind the fascia. The shutter -Transoffe! Metal water bar Oak sth Vloor Meeting styles JOINERY 48) is guided into position by the edges working in metal grooves a little | The latter would need to be worked and framed in the shop and fixed under an inch wide. When the width of the opening to be closed entire. Polished hard wood architraves may be secretly fixed, i.e. renders it necessary to divide the shutters into more than one portion, without the heads of nails or screws showing on the face, by putting grooved movable pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be screws into the grounds with their hcads slightly projecting, and hang- lowered these are fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working ing the moulding on them by means of keyhole slots formed in the back. on the grooved edges of the pilasters. Spring roller canvas blinds Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form, work on a similar principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are the common ledged door, consists of vertical boards with plain or ca pable, when the blind is extended, of being pushed up by means of matched joints nailed to horizontal battens which correspond to the a sliding arrangement, and fixed with a pin at a level high enough to rails in framed doors. For openings over 2 ft. 3 in. wide, the doors allow foot passengers to pass along the pavement under them. should be furnished with braces. Ledged and braced doors are &ati Lead gutter Cover stone steel Wood joist Girder Roller blind טטטטטטטטטטטטטטטטטת טטטטטטטטטטטטטטטטטטט Wood cornice Fascia Revolving shutters Revolving shutters Door for access to ahutters Ventilating panel Stone pilaslar Pilaster for shutters Wrought Iron blind stay Stone pllaster Plate glass Rain water pipe Iron groot StaH board Stallboard lights Prism pavement lights பபபபபபபபபப Rolled steel joist |Drior Wall Stone kero Girder casing Rolled steel joist r.wp. in chase Elevation. Section on AA. Joches 1261 1 3 4 s Feet Detail of Shop-front. Stall board party wall Tile paving! Centre Plan above Stallboard. FIG. 10.-Shop-front. Doors.--External doors are usually hung to solid frames placed | similar, but have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique in the reveals of the brick or stone wall. The frames are rebated for braces which prevent any tendency of the door to drop. The upper the door and ornamented by mouldings either stuck or planted on. end of the brace is birdsmouthed into the under side of the rail near The jambs or posts are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and the lock edge of the door and crosses the door in an oblique direction the feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid to be birdsmouthed into the upper edge of the rail below, near the window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for hanging edge of the door. This is done between each pair of rails. casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal Framed ledged and braced doors are a further development of this form doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about 14 in. of door. The framing consists of lock and hanging styles, top, middle thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it, and bottom rails, with oblique braces between the rails. These mem- panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings bers are tenoned together and the door sheathed with boarding. are nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds i in, in thickness The top rail and styles are the full thickness of the door, the braces plugged or nailed to the wall or partition. Architraves are the and middle and bottom rails being less by the thickness of the borders or finishing mouldings fixed around a window or door sheathing boards, which are tongued into the top rail and styles and opening, and screwed or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously carried down over the other members to the bottom of the door. moulded according to the fancy of the designer. The ordinary form The three forms of door described above are used mainly for tem- of architrave is shown in the illustration of a cased window frame porary purposes, and stables, farm buildings and outhouses of all (fig 8). and a variation appears in the combined architrave and over descriptions. They are usually hung by wrought-iron cross garnet door frieze and rapping fitted around the six-panelled door (fig. 7). or strap hinges fixed with screws or through bolts and nuts. 482 JOINERY Si Square & flot Bead flush Moulded & flat Bolection moulded & fiat Moulded & raised solid W Top rail Frieze rail The doors in dwelling-houses and other buildings of a like character special ability and some artistic feeling for its successful execution. are commonly framed and panelled in one of the many ways possible. But even in this work machinery has found a place, and carved The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mountings, ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid. and these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and, are inserted previously to the door being glued and wedged up being incomparably cheaper than those worked by manual labour, The common forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and are used freely where a rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved 70. ab although they may be made with any form and panels also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work number of panels, the principles of construction done entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7 its power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the is of a six-panel door, with bolection moulded finishing touches to the work. 1001 Worlu raised panels on one side, and moulded and fat Ironmongery.-In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail panels on the other (fig. 11). calls for greater consideration than the selection and accurate A clear idea of the method of jointing the fixing of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts, various members may be obtained from fig. 12. locks, door and window Attings, and the many varieties of metal The tongues of raised panels should be of finishings required for the completion of a building The task of the parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at selection belongs to the employer or the architect; the fixing is the moulding. The projecting ends or horns of performed by the joiner the styles are cut off after the door has been FIG. 11.-Forms glued and wedged, as they prevent the ends of Panelling. of the styles being damaged by the wedging process. Where there is a great deal of traffic in both directions swing doors, either single or double, are used. To open them it is necessary simply Cut from to push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and shutting the door after passing through being avoided, as a spring causes the door to return to its original position without noise. They are usually glazed and should be of substantial con- Veneer struction. The door is hinged at the top on Joints of rails & style. shoe connected with the spring, which is placed a steel pivot; the bottom part fits into a metal Method of constructing Corinthian Order in a box fixed below the Hoor. in wood. For large entrances, notably for hotels and banks, a form of door working on the turnstile principle is frequently adopted. It is formed of four leaves fixed in the shape of a cross and working on top and bottom central ball- bearing steel pivots, in a circular framing which forms a kind of vestibule. The leaves of the door are fitted with slips of india-rubber at their edges which, fitting close to the circular framing, prevent draughts. When an elegant appearance is desired, and Elevation. Section. it is at the same time necessary to keep the cost of production as low as possible, doors of pine or other soft wood are sometimes covered with a veneer or thin layer of hard wood, such as oak, mahogany or teak, giving the appear- ance of a solid door of the better material. Made in the ordinary way, however, the shrinkage or warping of the soft wood is very liable to cause the veneer to buckle and peel off. Veneered doors made on an improved Column method obviating this difficulty have been placed on the market by a Canadian company. The core is made up of strips of pine with the grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200° F., and glued up under pressure. Both the Section of cap core and the hard wood veneer are grooved looking upwards. over their surfaces, and a special damp-resist- Muntio ing glue is applied; the two portions are then welded together under hydraulic pressure. By reason of their construction these doors possess the advantages of freedom from Of hinges, the variety termed butts are in general use for hanging shrinking, warping and splitting, defects doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the door. which are all too common in the ordinary | They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to snap Jolnt of veneered and solid hard wood doors. should they sustain a shock. Lifting butts are made with a removable muntin & rail The best glue for internal woodwork is that pin to enable the door to be removed and replaced without unscrew- FIG. 12.-Joints. made in Scotland. Ordinary animal glue ing: Rising butts have oblique joints which cause the door to rise should not be used in work exposed to the and clear a thick carpet and yet make a close joint with the floor weather as it absorbs damp and thus hastens decay: in its place a when shut. Hinges of brass or gun-metal are used in special cir- compound termed beaumontique, composed of white lead, linseed cumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledged doors are the oil and litharge, should be employed. cross garnet and the strap There are many varieties of spring Church Work.-Joinery work in connexion with the fitting up of | hinges designed to bring the door automatically to a desired position. church interiors must be regarded as a separate branch of the joiner's With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor or other art. Pitchpine is often used, but the best work is executed in English convenient place to prevent undue strain through the door being oak; and when the screens, stalls and seating are well designed and forced back. Od tada bi ang made in this material, a distinction and dignity of effect are added Among locks and fastenings the ordinary barrel or tower bolt needs to the interior of the church which cannot be obtained in any other no description. The flush barrel is a bolt let in Aush with the face medium. The work is often of the richest character, and frequently of a door The espagnolette is a development of the tower bolt and enriched with elaborate carving (fig. 13). Many beautiful specimens extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a convenient of early work are to be seen in the English Gothic cathedrals and height, when turned, shooting bolts at the top and bottom simul. churches, good work of a later date will be found in many churches taneously. Their chief use is for French casements. The padlock and public buildings erected in more recent years. Fine examples is used to secure doors by means of a staple and eye. The stock of Old English joinery exist at Hampton Court Palace, the Temple lock is a large rim lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables, Church in London, the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, church doors, &c.; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a and Haddon Hall . Specimens of modern work are to be seen in key, and is often used in conjunction with a Norfolk latch. The Beverley Minster in Yorkshire, the Church of St Etheldreda in Ely metal cased rim lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use. Place, London, and the Wycliffe Hall Chapel at Oxford. Other The use of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice examples both ancient and modern abound in the country. in the thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock Carving is a trade apart from ordinary joinery, and requires a is used. Finger plates add greatly to the good appearance of a door, Lock rail Section Dottom rail FIG. 13 Rail JOINT-JOINTS 483 а and protect the painted work. Sash fasteners are fixed at the meet, and vomer. The other is a peg and socket joint, or gomphosis, ing rails of double hung sashes to prevent the window being opened found where the fangs of the teeth fit into the alveoli or tooth sockets from the outside and serve also to clip the two sashes tightly to- in the jaws. Si est artig gether They should be of a pattern to resist the attack of a knife 1. Movable joints, or diarthroses, are divided into those in which inserted between the rails. Sash lifts and pulls of brass or bronze there is much and little movement. When there is little movement are fitted to large sashes. Ornamental casement stays and fasteners the term half-joint or amphiarthrosis is used. The simplest kind of in many different metals are made in numerous designs and styles. amphiarthrosis is that in which two bones are connected by bundles Fanlight openers for single lights, or geared for a number of.sashes, of fibrous tissue which pass at right angles from the one to the other; may be designed to suit positions difficult of access. such a joint only differs from a suture in the fact that the intervening The following are the principal books of reference on this subject : fibrous tissue is more plentiful and is organized into definite bundles, J. Gwilt, Encyclopaedia of Architecture; Sutcliffe, Modern House Con- to which the name of interosseous ligaments is given, and also that struction; Rivington, Notes on Building Construction (3 vols.); H. it does not synostose when growth stops. A joint of this kind is Adams, Building Construction: C. F. Mitchell, Building Construction; called a syndesmosis, though probably the distinction is a very Robinson, Carpentry and Joinery: J. P. Allen, Practical Building arbitrary one, and depends upon the amount of movement which is Construction; J. Newlands, Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant; Bury, brought about by the muscles on the two bones. As an instance of Ecclesiastical Woodwork; T. Tredgold and Young, Joinery; Peter this the inferior tibiofibular joint of mammals may be cited. In Nicholson, Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant. Ing dguod. (J. Br.) man this is an excellent example of a syndesmosis, and there is only JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join), that a slight play between the two bones. In the mouse there is no move- ment, and the two bones form a syn- which joins two parts together or the place where two parts are chondrosis between them which speed- joined. (See JOINERY; JOINTS.) In law, the word is used ily becomes a synostosis, while in many adjectivally as a term applied to obligations, estates, &c., Marsupials there is free mobility bear implying that the rights in question relate to the aggregate of tween the tibia and fibula, and a definite the parties joined. Obligations to which several are parties Other variety of amphiarthrosis or half- synovial cavity is established. The may be several, i.e enforceable against each independently of joint is the symphysis, which differs the others, or joint, i.e. enforceable only against all of them from the syndesmosis in having both taken together, or joint and several, i.e. enforceable against each bony surfaces lined with cartilage and or all at the option of the claimant (see GUARANTEE). So an fibro-cartilage, the centre of which often through an amphiarthrodial between the two cartilages a layer of FIG. 3.-Vertical section interest or estate given to two or more persons for their joint softens and forms a small synovial joint. b, b, the two bones; lives continues only so long as all the lives are in existence. cavity. Examples of this are the sym- c, c, the plate of cartilage Joint-tenants are co-owners who take together at the same time, the joints between the bodies of the each bone; Fe, the inter- physis pubis, the mesosternal joint, and on the articular surface of by the same title, and without any difference in the quality or vertebrae (fig. 3). extent of their respective interests; and when one of the joint- The true diarthroses are joints in the external ligaments.shib mediate fibro-cartilage; 1, 1, tenants dies his share, instead of going to his own heirs, lapses which there is either fairly' free or to his co-tenants by survivorship. This estate is therefore to very free movement. The opposing surfaces of the bones are be carefully distinguished from tenancy in common, when the cartilaginous model in which they are formed and is called the lined with articular cartilage, which is the unossified remnant of the co-tenants have each a separate interest which on death passes cartilage of encrustment (fig. 4, c). Between the two cartilages is the to the heirs and not to the surviving tenants. When several joint cavity, while surrounding the joint is the capsule (ig. 4, 1), take an estate together any words or facts implying severance which is formed chiefly by the superficial layers of the original peri- will prevent the tenancy from being construed as joint. torois by surrounding fibrous structures, such as the tendons of muscles, osteum or perichondrium, but it may be strengthened externally JOINTS, in anatomy. The study of joints, or articulations, which become modified and acquire fresh attachments for the is known as Arthrology (Gr. áp pov), and naturally begins with purpose. It may be said generally that the greater the intermittent the definition of a joint. Anatomically the term is used for any strain on any part of the capsule the more it responds by increasing connexion between two or more adjacent parts of the skeleton, in thickness. Lining the interior of the capsule, and all other parts 202bidinib whether they be bone or cartilage. Joints may be immovable, sem lovob to 12 10-5 like those of the skull, or movable, like the knee.areerimia ai pievido fartigiro stotis 701 Immovable joints, or synarthroses, are usually adaptations to its தார் bairav growth rather than mobility, and are always between bones. When bude growth ceases the bones often unite, and the joint is then obliterated by a process known as synostosis, though whether the union of the bones is the cause or the effect of the stoppage of growth is obscure. w 21 Immovable joints never have a cavity between the two bones; S51 there is simply a layer of the substance in which the bone has been Home 9 laid down, and this remains unaltered. If the bone is being deposited in cartilage a layer of cartilage intervenes, and the joint is called vila synchondrosis (fig. 1), but if in membrane a thin layer of fibrous Bengalur tissue persists, and the joint is then known as a suture (fig. 2). Good ky cocobo FiG.4.-Vertical section in somos bilgis Hy through a diarthrodialar Srl abso joint. b, b, the two bones; FIG. 5.- Vertical sec.99 HT 6, C, the plate of cartilage tion through a diarthro- on the articular surface of 9 10 viivse biometara (FIG. I.–Vertical each bone; I, 1, the invest- dial joint, in which the cavity is subdivided into The section through an Fig. 2.–Vertical section ing ligament, the dotted through a cranial suture. b, b, 3 x synchondrosis. b, b, to the two bones; s, opposite the line within which repre- two by an interposed br sents the synovial mem- fibro-cartilage or men- prin the two bones; SC, suture; l, the fibrous mem- iscus, Fc. interposed car- 2009 brane. The letters is letters as in file other slybet tlagere the fibrous < 12 Beamer en periosteum pastinkai: placed in the cavity of the rot and letter tutti (Hu membrane between , which which smo n99w plays the part of a ila utand which is continuous with plays the part of a ligament, ai joint. izsla ns Higitibo-ordt bus gezi) zuordi lo agai Idsy ligament. od the interposed fibrous mem- of the joint cavity except where the articular cartilage is present, is no 19. 1999. ad nori brane. Si gatbutiota, the synovial membrane (fig. 4, dotted line); this is a layer of endo- thelial cells which secrete the synovial fluid to lubricate the interior examples of synchondroses are the epiphysial lines which separate of the joint by means of a small percentage of mucin, albumin and the epiphyses from the shafts of developing long bones, or the occipito-fatty matter which it contains. sphenoid synchondrosis in the base of the skull. Examples of A compound diarthrodial joint is one is one in which the joint cavity is sutures are plentiful in the vault of the skull, and are given special divided partly or wholly into two by a meniscus or inter-articular names, such as sutura dentata, s. serrata, s. squamosa, according to fibro-cartilage (fig. 5, FC) dqror bobagong the plan of their outline. There are two kinds of fibrous syn- The shape of the joint cavity varies greatly, and the different arthroses, which differ from sutures in that they do not synostose. divisions of movable joints depend upon it. It is often assumed that One of these is a schindylesis, in which a thin plate of one bone is the structure of a joint determines its movement, but there is some- received into a slot in another, as in the joint between the sphenoid I thing to be said for the view that the movements to which a joint is idt 18 28 mo 2711030 484 JOINTS subject determine its shape. As an example of this it has been found of the two occipital condyles received into the cup-shaped that the mobility of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the thumb articular facets on the atlas and surrounded by capsular liga- in a large number of working men is less than it is in a large number of women who use needles and thread, or in a large number of ments. The neural arches of the vertebrae articulate one with medical students who use pens and scalpels, and that the slightly another by the arlicular facels, each of which has a capsular movable thumb has quite a differently shaped articular surſace from ligament. In addition to these the laminae are connected by the freely movable one (see J. Anal. and Phys. xxix. 446)., R. Fick: the very elastic ligamenta subflava. The spinous processes are too, has demonstrated that the concavity or convexity of the joint surface depends on the position of the chief muscles which move joined by interspinous ligaments, and their tips by a supraspinous the joint, and has enunciated the law that when the chief muscle ligament, which in the neck is continued from the spine of the or muscles are attached close to the articular end of the skeleta! seventh cervical vertebra to the external occipital crest and element that end becomes concave, while, when they are attached far off or are not attached at all, as in the case of the phalanges, the protuberance as the ligamentum nuchae, a thin, fibrous, median articular end is convex. His mechanical explanation is ingenious septum between the muscles of the back of the neck. and to the present writer convincing (see Handbuch der Gelenke, The combined effect of all these joints and ligaments is to by R. Fick, Jena, 1904). Bernays, however, pointed out that the allow the spinal column to be bent in any direction or to be articular ends were moulded before the muscular tissue was differenrotated, though only a small amount of movement occurs tiated (Morph. Jahrb. iv. 403), but to this Fick replies by pointing between any two vertebrae. out that muscular movements begin before the muscle fibres are formed, and may be seen in the chick as early as the second day of The heads of the ribs articulate with the bodies of two con- incubation. tiguous thoracic vertebrae and the disk between. The liga- The freely movable joints (true diarthrosis) are classified as ments which connect them are called costo-central, and are two follows:- (1) Gliding joints (Arthrodia), in which the articular surfaces are in number. The anterior of these is the stellate ligament, which fiat, as in the carpal and tarsal bones. has three bands radiating from the head of the rib to the two (2) Hinge joints (Ginglymus), such as the elbow and interphalangeal vertebrae and the intervening disk. The other one is the inter- joints. articular ligament, which connects the ridge, dividing the two (3) Condyloid joints (Condylarthrosis), allowing flexion and exten- sion as well as lateral movement, but no rotation. The metacarpo- articular cavities on the head of the rib, to the disk; it is absent phalangeal and wrist joints are examples of this. in the first and three lowest ribs. (4) Saddle-shaped joints (Articulus sellaris), allowing the same The coslo-transverse ligaments bind the ribs to the transverse movements as the last with greater strength. The carpo-metacarpal processes of the thoracic vertebrae. The superior costo-trans- joint of the chumb is an example. (5) Ball and socket joints (Enarthrosis), allowing free movement in verse ligament binds the neck of the rib to the transverse process any direction, as in the shoulder and hip. of the vertebra above; the middle or interosseous connects the (6) Pivot-joint (Trochoides), allowing only rotation round a longitu- back of the neck to the front of its own transverse process; while dinal axis, as in the radio-ulnar joints. the posterior runs from the tip of the transverse process to the Embryology. outer part of the tubercle of the rib. The inner and lower part of each tubercle forms a diarthrodial joint with the upper and Joints are developed in the mesenchyme, or that part of the mesoderm which is not concerned in the formation of the serous fore part of its own transverse process, except in the eleventh cavities. The synarthroses may be looked upon merely as a and twelfth ribs. At the junction of the ribs with their cartilages delay in development, because, as the embryonic tissue of the perichondrium and binds the iwo structures together. Where no diarthrodial joint is formed; the periosteum simply becomes mesenchyme passes from a fibrous to a bony state, the fibrous tissue may remain along a certain line and so form a suture, or, another, diarthrodial joints with synovial cavities are estab- the cartilages, however, join the sternum, or where they join one when chondrification has preceded ossification, the cartilage may lished. In the case of the second rib this is double, and in that remain at a certain place and so form a synchondrosis. The of the first usually wanting. The mesosternal joint, between the diarthroses represent an arrest of development at an earlier stage, for a part of the original embryonic tissue remains as a plate of pre- and mesosternum, has already been given as an example round cells, while the neighbouring two rods chondrify and ossify. of a symphysis. This plate may become converted into fibro-cartilage, in which Comparative Anatomy.–For the convexity or concavity of the case an amphiarthrodial joint results, or it may become absorbed vertebral centra in different classes of vertebrates, see SKELETON: in the centre to form a joint cavity, or, if this absorption occurs axial. The intervertebral disks first appear in the Crocodilia, the highest existing order of reptilia. In many. Mammals the middle in two places, two joint cavities with an intervening meniscus fasciculus of the stellate ligament is continued right across the may result. Although, ontogenetically, there is little doubt that ventral surface of the disk into the ligament of the opposite side, menisci arise in the way. just mentioned, the teaching of com- and is probably serially homologous with the ventral arch of the parative anatomy suggests that, phylogenetically, they originate disk. To these bands the names of anterior (ventral) and posterior atlas. A similar ligament joins the heads of the ribs dorsal to the as an ingrowth from the capsule pushing the synovial membrane (dorsal) conjugal ligaments have been given, and they may be demon. in front of them. The subject will be returned to when the strated in a seven months' human foetus (see B. Sutton, Ligaments, comparative anatomy of the individual joints is reviewed. In London, 1902). The ligamentum nuchae is a strong elastic band in the Ungulata which supports the weight of the head. In the the human foetus the joint cavities are all formed by the tenth Carnivora it only reaches as far forward as the spine of the axis. week of intra-uterine life. The Jaw Joint, or lemporo-mandibular articulation, occurs ANATOMY between the sigmoid cavity of the temporal bone and the Joints of the Axial Skeleton. condyle of the jaw. Between the two there is an interarticular The bodies of the vertebrae except those of the sacrum and fibro-cartilage or meniscus, and the joint is surrounded by a coccyx are separated, and at the same time connected, by the capsule of which the outer part is the thickest. On first opening intervertebral disks. These are formed of alternating concentric the mouth, the joint acts as a hinge, but very soon the condyle rings of fibrous tissue and fibro-cartilage, with an elastic mass in begins to glide forward on to the eminentia articularis (see SKULL) and takes the meniscus with it. This gliding movement between the centre known as the nucleus pulposus. The bodies are also bound together by anterior and posterior common ligaments. the meniscus and temporal bone may be separately brought The odontoid process of the axis fits into a pivot joint formed by about by protruding the lower teeth in front of the upper, or, on the anterior arch of the atlas in front and the transverse ligament one side only, by moving the jaw across to the opposite side. behind; it is attached to the basioccipital bone by two strong Comparative Analomy.--The joint between the temporal and mandi- lateral check ligaments, and, in the mid line, by a feebler middle bular bones is only found in Mammals; in the lower vertebrates the check ligament which is regarded morphologically as containing jaw opens between the quadrate and articular bones. In the the remains of the notochord. This atlanto-axial joint is the Carnivora it is a perfect hinge; in many Rodents only the antero- one which allows the head to be shaken from side to side. Nod- lateralizing movement is the chief one. posterior gliding movement is present; while in the Ruminants the Sometimes, as in the ding the head occurs at the occipito-atlantal joint, which consists Ornithorhynchus, the meniscus is absent. JOINTS 485 one. and supination of the radius. The head of that bone twists, Joints of the Upper Extremity. in the orbicular ligament,round its central vertical axis for about The sterno-clavicular articulation, between the presternum and half a circle. Below, however, the whole lower end of the radius 'clavicle, is a gliding joint, and allows slight upward and down- circles round the lower end of the ulna, the centre of rotation ward and forward and backward movements. The two bony being close to the styloid process of the ulna. The radius, there-, surfaces are separated by a meniscus, the vertical movements fore, in its pronation, describes half a cone, the base of which is taking place outside and the antero-posterior inside this. There below, and the hand follows the radius. is a well-marked capsule, of which the anterior part is strongest. Comparative Anatomy.-In pronograde Mammals the forearm is The two clavicles are joined across the top of the presternum by usually permanently, pronated, and the head of the radius, instead an interclavicular ligament. of being circular and at the side of the upper end of the ulna, is transversely oval and in front of that bone, occupying the same place The acromio-clavicular articulation is also a gliding joint, but that the coronoid process of the ulna does in Man. This type of allows a swinging or pendulum movement of the scapula on the elbow, which is adapted simply to support and progression, is best clavicle. The upper part of the capsule is strongest, and from seen in the Ungulata; in them both lateral ligaments are attached it hangs down a partial meniscus into the cavity. to the head of the radius, and there is no orbicular ligament, since Comparative Anatomy:--Bland Sutton regards the inter-clavicular | The olecranon process of the ulna forīns merely a posterior guide or the shape of the head of the radius does not allow of any supination. ligament as a vestige of the interclavicle of Reptiles and Monotremes. guard to the joint, but transmits no weight. No better example The menisci are only found in the Primates, but it must be borne in mind that many Mammals have no clavicle, or a very rudimentary bring about can be found than in contrasting the elbow of the Sheep of the maximum changes which the uses of support and prehension By some the meniscus of the sterno-clavicular joint is regarded or other Ungulate with that of Man. Towards one or other of these as the homologue of the lateral part of the interclavicle, but the fact types the elbows of all Mammals tend. It may be roughly stated that it only occurs in the Primates where movements in different that, when pronation and supination to the extent of a quarter of a planes are fairly free is suggestive of a physiological rather than a circle are possible, an orbicular ligament appears. morphological origin for it. The SHOULDER JOINT is a good example of the ball and socket radius and triangular fibro-cartilage above, and the scaphoid, The WRIST JOINT, or radio-carpal articulation, lies between the or enarthrodial variety. Its most striking characteristic is mobility at the expense of strength. The small size of the semilunar, and cuneiform bones below. It is a condyloid joint glenoid cavity in comparison with the head of the humerus, and allowing fiexion and extension round one axis , and slight lateral the great laxity of the capsule, favour this, although the glenoid | is a well-marked capsule, divided into anterior, posterior, and movement (abduction and adduction) round the other. There cavity is slightly deepened by a fibrous lip, called the glenoid lateral ligaments. The joint cavity is shut off from the inferior ligament, round its margin. The presence of the coracoid and radio-ulnar joint above, and the intercarpal joints below. acromial processes of the scapula, with the coraco-acromial liga- ment between them, serves as an overhanging protection to the bones being connected by palmar, dorsal, and a few interosseous The intercarpal joints are gliding articulations, the various joint, while the biceps tendon runs over the head of the humerus, ligaments, but only those connecting the first row of bones are inside the capsule, though surrounded by a sheath of synovial complete, and so isolate one joint cavity from another. That membrane. Were it not for these two extra safeguards the shoulder would be even more liable to dislocation than it is part of the intercarpal joints which lies between the first and second rows of carpal bones is called the transverse carpal joint, The upper part of the capsule, which is attached to the base of and at this a good deal of the movement which seems to take the coracoid process, is thickened, and known as the coraco- humeral ligament, while inside the front of the capsule are three place at the wrist really occurs. The car po-metacarpal articulations are, with the exception of folds of synovial membrane, called gleno-humeral folds. Comparative Anatomy.-- In the lower Vertebrates the shoulder that of the thumb, gliding joints, and continuous with the great is adapted to support rather than prehension and is not so freely intercarpal joint cavity. The carpo-metacarpal joint of the movable as in the Primates. The tendon of the biceps has evidently thumb is the best example of a saddle-shaped joint in Man. It sunk through the capsule into the joint, and even when it is intra- allows forward and backward and lateral movement, and is very capsular there is usually a double fold connecting its sheath of strong. synovial membrane with that lining the capsule. In Man this has been broken through, but remains of it persist in the superior gleno- The metacarpo-phalangeal joints are condyloid joints like the kumeral fold. The middle gleno-humeral fold is the vestige of a strong wrist, and are remarkable for the great thickness of the palmar ligament which steadies and limits the range of movement of the ligaments of their capsules. In the four inner fingers these joint in many lower Mammals. glenoid ligaments, as they are called, are joined together by the The ELBOW JOINT is an excellent example of the ginglymus or transverse metacarpal ligament. hinge, though its transverse axis of movement is not quite at The inter phalangeal articulations are simple hinges surrounded right angles to the central axis of the limb, but is lower internally by a capsule, of which the dorsal part is very thin. than externally. This tends to bring the forearm towards the Comparative Anatomy.--The wrist joint of the lower Mammals body when the elbow is bent. The elbow is a great contrast to allows less lateral movement than does that of Mar, while the lower the shoulder, as the trochlea and capitellum of the humerus are end of the ulna is better developed and is received into a cup-shaped closely adapted to the sigmoid cavity of the ulna and head of the socket formed by the cuneiform and pisiform bones. At the same time, unless there is pretty free pronation and supination, the triangu- radius (see SKELETON: appendicular); consequently movement lar fibro-cartilage is only represented by an interosseous ligament, in one plane only is allowed, and the joint is a strong one. The which may be continuous above with the interosseous membrane capsule is divided into anterior, posterior, and two lateral liga- between the radius and ulna, and suggests the possibility that the ments, though these are all really continuous. The joint cavity Mammals the wrist is divided into two lateral parts, as it is in the fibro-cartilage is largely a derivative of this membrane. In most communicates freely with that of the superior radio-ulnar human foetus, but free pronation and supination seem to cause articulation. the disappearance of the septum. The radio-ulnar joints are three: the upper one is an example of a pivot joint, and in it the disk-shaped head of the radius Joints of the Lower Extremity. rotates in a circle formed by the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna The sacro-innominate articulation consists of the sacro-iliac' internally and the orbicular ligament in the other three quarters. joint and the sacro-sciatic ligaments. The former is one of the The middle radio-ulnar articulation is simply an interosseous amphiarthroses or half-joints by which the sacrum is bound to membrane, the fibres of which run downward and inward from the ilium. The mechanism of the human sacrum is that of a the radius to the ulna. suspension bridge slung between the two pillars or ilia by the The inferior radio-ulnar joint is formed by the disk-shaped very strong posterior sacro-iliac ligaments which represent the lower end of the ulna fitting into the slightly concave sigmoid chains. The axis of the joint passes through the second sacral cavity of the radius. Below, the cavity of this joint is shut off vertebra, but the sacrum is so nearly horizontal that the weight from that of the wrist by a triangular fibro-cartilage. The move of the body, which is transmitted to the first sacral vertebra, ments allowed at these three articulations are called pronation tends to tilt that part down. This tendency is corrected by the 486 JOINTS Anterior inferior iliac spine OLIUM Head uf femur Pubo-femora! ligament PUBIS The two portions of the ilio- femoral ligament great and small sacro-sciatic ligaments, which fasten the lower there in these cases, the erect position would be difficult to maintain: part of the sacrum to the tuberosity and spine of the ischium He also looks upon the ligamentum teres as the divorced tendon of respectively, so that, although the sacrum is a suspension bridge tion, but there is every reason to believe that it is a tendon which has the pectineus muscle. The subject requires much more investiga- when looked at from behind, it is a lever of the first kind when sunk into the joint, though whether that of the pectineus is doubtful, seen from the side or in sagittal section. since the intra-capsular tendon comes from the ischium in Reptiles. The pubic symphysis is the union between the two pubic bones. In many Mammals, and among them the Orang, there is no ligamen- It has all the characteristics of a symphysis, already described, sunk right into the joint, but is connected with the pubo-femoral tum teres. In others, such as the Armadillo, the structure has not and may have a small median cavity. part of the capsule. The HIP JOINT, like the shoulder, is a ball and socket, but does not allow such free movement; this is due to the fact that the of the femur, the patella, and the head of the tibia. The capsule The KŅEE JOINT is a hinge formed by the condyles and trochlea socket or acetabulum is deeper than the glenoid cavity and that the capsule is not so lax. At the same time the loss of mobility is formed in front by the ligamentum patellae, and on each side is made up for by increased strength. The capsule has three special bands form the lateral ligaments. On the outer side there are two of these: the anterior or long external lateral ligament is a round cord running from the external condyle to the head of the fibula, while the posterior is slighter and passes from the same place to the styloid process of the fibula. The internal lateral ligament is a flat band which runs from the inner condyle of the femur to the internal surface of the tibia some two inches below the level of the knee joint. The posterior part of the capsule is strengthened by an oblique bundle of fibres running upward and outward from the semimembranosus tendon, and called the posterior ligament of Winslow. The intra-articular structures are numerous and interesting. Cotyloid ligament Passing from the head of the tibia, in front and behind the spine, are the anterior and posterior crucial ligaments; the former is attached to the outer side of the intercondylar notch above, and the latter to the inner side. These two ligaments cross like an X. The semilunar fibro-cartilages external and internal-are partial menisci, each of which has an anterior and a posterior cornu by which.they are attached to the head of the tibia in front and behind the spine. They are also attached round the margin of the tibial head by a coronary ligament, but the external one is more movable than the internal, and this perhaps accounts for its coronary ligament being less often ruptured and the cartilage displaced than the inner one is. In addition to these the external cartilage has a fibrous band, called the ligament of Wrisberg, 'SCHIUM which runs up to the femur just behind the posterior crucial liga- The external cartilage is broader, and forms more of a FEMUR circle than the internal. The synovial cavity of the knee runs Pubo-capsular ligament up, deep to the extensor muscles of the thigh, for about two inches (From David Hepburn, Cunningham's Textbook of Anatomy.) above the top of the patella, forming the bursa suprapatellaris. At the lower part of the patella it covers a pad of fat, which lies Fig. 6. -Dissection of the Hip Joint from the front. between the ligamentum patellae and the front of the head of the thickened bands, of which the most important is the ilio-femoral tibia, and is carried up as a narrow tube to the lower margin of or Y-shaped ligament of Bigelow. The stalk of the Y is attached the trochlear surface of the femur. This prolongation is known to the anterior inferior spine of the ilium, while the two limbs are as the ligamentum mucosum, and from the sides of its base spring fastened to the upper and lower parts of the spiral line of the two lateral folds called the ligamenta alaria. The tendon of the femur. The ligament is so strong that it hardly ever ruptures popliteus muscle is an intracapsular structure, and is therefore in a dislocation of the hip. As a plumb-line, dropped from the covered with a synovial sheath. There are a large number of centre of gravity of the body, passes behind the centre of the hip bursae near the knee joint, one of which, common to the inner joint, this ligament, lying as it does in front of the joint, takes the head of the gastrocnemius and the semimembranosus, often strain in Man's erect position. The other two thickened parts communicates with the joint. The hinge movement of the knee of the capsule are known as pubo-femoral and ischio-femoral, from is accompanied by a small amount of external rotation at the end their attachments. Inside the capsule, and deepening the margin of extension, and a compensatory internal rotation during flexion. of the acetabulum, is a fibrous rim known as the cotyloid ligament, This slight twist is enough to tighten up almost all the ligaments which grips the spherical head of the femur and is continued so that they may take a share in resisting over-extension, because, across the cotyloid notch as the transverse ligament. The floor in the erect position, a vertical line from the centre of gravity of of the acetabulum has a horseshoe-shaped surface of articular the body passes in front of the knee. cartilage, concave downward, and, occupying the “ frog” of the Comparative Anatomy.-In some Mammals, e.g. Bradypus and horse's hoof, is a mass of fat called the Haversian pad. Attached Ornithorhynchus, the knee is divided into three parts, two condylo- to the inner margin of the horseshoe, and to the transverse liga- tibial and one trochleo-patellar, by synovial folds which in Man are ment where that is deficient, is a reflexion of synovial membrane external semilunar cartilage is attached by its posterior horn to the represented by the ligamentum mucosum. In a typical Mammal the which forms a covering for the pad and is continued as a tube internal condyle of the femur only, and this explains the ligament to the depression on the head of the femur called the fossa capitis. of Wrisberg already mentioned. In the Monkeys and anthropoid This reflexion carries blood-vessels and nerves to the femur, and Apes this cartilage is circular. The semilunar cartilages first appear also contains fibrous tissue from outside the joint. It is known muscles which are drawn into the joint. When only one kind of in the Amphibia, and, according to B. Sutton, are derived from as the ligamentum teres. movement (hinge) is allowed, as in the fruit bat, the cartilages are not found. "In most Mammals the superior tibio-fibular joint Comparative Anatomy.—Bland Sutton regards the ilio-femoral communicates with the knee. ligament as an altered muscle, the scansorius, though against this The libio-fibular articulations resemble the 'radio-ulnar in position is the fact that, in those cases in which a scansorius is present in but are much less movable. The superior in Man is usually cut off Man, the ligament is as strong as usual, and indeed, if it were not I from the knee and is a gliding joint; the middle is the interosseous Obturator membrane ment. " JOINTS 487 or even torn. Pas femur femur or even - cruris muscle membrane, while the lower has been already used as an example driven forcibly together; :(3) dislocation, in which the articular of a syndesmosis or fibrous half joint. surfaces are separated from one another. The ANKLE JOINT is a hinge, the astragalus being received into A sprain or strain of a joint means that as the result of violence the a lateral arch formed by the lower ends of the tibia and fibula. I ligaments holding the bones together have been suddenly stretched Backward dislocation is prevented by the articular surface of the synovial membrane, so when the ligaments are stretched the syno- On the inner aspect the ligaments are lined by a astragalus being broader in front than behind. The anterior vial membrane is necessarily damaged. Small blood vessels are and posterior parts of the capsule are feeble, but the lateral liga- also torn, and bleeding occurs into the joint, which may become full ments are very strong, the external consisting of three separate and distended. !, however, bleeding does not take place, the swell- fasciculi which bind the fibula to the astragalus and calcaneum. sion comes on sooner or later. There is often a good deal of heat ing is not immediate, but synovitis having been set up, serous effu- To avoid confusion it is best to speak of the movements of the of the surrounding skin and of pain accompanying the synovitis. ankle as dorsal and plantar flexion. In the case of a healthy individual the effects of a sprain may. quickly The tarsal joints resemble the carpal in being gliding articula- pass off, but in a rheumatic or gouty person chronic synovitis may tions. There are two between the astragalus and calcaneum, and obstinately remain. In a person with a tuberculous history, or of tuberculous descent, a sprain is apt to be the beginning of serious at these inversion and eversion of the foot largely occur. The disease of the joint, and it should, therefore, be treated with continu- inner årch of the foot is maintained by a very important ligament ous rest and prolonged supervision. In a person of health and called the calcaneo-navicular or spring ligament; it connects the vigour, a sprained joint should be at once bandaged. This may be sustentaculum tali of the calcaneum with the navicular, and the only treatment needed. It gives support and comfort, and the even pressure around the joint checks effusion into it. Wide pieces upon it the head of the astragalus rests. When it becomes of adhesive strapping, layer on layer, form a still more useful support, stretched, flat-foot results. The tarsal bones are connected by and with the joint so treated the person may be able at once to use dorsal, plantar and the limb. If strap- interosseous liga- Patellar surface of femurping is not employed, a temu the bandage may be ments. The long S taken off from time and short calcaneo- to time in order that cuboid are plantar the limb and the ligaments of special Semilunar facet for patella joint may be mas- Impression of external semi. saged. If the sprain importance, and blunar cartilage is followed by much Internal tibial surface of maintain the outer synovitis a plaster of arch of the foot. Paris or leather splint External tibial surface of The tarso-meta- may be applied, com- tarsal, meta tarso- Posterior crucial ligament plete rest being se- cured for the limb. phalangeal and in- Later on, blistering terphalangeal joints Anterior crucial ligament ' firing External lateral ligament closely resemble may be found advis- able. those of the hand, Transverse ligament Cut tendon of biceps flexor Internal semilunar fibro- Synovitis. – When except that the cartilage a joint has been in- tarso-metatarsal Anterior superior tibio-fibular 30. jured, inflammation joint of the great ligament Internal lateral ligament occurs in the damaged External lateral ligament toe is not saddle- tissue; that is inevit. able. But sometimes shaped. Ligamentum patellæ the attack of inflam- mation is so slight Comparative Ana- 101 THESE and transitory as to tomy. - The anterior fasciculus of the ex- membrane for anterior tibial Opening in interosseous be scarcely notice- Inner perpendicular facet oa able. This is specially ternal lateral liga- patella likely to occur if the ment of the ankle is 12 joint-tissues were in only found in Man, a state of perfect and is probably an nutrition at the time adaptation to the 10 of the hurt. But if the erect position. In and individual or the joint animals with a long and are were at that time in foot, such the (From D. Hepburn, Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy.) a state of imperfect Ungulates and the nutrition, the effects Kangaroo, the lateral Fig. 7.--Dissection of the Knee-joint from the front: Patella thrown down. are likely to be more ligaments of the serious. As a rule, it is ankle are in the form of an X, to give greater protection against the synovial membrane lining the fibrous capsule of the joint which lateral movement. In certain marsupials a fibro-cartilage is developed first and chiefly suffers, the condition is termed synovitis Syno- between the external malleolus and the astragalus, and its origin vitis may, however, be due to other causes than mechanical injury, from the deeper fibres of the external lateral ligament of the ankle as when the interior of the joint is attacked by the micro-organisms can be traced. These animals have a rotatory movement of the of pyæmia (blood-poisoning), typhoid fever, pneumonia, rheuma fibula on its long axis, in addition to the hinge movement of the ankle. tism, gonorrhea or syphilis. Under judicious treatment the For further details of joints see R. Fick, Handbuch der Gelenke synovitis generally clears up, but it may linger on and cause the (Jena, 1904); H. Morris. Anatomy of the Joints (London, 1879); formation of adhesions which may temporarily stiffen the joint; Quain's, Gray's and Cunningham's Text-books of Anatomy; J. Bland or it may, especially in tuberculous, septic or pyæmic infections, Sutton, Ligaments, their Nature and Morphology (London, 1902); involve the cartilages, ligaments and bones in such serious changes F. G. Parsons, “ Hunterian Lectures on the Joints of Mammals," as to destroy the joint, and possibly call for resection or amputation. Journ. Anat, & Phys., xxxiv, 41 and 301. (F. G. P.) The symptoms of synovitis include stiffness and tenderness in the joint. The patient notices that movements cause pain. Effu- DISEASES AND INJURIES OF JOINTS sion of fluid takes place, and there is marked fullness in the neigh- bourhood. If the inflammation is advancing, the skin over the joint The affection of the joints of the human body by specific may be flushed, and if the hand is placed on the skin it feels hot. diseases is dealt with under various headings (RHEUMATISM, &c.); Especially is this the case if the joint is near the surface, as at the in the present article the more direct forms of ailment are dis- knee, wrist or ankle. cussed. In most joint-diseases the trouble starts either in the be conveniently obtained by the use of a light wooden splint, The treatment of an inflamed joint demands rest. synovial lining or in the bone-rarely in the articular cartilage padding and bandages. Slight compression of the joint by a or ligaments. As a rule, the disease begins after an injury. bandage is useful in promoting absorption of the fluid. If the There are three principal types of injury: (1) sprain or strain, inflamed joint is in the lower extremity, the patient had best in which the ligamentous and tendinous structures are stretched remain in bed, or on the sofa; if in the upper extremity, he should wear his arm in a sling. The muscles acting on the joint must be or lacerated; (2) contusion, in which the opposing bones are kept in complete control. If the inflammation is extremely ácute other vessels RINO as This may 488 JOINTS cases. a few leeches, followed by a fomentation, will give relief; or an ice- tion, and the treatment by serum injection, will probably have been bag or an evaporating lotion may, by causing constriction of the tried. If a joint is left permanently stiff in an awkward and useless blood vessels, lessen the congestion of the part and the associated position, the limb. may be greatly improved by excision of the joint. pain. As the inflammation is passing off, massage of the limb Thus, if the knee is left bent and the joint is excised a useful, straight and of the joint will prove useful. If the inflammation is long limb may be obtained, somewhat shortened, and, of course, per- continued, the limb must still be kept at rest. By this time it may manently stiff. If after disease of the hip-joint the thigh remains be found that some other material for the retentive apparatus is fixed in a faulty position, it may be brought down straight by divid- more convenient and comfortable, as, for instance, undressed | ing the bone near the upper end. A stiff shoulder or elbow may be leather which has been moulded on wet and allowed to dry and converted into a useful, movable joint by excision of the articular harden; poro-plastic felt, which has been softened by heat and ends of the bones. applied límp, or house-flannel which has been dipped in a creamy A stiff joint may remain as the result of long continued inflamma. mixture of plaster-of-Paris and water, and secured by a bandage. tion; the unused muscles are wasted and the joint in consequence C onic Disease of a Joint may be the tailing off of an acute looks large. Careful measurement, however, may show that it is affection, and under the influence of alternate douchings of hot and not materially larger than its fellow. And though all tenderness cold water, of counter-irritation by blistering or firing," and of may have passed away, and though the neighbouring skin is no massage, it may eventually clear up, especially if the general health longer hot, still the joint remains stiff and useless. No progress of the individual is looked after. "But if chronic disease lingers in being made under the influence of massage, or of gentle exercises, the joint of a child or young person, the probability of its being under the surgeon may advise that the lingering adhesion be broken down the influence of tuberculous infection must be considered. In such under an anaesthetic, after which the function of the joint may a case prolonged and absolute rest is the one thing necessary. If quickly return. the disease be in the hip, knee, ankle or foot, the patient may be There are the cases over which the “ “bone-setter secures his fitted with an appropriate Thomas's splint and allowed to walk greatest triumphs. A qualified practitioner may have been for about, for it is highly important to have these patients out in the months judiciously treating an inflamed joint by rest, and then feels fresh air. If the disease be in the shoulder, elbow, wrist or hand, a hesitation with regard to suddenly flexing the stiffened limb. a leather or poro-plastic splint should be moulded on, and the arm The “bone-setter," however, has no such qualms, and when the worn in a sling: There must be no hurry; convalescence will needs case passes out of the hands of the perhaps over-careful surgeon, the be slow. And if the child can be sent to a bracing sea-side place it unqualified practitioner (because he, from a scientific point of view, will be much in his favour. knows nothing) ſears nothing, and, breaking down inflammatory As the disease clears up, the surface heat, the pains and the tender adhesions, sets the joint free. And his manipulations prove triumph- ness having disappeared, and the joint having so diminished in size antly successful. But, knowing, nothing and fearing nothing, he is as to be scarcely larger than its fellow—though the wasting of the apt to do grievous harm in carrying out his rough treatment in other muscles of the limb may cause it still to appear considerably en- Malignant disease at the end of a bone (sarcoma), tuber. larged--the splint may be gradually left off. This remission may culosis of a joint, and a joint stiffened by old inflammation are be for an hour or two every other day; then every other night; to him the same thing. "A small bone is out of place," or, “The then every other day, and so on, the freedom being gained little by bone is out of its socket; it has never been put in," and a breaking little, and the surgeon watching the case carefully. On the slightest down of everything that resists his force is the result of the case indication of return of trouble, the former restrictive measures being taken to him. For the “bone-setter "'has only one line of must be again resorted to. Massage and gentle exercises may be treatment. Of the improvement which he often effects as if by magic given day by day, but there must be no thought of “breaking down the public are told much. Of the cases over which the doctor has the stiffness.' Many a joint has in such circumstances been wrecked been too long devoting skill and care, and which are set free by the by the manipulations of a “bone-setter." "bone-setter,"' everybody hears-and sometimes to the discomfiture Permanent Stiffness.—During the treatment of a case of chronic of the medical man. But of the cases in which irreparable damage disease of a joint, the question naturally arises as to whether the joint follows his vigorous manipulation nothing is said-of his rough will be left permanently stiff. People have the idea that if an in. usage of a tuberculous hip, or of a sarcomatous shoulder-joint, flamed joint is kept long on a splint, it may eventually be found and of the inevitable disaster and disappointment, those most con- permanently stiff. And this is quite correct. But it should be cerned are least inclined to talk ! А A practical surgcon with common- clearly understood that it is not the rest of the inflamed joint which sense has nothing to learn from the bone-setter. causes the stiffness. The matter should be put thus: in tuber- Rheumatoid Arthritis, or chronic Osteo-arthritis, is gencrally found culous and other forms of chronic disease stiffness may ensue in in persons beyond middle age; but it is not rare in young people, spite of long-continued rest. It is the destructive disease, not the though with them it need not be the progressive disease which it enforced rest which causes it; for inflammation of a joint rest is too often is in their elders. It is an obscure affection of the cartilage absolutely necessary. covering the joint surfaces of the bones, and it eventually involves The Causes of permanent Stiffness are the destructive changes the bones and the ligaments. A favourite joint for it is the knee wrought by the inflammation. In one case it may be that the or hip, and when one large joint is thus affected the other joints may synovial membrane is so far destroyed by the tuberculous or septic escape. But when the hands or feet are implicated pretty nearly invasion that its future usefulness is lost, and the joint ever after- all the small joints are apt to suffer. Whether the joint is large or wards creaks at its work and easily becomes tired and painful. Thus small, the cartilages wear away and new bone is developed about the the joint is crippled but not destroyed. In another case the liga; ends of the bones, so that the joint is large and mis-shapen, the ments and the cartilages are implicated as well as the synovial ſingers being knotted and the hands deformed. When the spine membrane, and when the disease clears up, the bones are more or is affected it becomes bowed and stiff. This is the disease which less locked, only a small range of motion being left, which forcible has crippled the old people in the workhouses and almshouses, fiexion and other methods of vigorous treatment are unable materi- and with them it is steadily progressive. Its early signs are stiffness ally to improve. In another set of cases the inflammatory germs and creaking or cracking in the joints, with discomfort and pain quickly destroy the soft tissues of the joint, and then invade the after exercise, and with a little effusion into the capsule of the joint. bones, and, the disease having at last come to an end, the softened As regards treatment, medicines are of no great value. Wet, cold and ends of the bones solidly join together like the broken fragments in damp being bad for the patient, he should be, if possible, got into simple fracture. As a result, osseous solidification of the joint a dry, bright, sunny place, and he should dress warmly. Perhaps (synostosis) ensues without, of course, the possibility of any move. there is no better place for him in the winter than Assuan. Cairo ment. And, inasmuch as the surgeon cannot tell in any case whether is not so suitable as it used to be before the dam was made, when the disease may not advance in this direction, he is careful to place its climate was drier. For the spring and summer certain British and the limb in that position in which it will be most useful if the bony Continental watering-places serve well. But if this luxury cannot union should occur. Thus, the leg is kept straight, and the elbow be afforded, the patient must make himself as happy as he can with bent. such hot douchings and massage as he can obtain, keeping himself In the course of a tuberculous or other chronic disease of a joint, warm, and his joints covered by flannel bandages and rubbed with the germs of septic disease may find access to the inflamed area, stimulating liniments. In people advanced or advancing in years, through a wound or ulceration into the joint, or by the germs being the disease, as a rule, gets slowly worse, sometimes very slowly, carried thither by the blood-stream. A joint-abscess results, which but sometimes rapidly, especially when its makes its appearance in has to be treated by incision and fomentations. If chronic suppura- the hip, shoulder or knee as the result of an injury. In young people, tion continues, it may become necessary to scrape out or to excise however, its course may be cut short by attention being given to the the joint, or even to amputate the limb. And if tuberculous disease principles stated above: of the joint is steadily progressing in spite of treatment, vigorous Charcot's Disease resembles osteo-arthritis in that it causes destruc- measures may be needed to prevent the fluid from quietly ulcerating tion of a joint and greatly deforms it. The deformity, however, its way out and thus inviting the entrance of septic germs. The comes on rapidly and without pain or tenderness. It is usually fuid may need to be drawn off by aspiration, and direct treatment of associated with the symptoms of locomotor ataxy, and depends upon the diseased synovial membrane may be undertaken by injections disease of the nerves which preside over the nutrition of the joints. of chloride of zinc or some other reagent. Or the joint may need It is incurable. scraping out with a sharp spoon with the view of getting rid of the A Loose Cartilage, or a Displaced Cartilage in the Knee Joint is apt to tuberculous material. Later, excision may be deemed necessary, become caught in the hinge between the thigh bone and the leg bone, or in extreme cases, amputation. But before these measures are and by causing a sudden stretching of the ligaments of the joint to considered. A. C. G. Bier's method of treatment by passive conges. give rise to intense pain. When this happens the individual is a JOINTS 489 ness. (Ė. 0.*) apt to be thrown down as he walks, for it comes on with great sudden, open: First, to try under an anaesthetic to manipulate the limb And thus he feels himself to be in a condition of perpetua! until the head of the thigh-bone rests as rearly as possible in its insecurity. After the joint has thus gone wrong, bleeding and normal position, and then to endeavour to fix it there by splints, serous effusion take place into it, and it becomes greatly swollen. weights and bandaging until a new joint is formed; second, to cut And if the cartilage still remains in the grip of the bones he is unable down upon the site of the joint, to scoop out a new socket in the to straighten or bend his knee. But the surgeon by suddenly haunch-bone, and thrust the end of the thigh-bone into it, keeping it flexing and twisting the leg may manage to unhitch the cartilage fixed there as just described; and third, to allow the child to run and restore comfort and usefulness to the limb. As a rule, the about as it pleases, merely raising the sole of the foot of the short slipping of a cartilage first occurs as the result of a serious fall or leg by a thick boot, so as to keep the lower part of the trunk fairly of a sudden and violent action-often it happens when the man is level, lest secondary curvature of the spine ensue. The first and dodging" at football, the foot being firmly fixed on the ground second methods demand many months of careful treatment in bed. and the body being violently twisted at the knee. After the slipping The ultimate result of the second is so often disappointing that the has occurred many times, the amount of swelling, distress and lame- surgeon now rarely advises its adoption. But, if under an anaes- ness may diminish with each subsequent slipping, and the individual thetic, as the result of skilful manipulation the head of the thigh-bone may become somewhat reconciled to his condition. As regards can be made to enter more or less rudimentary sockeț, the case treatment, a tightly fitting steel cage-like splint, which, gripping the is worth all the time, care and attention bestowed upon it. Some- thigh and leg, limits the movements of the knee to flexion and exten- times the results of prolonged treatment are so good that the child sion, may prove useful. But for a muscular, athletic individual eventually is able to walk with scarce a limp. But a vigorous the wearing of this apparatus may prove vexatious and disappointing. attempt at placing the head of the bone in its proper position The only alternative is to open the joint and remove the loose car- should be made in every case. tilage. The cartilage may be found on operation to be split, torn or crumpled, and lying right across between the joint-surfaces of JOINTS, in engineering, may be classed either (a) according to the bones, from which nothing but an operation could possibly have their material, as in stone or brick, wood or metal; or (b) accord- removed it. The operation is almost sure to give complete and ing to their object, to prevent leakage of air, steam or water, or his old exercises and amusements without fear of the knee playing cording as they are stationary or moving (" working "in technical permanent relief to the condition, the individual being able to resume to transmit force, which may be thrust, pull or shear; or (c) ac- him false. It is, however, one that should not be undertaken without due consideration and circumspection, and the details language). Many joints, like those of ship-plates and boiler- of the operation should be carried out with the utmost care and plates, have simultaneously to fulfil both objects mentioned cleanliness. under (6). An accidental wound of a joint, as from the blade of a knife, or a spike, entering the knee is a very serious affair, because of the risk All stone joints of any consequence are stationary. It being of septic germs entering the synovial cavity either at the time of uneconomical to dress the surfaces of the stones resting on each the injury or later. If the joint becomes thus infected there is Other smoothly and so as to be accurately flat, a layer of mortar great swelling of the part, with redness of the skin, and with the or other cementing material is laid between them. This hardens escape of blood-stained or purulent synovia, Absorption takes place and serves to transmit the pressure from stone to stone without of the poisonous substances produced by the action of the germs, and, as a result, great constitutional disturbance arises. Blood its being concentrated at the “high places.” If the ingredients poisoning may thus threaten life, and in many cases life is saved of the cement are chosen so that when hard the cement has about only by amputation. The best treatment is freely to open the joint, the same coefficient of compressibility as the stone or brick, the to wash it out with a strong antiseptic fluid, and to make arrange- ment for thorough drainage, the limb being fixed on a splint. Help pressure will be nearly uniformly distributed. The cement also may also be obtained by increasing the patient's power of resistance adheres to the surfaces of the stone or brick, and allows a certain to the effect of the poisoning by injections of a serum prepared by amount of tension to be borne by the joint. It likewise prevents cultivation of the septic germs in question. If the limb is saved, the stones from slipping one on the other, i.e. it gives the joint there is a great chance of the knee being permanently stiff. Dislocalion.-- The ease with which the joint-end of a bone is very considerable shearing strength. The composition of the dislocated varies with its form and structure, and with the position cement is chosen according as it has to “set” in air or water. in which it happens to be placed when the violence is applied. The joints are made impervious to air or water by “pointing" The relative frequency of fracture of the bone and dislocation of their outer edges with a superior quality of cement. the joint depends on the strength of the bones above and below the joint relatively to the strength of the joint itself, The strength of Wood joints are also nearly all stationary. They are made the various joints in the body is dependent upon either ligament or partially fluid-tight by“ grooving and tenoning,” and by“ caulk- muscle, or upon the shape of the bones. In the hip, for instance, | ing ” with oakum or similar material. If the wood is saturated all three sources of strength are present; therefore, considering the with water, it swells, the edges of the joints press closer together, great leverage of the long thigh bone, the hip is rarely dislocated and the joints become tighter the greater the water-pressure is The shoulder, in order to allow of extensive movement, has no osseus or ligamentous strength; it is, therefore, frequently dislocated. which tends to produce leakage. Relatively to its weaker general The wrist and ankle are rarely dislocated; as the result of violence strength,wood is a better material than iron so far as regards the at the wrist the radius gives way, at the ankle the fibula, these bones transmission of a thrust past a joint. So soon as a heavy pressure being relatively weaker than the respective joints. The wrist owes comes on the joint all the small irregularities of the surfaces in its strength to ligaments, the elbow and the ankle to the shape of the bones. The symptoms of a dislocation are distortion and limited contact are crushed up, and there results an approximately uni- movement, with absence of the grating sensation felt in fracture when form distribution of the pressure over the whole area (i.e. if there the broken ends of the bone are rubbed together. The treatment be no bending forces), so that no part of the material is unduly consists in reducing the dislocation, and the sooner this replacement stressed. To attain this result the abutting surfaces should be is effected the better--the longer the delay the more difficult it becomes to put things right. After a variable period, depending on well fitted together, and the bolts binding the pieces together the nature of the joint and the age of the person, it may be impossible should be arranged so as to ensure that they will not interfere to replace the bones. The result will be a more or less useless with the timber surfaces coming into this close contact. Owing joint The administration of an anaesthetic, by relaxing the muscles, greatly assists the operation of reduction. The length of time that to its weak shearing strength on sections parallel to the fibre, joint has to be kept quiet after it has been restored to its normal timber is peculiarly unfitted for tension joints. If the pieces shape depends on its form, but, as a rule, early movement is advis- exerting the pull are simply bolted together with wooden or iron able. But when by the formation of the bones a joint is weak, bolts, the joint cannot be trusted to transmit any considerable as at the outer end of the collar-bone, and at the elbow-end of the force with safety. The stresses become intensely localized in radius, prolonged rest for the joint is necessary or dislocation may the immediate neighborhood of the bolts. A tolerably strong Congenital Dislocation at the Hip.-Possibly as a result of faulty timber tension-joint can, however, be made by making the two position of the subject during intrauterine life, the head of the thigh- pieces abut, and connecting them by means of iron plates cover- bone leaves, or fails throughout to occupy, its normal situation on ing the joint and bolted to the sides of the timbers by bolts pass- the haunch-bone The defect, which is a very serious one, is prob- ably not discovered until the child begins to walk, when its peculiaring through the wood. These plates should have their surfaces rolling gait attracts attention. The want of fixation at the joint which lie against the wood ribbed in a direction transverse to the permits of the surgeon thrusting up the thigh-bone, or drawing it pull. The bolts should fit their holes slackly, and should be well down in a painless, characteristic manner. The first thing to be done is to find out by means of the X-rays 1 timber. There will then be very little localized shearing stress tightened up 50 as to make the ribs sink into the surface of the whether a socket exists into which, under an anaesthetic, the surgeon may fortunately be enabled to lodge the end of the thigh brought upon the interior portions of the wood. bone. If this offers no prospect of success, there are three courses Iron and the other commonly used metals possess in variously « recur. 490 JOINTS 6 66 9 high degrees the qualities desirable in substances out of which sometimes for many yards or even for several miles, more particu: joints are to be made. The joint ends of metal pieces can easily larly when the rock is fine-grained and fairly rigid, as in lime. be fashioned to any advantageous form and size without waste stone. Where the texture is coarse and unequal, the joints, of material. Also these metals offer peculiar facilities for the though abundant, run into each other in such a way that no one cutting of their surfaces at a comparatively small cost so smoothly in particular can be identified for so great a distance. The and evenly as to ensure the close contact over their whole areas number of joints in a mass of rock varies within wide limits. of surfaces placed against each other. This is of the highest Among rocks which have undergone little disturbance the joints importance, especially in joints designed to transmit force. may be separated from each other by intervals of several yards. Wrought iron and mild steel are above all other metals suitable In other cases where the terrestrial movement appears to have for tension joints where there is not continuous rapid motior. been considerable, the rocks are so jointed as to have acquired Where such motion occurs, a layer, or, as it is technically termed, therefrom a fissile character that has almost obliterated their a “bush,” of brass is inserted underneath the iron. The joint tendency to split along the lines of bedding. then possesses the high strength of a wrought-iron one and at the The Cause of Jointing in Rocks.--The continual state of movement same time the good frictional qualities of a brass surface. Leak in the crust of the earth is the primary cause of the majority of age past moving metal joints can be prevented by cutting the joints. It is to the outermost layers of the lithosphere that joints surfaces very accurately to fit each other. Steam-engine slide- are confined; in what van Hise has described as the “zone of frac- valves and their seats, and piston “packing-rings” and the in the case of rigid rocks. Below the zone of fracture, joints cannot ture," which he estimates may extend to a depth of 12,000 metres cylinders they work to and fro in, may be cited as examples. be formed, for there the rocks tend to flow rather than break. The A subsidiary compressible“ packing " is in other situations em- rocky crust, as it slowly accommodates itself to the shrinking interior ployed, an instance of which may be seen in the “stuffing boxes” of the earth, is subjected unceasingly to stresses which induce which prevent the escape of steam from steam-engine cylinders produced during the slow cyclical movements of elevation and de- jointing by tension, compression and torsion. Thus joints are through the piston-rod hole in the cylinder cover. Fixed metal pression as well as by the more vigorous movements of earthquakes. joints are made fluid tight-(a) by caulking a riveted joint, i.e. Tension-joints are the most widely spread; they are naturally most by hammering in the edge of the metal with a square-edged chisel numerous over areas of upheaval. Compression-joints are generally (the tighter the joint requires to be against leakage the closer associated with the more intense movements which have involved must be the spacing of the rivets--compare the rivet-spacing in tension-jointing is shrinkage, due cither to cooling or to desiccation. shearing, minor-faulting and slaty, cleavage.. A minor cause of bridge, ship and boiler-plate joints);(6) by the insertion between The most striking type of jointing is that produced by the cooling the surfaces of a layer of one or other of various kinds of cement, of igneous rocks, whereby a regularly columnar structure is developed, the layer being thick or thin according to circumstances; (c) by often called basaltic structure, such as is found at the Giant's Cause way. This structure is described in connexion with modern volcanic the insertion of a layer of soft solid substance called packing rocks, but it is met with in igneous rocks of all ages. It is as well or “ insertion." displayed among the felsites of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, and Apart from cemented and glued joints, most joints are formed the basalts of Carboniferous Limestone age as among the Tertiary by cutting one or more holes in the ends of the pieces to be joined, the rock to split up into roughly hexagonal prisms no thicker than a lavas of Auvergne and Vivarais. This type of jointing, may cause and inserting in these holes a corresponding number of pins. lead pencil; on the other hand, in many dolerites and diorites the The word “pin ” is technically restricted to mean a cylindrical prisms are much coarser, having a diameter of 3 ft. or more, and they pin in a movable joint. The word “bolt " is used when the are more irregular in form; they may be so long as to extend up the cylindrical pin is screwed up tight with a nut so as to be im- face of a cliff for 300 or 400 ft. columnar jointing has often been movable . When the pin is not screwed, but is fastened by being superinduced upon stratified rocks by contact with intrusive igneous Sandstones, shales and coal may be observed in this condi, beaten down on either end, it is called a “rivet.” The pin is tion. The columns diverge perpendicularly from the surface of the sometimes rectangular in section, and tapered or parallel length injected altering substance, so that when the latter is vertical, the wise. “ Gibs” and “ cottars are examples of the latter. It columns are horizontal; or when it undulates the columns follow its Beautiful examples of this character occur among the is very rarely the case that fixed joints have their pins subject coal-seams of Ayrshire. Occasionally a prismatic form of jointing may to simple compression in the direction of their length, though be observed in unaltered strata; in this case it is usually among those they are frequently subject to simple tension in that direction. which have been chemically formed, as in gypsum, where, as noticed A good example is the joint between a steam cylinder and its by Jukes in the Paris Basin, some beds are divided from top to cover, where the bolts have to resist the whole thrust of the cracks formed in mud when it'dries, has probably been instrumental bottom by vertical hexagonal prisms. Desiccation, as shown by the steam, and at the same time to keep the joint steam-tight. in causing jointing in a limited number of cases among stratified JOINTS, in geology. All rocks are traversed more or less rocks. completely by vertical or highly inclined divisional planes termed Movement along Joint Planes.--In some conglomerates the joints joints, Soft rocks, indeed, such as loose sand and uncompacted ing matrix; large blocks of hard quartz are cut through by them as may be seen traversing the enclosed pebbles as well as the surround- clay, do not show these planes; but even a soft loam after stand-sharply as if they had been sliced by a lapidary's machine. A ing for some time, consolidated by its own weight, will usually similar phenomenon may be observed in flints as they lie embedded be found to have acquired them. Joints vary in sharpness of in the chalk, and the same joints may be traced continuously through definition, in the regularity of their perpendicular or horizontal many yards of rock. Such facts show that the agency to which the jointing of rocks was due must have operated with consider. course, in their lateral persistence, in number and in the direc- able force. Further indication of movement is supplied by the tions of their intersections. As a rule, they are most sharply rubbed and striated surfaces of some joints. These surfaces, térmed defined in proportion to the fineness of grain of the rock. They slickensides, have evidently been ground against each other. are often quite invisible, being merely planes of potential weak- paths for the passage downward and upward of subterranean water Influence of Joints on Water-flow and Scenery.-Joints form natural ness, until revealed by the slow disintegrating effects of the and have an important bearing upon water supply. Water obtained weather, which induces fracture along their planes in preference directly from highly jointed rock is more liable to become contami. to other directions in the rock; it is along the same planes that nated by surface impurities than that from a more compact rock a rock breaks most readily under the blow of a hammer. In through which it has had to soak its way; for this reason many lime. stones are objected to as sources of potable water. On exposed coarse-textured rocks, on the other hand, joints are apt to show surfaces joints have great influence in determining the rate and type themselves as irregular rents along which the rock has been of weathering. They furnish an effective lodgment for surface water, shattered, so that they present an uneven sinuous course, branch- which, frozen by lowering, of temperature, expands into ice and ing off in different directions. In many rocks they descend wedges off , blocks of the rock; and the more numerous the joints the more rapidly does the action proceed. As they serve, in conjunction vertically at not very unequal distances, so that the spaces with bedding, to divide stratified rocks into large quadrangular between them are marked off into so many wall-like masses. blocks, their effect on cliffs and other exposed places is seen in the But this symmetry often gives place to a more or less tortuous splintered and dislocated aspect so familiar in mountain scenery, course with lateral joints in various apparently random direc- Not infrequently, by directing the initial activity of weathering agents, joints have been responsible for the course taken by large tions, more especially where in stratified rocks the beds have streams as well as for the type of scenery on their banks. In lime- diverse lithological characters. A single joint may be traced stones, which succumb readily to the solvent action of water, the masses. *) curvatures. JOINTURE-JOINVILLE, PRINCE DE 491 joints are liable to be gradually enlarged along the course of the under-, estate, or be determinable by her own act; (3) it must be made ground waterflow until caves are formed of great size and intricacy before marriage-if after, it is voidable at the wife's election, on Infilled Joints.—Joints which have been so enlarged by solution are sometimes filled again completely or partially by minerals the death of the husband; (4) it must be expressed to be in satis- brought thither in solution by the water traversing the rock; calcite, faction of dower and not of part of it. In equity, any provision barytes and ores of lead and copper may be so deposited. In this made for a wife before marriage and accepted by her (not being way many valuable mineral veins have been formed. Widened joints an infant) in lieu of dower was a bar to such. If the provision may also be filled in by detritus from the surface, or, in deep-seated portions of the crust, by heated igneous rock, forced from below along was made after marriage, the wife was not barred by such pro- the planes of least resistance. Occasionally even sedimentary rocks vision, though expressly stated to be in lieu of dower; she was may be forced up joints from below, as in the case of the so-called put to her election between jointure and dower (see DowER). sandstone dykes.' Practical Vlility of Joints.--An important feature in the joints of which traced its descent from Etienne de Vaux, who lived at JOINVILLE, the name of a French noble family of Champagne, stratified rocks is the direction in which they intersect each other. As the result of observations we learn that they possess two dominant the beginning of the inth century. Geoffroi III. (d. 1184), sire trends, one coincident in a general way with the direction in which de Joinville, who accompanied Henry the Liberal, count of the strata are inclined to the horizon, the other running transversely Champagne, to the Holy Land in 1147, received from him the approximately at right angles. The former set is known as dip: office of seneschal, and this office became hereditary in the house joints, because they run with the dip or inclination of the rocks, the latter is termed strike-joints, inasmuch as they conform to the of Joinville. In 1203 Geoffroi V., sire de Joinville, died while on general strike or mean outcrop. It is owing to the existence of this a crusade, leaving no children. He was succeeded by his brother double series of joints that ordinary quarrying operations can be Simon, who married Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter of the count carried on. Large quadrangular blocks can be wedged off that would be shattered if exposed to the risk of blasting. A quarry is usually of Auxonne, and had as his son Jean (q.v.), the historian and worked on the dip of the rock, hence strike-joints form clean-cut friend of St Louis. Henri (d. 1374), sire de Joinville, the grand- son of Jean, became count of Vaudémont, through his mother, Marguerite de Vaudémont. His daughter, Marguerite de Join- ville, married in 1393 Ferry of Lorraine (d. 1415), to whom she brought the lands of Joinville In 1552, Joinville was made into a principality for the house of Lorraine. Mlle de Mont- pensier, the heiress of Mlle de Guise, bequeathed the principality of Joinville to Philip, duke of Orleans (1693). The castle, which overhung the Marne, was sold in 1791 to be demolished. The title of prince de Joinville (q.v.) was given later to the third son of King Louis Philippe. Two branches of the house of Joinville have settled in other countries: one in England, descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Vaucouleurs, and brother of the historian, who served under Henry III. and Edward I.; the other, descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Briquenay, and son Joints in Limestone Quarry near Mallow, co. Cork. of Jean, settled in the kingdom of Naples. (G. V. Du Noyer.) See J. Simonnet, Essai sur l'histoire et la généalogie des seigneurs faces in front of the workmen as they advance. These are known as de Joinville (1875); H. F. Delaborde, Jean de Joinville et les seigneurs. backs, and the dip.joints which traverse them as cullers. The way de Joinville (1894). (M. P.*) in which this double set of joints occurs in a quarry may be seen in the figure, where the parallel lines which traverse the shaded and JOINVILLE, FRANÇOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS unshaded faces mark the successive strata. The broad white spaces MARIE, PRINCE DE (1818–1900), third son of Louis Philippe, running along the length of the quarry behind the seated figure are duc d'Orléans, afterwards king of the French, was born at Neuilly strike-joints or backs, traversed by some highly inclined lines which mark the position of the dip-joints or cutters. The shaded on the 14th of August 1818. He was educated for the navy, and ends looking towards the spectator are cutters from which the rock became lieutenant in 1836. His first conspicuous service was has been quarried away on one side. In crystalline (igneous) rocks, at the bombardment of San Juan de Ulloa, in November 1838, bedding is absent and very often there is no horizontal jointing to when he headed a landing party and took the Mexican general take its place; the joint planes break up the mass more irregularly than in stratified rocks. Granite, for example, is usually traversed Arista prisoner with his own hand at Vera Cruz. He was pro- by two sets of chief or master-joints cutting each other somewhat moted captain, and in 1840 was entrusted with the charge of obliquely: Their effect is to divide the rock into long quadrangular, bringing the remains of Napoleon from St Helena to France. In rhomboidal, or even polygonal columns. But a third set may 1844 he conducted naval operations on the coast of Morocco, often be noticed cutting across the columns, though less continuous bombarding Tangier and occupying Mogador, and was recom- and dominant than the others. When these transverse joints are few in number, columns many feet in length can be quarried out pensed with the grade of vice-admiral. In the following year he entire. Such monoliths have been from early times employed in the published in the Revue des deux mondes an article on the defici- construction cf obelisks and pillars. (J. A. H.) encies of the French navy which attracted considerable attention, JOINTURE, in law, a provision for a wife after the death of her and by his hostility to the Guizot ministry, as well as by an husband. As defined by Sir E. Coke, it is “a competent liveli- affectation of ill-will towards Great Britain, he gained consider- hood of freehold for the wife, of lands or tenements, to take effect able popularity. The revolution of 1848 nevertheless swept him presently in possession or profit after the death of her husband, away with the other Orleans princes. He hastened to quit for the life of the wife at least, if she herself be not the cause of Algeria, where he was then serving, and took refuge at Claremont, determination or forfeiture of it" (Co. Litt. 36b). A jointure in Surrey, with the rest of his family. In 1861, upon the break- is of two kinds, legal and equitable. A legal jointure was first ing out of the American Civil War, he proceeded to Washington, authorized by the Statute of Uses. Before this statute a husband and placed the services of his son and two of his nephews at the had no legal seisin in such lands as were vested in another to his disposal of the United States government. Otherwise, be was "! use,” but merely an equitable estate. Consequently it was little heard of until the overthrow of the Empire in 1870, when usual to make settlements on marriage, the most general form he re-entered France, only to be promptly expelled by the being the settlement by deed of an estate to the use of the government of national defence. Returning incognito, he joined husband and wife for their lives in joint tenancy (or“ jointure "), the army of General d'Aurelle de Paladines, under the assumed so that the whole would go to the survivor. Although, strictly name of Colonel Lutherod, fought bravely before Orleans, and speaking, a jointure is a joint estate limited to both husband and afterwards, divulging his identity, formally sought permission wife, in common acceptation the word extends also to a sole to serve. Gambretta, however, arrested him and sent him back estate limited to the wife only. The requisites of a legal jointure to England. In the National Assembly, elected in February 1871, are: (1) the jointure must take effect immediately after the the prince was returned by two departments and elected to sit husband's death; (2) it must be for the wiſe's life or for a greater for the Haute Marne, but, by an arrangement with Thiers, did ! 1 492 JOINVILLE, SIRE DE not take his seat until the latter had been chosen president of the istics of its composer. It does not, like Villehardouin, give us provincial republic. His deafness prevented him from making a picture of the temper and habits of a whole order or cast of any figure in the assembly, and he resigned his seat in 1876. In men during a heroic period of human history; it falls far short 1886 the provisions of the law against pretenders to the throne of Froissart in vivid portraying of the picturesque and external deprived him of his rank as vice-admiral, but he continued to live aspects of social life; but it is a more personal book than either. in France, and died in Paris on the 16th of June 1900. He had | The age and circumstances of the writer must not be forgotten married in 1843 the princess Francisca, sister of Pedro II., in reading it. He is a very old man telling of circumstances emperor of Brazil, and had a son, the duc de Penthièvre (born in which occurred in his youth. He evidently thinks that the times 1845), also brought up to the navy, and a daughter Françoise have not changed for the better—what with the frequency with (1844- ) who married the duc de Chartres in 1863. which the devil is invoked in modern France, and the sinful The prince de Joinville was the author of several essays and expenditure common in the matter of embroidered silk coats. pamphlets on naval affairs and other matters of public interest, But this laudation of times past concentrates itself almost wholly which were originally published for the most part either unsigned on the person of the sainted king whom, while with feudal inde- or pseudonymously, and subsequently republished under his own name after the fall of the Empire. They include Essais sur la marine pendence he had declined to swear fealty to him, “because I was française (1853); Études sur la marine (1859 and 1870); La Guerre not his man,” he evidently regarded with an unlimited reverence. d'Amérique, campagne du Potomac (1862 and 1872); Encore un mot His age, too, while garrulous to a degree, seems to have been free sur Sadowa (Brussels, 1868); and Vieux souvenirs (1894). from the slightest taint of boasting. No one perhaps ever took JOINVILLE, JEAN, SIRE DE (1224-1319), was the second less trouble to make himself out a hero than Joinville. He is great writer of history in Old French, and in a manner occupies constantly admitting that on such and such an occasion he was the interval between Villehardouin and Froissart. Numerous terribly afraid; he confesses without the least share that, when minor chroniclers fill up the gaps, but no one of them has the one of his followers suggested defiance of the Saracens and idiosyncrasy which distinguishes these three writers, who illus- voluntary death, he (Joinville) paid not the least attention to trate the three periods of the middle ages-adolescence, complete him; nor does he attempt to gloss in any way his refusal to ac- manhood, and decadence. Joinville was the head of a noble company St Louis on his unlucky second crusade, or his invin- family of the province of Champagne (see JOINVILLE, above). cible conviction that it was better to be in mortal sin than to have The provincial court of the counts of Champagne had long been the leprosy, or his decided preference for wine as little watered a distinguished one, and the action of Thibaut the poet, together as might be, or any other weakness. Yet he was a sincerely with the proximity of the district to Paris, made the province religious man, as the curious Credo, written at Acre and forming a less rebellious than most of the great feudal divisions of France kind of anticipatory appendix to the history, sufficiently shows. to the royal authority. Joinville's first appearance at the king's He presents himself as an altogether human person, brave enough court was in 1241, on the occasion of the knighting of Louis IX.'s in the field, and, at least when young, capable of extravagant younger brother Alphonse. Seven years afterwards he took the devotion to an ideal, provided the ideal was fashionable, but cross, thereby giving St Louis a valuable follower, and supplying having at bottom a sufficient respect for his own skin and a full himself with the occasion of an eternal memory. The crusade, consciousness of the side on which his bread is buttered. Nor in which he distinguished himself equally by wisdom and prowess, can he be said to be in all respects an intelligent traveller. There taught his practical spirit several lessons. He returned with were in him what may be called glimmerings of deliberate litera- the king in 1254. But, though his reverence for the personal ture, but they were hardly more than glimmerings. His famous character of his prince seems to have known no bounds, he had description of Greek fire has a most provoking mixture of circum- probably gauged the strategic faculties of the saintly king, and stantial detail with absence of verifying particulars. It is as he certainly had imbibed the spirit of the dictum that a man's matter-of-fact and comparative as Dante, without a touch of first duties are those to his own house. He was in the intervals Dante's genius. “ The fashion of Greek fire was such that it of residence on his own fief a constant attendant on the court, came to us as great as a tun of verjuice, and the fiery tail of it was but he declined to accompany the king on his last and fatal as big as a mighty lance; it made such noise in the coming that expedition. In 1282 he was one of the witnesses whose testimony it seemed like the thunder from heaven, and looked like a dragon was formally given at St Denis in the matter of the canonizatior flying through the air; so great a light did it throw that through- of Louis, and in 1298 he was present at the exhumation of the out the host men saw as though it were day for the light it threw." saint's body. It was not till even later that he began his literary Certainly the excellent seneschal has not stinted himself of com- work, the occasion being a request from Jeanne of Navarre, the parisons here, yet they can hardly be said to be luminous. That wife of Philippe le Bel and the mother of Louis 'le Hutin. The the thing made a great flame, a great noise, and struck terror great interval between his experiences and the period of the into the beholder is about the sum of it all. Every now and then composition of his history is important for the due comprehen- indeed a striking circumstance, strikingly told, occurs in Joinville, sion of the latter. Some years passed before the task was com- such as the famous incident of the woman who carried in one pleted, on its own showing, in October 1309. Jeanne was by hand a chafing dish of fire, in the other a phial of water, that she this time dead, and Joinville presented his book to her son Louis might burn heaven and quench hell, lest in future any man should the Quarreller. This original manuscript is now lost, whereby serve God merely for hope of the one or fear of the other. But hangs a tale. Great as was his age, Joinville had not ceased to in these cases the author only repeats what he has heard from be actively loyal, and in 1315 he complied with the royal sum- others. On his own account he is much more interested in small mons to bear arms against the Flemings. He was at Joinville personal details than in greater things. How the Saracens, when again in 1317, and on the 11th of July 1319 he died at the age of they took him prisoner, he being half dead with a complication ninety-five, leaving his possessions and his position as seneschal of diseases, kindly left him “un mien couverture d'écarlate" of Champagne to his second son Anselm. He was buried in the which his mother had given him, and which he put over him, neighbouring church of St Laurent, where during the Revolution having made a hole therein and bound it round him with a cord; his bones underwent profanation. Besides his Histoire de Saint how when he came to Acre in a pitiable condition an old Louis and his Credo or “ Confession of Faith " written much servant of his house presented himself, and“ brought me clean earlier, a considerable number, relatively speaking, of letters and white hoods and combed my hair most comfortably "; how he business documents concerning the fief of Joinville and so forth bought a hundred tuns of wine and served it—the best first, are extant. These have an importance which we shall consider according to high authority-well-watered to his private soldiers, further on; but Joinville owes his place in general estimation somewhat less watered to the squires, and to the knights neat, only to his history of his crusading experiences and of the subse- but with a suggestive phial of the weaker liquid to mix " si quent fate of St Louis. comme ils vouloient "-these are the details in which he seems of the famous French history books of the middle ages to take greatest pleasure, and for readers six hundred years after Joinville's bears the most vivid impress of the personal character. I date perhaps they are not the least interesting details. JOIST 493 It would, however, bė a mistake to imagine that Joinville's | Acre was the chief scene of Louis's stay in the East, and here book is exclusively or even mainly a chronicle of small beer. If Joinville lived in some state, and saw not a few interesting things, he is not a Villehardouin or a Carlyle, his battlepieces are vivid hearing besides much gossip as to the inferior affairs of Asia from and truthful, and he has occasional passages of no small episodic ambassadors, merchants and others. At last they journeyed importance, such as that dealing with the Old Man of the Moun- back again to France, not without considerable experiences of tain. But, above all, the central figure of his book redeems it the perils of the deep, which Joinville tells with a good deal of from the possibility of the charge of being commonplace or spirit. The remainder of the book is very brief. Some anecdotes ignoble. "To St Louis Joinville is a nobler Boswell; and hero of the king's“ justice," his favourite and distinguishing attribute worshipper, hero, and heroic ideal all have something of the during the sixteen years which intervened between the two sublime about them. The very pettiness of the details in which crusades, are given; then comes the story of Joinville's own the good seneschal indulges as to his own weakness only serves refusal to join the second expedition, a refusal which bluntly to enhance the sublime unworldliness of the king. Joinville is alleged the harm done by the king's men who stayed at home to a better warrior than Louis, but, while the former frankly prays the vassals of those who went abroad as the reason of Joinville's for his own safety, the latter only thinks of his army's when they resolution to remain behind. The death of the king at Tunis, have escaped from the hands of the aliens. One of the king's his enseignement to his son, and the story of his canonization knights boasts that ten thousand pieces have been“ forcontés” complete the work. (counted short) to the Saracens; and it is with the utmost trouble The book in which this interesting story is told has had a literary that Joinville and the rest can persuade the king that this is a history which less affects its matter than the vicissitudes to which joke, and that the Saracens are much more likely to have got Froissart has been subjected, but which is hardly less curious in its the advantage. He warns Joinville against wine-bibbing, way. There is no reason for supposing that Joinville indulged in various editions, such as those which have given Kervyn de Letten- against bad language, against all manner of foibles small and hove and Siméon Luce so much trouble, and which make so vast a great; and the pupil acknowledges that this physician at any rate difference between the first and the last redaction of the chronicler had healed himself in these respects. It is true that he is severe of the Hundred Years' War. Indeed the great age of the seneschal towards infidels; and his approval of the knight who, finding a of Champagne, and his intimate first-hand acquaintance with his subject, made such variations extremely improbable. But, whereas Jew likely to get the better of a theological argument, resorted to there is no great difficulty (though much labour) in ascertaining the the baculine variety of logic, does not meet the views of the 20th original and all subsequent texts of Froissart, the original text of century. But Louis was not of the 20th century but of the 13th, Joinville was until recently unknown, and even now may be said and after his kind he certainly deserved Joinville's admiration. to be in the state of a conjectural restoration. It has been said that the book was presented to Louis le Hutin. Now we have a Side by side with his indignation at the idea of cheating his catalogue of Louis le Hutin's library, and, strange to say, Joinville Saracen enemies may be mentioned his answer to those who after does not figure in it. His book seems to have undergone very much Taillebourg complained that he had let off Henry III. too easily. the same fate as that which befell the originals of the first two volumes “ He is my man now, and he was not before,” said the king, a of the Paston Letlers which Sir John Fenn presented to George the Third. Several royal library catalogues of the 14th century are most unpractical person certainly, and in some ways a sore saint known, but in none of these does the Hisloire de St Louis appear. for France. But it is easy to understand the half-despairing It does appear in that of Charles V. (1411), but apparently no adoration with which a shrewd and somewhat prosaic person like, copy even of this survives. As everybody knows, however, books Joinville must have regarded this flower of chivalry born out of could be and were multiplied by the process of copying tolerably due time. He has had his reward, for assuredly the portrait of freely, and a copy at first or second hand which belonged to the fiddler king René of Provence in the 15th century was used for the first St Louis, from the early collection of anecdotes to the last hearsay printed edition in 1547. Other editions were printed from other sketch of the woeful end at Tunis, with the famous enseignement versions, all evidently posterior to the original. But in 1741 the which is still the best summary of the theoretical duties of a well-known medievalist La Curne de St Palaye found at Lucca a Christian king in medieval times, is such as to take away all manuscript of the 16th century, evidently representing an older text than any yet printed. Three years later à 14th-century copy charge of vulgarity or mere commérage from Joinville, a charge was found at Brussels, and this is the standard manuscript authority to which otherwise he might perhaps have been exposed. for the text of Joinville.. Those who prefer to rest on MS. authority The arrangement of the book is, considering its circumstances will probably hold to this text, which appears in the well-known collection of Michaud and Poujoulat as well as that of Buchon, and and the date of its composition, sufficiently methodical. Accord- in a careful and useful separate edition by Francisque Michel. ing to its own account it is divided into three parts—the first The modern science of critical editing, however, which applies to dealing generally with the character and conduct of the hero; medieval texts the principles long recognized in editing the classics, the second with his acts and deeds in Egypt, Palestine, &c., as has discovered in the 16th-century manuscript, and still more in the Joinville knew them; the third with his subsequent life and death. original miscellaneous works of Joinville, the letters, deeds, &c., already alluded to, the materials for what we have already called a Of these the last is very brief, the first not long; the middle con- conjectural restoration, which is not without its interest, though stitutes the bulk of the work. The contents of the first part are, perhaps it is possible for that interest to be exaggerated. as might be expected, miscellaneous enough, and consist chiefly For merely general readers Buchon's or Michaud's editions of of stories chosen to show the valour of Louis, his piety, his justice, French, which, however, are hardly necessary, for the language is Joinville will amply suffice. Both include translations into modern his personal temperance, and so forth. The second part enters very easy.. Natalis de Wailly's editions of 1868 and particularly upon the history of the crusade itself, and tells how Joinville 1874 are critical editions, embodying the modern research connected pledged all his land save so much as would bring in a thousand with the text, the value of which is considerable, but contestable. livres a year, and started with a brave retinue of nine knights illustrations of great merit and value. Much valuable information They are accompanied by ample annotations and appendices, with (two of whom besides himself wore bannerets), and shared a ship appeared for the first time in the edition of F. Michel (1859). To with the sire d'Aspremont, leaving Joinville without raising his these may be added A. F. Didot's Éludes sur Joinville (1870) and eyes,“ pour ce que le cuer ne me attendrisist du biau chastel que H. F. Delaborde's Jean de Joinville (1894). A good sketch of the whole subject will be found in Aubertin's Histoire de la langue et je lessoie et de mes deux enfans "'; how they could not get out of de la littérature françaises au moyen âge, ii. 196-211; see also Gaston sight of a high mountainous island (Lampedusa or Pantellaria) Paris, Lill. française au moyen âge (1893), and A. Debidour, Les till they had made a procession round the masts in honour of the Chroniqueurs (1888). There are English translations by T. Johnes Virgin; how they reached first Cyprus and then Egypt; how they (1807), J. Hutton (1868), Ethel Wedgwood (1906), and (more liter- took Damietta, and then entangled themselves in the Delta. ally) Sir F. T. Marzials (“Everyman's Library," 1908). (G. SA.) Bad generalship, which is sufficiently obvious, unwholesome JOIST, in building, one of a row or tier of beams set edgewise food-it was Lent, and they ate the Nile fish which had been from one wall or partition to another and carrying the flooring feasting on the carcases of the slain-and Greek fire did the rest, boards on the upper edge and the laths of the ceiling on the lower. and personal valour was of little avail, not merely against superior In double flooring there are three series of joists, binding, bridging, numbers and better generals,but against dysentery and a certain and ceiling joists. The binding joists are the real support of the mal de l'ost " which attacked the mouth and the legs, a curious floor, running from wall to wall, and carrying the bridging human version of a well-known bestial malady. After ransom | joists above and the ceiling joists below (see CARPENȚRY), 494 JÓKAI-JOLIET The Mid. Eng. form of the word was giste or gysle, and was Timar's Two Worlds--and A léngerzemit hölgy (“ Eyes like the adapted from 0. Fr. gisle, modern gie, a beam supporting the Sea "), the latter of which won the Academy's prize in 1890. platform of a gun. By origin the word meant that on which He died at Budapest on the 5th of May 1904; his wife having anything lies or rests (gésir, to lie; Lat. jacere). predeceased him in 1886. Jókai was an arch-romantic, with a The English word “gist," in such phrases as “the gist of the perfervid Oriental imagination, and humour of the purest, rarest matter," the main or central point in an argument, is a doublet description. If one can imagine a combination, in almost equal of joist. According to Skeat, the origin of this meaning is an parts, of Walter Scott, William Beckford, Dumas père, and 0. Fr. proverbial expression, Je sçay bien où gist le lièvre, I know Charles Dickens, together with the native originality of an well where the hare lies, i.e. I know the real point of the matter. ardent Magyar, one may perhaps form a fair idea of the great JÓKAI, MAURUS (1825-1904), Hungarian novelist, was born Hungarian romancer's indisputable genius. at Rév-Komárom on the 19th of February 1825. His father, See Névy László, Jókai Mór; Hegedusis Sándor, Jókai Mórról; Joseph, was a member of the Asva branch of the ancient Jókay H. W Temperley, -- Maurus Jokai and the Historical Novel," Con. family; his mother was a scion of the noble Pulays. The lad temporary Review (July 1904). was timid and delicate, and therefore educated at home till his JOKJAKARTA, or JOKJOKARTA (more correctly JOKYAKARTA; tenth year, when he was sent to Pressburg, subsequently com- Du. Djokjakarla), a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East pleting his education at the Calvinist college at Pápá, where he Indies, bounded N by Kedu and Surakarta, E. by Surakarta, first met Petöfi, Alexander Kozma, and several other brilliant S. by the Indian Ocean, W. by Bagelen. Pop. (1897), 858,392. young men who subsequently became famous. His family had | The country is mountainous with the exception of a wedge-like meant him to follow the law, his father's profession, and accord strip in the middle between the rivers Progo and Upak. In the ingly the youth, always singularly assiduous, plodded conscien. north-west are the southern slopes of the volcano Merapi, and tiously through the usual curriculum at Kecskemet and Pest, in the east the Kidul hills and the plateau of Sewu. The last- and as a full-blown advocate actually succeeded in winning his named is an arid and scantily populated chalk range, with numer- first case. But the drudgery of a lawyer's office was uncon- ous small summits, whence it is also known as the Thousand genial to the ardently poetical youth, and, encouraged by the Hills. The remainder of the residency is well-watered and fer- encomiums pronounced by the Hungarian Academy upon his tile, important irrigation works having been carried out. Sugar, first play, Zsidó fiu (“ The Jew Boy ”), he flitted, when barely rice and indigo are cultivated; salt-making is practised on the twenty, to Pest in 1845 with a MS. romance in his pocket; he coast. The minerals include coal-beds in the Kidul hills and near was introduced by Petöfi to the literary notabilities of the Hun. Nangulan, marble and gold in the neighbourhood of Kalasan. garian capital, and the same year his first notable romance The natives are poor, owing chiefly to maladministration, the Hélköznapok (“ Working Days "), appeared, first in the columns use of opium and the usury practised by foreigners (Chinese, of the Pesti Dievallap, and subsequently, in 1846, in book form. Arabs, &c.). The principality is divided between the sultan Hétközna pok, despite its manifest crudities and extravagances, (vassal of the Dutch government, and the so-called independent was instantly recognized by all the leading critics as a work of prince Paku Alam; Ngawen and Imogiri are enclaves of Sura- original genius, and in the following year Jókai was appointed karta. There are good roads, and railways connect the chief the editor of Életképek, the leading Hungarian literary journal, town with Batavia, Samarang, Surakarta, &c. The town of and gathered round him all the rising talent of the country. On Jokjakarta (see Java) is the seat of the resident, the sultan and the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 the young editor enthusi- the Paku Alam princes, its most remarkable section is the kralon astically adopted the national cause, and served it with both pen or citadel of the sultan. Imogiri, S.W of the capital, the burial- and sword. Now, as ever, he was a moderate Liberal, setting his place of the princes of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, is guarded by face steadily against all excesses; but, carried away by the priests and officials. Sentolo, Nangulan, Brosot, Kalasan, Hungarian triumphs of April and May 1849, he supported Tempel, Wonosari are considerable villages. There are numerous Kossuth's fatal blunder of deposing the Hapsburg dynasty, and remains of Hindu temples, particularly in the neighbourhood of though, after the war was over, his life was saved by an ingenious Kalasan near the border of Surakarta and Prambanan, which is stratagem of his wife, the great tragic actress, Roza Benke just across it. Remarkable sacred grottoes are found on the Laborfalvi, whom he had married on the 29th of August 1848, coast, namely, the so-called Nyabi Kidul and Rongkob, and at he lived for the next fourteen years the life of a political suspect. Selarong, south-east of Jokjakarta. Yet this was perhaps the most glorious period of his existence, JOLIET, a city and the county-seat of Will county, Illinois, for during it he devoted himself to the rehabilitation of the pro- | U.S.A., in the township of Joliet, in the N.E. part of the state, scribed and humiliated Magyar language, composing in it no on the Des Plaines river, 40 m. S.W of Chicago. Pop. (1890), fewer than thirty great romances, besides innumerable volumes of 23,264; (1900), 29,353, of whom 8536 were foreign-born, 1889 tales, essays, criticisms and facetiæ. This was the period of such being German, 1579 Austrian, 1206 Irish and 951 Swedish; masterpieces as Erdély Arany Kord (“ The Golden Age of Tran-|(1910 census) 34,670. In addition there is a large population sylvania "), with its sequel Törökvilág Magyarországon (“ The in the immediate suburbs: that of the township including the Turks in Hungary'), Egy Magyar Nábob(“A Hungarian Nabob"), city was 27,438 in 1890, and 50,640 in 1910. Joliet is served by Karpáthy Zoltán, Janicsárok végnapjai (“ The Last Days of the the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago & Alton, the Janissaries”), Szomorú na pok (“Sad Days”). On the re-estab- Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Michigan Central, the lishment of the Hungarian constitution by the Composition of Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota, and the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern 1867, Jókai took an active part in politics. As a constant sup- railways, by interurban electric lines, and is on the Illinois & porter of the Tisza administration, not only in parliament, Michigan canal and the Chicago Sanitary (ship) canal. The where he sat continuously for more than twenty years, but also city is situated in a narrow valley, on both sides of the river. It as the editor of the government organ, Hon, founded by him in is the seat of the northern Illinois penitentiary, and has a public 1863, he became a power in the state, and, though he never took library (in front of which is a statue, by S. Asbjornsen, of Louis office himself, frequently extricated the government from difficult Joliet), the township high school, two hospitals, two Catholic places. In 1897 the emperor appointed him a member of the academies and a club-house, erected by the Illinois Steel Company upper house. As a suave, practical and witty debater he was for the use of its employees. There are two municipal parks, particularly successful. Yet it was to literature that he con- West Park and Highland Park; Dellwood Park is an amusement tinued to devote most of his time, and his productiveness after resort, owned by the Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway Company. 1870 was stupendous, amounting to some hundreds of volumes. In the vicinity are large deposits of calcareous building stone, Stranger still, none of this work is slipshod, and the best of it cement and fireclay, and there are coal mines 20 m. distant. deserves to endure. Amongst the finest of his later works may Mineral resources and water-power have facilitated the develop- be mentioned the unique and incomparable Az arany ember ment of manufactures. The factory product in 1905 was valued (“ A Man of Gold ")-translated into English under the title of l at $33,788,700 (20.3% more than in 1900), a large part of which JOLLY-JOMINI 495 a was represented by iron and steel goods. "There are large 6th of March 1779 at Payerne in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland, industrial establishments just outside the city limits. The first where his father was syndic. His youthful preference for a settlement on the site of Joliet (1833) was called Juliet, in military life was disappointed by the dissolution of the Swiss honour of the daughter of James B. Campbell, one of the settlers. regiments of France at the Revolution. For some time he was a The present name was adopted in 1845, in memory of Louis clerk in a Paris banking-house, until the outbreak of the Swiss Joliet (1645-1700), the French Canadian explorer of the Missis-revolution. At the age of nineteen he was appointed to a post sippi, and in 1852 a city charter was secured. on the Swiss headquarters staff, and when scarcely twenty-one to JOLLY (from 0. Fr. jolif; Fr. joli, the French word is obscure the command of a battalion. At the peace of Lunéville in 1801 in origin; it may be from late Lat. gaudivus, from gaudere, he returned to business life in Paris, but devoted himself chiefly to rejoice, the change of d to l being paralleled by cigada to preparing the celebrated Traité des grandes opérations mili- and cigale, or from 0. Norse jol, Eng. “ yule," the northern laires, which was published in 1804-1805. Introduced to Marshal festival of midwinter), and adjective meaning gay, cheerful, jovial, Ney, he served in the campaign of Austerlitz as a volunteer high-spirited. The colloquial use of the term as an intensive aide-de-camp on Ney's personal staff. In December 1805 adverb, meaning extremely, very, was in early usage quite Napoleon, being much impressed by a chapter in Jomini's treatise, literary; thus John Trapp (1601-1669), Commentaries on the made him a colonel in the French service. Ney thereupon made New Testament, Matthew (1647), writes, “ All was jolly quiet him his principal aide-de-camp. In 1806 Jomini published his at Ephesus before St Paul came hither.” In the royal navy views as to the conduct of the impending war with Prussia, and "jolly” used as a substantive, is the slang name for a marine. this, along with his knowledge of Frederick the Great's campaigns, To " jolly” is a slang synonym for “chaff.” The word “jolly- which he had described in the Traité, led Napoleon to attach him boat," the name of a ship's small broad boat, usually clinker- to his own headquarters. He was present with Napoleon at built, is of doubtful etymology. It occurs in English in the the battle of Jena, and at Eylau won the cross of the Legion of 18th century, and is usually connected with Dan. or Swed. Honour. After the peace of Tilsit he was made chief of the staff jolle, Dutch jol, a small ship's boat; these words are properly to Ney, and created a baron. In the Spanish campaign of represented in English by" yawl ” originally a ship's small boat, 1808 his advice was often of the highest value to the marshal, now chiefly used of a rig of sailing vessels, with a cutter-rigged but Jomini quarrelled with his chief, and was left almost at the foremast and a small mizzen stepped far aſt, with a spanker mercy of his numerous enemies, especially Berthier, the emperor's sail (see RIGGING). A connexion has been suggested with a chief of staff. Overtures had been made to him, as early as word of much earlier appearance in English, jolywat, or gellywatte. 1807, to enter the Russian service, but Napoleon, hearing of his This occurs at the end of the 15th century and is used of a smaller intention to leave the French army, compelled him to remain in type of ship's boat. This is supposed to be a corruption of the service with the rank of general of brigade. For some years the French galiote or Dutch galjoot, galliot (see GALLEY). The thereafter Jomini held both a French and a Russian commission, galliot was, however, a large vessel. with the consent of both sovereigns. But when war between JOLY DÉ LOTBINIÈRE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE (1829-1908), France and Russia broke out, he was in a difficult position, Canadian politician, was born at Epernay in France on the 5th which he ended by taking a command on the line of communica- of December 1829. His father, Gaspard Pierre Gustave Joly, tion. He was thus engaged when the retreat from Moscow and the owner of famous vineyards at Epernay, was of Huguenot the uprising of Prussia transferred the seat of war to central descent, and married Julie Christine, grand-daughter of Eustache Germany. He promptly rejoined Ney, took part in the battle Gaspard Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, marquis de Lotbinière of Lützen and, as chief of the staff of Ney's group of corps, (one of Montcalm's engineers at Quebec); he thus became rendered distinguished services before and at the battle of Baut- seigneur de Lotbinière. Henri Gustave adopted the name of de zen, and was recommended for the rank of general of division. Lotbinière in 1888, under a statute of the province of Quebec. Berthier, however, not only erased Jomini's name from the list, He was educated in Paris, and called to the bar of lower Canada but put him under arrest and censured him in army orders for in 1858. On the bih of May 1856 he married Margaretta Josepha failing to supply certain returns that had been called for. How (d. 1904), daughter of Hammond Gowen, of Quebec. At the far Jomini was held responsible for certain misunderstandings general election of 1861 he was elected to the house of assembly which prevented the attainment of all the results hoped for from of the province of Canada as Liberal member for the county of Ney's attack (see BAUTZEN) there is no means of knowing. But Lotbinière, and from 1867 to 1874 he represented the same the pretext for censure was trivial and baseless, and during the county in the House of Commons, Ottawa, and in the legislative armistice Jomini did as he had intended to do in 1809–10, and assembly, Quebec. Joly was opposed to confederation and went into the Russian service. As things then were, this supported Dorion in the stand which he took on this question. was tantamount to deserting to the enemy, and so it was In 1878 he was called by Luc Letellier de St Just, lieutenant- regarded by Napoleon and by the French army, and by governor of Quebec, to form an administration, which was de- not a few of his new comrades. It must be observed, in feated in 1879, and until 1883 he was leader of the opposition. Jomini's defence, that he had for years held a dormant During his brief administration he adopted a policy of retrench-commission in the Russian army, that he had declined to ment, and endeavoured to abolish the legislative council. In take part in the invasion of Russia in 1812, and that he was a 1885, as a protest against the attitude of his party towards Swiss and not a Frenchman. His patriotism was indeed un- Louis Riel, who was tried and executed for high treason, he questioned, and he withdrew from the Allied Army in 1814 when retired from public life. Early in the year 1895 he was induced he found that he could not prevent the violation of Swiss neu- again to take an active part in the campaign of his party, and at trality. Apart from love of his own country, the desire to study, the general election of 1896 he was returned as member for the to teach and to practise the art of war was his ruling motive. county of Portneuf. He had already in 1895 been created at the critical moment of the battle of Eylau he exclaimed, K.C.M.G On the formation of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's adminis. "Il I were the Russian commander for two hours !” On tration, he accepted the office of controller of inland revenue, and joining the allies he received the rank of lieutenant-general and a year later he became a privy councillor, as minister of inland the appointment of aide-de-camp from the tsar, and rendered revenue. From 1900 to 1906 he was lieutenant-governor of the important assistance during the German campaign, though the province of British Columbia. He twice declined a seat in the charge that he betrayed the numbers, positions and intentions senate, but rendered eminent service to Canada by promoting of the French to the enemy was later acknowledged by Napoleon the interest of agriculture, horticulture and of forestry He to be without foundation. He declined as a Swiss patriot and died on the 17th of November 1908. (A G. D.) as a French officer to take part in the passage of the Rhine at JOMINI, ANTOINE HENRI, BARON (1779-1869), general in Basel and the subsequent invasion of France. the French and afterwards in the Russian service, and one of In 1815 he was with the emperor Alexander in Paris, and the most celebrated writers on the art of war, was born on the attempted in vain to save the life of his old commander Ney. 496 JOMMELLI-JONAH " This almost cost him his position in the Russian service, but | Jonah, but how different a man is he! It is, however, the later he succeeded in making head against his enemies, and took part Jonah who chiefly interests us. New problems have arisen out in the congress of Vienna. Resuming, after a period of several of the book which relates to him, but here we can only attempt years of retirement and literary work, his post in the Russian to consider what, in a certain sense, may be called the surface army, he was about 1823 made a full general, and thenceforward meaning of the text. until his retirement in 1829 he was principally employed in the This, then is what we appear to be told. The prophet Jonah military education of the tsarevich Nicholas (afterwards emperor) is summoned to go to Nineveh, a great and wicked city (cf. 4 and in the organization of the Russian staff college, which was Esdras ii. 8, 9), and prophesy against it. Jonah, however, is opened in 1832 and still bears its original name of the Nicholas afraid (iv. 2) that the Ninevites may repent, so, instead of going academy. In 1828 he was employed in the field in the Russo to Nineveh, he proceeds to Joppa, and takes his passage in a Turkish War, and at the siege of Varna he was given the grand ship bound for Tarshish. But soon a storm arises, and, suppli- cordon of the Alexander order. This was his last active service. cation to the gods failing, the sailors cast lots to discover the In 1829 he settled at Brussels where he chiefly lived for the next guilty man who has brought this great trouble. The lot falls thirty years. In 1853, after trying without success to bring on Jonah, who has been roughly awakened by the captain, and about a political understanding between France and Russia, when questioned frankly owns that he is a Hebrew and a wor- Jomini was called to St Petersburg to act as a military adviser shipper of the divine creator Yahweh, from whom he has sought to the tsar during the Crimean War. He returned to Brussels to flee (as if He were only the god of Canaan), Jonah advises on the conclusion of peace in 1856 and some years afterwards the sailors to throw him into the sea. This, after praying to settled at Passy near Paris. He was busily employed up to the Yahweh, they actually do; at once the sea becomes calm and end of his life in writing treatises, pamphlets and open letters they sacrifice to Yahweh. Meantime God has appointed a on subjects of military art and history, and in 1859 he was asked great fish ” which swallows up Jonah Three days and three by Napoleon III. to furnish a plan of campaign in the Italian nights he is in the fish's belly, till, at a word from Yahweh, War. One of his last essays dealt with the war of 1866 and theit vomits Jonah on to the dry ground. Again Jonah receives influence of the breech-loading rifle, and he died at Passy on the divine call. This time he obeys. After delivering his the 24th of March 1869 only a year before the Franco-German message to Nineveh he makes himself a booth outside the walls War. Thus one of the earliest of the great military theorists and waits in vain for the destruction of the city (probably iv. lived to speculate on the tactics of the present day. 5 is misplaced and should stand after iii. 4). Thereupon Jonah As an Amongst his numerous works the principal, besides the Traité, beseeches Yahweh to take away his worthless life. are: Histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la Révolution answer Yahweh “ appoints a small quickly-growing tree with (1806; new ed. 1819-1824); Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon large leaves (the castor-oil plant) to come up over the angry racontée par lui-même (1827) and, perhaps the best known of all his prophet and shelter him from the sun. But the next day the publications, the theoretical Précis de l'art de la guerre (1836). Sce Ferdinand Lecomte, Le Général Jomini, sa vie et ses écrits beneficent tree perishes by God's“ appointment” from a worm- (1861; new ed. 1888); C. A. Saint-Beuve, Le Général Jomini (1869): bite. Once more God “appoints” something; it is the east A. Pascal, Observations historiques sur la vie, &c., du général Jomini wind, which, together with the fierce heat, brings Jonah again to (1842), desperation. The close is fine, and reminds us of Job. God JOMMELLI, NICCOLA (1714-1774), Italian composer, was himself gives short-sighted man a lesson. Jonah has pitied born at Aversa near Naples on the roth of September 1714. the tree, and should not God have pity on so great a city? He received his musical education at two of the famous music Two results of criticism are widely accepted. One relates to schools of that capital, being a pupil of the Conservatorio de' the psalm in ch. ii., which has been transferred from some other poveri di Gesù Cristo under Feo, and also of the Conservatorio place; it is in fact an anticipatory thanksgiving for the deliverance della pietà dei Turchini under Prota, Mancini and Leo. His of Israel, mostly composed of phrases from other psalms. The first opera, L'Errore amoroso, was successfully produced at other is that the narrative before us is not historical but an Naples (under a pseudonym) when Jommelli was only twenty- imaginative story (such as was called a Midrash) based upon three. Three years afterwards he went to Rome to bring out Biblical data and tending to edification. It is, however, a story two new operas, and thence to Bologna, where he profited by the of high type. The narrator considered that Israel had to be advice of Padre Martini, the greatest contrapuntist of his age. a prophet to the“ nations" at large, that Israel had, like Jonah, In the meantime Jommelli's fame began to spread beyond the neglected its duty and for its punishment was swallowed up limits of his country, and in 1748 he went for the first time to in foreign lands. God had watched over His people and prepared Vienna, where one of his finest operas, Didone, was produced its choicer members to fulfil His purpose. This company of Three years later he returned to Italy, and in 1753 he obtained faithful but not always sufficiently charitable men represented the post of chapel-master to the duke of Württemberg at Stutt- their people, so that it might be said that Israel itself (the second gart, which city he made his home for a number of years. In Isaiah's “ Servant of Yahweh ”-see ISAIAH) had taken up its the same year he had ten commissions to write operas for princely duty, but in an ungenial spirit which grieved the All-merciful courts. In Stuttgart he permitted no operas but his own to be One. The book, which is post-exilic, may therefore be grouped produced, and he modified his style in accordance with German with another Midrash, the Book of Ruth, which also appears to taste, so much that, when after an absence of fifteen years he represent a current of thought opposed to the exclusive spirit returned to Naples, his countrymen hissed two of his operas off of Jewish legalism. the stage. He retired in consequence to his native village, and Some critics, however, think that the key of symbolism needs only occasionally emerged from his solitude to take part in the to be supplemented by that of mythology. The "great fish musical life of the capital. His death took place on the 25th of especially has a very mythological appearance. The Babylonian August 1774, his last composition being the celebrated Miserere, dragon myth (see Cosmogony) is often alluded to in the Old a setting for two female voices of Saverio Mattei's Italian para- Testament, e.g. in Jer. li. 44, which, as the present writer long phrase of Psalm li. Jommelli is the most representative com- since pointed out, may supply the missing link between Jonah i. poser of the generation following Leo and Durante. He ap- 17 and the original myth. For the “great fish” is ultimately proaches very closely to Mozart in his style, and is important as Tiāmat, the dragon of chaos, represented historically by Nebu- one of the composers who, by welding together German and chadrezzar, by whom for a time God permitted or “ appointed Italian characteristics, helped to form the musical language of Israel to be swallowed up. the great composers of the classical period of Vienna. For further details see T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib.,," Jonah "; JONAH, in the Bible, a prophet born at Gath-hepher in and his article " Jonah, a Study in Jewish Folklore and Religion, Zebulun, perhaps under Jeroboam (2) (781-741 B.C.?), who fore Theological Review (1877), pp. 211-219. König, Hastings's Dice. told the deliverance of Israel from the Aramaeans (2 Kings xiv Bible.“ Jonah," is full but not lucid: C. H. Ħ. Wright, Biblical Studies (1886) argues ably for the symbolic theory. Against Cheyne, 25). This prophet may also be the hero of the much later book of see Marti's work on the Minor Prophets (1894); the “ . great fish JONAH497 - —JONES, A. G. and the " three days and three nights " remain unexplained by this sorship of law was attached. His great admiration for Erasmus writer. On these points see Zimmern, K.A.T. (3), pp: 366, 389, 508. first led him to Greek and biblical studies, and his election in The difficulties of the mission of a Hebrew prophet to Asshur are diminished by Cheyne's later theory, Crilica Biblica (1904), May, 1519 as rector of the university was regarded as a triumph pp. 150–152. (T. K. C.) for the partisans of the New Learning. It was not, however, JONAH, RABBI (ABULWALID MERWAN IBN JANAH, also R. until after the Leipzig disputation with Eck that Luther won MARIŅUS) (c. 990-C. 1950), the greatest Hebrew grammarian and his allegiance. He accompanied Luther to Worms in 1521, and lexicographer of the middle ages. He was born before the year law at Wittenberg. During Luther's stay in the Wartburg there was appointed by the elector of Saxony professor of canon 990, in Cordova, studied in Lucena, left his native city in 2012, Jonas was one of the most active of the Wittenberg reformers. and, after somewhat protracted wanderings, settled in Saragossa, where he died before 1050. He was a physician, and Ibn Abị Giving himself up to preaching and polemics, he aided the Uşaibia, in his treatise on Arabian doctors, mentions him as the Reformation by his gift as a translator, turning Luther's and author of a medical work. But Rabbi Jonah saw the true Melanchthon's works into German or Latin as the case might vocation of his life in the scientific investigation of the Hebrew be, thus becoming a sort of double of both. He was busied in language and in a rational biblical exegesis based upon sound conferences and visitations during the next twenty years, and linguistic knowledge. It is true, he wrote no actual commentary successful preaching crusade in Halle; he became superintendent in diplomatic work with the princes. In 1541 he began a on the Bible, but his philological works exercised the greatest of its churches in 1542. influence on Judaic exegesis. His first work-composed, like In 1546 he was present at Luther's all the rest, in Arabic-bears the title Almustalḥa, and forms, in the same year was banished from the duchy by Maurice, deathbed at Eisleben, and preached the funeral sermon; but as is indicated by the word, a criticism and at the same time a supplement to the two works of Yehuda 'Hayyuj on the verbs duke (later elector) of Saxony. From that time until his death, with weak-sounding and double-sounding roots. These two trac-Jonas was unable to secure a satisfactory living. He wandered tates, with which 'Hayyuj had laid the foundations of scientific from place to place preaching, and finally went to Eisfeld (1553), Hebrew grammar, were recognized by Abulwalid as the basis where he died. He had been married three times. of his own grammatical investigations, and Abraham Ibn Daud, G. Kawerau (2 vols., Halle, 1884–1885); Kawerau's article in Herzog- See Briefswechsel des Justus Jonas, gesammelt und bearbeitet von when enumerating the great Spanish Jews in his history, sums Hauck, Realencyklopädie, ed. 3, with bibliography. up the significance of R. Jonah in the words: “He completed what 'Hayyuj had begun.” JONATHAN (Heb. “Yah (weh) gives"). Of the many The principal work of R. Jonah is the Kitab al Tankih (“Book of Exact Investigation”), which con- Jewish bearers of this name, three are well known: (1) the sists of two parts, regarded as two distinct books-the Kitab al- grandson of Moses, who was priest at Dan (Judg. xviii. 30). Luma ("Book of Many-coloured Flower-beds") and the Kitab al- The reading Manasseh (see R.V. mg.; obtained by inserting uşul (“Book of Roots”). The former (ed. J. Derenbourg, Paris, l above the consonantal text in the Hebrew) is apparently 1886) contains the grammar, the latter (ed. Ad. Neubauer, Oxford, intended to suggest that he was the son of that idolatrous king. 1875) the lexicon of the Hebrew language. Both works are also (2) The eldest son of Saul, who, together with his father, published in the Hebrew translation of Yehuda Ibn Tibbon frecd Israel from the crushing oppression of the Philistines (Sefer Ha-Rikmah, ed. B. Goldberg, Frankfurt am Main, 1855; (1 Sam. xiii. seq.)Both are lauded in an elegy quoted from the Sefer Ha-Schoraschim, ed. W. Bacher, Berlin, 1897). The other heroism, and their labours on behalf of the people. Jonathan's Book of Jashar (2 Sam. i.) for their warm mutual love, their writings of Rabbi Jonah, so far as extant, have appeared in an edition of the Arabic original accompanied by a French transla- name is most familiar for the firm friendship which subsisted tion (Opuscules et traités d’Abou'l Walid, ed. Joseph and Hartwig xxiii. 16–18), and when he fell at the battle of Gilboa and left between him and David (1 Sam. xviii. 1-4; xix. 1-7; xx., xxii. 8; Derenbourg, Paris 1880). A few fragments and numerous quotations in his principal book form our only knowledge of the behind him a young child (1 Sam. xxxi.; 2 Sam. iv. 4), David Kitab al-Tashwir (“ Book of Refutation") a controversial work took charge of the youth and gave him a place at his court in four parts, in which Rabbi Jonah successfully repelled the (2 Sam. ix.). See further DAVID, Saul. (3) The Maccabee attacks of the opponents of his first treatise. At the head of (see Jews; MACCABEES). this opposition stood the famous Samuel Ibn Nagdela (S. Ha- JONCIÈRES, VICTORIN (1839-1903), French composer, was Nagid) a disciple of 'Hayyuj. The grammatical work of Rabbi born in Paris on the 12th of April 1839. He first devoted his Jonah extended, moreover, to the domain of rhetoric and attention to painting, but afterwards took up the serious study biblical hermeneutics, and his lexicon contains many exeget- of music. 'He entered the Paris Conservatoire, but did not ical excursuses. This lexicon is of especial importance by reason remain there long, because he had espoused too warmly the of its ample contribution to the comparative philology of cause of Wagner against his professor. He composed the the Semitic languages-Hebrew and Arabic, in particular. following, operas: Sardanapale (1867), Le Dernier jour de Abulwalid's works mark the culminating point of Hebrew Pompéi (1869), Dimitri (1876), La Reine Berthe (1878), Le scholarship during the middle ages, and he attained a level Chevalier Jean (1885), Lancelot (1900). He also wrote incidental which was not surpassed till the modern development of philo- music to Hamlet, a symphony, and other works. Joncières logical science in the 19th century. admiration for Wagner asserted itself rather in a musical than a See S. Munk, Notice sur Abou'l Walid (Paris, 1851); W. Bacher, dramatic sense. The influence of the German master's earlier Leben und Werke des Abulwalid und die Quellen seiner Schrifterklärung style can be traced in his operas. Joncières, however, adhered (Leipzig, 1885); id., Aus der Schrifterklärung des Abulwalid (Leip to the recognized forms of the French opera and did not zig, 1889); id., Die hebr.-arabische Sprachvergleichung des Abulwalid model his works according to the later developments of the (Vienna, 1884); id., Die hebräisch-neuhebräische und hebr.-aramäische Wagnerian" music drama.”: He may indeed be said to have Sprachvergleichung des Abulwalid (Vienna, 1885). (W.Ba.) been at least as much influenced by Gounod as by Wagner. JONAS, JUSTUS (1493–1555), German Protestant reformer, From 1871 he was musical critic for La Liberté. · He died on was born at Nordhausen in Thuringia, on the 5th of June 1493. the 26th of October 1903. His real name was Jodokus (Jobst) Koch, which he changed JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906), Canadian politician, according to the common custom of German scholars in the was born at Weymouth, Nova Scotia, in September 1824, the 16th century, when at the university of Erfurt. He entered son of Guy C. Jones of Yarmouth, and grandson of a United that university in 1506, studied law and the humanities, and Empire Loyalist. In 1865 he opposed the federation of the became Master of Arts in 1510. In 1511 he went to Wittenberg, British American provinces, and, in his anger at the refusal of where he took his bachelor's degree in law. He returned to the British government to repeal such portions of the British Erfurt in 1514 or 1515, was ordained priest, and in 1518 was North America Act as referred to Nova Scotia, made a speech promoted doctor in both faculties and appointed to a well which won for him the name of Haul-down-the-flag Jones. He endowed canonry in the church of St Severus, to which a profes- I was for many years a member of the Federal Parliament, and 2a XV 9 498 JONES, SIR A. L.-JONES, INIGO for a few months in 1878 was minister of militia under the Liberal became the leader of what remained of the Chartist party and government. Largely owing to his influence the Liberal party editor of its organ. But he was almost its only public speaker; refused in 1878 to abandon its Free Trade policy, an obstinacy he was out of sympathy with the other leading Chartists, and which led to its defeat in that year. In 1900 he was appointed soon joined the advanced Radical party. Thenceforward he lieutenant-governor of his native province, and held this position devoted himself to law and literature, writing novels, tales and till his death on the 15th of March 1906. political songs. He made several unsuccessful attempts to JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909), British shipowner, enter parliament, and was about to contest Manchester, with was born in Carmarthenshire, in 1845. At the age of twelve he the certainty of being returned, when he died there on the 26th was apprenticed to the managers of the African Steamship of January 1869. He is believed to have sacrificed a consider. Company at Liverpool, making several voyages to the west able fortune rather than abandon his Chartist principles. His coast of Africa. By the time he was twenty-six he had risen wiſe was Jane Atherley; and his son, Llewellyn Atherley-Jones, to be manager of the business. Not finding sufficient scope in K.C. (b. 1851), became a well-known barrister and Liberal this post, he borrowed money to purchase two or three small member of parliament. sailing vessels, and started in the shipping business on his own JONES, HENRY (1831-1899), English author, well known as a account. The venture succeeded, and he made additions to his writer on whist under his nom de guerre“ Cavendish,” was born fleet, but after a few years' successful trading, realizing that in London on the 2nd of November 1831, being the eldest son of sailing ships were about to be superseded by steamers, he sold Henry D. Jones, a niedical practitioner. He adopted his father's his vessels. About this time (1891) Messrs. Elder, Dempster profession, established himself in 1852 and continued for sixteen & Co., who purchased the business of the old African Steamship years in practice in London. The father was a keen devotee of Company, offered him a managerial post. This offer he accepted, whist, and under his eye the son became early in life a good player. subject to Messrs. Elder, Dempster selling him a number of their He was a member of several whist clubs, among them the“ Caven- shares, and he thus acquired an interest in the business, and dish,” and in 1862 appeared his Principles of Whist, stated and subsequently, by further share purchases, its control. See explained by “ Cavendish,” which was destined to become the further STEAMSHIP LINES. In 1901 he was knighted. Sir leading authority as to the practice of the game. This work Alfred Jones took a keen interest in imperial affairs, and was was followed by treatises on the laws of piquet and écarté. instrumental in founding the Liverpool school of tropical “ Cavendish ” also wrote on billiards, lawn tennis and croquet, medicine. He acquired considerable territorial interests in and contributed articles on whisi and other games to the ninth West Africa, and financial interests in many of the companies edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Cavendish' was not engaged in opening up and developing that part of the world. a law-maker, but he codified and commented upon the laws which He also took the leading part in opening up a new line of com- had been made during many generations of card-playing.” One munication with the West Indies, and stimulating the Jamaica of the most noteworthy points in his character was the manner fruit trade and tourist traffic. He died on the 13th of December in which he kept himself abreast of improvements in his favourite 1909, leaving large charitable bequests. game. He died on the roth of February 1899. JONES, EBENEZER (1820-1860), British poet, was born in JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- ), English dramatist, Islington, London, on the 20th of January 1820. His father, was born at Grandborough, Buckinghamshire, on the 28th of who was of Welsh extraction, was a strict Calvinist, and Ebenezer September 1851 the son of Silvanus Jones, a farmer. He began was educated at a dull, middle-class school. The death of his to earn his living early, his spare time being given to literary father obliged him to become a clerk in the office of a tea pursuits. He was twenty-seven before his first piece, Only merchant. Shelley and Carlyle were his spiritual masters, and Round the Corner, was produced at the Exeter Theatre, but within he spent all his spare time in reading and writing; but he four years of his debut as a dramatist he scored a great success by developed an exaggerated style of thought and expression, due The Silver King (November 1882), written with Henry Herman, a partly to a defective education. The unkind reception of his melodrama produced by Wilson Barrett at the Princess's Theatre. Studies of Sensation and Event (1843) seemed to be the last drop Its financial success enabled the author to write a play “to in his bitter cup of life. Baffled and disheartened, he destroyed please himself.” Saints and Sinners (1884), which ran fòr two kis manuscripts. He earned his living as an accountant and by hundred nights, placed on the stage a picture of middle-class life literary hack work, and it was not until he was rapidly dying of and religion in a country town, and the introduction of the consumption that he wrote his three remarkable poems,“ Winter religious element raised considerable outcry. The author de- Hymn to the Snow,” “When the World is Burning" and "To fended himself in an article published in the Nineteenth Century Death." The fame that these and some of the pieces in the (January 1885), taking for his starting-point a quotation from early volume brought to their author came too late. He died the preface to Molière's Tartuſſe. His next serious piece was on the 14th of September 1860. The Middleman (1889), followed by Judah (1890), both power- It was not till 1870 that Dante Gabriel Rossetti praised his work ful plays, which established his reputation. Later plays were in Notes and Queries. Rossetti's example was followed by W. B. The Dancing Girl (1891), The Crusaders (1891), The Bauble Shop Scott, Theodore Watts-Dunton, who contributed some papers (1893), The Tempter (1893), The Masqueraders (1894), The Case of on the subject to the Athenaeum (September and October 1878), Revellious Susan (1894), The Triumph of the Philistines (1895), and R. H. Sheppard, who edited Studies of Sensation and Event Michael and his Lost Angel (1896), The Rogue's Comedy (1896), The in 1879. Physician (1897), The Liars (1897), Carnac Sahib (1899), The JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869), English Chartist, Manæuvres of Jane (1899), The Lackeys' Carnival (1900), Mrs was born at Berlin on the 25th of January 1819, and educated Dane's Defence (1900), The Princess's Nose (1902), Chance the Idol in Germany. His father, an officer in the British army, was then (1902), Whitewashing Julia (1903), Joseph Entangled (1904), The equerry to the duke of Cumberland-afterwards king of Hanover, Chevalier (1904), &c. A uniform edition of his plays began to be In 1838 Jones came to England, and in 1841 published anony- issued in 1891; and his own views of dramatic art have been mously The Wood Spirit, a romantic novel. This was followed expressed from time to time in lectures and essays, collected in by some songs and poems. In 1844 he was called to the bar at 1895 as The Renascence of the English Drama. the Middle Temple. In 1845 he joined the Chartist agitation, JONES, INIGO (1573-1651). „English architect, sometimes quickly becoming its most prominent figure, and vigorously called the “ English Palladio," the son of a cloth-worker, was carrying on the party's campaign on the platform and in the born in London on the 15th of July 1573. It is stated that he press. His speeches, in which he openly advocated physical was apprenticed to a joiner, but at any rate his talent for drawing force, led to his prosecution, and he was sentenced in 1848 to attracted the attention of Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel two years' imprisonment for sedition. While in prison he wrote, (some say William, 3rd earl of Pembroke), through whose help he it is said in his own blood on leaves torn from a prayer-book, went to study landscape-painting in Italy. His preference soon The Revolt of Hindostan, an epic poem. On his release be again I transferred itself to architecture, and, following chiefly the style JONES, J.-JONES, J. P. 499 ) 06 2) of Palladio, he acquired at Venice such a reputation that in 1604, and then of the “ Alfred " he cruised between Bermuda and he was invited by Christian IV. to Denmark, where he is said to Nova Scotia, inflicting much damage on British shipping and have designed the two great royal palaces of Rosenborg and fisheries. On the roth of October 1776 he was promoted captain. Frederiksborg. In the following year he accompanied Anne of On the ist of November 1777 he sailed in the sloop-of-war Denmark to the court of James I. of England, where, besides “Ranger” for France with despatches for the American com- being appointed architect to the queen and Prince Henry, he was missioners, announcing the surrender of Burgoyne and asking employed in supplying the designs and decorations of the court that Jones should be supplied with a swift frigate for harassing masques. After a second visit to Italy in 1612, Jones was ap- the coasts of England. Failing to secure a frigate, Jones sailed pointed surveyor-general of royal buildings by James I., and was from Brest in the “ Ranger " on the ioth of April 1778. A few engaged to prepare designs for a new palace at Whitehall. In 1620 days later he surprised the garrisons of the two forts commanding he was employed by the king to investigate the origin of Stone- the harbour of Whitehaven, a port with which he was familiar henge, when he came to the absurd conclusion that it had been a from boyhood, spiked the guns and made an unsuccessful attempt Roman temple. Shortly afterwards he was appointed one of to fire the shipping. Four days thereafter he encountered the the commissioners for the repair of St Paul's, but the work was British sloop-of-war “ Drake," a vessel slightly superior to his in not begun till 1633. Under Charles I. he enjoyed the same offices fighting capacity, and after an hour's engagement the British as under his predecessor, and in the capacity of designer of the ship struck her colours and was taken to Brest. By this exploit masques he came into collison with Ben Jonson, who frequently Jones became a great hero in the eyes of the French, just begin- made him the butt of his 'satire. After the Civil War Jones was ning a war with Great Britain. With the rank of commodore he forced to pay heavy fines as a courtier and malignant. He died was now put at the head of a squadron of five ships. His flagship, in poverty on the 5th of July 1651. the “ Duras," a re-fitted East Indiaman, was re-named by him A list of the principal buildings designed by Jones is given in the “Bonhomme Richard,” as a compliment to Benjamin Frank- Dallaway's edition of Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, and for an lin, whose Poor Richard's Almanac was then popular in France. estimate of him as an architect see Fergusson's History of Modern On the 14th of August the five ships sailed from L'Orient, accom- Archilecture. The Architecture of Palladio, in 4. books, by Inigo Jon appeared in 1715: The Most Notable Antiquity of Great Britain, panied by two French privateers. Several of the French com- called Sionehenge, restored by Inigo Jones, in 1655 (cd. with memoir, manders under Jones proved insubordinate, and the privateers 1725); the Designs of Inigo Jones, by W. Kent, in 1727; and The and three of the men-of-war soon deserted him. With the others, Designs of Inigo Jones, by J; Ware, in 1757; , See also G. H. Birch, however, he continued to take prizes, and even planned to attack London Churches of the X vilth and XVIlth Centuries (1896); the port of Leith, but was prevented by unfavourable winds. On W. J. Loftie, Inigo Jones and Wren, or the Rise and Decline of Modern Architecture in England (1893). the evening of the 23rd of September the three men-of-war sighted two British men-of-war, the“Serapis "and the “Countess JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882), English art collector, was born of Scarbrough,” off Flamborough Head. The Alliance," about 1800 in or near London. He was apprenticed to a tailor, commanded by Captain Landais, made off, leaving the “ Bon- and about 1825 opened a shop of his own in the west-end of homme Richard " and the “ Pallas ” to engage the Englishmen. London. In 1850 he was able to retire from active management Jones engaged the greatly superior “ Serapis," and after a des- with a large fortune. When quite a young man he had begun to perate battle of three and a half hours compelled the English ship collect articles of vertu. The rooms over his shop in which he to surrender. The “ Countess of Scarbrough " had meanwhile at first lived were soon crowded, and even the bedrooms of his struck to the more formidable“ Pallas.” Jones transferred his new house in Piccadilly were filled with art treasures. His men and supplies to the “ Serapis,” and the next day the “ Bon- collection was valued at approximately £250,000. Jones died homme Richard " sank. in London on the 7th of January 1882, leaving his pictures, During the following year Jones spent much of his time furniture and objects of art to the South Kensington Museum. in Paris. . Louis XVI. gave him a gold-hilted sword and A Catalogue of the Jones Bequest was published by the Museum in the royal order of military merit, and made him chevalier of 1882, and a Handbook, with memoir, in 1883. France. Early in 1781 Jones returned to America to secure JONES, JOHN PAUL (1747-1792), American naval officer, a new command. Congress offered him the command of the was born on the 6th of July 1747, on the estate of Arbigland, in " America,” a frigate then building, but the vessel was shortly the parish of Kirkbean and the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, afterwards given to France. In November 1783 he was sent to Scotland. His father, John Paul, was gardener to Robert Craik, Paris as agent for the prizes captured in European waters under a member of parliament; and his mother, Jean Macduff, was the his own command, and although he gave much attention to daughter of a Highlander. Young John Paul, at the age of social affairs and engaged in several private business enter- twelve, became shipmaster's apprentice to a merchant of White-prises, he was very successful in collecting the prize money. haven, named Younger. At seventeen he shipped as second Early in 1787 he returned to America and received a gold mate and in the next year as first mate in one of his master's medal from Congress in recognition of his services. vessels; on being released from his indentures, he acquired an In 1788 Jones entered the service of the empress Catherine of interesi in a ship, and as first mate made two voyages between Russia, avowing his intention, however, to preserve the con- Jamaica and the Guinea coast, trading in slaves. Becoming dis- dition of an American citizen and officer.” As a rear-admiral he satisfied with this kind of employment, he sold his share in the took part in the naval campaign in the Liman (an arm of the ship and embarked for England. During the voyage both the Black Sea, into which flow the Bug and Dnieper rivers) against captain and the mate died of fever, and John Paul took command the Turks, but the jealous intrigues of Russian officers caused and brought the ship safely to port. The owners gave him and him to be recalled to St Petersburg for the pretended purpose of the crew 10% of the cargo; after 1768, as captain of one of their being transferred to a command in the North Sea. Here he was merchantmen, John Paul made several voyages to America; compelled to remain in idleness, while rival officers plotted but for unknown reasons he suddenly gave up his command 10 against him and even maliciously assailed his private character. live in America in poverty and obscurity until 1775. During In August 1789 he left St Petersburg a bitterly disappointed this period he assumed the name of Jones, apparently out of man. In May 1790 he arrived in Paris, where he remained in regard for Willie Jones, a wealthy planter and prominent political retirement during the rest of his life, although he made several leader of North Carolina, who had befriended John Paul in his efforts to re-enter the Russian service. days of poverty. Undue exertion and exposure had wasted his strength before When war broke out between England and her American he reached the prime of life, and after an illness, in which he colonies, John Paul Jones was commissioned as a first lieutenant was attended by the queen's physician, he died on the 18th of by the Continental Congress, on the 22nd of December 1775. In July 1792. His body was interred in the St Louis cemetery 1776 he participated in the unsuccessful attack on the island of for foreign Protestants, the funeral expenses being paid from New Providence, and as commander first of the “ Providence" the private purse of Pierrot François Simmoneau, the king's (6 500 JONES, M.-JONES, T. R. 1) commissary. In the confusion during the following years the Society (1772) in London for the encouragement of Welsh burial place of Paul Jones was forgotten; but in June 1899 studies and literature; and he began in 1805 a miscellany—the General Horace Porter, American ambassador to France, Greal-of which only one volume appeared. An edition of began a systematic search for the body, and after excavations on the poems of Davydd ab Gwilym was also issued at his expense. the site of the old Protestant cemetery, now covered with houses, He died on the 26th of December 1814 at his business premises in a leaden coffin was discovered, which contained the body in a | Upper Thames Street, London. remarkable state of preservation. In July 1905 a fleet of JONES, OWEN (1809–1874), British architect and art decora- American war-ships carried the body to Annapolis, where it tor, son of Owen Jones, a Welsh antiquary, was born in London. now rests in one of the buildings of the naval academy. After an apprenticeship of six years in an architect's office, Jones was a seaman of great bravery and technical ability, he travelled for four years in Italy, Greece, Turkey, Egypt but over-jealous of his reputation and inclined to be querulous and Spain, making a special study of the Alhambra. On his and boastful. The charges by the English that he was a pirate return to England in 1836 he busied himself in his professional were particularly galling to him. Although of unprepossessing work. His forte was interior decoration, for which his formula appearance, 5 ft. 7 in. in height and slightly round-shouldered, was: “ Form without colour is like a body without a soul." 7 he was noted for his pleasant manners and was welcomed into He was one of the superintendents of works for the Exhibi- the most brilliant courts of Europe. tion of 1851 and was responsible for the general decoration of Romance has played with the memory of Paul Jones to such an the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. Along with Digby Wyatt, extent that few accounts of his life are correct. of the early bio-Jones collected the casts of works of art with which the palace graphies the best are Sherburne's (London, 1825), chiefly a collection was filled. He died in London on the 19th of April 1874. of Jones's correspondence; the Janette-Taylor Collection (New York, Owen Jones was described in the Builder for 1874 as the most 1830), containing numerous extracts from his letters and journals; potent apostle of colour that architectural England has had in and the life by A. S. Mackenzie (2 vols., New York, 1846). In these days." His range of activity is to be traced in his works: recent years a number of new biographies have appeared, including Plans, Elevations and Details of the Alhambra (1835-1845), in which he A. C. Buell's (2 vols., 1900), the trustworthiness of which has been discredited, and Hutchins Hapgood's in the Riverside Biographical Tesselated Pavements (1842); Polychromatic Ornament of Italy (1845); was assisted by MM. Goury and Gayangos; Designs for Mosaic and Series (1901). The life by Cyrus Townsend Brady in the "Great An Attempt to Define the Principles which regulate the Employment of Commanders Series ” (1900) is perhaps the best. Colour in Decorative Arts (1852); Handbook to the Alhambra Court JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649), British soldier. His father was (1854); Grammar of Ornament (1856), a very important work; One . Thousand and One Initial Lellers (1864); Seven Hundred and Two bishop of Killaloe in Ireland. At the outbreak of the English Monograms (1864); and Examples of Chinese Ornament (1867). Civil War he was studying law, but he soon took service in JONES, RICHARD (1790–1855), English economist, was the army of the king in Ireland. He was present with Ormonde's born at Tunbridge Wells. The son of a solicitor, he was intended army in many of the expeditions and combats of the devastating for the legal profession, and was educated at Caius College, Irish War, but upon the conclusion of the “ Irish Cessation" Cambridge. Owing to ill-health, he abandoned the idea of the (see ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, DUKE OF) he resolved to leave law and took orders soon after leaving Cambridge. For several the king's service for that of the parliament, in which he soon years he held curacies in Sussex and Kent. In 1833 he was distinguished himself by his activity and skill. In the Welsh appointed professor of political economy at King's College, War, and especially at the last great victory at Rowton Heath, London, resigning this post in 1835 to succeed T. R. Malthus in Jones's cavalry was always far superior to that of the Royalists, the chair of political economy and history at the East India and in reward for his services he was made governor of Chester College at Haileybury. He took an active part in the commuta- when that city fell into the hands of the parliament. Soon tion of tithes in 1836 and showed great ability as a tithe afterwards Jones was sent again to the Irish War, in the capacity commissioner, an office which he filled till 1851. He was for some of commander-in-chief. He began his work by reorganizing time, also, a charity commissioner. He died at Haileybury, the army in the neighbourhood of Dublin, and for some time he shortly after he had resigned his professorship, on the 26th of carried on a desultory war of posts, necessarily more concerned January 1855. In 1831 Jones published his Essay on the Distri- for his supplies than for a victory. But at Dungan Hill he bution of Wealth and on the Sources of Taxation, his most important obtained a complete success over the army of General Preston, work. In it he showed himself a thorough-going critic of the and though the war was by no means ended, Jones was able to Ricardian system. hold a large tract of country for the parliament. But on the Jones's method is inductive; his conclusions are founded on a wide execution of Charles I., the war entered upon a new phase, and observation of contemporary facts, aided by the study of history. garrison after garrison fell to Ormonde's Royalists. Soon Jones The world he professed to study was not an imaginary world, in- was shut up in Dublin, and then followed a siege which was habited by abstract "economic men,” but the real world with the regarded both in England and Ireland with the most intense general, the conditions of production and distribution, assume at different forms which the ownership and cultivation of land, and, in interest. On the 2nd of August 1649 the Dublin garrison different times and places. His recognition of such different relieved itself by the brilliant action of Rathmines, in which systems of life in communities occupying different stages in the the royal army was practically destroyed. A fortnight later progress of civilization led to his proposal of what he called a political economy of nations." This was a protest against the Cromwell landed with heavy reinforcements from England. practice of taking the exceptional state of facts which exists, and Jones, his lieutenant-general, took the field; but on the 19th is indeed only partially realized, in a small corner of our planet of December 1649 he died, worn out by the fatigues of the as representing the uniform type of human societies, and ignoring campaign. the effects of the early history and special development of each JONES, OWEN (1741–1814), Welsh antiquary, was born community as influencing its economic phenomena. Jones is re- markable for his freedom from exaggeration and one-sided statement; on the 3rd of September 1741 at Llanvihangel Glyn y Myvyr in thus, whilst holding Malthus in, perhaps, undue esteem, he declines Denbighshire. In 1760 he entered the service of a London to accept the proposition that an increase of the means of subsistence firm of furriers, to whose business he ultimately succeeded. is necessarily followed by an increase of population; and he main. He had from boyhood studied Welsh literature, and later rains what is undoubtedly true, that with the growth of population, in all well-governed and prosperous states, the command over food, devoted time and money to its collection. Assisted by Edward | instead of diminishing, increases. William of Glamorgan (Iolo Morganwg) and Dr. Owen Pughe, he A collected edition of Jones's works, with a preface by W.Whewell, published, at a cost of more than £1000, the well-known Myvyrian was published in 1859. Archaiology of Wales (1801-1807), a collection of pieces dating JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819- ), English geologist from the 6th to the 14th century. The manuscripts which he and palaeontologist, was born in London on the ist of October had brought together are deposited in the British Museum; 1819. While at a private school at Ilminster, his attention was the material not utilized in the Myvyrian Archaiology amounts attracted to geology by the fossils that are so abundant in the 10 100 volumes, containing 16,000 pages of verse and 15,300 Lias quarries. In 1835 he was apprenticed to a surgeon at pages of prose. Jones was ihe founder of the Gwyneddigion | Taunton, and be completed his apprenticeship in 1842 at JONES, W.-JÖNKÖPING 501 2 Newbury in Berkshire. He was then engaged in practice mainly the odes of Hafiz. In 1771 he published a Dissertation sur la in London, till in 1849 he was appointed assistant secretary littérature orientale, defending Oxford scholars against the to the Geological Society of London. In 1862 he was made criticisms made by Anquetil Du Perron in the introduction to his professor of geology at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. translation of the Zend-Avesta. In the same year appeared his Having devoted his especial attention to fossil microzoa, he now Grammar of the Persian Language. In 1772 Jones published a became the highest authority in England on the Foraminifera volume of Poems, Chiefly Translations from Asialick Languages, and Entomostraca. He edited the 2nd edition of Mantell's together with Two Essays on the Poetry of Eastern Nations and Medals of Creation (1854), the 3rd edition of Mantell's Geological on the Arts commonly called Imitative, and in 1774 a treatise Excursions round the Isle of Wight (1854), and the 7th edition entitled Poeseos Asiatice commentatorium libri sex, which defi- of Mantell's Wonders of Geology (1857); he also edited the and nitely confirmed his authority as an Oriental scholar. edition of Dixon's Geology of Sussex (1878). He was elected Finding that some more financially profitable occupation was F.R.S. in 1872 and was awarded the Lyell medal by the Geolog: necessary, Jones devoted himself with his customary energy cal Society in 1890. For many years he was specially interested to the study of the law, and was called to the bar at the Middle in the geology of South Africa. Temple in 1774. He studied not merely the technicalities, but His publications include A Monograph of the Entomostraca of the the philosophy, of law, and within two years had acquired so Cretaceous Formation of England (Palaeontograph. Soc., 1849); considerable a reputation that he was in 1776 appointed commis- A' Monograph of the Tertiary Entomostracą of England (ibid. 1857); sioner in bankruptcy. Besides writing an Essay on the Law of A Monograph of the Fossil Estheriae (ibid. 1862); A Monograph of Bailments, which enjoyed a high reputation both in England and the Foraminifera of the Crag (ibid. 1866, &c., with H. B. Brady); and numerous articles in the Annals 'and Magazine of Natural America, Jones translated, in 1778, the speeches of Isaeus on the History, the Geological Magazine, the Proceedings of the Geologists' Athenian right of inheritance. In 1780 he was a parliamentary Association, and other journals. candidate for the university of Oxford, but withdrew from JONES, WILLIAM (1726–1800), English divine, was born at the contest before the day of election, as he found he had no Lowick, in Northamptonshire on the 30th of July 1726. He was chance of success owing to his Liberal opinions, especially on descended from an old Welsh family and one of his progenitors the questions of the American War and of the slave trade. was Colonel John Jones, brother-in-law of Cromwell. He was In 1783 was published his translation of the seven ancient educated at Charterhouse School, and at University College, Arabic poems called Moallakal. In the same year he was ap- Oxford. There a kindred taste for music, as well as a similarity pointed judge of the supreme court of judicature at Calcutta, in regard to other points of character, led to his close intimacy then“ Fort William,” and was knighted. Shortly after his arrival with George Horne (q.v.), afterwards bishop of Norwich, in India he founded, in January 1784, the Bengal Asiatic Society, whom he induced to study Hutchinsonian doctrines. After of which he remained president till his death. Convinced as he obtaining his bachelor's degree in 1749, Jones held various was of the great importance of consulting the Hindu legal preferments. In 1777 he obtained the perpetual curacy of authorities in the original, he at once began the study of Sanskrit, Nayland, Suffolk, and on Horne's appointment to Norwich and undertook, in 1788, the colossal task of compiling a digest became his chaplain, afterwards writing his life. His vicarage of Hindu and Mahommedan law. This he did not live to com- became the centre of a High Church coterie, and Jones himself plete, but he published the admirable beginnings of it in his was a link between the non-jurors and the Oxford movement. Institutes of Hindu Law, or the Ordinances of Manu (1794); his He could write intelligibly on abstruse topics. He died on the Mohammedan Law of Succession to Property of Intestates; and his 6th of January 1800. Mohammedan Law of Inheritance (1792). In 1789 Jones had In 1756 Jones published his tractate On the Catholic Doctrine of the Sakuntalā. He also translated the collection of fables entitled completed his translation of Kālidāsa's most famous drama, Trinity, a statement of the doctrine from the Hutchinsonian point of view, with a succinct and able summary of biblical proofs. This the Hitopadesa, the Gilagovinda, and considerable portions of the was followed in 1762 by an Essay on the First Principles of Natural Vedas, besides editing the text of Kālidāsa's poem Ritusamhara. Philosophy, in which he maintained the theories of Hutchinson in He was a large contributor also to his society's volumes of opposition to those of Sir Isaac Newton, and in 1781 he dealt with the same subject in Physiological Disquisitions. Jones was also the Asiatic Researches. originator of the British Critic (May 1793). His collected works, His unremitting literary labours, together with his heavy with a life by William Stevens, appeared in 1801, in 12 vols.,.and judicial work, told on his health after a ten years' residence in were condensed into 6 vols, in 1810. A life of Jones, forming pt. 5 Bengal; and he died at Calcutta on the 27th of April 1794. An of the Biography of English Divines, was published in 1849. extraordinary linguist, knowing thirteen languages well, and JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794), British Orientalist and having a moderate acquaintance with twenty-eight others, his jurist, was born in London on the 28th of September 1746. range of knowledge was enormous. As a pioneer in Sanskrit He distinguished himself at Harrow, and during his last three learning and as founder of the Asiatic Society he rendered the years there applied himself to the study of Oriental languages, language and literature of the ancient Hindus accessible to teaching himself the rudiments of Arabic, and reading Hebrew European scholars, and thus became the indirect cause of later with tolerable ease. In his vacations he improved his acquain- achievements in the field of Sanskrit and comparative philology. tance with French and Italian. In 1764 Jones entered Uni- A monument to his memory was erected by the East India versity College, Oxford, where he continued to study Oriental Company in St Paul's, London, and a statue in Calcutta. literature, and perfected himself in Persian and Arabic by the aid See the Memoir (1804) by Lord Teignmouth, published in the of a Syrian Mirza, whom he had discovered and brought from collected edition of Sir W. Jones's works. London. He added to his knowledge of Hebrew and made JÖNKÖPING, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (län) of considerable progress in Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. Jönköping, 230 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900), He began the study of Chinese, and made himself master of 23,143. It occupies a beautiful but somewhat unhealthy position the radical characters of that language. During five years he between the southern end of Lake Vetter and two small lakes, partly supported himself by acting as tutor to Lord Althorpe, Roksjö and Munksjö. Two quarters of the town, Svenska Mad afterwards the second Earl Spencer, and in 1766 he obtained a and Tyska-Mad, recall the time when the site was a marsh (mad), fellowship. Though but twenty-two years of age, he was already and buildings were constructed on piles. The residential becoming famous as an Orientalist, and when Christian VII. of suburbs among the hills, especially Dunkehallar, are attractive Denmark visited England in 1768, bringing with him a life of and healthier than the town. The church of St Kristine Nadir Shah in Persian, Jones was requested to translate the (c. 1650), the court-houses, town-hall, government buildings, and MS. into French. The translation appeared in 1770, with an high school, are noteworthy. The town is one of the leading in- introduction containing a description of Asia and a short dustrial centres in Sweden. The match manufacture, for which history of Persia. This was followed in the same year by a Traité it is principally famous, was founded by Johan Edvard Lund- sur la poésie orientale, and by a French metrical translation of Iström in 1844. The well-known brand of säkerhets-ländstickor 502 JONSON (safety-matches) was introduced later. There are also textile | ten years later (epigram 45). (A younger Benjamin died in manufactures, paper-factories (on Munksjö), and mechanical 1635.) His wife Jonson characterized to Drummond as "a works. There is a large fire-arms factory at Huskvarna, 5.m E. shrew, but honest "; and for a period (undated) of five years he Water-power is supplied here by a fine series of falls. The hill preferred to live without her, enjoying the hospitality of Lord Taberg, 8 m. S., is a mass of magnetic iron ore, rising 410 ft. above Aubigny (afterwards duke of Lennox). Long burnings of oil the surrounding country, 2950 ft. long and 1475 ft. broad, but among his books, and long spells of recreation at the tavern, the percentage of iron is low as compared with the rich ores of such as Jonson loved, are not the most favoured accompaniments other parts, and the deposit is little worked. Jönköping is the of family life. But Jonson was no stranger to the tenderest of seat of one of the three courts of appeal in Sweden. t affections: two at least of the several children whom his wife Jönköping received the earliest extant Swedish charter in 1284 bore to him he commemorated in touching little tributes of verse; from Magnus I. The castle is mentioned in 1263, when Waldemar nor in speaking of his lost eldest daughter did he forget "her Birgersson married the Danish princess Sophia. Jönköping was mother's tears." By the middle of 1597 we come across further afterwards the scene of many events of moment in Scandinavian documentary evidence of him at home in London in the shape history of parliaments in 1357, 1439, and 1599; of the meeting of an entry in Philip Henslowe's diary (July 28) of 35, 6d. “re- of the Danish and Swedish plenipotentiaries in 1448; and of the ceived of Bengemenes Johnsones share." He was therefore by death of Sten Sture, the elder, in 1503. In 1612 Gustavus this time-when Shakespeare, his senior by nearly nine years, was Adolphus caused the inhabitants to destroy their town lest it already-in prosperous circumstances and good esteem—at least should fall into the hands of the Danes; but it was rebuilt soon a regular member of the acting profession, with a fixed engage- after, and in 1620 received special privileges from the king. At ment in the lord admiral's company, then performing under this period a textile industry was started here, the first of any Henslowe's management at the Rose. Perhaps he had previously importance in Sweden. It was from the Dutch and German acted at the Curtain (a former house of the lord admiral's men), workmen, introduced at this time, that the quarter Tyska Mad and "taken mad Jeronimo's part " on a play-wagon in the high- received its name. On the 10th of December 1809 the plenipo-way. This latter appearance, if it ever took place, would, as was tentiaries of Sweden and Denmark concluded peace in the town. pointed out by Gifford, probably have been in Thomas Kyd's JONSON, BEN¹ (1573-1637), English dramatist, was born, Spanish Tragedy, since in The First Part of Jeronimo Jonson would probably in Westminster, in the beginning of the year 1573 (or have had, most inappropriately, to dwell on the "smallness" of possibly, if he reckoned by the unadopted modern calendar, his "bulk." He was at a subsequent date (1601) employed 1572; see Castelain, p. 4, note 1). By the poet's account his by Henslowe to write up The Spanish Tragedy, and this fact grandfather had been a gentleman who "came from" Carlisle, may have given rise to Wood's story of his performance as a and originally, the grandson thought, from Annandale. His stroller (see, however, Fleay, The English Drama, ii. 29, 30). arms, "three spindles or rhombi," are the family device of the Jonson's additions, which were not the first changes made in Johnstones of Annandale, a fact which confirms his assertion of the play, are usually supposed to be those printed with The Border descent. Ben Jonson further related that he was born Spanish Tragedy in the edition of 1602; Charles Lamb's doubts a month after the death of his father, who, after suffering in on the subject, which were shared by Coleridge, seem an instance estate and person under Queen Mary, had in the end "turned of that subjective kind of criticism which it is unsafe to follow minister." Two years after the birth of her son the widow when the external evidence to the contrary is so strong. married again; she may be supposed to have loved him in a passionate way peculiar to herself, since on one occasion we find her revealing an almost ferocious determination to save his honour at the cost of both his life and her own. Jonson's stepfather was a master bricklayer, living in Hartshorn Lane, near Charing Cross, who provided his stepson with the founda- tions of a good education. After attending a private school in St Martin's Lane, the boy was sent to Westminster School at the expense, it is said, of William Camden. Jonson's gratitude for an education to which in truth he owed an almost inestimable | debt concentrated itself upon the "most reverend head" of his benefactor, then second and afterwards head master of the famous school, and the firm friend of his pupil in later life. * According to Aubrey, whose statement must be taken for what it is worth," Jonson was never a good actor, but an ex- cellent instructor." His physique was certainly not well adapted to the histrionic conditions of his perhaps of any-day; but, in any case, it was not long before he found his place in the organism of his company. In 1597, as we know from Henslowe, Jonson undertook to write a play for the lord admiral's men; and in the following year he was mentioned by Merès in his Palladis Tamia as one of "the best for tragedy," without any reference to a connexion on his part with the other branch of the drama. Whether this was a criticism based on material evidence or an unconscious slip, Ben Jonson in the same year 1598 pro- duced one of the most famous of English comedies, Every Man in After reaching the highest form at Westminster, Jonson is his Humour, which was first acted-probably in the earlier part stated, but on unsatisfactory evidence, to have proceeded to of September-by the lord chamberlain's company at the Cambridge according to Fuller, to St John's College. (For Curtain. Shakespeare was one of the actors in Jonson's comedy, reasons in support of the tradition that he was a member of and it is in the character of Old Knowell in this very play that, St John's College, see J. B. Mullinger, the Eagle, No. xxv.) He according to a bold but ingenious guess, he is represented in the says, however, himself that he studied at neither university, but half-length portrait of him in the folio of 1623, beneath which was put to a trade immediately on leaving school. He soon had were printed Jonson's lines concerning the picture. Every Man enough of the trade, which was no doubt his father's bricklaying, in his Humour was published in 1601; the critical prologue first for Henslowe in writing to Edward Alleyne of his. affair with appears in the folio of 1616, and there are other divergences (see Gabriel Spenser calls him "bergemen [sic] Jonson, bricklayer." Castelain, appendix A). After the Restoration the play was Either before or after his marriage-more probably before, as revived in 1751 by Garrick (who acted Kitely) with alterations, Sir Francis Vere's three English regiments were not removed and long continued to be known on the stage. It was followed from the Low Countries till 1592-he spent some time in that in the same year by The Case is Altered, acted by the children of country soldiering, much to his own subsequent satisfaction the queen's revels, which contains a satirical attack upon the when the days of self-conscious retrospect arrived, but to no pageant poet, Anthony Munday. This comedy, which was not further purpose beyond that of seeing something of the world. included in the folio editions, is one of intrigue rather than of character; it contains obvious. reminiscences of Shylock and his daughter. The earlier of these two comedies was indisputably successful. Ben Jonson married not later than 1592. The registers of St Martin's Church state that his eldest daughter Maria died in November 1593 when she was, Jonson tells us (epigram 22), only six months old. His eldest son Benjamin died of the plague His Christian name of Benjamin was usually abbreviated by himself and his contemporaries; and thus, in accordance with his famous epitaph, it will always continue to be abbreviated. Before the year 1598 was out, however, Jonson found himself in prison and in danger of the gallows. In a duel, fought on the 22nd of September in Hogsden Fields, he had killed an actor of Henslowe's company named Gabriel Spenser. The quarrel with JONSON 503 Henslowe consequent on this event may account for the produc- tion of Every Man in his Humour by the rival company. In prison Jonson was visited by a Roman Catholic priest, and the result (certainly strange, if Jonson's parentage is considered) was his conversion to the Church of Rome, to which he adhered for twelve years. Jonson was afterwards a diligent student of divinity; but, though his mind was religious, it is not probable that its natural bias much inclined it to dwell upon creeds and their controversies. He pleaded guilty to the charge brought against him, as the rolls of Middlesex sessions show; but, after a-short-imprisonment, he was released by benefit of clergy, forfeiting his "goods and chattels," and being branded on his left thumb. The affair does not seem to have affected his reputation; in 1599 he is found back again at work for Henslowe, receiving to- gether with Dekker, Chettle and "another gentleman," earnest- money for a tragedy (undiscovered) called Robert II., King of Scots. In the same year he brought out through the lord chamberlain's company (possibly already at the Globe, then newly built or building) the elaborate comedy of Every Man out of his Humour (quarto 1600; fol. 1616)—a play subsequently pre- sented before Queen Elizabeth. The sunshine of court favour, rarely. diffused during her reign in rays otherwise than figuratively | golden, was not to bring any material comfort to the most learned of her dramatists, before there was laid upon her the inevitable hand of which his courtly epilogue had besought death to forget the use. Indeed, of his Cynthia's Revels, performed by the chapel children in 1600 and printed with the first title of The Fountain of Self-Love in 1601, though it was no doubt primarily designed as a compliment to the queen, the most. marked result had been to offend two playwrights of note-Dekker, with whom he had formerly worked in company, and who had a healthy if rough grip of his own; and Marston, who was perhaps less dangerous by his strength than by his versatility. Accord- ing to Jonson, his quarrel with Marston had begun by the latter attacking his morals, and in the course of it they came to blows, and might have come to worse. In Cynthia's Revels, Dekker is generally held to be satirized as Hedon, and Marston as Anaides (Fleay, however, thinks Anaïdes is Dekker, and Hedon Daniel), while the character of Crites most assuredly has some features of Jonson himself. Learning the intention of the two writers whom he had satirized, or at all events of Dekker, to wreak literary vengeance upon him, he anticipated them in The Poetaster (1601), again played by the children of the queen's chapel at the Blackfriars and printed in 1602; Marston and Dekker are here ridiculed respectively as the aristocratic Crispinus and the vulgar Demetrius. The play was completed fifteen weeks after its plot was first conceived. It is not certain to what the proceedings against author and play before the lord chief justice, referred to in the dedication of the edition of 1616, had reference, or when they were instituted. Fleay's supposition that the "purge," said in the Returne from Parnassus (Pt. II. act iv. sc. iii.) to | have been administered by Shakespeare to Jonson in return for Horace's "pill to the poets" in this piece, consisted of Troilus and Cressida is supremely ingenious, but cannot be examined here. As for Dekker, he retaliated on The Poetaster by the Satiromastix, or The Untrussing of the Humorous Poet (1602). Some more last words were indeed attempted on Jonson's part, but in the Apologetic Dialogue added to The Poetaster in the edition of 1616, though excluded from that of 1602, he says he intends to turn his attention to tragedy. This intention he apparently carried out immediately, for in 1602 he received £10 from Henslowe for a play, entitled Richard Crookbacke, now lost- unfortunately so, for purposes of comparison in particular, even if it was only, as Fleay conjectures, an alteration of Marlowe's play." According to a statement by Overbury, early in 1603, "Ben Johnson, the poet, now lives upon one Townesend," supposed to have been the poet and masque-writer Aurelian Townshend, at one time steward to the 1st earl of Salisbury, and scornes the world." To his other early patron, Lord Aubigny, Jonson dedicated the first of his two extant tragedies, Sejanus, produced by the king's servants at the Globe late in 1603, Shakespeare once more taking a part in the performance. I " << Either on its performance or on its appearing in print in 1605, Jonson was called before the privy council by the Earl of North- ampton. But it is open to question whether this was the occa- sion on which, according to Jonson's statement to Drummond, Northampton "accused him both of popery and treason (see Castelain, Appendix C). Though, for one reason or another, | unsuccessful at first, the endurance of its reputation is attested by its performance, in a German version by an Englishman, John Michael Girish, at the court of the grandson of James I. at Heidelberg. I When the reign of James I. opened in England and an adula- tory loyalty seemed intent on showing that it had not exhausted itself at the feet of Gloriana, Jonson's well-stored brain and ready pen had their share in devising and executing ingenious variations on the theme "Welcome-since we cannot do without thee!" With extraordinary promptitude his genius, which, far from being "ponderous " in its operations, was singularly swift and flexible in adapting itself to the demands made upon it, met the new taste for masques and entertainments-new of course in degree rather than in kind--introduced with the new reign and fostered by both the king and his consort. The pageant which on the 7th of May 1603 bade the king welcome to a capital dissolved in joy was partly of Jonson's, partly of Dekker's, devising; and he was able to deepen and diversify the impression by the com- position of masques presented to James I. when entertained at houses of the nobility. The Satyr (1603) was produced on one of these occasions, Queen Anne's sojourn at Althorpe, the seat of Sir Robert Spencer, afterwards Lord Althorpe, who seems to have previously bestowed some patronage upon him. The Penates followed on May-day 1604 at the house of Sir William Cornwallis at Highgate, and the queen herself with her ladies played his Masque of Blackness at Whitehall in 1605. He was soon occasionally employed by the court itself—already in 1606 in conjunction with Inigo Jones, as responsible for the "painting and carpentry "-and thus speedily showed himself master in a species of composition for which, more than any other English poet before Milton, he secured an enduring place in the national poetic literature. Personally, no doubt, he derived considerable material benefit from the new fashion-more especially if his statement to Drummond was anything like correct, that out of his plays (which may be presumed to mean his original plays) he had never gained a couple of hundred pounds. 66 Good humour seems to have come back with good fortune. Joint employment in The King's Entertainment (1604) had recon- ciled him with Dekker; and with Marston also, who in 1604 dedicated to him his Malcontent, he was again on pleasant terms. When, therefore, in 1604 Marston and Chapman (who, Jonson told Drummond, was loved of him, and whom he had probably honoured as Virgil" in The Poetaster, and who has, though on doubtful grounds, been supposed to have collaborated in the original Sejanus) produced the excellent comedy of Eastward Ho, it appears to have contained some contributions by Jonson. At all events, when the authors were arrested on account of one or more passages in the play which were deemed insulting to the Scots, he "voluntarily imprisoned himself" with them. They were soon released, and a banquet at his expense, attended by Camden and Selden, terminated the incident. If Jonson is to be believed, there had been a report that the prisoners were to have their ears and noses cut, and, with reference apparently to this peril," at the midst of the feast his old mother drank to him, and showed him a paper which she had intended (if the sentence had taken execution) to have mixed in the prison among his drink, which was full of lusty strong poison; and that she was no churl, she told him, she minded first to have drunk of it her- self." Strange to say, in 1605 Jonson and Chapman, though the former, as he averred, had so "attempered " his style as to have given no cause to any good man of grief," were again in prison on account of "a play" but they appear to have been once more speedily set free, in consequence of a very manly and dignified letter addressed by Jonson to the Earl of Salisbury. As to the relations between Chapman and Jonson, illustrated by newly discovered letters, see Bertram Dobell in the Athenaeum 504 JONSON a No. 3831 (March 30, 1901), and the comments of Castelain. He It was in the year 1618 that, like Dr Samuel Johnson a century thinks that the play in question, in which both Chapman and and a half afterwards, Ben resolved to have a real holiday for Jonson took part, was Sir Gyles Goosecappe, and that the last once, and about midsummer started for his ancestral country, imprisonment of the two poets was shortly after the discovery Scotland. He had (very heroically for a man of his habits) of the Gunpowder Plot. In the mysterious history of the Gun- determined to make the journey on foot; and he was speedily powder Plot Jonson certainly had some obscure part. On the followed by John Taylor, the water-poet, who still further handi- 7th of November, very soon after the discovery of the conspiracy, capped himself by the condition that he would accomplish the the council appears to have sent for him and to have asked him, pilgrimage without a penny in his pocket. Jonson, who put as a loyal Roman Catholic, to use his good offices in inducing money in his good friend's purse when he came up with him at the priests to do something required by the council--one hardly Leith, spent more than a year and a half in the hospitable Low- likes to .conjecture it to have been some tampering with the lands, being solemnly elected a burgess of Edinburgh, and on secrets of confession. In any case, the negotiations fell through, another occasion entertained at a public banquet there. But because the priests declined to come forth out of their hiding the best-remembered hospitality which he enjoyed was that of places to be negotiated with-greatly to the wrath of Ben Jonson, the learned Scottish poet, William Drummond of Hawthornden, who declares in a letter to Lord Salisbury that “they are all so to which we owe the so-called Conversations. In these famous enweaved in it that it will make 500 gentlemen less of the reli- jottings, the work of no extenuating hand, Jonson lives for gion within this week, if they carry their understanding about us to this day, delivering his censures, terse as they are, in an them.” Jonson himself, however, did not declare his separation expansive mood whether of praise or of blame; nor is he at all from the Church of Rome for five years longer, however much generously described in the postscript added by his fatigued and it might have been to his advantage to do so. at times irritated host as “a great lover and praiser of himself, His powers as a dramatist were at their height during the a contemner and scorner of others.” A poetical account of this earlier half of the reign of James I.; and by the year 1616 he had journey, “ with all the adventures,” was burnt with Jonson's produced nearly all the plays which are worthy of his genius. library. They include the tragedy of Catiline (acted and printed 1611), After his return to England Jonson appears to have resumed which achieved only a doubtful success, and the comedies of his former course of life. Among his noble patrons and patron- Volpone, or the Fox (acted 1605 and printed in 1607 with a dedi- esses were the countess of Rutland (Sidney's daughter) and cation“ from my house in the Blackfriars "), Epicoene, or the her cousin Lady Wroth; and in 1619 his visits to the country Silent Woman (1609; entered in the Stationers' Register 1610), seats of the nobility were varied by a sojourn at Oxford with the Alchemist(1610; printed in 1610), Bartholomew Fair and The Richard Corbet, the poet, at Christ Church, on which occasion he Devil is an Ass (acted respectively in 1614 and 1616). During took up the master's degree granted to him by the university; the same period he produced several masques, usually in con- whether he actually proceeded to the same degree granted to him nexion with Inigo Jones, with whom, however, he seems to have at Cambridge seems unknown. He confessed about this time quarrelled already in this reign, though it is very doubtful that he was or seemed growing “restive," i.e. lazy, though it whether the architect is really intended to be ridiculed in was not long before he returned to the occasional composition of Bartholomew Fair under the character of Lanthorn Leatherhead. masques. The extremely spirited Gipsies Metamorphosed (1621) Littlewit, according to Fleay, is Daniel. Among the most was thrice presented before the king, who was so pleased with it attractive of his masques may be mentioned the Masque of Black- as to grant to the poet the reversion of the office of master of the ness (1606), the Masque of Beauty (1608), and the Masque of revels, besides proposing to confer upon him the honour of knight- Queens (1609), described by Swinburne as “the most splendid hood. This honour Jonson (hardly in deference to the memory of all masques" and as “one of the typically splendid monu- of Sir Petronel Flash) declined; but there was no reason why he ments or trophies of English literature.” In 1616 a modest should not gratefully accept the increase of his pension in the pension of 100 marks a year was conferred upon him; and possi- same year (1621) to £200-a temporary increase only, inasmuch bly this sign of royal favour may have encouraged him to the as it still stood at 100 marks when afterwards augmented by publication of the first volume of the folio collected edition of Charles I. his works (1616), though there are indications that he had con- The close of King James I.'s reign found the foremost of its poets templated its production, an exceptional task for a playwright in anything but a prosperous condition. It would be unjust of his times to take in hand, as early as 1612. to hold the Sun, the Dog, the Triple Tun, or the Old Devil with He had other patrons more bountiful than the Crown, and for its Apollo club-room, where Ben's supremacy must by this time a brief space of time (in 1613) had travelled to France as governor have become established, responsible for this result; taverns (without apparently much moral authority) to the eldest son of were the clubs of that day, and a man of letters is not considered Sir Walter Raleigh, then a state prisoner in the Tower, for whose lost in our own because he haunts a smoking-room in Pall Mall. society Jonson may have gained a liking at the Mermaid Tavern Disease had weakened the poet's strength, and the burning of his in Cheapside, but for whose personal character he, like so many library, as his Execration upon Vulcan sufficiently shows, must of his contemporaries, seems to have had but small esteem. By have been no mere transitory trouble to a poor poet and scholar. the year 1616 Jonson seems to have made up his mind to cease Moreover he cannot but have felt, from the time of the accession writing for the stage, where neither his success nor his profits had of Charles I. early in 1625 onwards, that the royal patronage would equalled his merits and expectations. He continued to produce no longer be due in part to anything like intellectual sympathy. masques and entertainments when called upon; but he was He thus thought it best to recur to the surer way of writing for attracted by many other literary pursuits, and had already the stage, and in 1625 produced, with no faint heart, but with accomplished enough to furnish plentiful materials for retro- a very clear anticipation of the comments which would be made spective discourse over pipe or cup. He was already entitled to upon the reappearance of the "huge, overgrown play-maker," lord it at the Mermaid, where his quick antagonist in earlier The Staple of News, a comedy excellent in some respects, but little wit-combats (if Fuller's famous description be authentic) no calculated to become popular. It was not printed till 1631. longer appeared even on a visit from his comfortable retreat at Jonson, whose habit of body was not more conducive than were Stratford. That on the other hand Ben carried his wicked town his ways of life to a healthy old age, had a paralytic stroke in habits into Warwickshire, and there, together with Drayton, 1626, and a second in 1628. In the latter year, on the death of made Shakespeare drink so hard with them as to bring upon him- Middleton, the appointment of city chronologer, with a salary self the fatal fever which ended his days, is a scandal with which of 100 nobles a year, was bestowed upon him. He appears to we may fairly refuse to load Jonson's memory. That he had a have considered the duties of this office as purely ornamental; share in the preparing for the press of the first folio of Shake. but in 1631 his salary was suspended until he should have pre- speare, or in the composition of its preface, is of course a mere sented some fruits of his labours in his place, ormas he more conjecture. succinctly phrased it--"yesterday the barbarous court of JONSON 505 a 66 3) aldermen have withdrawn their chandlerly pension for verjuice stition that Jonson was filled with malignant envy of the greatest and mustard, £33, 6s. 8d.” After being in 1628 arrested by mistake of his fellow-dramatists, and lost no opportunity of giving ex- on the utterly false charge of having written certain verses in pression to it, hardly needs notice. Those who consider that approval of the assassination of Buckingham, he was soon allowed Shakespeare was beyond criticism may find blasphemy in the to return to Westminster, where it would appear from a letter of saying of Jonson that Shakespeare " wanted art.” Occasional his" son and contiguous neighbour," James Howell, he was living jesting allusions to particular plays of Shakespeare may be found in 1629, and about this time narrowly escaped another conflagra- in Jonson, among which should hardly be included the sneer at tion. In the same year (1629) he once more essayed the stage ' mouldy " Pericles in his Ode to Himself. But these amount to with the comedy of The New Inn, which was actually, and on its nothing collectively, and to very little individually; and against own merits not unjustly, damned on the first performance. It them have to be set, not only the many pleasant traditions con- was printed in 1631, “ as it was never acted but most negligently cerning the long intimacy between the pair, but also the lines, played ”; and Jonson defended himself against his critics in his prefixed to the first Shakespeare folio, as noble as they are spirited Ode to Himself. The epilogue to The New Inn having judicious, dedicated by the survivor to the star of poets," and dwelt not without dignity upon the neglect which the poet had the adaptation, clearly sympathetic notwithstanding all its buts, experienced at the hands of “ king and queen,” King Charles de Shakespeare nostrat. in the Discoveries. But if Gifford had immediately sent the unlucky author a gift of £100, and in rendered no other service to Jonson's fame he must be allowed to response to a further appeal increased his standing salary to have once for all vindicated it from the cruellest aspersion the same sum, with the addition of an annual tierce of canary which has ever been cast upon it. That in general Ben Jonson -the poet-laureate's customary royal gift, though this designa- was a man of strong likes and dislikes, and was wont to manifest tion of an office, of which Jonson discharged some of what became the latter as vehemently as the former, it would be idle to deny. the ordinary functions, is not mentioned in the warrant dated He was at least impartial in his censures, dealing them out freely the 26th of March 1630. In 1634, by the king's desire, Jonson's to Puritan poets like Wither and (supposing him not to have salary as chronologer to the city was again paid. To his later exaggerated his free-spokenness) to princes of his church like years belong the comedies, The Magnetic Lady (1632) and The Tale Cardinal du Perron. And, if sensitive to attack, he seems to of a Tub (1633), both printed in 1640, and some masques, none of have been impervious to flattery-to judge from the candour which met with great success. The patronage of liberal-minded with which he condemned the foibles even of so enthusiastic an men, such as the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle-by whom admirer as Beaumont. The personage that he disliked the most, he must have been commissioned to write his last two masques and openly abused in the roundest terms, was unfortunately one Love's Welcome at Welbeck (1633) and Love's Welcome at Bolsover with many heads and a tongue to hiss in each--no other than (1634)--and Viscount Falkland, was not wanting, and his was that“ general public ” which it was the fundamental mistake of hardly an instance in which the fickleness of time and taste could his life to fancy he could“ rail into approbation " before he had have allowed a literary veteran to end his career in neglect. He effectively secured its goodwill. And upon the whole it may be was the acknowledged chief of the English world of letters, both at said that the admiration of the few, rather than the favour of the the festive meetings where he ruled the roast among the younger many, has kept green the fame of the most independent among authors whose pride it was to be" sealed of the tribe of Ben,”and all the masters of an art which, in more senses than one, must by the avowal of grave writers, old or young, not one of whom please to live. would have ventured to dispute his titular pre-eminence. Nor Jonson's learning and industry, which were alike exceptional, was he to the last unconscious of the claims upon him which his by no means exhausted themselves in furnishing and elaborating position brought with it. When, nearly two years after he had the materials of his dramatic works. His enemies sneered at him lost his surviving son, death came upon the sick old man on the as a translator-a. title which the preceding generation was 6th of August 1637, he left behind him an unfinished work of inclined to esteem the most honourable in literature. But his great beauty, the pastoral drama of The Sad Shepherd (printed in classical scholarship shows itself in other directions besides his 1641). For forty years, he said in the prologue, he had feasted translations from the Latin poets (the Ars poetica in particular), in the public; at first he could scarce hit its taste, but patience had addition to which he appears to have written a version of Barclay's at last enabled it to identify itself with the working of his pen. Argenis; it was likewise the basis of his English Grammar, of We are so accustomed to think of Ben Jonson presiding, which nothing but the rough draft remains (the MS. itself having attentive to his own applause, over a circle of younger followers perished in the fire in his library), and in connexion with the sub- and admirers that we are apt to forget the hard struggle which ject of which he appears to have pursued other linguistic studies he had passed through before gaining the crown now universally (Howell in 1629 was trying to procure him a Welsh grammar). acknowledged to be his. Howell records, in the year before Ben's And its effects are very visible in some of the most pleasing of death, that a solemn supper at the poet's own house, where the his non-dramatic poems, which often display that combination host had almost spoiled the relish of the feast by vilifying others of polish and simpli hardly to be reached--or even to be and magnifying himself,“ T. Ca. "(Thomas Carew) buzzed in the appreciated--without some measure of classical training. writer's ear that, though Ben had barrelled up a great deal of Exclusively of the few lyrics in Jonson's dramas (which, with knowledge, yet it seemed he had not read the Ethics, which, among the exception of the stately choruses in Catiline, charm, and other precepts of morality, forbid self-commendation.” Self- perhaps may surprise, by their lightness of touch), his non- reliance is but too frequently coupled with self-consciousness, and dramatic works are comprised in the following collections. The for good and for evil self-confidence was no doubt the most pro- book of Epigrams (published in the first folio of 1616) contained, minent feature in the character of Ben Jonson. Hence the com- in the poet's own words, the "ripest of his studies.” His notion bativeness which involved him in so many quarrels in his earlier of an epigram was the ancient, not the restricted modern one- days, and which jarred so harshly upon the less militant and in still less that of the critic (R. C., the author of The Times' Whistle) some respects more pedantic nature of Drummond. But his in whose language, according to Jonson, “witty ” was obscene." quarrels do not appear to have entered deeply into his soul, or On the whole, these epigrams excel more in encomiastic than in indeed usually to have lasted long.' He was too exuberant in his satiric touches, while the pathos of one or two epitaphs in the vituperations to be bitter, and too outspoken to be malicious.collection is of the truest kind. In the lyrics and epistles con- He loved of all things to be called “honest,” and there is every tained in the Forest (also in the first folio), Jonson shows greater reason to suppose that he deserved the epithet. The old super- variety in the poetic styles adopted by him; but the subject of * With Inigo Jones, however, in quarrelling with whom, as Howell love, which Dryden considered conspicuous by its absence in the reminds Jonson, the poet was virtually quarrelling with his bread author's dramas, is similarly eschewed bere. The Underwoods and butter, he seems to have found it impossible to live permanently (not published collectively till the second and surreptitious folio) at peace; his satirical Expostulation against the architect was pub- lished as late as 1635. Chapman's satire against his old associate, are a miscellaneous series, comprising, together with a few perhaps due to this quarrel, was left unfinished and unpublished. religious and a few amatory poems, a large number of epigrams, a " 506 JONSON 1) epitaphs, elegies and “ odes,” including both the tributes to | later date, keeping in closer touch with the common experience Shakespeare and several to royal and other patrons and friends, of human life, with a lighter hand broadened the basis of French besides the Execration upon Vulcan, and the characteristic ode and of modern Western comedy at large. It does not of course addressed by the poet to himself. To these pieces in verse should follow that Jonson's disciples, the Bromes and the Cartwrights, be added the Discoveries—Timber, or Discoveries made upon Men always adequately reproduced the master's conception of and Matters, avowedly a commonplace book of aphorisms noted “ humorous comedy. Jonson's wide and various reading by the poet in his daily readings-thoughts adopted and adapted helped him to diversify the application of his theory, while perhaps in more tranquil and perhaps more sober moods than those which at times it led him into too remote illustrations of it. Still, gave rise to the outpourings of the Conversations at Hawthornder. Captain Bobadil and Captain Tucca, Macilente and Fungoso, As to the critical value of these Conversations it is far from being Volpone and Mosca, and a goodly number of other characters im- only negative; he knew how to admire as well as how to disdain. press themselves permanently upon the memory of those whose For these thoughts, though abounding with biographical as well attention they have as a matter of course commanded. It is a as general interest, Jonson was almost entirely indebted to very futile criticism to condemn Jonson's characters as a mere ancient writers, or (as has been shown by Professor Spingarn and series of types of general ideas; on the other hand, it is a very by Percy Simpson) indebted to the humanists of the Renaissance sound criticism to object, with Barry Cornwall, to the “multi- (see Modern Language Review, ii. 3, April 1907). tude of characters who throw no light upon the story, and lend The extant dramatic works of Ben Jonson fall into three or, no interest to it, occupying space that had better have been if his fragmentary pastoral drama be considered to stand by bestowed upon the principal agents of the plot." itself, into four distinct divisions. The tragedies are only two in In the construction of plots, as in most other respects, Jonson's number-Sejanus his Fall and Catiline his Conspiracy. Of these at once conscientious and vigorous mind led him in the direction the earlier, as is worth noting, was produced at Shakespeare's of originality; he depended to a far less degree than the greater theatre, in all probability before the first of Shakespeare's Roman part of his contemporaries (Shakespeare with the rest) upon dramas, and still contains a considerable admixture of rhyme in borrowed plots. But either his inventive character was the dialogue. Though perhaps less carefully elaborated in diction occasionally at fault in this respect, or his devotion to his than its successor, Sejanus is at least equally impressive as a characters often diverted his attention from a brisk conduct highly wrought dramatic treatment of a complex historic theme. of his plot. Barry Cornwall has directed attention to the The character of Tiberius adds an element of curious psychological essential likeness in the plot of two of Jonson's best comedies, interest on which speculation has never quite exhausted itself | Volpone and The Alchemist; and another critic, W. Bodham and which, in Jonson's day at least, was wanting to the figures Donne, has dwelt on the difficulty which, in The Poetaster and of Catiline and his associates. But in both plays the action is elsewhere, Ben Jonson seems to experience in sustaining the powerfully conducted, and the care bestowed by the dramatist promise of his actions. The Poelaster is, however, a play sui upon the great variety of characters introduced cannot, as in generis, in which the real business can hardly be said to begin some of his comedies, be said to distract the interest of the reader. till the last act. Both these tragedies are noble works, though the relative popu- Dryden, when criticizing Ben Jonson's comedies, thought fit, larity of the subject (for conspiracies are in the long run more while allowing the old master humour and incontestable "plea- interesting than camarillas) has perhaps secured the preference santness,” to deny him wit and those ornaments thereof which to Catiline. Yet this play and its predecessor were alike too Quintilian reckons up under the terms urbana, salsa, faceta and manifestly intended by their author to court the goodwill of so forth. Such wit as Dryden has in view is the mere outward what he calls the “ extraordinary” reader. It is difficult to fashion or style of the day, the euphuism or “sheerwit " or chic imagine that (with the aid of judicious shortenings) either could which is the creed of Fastidious Brisks and of their astute altogether miss its effect on the stage; but, while Shakespeare purveyors at any given moment. In this Ben Jonson was no causes us to forget, Jonson seems to wish us to remember, his doubt defective; but it would be an error to suppose him, as a authorities. The half is often greater than the whole; and Jonson, comic dramatist, to have maintained towards the world around like all dramatists and, it might be added, all novelists in similar him the attitude of a philosopher, careless of mere transient cases, has had to pay the penalty incurred by too obvious a externalisms. It is said that the scene of his Every Man in his desire to underline the learning of the author. Humour was originally laid near Florence; and his Volpone, which Perversity-or would-be originality-alone could declare is perhaps the darkest social picture ever drawn by him, plays at Jonson's tragedy preferable to his comedy. Even if the revolution Venice. Neither locality was ill-chosen, but the real atmosphere which he created in the comic branch of the drama had been mis- of his comedies is that of the native surroundings amidst which taken in its principles or unsatisfactory in its results, it would be they were produced; and Ben Jonson's times live for us in his clear that the strength of his dramatic genius lay in the power of men and women, his country gulls and town gulls, his alchemists depicting a great variety of characters, and that in comedy alone and exorcists, his “skeldring" captains and whining Puritans, he succeeded in finding a wide field for the exercise of this power. and the whole ragamuffin rout of his Bartholomew Fair, the There may have been no very original or very profound discovery comedy par excellence of Elizabethan low life. After he had in the idea which he illustrated in Every Man in his Humour, and, described the pastimes, fashionable and unfashionable, of his as it were, technically elaborated in Every Man out of his Humour age, its feeble superstitions and its flaunting naughtinesses, --that in many men one quality is observable which so possesses its vapouring affectations and its lying effronteries, with an them as to draw the whole of their individualities one way, and odour as of “ divine tabacco" pervading the whole, little might that this phenomenon "may be truly said to be a humour." seem to be left to describe for his “sons and successors. The idea of the master quality or tendency was, as has been well | Enough, however, remained; only that his followers speedily observed, a very considerable one for dramatist or novelist. Nor again threw manners and "humours" into an undistinguishable did Jonson. (happily) attempt to work out this idea with any medley. excessive scientific consistency as a comic dramatist. But, by The gift which both in his art and in his life Jonson lacked refusing to apply the term “humour" (9.0.) to a mere peculiarity was that of exercising the influence or creating the effects which or affectation of manners, and restricting its use to actual or he wished to exercise or create without the appearance of implied differences or distinctions of character, he broadened the consciousness. Concealment never crept over his efforts, and whole basis of English comedy after his fashion, as Molière at a he scorned insinuation. Instead of this, influenced no doubt Of The Fall of Mortimer Jonson left only a few lines behind him; by the example of the free relations between author and public but, as he also left the argument of the play, factious ingenuity permitted by Attic comedy, he resorted again and again, from contrived to furbish up the relic into a libel against Queen Caroline Every Man out of his Humour to The Magnetic Lady, to inductions and Sir Robert Walpole in 1731, and to revive the contrivance by and commentatory intermezzos and appendices, which, though way of an insult to the princess dowager of Wales and Lord Bute in 1762. occasionally effective by the excellence of their execution, are JOPLIN 507 to be regretted as introducing into his dramas an exotic and the first includes a biographical memoir, and the famous essay on often vexatious element. A man of letters to the very core, the “Proofs of Ben Jonson's Malignity, from the Commentators he never quite understood that there is and ought to be a wide on Shakespeare "). A new edition of Gifford's was published in 9 vols. in 1875 by Colonel F. Cunningham, as well as a cheap reprint difference of methods between the world of letters and the world in 3 vols. in 1870. Both contain the Conversations with Drummond, of the theatre. which were first printed in full by David Laing in the Shakespeare The richness and versatility of Jonson's genius will never be Society's Publicalions (1842) and the Jonsonus Virbius, a collection fully appreciated by those who fail to acquaint themselves with published about six months after Jonson's death by his friends and (unparalleled in number and variety of authors) of poetical tributes, what is preserved to us of his.“ masques and cognate enter- admirers. There is also a single-volume edition, with a very readable tainments. He was conscious enough of his success in this memoir, by Barry Cornwall (1838). An edition of Ben Jonson's direction—"next himself,” he said, “ only Fletcher and Chap- works from the original texts was recently undertaken by C. H. man could write a masque." He introduced, or at least estab- Herford and Percy Simpson. A selection from his plays, edited for the “Mermaid" series in 1893-1895 by B. Nicholson, with an introduction lished, the ingenious innovation of the anti-masque, which by C. H. Herford, was reissued in 1904. W. W. Bang in his Mater- Schlegel has described, as a species of “ parody added by the. ialien zur Kunde des alten englischen Dramas has reprinted from the poet to his device, and usually prefixed to the serious entry," folio of 1616 those of Ben Jonson's plays which are contained in it and which accordingly supplies a grotesque antidote to the often of his Humour have been edited for the same series (16 and 17, 1905 (Louvain, 1905-1906). Every Man in his Humour and Every Man out extravagantly imaginative main conception. Jonson's learning, and 1907) by W.W.Bang and W.W. Greg. Every Man in his Humour creative power and humorous ingenuity-combined, it should has also been edited, with a brief biographical as well as special not be forgotten, with a genuine lyrical giſt-all found abundant introduction, to which the present sketch owes some details, by opportunities for displaying themselves in these productions. H. B. Wheatley (1877). Some valuable editions of plays by Ben Jonson have been recently published by American scholars in the Though a growth of foreign origin, the masque was by him Yale Studies in English, edited by A. S. Cook-The Poetaster, ed. thoroughly domesticated in the high places of English literature. H. S. Mallory (1905); The Alchemist, ed. C. M. Hathaway (1903); He lived long enough to see the species produce its poetic The Devil is an Ass, ed. W. S. Johnson (1905); The Staple of News, masterpiece in Comus. ed. De Winter (1905); The New Inn, ed. by G. Bremner (1908); The Sad Shepherd (with Waldron's continuation) has been edited by The Sad Shepherd, of which Jonson left behind him three acts W. W. Greg for Bang's Materialien zur Kunde des alten englischen and a prologue, is distinguished among English pastoral dramas Dramas (Louvain, 1905). by its freshness of tone; it breathes something of the spirit of here; among those by eminent Englishmen should be specially men. The criticisms of Ben Jonson are too numerous for cataloguing the greenwood, and is not unnatural even in its supernatural tioned John Dryden's, particularly those in his Essay on Dramatic element. While this piece, with its charming love-scenes Poësy (1667-1668; revised 1684), and in the preface to An Evening's between Robin Hood and Maid Marion, remains a fragment, Love, or the Mock Astrologer (1668), and A.C. Swinburne's Study of Ben another pastoral by Jonson, the May Lord (which F. G. Fleay is misapprehended. See also F. G. Fleay, Biographical Chronicle of Jonson (1889), in which, however, the significance of the Discoveries and J. A. Symonds sought to identify with The Sad Shepherd; see, the English Drama (1891), i. 311-387, ii. 1-18; C. H. Herford, “ Ben however, W. W. Greg in introduction to the Louvain reprint), Jonson *" (art. in Dici. Nat. Biog., vol. xxx., 1802); A. W. Ward, has been lost, and a third, of which Loch Lomond was intended History of English Dramatic Literature, and ed. (1899), ii. 296- to be the scene, probably remained unwritten. 407; and for a list of early impressions, W. W. Greg, List of English Though Ben Jonson never altogether recognized the truth of Plays written before 1643 and printed before 1700 °(Bibliographical Society, 1900), pp. 55-58 and supplement 11-15. An important the maxim that the dramatic art has properly speaking no French work on Ben Jonson, both biographical and critical, and didactic purpose, his long and laborious life was not wasted containing, besides many translations of scenes and passages, upon a barren endeavour. In tragedy he added two works of some valuable appendices, to more than one of which reference uncommon merit to our dramatic literature. In comedy his læuvre (1907). Among treatises or essays on particular aspects has been made above, is Maurice Castelain's Ben Jonson, l'homme et aim was higher, his effort more sustained, and his success more of his literary work may be mentioned Emil Koeppel's Quellenstudien solid than were those of any of his fellows. In the subsidiary zu den Dramen Ben Jonson's, &c. (1895); the same writer's “ Ben and hybrid species of the masque, he helped to open a new and Jonson's Wirkung auf zeitgenössische Dramatiker," &c., in Angli- cistische Forschungen, 20 (1906); F. E. Schelling's Ben Jonson and attractive though undoubtedly devious path in the field of the Classical School (1898); and as to his masques, A. Soergel, Die dramatic literature. His intellectual endowments surpassed englischen Maskenspiele (1882) and J. Schmidt, : Über Ben Jonson's those of most of the great English dramatists in richness and Maskenspiele,”, in Herrig's Archiv, &c., xxvii. 51-91. See also H. Reinsch, breadth; and in energy of application he probably left them all “Ben Jonson's Poetik und seine Beziehungen zu (A. W. W.) behind." Inferior to more than one of his fellow-dramatists in Horaz," in Münchener Beiträge, 16 (1899). the power of imaginative sympathy, he was first among the JOPLIN, a city of Jasper county, Missouri, U.S.A., on Joplin Elizabethans in the power of observation; and there is point in creek, about 140 m. S. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890), 9943; Barrett Wendell's paradox, that as a dramatist he was not (1900), 26,023, of whom 893 were foreign-born and 773 were really a poet but a painter. Yet it is less by these gifts, or even negroes; (1910 census) 32,073. It is served by the Missouri by his unexcelled capacity for hard work, than by the true ring Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Missouri, Kansas of manliness that he will always remain distinguished among | & Texas, and the Kansas City Southern railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city has a fine court-house, a Jonson was buried on the north side of the nave in West- United States government building, a Carnegie library and a minster Abbey, and the inscription, “O Rare Ben Jonson," was large auditorium. Joplin is the trade centre of a rich agricul- cut in the slab over his grave. In the beginning of the 18tb tural and fruit-growing district, but its growth has been chiefly century a portrait bust was put up to his memory in the Poets' due to its situation in one of the must productive zinc and lead Corner by Harley, carl of Oxford. Of Honthorst's portrait of regions in the country, for which it is the commercial centre. Jonson at Knole Park there is a copy in the National Portrait In 1906 the value of zinc-ore shipments from this Missouri- Gallery; another was engraved by W. Marshall for the 1640 Kansas (or Joplin) district was $12,074,105, and of shipments edition of his Poems. of lead ore, $3,048,558. The value of Joplin's factory product BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The date of the first folio volume of Jonson's in 1905 was $3,006,203, an increase of 29.3% since 1900. Works (of which title his novel but characteristic use in applying Natural gas, piped from the Kansas fields, is used for light and it to plays was at the time much ridiculed) has already been men- power, and electricity for commercial lighting and power is tioned as 1616; second, professedly published 1640, is de; derived from plants on Spring River, near Vark, Kansas, and on scribed by Gifford as a wretched continuation of the first, printed from MSS. surreptitiously obtained during his life, or ignorantly Shoal creek. The municipality owns its electric-lighting plant; hurried through the press after his death, and bearing a variety of the water-works are under private ownership. The first settle- dates from 1631 to 164, inclusive. The works were reprinted in ment in the neighbourhood was made in 1838. In 1871 Joplin a single folio volume in 1692, in which The New Inn and The Case is was laid out and incorporated as a town; in 1872 it and a rival Altered were included for the first time, and again'in 6 vols Svo in 1715. Peter Whalley's edition in 7 vols., with a life, appeared in 1756, town on the other side of Joplin creek were united under the but was superseded in 1816 by William Gifford's, in 9 vols. (of which name Union City; in 1873 Union City was chartered as a city his peers. 508 JOPPA-JORDAN, D. under the name Joplin; and in 1888 Joplin was chartered as a JORDAENS, JACOB (1593–1678), Flemish painter, was born city of the third class. The city derives its name from the and died at Antwerp. He studied, like Rubens, under Adam creek, which was named in honour of the Rev. Harris G. Joplin van Noort, and his marriage with his master's daughter in 1616, (c. 1810-1847), a native of Tennessee. the year after his admission to the gild of painters, prevented JOPPA, less correctly JAFFA (Arab. Vāfa), a seaport on the him from visiting Rome. He was forced to content himself coast of Palestine. It is of great antiquity, being mentioned with studying such examples of the Italian masters as he found in the tribute lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III.; but as it never at home; but a far more potent influence was exerted upon his was in the territory of the pre-exilic Israelites it was to them a style by Rubens, who employed him sometimes to reproduce place of no importance. Its ascription to the tribe of Dan small sketches in large. Jordaens is second to Rubens alone (Josh. xix. 46) is purely theoretical. According to the authors in their special department of the Flemish school. In both of Chronicles Chron. ii. 16), Ezra (iii. 7) and Jonah (i. 3) it there is the same warmth of colour, truth to nature, mastery of was a seaport for importation of the Lebanon timber floated chiaroscuro and energy of expression; but Jordaens is wanting down the coasts or for ships plying even to distant Tarshish. in dignity of conception, and is inferior in choice of forms, in About 148 B.c. it was captured from the Syrians by Jonathan the character of his heads, and in correctness of drawing. Not Maccabaeus (1 Macc. x. 75) and later it was retaken and garri- seldom he sins against good taste, and in some of his humorous soned by Simon his brother (xii. 33, xiii. 11). It was restored pieces the coarseness is only atoned for by the animation. Of to the Syrians by Pompey (Jos., Ant. xiv. 4, 4) but again given these last he seems in some cases to have painted several replicas. back to the Jews (ib. xiv. 10, 6) with an exemption from tax. He employed his pencil also in biblical, mythological, historical St Peter for a while lodged at Joppa, where he restored the and allegorical subjects, and is well-known as a portrait painter. benevolent widow Tabitha to life, and had the vision which He also etched some plates. taught him the universality of the plan of Christianity. See the elaborate work on the painter, by Max Rooses (1908). According to Strabo (xvi. ï.), who makes the strange JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771-1821), French politician, was born mistake of saying that Jerusalem is visible from Joppa, the in Lyons on the uth of January 1771 of a well-to-do mercantile place was a resort of pirates. It was destroyed by Vespasian family. He was educated in Lyons, and from an early age was in the Jewish War (68). Tradition connects the story of imbued with royalist principles. He actively supported by Andromeda and the sea-monster with the sea-coast of Joppa, voice, pen and musket his native town in its resistance to the and in early times her chains were shown as well as the skeleton Convention; and when Lyons fell, in October 1793, Jordan fled. of the monster itself (Jos. Wars, iii. 9, 3). The site seems to From Switzerland he passed in six months to England, where he have been shown even to some medieval pilgrims, and curious formed acquaintances with other French exiles and with pro- traces of it have been detected in modern Moslem legends. minent British statesmen, and imbibed a lasting admiration for In the 5th and 11th centuries we hear from time to time of the English Constitution. In 1796 he returned to France, and bishops of Joppa, under the metropolitan of Jerusalem. In next year he was sent by Lyons as a deputy to the Council of 1126 the district was captured by the knights of St John, but Five Hundred. There his eloquence won him consideration, lost to Saladin in 1187. Richard Caur de Lion retook it in He earnestly supported what he felt to be true freedom, especially 1191, but it was finally retaken by Malek el ‘Adil in 1196. It in matters of religious worship, though the energetic appeal on languished for a time; in the 16th century it was an almost behalf of church bells in his Rapport sur la liberté des cultes uninhabited ruin; but towards the end of the 17th century it procured him the sobriquet of Jordan-Cloche. Proscribed at began anew to develop as a seaport. In 1799 it was stormed the coup d'état of the 18th Fructidor (4th of September 1797) he by Napoleon; the fortifications were repaired and strengthened escaped to Basel. Thence he went to Germany, where he met by the British. Goethe. Back again in France by 1800, he boldly published in The modern town of Joppa derives its importance, first, as a 1802 his Vrai sens du vote national pour le consulat à vie, in which seaport for Jerusalem and the whole of southern Palestine, and he exposed the ambitious schemes of Bonaparte. He was unmo- secondly as a centre of the fruit-growing industry. During the lested, however, and during the First Empire lived in literary latter part of the 19th century it greatly increased in size. The retirement at Lyons with his wife and family, producing for the old city walls have been entirely removed. Its population is Lyons academy occasional papers on the Influence réciproque de about 35,000 (Moslems 23,000, Christians 5000, Jews 7000; with l'éloquence sur la Révolution et de la Révolution sur l'éloquence; the Christians are included the “ Templars,” a semi-religious, Études sur Klopstock, &c. At the restoration in 1814 he again semi-agricultural German colony of about 320 souls). The town, emerged into public life. By Louis XVIII. he was ennobled which rises over a rounded hillock on the coast, about 100 ft. and named a councillor of state; and from 1816 he sat in the high, has a very picturesque appearance from the sea. The chamber of deputies as representative of Ain. At first he sup- harbour (so-called) is one of the worst existing, being simply a ported the ministry, but when they began to show signs of re- natural breakwater formed by a ledge of reefs, safe enough for action he separated from them, and gradually came to be a: small Oriental craft, but very dangerous for large vessels, which the head of the constitutional opposition. His speeches in the can only make use of the seaport in calm weather; these never chamber were always eloquent and powerful. Though warned come nearer than about a mile from the shore. A railway and by failing health to resign, Camille Jordan remained at his post a bad carriage-road connect Joppa with Jerusalem. The water till his death at Paris, on the 19th of May 1821. of the town is derived from wells, many of which have a To his pen we owe Lellre à M. Lamourelle (1791); Histoire de la brackish taste. The export trade of the town consists of soap conversion d'une dame Parisienne (1792): La Loi et la religion vengées of olive oil, sesame, barley, water melons, wine and especially (1792); Adresse à ses commetlanis sur la révolution du 4 Septembre oranges (commonly known as Jaffa oranges), grown in the 1797 (1797); Sur les troubles de Lyon (1818); La Session de 1817 famous and ever-increasing gardens that lie north and east of (1818). His Discours were collected in 1818. The “ Fragments choisis," and translations from the German, were published in the town. The chief imports are timber, cotton and other L'Abeille française. Besides the various histories of the time, see textile goods, tiles, iron, rice, coffee, sugar and petroleum. The further details vol. x. of the Revue encyclopédique; a paper on value of the exports in 1900 was estimated at £264,950, the Jordan and Madame de Staël, by C. A. Sainte-Beuve, in the Revue imports £382,405. Over 10,000 pilgrims, chiefly Russians, and des deux mondes for March 1868 and R. Boubée, “ Camille Jordan some three or four thousand tourists land annually at Joppa. à Weimar,” in the Correspondant (1901), ccv. 718-738 and 948-970. The town is the seat of a kaimakam or lieutenant-governor, JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762-1816), Irish actress, was born subordinate to the governor of Jerusalem, and contains vice- near Waterford, Ireland, in 1762. Her mother, Grace Phillips, consulates of Great Britain, France, Germany, America and at one time known as Mrs Frances, was a Dublin actress. Her other powers. There are Latin, Greek, Armenian and Coptic father, whose name was Bland, was according to one account an monasteries; and hospitals and schools under British, French army captain, but more probably a stage hand. Dorothy and German auspices. (R. A. S. M.) Jordan made her first appearance on the stage in 1777 in Dublin JORDAN, T.--JORDAN 509 as Phoebe in As You Like It. After acting elsewhere in Ireland | W.C. Hazlitt, Handbook to the Popular, Poetical and Dramatic Litera- ture of Great Britain (1867); F. W. Fairholt, Lord Mayors' Pageants she appeared in 1782 at Leeds, and subsequently at other Yorkshire towns, in a variety of parts, including Lady Teazle. John Gough Nichols, London Pageants (1831). (Percy Society: 1843), containing a memoir of Thomas Jordan; It was at this time that she began calling herself Mrs Jordan. JORDAN, WILHELM (1819-1904), German poet and novelist, In 1785 she made her first London appearance at Drury Lane as Peggy in A Country Girl. Before the end of her first season she 1819. He studied, first theology and then philosophy and was born at Insterburg in East Prussia on the 8th of February had become an established public favourite, her acting in comedy natural science, at the universities of Königsberg and Berlin. being declared second only to that of Kitty Clive. Her engage He settled in Leipzig as a journalist; but the democratic views ment at Drury Lane lasted till 1809, and she played a large expressed in some essays and the volumes of poems Glocke und variety of parts. But gradually it came to be recognized that Kanone (1481) and Irdische Phantasien (1842) led to his expulsion her special talent lay in comedy, her Lady Teazle, Rosalind and from Saxony in 1846. He next engaged in literary and tutorial Imogen being specially liked, and such“ breeches” parts as work in Bremen, and on the outbreak of the revolution, in Feb- William in Rosina. During the rebuilding of Drury Lane she ruary 1848, was sent to Paris, as correspondent of the Bremer played at the Haymarket; she transferred her services in 1811 Zeitung. He almost immediately, however, returned to Ger- to Covent Garden. Here, in 1814, she made her last appearance on the London stage, and the following year, at Margate, retired many and, throwing himself into the political fray in Berlin, was elected member for Freienwalde, in the first German parlia- altogether. Mrs Jordan's private life was one of the scandals ment at Frankfort on-Main. For a short while he sided with of the period. She had a daughter by her first manager, in Ire- land, and four children by Sir Richard Ford, whose name she having been passed for the establishment of a German navy, he the Left, but soon joined the party of von Gagern. On a vote bore for some years. In 1790 she became the mistress of the was appointed secretary of the committee to deal with the whole duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and bore him ten question, and was subsequently made ministerial councillor childreri, who were ennobled under the name of Fitz Clarence, the Ministerialrat) in the naval department of the government. eldest being created earl of Munster. In 1811 they separated The naval project was abandoned, Jordan was pensioned and by mutual consent, Mrs Jordan being granted a liberal allowance. afterwards resided at Frankfort-on-Main until his death on the In 1815 she went abroad. According to one story she was in 25th of June 1904, devoting himself to literary work, acting as danger of imprisonment for debt. If so, the debt must have been his own publisher, and producing numerous poems, novels, incurred on behalf of others-probably her relations, who appear dramas and translations. to have been continually borrowing from her--for her own per- Among his best known works are: Demiurgos (3 vols., 1852–1854), sonal debts were very much more than covered by her savings. a " Mysterium,” in which he attempted to deal with the problems She is generally understood to have died at St Cloud, near Paris, of human existence, but the work found little favour; Nibelunge, an on the 3rd of July 1816, but the story that under an assumed epic poem in alliterative verse, in two parts, (1), Sigfriedsage (1867- name she lived for seven years after that date in England finds 1868; 13th ed. 1889) and (2) Hildebrants Heimkehr (1874; 10th ed. 1892)-in the first part he is regarded as having been remarkably some credence. successful; a tragedy, Die Wittwe des Agis (1858); the comedies, See James Boaden, Life of Mrs Jordan (1831); The Great Illegiti- | Die Liebesleugner (1855) and Durchs Ohr (1870; 6th ed. 1885); mates (1830); John Genest, Account of the Stage; Tate Wilkinson, and the novels Die Sebalds (1885) and Zwei Wiegen (1887). Jordan The Wandering Patentee; Memoirs and Amorous Adventures by Sea also published numerous translations, notably Homers odyssee and Land of King William IV. (1830); The Georgian Era (1838). (1876; 2nd ed. 1889) and Homers Ilias (1881; 2nd ed. 1894); Die JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?-1685), English poet and pam- Edda (1889). He was also distinguished as a reciter, and on a visit to the United States in 1871 read extracts from his works before large phleteer, was born in London and started life as an actor at the audiences. Red Bull theatre in Clerkenwell. He published in 1637 his first JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering- volume of poems, entitled Poeticall Varieties, and in the same year place), the only river of Palestine and one of the most remark- appeared A Pill to Purge Melancholy. In 1639 he recited one of able in the world. It flows from north to south in a deep his poems before King Charles I., and from this time forward trough-like valley, the Aulon of the Greeks and Ghor of the Jordan's output in verse and prose was continuous and prolific. Arabs, which is usually believed to follow the line of a fault or He freely borrowed from other authors, and frequently re-issued fracture of the earth's crust. Most geologists hold that the valley his own writings under new names. During the troubles between is part of an old sea-bed, traces of which remain in numerous the king and the parliament he wrote a number of Royalist shingle-banks and beach-levels. This, they say, once extended pamphlets, the first of which, A Medicine for the Times, or an to the Red Sea and even over N.E. Africa. Shrinkage caused Antidote against Faction, appeared in 1641. Dedications, occa- sional verses, prologues and epilogues to plays poured from his between which occurred a long fracture, which can now be traced the pelagic limestone bottom to be upheaved in two ridges, pen. Many volumes of his poems bear no date, and they were from Coelesyria down the Wadi Araba to the Gulf of Akaba. probably written during the Commonwealth. At the Restoration The Jordan valley in its lower part keeps about the old level he eulogized Monk, produced a masque at the entertainment of of the sea-bottom and is therefore a remnant of the Miocene the general in the city of London and wrote pamphlets in his support. He then for some years devoted his chief attention to authorities preferring to assume a succession of more strictly world. This theory, however, is not universally accepted, some writing plays, in at least one of which, Money is an Ass, he himself local elevations and depressions, connected with the recent played a part when it was produced in 1668. In 1671 he was appointed laureate to the city of London; from this date till bank, which brought the contours finally to their actual form. volcanic activity of the Jaulan and Lija districts on the east his death in 1685 he annually composed a panegyric on the lord In any case the number of distinct sea-beaches seems to imply mayor, and arranged the pageantry of the lord mayor's shows, which' he celebrated in verse under such titles as London Miocene upheaval, which are responsible for the shrinkage of a succession of convulsive changes, more recent than the great Triumphant, or the City in Jollity and Splendour (1672), or the water into the three isolated pans now found. For more London in Luster, Projecling many Bright Beams of Triumph than two-thirds of its course the Jordan lies below the level of (1679). Many volumes of these curious productions are pre- the sea. It has never been navigable, no important town has served in the British Museum. ever been built on its banks, and it runs into an inland sea which In addition to his numerous printed works, of which perhaps has no port and is destitute of aquatic life. Throughout history A Royal Arbour of Loyall Poesie (1664) and A Nursery of Novelties in Variety of Poetry are most deserving of mention, several volumes of it has exerted a separatist influence, roughly dividing the settled his poems exist in manuscript. w.C. Hazlitt and other 19th-century from the nomadic populations; and the crossing of Jordan, one critics found more merit in Jordan's writings than was allowed way or the other, was always an event in the history of Israel. by his contemporaries, who for the most part scornfully referred to In Hebrew times its valley was regarded as a “ wilderness” and, hís voluminous productions as commonplace and dull. See Gerard Langbaine, Account of the English Dramatic Poets except in the Roman era, seems always to have been as sparsely (1691); David Erskine Baker, Biographia Dramatica (4 vols., 1812); 1 inhabited as now. From its sources to the Dead Sea it rushes 510 JORDANES 9 down a continuous inclined plane, broken here and there by more than half-way down the lower course. On the right the rapids and small falls; between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Jalud descends from the plain of Esdraelon to near Beisan, Sea its sinuosity is so great that in a direct distance of 65 m. and the Far'a from near Nablus. Various salt springs rise in it traverses at least 200 m. The mean fall is about 9 ft. in the the lower valley. The rest of the tributaries are wadis, dry mile. The Jordan has two great sources, one in Tell el-Kadi except after rains. (Dan) whence springs the Nahr Leddan, a stream 12 ft. broad Such human life as may be found in the valley now is mainly at its birth; the other at Banias (anc. Paneas, Caesarea-Philippi), migratory. The Samaritan villagers use it in winter as pasture- some 4 m. N., where the Nahr Banias issues from a cave, about ground, and, with the Circassians and Arabs of the east bank, 30 ſt. broad. But two longer streams with less water contest cultivate plots here and there. They retire on the approach of their claim, the Nahr Barrighit from Coelesyria, which rises summer. Jericho is the only considerable settlement in the near the springs of the Litany, and the Nahr Hasbany from lower valley, and it lies some distance west of the stream on Hermon. The four streams unite below the fortress of Banias, the lower slopes of the Judaean heights. which once held the gate of the valley, and flow into a marshy See W. F. Lynch, Narrative of the U.S. Expedition, &c. (1849); tract now called Huleh (Semechonitis, and perhaps Merom of H. B. Tristram, Land of Israel (1865); J. Macgregor, Rob Roy on the Joshua. There the Jordan begins to fall below sea-level, rushing E. Robinson, Physical Geography of the Holy Land (1865): E. Hull Jordan (1870); A. Ncubauer, La Géographie du Talmud (1868); down 680 ft. in 9 m. to a delta, which opens into the Sea of Mount Seir, &c. (1885), and Memoir on the Geology of Arabia Petraea, Galilee. Thereafter it follows a valley which is usually not above &c. (1886); G. A. Smith, Hist. Geography of the Holy Land (1894); 4 m. broad, but opens out twice into the small plains of Bethshan W. Libbey and F. E. Hoskins, The Jordan Valley, &c. (1905). See and Jericho. The river actually flows in a depression, the Zor, also Palestine. (C. W. W.; D. G. H.) from a quarter to 2 m. wide, which it has hollowed out for JORDANES, the historian of the Gothic nation, nourished itself in the bed of the Ghor. During the rainy season (January about the middle of the 6th century. All that we certainly know and February), when the Jordan overflows its banks, the Zor about his life is contained in three sentences of his history of the is flooded, but when the water falls it produces rich crops. The Goths (cap. 50), from which, among other particulars as to the floor of the Ghor falls gently to the Zor, and is intersected by history of his family, we learn that his grandfather Paria was deep channels, which have been cut by the small streams and notary to Candac, the chief of a confederation of Alans and other winter torrents that traverse it on their way to the Jordan. As tribes settled during the latter half of the 5th century on the south far south as Kurn Surtabeh most of the valley is fertile, and even of the Danube in the provinces which are now Bulgaria and the between that point and the Dead Sea there are several well- Dobrudscha. Jordanes himself was the notary of Candac's watered oases. In summer the heat in the Ghor is intense, nephew, the Gothic chief Gunthigis, until he took the vows of a 110° F. in the shade, but in winter the temperature falls to 40°, monk. This, according to the manner of speaking of that day, and sometimes to 32° at night. During the seasons of rain and is the meaning of his words ante conversionem meam, though it is melting snow the river is very full, and liable to freshets. After quite possible that he may at the same time have renounced twelve hours' rain it has been known to rise from 4 to 5 ft., the Arian creed of his forefathers, which it is clear that he no and to fall as rapidly. In 1257 the Jordan was dammed up longer held when he wrote his Gothic history. The Getica of for several hours by a landslip, probably due to heavy rain. On Jordanes shows Gothic sympathies; but these are probably due leaving the Sea of Galilee the water is quite clear, but it soon to an imitation of the tone of Cassiodorus, from whom he draws assumes a tawny colour from the soft marl which it washes away practically all his material. He was not himself a Goth, belong- from its banks and deposits in the Dead Sea. On the whole it is ing to a confederation of Germanic tribes, embracing Alans and an unpleasant foul stream running between poisonous banks, Scyrians, which had come under the influence of the Ostrogoths and as such it seems to have been regarded by the Jews and other settled on the lower Danube; and his own sympathies are those Syrians. The Hebrew poets did not sing its praises, and others of a member of this confederation. He is accordingly friendly to compared it unfavourably with the clear rivers of Damascus. the Goths, even apart from the influence of Cassiodorus; but he is The clay of the valley was used for brick making, and Solomon also prepossessed in favour of the eastern emperors in whose terri- established brassfoundries there. From crusading times to this tories this confederation lived and whose subject he himself was. day it has grown sugar-cane. In Roman times it had extensive This makes him an impartial authority on the last days of the palm-groves and some small towns (e.g. Livias or Julias opposite Ostrogoths. At the same time, living in Moesia, he is restricted Jericho) and villages. The Jordan is crossed by two stone in his outlook to Danubian affairs. He has little to say of the bridges-one north of Lake Huleh, the other between that lake inner history and policy of the kingdom of Theodoric: his inter- and the Sea of Galilee—and by a wooden bridge on the road ests lie, as Mommsen says, within a triangle of which the three from Jerusalem to Gilead and Moab. During the Roman points are Sirmium, Larissa and Constantinople. Finally, con- period, and almost to the end of the Arab supremacy, there were nected as he was with the Alans, he shows himself friendly to bridges on all the great lines of communication between eastern them, whenever they enter into his narrative. and western Palestine, and ferries at other places. The depth of We pass from the extremely shadowy personality of Jordanes water varies greatly with the season. When not in flood the to the more interesting question of his works. river is often fordable, and between the Sea of Galilee and the 1. The Romana, or, as he himself calls it, De summa temporum Dead Sea there are then more than fifty fords-some of them of vel origine actibusque gentis Romanorum, was composed in 551. historic interest. The only difficulty is occasioned by the erratic It was begun before, but published after, the Getica. It is a zigzag current. The natural products of the Jordan valley sketch of the history of the world from the creation, based on --a tropical oasis sunk in the temperate zone, and overhung by Jerome, the epitome of Florus, Orosius and the ecclesiastical Alpine Hermon-are unique. Papyrus grows in Lake Huleh, history of Socrates. There is a curious reference to lamblichus, and rice and cereals thrive on its shores, whilst below the Sea of apparently the neo-platonist philosopher, whose name Jordanes, Galilee the vegetation is almost tropical. The fora and fauna being, as he says himself, agrammatus, inserts by way of a present a large infusion of Ethiopian types; and the fish, with flourish. The work is only of any value for the century 450- which the river is abundantiy stocked, have a great affinity with 550, when Jordanes is dealing with recent history. It is merely those of the rivers and lakes of east Africa. Ere the Jordan a hasty compilation intended to stand side by side with the enters the Dead Sea, its valley has become very barren and for- Getica.? bidding. It reaches the lake at a minus level of 1290 ft., the 2. The other work of Jordanes commonly called De rebus depression continuing downwards to twice that depth in the Geticis or Getica, was styled by himself De origine actibusque bed of the Dead Sea. It receives two affluents, with perennial "The evidence of MSS. is overwhelming against the form Jor. na ndes. waters, on the left, the Yarmuk (Hieromax) which flows in from The MSS.exhibit Jordanis or Jordannis; but these are only Vulgar-Latin spellings of Jordanes. the volcanic Jaulan a little south of the Sea of Galilee, and the ? The terms of the dedication of this book to a certain Vigilius Zerka (Jabbok) which comes from the Belka district to a point I make it impossible that the pope (538-555) of that name is meant. JORDANES 511 Getarum, and was also written in 551. He informs us that while | Theodoric, and claims for them their full share, perhaps more he was engaged upon the Romana a friend named Castalius than their full share, of glory in the past. On the other hand he invited him to compress into one small treatise the twelve books speaks of the great anti-Teuton emperor Justinian, and of his -now lost-of the senator Cassiodorus, on The Origin and Actions reversal of the German conquests of the 5th century, in language of the Goths. Jordanes professes to have had the work of Cassio which would certainly have grated on the ears of Totila and his dorus in his hands for but three days, and to reproduce the sense heroes. When Ravenna is taken, and Vitigis carried into cap- not the words, but his book, short as it is, evidently contains tivity, Jordanes almost exults in the fact that “the nobility of long verbatim extracts from the earlier author, and it may be the Amals and the illustrious offspring of so many mighty men suspected that the story of the triduana lectio and the apology have surrendered to a yet more illustrious prince and a yet quamvis verba non recolo, possibly even the friendly invitation mightier general, whose fame shall not grow dim through all the of astalius, are mere blinds to cover his own entire want of centuries.” (Getica, Ix. $ 315). originality. This suspicion is strengthened by the fact (dis- This laudation, both of the Goths and of their Byzantine covered by von Sybel) that even the very preface to his book is conquerors, may perhaps help us to understand the motive taken almost word for word from Rufinus's translation of Origen's with which the Getica was written. In the year 551 Germanus, commentary on the epistle to the Romans. There is no doubt, nephew of Justinian, accompanied by his bride, Matasuntha, even on Jordanes' own statements, that his work is based upon grand-daughter of Theodoric, set forth to reconquer Italy for that of Cassiodorus, and that any historical worth which it the empire. His early death prevented any schemes for a re- possesses is due to that fact. Cassiodorus was one of the very vived Romano-Gothic kingdom which may have been based on few men who, Roman by birth and sympathies, could yet his personality. His widow, however, bore a posthumous child, appreciate the greatness of the barbarians by whom the empire also named Germanus, of whom Jordanes speaks (cap. 60) as was overthrown. The chief adviser of Theodoric, the East blending the blood of the Anicii and the Amals, and furnishing Gothic king in Italy, he accepted with ardour that monarch's a hope under the divine blessing of one day uniting their glories.” great scheme, if indeed, he did not himself originally suggest This younger Germanus did nothing in after life to realize these it, of welding Roman and Goth together into one harmonious anticipations; but the somewhat pointed way in which his name state which should preserve the social refinement and the and his mother's name are mentioned by Jordanes lends some intellectual culture of the Latin-speaking races without losing probability to the view that he hoped for the child's succession the hardy virtues of their Teutonic conquerors. To this aim to the Eastern Empire, and the final reconciliation of the Goths everything in the political life of Cassiodorus was subservient, and Romans in the person of a Gotho-Roman emperor. and this aim he evidently kept before him in his Gothic history. But in writing that history Cassiodorus was himself indebted (chs. i.-xiii.) commences with a geographical description of the three The De rebus Geticis falls naturally into four parts. The first to the work of a certain Ablabius. It was Ablabius, apparently, quarters of the world, and in more detail of Britain and Scanzia who had first used the Gothic sagas (prisca carmina); it was he (Sweden), from which the Goths under their king Berig migrated to who had constructed the stem of the Amals. Whether he was a the southern coast of the Baltic. Their migration across what has Greek, a Roman or a Goth we do not know; nor can we say when since been called Lithuania to the shores of the Euxine, and their differentiation into Visigoths and Ostrogoths, are nest described. he wrote, though his work may be dated conjecturally in the Chs. V:-xiii. contain an account of the intrusive Geto-Scythian ele. early part of the reign of Theodoric the Great. We can only ment before alluded to. say that he wrote on the origin and history of the Goths, using the Gothic nation, sets forth the genealogy of the Amal kings, and The second section (chs. xiv.--xxiv.) returns to the true history of both Gothic saga and Greek sources; and that if Jordanes used describes the inroads of the Goths into the Roman Empire in the Cassiodorus, Cassiodorus used, if to a less extent, the work of 3rd century, with the foundation and the overthrow of the great Ablabius. but somewhat shadowy kingdom of Hermanric. Cassiodorus began his work, at the request of Theodoric, and The third section (chs. xxv.-xlvii.) traces the history of the West therefore before 526: it was finished by 533 At the root of Goths from the Hunnish invasion to the downfall of the Gothic the work lies a theory, whencesoever derived, which identified section, and indeed of the whole book, is the seven chapters devoted kingdom in Gaul under Alaric II. (376-507). The best part of this the Goths with the Scythians, whose country Darius Hystaspes to Attila's invasion of Gaul and the battle of the Mauriac plains. invaded, and with the Getae of Dacia, whom Trajan conquered. Here we have in all probability a verbatim extract from Cassiodorus, This double identification enabled Cassiodorus to bring the large portions of the Gothic sagas. The celebrated expression who (possibly resting on Ablabius) interwove with his narrative favoured race into line with the peoples of classical antiquity, to certaminis gaudio assuredly came at first neither from the suave interweave with their history stories about Hercules and the minister Cassiodorus nor from the small-souled notary Jordanes, Amazons, to make them invade Egypt, to claim for them à share but is the translation of some thought which first found utterance in the wisdom of the semi-mythical Scythian philosopher through the lips of a Gothic minstrel. Zamolxis. He was thus able with some show of plausibility | Goths from the same Hunnish invasion to the first overthrow of the The fourth section (chs. xlviii.-1x.) traces the history of the East to represent the Goths as “wiser than all the other barbarians Gothic monarchy in Italy (376–539). In this fourth section are and almost like the Greeks ” (Jord., De reb. Get., cap. v.), and inserted, somewhat out of their proper place, some valuable details to send a son of the Gothic king Telephus to fight at the siege of as to the Gothi Minores," an immense people dwelling in the region Troy, with the ancestors of the Romans. All this we can now of Nicopolis, with their high priest and primate Vulfilas, who is said also to have taught them letters.". The book closes with the perceive to have no relation to history, but at the time it may allusion to Germanus and the panegyric on Justinian as the con- have made the subjugation of the Roman less bitter to feel that queror of the Goths referred to above. he was not after all bowing down before a race of barbarian up- Jordanes refers in the Getica to a number of authors besides Cassiodorus; but he owes his knowledge of them to Cassiodorus. starts, but that his Amal sovereign was as firmly rooted in classi- It is perhaps only when he is using Orosius that we can hold Jordanes cal antiquity as any Julius or Claudius who ever wore the purple. to have borrowed directly. Otherwise, as Mommsen says, the In the eighteen years which elapsed between 533 and the com- Getica is a mera epitome, laxata ea et perversa, historiae Goihicae position of the Getica of Jordanes, great events; most disastrous for Cassiodorianae. The Romano-Gothic monarchy of Theodoric, had taken place. It who has used him speaks in terms of severe censure. When he As to the style and literary character of Jordanes, every author was no longer possible to write as if the whole civilization of the is left to himself and not merely transcribing, he is sometimes scarcely Western world would sit down contentedly under the shadow of grammatical. There are awkward gaps in his narrative and state- East Gothic dominion and Amal sovereignty. And, moreover, familiarly acquainted with their writings, a number of Greek and ments inconsistent with each other. He quotes, as if he were the instincts of Jordanes, as a subject of the Eastern Empire, pre- Roman writers, of whom it is almost certain that he had not read disposed him to flatter the sacred majesty of Justinian, by whose more than one or two. At the same time he does not quote the victorious arms the overthrow of the barbarian kingdom in chronicler Marcellinus, from whom he has copied verbatim the Italy had been effected. Hence we perceive two currents of history of the deposition of Augustulus. All these faults make him a peculiarly unsatisfactory authority where we cannot check tendency in the Getica. On the one hand, as a transcriber of his statements by those of other authors. It may, however, be the philo-Goth Cassiodorus, he magnifies the race of Alaric and pleaded in extenuation that he is professedly a transcriber, and, if а 512 JORDANUS-JORIS wi I way to China. his story be correct, a transcriber in peculiarly unfavourable comprises the shorelands from Malabar to Cochin China; while circumstances. He has also himself suffered much from the in India Minor stretches from Sind (or perhaps from Baluchistan) accuracy of copyists. But nothing has realiy been more unfortunate for the reputation of Jordanes as a writer than the extreme precious to Malabar; and India Tertia (evidently dominated by African ness of the information which he has preserved to us. The Teutonic conceptions in his mind) includes a vast undefined coast-region tribes whose dim origins he records have in the course of centuries west of Baluchistan, reaching into the neighbourhood of, but attained to world-wide dominion. The battle in the Mauriac plains not including, Ethiopia and Prester John's domain. Jordanus' of which he is really the sole historian, is now seen to have had important bearings on the destinies of the world. And thus the Mirabilia contains the earliest clear African identification of hasty pamphlet of a half-educated Gothic monk has been forced Prester John, and what is perhaps the first notice of the Black into prominence, almost into rivalry with the finished productions Sea under that name; it refers to the author's residence in of the great writers of classical antiquity: No wonder that it India Major and especially at Kulam, as well as to his travels in stands the comparison badly; but with all its faults the Getica be Armenia, north-west Persia, the Lake Van region, and Chaldaea; Jordanes will probably ever retain its place De moribus Germanorum of Tacitus as a chief source of information and it supplies excellent descriptions of Parsee doctrines and respecting the history, institutions and modes of thought of our burial customs, of Hindu ox-worship, idol-ritual, and suttee, Teutonic forefathers. Editions. The classical edition is that of Mommsen (in Mon. and of Indian fruits, birds, animals and insects. After the 8th Germ. hist . auct . antiq., v., ii.), which supersedes the older editions, of April 1330 we have no more knowledge of Bishop Jordanus. such as that in the first volume of Muratori's Scripit. rer. Ital. The Of Jordanus' Epislles there is only one MS., viz. Paris, National best MS. is the Heidelberg MS., written in Germany, probably in Library, 5006 Lat., fol. 182, r. and v.; of the Mirabilia also one MS. the 8th century; but this perished in the fire at Mommsen's house. only, viz. London, British Museum, Additional MSS., 19,513, fols. The next of the MSS. in value are the Vaticanus Palatinus of the 3, 1.-12 r. The text of the Epistles is in Quétiſ and Echard, Scrip. 10th century, and the Valenciennes MS. of the 9th. iores ordinis praedicatorum, i. 549-550 (Epistle 1.); and in Wadding, AUTHORITIES.--Von Sybel's essay, De fontibus Jordanis (1838); Annales minorum, vi. 359-361 (Epistle II.); the text of the Mirabilia Schirren's De ratione quae inter Jordanem el Cassiodorum intercedat in the Paris Geog. Soc.'s Recueil de voyages, iv. 1-68 (1839). The Commentatio (Dorpat, 1858); Kopke's Die Anfänge des Königthums Papal letters referring to Jordanus are in Raynaldus, Annales bei den Gothen (Berlin, 1859); Dahn's Die Könige der Germanen, vol. ii. ecclesiastici, 1330, $8 lv. and lvii (April 8; Feb. 14). See also Sir H. (Munich, 1861); Ebert's Geschichte der Christlich-Lateinischen Litera- Yule's Jordanus, a version of the Mirabilia with a commentary lur (Leipsic, 1874); Wattenbach's Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im (Hakluyt Soc., 1863) and the same editor's Cathay, giving a version Mittelalter (Berlin, 1877); and the introduction of Mommsen to his of the Epistles, with a commentary, &c. (Hak. Soc., 1866) pp. 184-185, edition. (T.H.; E. BR.) 192–196, 225-230; F. Kunstmann, "Die Mission in Melia por und Tana JORDANUS (JORDAN CATALANI) (1. 1321-1330), French and “ Die Mission in Columbo" in the Historisch-polilische Dominican missionary and explorer in Asia, was perhaps born &c.;C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 215-235. Blätter of Phillips and Görres, xxxvii. 25-38, 135-152 (Munich, 1856), at Séverac in Aveyron, north-east of Toulouse. In 1302 he (C. R. B.) may have accompanied the famous Thomas of Tolentino, via JORIS, DAVID, the common name of JAN JORISZ or JORISZOON Negropont, to the East; but it is only in 1321 that we definitely (c. 1501-1556), Anabaptist heresiarch who called himself later JAN discover him in western India, in the company of the same VAN BRUGGE; was born in 1501 or 1502, probably in Flanders, Thomas and certain other Franciscan missionaries on their at Ghent or Bruges. His father, Georgius Joris de Koman, other- Ill-luck detained them at Tana in Salsette island, wise Joris van Amersfoordt; probably a native of Bruges, was a near Bombay; and here Jordanus' companions (“the four shopkeeper and amateur actor at Delft; from the circumstance martyrs of Tana ") fell victims to Moslem fanaticism (April 7, that he played the part of King David, his son received the name 1321). Jordanus, escaping, worked some time at Baruch in of David, but probably not in baptism. His mother was Marytje, Gujarat, near the Nerbudda estuary, and at Suali (?) near Surat; daughter of Jan de Gorter, of a good family in Delft. As a child to his fellow-Dominicans in north Persia he wrote two letters he was clever and delicate. He seems then or later to have -the first from Gogo in Gujarat (October 12, 1321), the second acquired some tincture of learning. His first known occupation from Tạna (January 24, 1323/4)—describing the progress of was that of a glass-painter; in 1522 he painted windows for the this new mission. From these letters we learn that Roman church at Enkhuizen, North Holland (the birthplace of Paul attention had already been directed, not only to the Bombay Potter). In pursuit of his art he travelled, and is said to have region, but also to the extreme south of the Indian peninsula, reached England; ill-health drove him homewards in 1524, in especially to “Columbum,” Quilon, or Kulam in Travancore; which year he married Dirckgen Willems at Delft. In the Jordanus' words may imply that he had already started a same year the Lutheran reformation took hold of him, and he mission there before October 1321. From Catholic traders he began to issue appeals in prose and verse against the Mass and had learnt that Ethiopia (i.e. Abyssinia and Nubia) was against the pope as antichrist. On Ascension Day 1528 he accessible to Western Europeans; at this very time, as we committed an outrage on the sacrament carried in procession; know from other sources, the earliest Latin missionaries pene- he was placed in the pillory, had his tongue bored, and was trated thither. Finally, the Epistles of Jordanus, like the con- banished from Delft for three years. He turned to the Ana- temporary Secreta of Marino Sanuto (1306-1321), urge the baptists, was rebaptized in 1533, and for some years led a pope to establish a Christian fleet upon the Indian seas. wandering life. He came into relations with John à Lasco, and Jordanus, between 1324 and 1328 (if not earlier), probably with Menno Simons. 'Much influenced by Melchior Hofman, visited Kulam and selected it as the best centre for his future he had no sympathy with the fanatic violence of the Münster work; it would also appear that he revisited Europe about 1328, faction. At the Buckholdt conference in August 1536 he played passing through Persia, and perhaps touching at the great a mediating part. His mother, in 1537, suffered martyrdom as Crimean port of Soldaia or Sudak. He was appointed a bishop an Anabaptist. Soon after he took up a rôle of his own, having in 1328 and nominated by Pope John XXII. to the see of visions and a gift of prophecy. He adapted in his own interest Columbum in 1330. Together with the new bishop of Samar- the theory (constantly recurrent among mystics and innovators, kand, Thomas of Mancasola, Jordanus was commissioned to from the time of Abbot Joachim to the present day) of three dis- take the pall to John de Cora, archbishop of Sultaniyah in pensations, the old, with its revelation of the Father, the newer Persia, within whose province Kulam was reckoned; he was with its revelation of the Son, and the final or era of the Spirit. also commended to the Christians of south India, both east of this newest revelation Christus David was the mouthpiece, and west of Cape Comorin, by Pope John. Either before supervening on Christus Jesus. From the ist of April 1544, going out to Malabar as bishop, or during a later visit to bringing with him some of his followers, he took up his abode in the west, Jordanus probably wrote his Mirabilia, which from Basel, which was to be the New Jerusalem. Here he styled internal evidence can only be fixed within the period 1329- himself Jan van Brugge. His identity was unknown to the 1338; in this work he furnished the best account of Indian authorities of Basel, who had no suspicion of his heresies. By regions, products, climate, manners, customs, fauna and flora his writings he maintained his hold on his numerous followers given by any European in the Middle Ages-superior even to in Holland and Friesland. These monotonous writings, all in Marco Polo's. In his triple division of the Indies, India Major Dutch, flowed in a continual stream from 1524 (though none is JORTIN-JOSEPH 513 extant before 1529) and amounted to over 200 in number. His | occupied the centre of Palestine from the plain of Esdraelon to magnum opus was 'T Wonder Boeck (n.d. 1542, divided into the mountain country of Benjamin, with dependencies in Bashan two parts; 1551, handsomely reprinted, divided into four parts; and northern Gilead (see MANASSEH). Practically it comprised both editions anonymous). Its chief claim to recognition is its the northern kingdom, and the name is used in this sense in use, in the latter part, of the phrase Restitutio Chrisli, which 2 Sam. xix. 20; Amos v. 6; vi. 6 (note the prominence of apparently suggested to Servetus his title Christianismi Restitutio Joseph in the blessings of Jacob and Moses, Gen. xlix., Deut. (1553). In the 1st edition is a figure of the“ new man," signed xxxiii.). Originally, however, “ Joseph ” was more restricted, with the author's monogram, and probably drawn as a likeness of possibly to the immediate neighbourhood of Shechem, its himself; it fairly corresponds with the alleged portrait, engraved later extension being parallel to the development of the name in 1607, reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross's Pansebeia (1655), Jacob. The dramatic story of the tribal ancestor is recounted and idealized by P. Burckhardt in 1900. Another work, Ver- in Gen. xxxvii.-1. (see GENESIS). Joseph, the younger anal klaringe der Scheppenissen (1553) treats mystically the book of envied son, is seized by his brothers at Dothan north of Shechem, Genesis, a favourite theme with Boehme, Swedenborg and others. and is sold to a party of Ishmaelites or Midianites, who carry bim His remaining writings exhibit all that easy dribble of triumph- down to Egypt. After various vicissitudes he gains the favour ant muddiness which disciples take as depth. His wife died on of the king of Egypt by the interpretation of a dream, and obtains the 22nd of August, and his own death followed on the 25th of a high place in the kingdom. Forced by a famine his brothers August 1556. He was buried, with all religious honours, in the come to buy food, and in the incidents that follow Joseph shows church of St Leonard, Basel. Three years later, Nicolas Blesdijk, his preference for his young brother Benjamin (cf. the tribal who had married his eldest daughter Jannecke (Susanna), data above). His father Jacob is invited to come to Goshen, but had lost confidence in Jorisz some time before his death, where a settlement is provided for the family and their hocks. denounced the dead man to the authorities of Basel. An inves. This is followed many years later by the exodus, the conquest tigation was begun in March 1559, and as the result of a convic-of Palestine, and the burial of Joseph's body in the grave at tion for heresy the exhumed body of Jorisz was burned, together Shechem which his father had bought. with his portrait, on the 13th of May 1559. Blesdijk's Historia (not printed till 1642) accuses Jorisz of having plures uxores. The history of Joseph in Egypt displays some familiarity with the Of circumstances and usages of that country; see Driver (Hastings's this there is no confirmation. Theoretically Jorisz regarded D.B.) and Cheyne (Ency. Bib., col. 2589 seq.); although Abrech polygamy as lawful; there is no proof that his theory affected (xli. 43), possibly the Egyptian ib rk (Crum, in Hastings's D.B., i. his own practice. 665), has been otherwise connected with the Assyrian abarakku (a high officer). An interesting, parallel to the story of Joseph in The first attempt at a true account of Jorisz was by Gottfried Gen. xxxix. is found in the Egyptian tale of The Two Brothers (Petrie, Arnold, in his anonymous Historia (1713), pursued with much fuller Eg. Tales, and series, p. 36 seq., 1895), which dates from about 1500 B.C., material in his Kirchen und Ketser Historie (best ed. 1740-1742). but the differences are not inconsiderable compared with the points See also F. Nippold, in Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie (1863, of resemblance, and the tale has features which are almost universal 1864, 1868); A. van der Linde in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed., vol. iii. 351 seq.). . On the theory that (1881); P. Burckhardt, Basler Biographien (1900); Hegler, in Hauck's the historical elements of Joseph's history refer to an official (Yani- Realencyklopädie (1901), and the bibliography by A. van der Linde, hamu) of the time of Amenophis III. and IV., see Cheyne, op. cit., 1867, supplemented by E. Weller, 1869. (A. Go.*) and Hibbert Journal, October 1903. That the present form of the narrative has been infuenced by current mythological lore is not JORTIN, JOHN (1698-1770), English theologian, the son of a improbable; on this question see (with caution) Winckler, Gesch. Protestant refugee from Brittany, was born in London on the Israels, ii. 67-77 (1900); A. Jeremias, Alte Test., pp. 383 sqq. (1906). 23rd of October 1698. He went to Charterhouse School, and in It may be added that the Egyptian names in the story of Joseph 1715 became a pensioner of Jesus College, Cambridge, where his are characteristic of the XXII. and subsequent dynasties. See, also (S. A. C.) reputation as a Greek scholar led to his being selected to translate Meyer and Luther, Die Israeliten (1906), Index, s.v. certain passages from Eustathius for the notes to Pope's Homer. JOSEPH, in the New Testament, the husband of Mary, the In 1722 he published a small volume of Latin verse entitled Lusus mother of Jesus. He is represented as a descendant of the poetici. Having taken orders in 1724, he was in 1726 presented house of David, and his genealogy appears in two divergent by his college to the vicarage of Swavesey in Cambridgeshire, forms in Matt. i. 1-17 and Luke iii. 23-38. The latter is pro- which he resigned in 1730 to become preacher at a chapel-of-ease bably much more complete and accurate in details. The former, in New Street, London. In 1731, along with some friends, he obviously artificial in structure (notice 3X14 generations), traces began a publication entitled Miscellaneous Observations on Authors the Davidic descent through kings, and is governed by an apolo- Ancient and Modern, which appeared at intervals during two getic purpose. Of Joseph's personal history practically nothing years. He was Boyle lecturer in 1749. Shortly after becoming is recorded in the Bible. The facts concerning him common to chaplain to the bishop of London in 1762 he was appointed to the two birth-narratives (Matt. i.-ii.; Luke i.-ii.) are: (a) that a prebendal stall of St Paul's and to the vicarage of Kensing- he was a descendant of David, (b) that Mary was already ton, and in 1764 he was made archdeacon of London. He died betrothed to him when she was found with child of the Holy at Kensington on the 5th of September 1770. Ghost, and (c) that he lived at Nazareth after the birth of The principal works of Jortin are: Discussions Concerning the Truth Christ; but these facts are handled differently in each case. It of the Christian Religion (1746): Remarks on Ecclesiastical History is noticeable that, in Matthew, Joseph is prominent (c.g. he (3 vols, 1751-2-4): Life of Erasmus (2 vols. 1750, 1760) founded on the Liſe by Jean Le Clerc; and Tracts Philological Critical and receives an annunciation from an angel), while in Luke's narra- Miscellaneous (1790). A collection of his Various Works appeared in tive he is completely subordinated. Bp Gore (The Incarnation, 1805-1810. All his writings display wide learning and acuteness. Bampton lecture for 1891, p. 78) points out that Matthew He writes on theological subjects with the detachment of a thought: narrates everything from Joseph's side, Luke from Mary's, ſul layman, and is witty without being fippant. See John Disney's and infers that the narrative of the former may ultimately be Life of Jortin (1792). based on Joseph's account, that of the latter on Mary's. The JOSEPH, in the Old Testament, the son of the patriarch Jacob narratives seem to have been current in a poetical form) by Rachel; the name of a tribe of Israel. Two explanations among the early Jewish-Christian community of Palestine. At of the name are given by the Biblical narrator (Gen. xxx. 23 (E), Nazareth Joseph followed the trade of a carpenter (Matt. xiii. 24 (J); a third, “ He (God) increases," seems preferable. Un 55). It is probable that he had died before the public ministry like the other“ sons ” of Jacob, Joseph is usually reckoned as two of Christ; for no mention is made of him in passages relating tribes (viz. his “sons "Ephraim and Manasseh), and closely asso- to this period where the mother and brethren of Jesus are ciated with it is the small tribe of Benjamin (9.v.), which lay immediately to the south. These three constituted the 1 Joseph's marriage with the daughter of the priest of On might of Rachel (the ewe), and with the “sons” of Leah (the show that the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh were believed to be antelope ?) are thus on a higher level than the “ hall-Egyptian by descent, but it is notoriously difficult to determine of how much is of ethnological value and how much bсiongs to romance Jacob's concubines. The "house of Joseph " and its offshoots 1 (viz. that of the individual Joseph). “ sons 11 sons JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA--JOSEPH (EMPERORS) years of lor" 514 introduced; and from John xix. 26 it is clear that he was not | Joseph also plays a large part in the various versions of the alive at the time of the Crucifixion. Legend of the Holy Grail (see GRAIL, The Holy). Joseph was the father of several children (Matt. xiii. 55), JOSEPH I. (1678-1711), Roman emperor, was the elder son but according to ecclesiastical tradition by a former marriage. of the emperor Leopold and his third wiſe, Eleanora, countess The reading of Matt. i. 16, in the Sinaitic Palimpsesť (Joseph palatine, daughter of Philip William of Neuburg. Born in begat Jesus, who is called the Christ) also makes Vienna on the 26th of July 1678, he was educated strictly by bim the natural father of Jesus, and this was the view of certain Prince Dietrich Otto von Salm, and became a good linguist. early heretical sects, but it seems never to have been held in In 1687 he received the crown of Hungary, and he was elected orthodox Christian circles. According to various apocryphal king of the Romans in 1690. In 1699 he married Wilhelmina gospels (conveniently collected in B. H. Cowper's The Apocryphal Amalia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Gospels, 1881), when married to Mary he was a widower already by whom he had two daughters. In 1702, on the outbreak of 80 age, and the father of four sons and two daughters; the War of the Spanish Succession, he saw his only military his first wife's name was Salome and she was a connexion oi service. He joined the imperial general Louis of Baden in the the family of John the Baptist. siege of Landau. It is said that when he was advised not to go In the Roman Catholic Church the 19th of March has since into a place of danger he replied that those who were afraid 1642 been a feast in Joseph's honour. Two other festivals in his might retire. He succeeded his father as emperor in 1705, and honour have also been established (the Patronage of St Joseph, it was his good fortune to govern the Austrian dominions, and 3rd Sunday after Easter, and the Betrothal of Mary and Joseph, to be head of the Empire during the years in which his trusted 23rd of January). In December 1870 St Joseph was proclaimed general Prince Eugène, either acting alone in Italy or with the Patron of the whole Church. (G. H. Bo.) duke of Marlborough in Germany and Flanders, was beating JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA,' in the New Testament, a the armies of Louis XIV. During the whole of his reign wealthy Jew who had been converted by Jesus Christ. He is men- Hungary was disturbed by the conflict with Francis Ráckóczy II., tioned by the Four Evangelists, who are in substantial agreement who eventually took refuge in France. The emperor did not concerning him: after the Crucifixion he went to Pilate and himself take the field against the rebels, but he is entitled to a asked for the body of Jesus, subsequently prepared it for burial large share of the credit for the restoration of his authority. He and laid it in a tomb. There are, however, minor differences reversed many of the pedantically authoritative measures of his in the accounts, which have given rise to controversy. Matihew father, thus placating all opponents who could be pacified, and (xxvii. 60) says that the tomb was Joseph's own; Mark (xv. 43 he fought stoutly for what he believed to be his rights. Joseph seq.), Luke (xxiii. 50 seq.) say nothing of this, while John (xix. showed himself very independent towards the pope, and hostile 41) simply says that the body was laid in a sepulchre “ nigh at to the Jesuits, by whom his father had been much influenced. hand.” Both Mark and Luke say that Joseph was a council. He had the tastes for art and music which were almost hereditary (etoxnuwe Bouleutńs, Mark xv. 43), and the Gospel of in his family, and was an active hunter. He began the attempts Peter describes him as a “ friend of Pilate and of the Lord.” to settle the question of the Austrian inheritance by a pragmatic This last statement is probably a late invention, and there is sanction, which were continued by his brother Charles VI. considerable difficulty as to “councillor." That Joseph was a Joseph died in Vienna on the 17th of April 1711, of small-pox. member of the Sanhedrin is improbable. Luke indeed, regarding See F. Krones von Marchland, Grundriss der Oesterreichischen him as such, says that he “ had not consented to their counsel Geschichte (1882): F. Wagner, Historia Josephi Caesaris (1746): and deed,” but Mark (xiv. 64) says that all the Sanhedrin J. C. Herchenhahn, Geschichte der Regierung Kaiser Josephs 1. “condemned him to be worthy of death.” Perhaps the phrase (1786-1789):C, van Noorden, Europäische Geschichte im 18. Jahrhun- dert (1870-1882). “noble councillor " is intended to imply merely a man of wealth and position. Again Matthew says that Joseph was a disciple, JOSEPH II. (1741-1790), Roman emperor, eldest son of the while Mark implies that he was not yet among the definite empress Maria Theresa and her husband Francis I., was born on adherents of Christ, and John describes him as an adherent the 13th of March 1741, in the first stress of the War of the “secretly for fear of the Jews.” Most likely he was a disciple, Austrian Succession. Maria Theresa gave orders that he was but belonged only to the wider circle of adherents. The account only to be taught as if he were amusing himself; the result was given in the Fourth Gospel suggests that the writer, faced with that he acquired a habit of crude and superficial study. His These various difficulties, assumed a double tradition: (1) that real education was given him by the writings of Voltaire and Joseph of Arimathaea, a wealthy disciple, buried the body of the encyclopaedists, and by the example of Frederick the Great. Christ; (2) that the person in question was Joseph of Arimathaea His useful training was conferred by government officials, who councillor," and solved the problem by substituting Nicode- were directed to instruct him in the mechanical details of the mus as the councillor; hence he describes both Joseph and administration of the numerous states composing the Austrian Nicodemus (xix. 39) as co-operating in the burial. Some critics dominions and the Empire. In 1761 he was made a member of (e.g. Strauss, New Life of Jesus, ch. 96) have thrown doubt upon the newly constituted council of state (Slaatsrülh) and began to the story, regarding some of the details as invented to suit the draw up minutes, to which he gave the name of “reveries," for prophecy in Isa. liii. 9, " they made his grave with the wicked, his mother to read. These papers contain the germs of his later and with the rich in his death” (for various translations, see policy, and of all the disasters which finally overtook him. He Hastings's Dict. Bible, ii. 778). But in the absence of any was a friend to religious toleration, anxious to reduce the power reference to this prophecy in the Gospels, this view is uncon- of the church, to relieve the peasantry of feudal burdens, and vincing, though the correspondence is remarkable. to remove restrictions on trade and on knowledge. So far he The striking character of this single appearance of Joseph of did not differ from Frederick, Catherine of Russia or his own Arimathaea led to the rise of numerous legends. Thus William brother and successor Leopold II., all enlightened rulers of the of Malmesbury says that he was sent to Britain by St Philip, 18th-century stamp. Where Joseph differed from great con- and, having received a small island in Somersetshire, there temporary rulers, and where he was very close akin to the constructed “ with twisted twigs” the first Christian church in Jacobins, was in the fanatical intensity of his belief in the power Britain-afterwards to become the Abbey of Glastonbury. The of the state when directed by reason, of his right to speak for legend says that his staff, planted in the ground, became a thorn the state uncontrolled by laws, and of the reasonableness of flowering twice a year (see GLASTONBURY). This tradition - his own reasons. Also he had inherited from his mother all the which is given only as such by Malmesbury himself-is not belief of the house of Austria in its “august quality, and its confirmed, and there is no mention of it in either Gildas or Bede. claim to acquire whatever it found desirable for its power or its : Generally identified with Ramathaim-Zophim, the city of profit. He was unable to understand that his philosophical Elkanah in the hilly district of Ephraim (1 Sam. i. 1), near Diospolis plans for the moulding of mankind could meet with pardonable (Lydda). See Euseb., Onomasticon, 225. 12. opposition. The overweening character of the man was obvious 66 a 1 JOSEPH, FATHER 515 to Frederick, who, after their first interview in 1769, described | Vienna with ruined health, and during 1789 was a dying man. him as ambitious, and as capable of setting the world on fire, The concentration of his troops in the east gave the malcontents The French minister Vergennes, who met Joseph when he was of Belgium an opportunity to revolt. In Hungary the nobles travelling incognito in 1777, judged him to be “ ambitious and were all but in open rebellion, and in his other states there despotic." were peasant risings, and a revival of particularist sentiments. Until the death of his mother in 1780 Joseph was never quite Joseph was left entirely alone. His minister Kaunitz refused free to follow his own instincts. After the death of his father to visit his sick-room, and did not see him for two years. His in 1765 he became emperor and was made co-regent by his brother Leopold remained at Florence. At last Joseph, worn mother in the Austrian dominions. As emperor he had no real out and broken-hearted, recognized that his servants could not, power, and his mother was resolved that neither husband nor or would not, carry out his plans. On the 30th of January 1790 son should ever deprive her of sovereign control in her hereditary he formally withdrew all his reforms, and he died on the 20th dominions. Joseph, by threatening to resign his place as of February, co-regent, could induce his mother to abate her dislike to Joseph II. was twice married, first to Isabella, daughter of religious toleration. He could, and he did, place a great strain Philip, duke of Parma, to whom he was attached. After her on her patience and temper, as in the case of the first partition death on the 27th of November 1763, a political marriage was of Poland and the Bavarian War of 1778, but in the last resort arranged with Josepha (d. 1767), daughter of Charles Albert, the empress spoke the final word. During these wars Joseph elector of Bavaria (the emperor Charles VII.). It proved travelled much. He met Frederick the Great privately at extremely unhappy. Joseph left no children, and was succeeded Neisse in 1769, and again at Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770. On by his brother Leopold II. the second occasion he was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz, Many volumes of the emperor's correspondence have been pub- whose conversation with Frederick may be said to mark the lished. Among them are Maria Theresia und Joseph II. Ihre starting point of the first partition of Poland. To this and to Korrespondenz samt Briefen Josephs an seinen Bruder Leopold every other measure which promised to extend the dominions (1867-1868); Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana. Ihr Briefwechsel of his house Joseph gave hearty approval. Thus he was eager Briefwechsel (1869); and Maria Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II. 1781-1790 (1872); Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland. Ihr to enforce its claim on Bavaria upon the death of the elector Ihr Briefwechsel (1866); all edited by A. Ritter von Arneth. Maximilian Joseph in 1777. In April of that year he paid a Other collections are: Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz. Ihr visit to his sister the queen of France (see MARIE ANTOINETTE), Briefwechsel, edited by A. Beer (1873): Correspondances intimes de travelling under the name of Count Falkenstein. He was well l'empereur Joseph II. avec son ami, le comte de Cobenzl et son premier ministre, le prince de Kaunitz, edited by S. Brunner (1871); Joseph II. received, and much flattered by the encyclopaedists, but his und Graf Ludwig Cobenzl. Ihr Briefwechsel, edited by A. Beer and observations led him to predict the approaching downfall of J. von Fiedler (1901); and the Geheime Korrespondenz Josephs II, the French monarchy, and he was not impressed favourably by mit seinem Minister in den Oesterreichischen Niederlanden, Ferdinand the army or navy. In 1778 he commanded the troops collected Among the lives of Joseph may be mentioned: A. J. Gross-Hoffinger, Graf Trauttmannsdorff 1787-1789, edited by H. Schlitter (1902). to oppose Frederick, who supported the rival claimant to Geschichte Josephs II, (1847); C. Paganel, Histoire de Joseph II. Bavaria. Real fighting was averted by the unwillingness of (1843; German translation by F. Köhler, 1844); H. Meynert, Kaiser Frederick to embark on a new war and by Maria Theresa's Joseph II. (1862); A., Beer, Joseph II. (1882); A. Jäger, Kaiser determination to maintain peace. In April 1780 he paid a visit and J. Wendrinski, Kaiser Joseph II. (1880). There is a useful Joseph II. und Leopold II. (1867); A. Fournier, Joseph II. (1885); to Catherine of Russia, against the wish of his mother. small volume on the emperor by J. Franck Bright (1897). Other The death of Maria Theresa on the 27th of November 1780 books which may be consulted are: G. Woll, Das Unterrichtswesen in left Joseph free. He immediately directed his government on a Oesterreich unter Joseph II. (1880), and Oesterreich und Preussen new course, full speed ahead. He proceeded to attempt to 1780-1790 (1880), A. Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst, Oester- reich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold II. (1882-1884); realize his ideal of a wise despotism acting on a definite system H. Schlitter, Die Regierung Josephs Il. in den Oesterreichischen for the good of all. The measures of emancipation of the Niederlanden (1900); and Pius VI. und Joseph II. 1782–1784 (1894); peasantry which his mother had begun were carried on by himo. Lorenz, Joseph II. und die Belgische Revolution (1862); and with feverish activity. The spread of education, the seculariza-L. Delplace, Joseph II. et la révolution brabangonne (1890). tion of church lands, the reduction of the religious orders and JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANÇOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) the clergy in general to complete submission to the lay state, (1577-1638), French Capuchin monk, the confidant of Richelieu, the promotion of unity by the compulsory use of the German was the eldest son of Jean Leclerc du Tremblay, president of language, everything which from the point of view of 18th- the chamber of requests of the parlement of Paris, and of Marie century philosophy appeared “reasonable" was undertaken Motier de Lafayette. As a boy he received a careful classical He strove for administrative unity with characteristic training, and in 1595 made an extended journey through Italy, haste to reach results without preparation. His anti-clerical returning to take up the career of arms. He served at the siege innovations induced Pope Pius VI. to pay him a visit in July of Amiens in 1597, and then accompanied a special embassy to 1782. Joseph received the pope politely, and showed himself a London. In 1599 Baron de Maffilier, by which name he was good Catholic, but refused to be influenced. So many inter known at court, renounced the world and entered the Capuchin ferences with old customs began to produce unrest in all parts monastery of Orleans. He embraced the religious life with of his dominions. Meanwhile he threw himself into a succession great ardour, and became a notable preacher and reformer. of foreign policies all aimed at aggrandisement, and all equally in 1606 he aided Antoinette d'Orléans, a nun of Fontevrault, to calculated to offend his neighbours---all taken up with zeal, and found the reformed order of the Filles du Calvaire, and wrote a dropped in discouragement. He endeavoured to get rid of manual of devotion for the nuns. His proselytizing zeal led him the Barrier Treaty, which debarred his Flemish subjects from to send missionaries throughout the Huguenot centres—he had the navigation of the Scheldt; when he was opposed by France become provincial of Touraine in 1613. He entered politics at he turned to other schemes of alliance with Russia for the the conferences of Loudun, when, as the confidant of the queen partition of Turkey and Venice. They also had to be given up and the papal envoy, he opposed the Gallican claims advanced in the face of the opposition of neighbours, and in particular of by the parlement, which the princes were upholding, and suc- France. Then he resumed his attempts to obtain Bavaria- ceeded in convincing them of the schismatic tendency of Galli- this time by exchanging it for Belgium--and only provoked the canism. In 1612 he began those personal relations with formation of the Fürstenbund organized by the king of Prussia. Richelieu which have indissolubly joined in history and legend Finally he joined Russia in an attempt to pillage Turkey. It the cardinal and the “ Eminence grise," relations which research began on bis part by an unsuccessful and discreditable attempt has not altogether made clear. In 1627 the monk assisted at to surprise Belgrade in time of peace, and was followed by the the siege of La Rochelle. A purely religious reason also made ill-managed campaign of 1788. He accompanied his army, but him Richelieu's ally against the Habsburgs. He had a dream of showed no capacity for war. In November he returned to arousing Europe to another crusade against the Turks, and at once. a 516 JOSEPHINE-JOSEPHUS LA believed that the house of Austria was the obstacle to that from the lime when he became first consul for life (August 1802) universai European peace which would make this possible. As with large powers over the choice of a successor, he kept open Richelieu's agent, therefore, this modern Peter the Hermit the alternative of a divorce. Josephine's anxieties increased manæuvred at the diet of Regensburg (1630) to thwart the aggres. on the proclamation of the Empire (May 18, 1804); and on sion of the emperor, and then advised the intervention of the ist of December 1804, the eve of the coronation at Notre Gustavus Adolphus, reconciling himself to the use of Protestant Dame, she gained her wish that she should be married anew to armies by the theory that one poison would counteract another. Napoleon with religious rites. Despite her care, the emperor Thus the monk became a war minister and, though maintaining procured the omission of one formality, the presence of the a personal austerity of life, gave himself up to diplomacy and parish priest; but at the coronation scene Josephine appeared politics. He died in 1638, just as the cardinalate was to be radiant with triumph over her envious relatives. The august conferred upon him. The story that Richelieu visited him marriages contracted by her children Eugène and Hortense when on his deathbed and roused the dying man by the words, seemed to establish her position; but her ceaseless extravagance Courage, Father Joseph, we have won Breisach," is apocryphal. and, above all, the impossibility that she should bear a son Sce Fagniez, Le Père Joseph et Richelieu (1894), a work based strained the relations between Napoleon and Josephine. She largely on original and unpublished sources. Father Joseph, complained of his infidelities and growing callousness. The end according to this biography, would seem not to have lectured came in sight after the campaign of 1809, when Napoleon caused Richelieu in the fashion of the legends, whatever his moral influence the announcement to be made to her that reasons of state may have been in strengthening Richelieu's hands. compelled him to divorce her. Despite all her pleadings he JOSEPHINE (MARIE Rose JOSEPHINE TASCHER DE held to his resolve. The most was made of the slight technical PAGERIE) (1763-1814), empress of the French, was born in irregularity at the marriage ceremony of the ist of December the island of Martinique on the 23rd of June 1763, being the 1804; and the marriage was declared null and void. eldest of three daughters of Joseph Tascher de la Pagerie, At her private retreat, La Malmaison, near Paris, which she lieutenant of artillery. Her beauty and grace, though of a had beautified with curios and rare plants and flowers, Josephine languid Creole style, won the affections of the young officer the closed her life in dignified retirement. Napoleon more than once vicomte de Beauharnais, and, after some family complications, came to consult her upon matters in which he valued her tact she was married to him. Their married life was not wholly and good sense. Her health declined early in 1814, and after happy, the frivolity of Josephine occasioning her husband his first abdication (April 11, 1814) it was clear that her end anxiety and jealousy. Two children, Eugène and Hortense, was not far off. The emperor Alexander of Russia and Frederick were the fruit of the union. During Josephine's second residence William III. of Prussia, then in Paris, requested an interview in Martinique, whither she proceeded to tend her mother, with her. She died on the 24th of May 1814. Her friends, occurred the first troubles with the slaves, which resulted from Mme de Rémusat and others, pointed out that Napoleon's the precipitate action of the constituent assembly in emancipat, good fortune deserted him after the divorce; and it is certain ing them. She returned to her husband, who at that time that the Austrian marriage clogged him in several ways. entered into political life at Paris. Her beauty and vivacity Josephine's influence was used on behalf of peace and moderation won her many admirers in the salons of the capital. As the both in internal and in foreign affairs. Thus she begged Napoleon Revolution ran its course her husband, as an ex-noble, incurred not to execute the duc d'Enghien and not to embroil himself in the suspicion and hostility of the Jacobins; and his ill-success Spanish affairs in 1808. at the head of a French army on the Rhine led to his arrest and See M. A. Le Normand, Mémoires historiques et secrets de Joséphine execution. Thereafter Josephine was in a position of much (2 vols., 1820); Lettres de Napoléon à Joséphine (1833); J. A. Aubenas, perplexity and some hardship, but the friendship of Barras and | L'Impératrice Joséphine (2 vols., 1895-1896)F. Masson, Joséphine Hist, de l'impéralrice Joséphine (2 vols., 1858-1859); J. Turquan, of Madame Tallien, to both of whom she was then much attached, 13 vols., 1899-1902); Napoleon's Letters to Josephine (1796-1812), brought her into notice, and she was one of the queens of translated and edited by H. F. Hall (1903). Also the Memoirs of Parisian society in the year 1795, when Napoleon Bonaparte's Mme. de Rémusat and of Bausset, and P. W. Sergeant, The Empress services to the French convention in scattering the malcontents Josephine (1908). (J. HL. R.) of the capital (13 Vendémiaire, or October 5, 1795) brought JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-c. 95?), Jewish historian and him to the front. There is a story that she became known to military commander, was born in the first year of Caligula Napoleon through a visit paid to him by her son Eugène in order (37-38). His father belonged to one of the noblest priestly to beg his help in procuring the restoration of his father's sword, families, and through his mother he claimed descent from the but it rests on slender foundations. In any case, it is certain Asmonaean high priest Jonathan. A precocious student of the that Bonaparte, however he came to know her, was speedily Law, he made trial of the three sects of Judaism-Pharisees, captivated by her charms. She, on her side, felt very little Sadducees and Essenes-before he reached the age of nineteen. affection for the thin, impecunious and irrepressible suitor; but Then, having spent three years in the desert with the hermit by degrees she came to acquiesce in the thought of marriage, Banus, who was presumably an Essene, he became a Pharisce. hér hesitations, it is said, being removed by the influence of In 64 he went to Rome lo intercede on behalf of some priests, Barras and by the nomination of Bonaparte to the command his friends, whom the procurator Felix had sent to render account of the army of Italy. The civil marriage took place on the to Caesar for some insignificant offence. Making friends with 9th of March 1796, iwo days before the bridegroom set out for Alityrus, a Jewish actor, who was a favourite of Nero, Josephus his command. He failed to induce her to go with him to Nice obtained an introduction to the empress Poppaea and effected and Italy. his purpose by her help. His visit to Rome enabled him to Bonaparte's letters to Josephine during the campaign reveal speak from personal experience of the power of the Empire, the ardour of his love, while she rarely answered them. As he when he expostulated with the revolutionary Jews on his return came to realize her shallowness and frivolity his passion cooled; to Palestine. But they refused to listen; and he, with all the but at the time when he resided at Montebello (near Milan) in Jews who did not fly the country, was dragged into the great 1797 he still showed great regard for her. During his absence rebellion of 66. In company with two other priests, Josephus in Egypt in 1798-1799, her relations to an officer, M. Charles, was sent to Galilee under orders (he says) to persuade the ill- were most compromising; and Bonaparte on his return thought affected to lay down their arms and return to the Roman of divorcing her. Her tears and the entreaties of Eugène and allegiance, which the Jewish aristocracy had not yet renounced. Hortense availed to bring about a reconciliation; and during Having sent his two companions back to Jerusalem, he organized the period of the consulate (1799–1804) their relations were on the forces at his disposal, and made arrangements for the the whole happy, though Napoleon's conduct now gave his government of his province. His obvious desire to preserve consort grave cause for concern. His brothers and sisters more law and order excited the hostility of John of Giscala, who than once begged him to divorce Josephine, and it is known that, I endeavoured vainly to remove him as a iraitor to the national JOSHEKAN—JOSHUA 517 came. cause by inciting the Galileans tờ kill him and by persuading rebellion. In his defence Josephus departs from the facts as narrated in the Jewish War and represents himself as a partisan of Rome the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem to recall him. In the spring of 67 the Jewish troops, whom Josephus had and, therefore, as a traitor to his own people from the beginning. 4. The two books Against A pion are a defence or apology directed drilled so sedulously, fled before the Roman forces of Vespasian against current misrepresentations of the Jews. Earlier titles are and Titus. He sent to Jerusalem for reinforcements, but none Concerning the Antiquity of the Jews or Against the Greeks. Apion was With the stragglers who remained, he held a stronghold the leader of the Alexandrine embassy which opposed Philo and his against the Romans by dint of his native cunning, and finally, before Caligula. The defence which Josephus puts forward has a companions when they appeared in behalf of the Alexandrine Jews when the place was taken, persuaded forty men, who shared permanent value and shows him at his best. his hiding-place, to kill one another in turn rather than commit The Greek text of Josephus' works has been edited with full collec- suicide. They agreed to cast lots, on the understanding that the tion of different readings by B. Niese (Berlin, 1887–1895). The second should kill the first and so on. Josephus providentially of W. Whiston has been (superficially) revised by A. R. Shilleto Teubner text by Naber is based on this. The translation into English drew the last lot and prevailed upon his destined victim to live.(1889-1890). Schürer (History of the Jewish People) gives a full People). H.59 Their companions were all dead in accordance with the compact; bibliography. but Josephus at any rate survived and surrendered. Being led JOSHEKAN, a small province of Persia covering about 1000 before Vespasian, he was inspired to prophesy that Vespasian sq. m. Pop. about 5000. It has a yearly revenue of about would become emperor. In consequence of the prophecy his £1200, and is held in fief by the family of Bahram Mirza, Muizz life was spared, but he was kept close prisoner for two years. ed Dowleh (d. 1882). Its chief town and the residence of the When his prophecy was fulfilled he was liberated, assumed the governor used to be Joshekan-Kali, a large village with fine name of Flavius, the family name of Vespasian, and accom- gardens, formerly famous for its carpets (kali), but now the chief panied his patron to Alexandria. There he took another wife, place is Maimeh, a little city with a population of 2500, situated as the Jewess allotted him by Vespasian after the fall of Caesarea at an elevation of 6670 ft., about 63 m. from Isfahan in a north- had forsaken him, and returned to attend Titus and to act as westerly direction and 13 m. south-west of Joshekan-Kali. intermediary between him and the Jews who still held Jerusalemi. JOSHUA, BOOK OF, the sixth book of the Old Testament, His efforts in this capacity failed; but when the city was and the first of the group known as the “ Former Prophets.” stormed (70) Titus granted him whatever boon he might ask. It takes its name from Joshua' the son of Nūn, an Ephraimite So he secured the lives of some free men who had been taken who, on the death of Moses, assumed the leadership to which he and (by the gift of Titus) certain sacred books. After this he had previously been designated by his chief (Deut. xxxi. 14 seq., repaired to Rome and received one of the pensions, which 23), and proceeded to the conquest of the land of Canaan. The Vespasian (according to Suetonius) was the first to bestow upon book differs from the Pentateuch or Torah in the absence of Latin and Greek writers. He was also made a Roman citizen legal matter, and in its intimate connexion with the narrative and received an estate in Judaea. Thenceforward he devoted in the books which follow. It is, however, the proper sequel himself to literary work under the patronage of Vespasian, Titus to the origins of the people as related in Genesis, to the exodus and Domitian. As he mentions the death of Agrippa II. it is of the Israelite tribes from Egypt, and their journeyings in the probable that he lived into the 2nd century; but the date of wilderness. On these and also on literary grounds it is often Agrippa's death has been challenged and, if his patron Epaphro- convenient to class the first six books of the Bible as a unit ditus may be identified with Nero's freedman, it is possible that under the term “ Hexateuch.” For an exhaustive detailed Josephus may have been involved in his fall and under study has revealed many signs of diversity of authorship which Domitian in 95. . combine to show that the book is due to the incorporation of WORKS.-1. The Jewish War (IIepl Tou'lovoaikou molémov), the oldest older material in two main redactions; one deeply imbued with of Josephus' extant writings, was written towards the end of Vespa: the language and thought of Deuteronomy itself (D), the other sian's reign (69-79) . The Aramaic original has not been preserved; of the post-exilic priestly circle (P) which gave the Pentateuch but the Greek version was prepared by Josephus himself in conjunc- tion with competent Greek scholars. Its purpose in all probability its present form. That the older sources (which often prove was, in the first instance, to exhibit to the Babylonian Jews the to be composite) are actually identical with the Yahwist or overwhelming power of Rome and so to deter.them from repeating Judaean (J) and the Elohist or Ephraimite (E) narratives (on the futile revolt of the Jews of Palestine. Of its seven books, the which see GENESIS) is not improbable, though, especially as first two survey the history of the Jews from the capture of Jeru- salem by Antiochus Epiphanes to the outbreak of war in 67, and regards the former, still very uncertain. In general the literary here Josephus relies upon some such general history as that of problems are exceedingly intricate, and no attempt can be made Nicolaus of Damascus. The rest deals with the events of the war here to deal with them as fully as they deserve. (67–73) which fell more or less within his own knowledge. Vespasian, Titus and Agrippa II. testified (he tells us) to his accuracy. Repre- The Invasion.—The book falls naturally into two main parts, sentatives of the Zealots would probably have protested against his of which the first, the crossing of the Jordan and the conquest pro-Roman prejudices. of Palestine (i.-xii.) is mainly due to Deuteronomic compilers. 2. The Jewish Antiquities ('Ioudaixo) , 'Apxaco oyla) covers in twenty It opens with the preparations for the crossing of the Jordan and books the history of the Jews from the creation of the world to the outbreak of the war with Rome. It was finished in the thirteenth the capture of the powerful city Jericho. Ai, near Bethel, is year of Domitian (93). Its purpose was to glorify the Jewish nation taken after a temporary repulse, and Joshua proceeds to erect in the eyes of the Roman world. In the part covered by the books an altar upon Mt Ebal (north of Shechem). For the fullness of the Bible Josephus follows them, and that mainly, if not entirely with which the events are recorded the writers were probably as they are translated into Greek by the Seventy (the Septuagint indebted to local stories. version). . Being a Pharisee, he sometimes introduces traditions of the Elders, which are either inferences from, or embroideries of, The Israelites are at Abel-Shittim (already reached in Num. xxv. I). the biblical narrative. Sometimes, also, he gives proof of some Moses is dead, and Joshua enters upon his task with the help of knowledge of Hebrew and supplements his scriptural authorities, the Transjordanic tribes who have already received their territory (). which include i Esdras, from general Greek histories. For the later The narrative is of the later prophetic stamp (D; cf. Deut. iii. period he uses the Greek Esther, with its additions, 1 Maccabees, 18–22, xi. 24, where Moses is the speaker; xxxi. 1-8), but may be Polybius, Strabo and Nicolaus of Damascus. But towards the end based upon an earlier and shorter record (E; vv. I seq., 10, 11a). he confesses that he has grown weary of his task, and his history becomes meagre. The work contains accounts of John the Baptist 1 Heb. Jěhoshữa; later Jeshwa; Gr. 'Ingous, whence "Jesus" and Jesus, which may account for the fact that Josephus' writings in the A.V. of Heb. iv. 8; another form of the name is Hoshea were rescued from oblivion by the Christians. But the description (Num. xiii. 8, 16). The name may mean “ Yah(weh) is wealth, or of Jesus as "a wise man, if indeed one should call him a man," can is (our) war-cry, 07 saves." The only extra-biblical notice of hardly be genuine, and the assertion this was the Christ" is equally Joshua is the inscription of more than doubtful genuineness given doubtful, unless it be assumed that the Greek word Christos had bé by Procopius (Vand. ii. 20), and mentioned also by Moses of Chorene come technical in the sense of false-Christ or false-prophet among (Hist. Arm. i. 18). It is said to have stood at Tingis in Mauretania, non-Christian Jews. and to have borne that those who erected it had Aed before 'Ingous 3. Josephus wrote a narrative of his own Life in order to defend ο ληστής. For the medieval Samaritan Book of Joshua, see T. himself against the accusation brought by his enemy Justus of Juynboll, Chronicum Samaritanum (1846); J. A. Montgomery, Tiberias to the effect that he had really been the cause of the Jewish I The Samaritans (1907), pp. 301 sqq. “ " 518 JOSHUA of the mission of the spies to Jericho, two versions were current literal interpretation of this picturesque quotation has been influenced (duplicates ii. 3, 12, 18; v. 15 seq. breaks the connexion between w. by the prosaic comments at the end of v. 13 and beginning of v. 14. 13 and 18, but is resumed in w. 22-24); D's addition is to be recog. Verse 15, which closes the account, anticipates v. 43; the Septuagint nized in ii. 9b-11. The incident occupies at least four days, but the omits both. The generalizing narrative (X. 28-43), which is due to main narrative reckons three days between i. 11 and iii. 2. Next D in its present form, is partly based upon old matter (e.g. the follow the passage of the Jordan (commemorated by the erection of capture of Makkedah), but is inconsistent with what precedes twelve stones), the encampment at Gilgal, and the observance of the (v. 37, see v. 23 sqq.) and follows (capture of Debir, v. 38 seq., see rite of circumcision and of the passover (iii.-v.). The complicated xv. 15: Judges i. u). The description of the conquest of the northern narrative in iii.-iv. is of composite origin (contrast iii. 17 with iv. Canaanites is very similar to that of the south. The main part is 10 seq., 19; iv. 3, 8 with v. 9, 20; and cl. iii. 12 with the superfluous from an older source (xi. 1, 4-9, see Deborah), the amplifications iv. 2, &c.). As in ii., D has amplified (iii. 46, 7, 106, iv. 9-100, 12, (v. 2 seq.) are due to D, as also are the summary (vv. 10-23, cf. style 14; more prominently in iv. 21-v. 1, v. 4-8), and subsequently P (or of x. 28-43), and the enumeration of the total results of the invasion a hand akin to P) has worked over the whole (iii. 4, note the number (xii.), which includes names not previously mentioned. and the prohibition, cf. Num. i. şı; iii. 8, 15 seq.; iv. 13, 19; v. 10-12). Division of the Land,—The result of the events narrated in the Circumcision, already familiar from Exod. iv. 26, Deut. X. 16, is here regarded as a new rite (v. 2, 9, supplemented by w. 1, 4-8), but first part of the book is to ascribe the entire subjugation of Canaan the conflicting views have been harmonized by the words the second to Joshua, whose centre was at Gilgal (x. 15, 43). He is now time (v. 2). Gilgal is thus named from the rolling away " of “ old and advanced in ycars, "and although much outlying land the “reproach of Egypt" (v: 9), but iv. 20 suggests a different remained to be possessed, he is instructed to divide the con- origin, viz. the sacred stone-circle (cf. Judges iii, 19, R.V. marg... quered districts among the western tribes (xiii. i sqq.). This An older account of the divine commission to Joshua appears in the archaic passage v. 13-15 (cf. Moses in Exod. iii.). Fusion of sources is detailed at length in the second part of the book. With the is obvious in the story of the fall of Jericho (contrast vi. 5 and v. completion of the division his mission is accomplished. The 10, nr. 21 and 24, w. 22 and 25); according to one (E ?), the people main body of this part (xiii. 15-xiv. 5; xv. xvii.; xviii. 11-xxi. march seven times round the city on one day, the ark and the priests 42; xxii. 7–34) is in its present form almost entirely due to P. occupying a prominent position (vi. 4-6, 76-9, 12 seq., 16a, 20(part), 22-24); but in the other they march every day for seven days. In regard to details, xiii. 2-6 (now D) expresses the view that the Both here and in the preceding chapters the Septuagint has several conquest was incomplete, and numbers districts chiefly in the variations and omissions, due either to an (unsuccessful) attempt south-west and in the Lebanon sources deal wit the inherit- to simplify the present difficulties, or to the use of another recension. ance of the east Jordan tribes in terms which are-(a) general (xiii. The curse pronounced by Joshua upon the destroyed city of Jericho 8-12, D), and (b) precise (pv. 15-32, P). The latter stands between (vi. 26) should be associated with an incident in the reign of Ahab the duplicate passages xiii. 14 and 32 seq. (see the Sept.). With which is acquainted with the story (1 Kings xvi. 34); the city, how- the interest taken in these tribes, cf. for (a) i. 12-18; Deut. iii. 12–22, ever, reappears in Joshua xviii. 21; 2 Sam. x. 5. "Achan's sacrilege, and the sequel in Joshua xxii. 1-6; and for (b) xxii. 9 seq.; Num. xxxii. the cause of the repulse at Ai and of the naming of the valley of P's account of the division opens with an introductory notice of the Achor (vii.), is introduced by vi. 18 seq., 24b, and, as its spirit shows, manner in which Eleazar the priest and Joshua (note the order) is of relatively later date. It contains some probable traces of D prepare to complete the work which Moses had begun (xiv. 1-5). (in vii. 5, 7, 11 seq., 15, 25) and P (in vv. I, 18, 24 seq.). The capture It opens with Judah, its borders (xv. 1-12) and citics (vv. 20-62). of Ai has marks of the same dual origin as the preceding chapters and continues with the two Joseph tribes, Ephraim (xvi. 4-9. (cf. viii. 3a with io, and contrast viii. 3-9 with v. 12; vv. 5-7 with contrast details in vv. 1-3) and Manasseh (xvii. 1-10, cf. Num. 18, 26; v. 19. with 28). The general resemblance between chs. xxvi. 30-32, xxvii. 1-11;P). There is now a break in the narrative vii.-viii. and the war with Benjamin (Judges xx.) should be noticed. (xviii, 2-10, source uncertain); seven tribes have not yet received an inheritance, and Joshua (alone) encourages them to send three Conquests in Palestine.-The erection of the altar, not at the 'men from each tribe to walk through the land-excluding the terri- scene of battle (cf. 1 Sam. xiv. 35) but on Mt Ebal (viii. 30–35, tory of Judah and Joseph-and to bring a description of it to him, after which he divides it among them by lot. Pinow D), presupposes the conquest of central Palestine and the with an account of the borders and cities of Benjamin (xviii. 11-28). removal of the ark from Gilgal. These, however, are not Simeon, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali and Dan (xix.; on v. 47. narrated, and, unless some account of them has been replaced by see below); and, after the subscription (xix. 51), concludes with the the present passage, this portion of the conquest was ignored. institution of the cities of refuge (xx., cf. Num. xxxv.), and of the Possibly the passage is not in its original position: in the Chapter xx., belonging to the Predaction, has certain points of contact Levitical cities (xxi., contrast the earlier brief notice, xiii. 14, 33). Septuagint it appears after ix. 2, while Josephus (Ant. v. 1, 19) with Deut. xix. which, it is very important to observe, are wanting and the Samaritan book of Joshua read it before ch. xiii.; in the Septuagint; and xxi. 43-45 closes D's account of the division, Dillmann, however, would place it after xi. 23. The capture and in the Septuagint contains matter most of which is now given of Jericho and Ai is followed by the successful stratagem of by Pin xix..49 seq: Two narratives describe the dismissal of the trans- Jordanic tribes after their co-operation in the conquest, viz. xxii. 1-6 the Gibeonites to make peace with Israel (ix.). This involves (D), and xxii. 9 seq. (P);cf. above, on xiii. & seq. P, with the descrip- them in a war with the southern Canaanites; Joshua intervenes tion of the erection of the altar (v. 34, Gilead ?; cf. Gen. xxxi. 47 seq.), and obtains a crowning victory (x.). The camp is still at Gilgal. is apparently a late re-writing of some now obscure incident to A similar conquest of the northern Canaanites follows (xi.), and emphasize the unity of worship: P's account of the distribution of land among the nine and a half tribes by Eleazar and Joshua (from the first part of the book concludes with a summary of the xiv. 1-5 to xix. 51) appears to have been on the lines laid down in results of the Israelite invasion (xii.). Num. xxxiv. (P). The scene, according to xviii. 1, is Shiloh, and No satisfactory explanation of viii. 30-35 has been found, yet ix. I this verse, which does not belong to the context, should apparently precede P's narrative in xiv. 1. But of the occupation of Shiloh, seq. seems to show that it was the prelude to the Canaanite wars. In contrast to the absence of any reference to the occupation of the famous Ephraimite sanctuary and the seat of ihe ark, we have central Palestine, the conquest of the south was current in several no information. The older source, however, presupposes that divergent traditions. Two records are blended in ix.; one narrates Judah and the two Joseph tribes have acquired their territory: the covenant with the Gibeonites, the other that with the Hivites the remaining seven are blamed for their indifference (xviii. 2-10, (properly Hivvites); and in the latter Joshua has no place (vv. 4 seq., see above), and receive their lot conjointly at the camp at Shiloh, But if the location is an attempt to harmonize with xviii. 1, Gilgal 66, 7, 11-14, &c.). The former has additions by D (vv. 96, 10, 24 should probably be restored. The section xviii. 2-10 is followed seq.) and by P (v. 15 last clause, 17-21); the latter, in accordance with the legislation of its day (posterior to Ezek. xliv. 6 sqq.), does by xxi. 43. seq. (above), and may have been preceded originally by not allow the Gibeonites to minister to the temple or altar, but merely form it appears to be due to D. xiii. 1, 7 (where read: inheritance for the seven tribes); in its present to the “congregation," a characteristic post-exilic term (contrast Another account of the exploits vv. 21 and 23; and on 27 see Sept. and commentaries). The story (where Caleb receives Hebron as his inheritance and the “ land of Judah and Joseph can be traced here and there, e.g. in xiv. 6-15 of the covenant conflicts with the notice that Gibeon was still an independent Canaanite city in David's time (2 Sam. xxi. 2). The had rest from war "), and xvii. 14-18 (where Joseph receives an defeat of the southern coalition is based, as the doublets show, upon additional lot); but where these traditions have not been worked two sources; the war arises from two causes (vengeance upon the chiefly recognizable by their standpoint. They are characterized into later narratives, they exist only in fragmentary form and are Gibeonites, and the attempt to overthrow Israel), and concludes with a twofold victory: in x. 16-24 the kings are pursued to Makkedah | by the view that the conquest was only a partial one, and one which and slain, in v. II they are smitten by a great hailstorm in their was neither the work of a single man nor at his instigation, but due flight to Azekah (cf. 1 Sam. vii. 10, xiv. 15, in the same district). "Traces of composite material may be recognized-(a) where, in Redactional links have been added, apparently by D, to whom is place of boundaries, P has given lists of cities which appear to be possibly due the stanza quoted from the book of Jashar (v. 12 seq.), taken from other sources (cf. the instructions in xviii. 9), and (b) in a poetical address to the sun and moon, of the nature of a prayer the double headings (see Addis, The Hexateuch, i. 230, note 1, and the or spell for their aid (cf. Judges V. 20, and see Ecclus. xlvi. 4). The I commentaries). resumes JOSHUA 519 entirely to individual or tribal achievements. This view can be of other conflicting traditions representing independent tribal traced in xiii. 13, xv. 63 (cf. the parallel Judges i. 21 in contrast to efforts which were not successful, and the Israelites are even said v. 8), xvi. 10 (Judges i. 29), xvii. 11-13 (Judges i. 27 seq.), and in the references to separate tribal or family exploits: xv, 13-19, xix. 47 to live in the midst of Canaanites, intermarrying with them and (cf. Judges i. 34 seq., xviii.). adopting their cult (Judges i.-iii. 6). From a careful consider- Two closing addresses are ascribed to Joshua, one an exhorta- ation of all the evidence, both internal and external, biblical tion similar to the homilies in secondary portions of Deuteronomy scholars are now almost unanimous that the more finished picture (xxiii.; cf. Moses in Deut. xxviii. seq., and Samuel's last address of the Israelite invasion and settlement cannot be accepted as It accords with this that the in 1 Sam. xii.), which virtually excludes the other (xxiv.), where a historical record for the age. Joshua assembles the tribes at Shechem (Shiloh, in the Septua elaborate tribal-lists and boundaries prove to be of greater gint) and passes under review the history of Israel from the value for the geography than for the history of Palestine, and days of heathenism (before Abraham was brought into Canaan) the attempts to use them as evidence for the early history of down through the oppression in Egypt, the exodus, the conquest Israel have involved numerous additional difficulties and in East Jordan and the occupation of Canaan. A few otherwise confusion. unknown details are to be found (xxiv. 2, il seq. 14). The The book of Joshua has ascribed to one man conquests which address (which is extremely important for its representation of are not confirmed by subsequent history. The capture of the religious conditions) is made the occasion for a solemn Bethel, implied rather than described in Joshua viii., is elsewhere covenant whereby the people agree to cleave to Yahweh alone. the work of the Joseph tribes (Judges i. 22 sqq., cf. features in the This is commemorated by the erection of a stone under the oak conquest of Jericho, Joshua vi. 25). Joshua's victory in north by the sanctuary of Yahweh (for the tree with its sacred pillar, Palestine has its parallel in Judges iv. at another period (see see Gen. xxxv. 4; Judges ix. 6). The people are then dismissed, DEBORAH), and Adoni-zedek of Jerusalem (Joshua x.) can and the book closes in ordinary narrative style with the death of scarcely be severed from the Adoni-bezek taken by the tribes of Joshua and his burial in his inheritance at Timnath-serah in Judah and Simeon (Judges i. 5-7). The prominence of Joshua as Mt Ephraim (cf. xix. 49 seq.); the burial of Joseph in Shechem; military and religious leader, and especially his connexion with and the death and burial of Eleazar the son of Aaron in the Shechem and Shiloh, have suggested that he was a hero of the hill of Phinehas." Joseph tribes of central Palestine (viz. Ephraim and Manasseh). Chapter xxiv. presupposes the complete subjection of the Canaan. Moreover, the traditions in Joshua viii. 30-ix. 2, and Deut. xxvii. ites and is of a late prophetic stamp. Some signs of amplification 1-8 seem to place the arrival at Mt Ebal immediately after the (e.g. v. 116, 13, 31) suggest that it was inserted by a Deuteronomic crossing of the Jordan. This implies that Israel (like Jacob in hand, evidently distinct from the author of xxiii. But elsewhere Gen. xxxii.) crossed by the Jabbok, and in fact the Wadi Fari'ā there are traces of secondary Deuteronomic expansion and of internal provides an easy road to Shechem, to the south-east of which incongruities in Deuteronomic narratives; contrast xiv. 6-15 with Joshua's extermination of the " Anakim”in xi. 21 seq.; the use of lies Juleijil; and while this is the Gilgal of Deut. xi. 30, this name with the " Philistines of xiii. 2 (sec PHILISTINES), or the the battles at Jericho and Ai (Joshua ii. seq.) occur naturally conquests in xi. 16-22 with the names in x. 36-43. All these after the encampment at the southern Gilgal (near Jericho). The passages are now due to D; but not only is Deuteronomy itself alternative view (see especially Stade, Gesch. Ist. 1. 133 sqq.) composite, a twofold redaction can be traced in Judges, Samuel and Kings, thus involving the deeper literary problems of Joshua with connects itself partly with the ancestor of all the tribes (Jacob, the historical books generally. Both Joshua xxiii . and xxiv. are i.e. Israel), and partly with the eponym of the Joseph tribes closely connected with the very complicated introduction to the whose early days were spent around Shechem, the removal of era of the judges " in Judges ii. 6 sqq., and ii. 6-9 actually resume whose bones from Egypt must have found a prominent place in Joshua xxiv. 28 sqq., while the Septuagint appends to the close of Joshua the beginning of the story of Ehud (Judges iii. 12 seq.). Both the traditions of the tribes concerned (Gen. 1. 25; Exod. xiii. 19; Judges i.-ii.5 and chap. xvii. xxi. are of post-Deuteronomic insertion, Joshua xxiv. 32). According to one view (Stade, Wellhausen, and they represent conditions analogous to the older notices imbedded Guthe, &c.) only the Joseph tribes were in Egypt, and separate in the later work of P (Judges i. 21, xix. 10-12, cf. Joshua xv. 63; tribal movements (see JUDAH) have been incorporated in the see JUDGEs ad fin.). Moreover, º in its turn shows elsewhere definite indications of different periods and standpoints, and the fluid growth of the tradition; the probability that the specific tradi- state of the book at a late age is shown by the presence of Deutero- tions of the Joseph tribes have been excised or subordinated finds nomic elements in Joshua xx., not found in the Septuagint, and by the support in the manner in which the Judaean P has abridged and numerous and often striking readings which the latter recension confused the tribal lists of Ephraim and Manasseh. presents. The serious character of the problems of early Israelite history Value of the Book -The value of the book of Joshua is can be perceived from the renewed endeavours to present an primarily religious; its fervency, its conviction of the destiny of adequate outline of the course of events; for a criticism of the Israel and its inculcation of the unity and greatness of the God most prominent hypotheses see Cheyne, Ency. Bib. art. “Tribes” of Israel give expression to the philosophy of Israelite historians. (col. 5209 seq.); a new the has been more recently advanced As an historical record its value must depend upon a careful by E. Meyer (Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstämme, 1906). But criticism of its contents in the light of biblical history and Joshua as a tribal hero does not belong to the earliest phase in external information. Its description of the conquest of Canaan the surviving traditions. He has no place in the oldest comes from an age when the event was a shadow of the past. surviving narratives of the exodus (Wellhausen, Steuernagel); It is an ideal view of the manner in which a divinely appointed and only later sources add him to Caleb (Num. xiv. 30; the leader guided a united people into the promised land of their reference in Deut. i. 38 is part of an insertion), or regard him as ancestors, and, after a few brief wars of extermination (X.-xii.), the leader of all the tribes (Deut. iii. 21, 28). As an attendant of died leaving the people in quiet possession of their new inherit-Moses at the tent of meeting he appears in quite secondary ance (xi. 23; xxi. 44 seq.; xxiii. 1). On the other hand, the passages (Exod. xxxiii. 7-11; Num. xi. 28). His defeat of the earlier inhabitants were not finally subjugated until Solomon's Amalekites is in a narrative (Exod. xvii. 8-16) which belongs more reign (1 Kings ix. 20); Jerusalem was taken by David from the • The historical problems are noticed in all biblical histories, and Jebusites (2 Sam. v.); and several sites in its neighbourhood, in the commentaries on Joshua and Judges. Against the ordinary together with important fortresses like Gezer, Megiddo and critical view, see J. Orr, Problem of the 0.T. (1905) pp. 240 seq. Taanach, were not held by Israel at the first. There are traces seq.) takes the book as a whole, allowance being made for " the This writer (on whom see A. S. Peake, The erpreter, 1908, pp. 252 1 The close relation between what may be called the Deuteronomic generalizing tendency peculiar to all summaries." His argument history (Joshua-Kings), and its introduction (the legal book of that “the circumstantiality, local knowledge and evidently full Deuteronomy) independently show the difficulty of supporting the recollection of the narratives (in Joshua) give confidence in the truth traditional date ascribed to the latter. of their statements" is one which historical criticism in no field 2 G. F. Moore (Ency. Bib., col. 2608, note 2) draws attention to would regard as conclusive, and his contention that a redactor the instructive parallel furnished by the Greek legends of the Dorian would hardly incorporate conflicting traditions in his narrative invasion of the Peloponnesus (the “return" of the Heracleidae, • if he believed they contradicted it " begs the question and the partition of the land by lot, &c.). ignores Oriental literature. 520 JOSHUA THE STYLITE—JÓSIKA 11 naturally to the wilderness of Shur, and it associates him with theme-- the history of the disturbed relations between the Persian traditions of a movement direct into south Palestine which finds and Greek Empires from the beginning of the reign of Kawad I. (489-531), which culminated in the great war of 502-506. From its counterpart when the clan Caleb (9.v.) is artificially treated as October 494 to the conclusion of peace near the end of 506, the possessing its seats with Joshua's permission. But points of author gives an annalistic account, with careful specification of dates, resemblance between Joshua the invader and Saul the founder of the main events in Mesopotamia, the theatre of conflict--such as of the (north) Israelite monarchy.gain in weight when the tradi- the siege and capture of Amid by the Persians (502-503), their unsuc- cessful siege of Edessa (503), and the abortive attempt of the Greeks tions of both recognize the inclusion or possession of Judah, and to recover Amid (504-505). The work was probably written a few thus stand upon quite another plane as compared with those of years after the conclusion of the war. The style is graphic and David the founder of the Judacan dynasty. Instead of rejecting straightforward, and the author was evidently a man of good the older stories of Joshua's conquests it may be preferable to education and of a simple, honest mind. (N. M.) inſer that there were radical divergences in the historical views JOSIAH (Heb. yo'shiyyāhū, perhaps “ Yah (weh) supports "), of the past. Consequently, the parallels between Joshua and in the Bible, the grandson of Manasseh, and king of Judah. He Jacob (see Steuernagel's Commentary, p. 150) are more signifi. came to the throne at the age of eight, after the murder of his cant when the occupation of central Palestine, already implied predecessor Amon. The circumstances of his minority are not in the book of Joshua, is viewed in the light of Gen. xlviii. 22, recorded, nor is anything related of the Scythian inroads which where Jacob as conqueror (cf. the very late form of the tradition occurred in the latter half of the 7th century B.C., although in Jubilees xxxiv.) agrees with features in the patriarchal some passages in the books of Jeremiah and Zephaniah are narratives which, in implying a settlement in Palestine, are supposed to refer to the events. The storm which shook the entirely distinct from those which belong to the descent into external states was favourable to the peace of Judah; the Egypt (see especially, Meyer, op. cit. pp. 227 seq., 414 seq., 433; | Assyrian power was practically broken, and that of the Chaldeans Luther, ib. 108 seq.). The elaborate account of the exodus had scarcely developed into an aggressive form. Samaria thus lay gives the prevailing views which supersede other traditions of within the grasp of Josiah, who may have entertained hopes the origin both of the Israelites and of the worship of Yahweh of forming an independent power of his own. Otherwise, it is (Gen. iv. 26). Several motives have influenced its growth,' and not clear why we find him opposing himself to the Egyptian king the kernel-the revelation of Yahweh to Moses--has been Necho, since the assumption that he fought as an Assyrian developed until all the tribes of Israel are included and their vassal scarcely agrees with the profound reforming policy history as a people now begins. The old traditions of conquest ascribed to him. At all events, at the battle of Megiddo ? he in central Palestine have similarly been extended, and have been lost both his kingdom and his life (608 B.C.), and for a few adapted to the now familiar view of Israelite origins. It is years Judah was in the hands of Egypt (2 Kings xxiii. 29 seq.). this subordination of earlier tradition to other and more predom- The chronicler gives a rather different account of the battle, inating representations which probably explains the intricacy and his allusion to the dirge uttered by Jeremiah over his death of a book whose present text may not have been finally fixed (2 Chron. xxxv. 20–25; 1 Esd. i. 32) represents the tradition until, as Dillmann held, as late as about 200 B.C. which makes this prophet the author of the book of Lamentations. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-See the commentaries of Dillmann, Steuernagel The reign of Josiah is important for the biblical account of Holzinger (German), or the concise edition by H. W. Robinson in the great religious reforms which began in his eighteenth year, the Century Bible; also articles on ' Joshua by G. A. Smith, when he manifested interest in the repair of the Temple at Hastings's D. B., and G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib.; Kittel in Hist. of the Hebrews, i. 262 sqq.; W. H. Bennett, in Haupt's Sacred Books of the Jerusalem. In the course of this work the high priest Hilkiah Old Testament; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Comp. of discovered a “law-book” which gave rise to the liveliest Hexaleuch, ch. xvii; S. R. Driver, Lit. of the 0. T. (8th ed., 1909). concern. The reasons for believing that this roll was substan- These give further bibliographical information, for which see also the tially identical with the book of Deuteronomy were already articles on the books of the Pentateuch. (S. A. C.) appreciated by Jerome, Chrysostom, Theodoret and others, JOSHUA THE STYLITE, the reputed author of a chronicle and a careful examination shows that the character of the reſor- which narrates the history of the war between the Greeks and mation which followed agrees in all its essential features with Persians in 502-506, and which is one of the earliest and best the prescriptions and exhortations of that book. (See DEUTERO- historical documents preserved to us in Syriac. The work owes NOMY.) But the detailed records in 2 Kings xxii. seq. are its preservation to having been incorporated in the third part evidently written under the influence of the reforms themselves, of the history of pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahrē, and may and are not contemporary (see Kings, Book of). They are probably have had a place in the second part of the Ecclesiastical further expanded, to agree with still later ideals, in 2 Chron. History of John of Asia, from whom (as Nau has shown) pseudo- xxxiv. seq. The original roll was short enough to be read at Dionysius copied all or most of the matter contained in his third least twice in a day (xxii. 8, 10), and hence only some portions part. The chronicle in question is anonymous, and Nau has of Deuteronomy (or of an allied production) may be intended. shown that the note of a copyist, which was thought to assign Although the character of the reforms throws remarkable light it to the monk Joshua of Zuķnin near Āmid, more probably upon the condition of religion in Judah in the time of Josiah, it refers to the compiler of the whole work in which it was incor- is to be observed that the writings of the contemporary prophets porated. Anyhow the author was an eyewitness of many of (Jeremiah, Ezekiel) make it very questionable whether the the events which he describes, and must have been living at narratives are thoroughly trustworthy for the history of the Edessa during the years when it suffered so severely from the king's measures. (See further Jews, $ 16.) (S. A. C.) Persian War. His view of events is everywhere characterized JÓSIKA, MIKLOS (NICHOLAS), BARON (1794-1865), Hun- by his belief in overruling Providence; and as he eulogizes garian novelist, was born on the 28th of April 1794 at Torda in Flavian II., the Chalcedonian patriarch of Antioch, in warmer Transylvania, of aristocratic and wealthy parents. After finish- terms than those in which he praises his great Monophysite ing the usual course of legal studies at Kolozsvár (Klausenburg), contemporaries, Jacob of Sěrūgh and Philoxenus of Mabbog, he he in 1811 entered the army, joining a cavalry regiment, with was probably an orthodox Catholic. which he subsequently took part in the Italian campaign. On The chronicle was first made known by Assemani's abridged the battlefield of Mincio (February 8, 1814) he was promoted Latin version (B.O.i. 260-283) and was edited in 1876 by the abbé to the grade of lieutenant. He served in the campaign against Martin and (with an English translation) by W. Wright in 1882. After Napoleon, and was present at the entry of the Allied Troops an elaborate dedication to a friend--the " priest and abbot Ser gius—a brief recapitulation of events from the death of Julian in into Paris (March 31, 1814). In 1818 Jósika resigned his 363 and a fuller account of the reigns of the Persian kings Pēroz commission, returned to Hungary, and married his first wife (457-484) and Balásh (484-488), the writer enters upon his main ? Or " Magdolos" (Herod. ii. 159), i.e. some " Migdal" (tower) · E.g. the vicissitudes of Levitical families, other migrations into of Judaea, not the Migdol of Exod. xiv. 2; Jer. xliv. 1. Palestine, &c. The story of Joseph has probably been used as a See Zeit. f. Alttest. Wissenschaft (1902), pp. 170 seq., 312. seq. link (see Luther, op. cit. pp. 142 seq.). Journ Bib. Lit. (1903), p. 50. 1 JOSIPPON—-JOUBERT, B. C. 521 » Elizabeth Kallai. The union proving an unhappy one, Jósika | many things connected with religious rites, such as “ joss-house,” parted from his wife, settled on his estate at Szurdok in Transyl- a temple; “ joss-stick," a stick which when burned gives forth vania, and devoted himself to agricultural and literary pursuits. a fragrant odour and is used as incense; “ joss-paper,” paper cut Drawn into the sphere of politics, he took part in the memorable to resemble money (and sometimes with prayers written upon it) Transylvanian diet of 1834. About this time Jósika first began to burned in funeral and other ceremonies. Joss ” is not a attract attention as a writer of fiction. In 1836 his Abafi laid the Chinese word, and is probably a corruption of Port. deos, god, foundation of his literary reputation. This novel gives a vivid | applied by Portuguese navigators in the 16th century to the idols picture of Transylvania in the time of Sigismund Bátori. Jósika worshipped in the East Indies. The Dutch form is joosge was soon afterwards elected member of the Hungarian Academy (diminutive of joos), whence the Javanese dejos, and the English of Sciences and of the Kisfaludy Society; of the latter he became, yos, later joss. The word seems to have been carried to China in 1841, director, and in 1842 vice-president. In 1847 he appeared by English seamen from Batavia. at the Transylvanian diet as second deputy for the county of JOST, ISAAK MARKUS (1793-1860), Jewish historical writer, Szolnok, and zealously supported the movement for the union of was born on the 22nd of February 1793 at Bernburg, and studied Transylvania with Hungary proper. In the same year he was at the universities of Göttingen and Berlin. In Berlin he began converted to Protestantism, was formally divorced from his wife, to teach, and in 1835 received the appointment of upper master and married Baroness Julia Podmaniczky, herself a writer of in the Jewish commercial school (called the Philanthropin) at considerable merit, with whom he lived happily until his death. Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here he remained until his death, on So great was Jósika's literary activity that by the time of the the 22nd of November 1860. The work by which he is chiefly revolution (1848) he had already produced about sixty volumes of known is Geschichte der Israeliten seit der Zeit der Maccabür, romances and novels, besides numerous contributions to perio- in 9 vols. (1820-1829), which was afterwards supplemented by dicals. Both as magnate of the upper house of the Hungarian Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten von 1815–1845 (1846-1847), and diet and by his writings Jósika aided the revolutionary move- Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Sekien (1857-1859). He also ment, with which he was soon personally identified, being chosen published an abridgment under the title Allgemeine Geschichte one of the members of the committee of national defence. Con- des israelitischen Volkes (1831-1832), and an edition of the Mishna sequently, after the capitulation at Világos (Aug. 13, 1849) with a German translation and notes (6 vols., 1832–1834). The he found it necessary to flee the country, and settled first at Israelitische Annalen were edited by him from 1839 to 1841, and Dresden and then, in 1850, at Brussels, where he resumed his he contributed extensively to periodicals. literary pursuits anonymously. In 1864 he removed to Dresden, See Zirndorf, Isaak Markus Jost und seine Freunde (Cincinnati, in which city he died on the 27th of February 1865. The 1886). romances of Jósika, written somewhat after the style of Sir Walter Scott, are chiefly of an historical and social-political JOTUNHEIM, or JOTUN FJELDE, a mountainous region of character, his materials being drawn almost entirely from the southern Norway, lying between Gudbrandsdal on the east and annals of his own country. Among his more important works Jostedalsbrae and the head of the Sogne fjord on the west. may be specially mentioned, besides Abaf—The Poet Zrinyi Within an area of about 950 sq. m. it contains the highest moun- (1843); The Last of the Bátoris (1837); The Bohemians in Hungary tain in the Scandinavian Peninsula-Galdhöpiggen (8399 ft.) (1839); Esther (1853); Francis Rákóczy II. (1861); and A Végvár- | --and several others but little inferior. Such are Glittertind iak, a tale of the time of the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gábor, or Glitretind (8380), and Memurutind (7966), which face 1864. Many of Jósika's novels have been translated into Galdhöpiggen across the northward-sloping Visdal; Knutshuls- German. tind (7812) and several other peaks exceeding 7000 ft., to the Sec K. Moenich and S. Vutkovich, Magyar Irók Névtára (1876); south, between lakes Gjende and Bygdin, and Skagastölstind M. Jókai, “Jósika Miklós Emlékezete,” Å Kisfaludy-Társaság Ev-|(7723) in the west of the region, above the Utladal, the chief lapjai, Új folyam, vol. iii. (1869); G. W. Steinacker, Ungarische summit of the magnificent Horunger. The upper parts of the Lyriker (1874). Cf. also Jósika's autobiography-Emlékirat, vol. iv. main valleys are of characteristic form, not ending in lofty (1865), mountain-walls but comparatively low and level, and bearing JOSIPPON, the name usually given to a popular chronicle of lakes. The name Jotunheim (giants' home) is a modern memorial of the mountain-dwelling giants of Norse fable; the Jewish history from Adam to the age of Titus, attributed to an author Josippon or Joseph ben Gorion. The name, though at alternative name Jotun Fjelde was the first bestowed on the one time identified with that of the historian Josephus, is perhaps Matthias Keilhau (1797-1858). In modern times the region region, when it was explored in 1820 by the geologist Balthasar a corruption of Hegesippus, from whom (according to Trieber) has attracted mountaineers and many visitors accustomed to the author derived much of his material. The chronicle was rough lodging and difficult travelling. probably compiled in Hebrew early in the roth century, by a Jewish native of south Italy. The first edition was printed in general, the son of an advocate, was born at Pont de Vaux (Ain) JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMY CATHERINE (1769-1799), French Mantua in 1476. Josippon. subsequently appeared in many forms, one of the most popular being in Yiddish (Judaco- enlist in the artillery, but was brought back and sent to study on the 14th of April 1769. In 1784 he ran away from school to German), with quaint illustrations. Though the chronicle is law at Lyons and Dijon. In 1791 he joined the volunteers of more legendary than historical, it is not unlikely that some the Ain, and was elected by his comrades successively corporal good and even ancient sources were used by the first com- piler , the Josippon known to us having passed through the in November lieutenant, having in the meantime made his first and sergeant. In January 1792 he became sub-lieutenant, and hands of many interpolators. The book enjoyed much vogue campaign with the army of Italy. In 1793 he distinguished in England. Peter Morvyn in 1558 translated an abbreviated version into English, and edition after edition was called himself by the brilliant defence of a redoubt at the Col di Tenda, Wounded for. Lucien Wolf has shown that the English translations with only thirty men against a battalion of the enemy. of the Bible aroused so much interest in the Jews that there and made prisoner in this affair, Joubert was released on parole was a widespread desire to know more about them. This led by the Austrian commander-in-chief, Devins, soon afterwards. to the circulation of many editions of Josippon, which thus In 1794 he was again actively engaged, and in 1795 he rendered formed a link in the chain of events which culminated in such conspicuous service as to be made general of brigade. In the readmission of the Jews to England by Cromwell. (1. A.) the campaign of 1796 the young general commanded a brigade JOSS, in the pidgin-English of the Chinese seaports, the name under Augereau, and soon attracted the special attention of given to idols and deities. It is used adjectivally in regard to Bonaparte, who caused him to be made a general of division in December, and repeatedly selected him for the command of A prefect of Jerusalem of this name is mentioned hy Josephus, important detachments. Thus he was in charge of the retaining Belt. Jud. ii. 20. 3. force at the battle of Rivoli, and in the campaign of 1799 522 JOUBERT, J.-JOUFFROY, J. (invasion of Austria) he commanded the detached left wing of Nantes by Louis XIV. Left an orphan at an early age, Joubert Bonaparte's army in Tirol, and fought his way through the migrated to the Transvaal, where he settled in the Wakker- mountains to rejoin his chief in Styria. He subsequently held stroom district near Laing's Nek and the north-east angle of various commands in Holland, on the Rhine and in Italy, where Natal. There he not only farmed with great success, but turned up to January 1799 he commanded in chief. Resigning the post his attention to the study of the law. The esteem in which his in consequence of a dispute with the civil authorities, Joubert shrewdness in both farming and legal affairs was held led to his returned to France and married (June) Mlle de Montholon. election to the Volksraad as member for Wakkerstroom early in But he was almost immediately summoned to the field again. the sixties, Marthinus Pretorius being then in his second term of He took over the command in Italy from Moreau about the office as president. In 1876 Joubert was again elected, and the middle of July, but he persuaded his predecessor to remain at the use to which he put his slender stock of legal knowledge secured front and was largely guided by his advice. The odds against him the appointment of attorney-general of the republic, while the French troops in the disastrous campaign of 1799 (see FRENCH in 1875 he acted as president during the absence of T. F. Burgers REVOLUTIONARY WARS) were too heavy. Joubert and Moreau in Europe. During the first British annexation of the Transvaal, were quickly compelled to give battle by their great antagonist Joubert earned for himself the reputaiton of a consistent irrecon- Suvorov. The battle of Novi was disastrous to the French arms, cilable by refusing to hold office under the government, as Paul not merely because it was a defeat, but above all because Joubert Kruger and other prominent Boers were doing. Instead of himself was amongst the first to fall (Aug. 15, 1799). Joubert accepting the lucrative post offered him, he took a leading part died before it could be shown whether his genius was of the first in creating and directing the agitation which led to the war of rank, but he was at any rate marked out as a future great captain 1880-1881, eventually becoming, as commandant-general of the by the greatest captain of all ages, and his countrymen intui- Boer forces, a member of the triumvirate that administered the tively associated him with Hoche and Marceau as a great leader provisional Boer government set up in December 1880 at whose early death disappointed their highest hopes. After the Heidelberg. He was in command of the Boer forces at Laing's battle his remains were brought to Toulon and buried in Fort Nek, Ingogo, and Majuba Hill, subsequently conducting the La Malgue, and the revolutionary government paid tribute earlier peace negotiations that led to the conclusion of the to his memory by a ceremony of public mourning (Sept. 16). Pretoria Convention. In 1883 he was a candidate for the pre- A monument to Joubert at Bourg was razed by order of sidency of the Transvaal, but received only 1171 votes ás against Louis XVIII., but another memorial was afterwards erected 3431 cast for Kruger. In 1893 he again opposed Kruger in the at Pont de Vaux. contest for the presidency, standing as the representative of the See Guilbert, Notice sur la vie de B. C. Joubert; Chevrier, Le comparatively progressive section of the Boers, who wished in Général Joubert d'après sa correspondance (2nd ed. 1884) some measure to redress the grievances of the Uitlander popula- tion which had grown up on the Rand. The poll (though there JOUBERT, JOSEPH (1754-1824), French moralist, was born is good reason for believing that the voting lists had been mani- at Montignac (Corrèze) on the 6th of May 1754. After completing pulated by Kruger's agents) was declared to have resulted in his studies at Toulouse he spent some years there as a teacher. 7911 votes being cast for Kruger and 7246 for Joubert. After His delicate health proved unequal to the task, and after two a protest Joubert acquiesced in Kruger's continued presidency. years spent at home in study Joubert went to Paris at the be- He stood again in 1898, but the Jameson raid had occurred mean. ginning of 1778. He allied himself with the chiefs of the philo- time and the voting was 12,858 for Kruger and 2001 for Joubert. sophic party, especially with Diderot, of whom he was in some Joubert's position had then become much weakened by accusa- sort a disciple, but his closest friendship was with the abbé de tions of treachery and of sympathy with the Uitlander agitation. Fontanes. In 1790 he was recalled to his native place to act He took little part in the negotiations that culminated in the as juge de paix, and carried out the duties of his office with great ultimatum sent to Great Britain by Kruger in 1899, and though fidelity. He had made the acquaintance of Mme de Beaumont he immediately assumed nominal command of the operations in a Burgundian cottage where she had taken refuge from the on the outbreak of hostilities, he gave up to others the chief share Terror, and it was under her inspiration that Joubert's genius in the direction of the war, through his inability or neglect to was at its best. The atmosphere of serenity and affection with impose upon them his own will. His cautious nature, which had which she surrounded him seemed necessary to the development in early life gained him the sobriquet of “ Slim Piet,” joined to of what Sainte-Beuve calls his “esprit ailé, ami du ciel et des a lack of determination and assertiveness that characterized his hauteurs.” Her death in 1803 was a great blow to him, and his whole career, led him to act mainly on the defensive; and the literary activity, never great, declined from that time. In 1809, strategically offensive movements of the Boer forces, such as at the solicitation of Joseph de Bonald, he was made an inspector- Elandslaagte and Willow Grange, appear to have been neither general of education, and his professional duties practically planned nor executed by him. As the war went on, physical absorbed his interests during the rest of his life. He died on the weakness led to Joubert's virtual retirement, and, though two 3rd of May 1824. His manuscripts were entrusted by his widow days earlier he was still reported as being in supreme command, to Chateaubriand, who published a selection of Pensées from he died at Pretoria from peritonitis on the 28th of March 1900. them in 1838 for private circulation. A more complete edition Sir George White, the defender of Ladysmith, summed up was published by Joubert's nephew, Paul de Raynal, under the Joubert's character when he called him “ a soldier and a gentle- title Pensées, essais, maximes et correspondance (2 vols. 1842). | man, and a brave and honourable opponent.” A selection of letters addressed to Joubert was published in 1883. JOUFFROY, JEAN (c. 1412-1473), French prelate and diplo- Joubert constantly strove after perfection, and the small quantity matist, was born at Luxeuil (Haute-Saône). After entering of his work was partly due to his desire to find adequate and the Benedictine order and teaching at the university of Paris luminous expression for his discriminating criticism of literature from 1435 to 1438, he became almoner to Philip the Good, duke and morals. of Burgundy, who entrusted him with diplomatic missions in If Joubert's readers in England are not numerous, he is well France, Italy, Portugal and Castile. Jouffroy was appointed known at second hand through the sympathetic essay devoted to abbot of Luxeuil (14512) bishop of Arras (1453), and papal him in Matthew Arnold's Essays in Criticism (ist series). See legate (1459). At the French court his diplomatic duties Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. i.; Portraits littéraires, vol. ii.; brought him to the notice of the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.). and a notice by Paul de Raynal, prefixed to the edition of 1842. Jouffroy entered Louis's service, and obtained a cardinal's hat JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834-1900), commandant-|(1461), the bishopric of Albi (1462), and the abbacy of St Denis general of the South African Republic from 1880 to 1900, was (1464). On several occasions he was sent to Rome to negotiate born at Cango, in the district of Oudtshoorn, Cape Colony, on the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction and to defend the the 20th of January 1834, a descendant of a French Huguenot interests of the Angevins at Naples. Attached by King Louis who fled to South Africa soon after the revocation of the Edict of 1 to the sieur de Beaujeu in the expedition against John V., count JOUFFROY, T. S.-- JOULE 523 common sense of Armagnac, Jouffroy was accused of taking the town of Scottish philosophers. On his return he became librarian to the Lectoure by treachery, and of being a party to the murder of university, and took the chair of recent philosophy at the faculty the count of Armagnac (1473). He died at Reuilly the same of letters. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1842. After year. his death were published Nouveaux mélanges philosophiques See C. Fierrille, Le Cardinal Jean Jouffroy et son temps (1412-1473) contributed nothing new to the system except a more emphatic (3rd ed. 1872) and Cours d'esthétique (3rd ed. 1875). The former (Coutances, Paris, 1874). statement of the distinction between psychology and physiology. JOUFFROY, THÉODORE SIMON (1796-1842), French philo-The latter formulated his theory of beauty. sopher, was born at Pontets, near Mouthe, department of Doubs. Jouffroy's claim to distinction rests upon his ability as an In his tenth year, his father, a tax-gatherer, sent him to an uncle expositor of other men's ideas. He founded no system; he con- at Pontarlier, under whom he commenced his classical studies. tributed nothing of importance to philosophical science; he At Dijon his compositions attracted the attention of an inspector, initiated nothing which has survived him. But his enthusiasm who had him placed (1814) in the normal school, Paris. He for mental science, and his command over the language of popular there came under the influence of Victor Cousin, and in 1817 he exposition, made him a great international medium for the was appointed assistant professor of philosophy at the normal transfusion of ideas._He stood between Scotland and France and Bourbon schools. Three years later, being thrown upon his and Germany and France; and, though his expositions are own resources, he began a course of lectures in his own house, vitiated by loose reading of the philosophers he interpreted, he and formed literary connexions with Lc Courrier français, Lé did serviceable, even memorable work. Globe, L'Encyclopédie moderne, and La Revue européenne. The See L. Lévy Bruhl, History of Modern Philos. in France (1899), variety of his pursuits at this time carried him over the whole pp. 349-357; C. !. Tissot, Th. Jouffroy: sa vie et ses écrits (1876); field of ancient and modern literature. But he was chiefly ): P. Damiron, Essai sur l'histoire de la philos. en France au xix. attracted to the philosophical system represented by Reid and siècle (1846). Stewart. The application of “ to the problem JOUGS, JUGGs, or Joggs (O. Fr. joug, from Lat. jugum, a of substance supplied a more satisfactory analytic for him than yoke), an instrument of punishment formerly in use in Scotland, the scepticism of Hume which reached him through a study of Holland and possibly other countries. It was an iron collar Kant. He thus threw in his lot with the Scottish philosophy, fastened by a short chain to a wall, often of the parish church, and his first dissertations are, in their leading position, adapta- or to a tree. The collar was placed round the offender's neck tions from Reid's Inquiry. In 1826 he wrote a preface to a and fastened by a padlock. The jougs was practically a pillory. translation of the Moral Philosophy of Stewart, demonstrating It was used for ecclesiastical as well as civil Offences. Examples the possibility of a scientific statement of the laws of conscious may still be seen in Scotland. ness; in 1828 he began a translation of the works of Reid, and in JOULE, JAMES PRESCOTT (1818–1889), English physicist, his preface estimated the influence of Scottish criticism upon was born on the 24th of December 1818, at Salford, near Man- philosophy, giving a biographical account of the movement from chester. Although he received some instruction from John Hutcheson onwards. Next year he was returned to parlement Dalton in chemistry, most of his scientific knowledge was self- by the arrondissement of Pontarlier; but the work of legislation taught, and this was especially the case with regard to electricity was ill-suited to him. Yet he attended to his duties conscien- and electro-magnetism, the subjects in which his earliest tiously, and ultimately broke his health in their discharge. In researches were carried out. From the first he appreciated the 1833 he was appointed professor of Greck and Roman philosophy importance of accurate measurement, and all through his life at the college of France and a member of the Academy of the attainment of exact quantitative data was one of his chief Sciences; he then published the Mélanges philosophiques (4th ed. considerations. At the age of nineteen he invented an electro- 1866; Eng. trans. G. Ripley, Boston, 1835 and 1838), a collection magnetic engine, and in the course of examining its performance of fugitive papers in criticism and philosophy and history. In dissatisfaction with vague and arbitrary methods of specifying them is foreshadowed all that he afterwards worked out in electrical quantities caused him to adopt a convenient and metaphysics, psychology, ethics and aesthetics. He had already scientific unit, which he took to be the amount of electricity demonstrated in his preſaces the possibility of a psychology apart required to decompose nine grains of water in one hour. In 1840 from physiology, of the science of the phenomena of conscious- he was thus enabled to give a quantitative statement of the law ness distinct from the perceptions of sense. He now classified according to which heat is produced in a conductor by the the mental faculties, premising that they must not be confounded passage of an electric current, and in succeeding years he pub- with capacities or properties of mind. They were, according to lished a series of valuable researches on the agency of electricity his analysis, personal will, primitive instincts, voluntary move- in transformations of energy. One of these contained the first ment, natural and artificial signs, sensibility and the faculties intimation of the achievement with which his name is most of intellect; on this analytic he founded his scheme of the universe. widely associated, for it was in a paper read before the British In 1835 he published a Cours de droit naturel (4th ed. 1866), Association at Cork in 1843, and entitled “ The Calorific Effects which, for precision of statement and logical coherence, is the of Magneto-electricity and the Mechanical Value of Heat,” that most important of his works. From the conception of a universal he expressed the conviction that whenever mechanical force is order in the universe he reasons to a Supreme Being, who has expended an exact equivalent of heat is always obtained. By created it and who has conferred upon every man in harmony rotating a small electro-magnet in water, between the poles of with it the aim of his existence, leading to his highest good. another magnet, and then measuring the heat developed in the Good, he says, is the fulfilment of man's destiny, evil the thwart-water and other parts of the machine, the current induced in ing of it. Every man being organized in a particular way has, the coils, and the energy required to maintain rotation, he of necessity, an aim, the fulfilment of which is good; and he has calculated that the quantity of heat capable of warming one faculties for accomplishing it, directed by reason. The aim is pound of water one degree F. was equivalent to the mechanical good, however, only when reason guides it for the benefit of the force which could raise 838 lb. through the distance of one foot. majority, but that is not absolute good. When reason rises to At the same time he brought forward another determination the conception of universal order, when actions are submitted, based on the heating effects observable when water is forced by the exercise of a sympathy working necessarily and intuitively through capillary tubes; the number obtained in this way was to the idea of the universal order, the good has been reached, the 770. A third method, depending on the observation of the heat true good, good in itself, absolute good. But he does not follow evolved by the mechanical compression of air, was employed a his idea into the details of human duty, though he passes in year or two later, and yielded the number 798; and a fourth-the review fatalism, mysticism, pantheism, scepticism, egotism, well-known frictional one of stirring water with a sort of paddle. sentimentalism and rationalism. In 1835 Jouffroy's health wheel-yielded the result 890 (see Brit. Assoc. Report, 1845), failed and he went to Italy, where he continued to translate the I though 781.5 was obtained by subsequent repetitions of the 524 JOURDAN-JOURNAL experiment. In 1849 he presented to the Royal Society a of influence to the Rhine, on which river he waged an indecisive memoir which, together with a history of the subject, contained campaign in 1795. details of a long series of determinations, the result of which was In 1796 his army formed the left wing of the advance into 772. A good many years later he was entrusted by the com- Bavaria. The whole of the French forces were ordered to mittee of the British Association on standards of electric resist- advance on Vienna, Jourdan on the extreme leſl and Moreau in ance with the task of deducing the mechanical equivalent of heat the centre by the Danube valley, Bonaparte on the right by Italy from the thermal effects of electric currents. This inquiry and Styria. The campaign began brilliantly, the Austrians yielded (in 1867) the result 783, and this Joule himself was in- under the Archduke Charles being driven back by Morcau and clined to regard as more accurate than his old determination by Jourdan almost to the Austrian frontier. But the archduke, the frictional method; the latter, however, was repeated with slipping away from Moreau, threw his whole weight on Jourdan, every precaution, and again indicated 772.55 foot-pounds as the who was defeated at Amberg and Würzburg, and forced over the quantity of work that must be expended at sea-level in the Rhine after a severe rearguard action, which cost the life of latitude of Greenwich in order to raise the temperature of one Marceau. Moreau had to fall back in turn, and, apart from pound of water, weighed in vacuo, from 60° to 61° F. Ultimately Bonaparte's marvellous campaign in Italy, the operations of the the discrepancy was traced to an error which, not by Joule's year were disastrous. The chief cause of failure was the vicious fault, vitiated the determination by the electrical method, for plan of campaign imposed upon the generals by their government. it was found that the standard ohm, as actually defined by the Jourdan was nevertheless made the scapegoat of the govern- British Association committee and as used by him, was slightly ment's mistakes and was not employed for two years. In those smaller than was intended; when the necessary corrections were years he became prominent as a politician and above all as the made the results of the two methods were almost precisely con- framer of the famous conscription law of 1798. When the war gruent, and thus the figure 772.55 was vindicated. In addition, was renewed in 1799 Jourdan was placed at the head of the army numerous other researches stand to Joule's credit—the work done on the Rhine, but again underwent defeat at the hands of the in compressing gases and the thermal changes they undergo when archduke Charles at Stockach (March 25), and, disappointed and forced under pressure through small apertures (with Lord Kelvin), broken in health, handed over the command to Masséna. He the change of volume on solution, the change of temperature at once resumed his political duties, and was a prominent oppo- produced by the longitudinal extension and compression of solids, nent of the coup d'élal of 18 Brumaire, after which he was expelled &c. It was during the experiments involved by the first of these from the Council of the Five Hundred. Soon, however, he inquiries that Joule was incidentally led to appreciate the value became formally reconciled to the new régime, and accepted of surface condensation in increasing the efficiency of the steam from Napoleon fresh military and civil employment. In 1800 engine. A new form of condenser was tested on the small engine he became inspector-general of cavalry and infantry and repre- employed, and the results it yielded formed the starting-point sentative of French interests in the Cisalpine Republic, and in of a series of investigations which were aided by a special grant 1804 he was made a marshal of France. He remained in the from the Royal Society, and were described in an elaborate new kingdom of Italy until 1806, when Joseph Bonaparte, whom memoir presented to it on the 13th of December 1860. His his brother made king of Naples in that year, selected Jourdan results, according to Kelvin, led directly and speedily to the as his military adviser. He followed Joseph into Spain in the present practical method of surface-condensation, one of the same capacity in 1808. But Joseph's throne had to be main- most important improvements of the steam engine, especially tained by the French army, and throughout the Peninsular War for marine use, since the days of James Watt.. Joule died at the other marshals, who depended direcıly upon Napoleon, paid Sale on the ith of October 1889. little heed either to Joseph or to Jourdan. After the battle of His scientific papers were collected and published by the Physical Vitoria he held no important command up to the fall of the Society of London: the first volume, which appeared in 1884, Empire. Jourdan gave in his adhesion to the restoration contained the researches for which he was alone responsible, and the government of 1814, and though he rejoined Napoleon in the second, dated 1887, those which he carried out in association with other workers. Hundred Days and commanded a minor army, he submitted to the Bourbons again after Waterloo. He refused, however, JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, Count (1762-1833), marshal of to be a member of the court which tried Marshal Ney. He was France, was born at Limoges on the 29th of April 1762, and in his made a count, a peer of France (1819), and governor of Grenoble boyhood was apprenticed to a silk merchant of Lyons. In 1776 (1816). In politics he was a prominent opponent of the royalist he enlisted in a French regiment to serve in the American War reactionaries and supported the revolution of 1830. After this of Independence, and after being invalided in 1784 he married event he held the portfolio of foreign affairs for a few days, and and set up in business at Limoges. At the outbreak of the then became governor of the Invalides, where his last years were revolutionary wars he volunteered, and as a subaltern took part spent. Marshal Jourdan died on the 23rd of November 1833, in the first campaigns in the north of France. His rise was even and was buried in the Invalides. more rapid than that of Hoche and Marceau. By 1793 he had He wrote Opérations de l'armée du Danube (1799); Mémoires pour become a general of division, and was selected by Carnot to servir à l'histoire sur la campagne de 1706 (1819); and unpublished succeed Houchard as commander-in-chief of the Army of the personal memoirs. North; and on the 15th-16th of October 1793 he won the brilliant JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily), a daily and important victory of Wattignies (see FRENCH REVOLU- record of events or business. A private journal usually an TIONARY Wars). Soon afterwards he became a “suspect," the elaborated diary. When applied to a newspaper or other moderation of his political opinions and his misgivings as to the periodical the word is strictly used of one published each day; future conduct of the war being equally distasteful to the trucu- but any publication issued al stated intervals, such as a magazine lent and enthusiastic Committee of Public Safety. Warned or the record of the transactions of a learned society, is commonly in time by his friend Carnot and by Barère, he avoided arrest and called a journal. The word “journalist " for one whose business resumed his business as a silk-mercer in Limoges. He was soon is writing for the public press (see NEWSPAPERS) seems to be as reinstated, and early in 1794 was appointed commander-in-chief old as the end of the 17th century. of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After repeated attempts to Journal ” is particularly applied to the record, day by day, force the passage of the Sambre had failed and several severe of the business and proceedings of a public body. The journals general actions had been fought without result, Jourdan and his of the British houses of parliament contain an official record of army were discouraged, but Carnot and the civil commissioners the business transacted day by day in either house. The record urged the general, even with threats, to a last effort, and this does not take note of speeches, though some of the earlier time he was successful not only in crossing the Sambre but in volumes contain reſerences to them. The journals are a length- winning a brilliant victory at Fleurus (June 26, 1794), the ened account written from the “ votes and proceedings " (in the consequence of which was the extension of the French sphere | House of Lords called "minutes of the proceedings "), made day JOURNEY-JOVELLANOS 525 66 46 by day by the assistant clerks, and printed on the responsi- | commission but again fell under suspicion, being accused of bility of the clerk to the house, after submission to the "sub-treasonable correspondence with the English envoy, James committee on the journals.” In the Commons the journal is Harris, ist earl of Malmesbury who had been sent to France to passed by the Speaker before publication. The journals of the negotiate terms of peace. He was acquitted of this charge, but, House of Commons begin in the first year of the reign of Edward weary of repeated attacks, resigned his position on the pretext VI. (1547), and are complete, except for a short interval under of his numerous wounds. Jouy now turned his attention to Elizabeth. Those of the House of Lords date from the first year literature, and produced in 1807 with immense success his opera of Henry VIII. (1509). Before that date the proceedings in La vestale (music by Spontini). The piece ran for a hundred parliament were entered in the rolls of parliament, which extend nights, and was characterized by the Institute of France as the from 1278 to 1503. The journals of the Lords are “records” best lyric drama of the day. Other operas followed, but none in the judicial sense, those of the Commons are not (see Erskine obtained so great a success. He published in the Gazelle de May, Parliamentary Practice, 1906, pp. 201-202). France a series of satirical sketches of Parisian life, collected The term “ journal " is used, in business, for a book in which under the title of L'Ermite de la Chaussée d'Antin, ou observations an account of transactions is kept previous to a transfer to the sur les meurs et les usages français au commencement du xixe ledger (see BOOK-KEEPING), and also as an equivalent to a ship's siècle (1812–1814, 5 vols.), which was warmly received. In 1821 log, as a record of the daily run, observations, weather changes, his tragedy of Sylla gained a triumph due in part to the genius &c. In mining, a journal is a record describing the various of Talma, who had studied the title-rôle from Napoleon. Under strata passed through in sinking a shaft. A particular use of the the Restoration Jouy consistently fought for the cause of freedom, word is that, in machinery, for the parts of a shaft which are in and if his work was overrated by his contemporaries, they were contact with the bearings; the origin of this meaning, which is probably influenced by their respect for the author himself. He firmly established, has not been explained. died in rooms set apart for his use in the palace of St Germain-en- JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journée, Laye on the 4th of September 1846. from med. Lat. diurnala, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, Out of the long list of his operas, tragedies and miscellaneous day), properly that which occupies a day in its performance, and writings may be mentioned, Fernand Cortez (1809), opera, in col- so a day's work, particularly a day's travel, and the distance laboration with J. E. Esménard, music by Spontini; Tippo Saïb, covered by such, usually reckoned in the middle ages as twenty tragedy (1813); Bélisaire, tragedy. (1818): Les Hermites en prison miles. The word is now used of travel covering a certain amount (1823), written in collaboration with Antoine Jay, like himself a political prisoner; Guillaume Tell (1829), with Hippolyte Bis, for of distance or lasting a certain amount of time, frequently defined the music of Rossini. Jouy was also one of the founders of the by qualifying words. Journey " is usually applied to travel by Biographie nouvelle des contemporains. land, as opposed to“ voyage,” travel by sea. The early use of JOVELLANOS (or JOVE LLANOS), GASPAR MELCHOR DE journey " for a day's work, or the amount produced by a day's (1744-1811), Spanish statesman and author, was born at Gijon work, is still found in glassmaking, and also at the British Mint, in Asturias, Spain, on the sth of January 1744. Selecting law where a journey” is taken as equivalent to the coinage of as his profession, he studied at Oviedo, Avila, and Alcalá, and 15 lb of standard gold, 701 sovereigns, and of 60 lb of silver. in 1767 became criminal judge at Seville. His integrity and The term “journeyman" also preserves the original signi- ability were rewarded in 1778 by a judgeship in Madrid, and in ficance of the word. It distinguishes a qualified workman or 1780 by appointment to the council of military orders. In the mechanic from an apprentice on the one hand and a capital Jovellanos took a good place in the literary and scientific master on the other, and is applied to one who is employed societies; for the society of friends of the country he wrote in by another person to work at his trade or occupation at a day's 1787 his most valuable work, Informe sobre un proyecto de ley wage. agraria. Involved in the disgrace of his friend, François JOUVENET, JEAN (1647-1717), French painter, born at Cabarrus, Jovellanos spent the years 1790 to 1.797 in a sort of Rouen, came of a family of artists, one of whom had taught banishment at Gijon, engaged in literary work and in founding Poussin. He early showed remarkable aptitude for his profes- the Asturian institution for agricultural, industrial, social and sion, and, on arriving in Paris, attracted the attention of Le Brun, educational reform throughout his native province. This by whom he was employed at Versailles, and under whose institution continued his darling project up to the latest hours auspices, in 1675, he became a member of the Académie Royale, of his life. Summoned again to public life in 1797, Jovellanos of which he was elected professor in 1681, and one of the four refused the post of ambassador to Russia, but accepted that of perpetual rectors in 1707. The great mass of works that he minister of grace and justice, under the prince of the peace," executed, chiefly in Paris, many of which, including his celebrated whose attention had been directed to him by Cabarrus, then a Miraculous Draught of Fishes (engraved by Audran; also Landon, favourite of Godoy. Displeased with Godoy's policy and conduct Annales, i. 42), are now in the Louvre, show his fertility. in Jovellanos combined with his colleague Saavedra to procure his invention and execution, and also that he possessed in a high dismissal. Godoy returned to power in 1798; Jovellanos was degree that general dignity of arrangement and style which dis-again sent to Gijon, but in 1801 was thrown into prison in tinguished the school of Le Brun. Jouvenet died on the sth of Majorca. The revolution of 1808, and the advance of the April 1717, having been forced by paralysis during the last four French into Spain, set him once more at liberty. Joseph Bona- years of his life to work with his left hand. parte, on mounting the Spanish throne, made Jovellanos the See Mém. inéd. acad. roy. de p. et de sc., 1854, and D'Argenville, most brilliant offers; but the latter, sternly refusing them all, Vies des peintres. joined the patriotic party, became a member of the central junta, JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ÉTIENNE DE (1764-1846), French and contributed to reorganize the cortes. This accomplished, dramatist, was born at Jouy, near Versailles, on the 12th of the junta at once fell under suspicion, and Jovellanos was in- September 1764. At the age of eighteen he received a commis- volved in its fall. To expose the conduct of the cortes, and to sion in the army, and sailed for South America in the company defend the junta and himself were the last labours of his of the governor of Guiana. "He returned almost immediately to 1811 he was enthusiastically welcomed to Gijon; but the approach France to complete his studies, and re-entered the service two of the French drove him forth again. The vessel in which he He was sent to India, where he met with many sailed was compelled by stress of weather to put in at Vega in romantic adventures which were afterwards turned to literary Asturias, and there he died on the 27th of November 1811. On the outbreak of the Revolution be returned to The poetical works of Jovellanos comprise a tragedy El pelayo, the France and served with distinction in the early campaigns, comedy El delincuente honrado, satires, and miscellaneous pieces, attaining the rank of adjutant-general. He drew suspicion on including a translation of the first book of Paradise Lost. His prose works, especially those on political and legislative economy, himself, however, by refusing to honour the toast of Marat, and constitute his real title to literary fame. In them depth of thought had to fly for his life. At the fall of the Terror he resumed his and clear-sighted sagacity are couched in a certain Ciceronian 9 pen. In years later. account. 526 JOVELLAR Y SOLER—JOVIUS a elegance and classical purity of style. Besides the Ley agraria he JOVINIANUS, or JOVIANUS, a Roman monk of heterodox wrote Elogios; various political and other essays; and Memorias politicas (1801), suppressed in Spain, and translaied into French, views, who flourished during the latter half of the 4th century. 1825. An edition of his complete works was published at Madrid All our knowledge of him is derived from a passionately hostile (1831-1832) in 7 vols., and another at Barcelona (1839), polemic of Jerome (Adv. Jovinianum, Libri II.), written at Sce Noticias 'historicas de Don G. M. de Jovellanos (1812), and Bethlehem in 393, and without any personal acquaintance with Memorias para la vida del Señor ... Jovellanos, by J. A. C. Ber- mudez (1814). the man assailed. According to this authority Jovinian in 388 was living at Rome the celibate life of an ascetic monk, possessed JOVELLAR Y SOLER, JOAQUIN (1819-1892), captain a good acquaintance with the Bible, and was the author of several general of Spain, was born at Palma de Mallorca, on the 28th minor works, but, undergoing an heretical change of view, after- of December 1819. At the close of his studies at the military wards became a self-indulgent Epicurean and unrefined sensualist. academy he was appointed sub-lieutenant, went to Cuba as The views which excited this denunciation were mainly these: captain in 1842, returned to the War Office in 1851, was promoted (1) Jovinian held that in point of merit, so far as their domestic major in 1853, and went to Morocco as private secretary to state was concerned, virgins, widows and married persons who Marshal O'Donnell, who made him colonel in 1860 aſter Jovellar had been baptized into Christ were on a precisely equal footing; had been wounded at the battle of Wad el Ras. In 1863 Jovellar (2) those who with full faith have been regenerated in baptism became a brigadier-general, in 1864 under-secretary for war; he cannot be overthrown (or, according to another reading, tempted) was severely wounded in fighting the insurgents in the streets of the devil; (3) to abstain from meals is not more praiseworthy of Madrid, and rose to the rank of general of division in 1866. than thankfully to enjoy them; (4) all who have preserved their Jovellar adhered to the revolution, and King Amadeus made baptismal grace shall receive the same reward in the kingdom of him a lieutenant-general in 1872. He absented himself from heaven.' Jovinian thus indicates a natural and vigorous reaction Spain when the federal republic was proclaimed, and returned against the exaggerated asceticism of the 4th century, a protest in the autumn of 1873, when Castelár sent him to Cuba as shared by Helvidius and Vigilantius. He was condemned by governor-general. In 1874 Jovellar came back to the Peninsula, a Roman synod under Bishop Siricius in 390, and afterwards and was in comma of the Army of the Centre against the excommunicated by another at Milan under the presidency of Carlists when Marshal Campos went to Sagunto to proclaim Ambrose. The year of his death is unknown, but he is referred Alfonso XII. General Jovellar became war minister in the first to as no longer alive in Jerome's Contra Vigilantium (406). cabinet of the restoration under Canovas, who sent him to Cuba JOVIUS, PAULUS, or Paolo Giovio (1483-1552), Italian again as governor-general, where he remained until the 18th of historian and biographer, was born of an ancient and noble family June 1878, when the ten years' insurrection closed with the peace at Como on the 19th of April 1483. His father died when he was of Zaujon. Alfonso XII. made him a captain-gencral, presi- a child, and Giovio owed his education to his brother Benedetto. dent of the council, liſe-senator, and governor-general of the After studying the humanities, he applied himself to medicine Philippines. Jovellar died in Madrid on the 17th of April and philosophy at his brother's request. He was Pomponazzi's 1892. pupil at Padua; and afterwards he took a medical degree in the JOVIAN (FLAVIUS JOVIANUS) (c. 332-364), Roman emperor university of Pavia. He exercised the medical profession in from June 363 to February 364, was born at Singidunum in Moesia Rome, but the attraction of literature proved irresistible for about 332. As captain of the imperial bodyguard he accom- Giovio, and he was bent upon becoming the historian of his age. panied Julian in his Persian expedition; and on the day after He presented a portion of his history 10 Leo X., who read the that emperor's death, when the aged Sallust, prefect of the East, Ms., and pronounced it superior in elegance to anything since declined the purple, the choice of the army fell upon Jovian. Livy. Thus encouraged, Giovio took up his residence in Rome, His election caused considerable surprise, and it is suggested by and attached himself to Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, the pope's Ammianus Marcellinus that he was wrongly identified with nephew. The next pope, Adrian VI., gave him a canonry in another Jovian, chief notary, whose name also had been put Como, on the condition, it is said, that Giovio should mention forward, or that, during the acclamations, the soldiers mistook him with honour in his history. This patronage from a pontiff the name Jovianus for Julianus, and imagined that the latter who was a verse from the current tone of Italian humanism had recovered from his illness. Jovian at once continued the proves that Giovio at this period passed for a man of sound learn- retreat begun by Julian, and, continually harassed by the ing and sober manners. After Adrian's death, Giulio de' Medici Persians, succeeded in reaching the banks of the Tigris, where a became pope as Clement VII. and assigned him chambers in the humiliating treaty was concluded with the Persian king, Shapur Vatican, with maintenance for servants befitting a courtier of II. (9.v.). Five provinces which had been conquered by Galerius rank. In addition to other benefices, he finally, in 1528, bestowed in 298 were surrendered, together with Nisibis and other cities. on him the bishopric of Nocera. Giovio had now become in a The Romans also gave up all their interests in the kingdom of special sense dependent on the Medici. He was employed by Armenia, and abandoned its Christian prince Arsaces to the that family on several missions--as when he accompanied Persians. During his return to Constantinople Jovian was found Ippolito to Bologna on the occasion of Charles V.'s coronation, dead in his bed at Dadastana, halfway between Ancyra and and Caterina to Marseilles before her marriage to the duke of Nicaea. A surfeit of mushrooms or the fumes of a charcoal fire Orleans. During the siege of Rome in 1527 he attended Clement have been assigned as the cause of death. Under Jovian, in his flight from the Vatican. While crossing the bridge which Christianity was established as the state religion, and the connected the palace with the castle of S. Angelo, Giovio threw Labarum of Constantine again became the standard of the army. his mantle over the pope's shoulders in order to disguise his The statement that he issued an edict of toleration, to the effect master. that, while the exercise of magical rites would be severely In the sack he suffered a serious pecuniary and literary loss, if we punished, his subjects should enjoy full liberty of conscience, may credit his own statement. The story runs that he deposited rests on insufficient evidence. Jovian entertained a great regard the MS. of his history, together with soine silver, in a box at S. for Athanasius, whom he reinstated on the archiepiscopal throne, Maria Sopra Minerva for safety. This box was discovered by two desiring him to draw up a statement of the Catholic faith. In Spaniards, one of whom secured the silver, while the other, named Herrera, knowing who Giovio was, preferred to hold the MSS. for Syriac literature Jovian became the hero of a Christian romance Herrera was so careless, however, as to throw away the (G. Hoffmann, Julianus der Abtrünnige, 1880). sheets he found in paper, reserving only that portion of the work which was transcribed on parchment. This he subsequently sold See Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 5-10; J. P. de la Bléterie, His. to Giovo in exchange for a benifice at Cordova, which Clement VII. 'toire de Jovien (1740); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chs. xxiv., xxv.; conceded to the Spaniard, Six books of the history were lost in J. Wordsworth in Smith and Wace's Dictionary of Christian this transaction. “Giovo contented himself with indicating their Biography; H. Schiller, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, vol. ii. substance in a summary. Perhaps he was not unwilling that his (1887); A. de Broglie, L'Église et l'empire romain au iva siècle (4th ed. work should resemble that of Livy, even in its imperfection. But 1882). For the relations of Rome and Persia see PERSIA: Ancient History. * See, more fully, Harnack, Hist. of Dogma, v. 57. ransom. JOWETT 527 doubt rests upon the whole of this story. Apostolo Zeno affirms from which the following notices are extracted: 1. Works in Latin: that in the middle of the last century three of the missing books (1) Pauli Jovii historiarum sui temporis, ab anno 1494 ad an. 1547 turned up among family papers in the possession of Count Giov. Florence 1550-1552), the same translated into Italian by L. Domeni. Batt. Giovio, who wrote a panegyric on his ancestor. It is therefore chi, and first published at Florence (1551), afterwards at Venice; not improbable that Giovio possessed his history intact, but pre- (2) Leonis X., Hadriani VI., Pompeii Columnae Card., vitae (Florence, ferred to withhold from publication those portions which might 1548), translated by Domenichi (Florence, 1549); (3) Vitae XII. have involved him in difficulties with living persons of importance. vicecomitum Mediolani principum (Paris, 1549), translated by Dome- The omissions were afterwards made good by Curtio Marinello in nichi (Venice, 1549); (4) Vita Sfortiae clariss. ducis_(Rome, 1549), the Italian edition, published at Venice in 1581. But whether translated by Domenichi (Florence, 1549); (5) Vita Fr. Ferd. Davali Marinello was the author of these additions is not known. (Florence, 1549), translated by Domenichi (ibid. 1551); (6) Vita After Clement's death Giovio found himself out of favour with magni Consalvi (ibid. 1549), translated by Domenichi (ibid. 1550); the next pope, Paul III. The failure of his career is usually Batt. Gelli (Florence, 1553); (8) Elogia virorum bellica virtute illustrium (7) Alfonsi Atestensi, &c. (ibid. 1550), Italian translation by Giov. ascribed to the irregularity of the life he led in the literary society (ibid.1551), translated by Domenichi (ibid. 1554); (9) Elogia clarorum of Rome. We may also remember that Paul had special causes virorum, &c. (Venice, 1546) (these are biographies of men of letters), for animosity against the Medici, whose servant Giovio had been. translated by Hippolito Orio of Ferrara (Florence, 1552); (10) Libellus de legatione Basilii .Magni principis Moscoviae (Rome, 1525); (11) Despairing of a cardinal's hat, Giovio retired to his villa on the Descriptio Larii Lacus (Venice, 1559); (12) Descriptio Britanniae, &c. lake of Como, where he spent the wealth he had acquired from (Venice, 1548); (13) De piscibus romanis (Rome, 1524); (14) Descrip- donations and benefices in adorning his villa with curiosities, tiones quotquot extant regionum atque locorum (Basel, 1571). 2. Works antiquities and pictures, including a very important collection in Italian: (1) Dialogo delle imprese militari et amorose” (Rome, 1555); (2) Commentari delle cose dei Turchi (Venice, 1541); (3) Lettere of portraits of famoụs soldiers and men of letters, now almost volgari (Venice, 1560). Some minor works and numerous reprints entirely dispersed. He died upon a visit to Florence in 1552. of those cited have been omitted from this list; and it should also be mentioned that some of the lives with additional matter, are Giovio's principal work was the History of His Own Times, from the invasion of Charles VIII. to the year 1547. It was divided into included in the Vitae illustrium virorum (Basel, 1576). . (J.A.S.) The best and most complete edition of Giovio's works is that of two parts, containing altogether forty-five books. Of these, books Base! (1678). For his life see Giuseppe Sanesi,“Alcuni osservazioni e V.-xi. of part i. were said by him to have been lost in the sack of notizie intorno a tre storici minori del cinquecento-Giovio; Nerli, Rome, while books xix.-xxiv. of part ii., which should have embraced the period from the death of Leo to the sack, were never written. Segni” (in Archivio Storico Italiano, 5th series, vol.xxiii.); Eug. Müntz, Sul museo di ritratti composto da Paolo Giovio (ibid., vol. xix.). Giovio supplied the want of the latter six books by his lives of Leo, Adrian, Alphonso !. of Ferrara, and several other personages of JOWETT, BENJAMIN (1817–1893), English scholar and importance. But he alleged that the history of that period was theologian, master of Balliol College, Oxford, was born in Cam- too painful to be written in full. His first published work, printed berwell on the 15th of April 1817. His father was one of a in 1524 at Rome, was a treatise De piscibus romanis.. After his retirement to Como he produced a valuable series of biographies, Yorkshire family who, for three generations, had been supporters entitled Elogia virorum illustrium. They commemorate men dis of the Evangelical movement in the Church of England. His tinguished for letters and arms, selected from all periods, and are mother was a Langhorne, in some way related to the poet and said to have been written in illustration of portraits collected by him translator of Plutarch. At twelve the boy was placed on the for the museum of his villa at Como. Besides these books, we may foundation of St Paul's School (then in St Paul's Churchyard), and mention a biographical history of the Visconti, lords of Milan; an essay on mottoes and badges; a dissertation on the state of Turkey; in his nineteenth year he obtained an open scholarship at Balliol. a large collection of familiar epistles; together with descriptions of In 1838 he gained a fellowship, and graduated with first-class Britain, Muscovy, the Lake of Como and Giovio's own villa. The honours in 1839. Brought up amongst pious Evangelicals, he titles of these miscellanies will be found in the bibliographical note appended to this article. came to Oxford at the height of the Tractarian movement, and Giovio preferred Latin in the composition of his more im- through the friendship of W. G. Ward was drawn for a time in the direction of High Anglicanism; but a stronger and more portant works. Though contemporary with Machiavelli, Guicci, lasting influence was that of the Arnold school, represented by ardini and Varchi, he adhered to humanistic usages, and cared A. P. Stänley. Jowett was thus led to concentrate his attention more for the Latinity than for the matter of his histories. His on theology, and in the summers of 1845 and 1846, spent in style is fluent and sonorous rather than pointed or grave. Germany with Stanley, he became an eager student of German Pártly owing to the rhetorical defects inherent in this choice of criticism and speculation. Amongst the writings of that period Latin, when Italian had gained the day, but more to his own he was most impressed by those of F. C. Baur. But he never untrustworthy and shallow character, Giovio takes a lower rank ceased to exercise an independent judgment, and his work on as historian than the bulk and prestige of his writings would St Paul, which appeared in 1855, was the result of much original seem to warrant. He professed himself a flatterer and a lam- reflection and inquiry. He was appointed to the Greek professor. pooner, writing fulsome eulogies on the princes who paid him ship in the autumn of that year. He had been a tutor of Balliol well, while he ignored or criticized those who proved less gener, and a clergyman since 1842, and had devoted himself to the work The old story that he said he kept a golden and an iron of tuition with unexampled zeal. His pupils became his friends pen, to use according as people paid him, condenses the truth in for life. He discerned their capabilities, studied their characters, epigram. His private morals were of a dubious character, and and sought to remedy their defects by frank and searching as a writer he had the faults of the elder humanists, in combina-criticism. Like another Socrates, he taught them to know them- tion with that literary cynicism which reached its height in selves, repressing vanity, encouraging the despondent, and Aretino; and therefore his histories and biographical essays are attaching all alike by his unobtrusive sympathy. This work not to be used as authorities, without corroboration. Yet gradually made a strong impression, and those who cared for Giovio's works, laken in their entirety and with proper reserva- Oxford began to speak of him as “the great tutor.” As early lion, have real value. To the student of Italy they yield a lively as 1839 Stanley had joined with Tait, the future archbishop, in picture of the manners and the feeling of the times in which be advocating certain university reforms. From 1846 onwards lived, and in which he played no obscure part. They abound in vivid sketches, telling anecdotes, fugitive comments, which Jowett threw himself into this movement, which in 1848 became unite a certain charm of autobiographical romance with the it took effect in the commission of 1850 and the act of 1854. general amongst the younger and more thoughtful fellows, until worldly wisdom of an experienced courtier. A favour of person. Another educational reform, the opening of the Indian civil ality makes them not unpleasant reading. While we learn to service to competition, took place at the same time, and Jowelt despise and mistrust the man in Giovio, we appreciate the author. was one of the commission. He had two brothers who served It would not be too far-fetched tc describe him as a sort of 16th- and died in India, and he never ceased to take a deep and practical century Horace Walpole. interest in Indian affairs. A great disappointment, his repulse BIBLIOGRAPHY:- The sources of Giovio's biography are: his own for the mastership of Balliol, also in 1854, appears to have roused works; Tiraboschi's History of Italian Literature ; Litta's Genealogy of him into the completion of his book on The Epistles of St Paul. Illustrious Italian Families; and Giov. Batt. Giovio's Uomini illustri dėlla diocesi Comàsca, Modena (1784). Cicogna, in his Delle inscrizi- This work, described by one of his friends as “a miracle of bold- oni Venezione raccolta (Venice, 1830), gives a list of Giovio's works, I ness," is full of originality and suggestiveness, but its publication ous. 528 JOYEUSE awakened against him a storm of theological prejudice, which | new hall (1876), the organ there, entirely his gift (1885), and the followed him more or less through life. Instead of yielding to cricket ground (1889), remain as external monuments of the this, he joined with Henry Bristowe Wilson and Rowland master's activity. Neither business nor the many claims of Williams, who had been similarly attacked, in the production friendship interrupted literary work. The six or seven weeks of the volume known as Essays and Reviews. This appeared in of the long vacation, during which he had pupils with him, were 1860 and gave rise to a strange outbreak of fanaticism. Jowett's mainly employed, in writing. The translation of Aristotle's loyalty to those who were prosecuted on this account was no less Politics, the revision of Plato, and, above all, the translation of characteristic than his persistent silence while the augmentation Thucydides many times revised, occupied several years. The of his salary as Greek professor was withheld. This petty perse-edition of the Republic, undertaken in 1856, remained unfinished, cution was continued until 1865, when E. A. Freeman and Charles but was continued with the help of Professor Lewis Campbell. Elton discovered by historical research that a breach of the con- Other literary schemes of larger scope and deeper interest were ditions of the professorship had occurred, and Christ Church long in contemplation, but were not destined to take effect--an raised the endowment from £40 a year to £500. Meanwhile Essay on the Religions of the World, a Commentary on the Gospels, Jowett's influence at Oxford had steadily increased. It culmi- a Life of Christ, a volume on Moral Ideas. Such plans were nated in 1864, when the country clergy, provoked by the final frustrated, not only by his practical avocations, but by his acquittal of the essayists, had voted in convocation against the determination to finish what he had begun, and the fastidious endowment of the Greek chair. Jowett's pupils, who were now self-criticism which it took so long to satisfy. The book on drawn from the university at large, supported him with the Morals might, however, have been written but for the heavy enthusiasm which young men feel for the victim of injustice. burden of the vice-chancellorship, which he was induced to In the midst of other labours Jowett had been quietly exerting accept in 1882, by the hope, only partially fulfilled, of securing his influence so as to conciliate all shades of liberal opinion, and many improvements for the university. The vice-chancellor bring them to bear upon the abolition of the theological test, was ex officio a delegate of the press, where he hoped to effect which was still required for the M.A. and other degrees, and for much; and a plan for draining the Thames Valley, which he had university and college offices. He spoke at an important meeting now the power of initiating, was one on which his mind had dwelt upon this question in London on the roth of June 1864, which laid for many years. The exhausting labours of the vice-chancellor- the ground for the University Tests Act of 1871. In connexion ship were followed by an illness (1887); and after this he relin- with the Greek professorship Jowett had undertaken a work quished the hope of producing any great original writing. His on Plato which grew into a complete translation of the Dialogues, literary industry was thenceforth confined to his commentary with introductory essays. At this he laboured in vacation time on the Republic of Plato, and some essays on Aristotle which were for at least ten years. But his interest in theology had not to have formed a companion volume to the translation of the abated, and his thoughts found an outlet in occasional preaching. Politics. The essays which should have accompanied the trans- The university pulpit, indeed, was closed to him, but several lation of Thucydides were never written. Jowett, who never congregations in London delighted in his sermons, and from 1866 married, died on the ist of October 1893. The funeral was one until the year of his death he preached annually in Westminster of the most impressive ever seen in Oxford. The pall-bearers Abbey, where Stanley had become dean in 1863. Three volumes were seven heads of colleges and the provost of Eton, all old of selected sermons have been published since his death. The pupils. years 1865–1870 were occupied w assiduous labour. Amongst Theologian, tutor, university, reformer, a great master of a his pupils at Balliol were men destined to high positions in the college, Jowett's best claim to the remembrance of succeeding state, whose parents had thus shown their confidence in the generations was his greatness as a moral teacher. Many of the supposed heretic, and gratitude on this account was added to most prominent Englishmen of the day were his pupils and owed other motives for his unsparing efforts in tuition. In 1870, by much of what they were to his precept and example, his pene- an arrangement which he attributed to his friend Robert Lowe, trative sympathy, his insistent criticism, and his unwearying afterwards Lord Sherbrooke (at that time a member of Glad-friendship. Seldom have ideal aims been so steadily pursued stone's ministry), Scott was promoted to the deanery of Rochester with so clear a recognition of practical limitations, Jowett's and Jowett was elected to the vacant mastership by the fellows theological work was transitional, and yet has an element of of Balliol. From the vantage-ground of this long-coveted permanence. As has been said of another thinker, he was position the Plato was published in 1871. It had a great and of those deeply religious men who, when crude theological well-deserved success. While scholars criticized particular notions are being revised and called in question seek to put new renderings (and there were many small errors to be removed in life into theology by wider and more humane ideas." In earlier subsequent editions), it was generally agreed that he had suc. life he had been a zealous student of Kant and Hegel, and to the ceeded in making Plato an English classic. end he never ceased to cultivate the philosophic spirit; but he If ever there was a beneficent despotism, it was Jowett's rule had little confidence in metaphysical systems, and sought rather as master. Since 1866 his authority in Balliol had been really to translate philosophy into the wisdom of life. As a classical paramount, and various reforms in college had been due to his scholar, his scorn of littlenesses sometimes led him into the initiative. The opposing minority were now powerless, and the neglect of minutiae, but he had the higher merit of interpreting younger fellows who had been his pupils were more inclined to ideas. His place in literature rests really on the essays in his follow him than others would have been. There was no obstacle Plato. When their merits are fully recognized, it will be found to the continued exercise of his firm and reasonable will. He still that his worth, as a teacher of his countrymen, extends far knew the undergraduates individually, and watched their pro- beyond his own generation. gress with a vigilant eye. His influence in the university was See The Life and Letters of Benjamin Jowett, by E. A. Abbott and less assured. The pulpit of St Mary's was no longer closed to Lewis Campbell (1897); Benjamin Jowett, by Lionel Tollemache him, but the success of Balliol in the schools gave rise to jealousy (1895). (L. C.) in other colleges, and old prejudices did not suddenly give way; JOYEUSE, a small town in the department of Ardèche, France, while a new movement in favour of “ the endowment of research" situated on the Baume, a tributary of the Ardèche, is historically ran counter to his immediate purposes. Meanwhile, the tutor important as having been the seat of a noble French family ships in other colleges, and some of the headships also, were being which derived its name from it. The lordship of Joyeuse came, filled with Balliol men, and Jowett's former pupils were promi- in the 13th century, into the possession of the house of Château- nent in both houses of parliament and at the bar. He continued neuf-Randon, and was made into a viscountship in 1432. the practice, which he had commenced in 1848, of taking with Guillaume, viscount of Joyeuse, was bishop of Alet, but after- him a small party of undergraduates in vacation time, and work. wards fèft the church, and became a marshal of France; he died ing with them in one of his favourite haunts, at Askrigg in in 1592. His eldest son Anne de Joyeuse (1561-1587), was one Wensleydale, or Tummel Bridge, or later at West Malvern. The l of the favourites of Henry III. of France, who created him duke 66 one JOYEUSE ENTRÉE-JUANGS 529 and peer (1581), admiral of France (1582), and governor of were formerly plentiful. Of birds, a tyrant and a humming bird Normandy (1586), and married him to Marguerite de Lorraine- (Eustephanus fernandensis), are peculiar to the group, while another Vaudémont, younger sister of the queen. He gained several occur in Chile. E. fernandensis has the peculiarity that the male is of humming bird (E. galerites), a thrush, and some birds of prey also successes against the Huguenots, but was recalled by court a bright cinnamon colour, while the female is green. Both sexes intrigues at an inopportune moment, and when he marched a are green in E. galerites. second time against Henry of Navarre he was defeated and Juan Fernandez was discovered by a Spanish pilot of that killed at Coutras. Guillaume had three other sons: François name in 1563. Fernandez obtained from the Spanish govern- de Joyeuse (d. 1615), cardinal and archbishop of Narbonne, ment a grant of the islands, where he resided for some time, Toulouse and Rouen, who brought about the reconciliation stocking them with goats and pigs. He soon, however, appears of Henry IV. with the pope; Henri, count of Bouchage, and to have abandoned his possessions, which were afterwards for later duke of Joyeuse, who first entered the army, then became a many years only visited occasionally by fishermen from the Capuchin under the name of Père Ange, left the church and coasts of Chile and Peru. In 1616 Jacob le Maire and Willem became a marshal of France, and finally re-entered the church, Cornelis Schouten called at Juan Fernandez for water and fresh dying in 1608; Antoine Scipion, grand prior of Toulouse in the provisions. Pigs and goats were then abundant on the islands. order of the knights of Malta, who was one of the leaders in the In February 1700 Dampier called at Juan Fernandez and League, and died in the retreat of Villemur (1592). Henriette while there Captain Straddling of the “ Cinque Porte " galley Catherine de Joyeuse, daughter of Henri, married in 1611 quarrelled with his men, forty-two of whom deserted but were Charles of Lorraine, duke of Guise, to whom she brought the afterwards taken on board by Dampier; five seamen, however, duchy of Joyeuse. On the death of her great-grandson, remained on shore. Other parties had previously colonized the Francois Joseph de Lorraine, duke of Guise, in 1675, without islands but none had remained permanently. In October 1704 issue, the duchy of Joyeuse was declared extinct, but it the “ Cinque Porte" returned and found two of these men, the was revived in 1714, in favour of Louis de Melun, prince of others having been apparently captured by the French. On this Epinoy. (M. P.*) occasion Straddling quarrelled with Alexander Selkirk (9.v.), JOYEUSE ENTRÉE, a famous charter of liberty granted to colonist, for his adventures are commonly believed to have who, at his own request, became the island's most famous Brabant by Duke John III. in 1354. John summoned the re-inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Among later visits, presentatives of the cities of the duchy to Louvain to announce to that of Commodore Anson, in the “Centurion " (June 1741) ihem the marriage of his daughter and heiress Jeanne of Brabant led, on his return home, to a proposal to form an English settle- to Wenceslaus duke of Luxemburg, and he offered them liberal concessions in order to secure their assent to the change of matter had been mooted in England, gave orders to occupy ment on Juan Fernandez; but the Spaniards, hearing that the dynasty. John III. died in 1355, and Wenceslaus and Jeanne the island, and it was garrisoned accordingly in 1750. Philip on the occasion of their state entry into Brussels solemnly swore Carteret first observed this settlement in May 1767, and on ac- to observe all the provisions of the charter, which had been count of the hostility of the Spaniards preferred to put in at Mas- drawn up. From the occasion on which it was first proclaimed a-Fuera. After the establishment of the independence of Chile this charter has since been known in history as La Joyeuse Entrée. at the beginning of the 19th century, Juan Fernandez passed By this document the dukes of Brabant undertook to maintain into the possession of that country. On more than one occasion the integrity of the duchy, and not to wage war, make treaties, before 1840 Mas-a-Tierra was used as a state prison by the or impose taxes without the consent of their subjects, as repre- Chilean government. sented by the municipalities. All members of the duke's council JUANGS (Patuas, literally “ leaf-wearers "), a jungle tribe of were to be native-born Brabanters. This charter became the Orissa, India. They are found in only two of the tributary model for other provinces and the bulwark of the liberties of the states, Dhenkanal and Keonjhar, most of them in the latter. Netherlands. Its provisions were modified from time to time, They are estimated to amount in all to about 10,000. Their but remained practically unchanged from the reign of Charles V. language belongs to the Munda family. They have no traditions onwards. The ill-advised attempt of the emperor Joseph II. which connect them with any other race, and they repudiate all in his reforming zeal to abrogate the Joyeuse Entrée caused a connexion with the Hos or the Santals, declaring themselves the revolt in Brabant, before which he had to yield. aborigines. They say the headquarters of the tribe is the See E.Poullet, La Joyeuse entrée, ou constitution Brabançonne (1862). Gonasika. In manners they are among the most primitive people JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS, a small group in the South of the world, representing the Stone age in our own day. They Pacific Ocean, between 33° and 34° S., 80° W., belonging to do not till the land, but live on the game they kill or on snakes Chile and included in the province of Valparaiso. The main and vermin. Their huts measure about 6 ft. by 8 ft., with very island is called Mas-a-Tierra (Span. “more to land") to dis- low doorways. The interior is divided into two compartments. tinguish it from a smaller island, Mas-a-Fuera (" more to sea"), In the first of these the father and all the females of a family 100 m. farther west. Off the S.W. of Mas-a-Tierra lies the islet huddle together; the second is used as a store-room. The boys of Santa Clara. The aspect of Mas-a-Tierra is beautiful; only have a separate hut at the entrance to the village, which serves 13 m. in length by 4 in width, it consists of a series of precipi- as a guest-house and general assembly place where the musical tous rocks rudely piled into irregular blocks and pinnacles, and instruments of the village are kept. Physically they are small strongly contrasting with a rich vegetation. The highest of and weak-looking, of a reddish brown colour, with filat faces, these, 3225 ft., is called, from its massive form, El Yunque broad noses with wide nostrils, large mouths and thick lips, (the anvil). The rocks are volcanic. Cumberland Bay on the the hair coarse and frizzly. The women until recently wore north side is the only fair anchorage, and even there, from the nothing but girdles of leaves, the men, a diminutive bandage great depth of water, there is some risk. A wide valley collecting of cloth. The Juangs declare that the river goddess, emerging for streams from several of the ravines on the north side of the the first time from the Gonasika rock, surprised a party of naked island opens into Cumberland Bay, and is partially enclosed and Juangs dancing, and ordered them to wear leaves, with the cultivated. The inhabitants number only some twenty. threat that they should die if they ever gave up the custom. The flora and fauna of Juan Fernandez are in most respects The Juangs' weapons are the bow and arrow and a primitive Chilean. There are few trees on the island, for most of the valuable sling made entirely of cord. Their religion is a vague belief in indigenous trees have been practically exterminated, such as the forest spirits. They offer fowls to the sun when in trouble and sandalwood, which the earlier navigators found one of the most to the earth for a bountiful harvest. Polygamy is rare. They valuable products of the island. Ferns are prominent among the burn their dead and throw the ashes into any running stream. Hora, about one-third of which consists of endemic species. There The most sacred oaths a Juang can take are those on an ant-hill are no indigenous land mammals. Pigs and goats, however, with cattle, horses, asses and dogs, have been introduced, have multiplied, or a tiger-skin. and in considerable numbers run wild. Sea-elephants and fur-seals See E. W. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (1872). XV 9* 530 JUAN MANUEL-JUAREZ JUAN MANUEL, DON (1282-1349), infante of Castile, son of Lull's Libre del orde de cavalleria, but the points of resemblance the infante Don Manuel and Beatrix of Savoy, and grandson of have been exaggerated; the morbid mysticism of Lull is rejected, St Ferdinand, was born at Escalona on the 5th of May 1282. and the carefully finished style justifies the special pride which His father died in 1284, and the young prince was educated the author took in this performance. The influence of Lull's at the court of his cousin, Sancho IV., with whom his preco- Blanquerna is likewise visible in the Libro de los estados; but cious ability made him a favourite. In 1294 he was appointed there are marked divergences of substance which go to prove adelantado of Murcia and in his fourteenth year served against Don Juan Manuel's acquaintance with some version (not yet the Moors at Granada. In 1304 he was entrusted by the queen- identified) of the Barlaam and Josaphat legend. Nothing is mother, Doña Maria de Molina, to conduct political negotiations more striking than the curious and varied erudition of the turbu. with James II. of Aragon on behalf of her son, Ferdinand IV., lent prince who weaves his personal experiences with historical then under age. His diplomacy was successful and his marriage or legendary incidents, with reminiscences of Aesop and to James II.'s daughter, Constantina, added to his prestige. Phaedrus, with the Disciplina clericalis, with Kalilah and Dima On the death of Ferdinand IV. and of the regents who governed nah, with countless Oriental traditions, and with all the material in the name of Alphonso XI., Don Juan Manuel acted as guardian of anecdotic literature which he embodies in the Libro de of the king who was proclaimed of age in 1325. His ambitious patronio, best known by the title of El Conde Lucanor (the name design of continuing to exercise the royal power was defeated by Lucanor being taken from the prose Tristan). This work (also Alphonso XI., who married the ex-regent's daughter Constanza, entitled the Libro de enxemplos) was first printed by Gonzalo and removed his father-in-law from the scene by nominating him Argote de Molina at Seville in 1575, and it revealed Don Juan adelantado mayor de la frontera. Alphonso XI.'s repudiation Manuel as a master in the art of prose composition, and as the of Constanza, whom he imprisoned at Toro, drove Don Juan predecessor of Boccaccio in the province of romantic narrative. Manuel into opposition, and a long period of civil war followed. The Cento novelle antiche are earlier in date, but these anonymous On the death of his wife Constantina in 1327, Don Juan Manuel tales, derived from popular stories diffused throughout the strengthened his position by marrying Doña Blanca de la Cerda; world, lack the personal character which Don Juan lends to all he secured the support of Juan Nuñez, alférez of Castile, by he touches. They are simple, unadorned variants of folk-lore arranging a marriage between him and Maria, daughter of Don items; El Conde Lucanor is essentially the production of a Juan el Tuerto; he won over Portugal by promising the hand conscious artist, deliberative and selective in his methods. of his daughter, the ex-queen Constanza, to the infante of that Don Juan Manuel has not Boccaccio's festive fancy nor his kingdom, and he entered into alliance with Mahomet III. constructive skill; he is too persistently didactic and concerned of Granada. This formidable coalition compelled Alphonso XI. to point a moral; but he excels in knowledge of human nature, to sue for terms, which he accepted in 1328 without any in the faculty of ironical presentation, in tolerant wisdom and in serious intention of complying with them; but he was com- luminous conciseness. He naturalizes the Eastern apologue pelled to release Doña Constanza. War speedily broke out in Spain, and by the laconic picturesqueness of his expression anew, and lasted till 1331 when Alphonso XI. invited Juan imports a new quality into Spanish prose which altains its Manuel and Juan Nuñez to a banquet at Villahumbrales with full development in the hands of Juan de Valdés and Cervantes. the intention, it was believed, of assassinating them; the plot Some of his themes are utilized for dramatic purposes by Lope failed, and Don Juan Manuel joined forces with Peter IV. of de Vega in La Pobreza estimada, by Ruiz de Alarcón in La Aragon. He was besieged by Alphonso XI. at Garci-Nuñez, Prueba de las promesas, by Calderón in La Vida es sueño, and by whence he escaped on the 30th of July 1336, fled into exile, Cañizares in Don Juan de Espina en Milán: there is an evident, and kept the rebellion alive till 1338, when he made his peace though remote, relation between the tale of the mancebo que caso with the king. He proved his loyalty by serving in further con una mujer muy fuerte y muy brava and The Taming of the expeditions against the Moors of Granada and Africa, and died Shrew; and a more direct connexion exists between some of Don a tranquil death in the first half of 1349. Juan Manuel's enxemplos and some of Anderson's fairy tales. Distinguished as an astute politician, Don Juan Manuel is BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Obra's, edited by P. de Gayangos in the Biblioteca an author of the highest eminence, and, considering the cir- de autores Españoles, vol. li.; El Conde Lucanor (Leipzig, 1900), edited cumstances of his stormy life, his voluminousness is remarkable. by H. Knust and A. Hirschfeld; Libro de la caza (Halle, 1880), edited The Libro de los sabios, a treatise called Engeños de Guerra and by G. Baist; El Libro del caballero et del escudero, edited by S. Gräfen- the Libro de cantares, a collection of verses, were composed edited by G. Baist in Romanische Forschungen, vol. vi.; G. Baist, berg in Romanische Forschungen, vol. vi.; La crónica complida, between 1320 and 1327; but they have disappeared together Alter und Textueberlieferung der Schriften Don Juan Manuels (Halle, with the Libro de la caballería (written during the winter of 1326, 1880); F. Hanssen, Notas a la versificación de D. Juan Manuel and the Reglas como se debe trovar, a metrical treatise assigned to (Santiago de Chile, 1902). The Conde Lucanor has been translated 1328-1334. Of his surviving writings, Juan Manuel's Crónica by J. Eichendorff into German (1840), by A. Puibusque into French (J. F.-K.) abreviada was compiled between 1319 and 1325, while the Libro (1854) and by J. York into English (1868). de la caza must have been written between 1320 and 1329; and JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-1872), president of Mexico, during this period of nine years the Crónica de España, the was born near Ixtlan, in the state of Oajaca, Mexico, on the Crónica complida, and the Tratado sobre las armas were pro- 21st of March 1806, of full Indian blood. Early left in poverty duced. The Libro del caballero et del escudero was finished before by the death of his father, he received from a charitable friar the end of 1326; the first book of the Libro de los estados was a good general education, and afterwards the means of studying finished on the 22nd of May 1330, while the second was begun law. Beginning to practise in 1834, Juarez speedily rose to five days later; the first book of El Conde Lucanor was written in professional distinction, and in the stormy political life of his 1328, the second in 1330, and the fourth is dated 12th of June time took a prominent part as an exponent of liberal views. 1335. We are unable to assign to any precise date the devout In 1832 he sat in the state legislature; in 1846 he was one of a Tractado on the Virgin, dedicated to the prior of the monastery legislative triumvirate for his native state and a deputy to the at Peñafiel, to which Don Juan Manuel bequeathed his manu republican congress, and from 1847 to 1852 he was governor scripts; but it seems probable that the Libro de los frailes of Oajaca. Banished in 1853 by Santa Anna, he returned predicadores is slightly later than the Libro de los estados; that to Mexico in 1855, and joined Alvarez, who, after Santa Anna's the Libro de los castigos (left unfinished, and therefore known by defeat, made him minister of justice. Under Comonfort, who the alternative title of Libro infinido) was written not later then succeeded Alvarez, Juarez was governor of Oajaca (1855-57), than 1333, and that the treatise De las maneras de amor was and in 1857 chief justice and secretary of the interior; and, composed between 1334 and 1337. when Comonfort was unconstitutionally replaced by Zuloaga The historical summaries, pious dissertations and miscel. in 1858, the chief justice, in virtue of his office, claimed to be laneous writings are of secondary interest. The Libro del cabal- legal president of ihe republic. It was not, however, till the lero et del escudero is on another plane; it is no doubt suggested by I beginning of 1861 that he succeeded in finally defeating the JUBA 531 unconstitutional party and in being duly elected president by , water-parting between the Nile basin and the rivers flowing to congress. His decree of July 1861, suspending for two years all the Indian Ocean. payments on public debts of every kind, led to the landing in Of the three headstreams, the Web, the Ganale and the Daua, the Mexico of English, Spanish and French troops. The first two Ganale (or Ganana) is the central river and the true upper course of powers were soon induced to withdraw their forces; but the the Juba. It has two chief branches, the Black and the Great Ganale. French remained, declared war in 1862, placed Maximilian upon N., 38. E. at an altitude of about 7500 ft., the crest of the mountains The last-named, the most remote source of the river, rises in 7° 30' the throne as emperor, and drove Juarez and his adherents to reaching another 2500 ft. In its upper course it flows over a rocky the northern limits of the republic. Juarez maintained an bed with a swift current and many rapids. The banks are clothed obstinate resistance, which resulted in final success. In 1867 with dense jungle and the hills beyond with thorn-bush. Lower down Maximilian was taken at Querétaro, and shot; and in August the river has formed a narrow yalley, 1500 to 2000 ft. below the general level of the country. Leaving the higher mountains in Juarez was once more elected president. His term of office was about 5°.15' N., 40° E., the Ganale enters a large slightly undulating far from tranquil; discontented generals stirred up ceaseless grass plain which extends south of the valley of the Daua and occu. revolts and insurrections; and, though he was re-elected in 1871, pies all the country eastward to the junction of the two rivers. In his popularity seemed to be on the wane. He died of apoplexy this plain the Ganale makes a semicircular sweep northward before in the city of Mexico on the 18th of July 1872. He was a joined by the Web on the left or eastern bank, and about 10 m. resuming its general S.-E. course. East of 42° E. in 4° 12' N. it is statesman of integrity, ability and determination, whose good lower down the Daua enters on the right bank. qualities are too apt to be overlooked in consequence of his The Web rises in the mountain chain a little S. and E. of the connexion with the unhappy fate of Maximilian. sources of the Ganale, and some 40 m. from its source passes, first, through a cañon 500 ft. deep, and then through a series of remarkable JUBA, the name of two kings of Numidia. underground caves hollowed out of a quartz mountain and, with JUBA I. (1st century B.C.), son and successor of Hiempsal, their arches and white columns, presenting the appearance of a king of Numidia. During the civil wars at Rome he sided with pillared temple. The Daua (or Dawa) is formed by the mountain Pompey, partly from gratitude because he had reinstated his torrents which have their rise S. and W. of the Ganale and is of father on his throne (Appian, B.C., i. 80), and partly from enmity similar character to that river. It has few feeders and none of any descent to the open country is somewhat abrupt. In its to Caesar, who had insulted him at Rome by pulling his beard middle course the Daua has cut a deep narrow valley through the plain; (Suet., Caesar, 71). Further, C. Scribonius Curio, Caesar's general lower down it bends N.E. to its junction with the Ganale. The river in Africa, had openly proposed, 50 B.C., when tribune of the is not deep and can be forded in many places; the banks are fringed plebs, that Numidia should be sold to colonists, and the king the Web the river is swift-flowing and 85 yards across; just below the with thick bush and dom-palms. At the junction of the Ganale and reduced to a private station. In 49 Juba inflicted on the Daua confluence it is 200 yds. wide, the altitude here—300 m. in a Caesarean army a crushing defeat, in which Curio was slain (Vell. direct line from the source of the Ganale-being only 590 ft. Pat. ii. 54; Caesar, B.C. ii. 40). Juba's attention was distracted tributary of importance. It first flows in a valley bounded, espe; Below the Daua the river, now known as the Juba, receives no by a counter invasion of his territories by Bocchus the younger cially towards the west, by the escarpments of a high plateau, and and Sittius; but, finding that his lieutenant Sabura was able to containing the towns of Lugh (in 3° 50' N., the centre of active trade), defend his interests, he rejoined the Pompeians with a large Bardera, 387 m. above the mouth, and Saranli—the last two on force, and shared the defeat at Thapsus. Fleeing from the field opposite sides of the stream, in 2°20' N., a crossing-place for caravans. with the Roman general M. Petreius, he wandered about as a fugi- the river very tortuous. On the west a series of small lakes and Beyond 1° 45' N. the country becomes more level and the course of tive. At length, in despair, Juba killed Petreius, and sought backwaters receives water from the Juba during the rains. Just the aid of a slave in despatching himself (46). Juba was a south of the equator channels from the long, Lake thorough savage; brave, treacherous, insolent and cruel. (See Deshekwama or Hardinge, fed by the Lakdera river, enter from the west, and in o° 15' S. the Juba enters the sea across a dangerous bar, NUMIDIA.) which has only one fathom of water at high tide. JUBA II., son of the above. On the death of his father in 46 B.C. he was carried to Rome to grace Caesar's triumph. From its mouth to 20 m. above Bardera, where at 2° 35' N. He seems to have received a good education under the care of rapids occur, the Juba is navigable by shallow-draught steamers, Augustus who, in 29, after Mark Antony's death, gave him the having a general depth of from 4 to 12 ft., though shallower in hand of Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Antony and Cleopatra, places. Just above its mouth it is a fine stream 250 yds. wide, and placed him on his father's throne. In 25, however, he trans- with a current of 2 knots. Below the mountainous region of ferred him from Numidia to Mauretania, to which was added a the headstreams the Juba and its tributaries flow through a part of Gaetulia (see NUMIDIA) Juba seems to have reigned in country generally arid away from the banks of the streams. considerable prosperity, though in A.D. 6 the Gaetulians rose in The soil is sandy, covered either with thorn-scrub or rank grass, a revolt of sufficient importance to afford the surname Gaetulicus which in the rainy season affords herbage for the herds of cattle, to Cornelius Lentulus Cossus, the Roman general who helped to sheep and camels owned by the Boran Gallas and the Somali who suppress it. The date of Juba's death is by no means certain; inhabit the district. But by the banks of the lower river the it has been put between A.D. 19 and 24 (Strabo, xvii. 828; character of the country changes. In this district, known as Dio Cassius, li. 15; liii. 26; Plutarch, Ant. 87; Caesar, 55). Gosha, are considerable tracts of forest, and the level of flood Juba, according to Pliny, who constantly refers to him, is mainly water is higher than much of the surrounding land. This low- memorable for his writings. He has been called the African lying fertile belt stretches along the river for about 300 m., but Varro. is not more than a mile or two wide. In the river valley maize, He wrote many historical and geographical works, of which some rice, cotton and other crops are cultivated. From Gobwen, a seem to have been voluminous and of considerable value on account trading settlement about 3 m. above the mouth of the Juba, a of the sources to which their author had access: (1)'Pwuaian ioropia: road runs S.W to the seaport of Kismayu, 10 m. distant. (2) 'Apovplaká:(3) Außuká: (4) De Arabia sive De expeditione arcbica; (5) Physiologa; (6) De Euphorbia herba; (7) Hepi ónon: (8) llepi The lower Juba was ascended in 1865 in a steamer by Baron γραφικής (Περί ζωγράφων): (9) θεατρική ιστορία: (1ο) Ομοιότητες: (1) Karl von der Decken, who was murdered by Somali at Bardera, Περί φθοράς λέξεως: (12) 'Επίγραμμα. but the river system remained otherwise almost unknown Fragments and life in Müller, Frag. Hist. Graec., vol. iii.; see also until after 1890. In 1891 a survey of its lower course was exe- Sevin, Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions, vol . iv.: Hullemann, De vita et cuted by Captain F. G. Dundas of the British navy, while in scriptis Jubae (1846). For the denarii of Juba II. found in 1908 at El Ksar on the coast of Morocco see Dieudonné in Revue Numism. 1892–1893 its headstreams were explored by the Italian officers, (1908), pp. 350 seq., They are interesting mainly as throwing light Captains Vittorio, Bottego and Grixoni, the former of whom dis- on the chronology of the reign. proved the supposed connexion of the Omo (see RUDOLF, LAKE) JUBA, or JUB, a river of East Africa, exceeding 1000 m. in with the Juba system. It has since been further explored by length, rising on the S.E. border of the Abyssinian highlands Prince Eugenio Ruspoli, by Bottego's second expedition (1895), and flowing S. across the Galla and Somali countries to the sea. by Donaldson Smith, A. E. Butter, Captain P. Maud of the It is formed by the junction of three streams, all having their British army, and others. The river, from its mouth to the con- source in the mountain range N.E of Lake Rudolf which is the | Quence of the Daua and Ganale, forms the frontier between the 532 JUBBULPORE-JUBILEE 64 ram or British East Africa protectorate and Italian Somaliland; and at Troyes, in rich flamboyant Gothic. A later example, of the from that point to about 4° 20' N. the Daua is the boundary Renaissance period, c. 1600, is in the church of St Etienne du between British and Abyssinian territory. Mont, Paris. In the Low Countries there are many fine exam- JUBBULPORE, or JABALPUR, a city, district, and division of ples in marble, of which one of the most perfect from Bois-le. British India in the Central Provinces. The city is 616 m. N.E. Duc is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. of Bombay by rail, and 220 m. S.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901), JUBILEE (or JUBILE), YEAR OF, in the Bible, the name applied 90,316. The numerous gorges in the neighbouring rocks have in the Holiness section of the Priestly Code of the Hexateuch been taken advantage of to surround the city with a series of (Lev. xxv.) to the observance of every soth year, determined by lakes, which, shaded by fine trees and bordered by fantastic the lapse of seven seven-year periods as a year of perfect rest, crags, add much beauty to the suburbs. The city itself is modern, when there was to be no sowing, nor even gathering of the and is laid out in wide and regular streets. A streamlet separ- natural products of the field and the vine. At the beginning of ates the civil station and cantonment from the native quarter; the jubilee-year the liberation of all Israelitish slaves and the but, though the climate is mild, a swampy hollow beneath restoration of ancestral possessions was to be proclaimed. As renders the site unhealthy for Europeans. Formerly the capital regards the meaning of the name“ jubilee ” (Heb. yõbel) modern of the Saugor and Nerbudda territories, Jubbulpore is now the scholars are agreed that it signifies ram's horn!" headquarters of a brigade in the 5th division of the southern “Year of jubilee” would then mean the year that is inaugurated army. It is also one of the most important railway centres in by the blowing of the ram's horn (Lev. xxv. 9). India, being the junction of the Great Indian Peninsula and the According to Lev. xxv. 8-12, at the completion of seven East Indian systems. It has a steam cotton-mill. The govern- sabbaths of years (i.e. 7X7 = 49 years) the trumpet of the ment college educates for the science course of the Allahabad jubilee is to be sounded “throughout the land ” on the roth day University, and also contains law and engineering classes; there of the seventh month (Tisri 10), the great Day of Atonement. are three aided high schools, a law class, an engineering class and The 50th year thus announced is to be “hallowed,” i.e. liberiyi normal schools for male and female teachers. A native associa. is to be proclaimed everywhere to everyone, and the people are tion, established in 1869, supports an orphanage, with help from to return “every man unto his possession and unto his family." government. A zenana mission manages 13 schools for girls. As in the sabbatical year, there is to be no sowing, nor reaping Waterworks were constructed in 1882. that which grows of itself, nor gathering of grapes. The DISTRICT OF JUBBULPORE lies on the watershed between As regards real property (Lev. xxv. 13-34) the law is that if the Nerbudda and the Son, but mostly within the valley of the any Hebrew under pressure of necessity shall alienate his pro- former river, which here runs through the famous gorge known perty he is to get for it a sum of money reckoned according to the as the Marble rocks, and falls 30 ft. over a rocky ledge (the Dhuan number of harvests to be reaped between the date of alienation dhar, or “misty shoot "). Area, 3912 sq. m. It consists of a and the first jubilee-year: should he or any relation desire to long narrow plain running north-east and south-west, and shut redeem the property before the jubilee this can always be done in on all sides by highlands. This plain, which forms an off- be repaying the value of the harvests between the redemption shoot from the great valley of the Nerbudda, is covered in its and the jubilee. western and southern portions by a rich alluvial deposit of black This legal enactment, though it is not found (nor anything like cotton-soil. At Jubbulpore city the soil is sandy, and water it) in the earlier collections of laws, is evidently based on (or plentiful near the surface. The north and east belong to the modified from) an ancient custom which conferred on a near Ganges and Jumna basins, the south and west to the Nerbudda kinsman the right of pre-emption as well as of buying back basin. In 1901 the population was 680,585, showing a decrease (cf. Jer. xxxii. 6 sqq.). The tendency to impose checks upon the of 9% since 1891, due to the results of famine. The principal alienation of landed property was exceptionally strong in Israel. crops are wheat, rice, pulse and oil-seeds. A good deal of iron. The fundamental principle is that the land is a sacred possession smelting with charcoal is carried on in the forests, manganese ore belonging to Yahweh. As such it is not to be alienated from is found, and limestone is extensively quarried. The district is Yahweh's people, to whom it was origirally assigned. In Eze- traversed by the main railway from Bombay to Calcutta, and kiel's restoration programme crown lands presented by the by new branches of two other lines which meet at Katni junc-prince'to any of his officials revert to the crown in the year of tion. Jubbulpore suffered severely in the famine of 1896-1897, liberty (? jubilee year)”; only to his sons may any portion of the distress being aggravated by immigration from the adjoining his inheritance be aliénated in perpetuity (Ezek. xlvi. 16-18; native states. Fortunately the famine of 1900 was less severely cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 38 seq.). felt. The same rule applies to dwelling-houses of unwalled villages; - The early history of Jubbulpore is unknown; but inscriptions record the case is different, however, as regards dwelling-houses in the existence during the rith and 12th centuries of a local line of walled cities. These may be redeemed within a year after trans. princes of that Haihai race which is closely connected with the history fer, but if not redeemed within that period they continue per- of Gondwana. In the 16th century the Gond raja of Garha Mandla manently in possession of the purchaser, and this may well be an extended his power over fifty-two districts, including the present echo of ancient practice. An exception to this last rule is made Jubbulpore. During the minority of his grandson, Asaf Khan, the viceroy of Kara Manikpur, conquered the Garha principality and held for the houses of the Levites in the Levitical cities. it at first as an independent chief. Eventually he submitted to the As regards properly in slaves (Lev. xxv. 35-55) the Hebrew emperor Akbar. The Delhi power, however, enjoyed little more whom necessity has compelled to sell himself into the service of than a nominal supremacy; and the princes of Garha Mandla main- his brother Hebrew is to be treated as a hired servant and tained a practical independence until their subjugation by the Mahratta governors of Saugor in 1781. In 1798 the peshwa granted sojourner, and to be released absolutely at the jubilee; non- the Nerbudda valley to the Bhonsla princes of Nagpur, who continued Hebrew bondmen, on the other hand, are to be bondmen for to hold the district until the British occupied it in 1818. But the Hebrew who has sold himself to a stranger or The Division OF JUBBULPORE lies mainly among the Vindhyan sojourner is entitled to freedom at the year of jubilee, and and Satpura hill systems. It comprises the five following further is at any time redeemable by any of his kindred-the districts. Jubbulpore, Saugor, Damoh, Seoni and Mandla. redemption price being regulated by the number of years to run Area, 18,950 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,081,499. between the redemption and the jubilee, according to the ordinary JUBÉ, the French architectural term (taken from the impera- wage of hired servants. Such were the enactments of the Priestly tive of Lat. jubere, to order) for the chancel or choir screen, Pentateuch (post-exilic). These enactments, in order to be Code-which, of course, represents the latest legislation of the which in England' is known as the rood-screen (see Roon: understood rightly, must be viewed in relation to the earlier Above the screen was a gallery or loft, from which the words “ Jube Domine benedicere” were spoken by the deacon before 'Heb. děror. The same word (duriru) is used in the Code of Hammurabi in the similar enactment that wife, son or daughter the reading of the Gospel, and hence probably the name. One of the finest jubés in France is that of the church of the Madeleine 'year (§ 117). sold into slavery for deht are to be restored to liberty in the fourth « ever. ) JUBILEES, BOOK OF 533 << 3 similar provisions in connexion with the sabbatical (seventh) | Israel was God's son, and not only did the nation stand in this year. “The foundations of Lev. xxv. are laid in the ancient relation to God, but also its individual members. Israel received provisions of the Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxi. 2 séq.; xxiii. circumcision as a sign that they were the Lord's, and this privi. 10 seq.) and in Deuteronomy (xv.). The Book of the Covenant lege of circumcision they enjoyed in common with the two highest enjoined that the land should lie fallow and Hebrew slaves be orders of angels. Hence Israel was to unite with God and these liberated in the seventh year; Deuteronomy required in addition two orders in the observance of the sabbath. Finally the des- the remission of debts" (Benzinger). Deuteronomy, it will be tinies of the world were bound up with Israel. The world was noticed, in accordance with its humanitarian tendency, not only renewed in the creation of the true man Jacob, and its final liberates the slave but remits the debt. It is evident that these renewal was to synchronize with the setting-up of God's sanc- enactments proved impracticable in real life (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 8 | tuary in Zion and the establishment of the Messianic kingdom. seq.), and so it became necessary in the later legislation of P, In this kingdom the Gentiles had neither part nor lot. represented in the present form of Lev. xxv., to relegate them Versions: Greek, Syriac, Ethiopic and Latin.-Numerous frag. to the soth year, the year of jubilee. The latter, however, was ments of the Greek Version have come down to us in Justin Martyr, a purely theoretic development of the Sabbath idea, which Origen, Diodorus of Antioch, Isidore of Alexandria, Epiphanius, could never have been reduced to practice (its actual observance John of Malala, Syncellus and others. This version was the parent would have necessitated that for two consecutive years—the of the Ethiopic and Latin. The Ethiopic Version is most accurate and trustworthy, and indeed, as a rule, slavishly literal. It has 49th and soth-absolutely nothing could be reaped, while in naturally suffered from the corruptions incident to transmission the 51st only summer fruits could be obtained, sowing being through' MSS. Thus dittographies are frequent and lacunae of prohibited in the soth year). That in practice the enactments occasional occurrence, but the version is singularly free from the for the jubilee-year were disregarded is evidenced by the fact glosses and corrections of unscrupulous scribes. The Latin Version, of which about one-fourth has been preserved, is where it exists that, according to the unanimous testimony of the Talmudists of almost equal value with the Ethiopic. It has, however, suffered and Rabbins, although the jubilee-years were reckoned more at the hands of correctors. Notwithstanding, it attests a long they were not observed. array of passages in which it preserves the true text over against The conjecture of Kuenen, supported by Wellhausen, that corruptions, or omissions in the Ethiopic Version. Finally, as re- gards the Syriac Version, the evidence for its existence is not con- originally Lev. xxv. 8 seq. had reference to the seventh year is a clusive. It is based on the fact that a British Museum MS. contains highly probable one. This may be the case also with Ezek. xlvi. a Syriac fragment entitled “ Names of the wives of the Patriarchs 16-18 (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 14). A later Rabbinical device for evading according to the Hebrew Book of Jubilees." the provisions of the law was the prosbul (ascribed to Hillel) Ethiopic Version is translated from the Greek, for Greek words such The Eihiopic and Latin Versions: Translations from the Greek.–The -i.e. a condition made in the presence of the judge securing to as Opūs, Bálavos, diy, &c., are transliterated in the Greek. Secondly, the creditor the right of demanding repayment at any time, many passages must be retranslated into Greek before we can dis- irrespective of the year of remission. Further enactments cover the source of the various corruptions. And finally, proper regarding the jubilee are found in Lev. xxvii. 17-25 and names are transliterated as they appear in Greek and not in Hebrew. That the Latin is also a translation from the Greek is no less obvious. Num. xxxvi. 4. (W. R. S.; G. H. Bo.) Thus in xxxix. 12 timoris = declias, corrupt for dovelas; in xxxviii. JUBILEES, BOOK OF, an apocryphal work of the Old Testa- 13 honorem =Tluñv, but Tuuńu should here have been rendered by ment. The Book of Jubilees is the most advanced pre-Christian tributum, as the Ethiopic and the context require; in xxxii. 26, representative of the Midrashic tendency, which had already been celavit = čxpuțe, corrupt for èxpaye (so Cihiopic). at work in the Old Testament Chronicles. As the chronicler book-the 2nd century B.c.-and its place of composition speak for The Greek a Translation from the Hebrew.-The early date of our had rewritten the history of Israel and Judah from the stand- a Semitic original, and the evidence bearing on this subject is con- point of the Priests' Code, so our author re-edited from the clusive. But the question at once arises, was the original Aramaic or Hebrew? Pharisaic standpoint of his time the history of the world from the Certain proper names in the Latin Version ending in -in seem to bespeak'an Aramaic original, as Cettin, Filistin, &c. creation to the publication of the Law on Sinai. His work But since in all these cases the Ethiopic transliterations end in -m constitutes the oldest commentary in the world on Genesis and and not in -n, it is not improbable that the Aramaism in the Latin part of Exodus, an enlarged Targum on these books, in which Version is due to the translator, who, it has been concluded on other difficulties in the biblical narration are solved, gaps supplied, grounds, was a Palestinian Jew. The grounds, on the other hand, for a Hebrew original are weighty and numerous. (1) A work which dogmatically offensive elements removed and the genuine spirit claims to be from the hand of Moses would naturally be in Hebrew, of later Judaism infused into the primitive history of the world. for Hebrew according to our author was the sacred and national Titles of the Book.—The book is variously entitled. First, it is languago. (2) The revival of the national spirit of a nation is known as τα Ιωβηλαία, οι Ιωβηλαίοι, Ηeb. obs». This universally, so far as we know, accompanied by a revival of the national language. (3) The text must be retranslated into Hebrew name is admirably adapted to our book, as it divides into in order to explain unintelligible expressions and restore the true jubilee periods of forty-nine years each the history of the world text. One instance will sufficiently illustrate this statement. In from the creation to the legislation on Sinai. Secondly, it is xliii. 1 a certain Ethiopic expression = èv émoi, which is a mis- frequently designated" The Little Genesis,” y death l'évecis or translation of '7; for 's in this context, as we know from the This title may have arisen parallel passage in Gen. xliv. 18, which our text reproduces almost verbally, = δέομαι. We might observe here that our text attests from its dealing more fully with details and minutiae than the the presence of dittographies already existing in the Hebrew text. biblical work. For the other names by which it is referred to, (4) Hebraisms survive in the Ethiopic and Latin Versions. In the In the such as The Apocalypse of Moses, The Testament of Moses, The former nâha in iv. 4, is a corrupt transliteration of v. Latin eligere in le in xxii. 10 is a reproduction of 2773 and in Book of Adam's Daughters and the Life of Adam, the reader may qua ... in ipsa in xix. 8=13... DX. This idiom could, of consult Charles's The Book of Jubilees, pp. xvii.-xx. course, be explained on the hypothesis of an Aramaic original. (5) Objeci.—The object of our author was the defence and expo- Many paronomasiae discover themselves on retranslation into Hebrew. sition of Judaism from the Pharisaic standpoint of the 2nd Textual Affinities.-A minute study of the text shows that it century B.C. against the disintegrating effects of Hellenism. In attests an independent form of the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch. his elaborate defence of Judaism our author glorifies circumcision Thus it agrees at times with the Samaritan, or Septuagint, or Syriac, and the sabbath, the bulwarks of Judaism, as heavenly ordi- or Vulgate, or even with Onkelos against all the rest. To be more nances, the sphere of which was so far extended as to embrace exact, our book represents some form of the Hebrew text of the Israel on earth. The Law, as a whole, was to our author the gint and the Syriac; for it agrees more frequently with the Septuagint, Pentateuch midway between the forms presupposed by the Septua. realization in time of what was in a sense timeless and eternal. or with combinations into which the Septuagint enters, than with Though revealed in time it was superior to time. Before it had been made known in sundry portions to the fathers, it had been 1 In the Ethiopic Version in xxi. 12 it should be observed that in kept in heaven by the angels, and to its observance there was the list of the twelve trees suitable for burning on the altar several are transliterated Aramaic names of trees. But in a late Hebrew work no limit in time or in eternity. Our author next defends Judaism (2nd century B.C.) the popular names of such objects would naturally by his glorification of Israel, Whereas the various nations of the be used. In certain cases the Hebrew may have been forgotten, Gentiles were subject to angels, Israel was subject to God alone. I or, where the tree was of late introduction, been non-existent. ,בראשית זוטה .Mukpoyeveous, Heb 534 JUBILEE YEAR-JUD any other single authority, or with any combination excluding the will be found in Schürer or in R. H. Charles's commentary. The Septuagint. Next to the Septuagint it agrees most often with the Bock of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (1902), which deals exhaustively Syriac or with combinations into which the Syriac enters. On the with all the questions treated in this article. UR. H.C.) other hand, its independence of the Septuagint is shown in a large number of passages, where it has the support of the Samaritan and JUBILEE YEAR, an institution in the Roman Catholic Massoretic, or of these with various combinations of the Syriac Church, observed every twenty-fifth year, from Christmas to Vulgate and Onkelos. From these and other considerations we Christmas. During its continuance plenary indulgence is may conclude that the textual evidence points to the composition obtainable by all the faithful, on condition of their penitently of our book at some period between 250 B.C. and A.D. 100, and at a confessing their sins and visiting certain churches a stated time nearer the earlier date than the later. Date.---The book was written between 135 B.C. and the year of number of times, or doing an equivalent amount of meritorious Hyrcanus's breach with the Pharisees. This conclusion is drawn work. The institution dates from the time of Boniface VIII., from the following facts:-(1) The book was written during whose bull Antiquorum habet fidem is dated the 22nd of February the pontificate of the Maccabean family, and not earlier than 1300. The circumstances in which it was promulgated are related 135 B.C. For in xxxii. 1 Levi is called a "priest of the Most by a contemporary authority, Jacobus Cajetanus, according to High God.” Now the only high priests who bore this title were whose account (“Relatio de centesimo s. jubilaeo anno " in the the Maccabean, who appear to have assumed it as reviving the Bibliotheca Patrum) a rumour spread through Rome at the close order of Melchizedek when they displaced the Zadokite order of of 1299 that every one visiting St Peter's on the ist of January Aaron. Jewish tradition ascribes the assumption of this title 1300 would receive full absolution. The result was an enormous to John Hyrcanus. It was retained by his successors down to influx of pilgrims to Rome, which stirred the pope's attention. Hyrcanus II. (2) It was written before 96 B.C. or some years Nothing was found in the archives, but an old peasant 107 years earlier in the reign of John Hyrcanus; for since our author is of of age avowed that his father had been similarly benefited a the strictest sect a Pharisee and at the same time an upholder century previously. The bull was then issued, and the pilgrims of the Maccabean pontificate, Jubilees cannot have been written became even more numerous, to the profit of both clergy and citi. after 96 when the Pharisees and Alexander Jannaeus came to zens. Originally the churches of St Peter and St Paul in Rome open striſe. Nay more, it cannot have been written after the were the only jubilee churches, but the privilege was afterwards open breach between Hyrcanus and the Pharisees, when the extended to the Lateran Church and that of Sta Maria Maggiore, former joined the Sadducean party. and it is now shared also for the year immediately following that The above conclusions are confirmed by a large mass of other of the Roman jubilee by a number of specified provincial churches. evidence postulating the same date. We may, however, observe At the request of the Roman people, which was supported by that our book points to the period already past-of stress and St Bridget of Sweden and by Petrarch, Clement VI. in 1343 persecution that preceded the recovery of national independence appointed, by the bull Unigenitus Dei filius, that the jubilee under the Maccabees, and presupposes as its historical back- should recur every fifty years instead of every hundred years as ground the most flourishing period of the Maccabean hegemony. had been originally contemplated in the constitution of Boniface; Author.--Our author was a Pharisee of the straitest sect. He Urban VI., who was badly in need of money, by the bull Salvalor maintained the everlasting validity of the law, he held the noster in 1389 reduced the interval still further to thirty-three strictest views on circumcision, the sabbath, and the duty of shun- years (the supposed duration of the earthly life of Christ); and ning all intercourse with the Gentiles; he believed in angels and Paul II. by the bull Ineffabilis (April 19, 1470) finally fixed it at in a blessed immortality. In the next place he was an upholder twenty-five years. Paul II. also permitted foreigners to substi- of the Maccabean pontificate. He glorifies Levi's successors as tute for the pilgrimage to Rome a visit to some specified church high-priests and civil rulers, and applies to them the title assumed in their own country and a contribution towards the expenses by the Maccabean princes, though he does not, like the author of of the Holy Wars. According to the special ritual prepared by the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, expect the Messiah Alexander VI. in 1500, the pope on the Christmas Eve with to come forth from among them. He may have been a which the jubilee begins goes in solemn procession to a particular priest. walled-up door (“ Porta aurea ”') of St Peter's and knocks three The Views of the Author on the Messianic Kingdom and the Future times, using at the same time the words of Ps. cxviii. 19 (Aperite Liſe.--According to our author the Messianic kingdom was to be mihi portas justitiae). The doors are then opened and sprinkled brought about gradually by the progressive spiritual develop with holy water, and the pope passes through. A similar cere- ment of man and a corresponding transformation of nature. mony is conducted by cardinals at the other jubilee churches Its members were to reach the limit of 1000 years in happiness of the city. At the close of the jubilee, the special doorway is and peace. During its continuance the powers of evil were to again built up with appropriate solemnities. be restrained, and the last judgment was apparently to take The last ordinary jubilee was observed in 1900. “ Extraordinary" place at its close. As regards the doctrine of a future life, our jubilees are sometimes appointed on special occasions, e.g. the acces- anthor adopts a position novel for a Palestinian writer. He sion of a new pope, or that proclaimed by Pope Leo XIII. for the abandons the hope of a resurrection of the body. The souls of 12th of March 1881, "in order to obtain from the mercy of Almighty the righteous are to enjoy a blessed immortality after death. comfort and strength in the battle against her numerous and mighty God help and succour in the weighty necessities of the Church, and This is the earliest attested instance of this expectation in the foes." These are not so much jubilees in the ordinary sense as last two centuries B.C. special grants of plenary indulgences for particular purposes (Indul. LITERATURE.- Ethiopic Text and Translations: This text was first gentiae plenariae in forma jubilaei). edited by Dillmann from two MSS. in 1859, and in 1895 by R. H. Charles from four (The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of JÚCAR, a river of eastern Spain. It rises in the north of the Jubilees ... with the Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Latin fragments). province of Cuenca, at the foot of the Cerro de San Felipe In the latter edition, the Greek and Latin fragments are printed (5906 ft.), and nows south past Cuenca to the borders of Albacete; together with the Ethiopic. The book was translated into German by here it bends towards the east, and maintains this direction for Dillmann from one MS. in Ewald's Jahrbücher, vols. ii. and ii. (1850, 1851), and by Littmann (in Kautzsch's A pok. und Pseud., 11:39-419) connected with the city of Albacete by the Maria Cristina canal. the greater part of its remaining course. On the right it is from Charles's Ethiopic text; into English by Schodde (Bibl. Sacr. 1885) írom Dillmann's text, and by Charles (Jewish Quarterl; Review, After entering Valencia, it receives on the left its chief tributary vols. V., vi., vii. (1893-1895) from the text afterwards published in the Cabriel, which also rises near the Cerro de an Felipe, in the 1895, and finally in his commentary. The Book of Jubilees (1902). Critical Inquiries: Dillmann,“ Das Buch der Jubiläen" (Ewald's Montes Universales. Near Alcira the Júcar turns south-east- Jahrbücher d. bibl. Wissensch. (1851), iii. 72-96); “Pseudepig. desward, and then sharply north, curving again to the south-east Alten Testaments," Herzog's Realencyk.” xii. 364-365:“ Beiträge aus before it enters the Mediterranean Sea at Cullera, after a total dem Buche der Jubiläen zur Kritik des Pentateuch Textes" (Sitzungs- course of 314 m. Its estuary forms the harbour of Cullera, and berichte der Kgl. Preussischen Akad., 1883); Beer, Das Buch der Jubi- läen (1856); Rönsch, Das Buch der Jubilaen (1874); Singer, Das Buch its lower waters are freely utilized for purposes of irrigation. der Jubiläen (1898): Boln.“ Die Bedeutung des Buches der Jubiläen'' JUD, LEO (1482-1542), known to his contemporaries as (Theol. Slud. und Kritiken (1900), pp. 167-184). A full bibliography | Meister Leu, Swiss reformer, was born in Alsace and educated "! JUDAEA-JUDAS ISCARIOT 535 66 desert" at Basel, where after a course in medicine he turned to the study | underlying the account of the Israelite exodus (9.v.) there are traces of of theology. This change was due to the influence of Zwinglision of Palestine--who are ultimately found in the south of Judah; a separate movement of certain clans-apart from the Israelite inva- whose colleague at Zürich Jud became after serving for four years and the traditions in Chronicles themselves allow the view that (1518–1522) as pastor of Einsiedeln. His chief activity was as the incorporation of these elements began under David, when Judah a translator; he was the leading spirit in the translation of the first occupies a prominent position in biblical history (cf. Cheyne, Zürich Bible and also made a Latin version of the Old Testament. Ency. Bib., col. 2618 seq., and see CALEB, JERAHMEEL, Kenites). But such movements were not necessarily limited to one single period, He died at Zürich on the 19th of June 1542. and the evidence connecting (a) the non-Israelite clans of Judah with See Life by C. Pestalozzi (1860); art. in Herzog-Hauck's Real Levites, and (6) both with the south, is found in narratives referring encyklopädie, vol. ix. (1901). to several different ages and might point to an unceasing relationship JUDAEA, the name given to the southern part of Palestine as with the south. On the other hand, clans, which in the traditions of occupied by the Jewish community in post-exilic days under David's time were in the south of Judah, about five hundred years Persian, Greek and Roman overlordship. In Luke and Acts the later in the exile) are found near Jerusalem (e.g. Caleb), so that either these survived the strenuous vicissitudes of half a millennium or term is sometimes used loosely to denote the whole of western all perspective of their early history has been lost. In Gen. xxxviii. Palestine. The limits of Judaea were never very precisely a curious narrative points to the separation of Judah “ from his defined and-especially on the northern frontier-varied from brethren" and his marriage with Shua the Canaanite; two sons time to time. After the death of Herod, Archelaus became Er and Onan perish and the third Shelah survives. From Judah and Er's widow. Tamar are derived Perez and Zerah, and these with ethnarch of Samaria, Idumea and Judaea, and when he was Shelah appear in post-exilic times as the three representative families deposed Judaea was merged in Syria, being governed by a pro- of Judah (Neh. xi. 4-6; 1 Chron. ix. 4-6). This story, amid a number curator whose headquarters were in Caesarea. of other motives, appears to reflect the growth of the tribe of Judah For a description of the natural features of the country see and its Auctuations, but that the reference is to any very early PALESTINE; for its history see Jews and JUDAH. Cf. T. Mommsen, period is unlikely, partly because the interest of the story is in post- The Provinces of the Roman Empire, ch. xi. exilic families, and partly because the scenes (Adullam, Chezib and JUDAH, a district of ancient Palestine, to the south of the Jerusalem (2 Sam. xxi. xxiii.; see DAVID, ad fin.). Even David's Timnah) overlap with David's own fights between Hebron and kingdom of Israel, between the Dead Sea and the Philistine conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sam. v.) conflicts both with the statement plain. It falls physically into three parts: the hill-country of its capture by Judah many years previously (Judges i. 8), and from Hebron northwards through Jerusalem; the lowland (Heb. with the traditions of the Israelite heroes Joshua and Saul. Conse- Shěphelah) on the west; and the steppes or “ dry land” (Heb. conclusions regarding the origin of the tribe of Judah. Judah as a quently, the few surviving data are too uncertain for any decisive Negeb) on the south. The district is one of striking contrasts, kingdom may have taken its name from a limited district, in which with a lofty and stony table-land in the centre (which reaches case its growth finds a parallel in the extension of the name Samaria a height of 3300 ft. just north of Hebron), with a strategically the light of i Kings iv. 8-19 (perhaps the subdivisions of the Israelite from the city to the province, The location of Yeh ūd and Ehūd in important valley dividing the central mountains from the low- kingdom, see SOLOMON), would necessitate the assumption of a land, and with the most desolate of tracts to the east (by the violent separation from the north; this, however, is quite conceivable Dead Sea) and south. Some parts, especially around Hebron,(see Jews, SS 11-13). On the bearing of South Judah upon the are extremely fertile, but the land as a whole has the character historical criticism of the Old Testament, see especially N. Schmidt, istics of the southern wilderness-the so-called is Hibbert Journal (1908), pp. 322-342, “ The Jerahmeel Theory and the Historic Importance of the Negeb; with some account of personal not a sterile Sahara-and was more fitted for pastoral occupa exploration of the country"; also Jews, § 20. (S. A. C.) tions; see further G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. Holy Land, chs. X.-xv. JUDAS ISCARIOT (Ίούδας 'Ισκαριώτης or 'Ισκαριώθ), in the Life in ancient Judah is frequently depicted in the Bible, but Bible, the son of Simon Iscariot (John vi. 71, xiii. 26), and one of much of the Judaean history is obscure. In the days of the the twelve apostles. He is always enumerated last with the old Hebrew monarchy there were periods of conflict and rivalry special mention of the fact that he was the betrayer of Jesus. between Judah and Israel-even times when the latter incor- If the generally accepted explanation of his surname (“ man of porated, or at least claimed supremacy over, the former. Later, Kerioth "; see Josh. xv. 25) be correct, he was the only original from the sth century B.C. there was a breach between the Jews member of the apostolic band who was not a Galilean. The (the name is derived from Judah) and the Samaritans (q.v.); circumstances which led to his admission into the apostolic The intervening years after the fall of Samaria (722 B.c.), and circle are not stated; while the motives by which he was actuated after the destruction of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), were probably in enabling the Jewish authorities to arrest Jesus without tumult marked by closer intercourse, similar to the period of union in have been variously analysed by scholars. According to some the popular traditions relating to the pre-monarchical age. (as De Quincey in his famous Essay) the sole object of Judas was The course of Judaean history was conditioned, also, by the to place Jesus in a position in which He should be compelled to proximity of the Philistines in the west, Moab in the east, and make what had seemed to His followers the too tardy display of by Edom and other southern peoples extending from North His Messianic power: according to others (and this view seems Arabia to the delta of the Nile. Judah's stormy history, con- tinued under Greek and Roman domination, reached its climax avaricious and dishonest man, who had already abused the con- more in harmony with the Gospel narratives) Judas was an in the birth of Christianity, and ended with the fall of Jerusalem fidence placed in him (John xii. 6), and who was now concerned in A.D. 70 (see JEWS, PALESTINE). only with furthering his own ends. In conformity with ancient methods of genealogy (9.0.), Judah is traced back to a son of Jacob or Israel by Leah and along with As regards the effects of his subsequent remorse and the use other “tribes” (Dan, Levi, Simeon, &c.) is included under the to which his ill-gotten gains were put, the strikingly apparent collective term Israel. Thus it shares the general traditions of the discrepancies between the narratives of Matt. xxvii. 3, 10 and Israelites, although Judah appears as an individual in the story of Acts i. 18, 19 have attracted the attention of biblical scholars, his “brother " Joseph (on ch. xxxvii. seq., see GENESIS). Its ever since Papias, in his fourth book, of which a fragment has boundaries in Joshua xv. are manifestly artificial or imaginary; they include the Philistines and number places which are elsewhere been preserved, discussed the subject. The simplest explanation ascribed to Simeon or Dan. The origin of the name (Yěhüdah) is is that they represent different traditions, the Gospel narrative quite uncertain; the interpretation“ praised.” is suggested in Gen. being composed with more special reference to prophetic fulfil- xxix. 35 (cf. xlix. 8 seq.), but some connexion with allied names, as Yehud (Yahūdiya, E. of Jaffa), or Ēhūd (a Benjamite clan) seems ments, and being probably nearer the truth than the short more probable. That Judah, whatever its original connotation, explanatory note inserted by the author of the Acts (see Bernard, underwent development through the incorporation of other clans Expositor, June 1904, p. 422 seq.). In ecclesiastical legend and appears from 1 Chron. ii., iv., where it is found to contain a large element of non-Israelite population whose names find analogies ? For the principle of the Levirate illustrated in Gen. xxxviii., or parallels in Simeonite, Edomite and other southern lists. Indeed, see RUTH. Lagarde (Orientalia, ii.) ingeniously conjectured that the chapter typified the suppression of Phoenician (viz. Tamar, the 1 See especially Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis Judaeorum date-palm) and the old Canaanite elements (Zerah = indigena) by (Göttingen, 1869), the articles on the relative proper names in the the younger Israelite invaders (Perez =" branch "). For other Ency. Žib., and E. Meyer, Die Israeliten w. ihre Nachbarstämme, discussions, apart from commentaries on Genesis, see B. Luther pp. 299-471 (much valuable matter). in Meyer, op. cit., pp. 200 sqq. 536 JUDAS-TREE-JUDE, EPISTLE OF 3 in sacred art Judas Iscariot is generally treated as the very in- | Templeton, Mass., where he first met Unitarians and soon found carnation of treachery, ingratitude and impiety. The Middle the solution of his theological difficulties in their views. lie Ages, after their fashion, supplied the lacunae in what they entered the Harvard divinity school, from which he graduated deemed his too meagre biography. According to the common in 1840. In the same year he was ordained pastor of the form of their story, he belonged to the tribe of Reuben.' Before Unitarian church of Augusta, Maine, where he died on the 26th he was born his mother Cyborea had a dream that he was destined of January 1853. His widest reputation was as the author of to murder his father, commit incest with his mother, and sell his Margaret, a Tale of the Real and the Ideal, including Sketches of a God. The attempts made by her and her husband to avert this place not before described, called Mons Christi (1845; revised 1851), curse simply led to its accomplishment. At his birth Judas was written to exhibit the errors of Calvinistic and all trinitarian enclosed in a chest and flung into the sea; picked up on a foreign theology, and the evils of war, intemperance, capital punish- shore, he was educated at the court until a murder committed in ment, the prison system of the time, and the national a moment of passion compelled his flight. Coming to Judaea, he treatment of the Indians. This story, published anonymously, entered the service of Pontius Pilate as page, and during this attracted much attention by its true descriptions of New England period committed the first two of the crimes which had been life and scenery as well as by its author's earnest purpose. expressly foretold. Learning the secret of his birth, he, full of Richard Edney and the Governor's Family (1850) is in much the remorse, sought the prophet who, he had heard, had power on same vein as Margaret: A poem entitled Philo, an Evangeliad earth to forgive sins. He was accepted as a disciple and pro- (1850) is a versified defence of Unitarianism. He published, moted to a position of trust, where avarice, the only vice in which besides, The Church, in a Series of Discourses (1854). As a preacher he had hitherto been unpractised, gradually took possession of and pastor he urged the desirability of infant baptism. He his soul, and led to the complete fulfilment of his evil destiny. lectured frequently on international peace and opposed slavery. This Judas legend, as given by Jacobus de Voragine, obtained no See Arethusa Hall, Life and Character of the Rev. Sylvester Judd small popularity; and it is to be found in various shapes' in (Boston, 1857) published anonymously. every important literature of Europe. JUDE, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF, a book of the New For the history of its genesis and its diffusion the reader may Testament. As with the epistle of James, the problems of the consult D'Ancona, La leggenda di Vergogna e la leggenda di Giuda (1869), and papers by W. Creizenach in Paul and Braune's Beilr. writing centre upon the superscription, which addresses in zur Gesch. der deutschen Sprache und Litteratur, vol. ii. (1875), and Pauline phraseology (1 Thess. i. 4; 2 Thess. ii. 13; Rom. i. 7; Victor Diederich in Russiche Revue (1880). Cholevius, in his 1 Cor. 1. 2) the Christian world in general in the name of "Jude, Geschichte der deutschen Poesie nach ihren antiken Elementen (1854), pointed out the connexion of the legend with the Oedipus story. the brother of James (Matt. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3). The According to Daub (Judas Ischariot, oder Betrachtungen über das historical situation depicted must then fall within the lifetime Böse im Verhältniss zum Guten, 1816, 1818) Judas was an incarna- of this Judas, whose two grandchildren Zoker and James tion of the devil," to whom“ mercy- and blessedness are alike (Hegesippus ap. Phil. Sidetes) by their testimony before the impossible.” The popular hatred of Judas has found strange symbolical authorities brought to an end the (Palestinian) persecution of expression in various parts of Christendom. In Corfu, for instance, Domitian (Hegesippus ap. Eus. H. E. iii. 20, 7). These two the people at a given signal on Easter Eve throw vast quantities grandsons of Judas thereafter “lived until the time of Trajan,” of crockery from their windows and roofs into the streets, and thus ruling the churches“ because they had (thus) been witnesses execute an imaginary stoning of Judas (see Kirkwall, Ionian Islands, ii. 47). At one time (according to Mustoxidi, Delle cose corciresi) | (martyrs) and were also relatives of the Lord.” But in that the tradition prevailed that the traitor's house and country villa case we must either reject the testimony of the same Hegesippus existed in the island, and that his descendants were to be found that up to their death, and that of Symeon son of Clopas, among the local Jews. successor in the Jerusalem see of James the Lord's brother, Details in regard to some Judas legends and superstitions are given in Notes and Queries, and series, V., vi. and vii.; 3rd series, vii.; “who suffered martyrdom at the age of one hundred and twenty 4th series, i; ; 5th series, vi. See also a paper by Professor Rendel years while Trajan was emperor and Atticus governor," "the Harris entitled Did Judas really commit suicide?" in the American church (universal) had remained a pure and uncorrupted Journal of Philology (July 1900).. Matthew Arnold's poem “ St virgin ” free from “ the folly of heretical teachers ”; or else we Brandan” gives fine expression to the old story that, on account of an act of charity done to a leper at Joppa, Judas was allowed an must reject the superscription, which presents the grandfather hour's respite from hell once a year. (G.Mi.) in vehement conflict with the very heresies in question. For JUDAS-TREE, the Cercis siliquastrum of botanists, belonging the testimony of Hegesippus is explicit that at the time of the to the section Caesalpinede of the natural order Leguminosae. It arrest of Zoker and James they were all who survived of the is a native of the south of France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece kindred of the Lord. True, there is confusion in the narrative and Asia Minor, and forms a handsome low tree with a flat spread of Hegesippus, and even a probability that the martyrdom of ing head. In Spring it is covered with a profusion of purplish- Symeon dated under Trajan really took place in the persecution pink flowers, which appear before the leaves. The flowers have of-Domitian, before the arrest of the grandsons of Jude, for apart an agreeable acid taste, and are eaten mixed with salad or made from the alleged age of Symeon (the traditional Jewish limit of into fritters. The tree was frequently figured by the older human life, Gen. vi. 3, Deut. xxxiv. 7), the cause of his appre- herbalists. One woodcut by Castor Durante has the figure of hension.“ on the ground that he was a descendant of David and Judas Iscariot suspended from one of the branches, illustrating with both the previous statements regarding the" martyrdom” a Christian " (Hegesippus ap. Eus. H. E. iii.32, 3) is inconsistent the popular tradition regarding this tree. A second species, C. canadensis, is common in North America from Canada to of Zoker and James, that they were cited as the only surviving Alabama and eastern Texas, and differs from the European Christian Davididae, and that the persecution on this ground species in its smaller size and pointed leaves. The flowers are collapsed through the manifest absurdity of the accusation. also used in salads and for making pickles, while the branches But even if we date the rise of heresies in the reign of Domitian are used to dye wool a nankeen colour. instead of Trajan,” the attributing of this epistle against JUDD, SYLVESTER (1813-1853) American Unitarian clergy- ? On this point (date of the outbreak of heresy) there is some man and author, was born in Westhampton, Massachusetts, inconsistency in the reported fragments of Hegesippus. In that on the 23rd of July 1813. He bore the same name as his father quoted below from Eus. H.E. iii. 32. 7 seq., it is expressly dated after and grandfather; the former (1789-1860) made an especial the martyrdom of Symeon and death of the grandsons of Jude under study of local history of the towns of the Connecticut valley, ciation of these to “some of the heretics" is perhaps not from Trajan. In iii. 19 the ancient tradition " attributing the denun- and wrote a History of Hadley (1863). The son lived in North- Hegesippus; but in iv. 22 the beginning of heresy is traced to a cer; ampton after his tenth year, was converted in a revival there tain Thebuthis, a candidate for the bishopric after the death of in 1826, graduated from Yale in 1836, and taught in 1836 at James, as rival to Symeon. The same figure of the church as a pure virgin is also used as in iii. 32. But as it is only the envious feeling 1 Other forms make him a Danite, and consider the passage in of Thebuthis which is traced to this early date, Hegesippus doubtless Genesis (xlix. 17) a prophecy of the traitor. means to place the cutbreak later, JUDE, EPISTLE OF 537 (0 .) ) ) corrupting heresy to “ Jude the brother of James." will still be by the supposition that the author of Jude gave currency incompatible with the statements of Hegesippus, our only to the existing homily (James) before composing under the informant regarding his later history, pseudonym of Jude. On the interconnexion of the two see The Greek of Jude is also such as to exclude the idea of Sieffert, s.v. “ Judasbrief " in Hauck, Realencykl. vol. ix. authorship in Palestine by an unschooled Galilean, at an early Judas is conceived as cherishing the intention of discussing date in church history. As F. H. Chase has pointed out: (1) the for the benefit of the Christian world (for no mere local church terms kantoi, owonpia, niotis, have attained their later technical is addressed) the subject of “our common salvation " (the much sense; (2) lhe writer is steeped in the language of the LXX.,"desiderated authoritative definition of the orthodox faith), but employing its phraseology independently of other N.T. writers, diverted from this purpose by the growth of heresy. and not that of the canonical books alone, but of the broader Few writings of this compass afford more copious evidence non-Palestinian canon; (3) “ he has at his command a large of date in their literary affinities. The references to Enoch stock of stately, sonorous, sometimes poetical words,” proving (principally ver. 14 seq. = Eth. En. i. 9, but cf. F. H. Chase, s.0. him a “man of some culture, and, as it would seem, not without Jude" in Hastings's Dict. Bible) and the Assumplion of Moses acquaintance with Greek writers." (v. 9) have more a geographical than a chronological bearing, If the superscription be not from the hand of the actual the stricter canon of Palestine excluding these apocryphal brother of Jesus, the question may well be asked why some books of 90 B.C. to A.D. 40; but the Pauline writings are freely apostolic name was not chosen which might convey greater employed, especially 1 Cor. x. 1-13, Rom. xvi. 25 seq., and authority? The answer is to be found in the direction toward probably Eph. and Col. Moreover, the author explicitly refers to which the principal defenders of orthodoxy in 100-150 turned the apostolic age as already past, and to the fulfilment of the for “the deposit of the faith” (Jude 3) in its purity. The Pauline prediction (1 Tim. iv. 1 sqq.) of the advent of heresy Pastoral Epistles point to "the pattern of sound words, even (v. 17 seq.). The Pauline doctrine of “ grace” has been perverted the sayings of our Lord Jesus Christ.” (1 Tim. vi. 3, &c.), as the to lasciviousness, as by the heretics whom Polycarp opposes arsenal of orthodoxy against the same foe (with 1 Tim. vi. 3-10; (Ep. Polyc. vii.), and this doctrine is taught for hire" (vv. 11, cf. Jude 4, 11, 16, 18 seq.). Ignatius's motto is to“ be inseparable 12, 16; cf. i Tim. vi. 5). The unworthy shepherds ” (v. 12; from Jesus Christ and from your bishop ” (ad Trall. vii.), cf. Ezek. xxxiv. 8; John x. 12 seq.) live at the expense of their Polycarp's, to “ turn unto the word delivered unto us from the flocks, polluting the “ love-feasts,” corrupting the true disciples. beginning" (cf. Jude 3; 1 John ii. 7, iii. 23, iv. 21), “the oracles According to Clement of Alexandria this was written propheti- of the Lord,” which the false teachers,“ pervert to their own cally to apply to the Carpocratians, an antinomian Gnostic sect lusts.” Papias, his ètalpos (Irenaeus), turns in fact from “the of c. 150; but hyper-Paulinists had given occasion to similar vain talk of the many, and from the “ alien commandments complaints already in Rev. ii. 14, 20 (95). Thus Paulinism and to such as were “ delivered by the Lord to the faith,” offering its perversion alike are in the past. As regards the undeniable to the Christian world his Interpretation of ihe Lord's Oracles contact of Didache ii. 7 with Jude 22 seq. (cf. Didache, iv. 1, based upon personal inquiry from those who “came his way, Jude 8) priority cannot be determined; and the use of 1 John who could testify as to apostolic tradition. Hegesippus, alter iii. 12 in Jude in is doubtful. a journey to all the principal seats of Christian tradition, testifies On the other hand, practically the whole of Jude is taken up that all are holding to the true doctrine as transmitted at the into 2 Pet., the author merely avoiding, so far as he discovers original seat, where it was witnessed first by the apostles and them, the quotations from apocryphal writings, and prefixing afterwards by the kindred of the Lord and “ witnesses ” of the and affixing sections of his own to refute the heretical eschatology. first generation. All these writers in one form or other revert On the priority of Jude see especially against Spitta Zur Gesch.u. to the historic tradition against the licence of innovators. Lill. d. Urchristenthums, ii. 409-411, F. H. Chase, loc. cit. p. 803. Hegesippus indicates plainly the seat of its authority. For the (On 2 Pet. see Peter EPISTLES OF.) Unfortunately, the date of period before the adoption of a written standard the resort was 2 Pet. cannot be determined as earlier than late in the second not so much to “apostles” as to “disciples " and " witnesses.” century, so that we are thrown back upon internal evidence for The appeal was to “those who from the beginning had been eye- the inferior limit. witnesses and ministers of the word " (Luke i. 2); and these were The treatment of the heresy as the anti-Christ who precedes to be found primarily (until the complete destruction of that “the last hour" (v. 18), reminds us of 1 John ü. 18, but it church during the revolt of Barcochebas and its suppression by is indicative of conditions somewhat less advanced that the Hadrian) in the mother community in Jerusalem (cf. Acts xv.2). heretics have not yet “gone out from " the church. The treat- Its life is the measure of the period of oral tradition, whose ment of the apostolic age as past, and the deposit of the faith requiem is sung by Papias. Hegesippus (ap. Eus. H.E. ii. 32, as a regula fidei (cf. Ign. ad Trall. ix.), the presence of anti- 7 seq.) looks back to it as the safe guardian of the deposit“ of the nomian Gnosticism, denying the doctrine of lordship and faith" against all the depredations of heresy which“ when the glories ” (v. 8), with “discriminations" between “ "psychic sacred college of apostles had suffered death in various forms, and “pneumatic” (v. 19), strongly oppose a date earlier than and the generation of those that had been deemed worthy to hear the inspired wisdom with their own ears had passed away Sieffert, on account of the superscription, would date as early attempted thenceforth with a bold face, to proclaim, in opposition as 70-80, but acknowledges the hyper-Pauline affinity of the to the preaching of the truth,' the knowledge which is falsely heresy, its propagation as a doctrine, and close relation to the so-called (Yeudúvumos yvão is)." For an appeal like that of our Nicolaitan of Rev. ii. 14. To these phenomena he gives accord- epistle to the authority of the past against the moral laxity ingly a correspondingly early date. The nature of the heresy, and antinomian teaching of degenerate Pauline churches in the opposed, however, and the resort to the authority of Jude“ the Greek world, the natural resort after Paul himself (Pastoral brother of James." against it, favour rather the period of Epp.) would be the “ kindred of the Lord " who were the Polycarp and Papias (117-150). " leaders and witnesses in every church " in Palestine. Doubtless The history of the reception of the epistle into church canons the framer of Jude i would have preferred the aegis of “ James is similar to that of James, beginning with a quotation of it as the Lord's brother," if this, like that of Paul, had not been the work of Jude by Clement of Alexandria (Paed. ii. 8), a already appropriated. Failing this, the next most imposing reference by Tertullian (De cult. fem. i. 3), and a more or less Judas, the brother of James.” hesitant endorsement by Origen (“ if one might adduce the The superscription in the case of Jude, unlike that of James, epistle of Jude,” In Matt. tom. xvii. 30) and by the Muratorianum takes hold of the substance of the book. Verse 3 and the farewell (c. 200), which excepts Jude and 2 and 3 John from its condein- (v. 24 seq.) show that Jude was composed from the start as an nation of apocryphal literature, placing it on a par with the epistle.' If this appearance be not fallacious, the obvious Wisdom of Solomon which was written by friends of his in relation between the two superscriptions will be best explained I his honour.” The use of apocryphal literatare in Jude itself " « 100. was 3 60 538 JUDGE-JUDGES, BOOK OF may account for much of the critical disposition toward it of to military law, and more particularly as to courts-martial. In many subsequent writers. Eusebius classed it among the the army the administration of justice as pertaining to discipline disputed" books, declaring that as with James“ not many of is carried out in accordance with the provisions of military law, the ancients have mentioned it " (H. E. i. 23, 25). and it is the function of the judge-advocate general to ensure The Introd. to the New Test. by Holtzmann, Jülicher, Weiss, that these disciplinary powers are exercised in strict conformity Zahn, Davidson, Salmon, Bacon and the standard Commentaries with that law. Down to 1793 the judge-advocate-general acced of Meyer and Holtzmann, the International (Bigg) and other series, contain discussions of authorship and date. The articles s.v. in as secretary and legal adviser to the board of general officers, Hastings's Dict. Bible (Chase) and the Ency. Bib. (Cone) are full and but on the reconstitution of the office of commander-in-chief scholarly. In addition the Histories of the Apostolic Age, by Haus in that year he ceased to perform secretarial duties, but remained rath. Weizsäcker, McGiffert, Bartlet. Ropes and others, and the chief legal adviser. He retained his seat in parliament and in kindred works of Baur, Schwegler and Pfleiderer should be consulted. 1806 he was made a member of the government and a privy Moffat's Historical New Testament, 2nd ed., p. 589. contains a con- councillor. The office ceased to be political in 1892, on the venient summary of the evidence with copious bibliography. One of the most thorough of conservative treatments is the Commentary recommendation of the select committee of 1888 on army on Jude and Second Peter by J. B. Mayor (1907): (B. W. B.) estimates, and was conferred on Sir F. Jeune (afterwards Lord JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge), in the widest legal sense an St Helier). There was no salary attached to the office when officer appointed by the sovereign power in a state to administer held by Lord St Helier, and the duties were for the most part the law; in English practice, however, justices of the peace and performed by deputy. On his death in 1905, Thoinas Milvain, magistrates are not usually regarded as “judges ” in the titular K.C., was appointed, and the terms and conditions of the post sense. The duties of the judge, whether in a civil or a criminal were rearranged as follows: (1) A salary of £2000 a year; matter, are to hear the statements on both sides in open court, (2) the holder to devote his whole time to the duties of the post; to arrive at a conclusion as to the truth of the facts submitted (3) the retention of the post until the age of seventy, subject to to him or, when a jury is engaged, to direct the jury to find such continued efficiency—but with claim to gratuity or pension on a conclusion, to apply to the facts so found the appropriate rules retirement. The holder was to be subordinate to the secretary of law, and to certify by his judgment the relief to which the of state for war, without direct access to the sovereign. The parties are entitled or the obligations or penalties which they appointment is conferred by letters-patent, which define the have incurred. With the judgment the office of the judge is exact functions attaching to the office, which practically are the at an end, but the judgment sets in motion the executive forces reviewing of the proceedings of all field-general, general and of the state, whose duty it is to carry it into execution. district courts-martial held in the United Kingdom, and advising Such is the type of a judicial officer recognized by mature the sovereign as to the confirmation of the finding and sentence. systems of law, but it is not to be accepted as the universal The deputy judge-advocate is a salaried official in the department type, and the following qualifying circumstances should be of the judge-advocate-general and acts under his letters-patent. noticed: (1) in primitive systems of law the judicial is not A separate judge-advocate-general's department is maintained separated from the legislative and other governing functions; in India, where at one time deputy judge-advocates were (2) although the judge is assumed to take the law from the attached to every important command. All general courts- legislative authority, yet, as the existing law never at any time martial held in the United Kingdom are sent to the judge. contains provision for all cases, the judge may be obliged to advocate-general, to be by him submitted to the sovereign for invent or create principles applicable to the case-this is called confirmation; and all district courts-martial, after having been by Bentham and the English jurists judge-made and judiciary confirmed and promulgated, are sent to his office for examination law; (3) the separation of the function of judge and jury, and and custody. The judge-advocate-general and his deputy, the exclusive charge of questions of law given to the judge, are being judges in the last resort of the validity of the proceedings more particularly characteristic of the English judicial system. of courts-martial, take no part in their conduct; but the deputy During a considerable period in the history of Roman law an judge-advocates frame and revise charges and attend at courts- entirely different distribution of parts was observed. The martial, swear the court, advise both sides on law, look after the adjudication of a case was divided between the magistratus and interests of the prisoner and record the proceedings. In the the judex, neither of whom corresponds to the English judge. English navy there is an official whose functions are somewhat The former was a public officer charged with the execution of similar to those of the judge-advocate-general. He is called the law; the latter was an arbitrator whom the magistrates counsel and judge-advocate of the fleet. commissioned to hear and report upon a particular case. In the United States there is also a judge-advocate-general's The following are points more specially characteristic of the department. In addition to being a bureau of military justice, English system and its kindred judicial systems: (1) Judges are and keeping the records of courts-martial, courts of inquiry and absolutely protected from action for anything that they may do military commissions, it has the custody of all papers relating in the discharge of their judicial duties. This is true in the to the title of lands under the control of the war department. fullest sense of judges of the supreme courts. “ It is a principle The officers of the department, in addition to acting as prose- of English law that no action will lie against a judge of one of cutors in all military trials, sometimes represent the government the superior courts for a judicial act, though it be alleged to have when cases affecting the army come up in civil courts. been done maliciously and corruptly." Other judicial officers See further MILITARY Law, and consult C. M. Clode, Administra. are also protected, though not to the same extent, against tion of Justice under Military and Martial Law (1872); Military Forces actions. (2) The highest class of judges are irremovable except of the Crown (2 vols., 1869). by what is in effect a special act of parliament, viz. a resolution JUDGES, THE BOOK OF, in the Bible. This book of the passed by both houses and assented to by the sovereign. The Old Testament, which, as we now read it, constitutes a sequel inferior judges and magistrates are removable for misconduct to the book of Joshua, covering the period of history between by the lord chancellor. (3) The judiciary in England is not a the death of this conqueror and the birth of Samuel, is so called separate profession. The judges are chosen from the class of because it contains the history of the Israelites before the advocates, and almost entirely according to their eminence at establishment of the monarchy, when the government was in the bar. (4) Judges are in England appointed for the most part the hands of certain leaders who appear to have formed a con- by the crown. In a few cases municipal corporations may tinuous succession, although the office was not hereditary. appoint their own judicial officer. The only other biblical source ascribed to this period is Ruth, See also LORD High CHANCELLOR; Lord Chief Justice: MASTER whose present position as an appendix to Judges is not original OF THE ROLLs, &c., &c., and the accounts of judicial systems under (see Bible and Ruth). country headings. Structure. It is now generally agreed that the present adjust- JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL, an officer appointed in ment of the older historical books of the Old Testament to form a England to assist the Crown with advice in matters relating I continuous record of events from the creation to the Babylonian : JUDGES, BOOK OF 539 exile is due to an editor, or rather to successive redactors, who | the later are coloured by religious reflection and show the pieced together and reduced to a certain unity older memoirs characteristic tendency of the Old Testament to re-tell the of very different dates; and closer examination shows that the fortunes of Israel in a form that lays ever-increasing weight continuity of many parts of the narrative is more apparent than on the work of Yahweh for his people. That the pre-Deutero- real. This is very clearly the case in the book of Judges. It nomic sources are to be identified with the Judaean (J, or consists of three main portions: (1) an introduction, presenting Yahwist) and Ephraimite (E, or Elohist) strands of the Hexa- one view of the occupation of Palestine by the Israelites (i. 1- teuch is, however, not certain. ii. 5); (2) the history of the several judges (ii. 6-xvi.); and (3) an To the unity of religious pragmatism in the main stock appendix containing two narratives of the period. of the book of Judges corresponds a unity of chronological 1. The first section relates events which are said to have taken scheme. The “ judges,” in spite of the fact that most of them place after the death of Joshua, but in reality it covers the same had clearly no more than a local influence, are all represented ground with the book of Joshua, giving a brief account of the as successive rulers in Israel, and the history is dated by the occupation of Canaan, which in some particulars repeats the years of each judgeship and those of the intervening periods of statements of the previous book, while in others it is quite oppression. But it is impossible to reconcile the numbers with independent (see Joshua). It is impossible to regard the war- the statement elsewhere that the fourth year of Solomon was the like expeditions described in this section as supplementary 480th from the exodus (1 Kings vi. 1). See BIBLE: Chronology. campaigns undertaken after Joshua's death; they are plainly The general introduction (ii. 6-iii. 6) is a blend of Deuteronomic represented as the first efforts of the Israelites to gain a firm and other sources. The intimate relation between it and the separate footing in the land (at Hebron, Debir, Bethel), in the very cities narratives (Josh. xxiv. 1-27, a late (Ephraimite) record inserted by which Joshua is related to have subdued (Josh. x. 39). Here a second Deuteronomic hand, and xxiii., D) appears both from their then we have an account of the settlement of Israel west of the with the narrative appended to Joshua's address (Joshua xxiv. 28-31). contents and from the fact that Judg. ii. 6-10 is almost identical Jordan which is parallel to the book of Joshua, but makes no Judg. i.-ii. 5, however, is not touched by D, and hence was probably mention of Joshua himself, and places the tribe of Judah in the inserted in its present position at a later date. According to the front. The author of the chapter cannot have had Joshua or highly intricate introduction the Hebrews were oppressed: (a) to his history in his eye at all, and the words“ and it came to pass married with the Canaanites and worshipped their gods (iii. 2,6); familiarize them with warfare-it is assumed that they had inter- after the death of Joshua ” in Judg. i. I are from the hand of (b) to test their loyalty to Yahweh (ii. 22; iii. :); or (c) to punish them the last editor, who desired to make the whole book of Judges, for their marriage with the heathen and their apostasy (D in ii. 12; including ch. i., read continuously with that which now pre- cf. Josh. xxiii., and ibid. v. 12). cedes it in the canon of the earlier prophets.? To this succeeds a noteworthy example of the Deuteronomic 2. The second and main section (ii. 6-xvi.) stands on quite Judacan judge,” treatment of tradition in the achievement of Othniel (q.v.) the only The bareness of detail, not to speak of the another footing. According to Josh. xxiv. 31 the people improbability of the situation, renders its genuineness doubtful, and “served Yahweh” during the lifetime of the great conqueror and the passage is one of the indications of a secondary Deuteronomic his contemporaries. In Judg. ii. 7 this statement is repeated, redaction. The case, however, is exceptional, the stories of the other great “judges” were not rewritten or to any great extent revised and the writer proceeds to explain that subsequent generations by the Deuteronomic redactor, and his hand appears chiefly in the fell away from the faith, and served the gods of the nations framework. Thus, in the story of Ehud and the defeat of Moab among which they dwelt (ii. 6-iii. 6). The worship of other only iii. 12-15, 29–30 are Deuteronomic. But the rest is not homo- gods is represented, not as something which went on side by geneous, ov. 19 and 20 appear to be variants, and the mention of Israel (v. 27b) is characteristic of the tendency to treat local troubles side with Yahweh-worship (cf. x. 6), but as a revolt against as national oppressions, whereas other records represent little national Yahweh, periodically repeated and regularly chastised by unity at this period (i., v.). See further EHUD. foreign invasion. The history, therefore, falls into recurring the first of Israel's oppressors. The brief notice of Shamgar, who According to the Septuagint addition to Josh. xxiv. 33, Moab was cycles, each of which begins with religious corruption, followed delivered Israel from the Philistines (iii. 31), is one of the later inser- by chastisement, which continues until Yahweh, in answer to tions, and in some MSS. of the LXX. it stands after xvi. 31. The story the groans of his oppressed people, raises up a “judge” to deliver of the defeat of Sisera appears in two distinct forms, an earlier, in Israel, and recall them to the true faith. On the death of poetical form (v.), and a later, in prose (iv.). "D's framework is to the “ judge,” if not sooner, the corruption spreads anew and be recognized in iv. 1-4, 23 seg., v. i (probably), 31 (last clause); see the same vicissitudes follow. This religious explanation of the further DEBORAH., The Midianite oppression (vi.-viii.) is contained in the usual frame (vi. 1-6; viii. 27 seq.), but is not homogeneous, since course of the history, formally expounded at the outset and viii . 4, the pursuit of the kings, cannot be the sequel of viii . 3 (where repeated in more or less detail from chapter to chapter (espe- they have been slain), and viii. 33-35 ignores ix. The structure of cially vi. 1-10, x. 6-18), determines the form of the whole vi. I-viii. 3 is particularly intricate: vi. 25-32 does not continue vi. 11-24 (there are two accounts of Gideon's introduction and diver- narrative. It is in general agreement with the spirit as also gent representations of Yahweh-worship); vi. 34 forms the sequel of with the language of Deuteronomy, and on this account this the latter, and vi. 36-40 (with “God") is strange after the description section may be conveniently called “the Deuteronomic Book of of the miracle in vv. 21 seq. (with Yahweh "). Further, there are Judges." But the main religious ideas are not so late and are difficulties in vi. 34, vii. 23 seq., viii. I, when compared with vii. 2-8, rather akin to those of Josh. xxiv; in particular the worship sequels: vii. 23 seq. and viii. 4; with the former contrast vi. 35; and in vii. 16–22 two stratagems are combined. There are two of the high places is not condemned, nor is it excused as in with viii. 1-3 c. xii. 1-6, and see below. Chapter viii. 22 seq. comes 1 Kings iii. 2. The sources of the narrative are obviously older unexpectedly, and the refusal of the offer of the kingship reflects than the theological exposition of its lessons, and herein lies later ideas (cf. 1 Sam. viii. 7; X. 19; xii. 12, 17). The conclusion, the value and interest of Judges. The importance of such docu- however, shows that Jerubbaal had only a local reputation. Finally, the condemnation of the ephod as part of the worship of Yahweh ments for the scientific historian lies not so much in the events (viii. 27) agrees with the thought in vi. 25-32 as against that in vi. they record as in the unconscious'witness they bear to the state of 11-24. (See EPHoD; GIDEON.) Chapter ix. (see ABIMELECH) appears society in which the narrator or poet lived. From this point of to have been wanting in the Deuteronomic book of Judges, but view the parts of the book are by no means all of equal value; (post-exilic). It has two accounts of the attack upon Shechem inserted later perhaps by means of the introduction, viii. 30-32 critical analysis shows that often parallel or distinct narratives (lx. 26-41 and 42-49). have been fused together, and that, whilst the older stories gave After a brief notice of two “minor judges " (see below), follows the more prominence to ordinary human motives and combinations, story of Jephthah. It concludes with the usual Deuteronomic 1 This is confirmed by the circumstance that in Judg. ii. 1.the 3 Hence, it is to be inferred that the reviser had older written "angel of Yahweh," who, according to Exod. xiv. 24, xxiii. 20, records before him. Had these been in the oral stage he would xxxii. 34, xxxiii. 2, 7 seq., must be viewed as having his local mani scarcely incorporate traditions which did not agree with his views; festation at the headquarters of the host of Israel, is still found at at all events they would hardly have been written down by him in Gilgal and not at Shiloh. the form in which they have survived. The narratives of the 2 The chapter was written after Israel had become strong enough monarchy which are preserved only in Chronicles, on the other to make the Canaanite cities tributary (v. 28), that is, after the hand, illustrate the manner in which tradition was reshaped and establishment of the monarchy (see i Kings ix. 20-21). rewritten under the influence of a later religious standpoint. 540 JUDGMENT formula (xii. 7). but is prefaced by a detailed introduction to the 16, 24 seq.) describe the punishment of Benjamin by the religious oppression of Israel (x. 6 sqq.). By the inclusion of the Philistines assembly and the massacre of Jabesh-Gilead for its refusal to join among the oppressors, and of Judah, Benjamin and Ephraim Israel, lour hundred virgins of the Gileadites being saved for Ben. among the oppressed (x: 7.9), it appears to have in view not merely jamin. How much old tradition underlies these stories is question- the story of Samson, a hero of local interest, but the early chapters able.. It is very doubtful whether Hosea's allusion to the depravity in 1 Samuel. This introduction is of composite origin (as also ii.6-21; of Gibeah (ix. 9; x. 9) is to be referred hither, but it is noteworthy Josh. xxiii.-xxiv. 25), but a satisfactory analysis seems impossible. that whilst Gibeah and Jabesh-Gilead, which appear here in a As it stands, it has literary connexions with the late narrative in bad light, are known to be associated with Saul, the sufferer is a i Sam. (vii. seq., xii.), and appears to form the preface to that Levite of Bethlehem, the traditional home of David. The account period of history which ended with Samuel's great victory and the of the great fight in xx. is reminiscent of Joshua's battle at Ai institution of the monarchy. But this belongs to a later scheme (see (Josh. vii.-viii.). SAMUEL), and the introduction in its earlier form must have been the prelude to earlier narratives. The story of Jephthah's fight with Historical Value.-The book of Judges consists of a number of Ammon is linked to the preceding introduction by x. 17 seq.; for the narratives collected by Deuteronomic editors; to the same circles framework see x. 6 (above), xii. 7. Chapter xi. 12-28 (cf. Num. xx. seq.) are due accounts of the invasions of Palestine and settlement in is applicable only to Moab, vv. 29 and 32 are variants, and Jeph- thah's home is placed variously in Tob. (xi. 3) and Mizpeh (v. 34): Joshua, and of the foundation of the monarchy in 1 Samuel. In xi. 1-10 the outlaw stipulates that he shall be chief of Gilead The connexion has been broken by the later insertion of matter if successful, but in w. 12-28 a ruler speaks on behalf of Israel. (not necessarily of late date itself), and the whole was finally Both Moab and Ammon had good reason to be hostile to Gilead formed into a distinct book by a post-exilic hand. The dates (Num. xxi.), but the scene of the victory points rather to the former of the older stories preserved in ii. 6-xvi. 6 are quite unknown. (v. 33: possibly conflate). There is a general resemblance between the victories of Gideon and Jephthah, which is emphasized by the If they are trustworthy for the period to which they are rele- close relation between viii. 1-3 and xii. 1-6, the explanation of which gated (approximately 14th-12th cent. B.c.) they are presumably in its present context is difficult. See further JEPHTHAH. of very great antiquity, but if they belong to the sources J and The old stories of Samson the Danite have been scarcely touched by the redaction (xiii. 1; xv. 20; xvi. 316, where he is a judge their value is seriously weakened. On the other hand, the belief E of the Hexateuch (at least some four or five centuries later) only xiii. appears to be rather later (v. 5 represents him as a fore- runner of Samuel and Saul), and gives a rather different impression that the monarchy had been preceded by national "judges" of the hero of the folk-tales. The cycle illustrates some interesting may have led to the formation of the collection. It is evident that customs and is in every way valuable as a specimen of popular there was more than one period in Israelite history in which one narrative. See SAMSON. Grouped among these narratives are the five so-called “minor or other of these stories of local heroes would be equally suitable. judges" (x. 1-5; xii. 8-15). By the addition of Shamgar (ii . 31) | They reflect tribal rivalry and jealousy (cf. Isa. ix. 21, and the the number is made to agree with the six more important names. successors of Jeroboam 2), attacks by nomads and wars with They are not represented as having any immediate religious impor: Ammon and Moab; conflicts between newly settled Israelites and tance; they really lie outside of the chronological scheme, and their history is plainly not related from such lively and detailed remi- indigenous Canaanites have been suspected in the story of Abime. niscence as gives charm to the longer episodes of the book. The lech, and it is not impossible that the post-Deuteronomic writer notices are drawn up in set phraseology, and some of the names, who inserted ch. ix. so understood the record. A striking in harmony with a characteristic feature of carly Hebrew history; exception to the lack of unity among the tribes is afforded by the are those of personified families of communities rather than of account of the defeat of Sisera, and here the old poem represents families. 3. The third and last section of the book embraces chapters while the later prose version approximates the standpoin: of a combined effort to throw off the yoke of a foreign oppressor, xvii.-xxi., and consists of two narratives independent of one another and of the main stock of the book, with which they Josh, xi. 1-15. with its defeat of the Canaanites. The general are not brought into any chronological connexion. They appear stand-point of the stories (esp. Judg. v.) is that of central Pales- to owe their position to the latest redactor (akin to the latest tine; the exceptions are Othniel and Samson-the latter inter. stratum in the Hexateuch) who has heavily worked over xix.- rupting the introduction in x., and its sequel, the former now Of the narratives xxi., and put the book into its present form by the addition entirely due to the Deuteronomic editor. of i.-ii. 5, ix. and possibly of v.: which precede and follow, ch. i. represents central Palestine The first narrative, that of Micah and the Danites, is of the highest it is the situation recognized in Judg. xix. 10-12, as well as in separated by Canaanite cities from tribes to the south and north; interest both as a record of the state of religion and for the picture it gives of the way in which one clan passed from the condition of an passages imbedded in the latest portions of the book of Joshua, invading band into settled possession of land and city. Its interest though it is in contradiction to the older traditions of Joshua (xvii. seq.) lies in the foundation of the Ephraimite sanctuary by himself. Chapters xvii. seq. (like the preceding story of Samson) Micah as also in that of Dan. There are some repetitions in the account, but there is not enough evidence to restore two complete than David's time; and xix.-xxi., by describing the extermina- deal with Danites, but the migration can hardly be earlier stories. The history of the Levite and the Benjamites is of quite another character, and presupposes a degree of unity of feeling and tion of Benjamin, form a link between the presence of the tribe action among the tribes of Israel which it is not easy to reconcile with in the late narratives of the exodus and its new prominence in the the rest of the book. In its present form this episode appears to be traditions of Saul (9.v.). As an historical source, therefore, the not very ancient; it resembles Ruth in giving a good deal of curious archaeological detail (the feast at Shiloh) in a form which suggests value of Judges will depend largely upon the question whether that the usages referred to were already obsolete when the narrative the Deuteronomic editor (about 600 B.C. at the earliest) would was composed. It appears to consist of an old story which has been have access to trustworthy documents relating to a period heavily revised to form an edifying piece of exposition. The older parts are preserved in xix.: the account of the Levite of Mt Ephraim some six or seven centuries previously. See further Jews, whose concubine from Bethlehem in Judah was outraged, not by the $$ 6, 8; and SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. non-Israelite Jebusites of Jerusalem, but by the Benjamites of LITERATURE.—Biblical scholars are in agreement regarding the Gibeah; there are traces of another source in v. 6-8, 10, 13, 15; preliminary literary questions of the book, but there is divergence The older portions of xx. seq. include: the vengeance taken by Israel of opinion on points of detail, and on the precise growth of the (e.g. xx. 3-8, 14, 19, 29, 36-41, 47), and the reconstruction of the book (e.g. the twofold Deuteronomic redaction). See further W. R. tribe by intermarriage with the women of Shiloh (xxi. 1, 15.17-19. Smith, Ency. Brit. 9th ed. (upon which the present article is based): 21-23). The post-exilic expansions (found chiefly in xx., xxi. 2-14, G. F. Moore, International Critical Comm. (1895); Ency. Bib., art. "Judges"; K. Budde, Kurzer Handcommentar (1897): Lagrange, " It may be conjectured that the introduction originally formed Livres des juges (1903); G. W. Thatcher (Century Bible); also S. R. the prelude to the rise of Saul: the intervening narratives, though Driver, Lit. of Old Testament (1909); Moore, in the Sacred Books not necessarily of late origin themselves, having been subsequently of Old Testame:il (1898); C. F. Kent, The Student's Old Testament, inserted. See S. A. Cook, Crit. Noles 0. T. Hist., p. 127 seq. vol. i. (1904). (S. A. C.) · Tola and Puah (x. !) are clans of Issachar (Gen. xlvi. 13), for Jair (v. 3), see Num. xxxii. 41, and for Elon (xii. 11), see Gen. xlvi. 14. JUDGMENT, in law, a term used to describe (1) the adjudica- See GENEALOGY: Biblical. tion by a court of justice upon a controversy submitted to it • To the same post-exilic hand may also be ascribed the introduc. tion of the “minor judges " (so several critics), and smaller additions inter parles (post litem contestatam) and determining the rights here and there (ch. i. 1 opening words, v. 4, 8 seq. (contrast 21) 18; of the parties and the relief to be awarded by the court as viii. 30-32; xi. 2, &c.). between them; (2) the formal document issuing from the court JUDGMENT DEBTOR-JUDICATURE ACTS 541 a in which that adjudication is expressed; (3) the opinions of the 1873 the court of chancery, the court of queen's (king's) bench, judges expressed in a review of the facts and law applicable to the court of common pleas, the court of exchequer, the high court the controversy leading up to the adjudication expressed in of admiralty, the court of probate and the court of divorce and the formal document. When the judgment has been passed and matrimonial causes were consolidated into one Supreme Court entered and recorded it binds the parties: the controversy comes of Judicature (sec. 3), divided into two permanent divisions, to an end (transit in rem judicatam), and the person in whose called “the high court,” with (speaking broadly) original juris- favour the judgment is entered is entitled to enforce it by the diction, and “the court of appeal ” (sec. 4). The objects of the appropriate method of " execution." There has been much act were threefold-first, to reduce the historically indepen- controversy among lawyers as to the meaning of the expressions dent courts of common law and equity into one supreme “ final ” and “interlocutory as applied to judgments, and as to court; secondly, to establish for all divisions of the court a uni- the distinction between a “ judgment,” a “decree,” and an form system of pleading and procedure; and thirdly, to provide “order.” These disputes arise upon the wording of statutes for the enforcement of the same rule of law in those cases where or rules of court and with reference to the appropriate times or chancery and common law recognized different rules. It can modes of appeal or of execution. be seen at once how bold and revolụtionary was this new enact- The judgments of one country are not as a rule directly ment. By one section the august king's bench, the common enforceable in another country. In Europe, by treaty or pleas, in which serjeants only had formerly the right of audience, arrangement, foreign judgments are in certain cases and on and the exchequer, which had its origin the reign of Henry I., compliance with certain formalities made executory in various and all their jurisdiction, criminal, legal and equitable, were states. A similar provision is made as between England, vested in the new court. It must be understood, however, that Scotland and Ireland, for the registry and execution in each law and equity were not fused in the sense in which that phrase country of certain classes of judgments given in the others. has generally been employed. The chancery division still But as regards the rest of the king's dominions and foreign states, remains distinct from the common law division, having a certain foreign ” judgment is in England recognized only as consti- range of legal questions under its exclusive control, and possess- tuting a cause of action which may be sued upon in England. If ing to a certain extent a peculiar machinery of its own for given by a court of competent jurisdiction it is treated as creating carrying its decrees into execution. But all actions may now be a legal obligation to pay the sum adjudged to be due. Summary brought in the high court of justice, and, subject to such special judgment may be entered in an English action based on a foreign assignments of business as that alluded to, may be tried in any judgment unless the defendant can show that the foreign court division thereof. had not jurisdiction over the parties or the subject matter of the There were originally three common law divisions of the High action, or that there was fraud on the part of the foreign court Court corresponding with the three former courts of common or the successful party, or that the foreign proceedings were law. But after the death of Lord Chief Baron Kelly on the 17th contrary to natural justice, e.g. concluded without due notice to of September 1880, and of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn on the the parties affected. English courts will not enforce foreign 20th of November 1880, the common pleas and exchequer divi- judgments as to foreign criminal or penal or revenue laws. sions were (by order in council, 10th December 1880) consolidated JUDGMENT DEBTOR, in English law, a person against with the king's bench division into one division under the whom a judgment ordering him to pay a sum of money has been presidency of the lord chief justice of England, to whom, by obtained and remains unsatisfied. Such a person may be the 25th section of the Judicature Act 1881, all the statutory examined as to whether any and what debts, are owing to him, jurisdiction of the chief baron and the chief justice of the common and if the judgment debt is of the necessary amount he may pleas was transferred. The high court, therefore, now consists of be made bankrupt if he fails to comply with a bankruptcy, the chancery division, the common law division, under the name notice served on him by the judgment creditors, or he may be of the king's bench division; and the probate, divorce and committed to prison or have a receiving order made against him admiralty division. To the king's bench division is also attached, in a judgment summons under the Debtors Act 1869. by order of the lord chancellor (Jan. I, 1884), the business of JUDGMENT SUMMONS, in English law, a summons issued the London court of bankruptcy. under the Debtors Act 1869, on the application of a creditor For a more detailed account of the composition of the various who has obtained a judgment for the payment of a sum of money courts, see CHANCERY; KING'S BENCH;and PROBATE, DIVORCE AND by instalments or otherwise, where the order for payment has ADMIRALTY Court. not been complied with. The judgment summons cites the The keystone of the structure created by the Judicature Acts defendant to appear personally in court, and be examined was a strong court of appeal. The House of Lords remained the on oath as to the means he has, or has had, since the date of the last court of appeal, as before the acts, but its judicial functions order or judgment made against him, to pay the same, and to were virtually transferred to an appeal committee, consisting of show cause why he should not be committed to prison for his the lord chancellor and other peers who have held high judicial default. An order of commitment obtained in a judgment office, and certain lords of appeal in ordinary created by the act summons remains in force for a year only, and the extreme term of 1873 (see APPEAL). of imprisonment is six weeks, dating from the time of lodging in The practice and procedure of the Supreme Court are regulated prison. When a debtor has once been imprisoned, although for by rules made by a committee of judges, to which have been added a period of less than six weeks, no second order of commitment the president of the incorporated law society and a practising barris- can be made against him in respect of the same debt. But if the rules now in force are those of 1883, with some subsequent amend- ter and one other person nominated by the lord chancellor. The judgment be for payment by instalments a power of committal ments. With the appendices they fill a moderate-sized volume. arises on default of payment for each instalment. If an order of Complaints are made that they go into too much detail, and place commitment has never been executed, or becomes inoperative a burden on the time and temper of the busy practitioner which he through lapse of time, a fresh commitment may be made. Im- attempted too much, and it might have been better to provide a can ill afford to bear. It is possible that the authors of the rules prisonment does not operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment simpler and more elastic code of procedure. Rules have sometimes of a debt, or deprive a person of a right of execution against the been made to meet individual cases of hardship, and rules of pro- land or goods of the person imprisoned in the same manner as if cedure have been piled up from time to time, sometimes embodging there had been no imprisonment. a new experiment, and not always consistent with former rules. JUDICATURE ACTS, an important series of English statutes 1 The comte de Franqueville in his interesting work, Le Système having for their object the simplification of the system of judiciaire de la Grande Bretagne, criticizes the use of the word judicature in its higher branches. They are the Supreme Court supreme as a designation of this court, inasmuch as its judgments of Judicature Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict. c. 66) and the Supreme the appeal to the House of Lords was abolished. He is also severe are subject to appeal to the House of Lords, but in the act of 1873 Court of Judicature Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 77), with various on the illogical use of the words “ division and court" in many amending acts, the twelfth of these being in 1899. By the act of I different senses (i. 180-181). 542 JUDITH, BOOK OF In a The most important matter dealt with by the rules is the mode rule committee, “was to make trial without a jury the normal of pleading. The authors of the Judicature Act had before them two mode of trial, except where trial with a jury is ordered under rules 6 systems of pleading, both of which were open to criticism. The or 7a, or may be had without an order under rule 2" (Timson v. common law pleadings (it was said) did not state the facts on which Wilson, 38 Ch. D. 72, at p: 76). The effect of the rules may be the pleader relied, but only the legal aspect of the facts or the infer- thus summarized: (1) In the chancery division no trial by jury ences from thein, while the chancery pleadings were lengthy, tedious unless ordered by the judge. (2). Generally, the judge may order and to a large extent irrelevant and useless. There was some trial without a jury of any cause or issue, which before the Judicature exaggeration in both statements. In pursuing the fusion of law and Act might have been so tried without consent of parties, or which equity which was the dominant legal idea of law reformers of that involves prolonged investigation of documents or accounts, or period, the framers of the first set of rules devised a system which scientific or local investigation. (3) Either party has a right to a they thought would meet the defects of both systems, and be appro- jury in actions of slander, libel, false imprisonment, malicious priate for both the common-law and the chancery divisions. prosecution, seduction or breach of promise of marriage, upon normal case, the plaintiff delivered his statement of claim, in which notice without order; (4) or in any other action, by order. (5) he was to set forth concisely the facts on which he relied, and the Subject as above, actions are to be tried without a jury unless the relief which he asked. The defendant then delivered his statement judge, of his own motion, otherwise orders. of defence, in which he was to say whether he admitted or denied Further steps have been taken with a view to simplification of the plaintiff's facts (every averment not traversed being taken to be procedure. By Order xxx. rule I (as amended in 1897). a summons, admitted), and any additional facts and legal defences on which he called a summons for directions, has to be taken out by a plaintiff relied. The plaintiff might then reply, and the defendant rejoin, and immediately after the appearance of the defendant, and upon such so on until the pleaders had exhausted themselves. This system summons an order is to be made respecting pleadings, and a number of pleading was not a bad one if accompanied by the right of either of interlocutory proceedings. To make such an order at that early party to demur to his opponent's pleading, i.e. to say, “ admitting stage would seem to demand a prescience and intelligent anticipa. all your averments of lact to be true, you still have no cause of tion of future events which can hardly be expected of a master, or action," or "defence" (as the case may be). It may be, however, even a judge in chambers, except in simple cases, involving a single that the authors of the new system were too intent on uniformity | issue of law or fact which the parties are agreed in presenting to the when they abolished the common-law pleading, which, shorn of its court. The effect of the rule is that the plaintiff cannot deliver his abuses (as it had been by the Common Law Procedure Acts), was statement of claim, or take any step in the action without the leave an admirable instrument for defining the issue between the parties of the judge. In chancery cases the order usually made is that the though unsuited for the more complicated cases which are tried plaintiff deliver his statement of claim, and the rest of the summons in chancery, and it miglit possibly, have been better to try the new stand over, and the practical effect is merely to add a few pounds to system in the first instance in the chancery division only. It should the costs. It may be doubted whether, as applied to the majority be added that the rules contain provisions for actions being tried of actions, the rule does not proceed on wrong lines, and whether it without pleadings iſ the defendant does not require a statement of would not be better to leave the parties, who know the exigencies claim, and for the plaintiff in an action of debt obtaining immediate of their case better even than a judge in chambers, to proceed in their judgment unless the defendant gets leave to defend. In the own way, subject to stringent provisions for immediate payment of chancery division there are of course no pleadings in those matters the costs occasioned by unnecessary, vexatious, or dilatory proceed. which by the rules can be disposed of by summons in chambers ings. The order does not apply to admiralty cases or to proceedings instead of by ordinary suit as formerly: under the order next mentioned. The judges seem to have been dissatisfied with the effect of their The Supreme Court of Judicature Act (Ireland) 1877 follows former rules, for in 1883 they issued a fresh set of consolidated rules, the same lines as the English acts. The pre-existing courts were which, with subsequent amendments, are those now in force. consolidated into a supreme court of judicature, consisting of a By these rules a further attempt was made to prune the exuberance high court of justice and a court of appeal. The judicature acts of pleading: Concise forms of statement of claim and defence did not affect Scottish judicature, but the Appellate Jurisdiction were given in the appendix for adoption by the pleader. It is true Act included the court of session among the courts from which an that these forms do not display a high standard of excellence in appeal lies to the House of Lords. draftsmanship, and it was said that many of them were undoubtedly JUDITH, THE BOOK OF, one of the apocryphal books of the demurrable, but that was not of much importance. Demurrers were abolished, and instead thereof it was provided that any point Old Testament. It takes its name from the heroine Judith of law raised by the pleadings should be disposed of at or after the ('lovdio, 'lováno, i.e: n71.7;, Jewess), to whom the last nine of trial, provided that by consent or order of the court the same its sixteen chapters relate. In the Septuagint and Vulgate might be set down and disposed of before the trial (Order xxv. rules 1, 2). This, in the opinion of Lord Davey in 1902 (Ency. Bril., it immediately precedes Esther, and along with Tobit comes 10th ed., xxx. 146), was a disastrous change. The right of either after Nehemiah; in the English Apocrypha it is placed between party to challenge his opponent in limine, either where the ques. Tobit and the apocryphal additions to Esther. tion between them was purely one of law, or where even the view of the facts taken and alleged by his opponent did not constitute who is described as king of Assyria,having his capital in Nineveh, Argument.-In the twelfth year of his reign Nebuchadrezzar, a cause of action or defence, was a most valuable one, and tended to the curtailment of both the delay and the expense of litigation. makes war against Arphaxad, king of Media, and overcomes Any possibility of abuse by frivolous or technical demurrers (as him in his seventeenth year. He then despatches his chief undoubtedly was formerly the case) had been met by powers of general Holofernes to take vengeance on the nations of the amendment and the infliction of costs. Many of the most im- west who had withheld their assistance. This expedition has portant questions of law had been decided on demurrer both in common law and chancery. Lord Davey considered that demurrer already succeeded in its main objects when Holofernes proceeds was a useful and satisfactory mode of trying questions in chan- to attack Judaea. The children of Israel, who are described cery (on bill and demurrer), and it was frequently adopted in as having newly returned from captivity, are apprehensive of a preference to a special case, which requires the statement of facts desecration of their sanctuary, and resolve on resistance to the to be agreed to by both parties and was consequently more difficult and expensive. It is obvious that a rule which makes the normal | uttermost. The inhabitants of Bethulia (Betylūa) and Betomes- time for decision of questions at law the trial or subsequently, and tham in particular (neither place can be identified), directed by a preliminary decision the exception, and such exception dependent | Joachim the high priest, guard the mountain passes near on the consent of both parties or an order of the court, is a poor Dothaim, and place themselves under God's protection. Holo- substitute for a demurrer as of right, and it has proved so in practice: fernes now inquires of the chiefs who are with him about the The editors of the Yearly Practice for 1901 (Muir Mackenzie, Lushing- ton and Fox) said (p. 272): “ Points of law raised by the pleadings | Israelites,and isanswered by Achior the leader of the Ammonites, are usually disposed of at the trial or on further considerationafter the who enters upon a long historical narrative showing the Israelites trial of the issues of fact," that is to say, after the delay, worry and to be invincible except when they have offended God. For this expense of a trial of disputed questions of fact which after all may turn out to be unnecessary. The abolition of demurrers has also Achior is punished by being handed over to the Israelites, who (it is believed) had a prejudicial effect on the standard of legal lead him to the governor of Bethulia. Next day the siege accuracy and knowledge required in practitioners. Formerly the begins, and after forty days the famished inhabitants urge the pleader had the fear of a demurrer before him. Nowadays he need not stop to think whether his cause of action or defence will hold relieved in five days. Judith, a beautiful and pious widow governor Ozias to surrender, which he consents to do unless water or not, and anything which is not obviously frivolous or vexatious will do by way of pleading for the purpose of the trial of the tribe of Simeon, now appears on the scene with a plan and for getting the opposite party into the box. of deliverance. Wearing her rich attire, and accompanied by Another change was made by the rules of 1883, which was regarded her maid, who carries a bag of provisions, she goes over to the by some common law lawyers as revolutionary. Formerly every issue of fact in a common law action, including the amount of hostile camp, where she is at once conducted to the general, damage, had to be decided by the verdict of a jury. “The effect whose suspicions are disarmed by the tales she invents. After of the rules of 1883," said Lord Lindley, who was a member of the 'four days Holofernes, smitten with her charms, at the close of a JUDSON—JUEL, J. 543 sumptuous entertainment invites her to remain within his | been brought about (largely, it is said, through his exertions) tent over night. No sooner is he overcome with sleep than Mrs Judson died. In 1827 Judson removed his headquarters to Judith, seizing his sword, strikes off his head and gives it to Maulmain, where school buildings and a church were erected, her maid; both now leave the camp (as they had previously been and where in 1834 he married Sarah Hall Boardman (1803–1845). accustomed to do, ostensibly for prayer) and return to Bethulia, In 1833 he completed his translation of the Bible; in succeeding where the trophy is displayed amid great rejoicings and thanks- years he compiled a Burmese grammar, a Burmese dictionary, givings. Achior now publicly professes Judaism, and at the and a Pali dictionary. In 1845 his wife's failing health decided instance of Judith the Israelites make a sudden victorious Judson to return to America, but she died during the voyage, onslaught on the enemy. Judith now sings a song of praise, and was buried at St Helena. In the United States Judson and all go up to Jerusalem to worship with sacrifice and rejoicing married Emily Chubbuck (1817-1854), well-known as a poet The book concludes with a brief notice of the closing years and novelist under the name of " Fanny Forrester," who was of the heroine. one of the earliest advocates in America of the higher education Versions.-Judith was written originally in Hebrew. This is of women. She returned with him in 1846 to Burma, where shown not only by the numerous Hebraisms, but also by mistransla. the rest of his life was devoted largely to the rewriting of his tions of the Greek translation, as in ii. 2, iii. 9, and other passages Burmese dictionary. He died at sea on the 12th of April 1850, (see Fritzsche and Ball in loc.), despite the statement of Origen while on his way to Martinique, in scarch of health. Judson (Ep. ad Afrir. 13) that the book was not received by the Jews among their apocryphal writings. In his preface to Judith, Jerome says was perhaps the greatest, as he was practically the first, of the that he based his Latin version on the Chaldee, which the Jews many missionaries sent from the United States into foreign reckoned among their Hagiographa. Ball (Speaker's Apocrypha, i. 243) holds that the Chaldee text used by Jerome was a free transla: fields; his fervour, his devotion to duty, and his fortitude in tion or adaptation of the Hebrew. The book exists in two forms: the face of danger mark him as the prototype of the American the shorter, which is preserved only in Hebrew (see under Hebrew missionary. Midrashim below), is, according to Scholz, Lipsius, Ball and Gaster, The Judson Memorial, an institutional church, was erected on the older; the longer form is that contained in the versions. Greek Version. This is found in three recensions: (1) in A B, *; Washington Square South, New York City, largely through the (2). in codices 19, 108 (Lucian's text); (3) in codex 58, the source of exertions of his son, Rev. Edward Judson (b. 1844), who became its the old Latin and Syriac. pastor and director, and who prepared a life of Dr Judson (1883; Syriac and Latin Versions.-Two Syriac versions were made 1854). See also Robert T. Middleditch's Life of Adoniram Judson, inew ed. 1898). Another biography is by Francis Wayland (2 vols., from the Greek—the first, that of the Peshito; and the second, that Burmah's Great Missionary (New York, 1859). For the three Mrs. of Paul of Tella, the so-called Hexaplaric. The Old Latin was de Judsons, see Knowles, Life of Ann Hasseltine Judson (1829); Emily rived from the Greek, as we have remarked above, and Jerome's C. Judson, Life of Sarah Hall Boardman Judson (1849); Asahel C. from the Old Latin, under the control of a Chaldee version. Later Hebrew Midrashim.- These are printed in Jellinek's Bet | Kendrick, Life and Letters of Emily Chubbuck Judson (1861). ha-Midrasch, i. 130-131; ii. 12-22; and by Gaster in Proceedings JUEL, JENS (1631-1700), Danish statesman, born on the 15th of the Society of Biblical Archæology (1894), pp. 156-163. Date.—The book in its fuller form was most probably written of July 1631, began his diplomatic career in the suite of Count in the 2nd century B.C. The writer places his romance two Christian Rantzau, whom he accompanied to Vienna and Regens- centuries earlier, in the time of Ochus, as we may reasonably burg in 1652. In August 1657 Juel was accredited to the court infer from the attack made by Holofernes and Bagoas on of Poland, and though he failed to prevent King John Casimir Judaea; for Artaxerxes Ochus made an expedition against from negotiating separately with Sweden he was made a privy Phoenicia and Egypt in 350 B.C., in which his chief generals councillor on his return home. But it was the reconciliation of Juel's uncle Hannibal Sehested with King Frederick III. which were Holofernes and Bagoas. secured Juel's future. As Sehested's representative, he con- Recent LITERATURE.--Ball, Speaker's A pocrypha (1888), an ex- cellent picce of work; Scholz, Das Buch Judith (1896): Löhr, A pok. cluded the peace of Copenhagen with Charles X., and after the und Pseud. (1900), ii. 147-164; Porter in Hastings's Dict. Bible, ii. Danish revolution of 1660 was appointed Danish minister at 822-824; Gaster, Ency. Bib., ii. 2642-2646. See Ball, pp. 260-261, Stockholm, where he remained for eight years. Subsequently the and Schürer in loc., for a full bibliography. (R. H. C.) chancellor Griffenfeldt, who had become warmly attached to him, JUDSON, ADONIRAM (1788–1850), American missionary, was sent him in 1672, and again in 1674, as ambassador extraordinary born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the oth of August 1788, to Sweden, ostensibly to bring about a closer union between the the son of a Congregational minister. He graduated at Brown two northern kingdoms, but really to give time to consolidate University in 1807, was successively a school teacher and an actor, . Griffenfeldt's far-reaching system of alliances. Juel completely completed a course at the Andover Theological Seminary in sympathized with Griffenfeldt's Scandinavian policy, which September 1810, and was at once licensed to preach as a Congre- aimed at weakening Sweden sufficiently to re-establish some- gational clergyman. In the summer of 1810 he with several of thing like an equilibrium between the two states. Like Griffen- his fellows students at Andover had petitioned the general associa-feldt, Juel also feared, above all things, a Swedo-Danish war. tion of ministers to be sent to Asiatic missionary fields. This After the unlucky Scanian War of 1675-79, Juel was one of the application resulted in the establishment of the American board Danish plenipotentiaries who negotiated the peace of Lund. of commissioners for foreign missions, which sent Judson to Even then he was for an alliance with Sweden“ till we can do England to secure, if possible, the co-operation of the London better.” This policy he consistently followed, and was largely Missionary Society. His ship fell into the hands of a French instrumental in bringing about the marriage of Charles XI. with privateer and he was for some time a prisoner in France, but | Christian V.'s daughter Ulrica Leonora. But for the death of finally proceeded to London, where his proposal was considered the like-minded Swedish statesman Johar Gyllenstjerna in June without anything being decided. He then returned to America, 1680, Juel's “ Scandinavian ” policy might have succeeded, to where he found the board ready to act independently. His the infinite advantage of both kingdoms. He represented appointment to Burma followed, and in 1812, accompanied by Denmark at the coronation of Charles XII. (December 1697), his wife, Ann Hasseltine Judson (1789-1826), he went to when he concluded a new treaty of alliance with Sweden. He Calcutta. On the voyage both became advocates of baptism died in 1700. by immersion, and being thus cut off from Congregationalism, Juel, a man of very few words and a sworn enemy of phrase- they began independent work. In 1814 they began to receive making, was perhaps the shrewdest and most cynical diplomatist support from the American Baptist missionary union, which had of his day. His motto was: “ We should wish for what we can been founded with the primary object of keeping them in the get.” Throughout life he regarded the political situation of field. After a few months at Madras, they settled at Rangoon. Denmark with absolute pessimism. She was, he often said, the There Judson mastered Burmese, into which he translated part cat's-paw of the Great Powers. While Griffenfeldt would have of the Gospels with his wife's help. In 1824 he removed to obviated this danger by an elastic political system, adaptable Ava, where during the war between the East India Company and to all circumstances, Juel preferred seizing whatever he could Burma he was imprisoned for almost two years. After peace had get in favourable conjunctures. In domestic affairs Juel was an " 544 JUEL, N.-JUGE " adherent of the mercantile system, and laboured vigorously for | in 1683. Personally Juel was the noblest and most amiable of the industrial development of Denmark and Norway. For an men, equally beloved and respected by his sailors, simple, straight. aristocrat of the old school he was liberally inclined, but only forward and unpretentious in all his ways. During his latter favoured petty reforms, especially in agriculture, while he re- years he was popularly known in Copenhagen as "the good old garded emancipation of the serfs as quite impracticable. Juel knight.” He died on the 8th of April 1697. made no secret of his preference for absolutism, and was one of See Garde, Niels Juel (1842), and Den dansk. norske Sömagts His. the few patricians who accepted the title of baron. He saw some lorie, 1535-1700 (1861). (R. N. B.). military service during the Scanian War, distinguishing himself at the siege of Venersborg, and by his swift decision at the JUG, a vessel for holding liquid, usually with one handle and critical moment materially contributing to his brother Niels's a lip, made of earthenware, glass or metal. The origin of the naval victory in the Bay of Kjoge. To his great honour he re- word in this sense is uncertain, but it is probably identical with mained faithful to Griffenfeldt after his fall, enabled his daughter a shortened form of the feminine name Joan or Joanna; cf. the to marry handsomely, and did his utmost, though in vain, to similar use of Jack and Jill or Gill for a drinking-vessel or a obtain the ex-chancellor's release from his dungeon. liquor measure. It has also been used as a common expression See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk biografisk lex., art.“ Juel " (1887, for a homely woman, a servant-girl, a sweetheart, sometimes in a &c.); Adolf Ditlev Jörgensen, P. Schumacher Griffenfeldt (1893- sense of disparagement. In slang, “jug" or stone-jug” is 1894). (R. N.B.) used to denote a prison; this may possibly be an adaptation of JUEL, NIELS (1629-1697), Danish admiral, brother, of the Fr. joug, yoke, Lat.jugum. The word “jug” is probably onomato- preceding, was born on the 8th of May 1629, at Christiania. He poeic when used to represent a particular note of the nightin- served his naval apprenticeship under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, gale's song, or applied locally to various small birds, as the taking part in all the chief engagements of the war of 1652-54 hedge-jug, &c. between England and Holland. During a long indisposition The British Museum contains a remarkable bronze jug which at Amsterdam in 1655-1656 he acquired a thorough knowledge was found at Kumasi during the Ashanti Expedition of 1896. It of ship-building, and returned to Denmark in 1656 a thoroughly dates from the reign of Richard II., and is decorated in relief with equipped seaman. He served with distinction during the Swedo- the arms of England and the badge of the king. It has a lid, Danish wars of 1658-60 and took a prominent part in the defence spout and handle, which ends in a quatrefoil. An inscription, on of Copenhagen against Charles X. During fifteen years of peace, three raised bands round the body of the vessel, modernized runs: Juel, as admiral of the fleet, laboured assiduously to develop —“He that will not spare when he may shall not spend when he and improve the Danish navy, though he bitterly resented the would. Deem the best in every doubt till the truth be tried setting over his head in 1663 of Cort Adelaar on his return from out." The British Museum Guide to the Medieval Room contains the Turkish wars. In 1661 Juel married Margrethe Ulfeldt. On an illustration of this vessel. the outbreak of the Scanian War he served at first under Adelaar, A particular form of jug is the “ ewer," the precursor of the but on the death of the latter in November 1675 he was appointed ordinary bedroom jug (an adaptation of O. Fr. ewaire, med. Lat. to the supreme command. He then won a European reputation, aquaria, water-pitcher, from aqua, water). The ewer was a jug and raised Danish sea-power to unprecedented eminence, by the with a wide spout, and was principally used at table for pouring system of naval tactics, afterwards perfected by Nelson, which water over the hands after eating, a matter of some necessity consists in cutting off a part of the enemy's force and concen- before the introduction of forks. Early ewers are sometimes trating the whole attack on it. He first employed this manæuvre mounted on three feet, and bear inscriptions such as Venez laver. at the battle of Jasmund off Rügen (May 25, 1676) when he A basin of similar material and designi accompanied the ewer. broke through the enemy's line in close column and cut off five In the 13th and 14th centuries a special type of metal ewer takes of their ships, which, however, nightfall prevented him from the form of animals, men on horseback, &c.; these are generally pursuing. Juel's operations were considerably hampered at this known as aquamaniles, from med. Lat. aqua manile or aqua period by the overbearing conduct of his Dutch auxiliary, Philip manale (aqua, water, and inanare, to trickle, pour, drip). The Almonde, who falsely accused the Danish admiral of cowardice. British Museum contains several examples. A few days after the battle of Jasmund, Cornelius Van Tromp the In the 18th and early 19th centuries were made the drinking. younger, with 17 fresh Danish and Dutch ships of the line, super- vessels of pottery known as “Toby jugs,” properly Toby Fillpois seded Juel in the supreme command. Juel took a leading part or Philpots. These take the form of a stout old man, sometimes in Van Promp's great victory off Öland (June 1, 1676), which seated, with a three-cernered hat, the corners of which act as enabled the Danes to invade Scania unopposed. On the ist of spouts. Similar drinking-vessels were also made representing June 1677 Juel defeated the Swedish admiral Sjöblad off Möen; characters popular at the time, such as “Nelson jugs,” &c. on the 30th of June 1677 he won his greatest victory, in the Bay JUGE, BOFFILLE DE (d. 1502), French-Italian adventurer of Kjöge, where, with 25 ships of the line and 1267 guns, he and statesman, belonged to the family of del Giudice, which routed the Swedish admiral Evert Horn with 36 ships of the line came from Amalfi, and followed the fortunes of the Angevin and 1800 guns. For this great triumph, the just reward of dynasty. When John of Anjou, duke of Calabria, was conquered superior seamanship and strategy—at an early stage of the in Italy (1461) and Ned to Provence, Boffille followed him. He engagement Juel's experienced eye told him that the wind in was given by Duke John and his father, King René, the charge of the course of the day would shift from S.W. to W. and he upholding by force of arms their claims on Catalonia. Louis XI., look extraordinary risks accordingly–he was made lieutenant who had joined his troops to those of the princes of Anjou, admiral general and a privy councillor. This victory, besides attached Boffille to his own person, made him his chamberlain permanently crippling the Swedish navy, gave the Danes a self- and conferred on him the vice-royalty of Roussillon and Cerdagne confidence which enabled them to keep their Dutch allies in their (1471), together with certain important lordships, among others proper place. In the following year Van Tromp, whose high- the countship of Castres, confiscated from James of Armagnac, handedness had become unbearable, was discharged by Chris-duke of Nemours (1476), and the temporalities of the bishopric tian V., who gave the supreme command to Juel. In the spring of Castres, confiscated from John of Armagnac. He also entrusted of 1678 Juel put to sea with 84 ships carrying 2400 cannon, but him with diplomatic negotiations with Flanders and England. as the Swedes were no longer strong enough to encounter such In 1480 Boffille married Marie d'Albret, sister of Alain the Great, a formidable armament on the open sea, his operations were thus confirming the feudal position which the king had given limited to blockading the Swedish ports and transporting troops him in the south. He was appointed as one of the judges in the to Rügen. After the peace of Lund Juel showed himself an trial of René of Alençon, and showed such zeal in the discharge administrator and reformer of the first order, and under his of his functions that Louis XI. rewarded him by fresh gifts. energetic supervision the Danish navy ultimately reached impos-However, the bishop of Castres recovered his diocese (1483), ing dimensions, especially after Juel became chief of the admiralty I and the heirs of the duke of Nemours took legal proceedings for JUGGERNAUT-JUGURTHA 545 in 1502. the recovery of the countship of “ Castres. Boffille, with the JUGGLER (Lat. joculator, jester), in the modern sense a per- object of escaping from his enemies, applied for the command of former of sleight-of-hand tricks and dexterous feats of skill in the armies of the republic of Venice. His application was re- tossing balls, plates, knives, &c. The term is practically synony- fused, and he further lost the viceroyalty of Roussillon (1491). mous with conjurer (see CONJURING). The joculatores were His daughter Louise married against his will a gentleman of no the mimes of the middle ages (see Drama); the French use of the rank, and this led to terrible family dissensions. In order to word jongleurs (an erroneous form of jougleur) included the disinherit his own family, Boffille de Juge gave up the countship singers known as trouvères; and the humbler English minstrels of Castres to his brother-in-law, Alain d'Albret (1494). He died of the same type gradually passed into the strolling jugglers, from whose exhibitions the term came to cover loosely any See P. M. Perret, Boffille de Juge, comte de Castres, et la république acrobatic, pantomimic and sleight-of-hand performances. In de Venise (1891); F. Pasquier, Inventaire des documents concernant ancient Rome various names were given to what we call jugglers, Boffille de Juge (1905). (M. P.*) e.g. ventilatores (knife-throwers), and pilarii (ball-players). JUGGERNAUT, a corruption of Sans. JAGANNĀTHA,“ Lord JUGURTHA (Gr. 'loyópas), king of Numidia, an illegitimate of the World," the name under which the Hindu god Vishnu is son of Mastanabal, and grandson of Massinissa. After his worshipped at Puri in Orissa. The legend runs that the sacred father's death he was brought up by his uncle Micipsa together blue-stone image of Jagannātha was worshipped in the solitude with his cousins Adherbal and Hiempsal. Jugurtha grew up of the jungle by an outcast, a Savara mountaineer, called Basu. strong, handsome and intelligent, a skilful rider, and an adept in The king of Malwa, Indradyumna, had despatched Brahmans to warlike exercises. He inherited much of Massinissa's political all quarters of the peninsula, and at last discovered Basu. ability. Micipsa, naturally afraid of him, sent him to Spain Thereafter the image was taken to Puri , and a temple, begun in (134 B.C.) in command of a Numidian force, to serve under He became a favourite 1174, was completed fourteen years later at a cost of upwards P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Minor. of half a million sterling. The site had been associated for with Scipio and the Roman nobles, some of whom put into his centuries before and after the Christian era with Buddhism, head the idea of making himself sole king of Numidia, with and the famous Car festival is probably based on the Tooth the help of Roman money. festival of the Buddhists, of which the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien In 118 B.C. Micipsa died. By his will, Jugurtha was associated gives an account. The present temple is a pyramidal build- with. Adherbal and Hiempsal in the government of Numidia. ing, 192 ft. high, crowned with the mystic wheel and flag of Scipio had written to Micipsa a strong letter of recommendation Vishnu. Its inner enclosure, nearly 400 ft. by 300 ft., contains in favour of Jugurtha; and to Scipio, accordingly, Micipsa en- a number of small temples and shrines. The main temple trusted the execution of his will. None the less, his testamentary has four main rooms—the hall of offerings, the dancing hall, arrangements utterly failed. The princes soon quarrelled, and the audience chamber, and the shrine itself-the two latter being Jugurtha claimed the entire kingdom. Hiempsal he contrived each 80 ft. square. The three principal images are those of to have assassinated; Adherbal he quickly drove out of Numidia. Vishnu, his brother and his sister, grotesque wooden figures He then sent envoys to Rome to defend his usurpation on the roughly hewn. Elaborate services are daily celebrated all the ground that he was the injured party. The senate decided that year round, the images are dressed and redressed, and four Numidia was to be divided, and gave the western, the richer and meals a day are served to them. The attendants on the god more populous half, to Jugurtha, while the sands and deserts of are divided into 36 orders and 97 classes. Special servants are the eastern half were left to Adherbal. Jugurtha's envoys assigned the tasks of putting the god to bed, of dressing and appear to have found several of the Roman nobles and senators bathing him. The annual rent-roll of the temple was put accessible to bribery. Having secured the best of the bargain, at £68,000 by Sir W. W. Hunter; but the pilgrims' offerings, Jugurtha at once began to provoke Adherbal to a war of self- defence. which form the bulk of the income, are quite unknown and have He completely defeated him near the modern Philippe- been said to reach as much as £100,000 in one year. Ranjit ville, and Adherbal sought safety in the fortress of Cirta (Con- Singh bequeathed the Koh-i-nor to Jagannath. There are four stantine). Here he was besieged by Jugurtha, who, notwith- chief festivals, of which the famous Car festival is the most standing the interposition of a Roman embassy, forced the place important. to capitulate, and treacherously massacred all the inhabitants, among them his cousin Adherbal and a number of Italian The terrible stories of pilgrims crushed to death in the god's honour merchants resident in the town. There was great wrath at Rome have made the phrase " Car of Juggernaut " synonymous with the and throughout Italy; and the senate, a majority of which still merciless sacrifice of human lives, but these have been shown to be baseless calumnies. The worship of Vishnu is innocent of all clung to Jugurtha, were persuaded in the same year (111) to bloody rites, and a drop of blood even accidentally spilt in the declare war. An army was despatched to Africa under the consul god's presence is held to pollute the officiating priests, the people, L. Calpurnius Bestia, several of the Numidian towns voluntarily and the consecrated food. The Car festival takes place in June surrendered, and Bocchus, the king of Mauretania, and Jugurtha's or July, and the feature of its celebration is the drawing of the god from the temple to his “ country-house," a distance of less father-in-law, offered the Romans his alliance.' Jugurtha was than a mile. The car is 45 ft. in height and 35 ft. square, and is alarmed, but having at his command the accumulated treasures supported on 16 wheels of 7 ft. in diameter. Vishnu's brother of Massinissa, he was successful in arranging with the Roman and sister have separate cars, slightly smaller. To these cars ropes general a peace which left him in possession of the whole of are attached, and thousands of eager pilgrims vie with each other to have the honour of dragging the god. Though the distance Numidia. When the facts were known at Rome, the tribune is so short the journey lasts several days, owing to the deep sand Memmius insisted that Jugurtha should appear in person and be in which the wheels sink. During the festival serious accidents questioned as to the negotiations. Jugurtha appeared under a have often happened. Sir W. W. Hunter in the Guzetteer of India safe conduct, but he had partisans, such as the tribune C. writes: In a closely packed, eager throng of a hundred thousand Baebius, who took care that his mouth should be closed. Soon men and women under the blazing tropical sun, deaths must occa- sionally occur. There have doubtless been instances of pilgrims afterwards he caused his cousin Massiva, then resident at Rome throwing themselves under the wheels in a frenzy of religious and a claimant to the throne of Numidia, to be assassinated. excitement, but such instances have always been rare, and are now The treaty was thereupon set aside, and Jugurtha was ordered to unknown. The few suicides that did occur were, for the most part, quit Rome. On this occasion he uttered the well-known words, cases of diseased and miserable objects who took this means to put themselves out of pain. The official returns now place this beyond A city for sale, and doomed to perish as soon as it finds a doubt: Nothing could be more opposed to the spirit of Vishnu- purchaser!” (Livy, Epit. 64). The war was renewed, and the worship than self-immolation. renders the whole place unclean. According to Chaitanya, the Roman army in Africa was thoroughly demoralized. An un. Accidental death within the temple consul Spurius Albinus entrusted with the command. The apostle of Jagannath, the destruction of the least of God's creatures successful attempt was made on a fortified town, Suthul, in which is a sin against the Creator.' See also Sir W. W. Hunter's Orissa (1872); and District Gazetteer the royal treasures were deposited. The army was surprised of Puri (1908). by the enemy in a night attack, and the camp was taken and 546 JUJU—JU-JUTSU plundered. Every Roman was driven out of Numidia, and a besides, they are nutritive and demulcent.' At one time a disgraceful peace was concluded (109). decoction was prepared from them and recommended in pectoral By this time the feeling at Rome and in Italy against the complaints. A kind of thick paste, known as jujube paste, corruption and incapacity of the nobles had become so strong was also made of a composition of gum arabic and sugar dis- that a number of senators were prosecuted and Bestia and solved in a decoction of jujube fruit evaporated to the proper Albinus sentenced to exile. The war was now entrusted to consistency. Quintus Metellus, an able soldier and stern disciplinarian, and 2. Jujuba is a tree averaging from 30 to 50 ft. high, found from the year 109 to its close in 106 the contest was carried on both wild and cultivated in China, the Malay Archipelago, with credit to the Roman arms. Jugurtha was defeated on the Ceylon, India, tropical Africa and Australia. Many varieties river Muthul, after an obstinate and skilful resistance. Once are cultivated by the Chinese, who distinguish them by the shape again, however, he succeeded in surprising the Roman camp and and size of their fruits, which are not only much valued as dessert forcing Metellus into winter quarters. There were fresh nego- fruit in China, but are also occasionally exported to England. tiations, but Metellus insisted on the surrender of the king's As seen in commerce jujube fruits are about the size of a small person, and this Jugurtha refused. Numidia on the whole filbert, having a reddish brown, shining, somewhat wrinkled seemed disposed to assert its independence, and Rome had before exterior, and a yellow or gingerbread coloured pulp enclosing a her the prospect of a troublesome guerrilla war. Negotiations, hard elongated stone. reflecting little credit on the Romans, were set on foot with The fruits of Zizyphus do not enter into the ccmposition of Bocchus (q.v.) who for a time played fast and loose with both the lozenges now known as jujubes which are usually made of parties. In 106, Marius was called on by the vote of the Roman gum-arabic, gelatin, &c., and variously flavoured. people to supersede Metellus, but it was through the perfidy JU-JUTSU or JIU-JITSU (a Chino-Japanese term, meaning of Bocchus and the diplomacy of L. Cornelius Sulla, Marius's muscle-science), the Japanese method of offence and defence quaestor, that the war was ended. Jugurtha fell into an ambush, without weapons in personal encounter, upon which is founded and was conveyed a prisoner to Rome. Two years afterwards, in the system of physical culture universal in Japan. Some 104, he figured with his two sons in Marius's triumph, and in the historians assert that it was founded by a Japanese physician subterranean prison beneath the Capitok" the bath of ice,” as who learned its rudiments while studying in China, but most he called it-he was either strangled or starved to death. writers maintain that ju-jutsu was in common use in Japan Though doubtless for a time regarded by his countrymen as centuries earlier, and that it was known in the 7th century B.C. their deliverer from the yoke of Rome, Jugurtha mainly owes his Originally it was an art practised solely by the nobility, and historical importance to the full and minute account of him particularly by the samurai who, possessing the right, denied to which we have from the hand of Sallust, himself afterwards commoners, of carrying swords, were thus enabled to show their governor of Numidia. superiority over common people even when without weapons. See A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist. of Rome (1904); T. Mommsen, Ilist. It was a secret art, jealously guarded from those not privileged of Rome, book iv. ch. v.; the chief ancient authorities (besides to use it, until the feudal system was abandoned in Japan, and Sallust) are Livy, Epit., lxii.-Ixvii.; Plutarch, Marias and Sulla; now ju-jutsu is taught in the schools, as well as in public and Velleius Paterculus, ii.; Diod. Sic., Excerpta, xxxiv.; Florus, ji. 1. private gymnasia. In the army, navy and police it receives See also MARIUS, SULLA, NUMIDIA. particular attention. About the beginning of the 20th century, JUJU, a West African word held by some authorities to be a masters of the art began to attract attention in Europe and corruption of Mandingo gru-gru, a charm. It is more generally America, and schools were established in Great Britain and the believed to have been adapted by the Mandingos directly from United States, as well as on the continent of Europe. Fr. joujou, a toy or plaything. The word, as used by Europeans Ju-jutsu may be briefly defined as“ an application of anatomi- on the Guinea coast, was originally applied to the objects which cal knowledge to the purpose of offence and defence. It differs it was supposed the negroes worshipped, and was transferred from wrestling in that it does not depend upon muscular strength. from the objects themselves to the spirits or gods who dwelt in It differs from the other forms of attack in that it uses no them, and finally to the whole religious beliefs of the West weapon. Its feat consists in clutching or striking such part Africans. It is currently used in each of these senses, and more of an enemy's body as will make him numb and incapable of loosely to indicate all the manners and customs of the negroes of resistance. Its object is not to kill, but to incapacitate one for the Guinea coast, particularly the power of interdiction exercised action for the time being” (Inazo Nitobe, Bushido: the Soul of in the name of spirits (see FETISHISM and Taboo). Japan). JUJUBE. Under this name the fruits of at least two species Many writers translate the term ju-jutsu to conquer by of Zizyphus are usually described, namely, 2. vulgaris and yielding” (Jap. ju, pliant), and this phrase well expresses a 2. Jujuba. The genus is a member of the natural order Ana- salient characteristic of the art, since the weight and strength of cardiaceae. The species are small trees or shrubs, armed with the opponent are employed to his own undoing. When, for sharp, straight, or hooked spines, having alternate leaves, and example, a big man rushes at a smaller opponent, the smaller fruits which are in most of the species edible, and have an man, instead of seeking to oppose strength to strength, falls agreeable acid taste; this is especially the case with those of the backwards or sidewise, pulling his heavy adversary after him and two species mentioned above. taking advantage of his loss of balance to gain some lock or hold 2. vulgaris is a tree about 20 feet high, extensively cultivated known to the science. This element of yielding in order to in many parts of Southern Europe, also in Western Asia, China conquer is thus referred to in Lafcadio Hearn's Out of the East: and Japan. In India it extends from the Punjab to the north- “In jiu-jitsu there is a sort of counter for every twist, wrench, western frontier, ascending in the Punjab Himalaya to a height pull, push or bend: only the jiu-jitsu expert does not oppose of 6500 feet, and is found both in the wild and cultivated state. such movements. No; he yields to them. But he does much The plant is grown almost exclusively for the sake of its fruit, more than that. He aids them with a wicked sleight that which both in size and shape resembles a moderate-sized plum; causes the assailant to put out his own shoulder, to fracture his at first the fruits are green, but as they ripen they become of a own arm, or, in a desperate case, even to break his own neck or reddish-brown colour on the outside and yellow within. They back.” ripen in September, when they are gathered and preserved by The knowledge of anatomy mentioned by Nitobe is acquired storing in a dry place; after a time the pulp becomes much in order that the combatant may know the weak parts of his softer and sweeter than when fresh. Jujube fruits when carefully adversary's body and attack them. Several of these sensitive dried will keep for a long time, and retain their refreshing acid places, for instance the partially exposed nerve in the elbow favour, on account of which they are much valued in the countries popularly known as the “funny-bone ” and the complex of of the Mediterranean region as a winter dessert fruit; and, nerves over the stomach called the solar plexus, are familiar to 'The med. Lat. jujuba is a much altered form of the Gr. Situbov. the European, but the ju-jutsu expert is acquainted with many ( 9 JUJUY-JULIAN 547 a others which, when conipressed, struck, or pinched, cause tem- | very scanty population and no important industry beyond the porary paralysis of a more or less complete nature. Such places breeding of a few goats and the fur-bearing chinchilla. There are are the arm-pit, the ankle and wrist bones, the tendon running two large saline lagoons: Toro, or Pozuelos, in the N., and Casa- downward from the ear, the “ Adam's apple," and the nerves of bindo, or Guayatayoc, in the S. The climate is cool, dry and the upper arm. In serious fighting almost any hold or attack is healthy, with violent tempests in the summer season. (For a resorted to, and a broken or badly sprained limb is the least that vivid description of this interesting region, see F. O'Driscoll, can befall the victim; but in the practice of the art as a means of “A Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic,” Geogr. physical culture the knowledge of the different grips is assumed Jour. xxiv. 1904.) The agricultural productions of Jujuy in- on both sides, as well as the danger of resisting too long. For clude sugar cane, wheat, Indian corn, alfalfa and grapes. The this reason the combatant, when he feels himself on the point of breeding of cattle and mules for the Bolivian and Chilean markets being disabled, is instructed to signal his acknowledgment of is an old industry. Coffee has been grown in the department of defeat by striking the floor with hand or foot. The bout then Ledesma, but only to a limited extent. There are also valuable ends and both combatants rise and begin afresh. It will be forest areas and undeveloped mineral deposits. Large borax seen that a victory in ju-jutsu does not mean that the opponent deposits are worked in the northern part of the province, the out- shall be placed in some particular position, as in wrestling, but in put in 1901 having been 8000 tons. The province is traversed any position in which his judgment or knowledge tells him that, from S. to N. by the Central Northern railway, a national govern- unless he yields, he will suffer a disabling injury. This difference ment line, which has been extended to the Bolivian frontier. It existed between the wrestling and the pancratium of the Olympic passes through the capital and up the picturesque Humahuaca games. In the pancratium the fight went on until one combatant valley, and promises, under capable management, to be an im- acknowledged defeat, but, although many a man allowed himself portant international line, affording an outlet for southern to be beaten into insensibility rather than suffer this humiliation, Bolivia. The climate of the lower agricultural districts is tropical, it was nevertheless held to be a disgrace to kill an opponent. and irrigation is employed in some places in the long dry season. A modern bout at ju-jutsu usually begins by the combatants The capital, Jujuy (estimated pop. 1905, 5000), is situated on taking hold with both hands upon the collars of each other's the Rio Grande at the lower end of the Humahuaca valley, 942 m. jackets or kimonos, after which, upon the word to start being from Buenos Aires by rail. It was founded in 1593 and is 4035 ft. given, the mancuvring for an advantageous grip begins by above sea-level. It has a mild, temperate climate and pictur- pushes, pulls, jerks, falls, grips or other movements. Once the esque natural surroundings, and is situated on the old route wrist, ankle, neck, arm or leg of an assailant is firmly grasped so between Bolivia and Tucuman, but its growth has been slow. that added force will dislocate it, there is nothing for the seized JUKES, JOSEPH BEETE (1811-1869), English geologist, was man to do, in case he is still on his feet, but go to the floor, often born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, on the roth of October being thrown clean over his opponent's head. A fall of this kind 1811. He took his degree at Cambridge in 1836. He began does not necessarily mean defeat, for the struggle proceeds upon the study of geology under Sedgwick, and in 1839 was appointed the floor, where indeed most of the combat takes place, and the geological surveyor of Newfoundland. He returned to England ju-jutsu expert receives a long training in the art of falling with at the end of 1840, and in 1842 sailed as naturalist on board out injury. Blows are delivered, not with the fist, but with the H.M.S.“ Fly,” despatched to survey Torres Strait, New Guinea, open hand, the exterior edge of which is hardened by exercises. and the east coast of Australia. Jukes landed in England again The physical training necessary to produce expertness is the in June 1846, and in August received an appointment on the most valuable feature of ju-jutsu. The system includes a light geological survey of Great Britain. The district to which he was and nourishing diet, plenty of sleep, deep-breathing exercises, an first sent was North Wales. In 1847 he commenced the survey abundance of fresh air and general moderation in habits, in of the South Staffordshire coal-field and continued this work addition to the actual gymnastic exercises for the purpose of during successive years afterthe close of field-work in Wales. The muscle-building and the cultivation of agility of eye and mind as results were published in his Geology of the South Staffordshire well as of body. It is practised by both sexes in Japan. Coal-field (1853; 2nd ed. 1859), a work remarkable for its accu- Many attempts have been made in England and America to racy and philosophic treatment. In 1850 he accepted the post match ju-jutsu experts against wrestlers, mostly of the “catch- of local director of the geological survey of Ireland. The ex- as-catch can ” school, but these trials have, almost without hausting nature of this work slowly but surely wore out even exception, proved unsatisfactory, since many of the most effi- his robust constitution and on the 29th of July 1869 he died. cacious tricks of ju-jutsu, such as the strangle holds and twists For many years he lectured as professor of geology, first at the of wrists and ankles, are acceunted foul in wrestling. Never- Royal Dublin Society's Museum of Irish Industry, and afterwards theless the Japanese athletes, even when obliged to forgo these, at the Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was an admirable have usually proved more than a match for European wrestlers of teacher, and his Student's Manual was the favoured textbook their own weight. of British students for many years. During his residence in See H. Irving Hancock's Japanese Physical Training (1904); Ireland he wrote an article “On the Mode of Formation of some Physical Training for Women by Japanese Methods (1904); The Com- of the River-valleys in the South of Ireland” (Quarterly Journ. plete Kano Jiu-jitsu (Jiudo) (1905); M. Ohashi, Japanese Physical Geol. Soc. 1862), and in this now classic essay he first clearly Culture (1904); K. Saito, Jiu-jitsu Tricks (1905). sketched the origin and development of rivers. In later years JUJUY, a northern province of the Argentine Republic, he devoted much attention to the relations between the Devonian bounded N. and N.W. by Bolivia, N.E., E., S. and S.W. by system and the Carboniferous rocks and Old Red Sandstone. Salta, and W. by the Los Andes territory. Pop. (1895), Jukes wrote many papers that were printed in the London and 49,713; (1905, estimate), 55,450, including many mestizos. Dúblin geological journals and other periodicals. He edited, and in Area, 18,977 sq. m., the greater part being mountainous.. The great measure wrote, forty-two memoirs explanatory of the maps of province is traversed from N. to S. by three distinct ranges be- the south, east and west of Ireland, and prepared a geological map of Ireland on a scale of 8 m. to an inch. “He was also the author of longing to the great central Andean plateau: the Sierra de Excursions in and about Newfoundland (2 vols., 1842); Narrative of Santa Catalina, the Sierra de Humahuaca, and the Sierras de the Surreying Voyage of H. M. S.“ Fly" (2 vols., 1847); A Sketch of the Zenta and Santa Victoria. In the S.E. angle of the province are Physical Structure of Australia (1850); Popular Physical Geology the low, isolated ranges of Alumbre and Santa Barbara. Between (1853); Student's Manual of Geology (1857; 2nd ed. 1862; a later edition was revised by A. Geikie, 1872); the article "Geology ” in the more eastern of these ranges are valleys of surpassing fertility, the Ency. Brit. 8th ed. (1858) and School Manual of Geology (1863); watered by the Rio Grande de Jujuy, a large tributary of the See Letters, &c., of J. Beete Jukes, edited, with Connecting Memorial Bermejo. The western part, however, is a high plateau (parts Notes, by his Sister (C. A. Browne) (1871), to which is added a of which are 11,500 ft. above sea-level), whose general character chronological list of Jukes's writings. istics are those of the puna regions farther west. The surface JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331–363), commonly of this high plateau is broken, semi-arid and desolate, having a called JULIAN THE APOSTATE, Roman emperor, was born in " *) 548 JULIAN Constantinople in 331,9 the son of Julius Constantius and his , and extended their ravages far into the interior of Gaul. The wife Basilina, and nephew of Constantine the Great. He was internal government of the province had also fallen into great thus a member of the dynasty under whose auspices Christianity confusion. In spite of his inexperience, Julian quickly brought became the established religion of Rome. The name Flavius affairs into order. He completely overthrew the Alamanni in he inherited from his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus; the great battle of Strassburg (August 357). The Frankish Juliarus came from his maternal grandfather; Claudius had tribes which had settled on the western bank of the lower Rhine been assumed by Constantine's family in order to assert a were reduced to submission. In Gaul he rebuilt the cities which connexion with Claudius Gothicus. had been laid waste, re-established the administration on a just Julian lost his mother not many months after he was born and secure footing, and as far as possible lightened the taxes, He was only six when his imperial uncle died; and one of his which weighed so heavily on the poor provincials. Paris was earliest memories must have been the fearful massacre of his the usual residence of Julian during his government of Gaul, father and kinsfolk, in the interest and more or less at the insti- and his name has become inseparably associated with the early gation of the sons of Constantine. Only Julian and his elder history of the city. half-brother Gallus were spared, Gallus being too ill and Julian too Julian's reputation was now established. He was general of a young to excite the fear or justify the cruelty of the murderers. victorious army enthusiastically attached to him and governor Gallus was banished, but Julian was allowed to remain in Con- of a province which he had saved from ruin; but he had also stantinople, where he was carefully educated under the super- become an object of fear and jealousy at the imperial court. vision of the family eunuch Mardonius, and of Eusebius, bishop Constantius accordingly resolved to weaken his power. A of Nicomedia. About 344 Gallus was recalled, and the two threatened invasion of the Persians was made an excuse for with- brothers were removed to Macellum, a remote and lonely castle drawing some of the best legions from the Gallic army. Julian in Cappadocia. Julian was trained to the profession of the recognized the covert purpose of this, yet proceeded to fulfil the Christian religion; but he became early attracted to the old commands of the emperor. A sudden movement of the legions faith, or rather to the idealized amalgam of paganism and philo- themselves decided otherwise. At Paris, on the night of the sophy which was current among his teachers, the rhetoricians. parting banquet, they forced their way into Julian's tent, and, Cut off from all sympathy with the reigning belief by the terrible proclaiming him emperor, offered him the alternative either of fate of his family, and with no prospect of a public career, he accepting the lofty title or of an instant death. Julian accepted turned with all the eagerness of an enthusiastic temperament to the empire, and sent an embassy with a deferential message to the literary and philosophic studies of the time. The old Constantius. The message being contemptuously disregarded, Hellenic world had an irresistible attraction for him. Love for both sides prepared for a decisive struggle. After a march of its culture was in Julian's mind intimately associated with unexampled rapidity through the Black Forest and down the loyalty to its religion. Danube, Julian reached Sirmium, and was on the way to Con- In the meantime the course of events had left as sole autocrat stantinople, when he received news of the death of Constantius, of the Roman Empire his cousin Constantius, who, feeling himself who had set out from Syria to meet him, at Mopsucrene unequal to the enormous task, called Julian's brother Gallus to in Cilicia (Nov. 3, 361). Without further trouble Julian found a share of power, and in March 351 appointed him Caesar. At himself everywhere acknowledged the sole ruler of the Roman the same time Julian was permitted to return to Constantinople, Empire; it is even asserted that Constantius himself on his where he studied grammar under Nicocles and rhetoric under death-bed had designated him his successor. Julian entered the Christian sophist Hecebolius. After a short stay in the capi-Constantinople on the 17th of December 361. tal Julian was ordered to remove to Nicomedia, where he made Julian had already made a public avowal of paganism, of the acquaintance of some of the most eminent rhetoricians of the which he had been a secret adherent from the age of twenty. It time, and became confirmed in his secret devotion to the pagan was no ordinary profession, but the expression of a strong and faith. He promised not to attend the lectures of Libanius, but even enthusiastic conviction; the restoration of the pagan wor- bought and read them. But his definite conversion to paganism ship was to be the great aim and controlling principle of his was attributed to the neoplatonist Maximus of Ephesus, who may government. His reign was too short to show what precise have visited him at Nicomedia. The downfall of Gallus (354), form the pagan revival might ultimately have taken, how far who had been appointed governor of the East, again exposed his feelings might have become embittered by his conflict with the Julian to the greatest danger. By his rash and headstrong Christian faith, whether persecution, violence and civil war might conduct Gallus had incurred the enmity of Constantius and the not have taken the place of the moral suasion which was the eunuchs, his confidential ministers, and was put to death. method he originally affected. He issued an edict of universal Julian fell under a like suspicion, and narrowly escaped the same toleration; but in many respects he used his imperial influence fate. For some months he was confined at Milan (Mediolanum) unfairly to advance the work of restoration. In order to deprive till at the intercession of the empress Eusebia, who always felt the Christians of the advantages of culture, and discredit them kindly towards him, permission was given him to retire to a small as an ignorant sect, he forbade them to teach rhetoric. The property in Bithynia. While he was on his way, Constantius symbols of paganism and of the imperial dignity were so artfully recalled him, but allowed--or rather ordered--him to take up interwoven on the standards of the legions that they could not his residence at Athens. The few months he spent there (July- pay the usual homage to the emperor without seeming to offer October 355) were probably the happiest of his life. worship to the gods; and, when the soldiers came forward to The emperor Constantius and Julian were now the sole sur-receive the customary donative, they were required to throw a viving male members of the family of Constantine; and, as the handful of incense on the altar. Without directly excluding cmperor again felt himself oppressed by the cares of government, Christians from the high offices of state, he held that the wor- there was no alternative but to call Julian to his assistance. shippers of the gods ought to have the preference. In short, At the instance of the empress he was summoned to Milan, though there was no direct persecution, he exerted much more where Constantius bestowed upon him the hand of his sister than a moral pressure to restore the power and prestige of the Helena, together with the title of Caesar and the government of old faith. Gaul. Having spent the winter of 361-362 at Constantinople, Julian A task of extreme difficulty awaited him beyond the Alps. proceeded to Antioch to prepare for his great expedition against During recent troubles the Alamanni and other German tribes Persia. His stay there was a curious episode in his life. It is had crossed the Rhine; they had burned many flourishing cities, doubtful whether his pagan convictions or his ascetic life, after 1 For the date of Julian's birth see Gibbon's Decline and Fall (ed. the fashion of an antique philosopher, gave most offence to the Bury), i. 247, note 11. The choice seems to lie between May 331 and May 332. If the former be adopted, Julian must have died so-called Christians of the dissolute city. They soon grew in the thirty-third, not the thirty-second, year of his age (as stated in heartily tired of each other, and Julian took up his winter quar- Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 3, 23). ters at Tarsus, from which in early spring he marched against JÜLICH 549 Persia. At the head of a powerful and well-appointed army he bia, two theosophical declamations on King Helios and the Mother advanced through Mesopotamia and Assyria as far as Ctesiphon, address to himself on the departure of his friend Salustius to the East. of the Gods, two essays on true and false cynicism, and a consolatory near which he crossed the Tigris, in face of a Persian army (3) Caesares or Symposium, a satirical composition after the manner which he defeated. Misled by the treacherous advice of a of Seneca's A pocolocyntosis, in which the deified Caesars appear in Persian nobleman, he desisted from the siege, and set out to seek succession at a banquet given in Olympus, to be censured for their the main army of the enemy under Shapur II. (q.v.). After a vices and crimes by old Silenus. (4) Misopogon (the beard-hater), long, useless march he was forced to retreat, and found himself while at the same time his own person and manner of life are treated written at Antioch, a satire on the licentiousness of its inhabitants; enveloped by the whole Persian army, in a waterless and desolate in a whimsical spirit. It also contains a charming description of country, at the hottest season of the year. The Romans repulsed Lutetia (Paris). It owes its name to the ridicule heaped upon his the enemy in many an obstinate battle, but on the 26th of June beard by the Antiocheans, who were in the habit of shaving. (5) Five 363 Julian, who was ever in the front, was mortally wounded. 6) Kard Xprotiavûv (Adversus Christianos) in three books, an attack epigrams, two of which (Anth. Pal., ix. 365, 368) are of some interest. The same night he died in his tent. In the most authentic on Christianity written during the Persian campaign, is lost. historian of his reign, Ammianus Marcellinus, we find a noble Theodosius II. ordered all copies of it to be destroyed, and our speech, which he is said to have addressed to his afflicted officers. knowledge of its contents is derived almost entirely from the Contra Soon after his death the rumour spread that the fatal wound (see Juliani librorum contra Christianos quae supersuni, ed. C. J. Julianum of Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, written sixty years later had been inflicted by a Christian in the Roman army. The Neumann 1880). English Translations: Select works by. J. Dun- well-known statement, first found in Theodoret (A. 5th century), combe (1784) containing all except the first seven orations (viii. that Julian threw his blood towards heaven, exclaiming, “ Thou and the fable from vii. are included); the theosophical addresses hast conquered, 0 Galilean!" is probably a development of the (1793) and C. W. King in Bohn's Classical Library (1888); the public to King Helios and the Mother of the Gods by Thomas Taylor account of his death in the poems of Ephraem Syrus. letters, by E. J. Chinnock (1901). From Julian's unique position as the last champion of a AUTHORITIES.-1. Ancient: (a) Pagan writers. Of these the dying polytheism, his character has always excited interest. most trustworthy and impartial is the historian Ammianus Mar- Authors such as Gregory of Nazianzus have heaped the fiercest the events he describes (other historians are Zosimus and Eytropius); cellinus (xy, 8-xxv.), a contemporary and in part an eye-witness of anathemas upon him; but a just and sympathetic criticism finds the sophist Libanius, who in speaking of his imperial friend many noble qualities in his character. In childhood and youth shows himself creditably free from exaggeration and servility; he had learned to regard Christianity as a persecuting force. Eunapius (in his lives of Maximus, Oribasius, the physician and The only sympathetic friends he met were among the pagan panegyrist, are less trustworthy. (b) Christian writers. Gregory friend of Julian, and Prohaeresius) and Claudius Mamertinus, the rhetoricians and philosophers; and he found a suitable outlet of Nazianzus, the author of two violent invectives against Julian; for his restless and inquiring mind only in the studies of ancient Rufinus; Socrates; Sozomen; Theodoret; Philostorgius; the poems Greece. In this way he was attracted to the old paganism; but Byzantine chronographers. The impression which Julian produced of Ephraem. Syrus written in 363; Zonaras; Cedrenus; and later it was a paganism idealized by the philosophy of the time. on the Christians of the East is reflected in two Syriac romances In other respects Julian was no unworthy successor of the published by J. G. E. Hoffmann, Julianos der Abirünnige (1880; Antonines. Though brought up in a studious and pedantic see also Th. Nöldeke in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen solitude, he was no sooner called to the government of Gaul than Gesellschaft (1874), xxviij. 263). he displayed all the energy, the hardihood and the practical Graeci (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880). Of later works the most 2. Modern. For works before 1878 see R. Engelmann, Scriptores sagacity of an old Roman. In temperance, self-control and zeal important are G. H. Rendall, The Emperor Julian, Paganism and for the public good, as he understood it, he was unsurpassed. Christianity (1879); Alice Gardner, Julian, Philosopher and Emperor To these Roman qualities he added the culture, literary instincts (1895); G. Negri, Julian the A postate (Eng. trans., 1905); E. Müller, and speculative curiosity of a Greek.. One of the most remark. (1900–1903); G. Mau, Die Religionsphilosophie Kaiser Julians in Kaiser Flavius Claudius Julianus (1901); P. Allard, Julien l'apostai able features of his public life was the perfect ease and mastery seinen Reden auf König Helios und die Göitermutter (1907); J. E. with which he associated the cares of war and statesman-Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship (1906), P: 356; W. Christ, ship with the assiduous cultivation of literature and philo- Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur(1898), 603; ): Geffcken, "Kaiser sophy. Yet even his devotion to culture was not free from Julianus und die Streitschriften seiner Gegner," in Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum (1908), pp. 161-195. The sketch by Gibbon pedantry and dilettantism. His contemporaries observed in (Decline and Fall, chs. xix., xxii.-xxiv.) and the articles by J. Words- him a want of naturalness. He had not the moral health or worth in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography and A. Harnack the composed and reticent manhood of a Roman, or the spon: IX. (1901) are valuable, the last especially for the bibliography: in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie taneity of a Greek. He was never at rest; in the rapid torrent (T. K.; J. H. F.) of his conversation he was apt to run himself out of breath; his manner was jerky and spasmodic. He showed quite a deferen- JULICH (Fr. Juliers), a town of Germany, in the Prussian tial regard for the sophists and rhetoricians of the time, and Rhine province, on the right bank of the Roer, 16 m. N. E. of advanced them to high offices of state; there was real cause for Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. (1900), 5459. It contains an Evangelical fear that he would introduce the government of pedants in the and two Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, a school for Roman empire. : Last of all, his love for the old philosophy was non-commissioned officers, which occupies the former ducal sadly disfigured by his devotion to the old superstitions. He was palace, and a museum of local antiquities. Its manufactures greatly given to divination; he was noted for the number of his include sugar, leather and paper. Jülich (formerly also Gülch, sacrificial victims. Wits applied to him the joke that had been Guliche) the capital of the former duchy of that name, is the passed on Marcus Aurelius: “The white cattle to Marcus Caesar, Juliacum of the Antonini Itinerarium; some have attributed its greeting. If you conquer, there is an end of us.” origin to Julius Caesar. It became a fortress in the 17th cen- BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The works of Julian, of which there are complete tury, and was captured by the archduke Leopold in 1609, by editions by E. Spanheim (Leipzig, 1696) and F.C. Hertlein (Teubner the Dutch under Maurice of Orange in 1610, and by the Spaniards series, 1875-1876), consist of the following: (!) Letters, of which more in 1622. In 1794 it was taken by the French, who held it until than eighty have been preserved under his name, although the Till 1860, when its works were genuineness of several has been disputed. For his views on religious the peace of Paris in 1814. toleration and his attitude towards Christians and Jews the most demolished, Jülich ranked as a fortress of the second class. iinportant are 25-27, 51, 52, and the fragment in Hertlein, i. 371. JÜLICH, or JULIERS, DUCHY OF. In the 9th century a certain The letter of Gallus to Julian, warning him against reverting to Matfried was count of Jülich (pagus Juliacensis), and towards heathenism, is probably a Christian forgery. Six new letters were the end of the 11th century one Gerhard held this dignity. discovered in 1884, by A. Papadopulos Kerameus in a monastery on the island of Chalcis near Constantinople (see Rheinisches Museum, This Gerhard founded a family of hereditary counts, who held xlii., 1887). Separate edition of the letters by L. H. Heyler (1828) Jülich as immediate vassals of the emperor, and in 1356 the see also J. Bidez and F. Cumont, Recherches sur la tradition MS. county was raised to the rank of a duchy. The older and des lettres de l'empereur Julien " in Mémoires couronnés ... publiés par l'Acad. royale de Belgique, lvii. (1898) and F. Cumont, Sur reigning branch of the family died in 1423, when Jülich passed l'authenticité de quelques lettres de Julien (1889). (2) Orations, 'eight to Adolph, duke of Berg (d. 1437), who belonged to a younger in number—two panegyrics on Constantius, one on the empress Euse- 1 branch, and who had obtained Berg by virtue of the marriage 550 JULIEN of one of his ancestors. Nearly a century later Mary (d. 1543) | Its area was just over 1600 sq. m. and its population about the heiress of these two duchies, married John, the heir of the 400,000. duchy of Cleves, and in 1521 the three duchies, Jülich, Berg and See Kuhl, Geschichte der Stadt Jülich; M. Ritter, Sachsen und der Cleves, together with the counties of Ravensberg and La Marck, Jülicher Erbfolgestreit (1873), and Der Jülicher Erbfolgekrieg, 1610 und were united under John's sway. John died in 1539 and was 1011 (1877); A. Müller, Der Jülich-Klevesche Erbfolgestreil im Jahre succeeded by his son William who reigned until 1592. 1014 (1900) and H. H. Koch, Die Reformation im Vierzoglum Julich 1883-1888). At the beginning of the 17th century the duchies became very prominent in European politics. The reigning duke, John JULIEN, STANISLAS (17977-1873), French orientalist, was William, was childless and insane, and several princes were only born at Orleans, probably on the 13th of April 1797. Stanislas waiting for his demise in order to seize his lands. The most Julien, a mechanic of Orleans, had two sons, Noël, born on the prominent of these princes were two Protestant princes, Philip 13th of April 1797, and Stanislas, born on the 20th of September Louis, count palatine of Neuburg, who was married to the duke's 1799. It appears that the younger son died in America, and sister Anna, and John Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg, that Noël then adopted his brother's name. He studied classics whose wife was the daughter of another sister. Two other at the collège de France, and in 1821 was appointed assistant sisters were married to princes of minor importance. Moreover, professor of Greek. In the same year he published an edition of by virtue of an imperial promise made in 1485 and renewed in the 'Elérns åprayń of Coluthus, with versions in French, Latin, 1495, the elector of Saxony claimed the duchies of Jülich and English, German, Italian and Spanish. He attended the lectures Berg, while the proximity of the coveted lands to the Netherlands of Abel Rémusat on Chinese, and his progress was as rapid as it made their fate a matter of great moment to the Dutch. When had been in other languages. From the first, as if by intuition, it is remembered that at this time there was a great deal of he mastered the genius of the language; and in 1824 he published tension between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants, who a Latin translation of a part of the works of Mencius (Mang-tse), were fairly evenly matched in the duchies, and that the rivalry one of the nine classical books of the Chinese. Soon afterwards between France and the Empire was very keen, it will be seen he translated the modern Greek odes of Kalyos under the title that the situation lacked no element of discord. In March 1609 of La Lyre patriotique de la Grèce. But such works were not Duke John William died. Having assured themselves of the profitable in a commercial sense, and, being without any patri- support of Henry IV. of France and of the Evangelical Union, mony, Julien was glad to accept the assistance of Sir William Brandenburg and Neuburg at once occupied the duchies. To Drummond and others, until in 1827 he was appointed sub- counter this stroke and to support the Saxon claim, the emperor librarian to the French institute. In 1832 he succeeded Rémusat Rudolph II. ordered some imperialist and Spanish troops to as professor of Chinese at the collège de France. In 1833 he was seize the disputed lands, and it was probably only the murder elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions in the place of Henry IV. in May 1610 and the death of the head of the of the orientalist, Antoine Jean Saint-Martin. For some years Evangelical Union, the elector palatine, Frederick IV., in the his studies had been directed towards the dramatic and lighter following September, which prevented, or rather delayed, a literature of the Chinese, and in rapid succession he now brought great European war. About this time the emperor adjudged out translations of the Hoei-lan-ki(L'Histoire du cercle de craie), the duchies to Saxony, while the Dutch captured the fortress of a drama in which occurs a scene curiously analogous to the judg. Jülich; but for all practical purposes victory. remained with ment of Solomon; the Pih shay tsing ki; and the Tchao-chi kou the “possessing princes," as Brandenburg and Neuburg were eul, upon which Voltaire had founded his Orphelin de la Chine called, who continued to occupy and to administer the lands. (1755). With the versatility which belonged to his genius, he These two princes had made a compact at Dortmund in 1609 next turned, apparently without difficulty, to the very different to act together in defence of their rights, but proposals for a mar- style common to Taoist writings, and translated in 1835 Le Livre riage alliance between the two houses broke down and differences des récompenses et des peines of Lao-tsze. About this time the soon arose between them. The next important step was the cultivation of silkworms was beginning to attract attention in timely conversion of the count palatine's heir, Wolfgang William France, and by order of the minister of agriculture Julien com- of Neuburg, to Roman Catholicism, and his marriage with a piled, in 1837, a Résumé des principaux traités chinois sur la daughter of the powerful Roman Catholic prince, Duke Maxi-culture des müriers, et l'éducation des vers-d-soie, which was milian of Bavaria. The rupture between the possessing princes speedily translated into English, German, Italian and Russian. was now complete. Each invited foreign aid. Dutch troops Nothing was more characteristic of his method of studying marched to assist the elector of Brandenburg and Spanish ones Chinese than his habit of collecting every peculiarity of idiom came to aid the count palatine, but through the intervention and expression which he met with in his reading; and, in order of England and France peace was made and the treaty of Xanten that others might reap the benefit of his experiences, he published was signed in November 1614. By this arrangement Branden- in 1841 Discussions grammaticales sur certaines règles de position burg obtained Jülich and Berg, the rest of the lands falling qui, en chinois, jouent le même rôle que les inflexions dans les autres to the count palatine. In 1666 the great elector, Frederick langues, which he followed in 1842 by Exercices pratiques William of Brandenburg, made with William, count palatine of d'analyse, de syntaxe, el de lexigraphie chinoise. Meanwhile in Neuburg, a treaty of mutual succession to the duchies, providing 1839, he had been appointed joint keeper of the Bibliothèque that in case the male line of either house became extinct the royale, with the especial superintendence of the Chinese books, other should inherit its lands. and shortly afterwards he was made administrator of the collège The succession to the duchy of Jülich was again a matter of de France. interest in the earlier part of the 18th century. The family of The facility with which he had learnea Chinese, and the success the counts palatine of Neuburg was threatened with extinction which his proficiency commanded, naturally inclined less gifted and the emperor Charles VI. promised the succession to Jülich scholars to resent the impatience with which he regarded their to the Prussian king, Frederick William I., in return for a mistakes, and at different times bitter controversies arose between guarantee of the pragmatic sanction. A little later, however, Julien and his fellow sinologues on the one subject which they he promised the same duchy to the count palatine of Sulzbach, had in common. In 1842 appeared from his busy pen a trans- a kinsman of the count palatine of Neuburg. Then Frederick lation of the Tao te King, the celebrated work in which Lao-tsze the Great, having secured Silesia, abandoned his claim to Jülich, attempted to explain his idea of the relation existing between which thus passed to Sulzbach when, in 1742, the family of the universe and something which he called Tao, and on which Neuburg became extinct. From Sulzbach the duchy came to the the religion of Taoism is based. From Taoism to Buddhism electors palatine of the Rhine, and, when this family died out in was a natural transition, and about this time Julien turned his 1799, to the elector of Bavaria, the head of the other branch of attention to the Buddhist literature of China, and more especially the house of Wittelsbach. In 1801 Jülich was seized by France, to the travels of Buddhist pilgrims to India. In order that he and by the settlement of 1815 it came into the hands of Prussia. I might better understand the references to Indian institutions, JULIUS (POPES) 551 and the transcriptions in Chinese of Sanskrit words and proper | of revision, the council of Sardica endeavoured to settle the names, he began the study of Sanskrit, and in 1853 brought out procedure of ecclesiastical appeals. Julius on his death in April his Voyages du pélérin Hiouen-tsang, which is regarded by some 352 was succeeded by Liberius. (L. D.*) critics as his most valuable work. Six years later he published JULIUS II. (Giuliano della Rovere), pope from the 1st of Les Avadanas, contes et apologues Indiens inconnus jusqu'd ce November 1503 to the 21st of February 1513, was born at Savona jour, suivis de poésies et de nouvelles chinoises. For the benefit of in 1443. He was at first intended for a commercial career, but future students he disclosed his system of deciphering Sanskrit later was sent by his uncle, subsequently Sixtus IV., to be edu- words occurring in Chinese books in his Méthode pour déchifrer et cated among the Franciscans, although he does not appear to transcrire les noms sanscrits qui se rencontrent dans les livres chinois have joined that order. He was loaded with favours during (1861). This work, which contains much of interest and impor- his uncle's pontificate, being made bishop of Carpentras, bishop tance, falls short of the value which its author was accustomed of Bologna, bishop of Vercelli, archbishop of Avignon, cardinal- to attach to it. It had escaped his observation that, since the priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli and of Sti Dodici Apostoli, and car- translations of Sanskrit works into Chinese were undertaken in dinal-bishop of Sabina, of Frascati, and finally of Ostia and different parts of the empire, the same Sanskrit words were of Velletri. In 1480 he was made legate to France, mainly to settle necessity differently represented in Chinese characters in accor- the question of the Burgundian inheritance, and acquitted him- dance with the dialectical variations. No hard and fast rule can self with such ability during his two years' stay that he acquired therefore possibly be laid down for the decipherment of Chinese an influence in the college of cardinals which became paramount transcriptions of Sanskrit words, and the effect of this impossi- during the pontificate of Innocent VIII. A rivalry, however, bility was felt though not recognized by Julien, who in order to growing up between him and Roderigo Borgia, he took refuge make good his rule was occasionally obliged to suppose that at Ostia after the latter's election as Alexander VI., and in 1494 wrong characters had by mistake been introduced into the texts. went to France, where he incited Charles VIII. to undertake the His Indian studies led to a controversy with Joseph Toussaint conquest of Naples. He accompanied the young king on his Reinaud, which was certainly not free from the gall of bitterness. campaign, and sought to convoke a council to inquire into the Among the many subjects to which he turned his attention were conduct of the pope with a view to his deposition, but was the native industries of China, and his work on the Histoire et defeated in this through Alexander's machinations. During the fabrication de la porcelaine chinoise is likely to remain a standard remainder of that pontificate Della Rovere remained in France, work on the subject. In another volume he also published nominally in support of the pope, for whom he negotiated the an account of the Industries anciennes et modernes de l'empire treaty of 1498 with Louis XII., but in reality bitterly hostile chinois (1869), translated from native authorities. In the inter- to him. On the death of Alexander (1503) he returned to Italy vals of more serious undertakings he translated the San tseu and supported the election of Pius III., who was then suffering King (Le Livre des trois mots); Thsien iseu wen (Le Livre de mille from an incurable malady, of which he died shortly afterwards. mols); Les Deux cousines; Nouvelles chinoises; the Ping chan ling Della Rovere then won the support of Cesare Borgia and was yen (Les Deux jeunes filles lettrées); and the Dialoghi Cinesi, Ji- unanimously elected pope. Julius II. from the beginning tch'ang k' eou-t' eou-koa. His last work of importance was Syntaxe repudiated the system of nepotism which had flourished under nouvelle de la langue chinoise (1869), in which he gave the result Sixtus IV., Innocent VIII. and Alexander VI., and set himself of his study of the language, and collected a vast array of facts with courage and determination to restore, consolidate and and of idiomatic expressions. A more scientific arrangement extend the temporal possessions of the Church. By dexterous and treatment of his subject would have added much to the value diplomacy he first succeeded (1504) in rendering it impossible of this work, which, however, contains a mine of material which for Cesare Borgia to remain in Italy. He then pacified Rome amply repays exploration. One great secret by which Julien and the surrounding country by reconciling the powerful houses acquired his grasp of Chinese, was, as we have said, his methodical of Orsini and Colonna and by winning the other nobles to his own collection of phrases and idiomatic expressions. Whenever in cause. In 1504 he arbitrated on the differences between France the course of his reading he met with a new phrase or expression, and Germany, and concluded an alliance with thein in order to he entered it on a card which took its place in regular order in oust the Venetians from Faenza, Rimini and other towns which a long series of boxes. At his death, which took place on the they occupied. The alliance at first resulted only in compelling 14th of February 1873, he left, it is said, 250,000 of such cards, the surrender of a few unimportant fortresses in the Romagna; about the fate of which, however, little seems to be known. In but Julius freed Perugia and Bologna in the brilliant campaign politics Julien was imperialist, and in 1863 he was made a com- of 1506. In 1508 he concluded against Venice the famous mander of the legion of honour in recognition of the services he league of Cambray with the emperor Maximilian, Louis XII. had rendered to literature during the second empire. of France and Ferdinand of Aragon, and in the following year See notice and bibliography by Wallon, Mém. de l'Acad. des placed the city of Venice under an interdict. By the single Inscr. (1884), xxxi. 409-458. (R. K. D.) battle of Agnadello the Italian dominion of Venice was practi- JULIUS, the name of three popes. cally lost; but as the allies were not satisfied with merely effect- JULIUS I., pope from 337 to 352, was chosen as successor of ing his purposes, the pope entered into a combination with the Marcus after the Roman see had been vacant four months., He Venetians against those who immediately before had been is chiefly known by the part which he took in the Arian con- engaged in his behalf. He absolved the Venetians in the beginning troversy. After the Eusebians had, at a synod held in Antioch, of 1510, and shortly afterwards placed the ban on France. At renewed their deposition of Athanasius they resolved to send a synod convened by Louis XII. at Tours in September, the delegates to Constans, emperor of the West, and also to Julius, French bishops announced their withdrawal from the papal setting forth the grounds on which they had proceeded. The obedience and resolved, with Maximilian's co-operation, to seek latter, after expressing an opinion favourable to Athanasius, the deposition of Julius. In November 1511 a council actually adroilly invited both parties to lay the case before a synod to be met at Pisa for this object, but its efforts were fruitless. Julius presided over by himself. This proposal, however, the Eastern forthwith formed the Holy league with Ferdinand of Aragon and bishops declined to accept. On his second banishment from with Venice against France, in which both Henry VIII, and the Alexandria, Athanasius came to Rome, and was recognized as a emperor ultimately joined. The French were driven out of Italy regular bishop by the synod held in 340. It was through the in 1512 and papal authority was once more securely established in influence of Julius that, at a later date, the council of Sardica in the states immediately around Rome. Julius had already issued, Illyria was held, which was attended only by seventy-six Eastern on the 18th of July 1511, the summons for a general council to bishops, who speedily withdrew to Philippopolis and deposed deal with France, with the reform of the Church, and with a war Julius, along with Athanasius and others. The Western bishops against the Turks. This council, which is known as the Fifth who remained confirmed the previous decisions of the Roman Lateran, assembled on the 3rd of May 1512, condemned the synod; and by its 3rd, 4th and 5th decrees relating to the rights I celebrated pragmatic sanction of the French church, and was 552 JULLIEN-JUMALA still in session when Julius died. In the midst of his combats, JULLIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE (1812-1860), musical conductor, Julius never neglected his ecclesiastical duties. His bull of the was born at Sisteron, Basses Alpes, France, on the 23rd of April 14th of January 1505 against simony in papal elections was 1812, and studied at the Paris conservatoire. His fondness re-enacted by the Lateran council (February 16, 1513). He for the lightest forms of music cost him his position in the school, condemned duelling by bull of the 24th of February 1509. He and after conducting the band of the Jardin Turc he was com- effected some reforms in the monastic orders; urged the conver-pelled to leave Paris to escape his creditors, and came to London, sion of the sectaries in Bohemia; and sent missionaries to America, where he formed a good orchestra and established promenade India, Abyssinia and the Congo. His government of the Papal concerts. Subsequently he travelled to Scotland, Ireland and States was excellent. Julius is deserving of particular honour America with his orchestra. For many years he was a familiar for his patronage of art and literature. He did much to improve figure in the world of popular music in England, and his portly and beautify Rome; he laid the foundation-stone of St Peter's form with its gorgeous waistcoats occurs very often in the early (April 18, 1506); he founded the Vatican museum; and he was volumes of Punch. He brought out an opera, Pietro il Grande, a friend and patron of Bramante, Raphael and Michelangelo. at Covent Garden (1852) on a scale of magnificence that ruined While moderate in personal expenditure, Julius resorted to him, for the piece was a complete failure. He was in America objectionable means of replenishing the papal treasury, which until 1854, when he returned to London for a short time; ulti- had been exhausted by Alexander VI., and of providing funds mately he went back to Paris, where, in 1859, he was arrested for his numerous enterprises; simony and traffic in indulgences for debt and put into prison. He lost his reason soon afterwards, were increasingly prevalent. Julius was undoubtedly in energy and died on the 14th of March 1860. and genius one of the greatest popes since Innocent III., and JULLUNDUR, or JALANDHAR, a city of British India, giving it is a misfortune of the Church that his temporal policy its name to a district and a division in the Punjab. The city eclipsed his spiritual office. Though not despising the Machia- is 260 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901), 67,735. It is vellian arts of statecraft so universally practised in his day, he the headquarters of a brigade in the 3rd division of the northern was nevertheless by nature plain-spoken and sincere, and in army. There are an American Presbyterian mission, a govern- his last years grew violent and crabbed. He died of a fever on ment normal school, and high schools supported by Hindu bodies. the 21st of February 1513, and was succeeded by Leo X. The DISTRICT OF JULLUNDUR occupies the lower part of the See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. vi., trans. by F. I. Antrobus tract known as the Jullundur Doab, between the rivers Sutlej (1898); M.Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol.v. (1901); F.Gregoro- and Beas, except that it is separated from the Beas by the state vius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. viii., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton of Kapurthala. Area, 1431 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 917,587, (1900-1902); Hefele-Hergenrother, Conciliengeschichte, vol. viii., and showing an increase of 1% in the decade; the average density ed.; J. Klaczko, Rome et la renaissance Jules II. (1898), trans. into English by J. Dennie (New York, 1903): M. Brosch, Papst Julius II. is 641 persons per square mile, being the highest in the province. u. die Gründung des Kirchenstaates (1878); A. J. Dumesnil, Histoire Cotton-weaving and sugar manufacture are the principal u. Cultur-Geschichte der sechs letzten Jahrhunderte, vol. iii. (1882); exported. de Jules II. (1873); J, J. I. yon Döllinger, Beiträge zur polit., kirchl., industries for export trade, and silk goods and wheat are also The district is crossed by the main line of the A. Schulte, Die Fugger in Rom 1495-1523, mit Studien zur Gesch. des kirchlichen Finanzwesens jener Zeit (1904). (C. H. HA.) North-Western railway from Phillaur towards Amritsar. The Jullundur Doab in early times formed the Hindu kingdom JULIUS III. (Giovanni Maria del Monte), pope from 1550 to of Katoch, ruled by a family of Rajputs whose descendants still 1555, was born on the 10th of September 1487. He was created exist in the petty princes of the Kangra hills. Under Mahom- cardinal by Paul III. in 1536, filled several important legations, medan rule the Doab was generally attached to the province and was elected pope on the 7th of February 1550, despite the of Lahore, in which it is included as a circar or governorship in opposition of Charles V., whose enmity he had incurred as presi- the great revenue survey of Akbar. Its governors seem to have dent of the council of Trent. Love of ease and desire for peace held an autonomous position, subject to the payment of a fixed moved him, however, to adopt a conciliatory attitude, and to tribute into the imperial treasury. The Sikh revival extended yield to the emperor's desire for the reassembling of the council to Jullundur at an early period, and a number of petty chieftains (September 1551), suspended since 1549. But deeming Charles's made themselves independent throughout the Doab. In 1766 further demands inconvenient, he soon found occasion in the the town of Jullundur fell into the hands of the Sikh confederacy renewal of hostilities to suspend the council once more (April of Faiz-ulla-puria, then presided over by Khushal Singh. His 1552). As an adherent of the emperor he suffered in consequence son and successor built a masonry fort in the town, while several of imperial reverses, and was forced to confirm Parma to Ottavio other leaders similarly fortified themselves in the suburbs. Farnese, the ally of France (1552), Weary of politics, and Meanwhile, Ranjit Singh was consolidating his power in the obeying a natural inclination to pleasure, Julius then virtually south, and in 1811 he annexed the Faiz-ulla-puria dominions. abdicated the management of affairs, and gave himself up to Thenceforth Jullundur became the capital of the Lahore posses- enjoyment, amusing himself with the adornment of his villa, near sions in the Doab until the British annexation at the close of the Porta del Popolo, and often so far forgetting the proprieties the first Sikh war (1846). of his office as to participate in entertainments of a questionable The Division OF JULLUNDUR comprises the five districts of character. His nepotism was of a less ambitious order than that Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Ludhiana and Ferozepore, all of Paul III.; but he provided for his family out of the offices and lying along the river Sutlej. Area, 19,410 sq. m. Pop. (1901), revenues of the Church, and advanced unworthy favourites to 4,306,662. the cardinalate. What progress reform måde during his pontifi- See Jullundur District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1908). cate was due to its acquired momentum, rather than to the zeal JULY, the seventh month in the Christian calendar, consisting of the pope. Yet under Julius steps were taken to abolish of thirty-one days. It was originally the fifth month of the year, plurality of benefices and to restore monastic discipline; the and as such was calle i by the Romans Quintilis. The later Collegium Germanicum, for the conversion of Germans, was name of Julius was given in honour of Julius Caesar (who was established in Rome, 1552; and England was absolved by the born in the month); it came into use in the year of his death. cardinal-legate Pole, and received again into the Roman com- The Anglo-Saxons called July Hegmônath, “ hay-month,” or munion (1554). Julius died on the 23rd of March 1555, and was Maed-mõnath, “mead-month,” the meadows being then in succeeded by Marcellus II. bloom. Another name was aftera liða, “ the latter mild month," See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De Vitis Pontiff. Rom.; in contradistinction to June, which was named "the former Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1601– mild month.” Chief dates of the month: 3rd July, Dog Days 1602) (both contemporaries of Julius III.); Ranke, Popes (Eng. begin; 15th July, St Swithin; 25th July, St James. trans., Austin), i. 276 seq.; v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom., iii. 2, 503 seq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates (1880), i. 189 seq.; JUMALA, the supreme god of the ancient Finns and Lapps. and extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, s.v. Among some tribes he is called Num or Jilibeambaertje, as Julius III." (T. F. C.) protector of the flocks. Jumala indicates rather godhead than JUMIÈGES553 . -JUMPING a divine being. In the runes Ukko, the grandfather, the sender falls into the Ganges in 25° 25' N. and 81° 55' E. In this last of the thunder, takes the place of Jumala. part of its course it receives the waters of the Betwa and the Ken. JUMIÈGES, a village of north-western France, in the depart. Where the Jumna and the Ganges unite is the prayag, or place ment of Seine-Inférieure, 17 m. W. of Rouen by road, on a of pilgrimage, where devout Hindus resort in thousands to wash peninsula formed by a bend of the Seine. Pop. (1906), 244. and be sanctified. Jumièges is famous for the imposing ruins of its abbey, one of The Jumna, after issuing from the hills, has a longer course the great establishments of the Benedictine order. The principal through the United Provinces than the Ganges, but is not so remains are those of the abbey-church, built from 1040 to 1067; large nor so important a river; and above Agra in the hot season these comprise the façade with two towers, the walls of the nave, it dwindles to a small stream. This is no doubt partly caused a wall and sustaining arch of the great central tower and débris by the eastern and western Jumna canals, of which the former, of the choir (restored in the i3th century). Among the minor constructed in 1823–1830, irrigates 300,000 acres in the districts relics, preserved in a small museum in a building of the 14th of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar and Meerut, in the United century, are the stone which once covered the grave of Agnes Provinces; while the latter, consisting of the reopened channels Sorel, and two recumbent figures of the 13th century, commonly of two canals dating from about 1350 and 1628 respectively, known as the Énervės, and representing, according to one legend, extends through the districts of Umballa, Karnal, Hissar, two sons of Clovis II., who, as a punishment for revolt against Rohtak and Delhi, and the native states of Patiala and Jind their father, had the tendons of their arms and legs cut, and were in the Punjab, irrigating 600,000 acres. The headworks of the set adrift in a boat on the Seine. Another tradition states that two canals are situated near the point where the river issues the statues represent Thassilo, duke of Bavaria, and Theodo from the Siwāliks. his son, relegated to Jumièges by Charlemagne. The church The traffic on the Jumna is not very considerable; in its upper of St Pierre, which adjoins the south side of the abbey-church, portion timber, and in the lower stone, grain and cotton are was built in the 14th century as a continuation of a previous the chief articles of commerce, carried in the clumsy barges church of the time of Charlemagne, of which a fragment still which navigate its stream. Its waters are clear and blue, while survives. Among the other ruins, those of the chapter-house those of the Ganges are yellow and muddy; the difference (13th century) and refectory (12th and 15th centuries) also between the streams can be discerned for some distance below survive. the point at which they unite. Its banks are high and rugged, The abbey of Jumièges was founded about the middle of the often attaining the proportions of cliffs, and the ravines which 7th century by St Philibert, whose name is still to be read on run into it are deeper and larger than those of the Ganges. It gold and silver coins obtained from the site. The abbey was traverses the extreme edge of the alluvial plain of Hindustan, destroyed by the Normans, but was rebuilt in 928 by William and in the latter part of its course it almost touches the Bundel- Longsword, duke of Normandy, and continued to exist till 1790. khand offshoots of the Vindhyā range of mountains. Its passage Charles VII. often resided there with Agnes Sorel, who had a is therefore more tortuous, and the scenery along its banks more manor at Mesnil-sous-Jumièges in the neighbourhood, and died varied and pleasing, than is the case with the Ganges. in the monastery in 1450. The Jumna at its source near Jamnotri is 10,849 ft. above the JUMILLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, sea-level; at Kotnur, 16 m. lower, it is only 5036 ft.; so that, 40 m. N. by W. of Murcia by road, on the right bank of the between these two places, it falls at the rate of 314 ft. in a Arroyo del Jua, a left-bank tributary of the Segura. Pop. mile. At its junction with the Tons it is 1686 ft. above the (1900), 16,446. Jumilla occupies part of a narrow valley, sea; at its junction with the Asan, 1470 ft.; and at the point enclosed by mountains. An ancient citadel, several churches, where it issues from the Siwālik hills into the plains, 1276 ft. a Franciscan convent, and a hospital are the principal buildings. The catchment area of the river is 118,000 sq. m.; its flood The church of Santiago is noteworthy for its fine paintings and discharge at Allahabad is estimated at 1,333,000 cub. ft. per frescoes, some of which have been attributed, though on doubtful second. The Jumna is crossed by railway bridges at Delhi, authority, to Peter Paul Rubens and other illustrious artists. Muttra, Agra and Allahabad, while bridges of boats are stationed The local trade is chiefly in coarse cloth, esparto fabrics, wine at many places. and farm produce. JUMPING,' a branch of athletics which has been cultivated JUMNA, or JAMUNA, a river of northern India. Rising in from the earliest times (see ATHLETIC SPORTS). Leaping the Himalayas in Tehri state, about 5 m. N. of the Jamnotri competitions formed a part of the pentathlon, or quintuple games, hot springs, in 31° 3' N. and 78° 30' E., the stream first flows of the Olympian festivals, and Greek chronicles record that the S. for 7 m., then S.W. for 32 m., and afterwards due S. for 26 m., athlete Phayllus jumped a distance of 55 Olympian, or more receiving several small tributaries in its course. It afterwards than 30 English, feet. Such a leap could not have been made turns sharply to the W. for 14 m., when it is joined by the large without weights carried in the hands and thrown backwards at river Tons from the north. The Jumna here emerges from the the moment of springing. These were in fact employed by Greek Himalayas into the valley of the Dun, and flows in a S.W. jumpers and were called haltēres. They were masses of stone direction for 22 m., dividing the Kiarda Dun on the W. from the or metal, nearly semicircular, according to Pausanias, and the Dehra Dun on the E. It then, at the 95th mile of its course, fingers grasped them like the handles of a shield. Halteres forces its way through the Siwalik hills, and debouches upon the were also used for general exercise, like modern dumb-bells. The plains of India at Fyzabad in Saharanpur district. By this Olympian jumping took place to the music of lutes. time a large river, it gives off, near Fyzabad, the eastern and Jumping has always been popular with British athletes, and western Jumna canals. From Fyzabad the river flows for tradition has handed down the record of certain leaps that border 65 m. in a S.S.W. direction, receiving the Maskarra stream from on the incredible. Two forms of jumping are included in modern the east. Near Bidhauli, in Muzaffarnagar district, it turns athletic contests, the running long jump and the running high due S. for 80 m. to Delhi city, thence S.E. for 27 m. to near jump; but the same jumps, made from a standing position, are Dankaur, receiving the waters of the Hindan river on the east. also common forms of competition, as well as the hop step and From Dankaur it resumes its southerly course for 100 m. to jump, two hops and jump, two jumps, three jumps, five jumps Mahaban near Muttra, where it turns E. for nearly 200 m., and ten jumps, either with a run or from a standing position. passing the towns of Agra, Ferozabad and Etawah, receiving These vents are again divided into two categories the use on its left bank the Karwan-nadi, and on its right the Banganga of weights, which are not allowed in championship contests. (Utanghan). From Etawah it flows 140 m. S.E. to Hamirpur, being joined by the Sengar on its north bank, and on the south The verb "to jump" only dates from the beginning of the 16th by the great river Chambal from the west, and by the Sind. century. The New English Dictionary takes it to be of onomatopoeic From Hamirpur, the Jumna flows nearly due E., until it enters origin and does not consider a connexion with Dan. gumpe, Icel . goppa, &c., possible. The earlier English word is leap" (O.E. Allahabad district and passes Allahabad city, below which it I hléapan, to run, jump, cf. Ger. laufen). 554 JUMPING-HARE-JUNAGARH In the running long jump anything over 18 ft. was once it has no affinity, this remarkable rodent approximates in the considered good, while Peter O'Connor's world's record (1901) structure of its skull to the porcupine-group, near which it is is 24 ſt. 11} in. The jump is made, after a short fast run on a placed by some naturalists, although others consider that its cinder path, from a joist sunk into the ground flush with the true position is with the African scaly-tailed fiying squirrels path, the jumper landing in a pit filled with loose earth, its (Anomaluridae). The colour of the creature is bright rulous level a few inches below that of the path. The joist, called the fawn; the eyes are large; and the bristles round the muzzle very take-off,” is painted white, and all jumps are measured from long, the former having a fringe of long hairs. The front limbs its edge to the nearest mark made by any part of the jumper's are short, and the hind ones very long; and although the fore-ſeet person in landing. have five toes, those of the hind-feet are reduced to four. The In the standing long jump, well spiked shoes should be worn, bones of the lower part of the hind leg (libia and 6bula) are for it is in reality nothing but a push against the ground, and a united for a great part of their length. There are four pairs of perfect purchase is of the greatest importance. Weights held cheek-teeth in cach jaw, which do not develop roors. The jump- in the hands of course greatly aid the jumper. Without weights ing-hare is found in open or mountainous districts, and has habits J. Darby (professional) jumped 12 ft. iin. and R. C. Ewry very like a jerboa. It is nocturnal, and dwells in composite (American amateur) 11 ft.4} in. With weights J. Darby covered burrows excavated and tenanted by several families. When 14 ft. 9 in. at Liverpool in 1890, while the amateur record is feeding it progresses on all four legs, but if frighiened takes 12 ft. 21 in., made by J. Chandler and G. L. Hellwig (U.S.A.). gigantic leaps on the hind-pair alone; the length of such leaps The standing two, three, five and ten jumps are merely repetitions frequently reaches twenty feet, or even more. The young are of the single jump, care being taken to land with the proper generally three or four in number, and are born in the summer. balance to begin the next leap. The record for two jumps A second smaller species has been named. (See RODENTIA.) without weights is 22 ft. 21 in., made by H. M. Johnson (U.S.A.); JUMPING-MOUSE, the name of a North American mouse- for three jumps without weights, R. C. Ewry, 35 ft. 71 in.; with like rodent, Zapus hudsonius, belonging to the family Jacu. weights J. Darby, 41 ft. 7 in, lidae (Di podidae), and the other members of the same genus. The hop step and jump is popular in Ireland and often included Although mouse-like in general appearance, these rodents are in the programmes of minor meeting , and so is the two hops distinguished by their elongated hind limbs, and, typically, and a jump. The record for the first, made by W. McManus, by the presence of four pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. There is 49 ft. 21 in. with a run and without weights; for the latter, are five toes 10 all the feet, but the first in the fore-ſeet is also with a run and without weights, 49 ft. į in., made by J. B. rudimentary, and furnished with a flat nail. The cheeks are Conolly. provided with pouches. Jumping-mice were long supposed to In the running high jump also the standard has improved. be confined to North America, but a species is now known from In 1864 a jump of 5 ft. 6 in. was considered excellent. The N.W. China. It is noteworthy that whereas E. Coues in 1877 Scotch professional Donald Dinnie, on hearing that M. J. Brooks recognized but a single representative of this genus, ranging over of Oxford had jumped 6 ft. 2} in. in 1876, wrote to the news- a large area in North America, A. Preble distinguishes no fewer papers to show that upon a priori grounds such an achievement than twenty North American species and sub-species, in addition was impossible. Since then many jumpers who can clear over to the one from Szechuen. Among these, it may be noted that 6 ſt. have appeared. In 1895 M. F. Sweeney of New York accom- 2. insignis differs from the typical 2. hudsonius by the loss of plished a jump of 6 ft. 51 in. Ireland has produced many first the premolar, and has accordingly been referred to a sub-genus class high jumpers, nearly all tall men, P. Leahy winning the apart. Moreover, the Szechuen jumping-mouse difiers from British amateur record in Dublin in 1898 with a jump of 6 ft. the typical Zapus by the closer enamel-folds of the molars, the 41 in. The American A. Bird Page, however, although only shorter ears, and the white tail-tip, and is therefore made the 5 ft. 61 in. in height, jumped 6 ft. 4 in. High jumping is done type of another sub-genus. In America these rodents inhabit over a light stali or lath resting upon pins fixed in two uprights forest, pasture, cultivated fields or swamps, but are nowhere upon which a scale is marked. The “take-off,” or ground numerous. When disturbed, they start off with enormous immediately in front of the uprights from which the spring is bounds of eight or ten feet in length, which soon diminish to made, is usually grass in Great Britain and cinders in America. three or four; and in leaping the feet scarcely seem to touch the Some jumpers run straight at the bar and clear it with body ground. The nest is placed in clefts of rocks, among timber or facing forward, the knees being drawn up almost to the chin as in hollow trees, and there are generally three litters in a season. the body clears the bar; others run and spring sideways, the feet (See Rodentia.) being thrown upwards and over the bar first, to act as a kind JUMPING-SHREW, a popular name for any of the terrestrial of lever in getting the body over. There should be a shallow insectivora of the African family Macroscelididae, of which there pit of loose earth or a mattress to break the fall. are a number of species ranging over the African continent, The standing high jump is rarely seen in regular athletic representing the tree-shrews of Asia. They are small long- meetings. The jumper stands sideways to the bar with his arms snouted gerbil-like animals, mainly nocturnal, feeding on insects, extended upwards. He then swings his arms down slowly, and characterized by the great length of the metatarsal bones, bending his knees at the same time, and, giving his arms a which have been modified in accordance with their leaping mode violent upward swing, springs from the ground. As the body of progression. In some (constituting the genus Rhyncocyon) rises the arms are brought down, one leg is thrown over the bar, | the muzzle is so much prolonged as to resemble a proboscis, and the other pulled, almost jerked, after it. The record for whence the name elephant-shrews is sometimes applied to the the standing high jump without weights is 6 ft., by J. Darby in members of the family. 1892. JUNAGARH, or JUNAGADH, a native state of India, within the By the use of a spring-board many extraordinary jumps have Gujarat division of Bombay, extending inland from the southern been made, but this kind of leaping is done only by circus coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 3284 sq. m.; pop. gymnasts and is not recognized by athletic authorities. (1901), 395,428, showing a decrease of 19% in the decade, For pole-jumping see POLE-VAULTING. owing to famine; estimated gross revenue, £174,000; tribute to See Encyclopaedia of Sport: M. W. Ford, “Running High Jump," the British government and the gaekwar of Baroda, £4200; Outing, vol. xviii.; Running Broad Jump," Outing, vol. xix. ; a considerable sum is also received as tribute from minor states * Standing Jumping." Ouiing. vol. xix.; " Miscellaneous Jumping." in Kathiawar. The state is traversed by a railway from Rajkot, Outing, vol. xx. 'Also Sporting and Athletic Register (annual). to the seaport of Verawal. It includes the sacred mountain JUMPING-HARE, the English equivalent of springhaas, the of Girnar and the ruined temple of Somnath, and also the forest Boer name of a large leaping south and east African rodent of Gir, the only place in India where the lion survives. Junagarh manimal, Pedetes caſſer, iypifying a family by itself, the ranks as a first-class state among the many chiefships of Kathia- Pedelidae. Originally classed with the jerboas, to which war, and its ruler first entered into engagements with live British JUNCACEAE-JUNG 555 in 1807. Nawab Sir Rasul Khanji , K.C.S.I., was born in 1858 | foreign-born and 292 were negroes; (1905), 5494; (1910), 5598. and succeeded his brother in 1892. do or Junction City is served by the Union Pacific and the Missouri, The modern town of JUNAGARH (34,251), 69 m. by rail S. of Kansas & Texas railways. It is the commercial centre of a Rajkot, is handsomely built and laid out. In November 1897 region in whose fertile valleys great quantities of wheat, Indian the foundation-stones of a hospital, library and museum were corn, oats and hay are grown and live stock is raised, and laid, and an arts college has recently been opened. whose uplands contain extensive beds of limestone, which is JUNCACEAE (rush family), in botany, a natural order of quarried for building purposes. Excellent water-power is flowering plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class available and is partly utilized by flour mills. The munici- Monocotyledons, containing about two hundred species in pality owns and operates the waterworks. At the confluence of seven genera, widely distributed in temperate and cold regions. Smoky Hill and Republican rivers and connected with the city It is well represented in Britain by the two genera which com- by an electric railway is Fort Riley, a U.S. military post, which prise nearly the whole order-Juncus, rush, and Luzula, wood was established in 1853 as Camp Centre but was renamed in the rush. They are generally perennial herbs with a creeping under- same year in honour of General Bennett Riley (1787-1853); in ground stem and erect, unbranched, aerial stems, bearing slender 1887 the mounted service school of the U.S. army was established ano solo where. Northward from the post is a rugged country over which goes on aitoudsurd tatlo & suit of 993extends a military reservation of about 19,000 acres. Adjoining 2i buntot no artesanog sist the reservation and about 5 m. N.E. of Junction City is the site en 2701a vidi bawon of the short-lived settlement of Pawnee, where from the 2nd dar to the 6th of July 1855 the first Kansas legislature met, in a build- Sphing the ruins of which still remain; the establishment of Pawnee " le burea(in December 1854) was a speculative pro-slavery enterprise 10 But I zaistuyau conducted by the commandant of Fort Riley, other army officers to ziloqotsam and certain territorial officials, and when a government survey 3 blood showed that the site lay within the Fort Riley reservation, the IAS W22 web lavor Babe settlers were ordered (August 1855) to leave, "and the com- Cheb somriud siweke mandant of Fort Riley was dismissed from the army; one of the zobu od charges brought against Governor A. H. Reeder was that he had lo АЯЗ БИЛЕ favoured the enterprise. Junction City was founded in 1857 ki nisband was chartered as a city in 1859. il aid US 1997 UN 19 WJOB JUNE, the sixth month in the Christian calendar, consisting Gris graves of thirty days. Ovid (Fasti, vi. 25) makes Juno assert that the name was expressly given in her honour. Elsewhere (Fasti, Zyvi. 87) he gives the derivation a junioribus, as May had been tu boz) GYM either to the two months being dedicated respectively to youth CAPRI PAD 2o 2009 and age in general, or to the seniors and juniors of the government VO 8585 Duben SW (90 of Rome, the senate and the comitia curiata in particular. Others D 18 TO connect the term with the gentile name Junius, or with the sizz consulate of Junius Brutus. Probably, however, it originally BUY 18t9ddenoted the month in which crops grow to ripeness. In the old mis Latin calendar June was the fourth month, and in the so-called Lil: c| bi Vam Por mot year of Romulus it is said to have had thirty days; but at the od teh Ayrs old time of the Julian reform of the calendar its days were only estre" na twenty-nine. To these Caesar added the thirtieth. The 60, me) aus Anglo-Saxons called June "the dry month," “midsummer bytov : Brunng butu videonu iesirile month. The summer solstice in June. Principal go bonudb bis 22075 znol to difestival days in this month: 11th June, St Barnabas; 24th Juncus et effusus, com h. ota Taissia June, Midsummer Day (Nativity of St John the Baptist); 29th I Plant. 4. Flower, enlarged. 1. June, St Peter. baatio 2. Inflorescence, nat. size. 5. Fruit, enlarged.ut JUNEAU, formerly HARRISBURG,' a mining and trading 3. End of branch of inflorescencenso. Seed, nat. size.town picturesquely situated at the mouth of Gold Creek on the slightly enlarged. Copy) 204 7. Seed, much enlarged. continental shore of Gastineau channel, south-east Alaska, and leaves which are grass-like or cylindrical or reduced to mem- the capital of Alaska. Pop. (1900), 1864 (450 Indians); (1910), branous sheaths. The small inconspicuous flowers are generally 1644. It has a United States custom house and court-house. more or less crowded in terminal or lateral clusters, the form of the city has fishing manufacturing and trading interests. the inflorescence varying widely according to the manner of but its prosperity is chiefly due to the gold mines in the adjacent branching and the length of the pedicels. The flowers are Silver Bow basin, the source of Gold Creek, and the site of the hermaphrodite and regular, with the same number and arrange- great Perseverance mine, and to those on the Treadwell lode on ment of parts as in the order Liliaceae, from which they differ in Douglas Island, 2 m. from Juneau. Placer gold was found at the inconspicuous membranous character of the perianth, the the mouth of the creek in 1879, and the city was settled in 1880 absence of honey or smell, and the brushlike stigmas with long by two prospectors named Joseph Juneau and Richard Harris. papillae-adaptations to wind-pollination as contrasted with the The district was called Juneau and the camp Harrisburg by the methods of pollination by insect agency, which characterize first settlers; exploring naval officers named the camp Rockwell; the Liliaceae. Juncaceae are, in fact, a less elaborated group in honour of Commander Charles Henry Rockwell , U.S.N. of the same series as Liliaceae, but adapted to a simpler and (b. 1840). A town meeting then adopted the name of more uniform environment than that larger and much more Juneau. The town was incorporated in 1900. In October highly developed family. 1906 the seat of government of Alaska was removed from Sitka JUNCTION CITY, a city and the county-seat of Geary county, to Juneau. USWleqe 170 mque from Kansas, U.S.A., between Smoky Hill and Republican rivers, JUNG, JOHANN HEINRICH (1740-1817), best known by his about 3 m. above their confluence to form the Kansas, and 72 m. assumed name of HEINRICH STILLING, German author, was by rail W. of Topeka. Pop. (1900), 4695, of whom 545 were born in the village of Grund near Hilchenbach in Westphalia on הגננת דק מבפה: Old common rush. 1 556 JUNG BAHADUR-JUNIPER the 12th of September 1740. His father, Wilhelm Jung, school- | Sir Jung Bahadur was on his way to England when he had a master and tailor, was the son of Eberhard Jung, charcoal-fall from his horse in Bombay and returned home. He received burner, and his mother was Dortchen Moritz, daughter of a poor a visit from the Prince of Wales in 1876. On the 25th of clergyman. Jung became, by his father's desire, schoolmaster February 1877 he died, having reached the age of sixty-one. and tailor, but found both pursuits equally wearisome. After Three of his widows immolated themselves on his funeral various teaching appointments he went in 1768 with “half a pyre. (W. L.-W.) French dollar "to study medicine at the university of Strassburg. JUNG-BUNZLAU (Czech, Mladá Bolcslav), a town of Bohemia, There he met Goethe, who introduced him to Herder. The 44 m. N.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,479, mostly acquaintance with Goethe ripened into friendship; and it was Czech. The town contains several old buildings of historical by his influence that Jung's first and best work, Heinrich interest, notably the castle, built towards the end of the 10th Stillings Jugend was written. In 1772 he settled at Elberfeld century, and now used as barracks. There are several old as physician and oculist, and soon became celebrated for churches. In that of St Maria the celebrated bishop of the operations in cases of cataract. Surgery, however, was not Bohemian brethren, Johann August, was buried in 1595; but much more to his taste than tailoring or teaching; and in 1778 his tomb was destroyed in 1621. The church of St Bonaventura he was glad to accept the appointment of lecturer on“ agriculture, with the convent, originally belonging to the friars minor and technology, commerce and the veterinary art" in the newly later to the Bohemian brethren, is now a Piaristic college. The established Kameralschule at Kaiserslautern, a post which he church of St Wenceslaus, once a convent of the brotherhood, is continued to hold when the school was absorbed in the university now used for military stores. Jung-Bunzlau was built in 995, of Heidelberg. In 1787 he was appointed professor of economi- under Boleslaus II., as the seat of a gaugraf or royal count. cal, financial and statistical science in the university of Marburg. Early in the 13th century it was given the privileges of a town In 1803 he resigned his professorship and returned to Heidelberg, and pledged to the lords of Michalovic. In the Hussite wars where he remained until 1806, when he received a pension Jung-Bunzlau adhered to the Taborites and became later the from the grand-duke Charles Frederick of Baden, and metropolis of the Bohemian Brethren. In 1595 Bohuslav of removed to Karlsruhe, where he remained until his death Lobkovic sold his rights as over-lord to the town, which was on the end of April 1817. He was married three times, and made a royal city by Rudolf II. During the Thirty Years' War left a numerous family. Of his works his autobiography it was twice burned, in 1631 by the imperialists, and in 1640 Heinrich Stillings Leben, from which he came to be known as by the Swedes. Stilling, is the only one now of any interest, and is the chief JUNGFRAU, a well-known Swiss mountain (13,669 ft.), authority for his life. His early novels reflect the piety of his admirably seen from Interlaken. It riscs on the frontier early surroundings. between the cantons of Bern and of the Valais, and is reckoned A complete edition of his numerous works, in 14 vols. 8vo, was among the peaks of the Bernese Oberland, two of which (the published at Stuttgart in 1835-1838. There are English translations Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the Aletschborn, 13,721 ſt.) by Sam. Jackson of the Leben (1835) and of the Theorie der Geister- surpass it in height. It was first ascended in 1811 by the kunde (London, 1834, and New York, 1851); and of Theobald, or the brothers Meyer, and again in 1812 by Gottlieb Meyer (son of Fanatic, a religious romance, by the Rev. Sam. Schaeffer (1849). J. R. Meyer), in both cases by the eastern or Valais side, the See biographies by F. W. Bodemann (1868), J. v. Ewald (1817), Peterson (1890). foot of which the final ascent being made by the 1811-1812 route) was reached in 1828 over the Mönchjoch by six peasants JUNG BAHADUR, SIR, MAHARAJA (1816-1877), prime from Grindelwald. In 1841 Principal J. D. Forbes, with minister of Nepal, was a grand-nephew of Bhim sena Thapa Agassiz, Desor and Du Châtelier, made the fourth ascent by (Bhim sen Thappa), the famous military minister of Nepal, the 1812 route. It was not till 1865 that Sir George Young who from 1804 10 1839 was de facto ruler of the state under the and the Rev. H. B. George succeeded in making the first ascent rani Tripuri and her successor. Bhimsena's supremacy was from the west or Interlaken side. This is a far more difficult threatened by the Kala Pandry, and many of his relations, route than that from the east, the latter being now frequently including Jung Bahadur, went into exile in 1838, thus escaping taken in the course of the summer. (W. A. B. C.) the cruel fate which overtook Bhimsena in the following year. JUNGLE (Sans. jangala), an Anglo-Indian term for a forest, The Pandry leaders, who then reverted to power, were in turn a thicket, a tangled wilderness. The Hindustani word means assassinated in 1843, and Matabar Singh, uncle of Jung Bahadur, strictly.waste, uncultivated ground; then such ground covered was created prime minister. He appointed his nephew general with trees or long grass; and thence again the Anglo-Indian and chief judge, but shortly afterwards he was himself put to application is to forest or other wild growth, rather than to the death. Fateh Jung thereon formed a ministry, of which Jung fact that it is not cultivated. Bahadur was made military member. In the following year, JUNIN, an interior department of central Peru, bounded N. 1846, a quarrel was fomented, in which Fateh Jung and thirty- by Huanuco, E. by Loreto and Cuzco, S. by Huancavelica, and two other chiefs were assassinated, and the rani appointed Jung W. by Lima and Ancachs. Pop. (1906 estimate), 305,700. It Bahadur sole minister. The rani quickly changed her mind, lies wholly within the Andean zone and has an area of 23,353 and planned the death of her new minister, who at once appealed sq. m. It is rich in minerals, including silver, copper, mercury, to the maharaja. But the plot failed. The raja and the rani bismuth, molybdenum, lead and coal. The Huallaga and Man- wisely sought safety in India, and Jung Bahadur firmly estab- taro rivers have their sources in this department, the latter in lished his own position by the removal of all dangerous rivals. Lake Junin, or Chanchaycocha, 13,230 ſt. above sea level. The He succeeded so well that in January 1850 he was able to leave capital of Junin is Cerro de Pasco, and its two principal towns for a visit to England, from which he did not return to Nepal are Jauja and Tarma (pop., 1906, about 12,000 and 5000 until the 6th of February 1851. On his return, and frequently respec. vely). on subsequent dates, he frustrated conspiracies for his assassina- JUNIPER. The junipers, of which there are twenty-five or tion. The reform of the penal code, and a desultory war with more species, are evergreen bushy shrubs or low columnar trees, Tibet, occupied his attention until news of the Indian Mutiny with a more or less aromatic odour, inhabiting the whole of the reached Nepal. Jung Bahadur resisted all overtures from the cold and temperate northern hemisphere, but attaining their rebels, and sent a column to Gorakpur in July 1857. In Decem- maximum development in the Mediterranean region, the North ber he furnished a force of 8000 Gurkhas, which reached Lucknow Atlantic islands, and the eastern United States. The leaves are on the uth of March 1858, and took part in the siege. The usually articulated at the base, spreading, sharp-pointed and moral support of the Nepalese was more valuable even than the needle-like in form, destitute of oil-glands, and arranged in military services rendered by them. Jung Bahadur was made alternating whorls of three; but in some the leayes are minute a G.C.B., and a tract of country annexed in 1815 was restored and scale-like, closely adhering to the branches, the apex only to Nepal. Various frontier dispuies were settled, and in 1875 l being free, and furnished with an oil-gland on the back. JUNIUS 557 a Sometimes the same plant produces both kinds of leaves on differ- copoeia is given in doses up to one drachm. Much safer and ent branches, or the young plants produce acicular leaves,.while more powerful diuretics are now in use. The wood is very those of the older plants are squamiform. The male and female aromatic and is used for ornamental purposes. In Lapland flowers are usually produced on separate plants. The male the bark is made into ropes. The fruits are used for flavouring flowers are developed at the ends of short lateral branches, are gin (a name derived from juniper, through Fr. genièvre); and in rounded or oblong in form, and consist of several antheriferous some parts of France a kind of beer called genévrette was made scales in two or three rows, each scale bearing three or six almost from them by the peasants. J. Oxycedrus, from the Mediter- spherical pollen-sacs on its under side. The female flower is a ranean district and Madeira, yields cedar-oil which is official small bud-like cone situated at the apex of a small branch, and in most of the European pharmacopoeias, but not in that of consists of two or three whorls of two or three scales. The scales. Britain. This oil is largely used by microscopists in what is of the upper or middle series each bear one or two erect ovules. known as the "oil-immersion lens.” The mature cone is fleshy, with the succulent scales fused The third section, Caryocedrus, consists of a single species, together and forming the fruit-like structure known to the J.drupacea of Asia Minor. The fruits are large and edible: they older botanists as the galbulus, or berry of the juniper. The are known in the East by the name habhel. berries are red or purple in colour, varying in size from that of Inglot a pea to a nut. They thus differ considerably from the cones 109 1908 19 of other members of the order Coniferae, of Gymnosperms modeli (q.v.), to which the junipers belong. The seeds are usually Bang babae three in number, sometimes fewer (1), rarely more (8), and have the surface near the middle or base marked with large glands containing oil. The genus occurs in a fossil state, four species having been described from rocks of Tertiary age. The genus is divided into three sections, Sabina, Oxycedrus bloota and Caryocedrus. Juniperus Sabina is the savin, abundant on the mountains of central Europe, an irregularly spreading much- branched shrub with scale-like glandular leaves, and emitting a disagreeable odour when bruised. The plant is poisonous, acting as a powerful local and general stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue and anthelmintic; it was formerly employed both internally and externally. The oil of savin is now occasionally used criminally as an abortifacient. J.bermudiana, a tree about 40 or 50 ft. in height, yields a fragrant red wood, which was used for the manufacture of “ cedar" pencils. The tree is now very scarce in Bermuda, and the “red cedar," J. virginiana, of North America is employed instead for pencils and cigar-boxes. The red cedar is abundant in some parts of the United States and in Virginia is a tree 50 ft. in height. It is very widely distributed from the Great Lakes to Florida and round the Gulf of Mexico, and extends as far west as the Rocky Mountains and beyond to Vancouver Island. The wood is applied to many uses in the United States. The fine red fragrant heart-wood takes a high polish, and is much used in cabinet-work and lo inlaying, but the small size of the planks prevents its more extended use. The galls produced at the ends of the branches in be have been used in medicine, and the wood yields cedar-camphor (From Bentley and Trimen's Medicinal Plants, by permission of J. & A. Churchill.) and oil of cedar-wood. J. thurifera is the incense juniper of Juniper (Juniperus communis). Toen 1. Vertical section of fruit. Spain and Portugal, and J. phoenicea (J. lycia) from the Blo 2. Male catkin. Mediterranean district is stated by Loudon to be burned as 1. ไป.. 22 ( ใน 21 1 2 12. incense. JUNIUS, the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of J.communis, the common juniper (see fig.), and several other letters to the London Public Advertiser, from the 21st of January species, belong to the section Oxycedrus. The common juniper 1769 to the 21st of January 1772. The signature had been already is a very widely distributed plant, occurring in the whole of used by him in a letter of the 21st of November 1768, which he northern Europe, central and northern Asia to Kamchatka, and did not include in his collection of the Letters of Junius published east and west North America. It grows at considerable eleva- in 1772. The name was chosen in all probability because he tions in southern Europe, in the Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees and had already signed " Lucius and “ Brutus," and wished to Sierra Nevada (4000 to 8000 ft.). It also grows in Asia Minor, exhaust the name of Lucius Junius Brutus the Roman patriot. Persia, and at great elevations on the Himalayas. In Great Whoever the writer was, he wrote under other pseudonyms Britain it is usually a shrub with spreading branches, less before, during and after the period between January 1769 and frequently a low tree. In former times the juniper seems to January 1772. He acknowledged that he had written as have been a very well-known plant, the name occurring almost “Philo-Junius," and there is evidence that he was identical unaltered in many languages. The Lat. juniperus, probably with “Veteran," “ Nemesis” and other anonymous correspon- formed from juni—crude form of juvenis, fresh, young, and parere, dents of the Public Advertiser. There is a marked distinction to produce, is represented by Fr. genièvre, Sp. enebro, Ital. gine- between the letters of Junius" and his so-called miscellaneous pilo, &c. The dialectical names, chiefly in European languages, letters. The second deal with a variety of subjects, some of a were collected by Prince L. L. Bonaparte, and published purely personal character, as for instance the alleged injustice in the Academy (July 17, 1880, No. 428, p. 45). The common of Viscount Barrington the secretary at war to the officials of juniper is official in the British pharmacopoeia and in that of his department. But the " letters of Junius” had a definite the United States, yielding the oil of juniper, a powerful diuretic, object--to discredit the ministry of the duke of Grafton. This distilled from the unripe fruits. This oil is closely allied in administration had been formed in October 1768, when the earl composition to oil of turpentine and is given in doses of a half of Chatham was compelled by ill health to retire from office, to three minims. The Spiritus juniperi of the British pharma-T and was a reconstruction of his cabinet of July 1766. Junius Lagu " 558 JUNIUS fought for the return to power of Chatham, who had recovered the most solemn professions to the public. The sacrifice of Lord and was not on good terms with his successors. He communi- Chatham was not lost on him. Even the cowardice and perfidy of The cated with Chatham, with George Grenville, with Wilkes, all deserting him may have done you no disservice in his esteem. instance was painful, but the principle might please." enemies of the duke of Grafton, and also with Henry Sampson Woodſall, printer and part owner of the Public Advertiser. This What is artificial and stilted in this style did not offend the private correspondence has been preserved. It is written in would-be classic taste of the 18th century, and does not now the disguised hand used by Junius. conceal the fact that the laboriously arranged words, and art- The letters are of interest on three grounds--their political fully counterbalanced clauses, convey a venomous hate and scorn. significance, their style, and the mystery which long surrounded The pre-established harmony between Junius and his readers their authorship. As political writings they possess no intrinsic accounts for the rapidity of his success, and for the importance value. Junius was wholly destitute of insight, and of the power attributed to him by Burke and Johnson, far better writers than to disentangle, define and advocate principles. The matter of himself. Before 1772 there appeared at least twelve un- his letters is always invective. He began by a general attack authorized republications of his letters, made by speculative on the ministry for their personal immorality or meanness. An printers. In that year he revised the collection named “ Junius: ill-judged defence of one of the body—the marquess of Granby, Slat nominis umbra," with a dedication to the English people commander-in-chief-volunteered by Sir William Draper, gave and a preface. Other independent editions followed in quick him an easy victory over a vulnerable opponent. He then went succession. In 1801 one was published with annotations by on to pour acrimonious abuse on Grafton, on the duke of Bedford, Robert Heron. In 1806 another appeared with notes by John on King George III. himself in the letter of the 19th of December Almon. The first new edition of real importance was issued by 1769, and ended with a most malignant and ignorant assault the Woodfall family in 1812. It.contained the correspondence on Lord Chief Justice Mansfield. Several of his accusations of Junius with H. S. Woodſall, a selection of the miscellaneous were shown to be unfounded. The practical effect of the letters letters attributed to Junius, facsimiles of his handwriting, and was insignificant. They were noticed and talked about. They notes by Dr Mason Good. Curiosity as to the mystery of the provoked anger and retorts. But the letter to the king aroused authorship began to replace political and literary interest in the indignation, and though Grafton's administration fell in January writings. Junius himself had been carly aware of the advantage 1770, it was succeeded by the long-lived cabinet of Lord North. he secured by concealment. “The mystery of Junius increases Junius confessed himself beaten, in his private letter to Woodſall his importance" is his confession in a letter to Wilkes dated of the 19th of January 1773. He had materially contributed the 18th of September 1771. The calculation was a sound one. to his own defeat by his brutal violence. He sinned indeed in for two generations after the appearance of the letter of the a large company. The employment of personal abuse had been 21st of January 1769, speculations as to the authorship of habitual in English political controversy for generations, and Junius were riſe, and discussion had hardly ceased in 1910. in the 18th century there was a strong taste for satire. Latin Joseph Parkes, author with Herman Merivale of the Memoirs literature, which was not only studied but imitated, supplied of Sir Philip Francis (1867), gives a list of more than forty the inspiration and the models, in the satires of Juvenal, and persons who had been supposed to be Junius. They are: the speeches of Cicero against Verres and Catiline. Edmund Burke, Lord George Sackville, Lord Chatham, Colonel If, however, Junius was doing what others did, he did it Barré, Hugh Macaulay Boyd, Dr Butler, John Wilkes, Lord better than anybody else—a fact which sufficiently explains his Chesterfield, Henry Flood, William Burke, Gibbon, W. E. rapid popularity. His superiority lay in his style. Here also Hamilton, Charles Lloyd, Charles Lee (general in the American he was by no means original, and he was unequal. There are War of Independence), John Roberts, George Grenville, passages in his writings which can be best described in the James Grenville, Lord Temple, Duke of Portland, William words which Burke applied to another writer: “A mere Great rakes, Richard Glover, Sir William Jones, James Hollis, mixture of vinegar and water, at once vapid and sour.” But Laughlin Maclean, Philip Rosenhagen, Horne Tooke, John Kent, at his best Junius attains to a high degree of artificial elegance Henry Grattan, Daniel Wray, Horace Walpole, Alexander and vigour. He shows the influence of Bolingbroke, of Swift, Wedderburn (Lord Loughborough), Dunning (Lord Ashburton), and above all of Tacitus, who appears to have been his favourite Lieut.-General Sir R. Rich, Dr Philip Francis, a junto" or author. The imitation is never slavish. Junius adapts, and committee of writers who used a common name, De Lolme, Mrs does not only repeat. The white heat of his malignity animates Catherine Macaulay (1733-91), Sir Philip Francis, Lord Littleton, the whole. No single sentence will show the quality of a style Wolfram Cornwall and Gov. Thomas Pownall. In the great which produces its effect by persistence and repetition, but such majority of cases the attribution is based on nothing more than a typical passage as follows displays at once the method and the a vague guess. Edmund Burke denied that he could have spirit. It is taken from Letter XLIX. to the duke of Grafton, written the letters of Junius if he would, or would have written June 22, 1771:- them if he could. Grattan pointed out that he was young when they appeared. More plausible claims, such as those “The profound respect I bear to the gracious prince who governs made for Lord Temple and Lord George Sackville, could not this country with no less honour to himself than satisfaction to his subjects, and who restores you to your rank under his standard, will stand the test of examination. Indeed after 1816 the question save you from a multitude of reproaches. The attention I should was not so much “Who wrote Junius?” as “Was Junius Sir have paid to your failings is involuntarily attracted to the hand Philip Francis, or some undiscoverable man?” In that year which rewards them; and though I am not so partial to the royal John Taylor was led by a careful study of Woodfall's edition of judgment as to affirm that the favour of a king can remove moun. tains of infamy, it serves to lessen at least, for undoubtedly, it 1812 to publish The identity of Junius with a distinguished living divides, the burden. While I remember how much is due to his character established, in which he claimed the letters for Sir sacred character, I cannot, with any decent appearance of propriety, Philip Francis. He had at first been inclined to attribute them call you the mea nest and the basest fellow in the kingdom. I protest, my Lord, I do not think you so. to Sir Philip's father, Dr Francis, the author of translations of You will have a dangerous rival in that kind of fame to which you have hitherto so happily Horace and Demosthenes. Taylor applied to Sir Philip, who directed your ambition, as long as there is one man living who did not die till 1818, for leave to publish, and received from him thinks you worthy of his confidence, and fit to be trusted with any answers which to an unwary person might appear to constitute share in his government. ::. With any other prince, the shameful desertion of him in the midst of that distress, which you alone had denials of the authorship, but were in fact evasions. created, in the very crisis of danger, when he fancied he saw the The reasons for believing that Sir Philip Francis (q.0.) was throne already surrounded by men of virtue and abilities, would Junius are very strong. His evasions were only to be expected. have out weighed the memory of your former services. But his Several of the men he attacked lived nearly as long as himself, majesty is full of justice, and understands the doctrine of compen the sons of others were conspicuous in society, and King George sations; he remembers with gratitude how soon you had accommo- dated your morals to the necessities of his service, how cheerfully you III. survived him. Sir Philip, who had held office, who had been had abandoned the engagements of private friendship, and renounced | decorated, and who in his later years was ambitious to obtain 46 JUNIUS, F.-JUNKER 559 the governor-generalship of India, dared not confess that he He was a voluminous writer on theological subjects, and translated was Junius. The similarity of his handwriting to the disguised and composed many exegetical works. He is best known from his own edition of the Latin Old Testament, slightly altered from the hand used by the writer of the letters is very close. If Sir former joint edition, and with a version of the New Testament Philip Francis did, as his family maintain, address a copy of added. (Geneva, 1590; Hanover,, 1624). The Opera Theologia verses to a Miss Giles in the handwriting of Junius (and the Francisci Junii Biturigis were published at Geneva (2 vols., 1613), evidence that he did is weighty) there can be no further question edited by Abraham Kuypers, 1882 seg.). The autobiography had to which is prefixed his autobiography, written about 1592 (new ed., as to the identity of the two. The similarity of Junius and been published at Leiden (1595), and is reprinted in the Miscellanea Francis in regard to their opinions, their likes and dislikes, their Groningana, vol. i., along with a list of the author's other writings. knowledge and their known movements, amount, apart from (2) FRANZ JUNIUS (1589–1677), son of the above, was born. the handwriting, almost to proof. It is certain that many felons have been condemned on circumstantial evidence less at Heidelberg, and brought up at Leiden. His attention was diverted from military to theological udies by the peace of complete. The opposition to his claim is based on such asser- tions as that his known handwriting was inferior to the feigned 1609 between Spain and the Netherlands. In 1617 he became hand of Junius, and that no man can make a disguised hånd pastor at Hillegondsberg, but in 1620 went to England, where better than his own. But the first assertion is unfounded, and he became librarian to Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, and tutor to his son. He remained in England thirty years, devoting the second is a mere expression of opinion. It is also said that Francis must have been guilty of baseness if he wrote Junius, himself to the study of Anglo-Saxon, and afterwards of the but if that explains why he did not avow the authorship it can cognate old Teutonic languages. His work, intrinsically valu- be shown to constitute a moral impossibility only by an examina- able, is important as having aroused interest in a frequently tion of his life. neglected subject. In 1651 he returned to Holland; and for two years lived in Friesland in order to study the old dialect. AUTHORITIES.- The best edition of the Letters of Junius, properly In 1675 he returned to England, and during the next year so called, with the Miscellaneous Letters, is that of J. Ward (1854). The most valuable contributions to the controversy as to the resided in Oxford; in 1677 he went to live at Windsor with his authorship are: The Handwriting of Junius investigated by Charles nephew, Isaac Vossius, in whose house he died on the 19th of Chabot, expert, with preface and collateral evidence by the Hon. E. November 1677. He was buried at Windsor in St George's Twisleton (1871); Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis, K.C.B., by Parkes and Merivale (1867); Junius Revealed by his Surviving Grandson, by Chapel. H. R. Francis (1894); The Francis Letters, edited by Beata Francis He was pre-eminently, student. He published De pictura and Eliza Keary, with a note on the Junius controversy by C. F. veterum (1637) (in English by the author, 1638; enlarged and im- Keary (1901); and “ Francis, Sir Philip," by Sir Leslie Stephen, in proved edition, edited by J. G. Graevius, who prefixed a life of Dict. of Nat. Biog. The case for those who decline to accept the Junius, with a catalogue of architects, painters, &c., and their claim of Sir Philip Francis is stated by C. W. Dilke, Papers of a Critic works, Rotterdam, 1694); Observationes in Willerami Abbatis (1875), and Abraham Hayward, More about Junius, . Franciscan francicam paraphrasin cantici canticorum (Amsterdam, 1655); Theory Unsound (1868), (D. H.) Annotationes in harmoniam latino-francicam quatuor evangelis. JUNIUS, FRANZ (in French, François du Jon), the name of monachi paraphrasis poetica geneseos (Amsterdam, 1655) (see tarum, latine a Tatiano confectam (Amsterdam, 1655); Caedmonis two Huguenot scholars. criticism under CAEDMON); Quatuor D.N.I.C. evangeliorum versiones (1) FRANZ JUNIUS (1545-1602) was born at Bourges in France perantiquae duae, gothica scilicet et anglo-saxonica (Dort, 2 vols., on the ist of May 1545. He had studied law for two years 1665) (the Gothic version in this book Junius transcribed from the Silver Codex of Ulflas; the Anglo-Saxon version is from an edition under Hugo Donellus (1527-1591) when he was given a place by Thomas Marshall, whose notes to both versions are given, and a in the retinue of the French ambassador to Constantinople, but Gothic glossary by Junius); Etymologicum anglicanum, edited by before he reached Lyons the ambassador had parted. Juni Edward Lye, and preceded by a life of Junius and George Hickes's found ample consolaticn in the opportunities for study at the Anglo-Saxon grammar. (Oxford, 1743) (its results require careful verification in the light of modern research). His rich collection gymnasium at Lyons. A religious tumult warned him back to of ancient MSS., edited and annotated by him, Junius bequeathed Bourges, where he was cured of certain rationalistic principles to the university of Oxford. Graevius gives a list of them, the most that he had imbibed at Lyons, and he determined to enter the important are a version of the Ormulum, the version of Caedmon, reformed church. He went in 1562 to study at Geneva, where and 9 volumes containing Glossarium v. linguarum septentrionalium. he was reduced to the direst poverty by the failure of remit- JUNK. (1) (Through Port. junco, adapted from Javanese tances from home, owing to civil war in France. He would djong, or Malayan adjong, ship), the name of the native sailing accept only the barest sustenance from a humble friend who had vessel, common to the far eastern seas, and especially used by himself been a protégé of Junius's family at Bourges, and his the Chinese and Javanese. It is a flat-bottomed, high-sterned health was permanently injured. The long-expected remittance vessel with square bows and masts carrying lug-sails, often made from home was closely followed by the news of the brutal of matting. (2) A nautical term for small pieces of disused murder of his father by à Catholic fanatic at Issoudun; and rope or cable, cut up to make fenders, oakum, &c., hence applied Junius resolved to remain at Geneva, where his. reputation colloquially by sailors to the salt beef and pork used on board enabled him to live by teaching. In 1565, however, he was ship. The word is of doubtful origin, but may be connected appointed minister of the Walloon church at. Antwerp. His with “junk" (Lat. juncus), a reed, or rush. This word is now foreign birth excluded him from the privileges of the native obsolete except as applied to a form of surgical appliance, used reformed pastors, and exposed him to persecution. Several as a support in cases of fracture where immediate setting is times he barely escaped arrest, and finally, after spending six impossible, and consisting of a shaped pillow or cushion stuffed months in preaching at Limburg, he was forced to retire to with straw or horsehair, formerly with rushes or reeds. Heidelberg in 1567. There he was welcomed by the elector JUNKER, WILHELM (1840-1892), German explorer of Africa, Frederick II., and temporarily settled in charge of the Walloon was born at Moscow on the 6th of April 1840. He studied medi- church at Schönau; but in 1568 his patron sent him as chaplain cine at Dorpat, Göttingen, Berlin and Prague, but did not with Prince William of Orange in his unfortunate expedition to practise for long. After a series of short journeys to Iceland, the Netherlands. Junius escaped as soon as he could from that Tunis and Lower Egypt, he remained almost continuously in post, and returning to his church remained there till 1573. From eastern Equatorial Africa from 1875 to 1886, making first 1573 till 1578 he was at Heidelberg, assisting Emmanuel Tremel-Khartum and afterwards Lado the base of his expeditions, lius (1510-1580), whose daughter he married, in his Latin version Junker was a leisurely traveller and a careful observer; his main of the Old Testament (Frankfort, 1579); in 1581 he was appointed object was to study the peoples with whom he came into contact, to the chair of divinity at Heidelberg. Thence he was taken and to collect specimens of plants and animals, and the result to France by the duke of Bouillon, and after an interview with of his investigations in these particulars is given in his Reisen in Henry IV. was sent again to Germany on a mission. As he was Afrika (3 vols., Vienna, 1889-1891), a work of high merit. An returning to France he was named professor of theology at English translation by A. H. Keane was published in 1890–1892. Leiden, where he died on the 13th of October 1602. Perhaps the greatest service he rendered to geographical science 560 JUNKET-JUNOT, A. 66 66 was his investigation of the Nile-Congo watershed, when he suc- above all other female deities, she was prepared for that identi- cessfully combated Georg Schweinfurth's hydrographical theories fication with Hera which was alluded to above. That she was in and established the identity of the Welle and Ubangi. The Mah- some sense a deity of light seems certain; as Lucina, 6.8., she dist rising prevented his return to Europe through the Sudan, as introduced new-born infants.“ in luminis oras.". he had planned to do, in 1884, and an expedition, fitted out in See Roscher's article “ Juno" in his Lexicon of Mythology, and 1885 by his brother in St Petersburg, failed to reach him. Junker his earlier treatise on Juno and Hera; Wissowa, Religion und Kullus then determined to go south. Leaving Wadelai on the 2nd of der Römer, 113 foll. ; also a fresh discussion by Walter Otto in January 1886 he travelled by way of Uganda and Tabora and Philologus for 1905 (p. 161 foll.). (W. W. F.*) reached Zanzibar in December 1886. In 1887 he received the JUNOT, ANDOCHE, DUKE OF ABRANTES (1771-1813), French gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. As an explorer general, was born at Bussy-le-Grand (Côte d'Or), on the 23rd Junker is entitled to high rank, his ethnographical observations of October 1771. He went to school at Chatillon, and was known in the Niam-Niam (Azandch) country being especially valuable. among his comrades as a blustering but lovable creature, with a Ile died at St Petersburg on the 13th of February 1892. pugnacious disposition. He was studying law in Paris at the See the biographical notice by E. G. Ravenstein in Proceedings of outbreak of the Revolution and joined a volunteer battalion. the Royal Geographical Society (1892), pp. 185–187. He distinguished himself by his valour in the first year of the JUNKET, a dish of milk curdled by rennet, served with Revolutionary wars, and came under the special notice of clotted cream and flavoured with nutmeg, which is particularly Napoleon Bonaparte during the siege of Toulon, while serving associated in England with Devonshire and Cornwall. The as his secretary. It is related that as he was taking down a word is of somewhat obscure history. It appears to come despatch, a shell burst hard by and covered the paper with sand, through 0. Fr. jonquette, a rush-basket, from Lat. juncus, rush. whereupon he exclaimed, “ Bien! nous n'avions pas de sable In Norman dialect this word is used of a cream cheese. The pour sécher l'encre! en voici !" He remained the faithful commonly accepted origin is that it refers to the rush-basket on companion of his chief during the latter's temporary disgrace, which such cream cheeses or curds were served. Juncade and went with him to Italy as aide-de-camp. He distinguished appears in Rabelais, and is explained by Cotgrave as spoon- himself so much at the battle of Millesimo that he was selected mcat, rose-water and sugar.” Nicholas Udall (in his translation to carry back the captured colours to Paris; returning to Italy of Erasmus's Apophthegms, 1542) speaks of “marchepaines or he went through the campaign with honour, but was badly wafers with other like junkerie.” The word "junket” is also wounded in the head at Lonato. Many rash incidents in his used for a festivity or picnic. career may be traced to this wound, from which he never com- JUNO, the chief Roman and Latin goddess, and the special pletely recovered. During the expedition to Egypt he became object of worship by women at all the critical moments of life. a general of brigade. His devotion to Bonaparte involved him The etymology of the name is not certain, but it is usually taken in a duel with General Lanusse, in which he was again wounded. as a shortened form of Jovino, answering to Jovis, from a root He had to be left in Egypt to recover, and in crossing to France div, shining. Under Greek influence Juno was early identified was captured by English cruisers. On his return to France he with the Greek Hera, with whose cult and characteristics she has was made commandant of Paris, and afterwards promoted much in common; thus the Juno with whom we are familiar general of division. It was at this time that he married Laure in Latin literature is not the true Roman deity. In the Aeneid, Permon (see JUNOT, LAURE). He next served at Arras in com- for example, her policy is antagonistic to the plans of Jupiter mand of the grenadiers of the army destined for the invasion of for the conquest of Latium and the future greatness of Rome; England, and made some alterations in the equipment of the though in the fourth Eclogue, as Lucina, she appears in her proper troops which received the praise of the emperor. It was, rôle as assisting at childbirth. It was under Greek influence however, a bitter mortification that he was not appointed a again that she became the wife of Jupiter, the mother of Mars; marshal of France when he received the grand cross of the the true Roman had no such personal interest in his deities as to legion of honour. He was made colonel-general of hussars invent family relations for them. instead and sent as ambassador to Lisbon, his entry into which That Juno was especially a deity of women, and represents in city resembled a royal progress. But he was so restless and dis- a sense the female principle of life, is seen in the fact that as every satisfied in the Portuguese capital that he set out, without leave, man had his genius, so every woman had her Juno; and the for the army of Napoleon, with which he took part in the battle goddess herself may have been a development of this conception. of Austerlitz, behaving with his usual courage and zeal. But The various forms of her cult all show her in close connexion he soon gave fresh offence. Although his early devotion was with women. As Juno Lucina she was invoked in childbirth, never forgotten by the emperor, his uncertain temper and want of and on the ist of March, the old Roman New Year's day, the self-control made it dangerous to employ him at court or head- matrons met and made offerings at her temple in a grove on quarters, and he was sent to Parma to put down an insurrection the Esquiline; hence the day was known as the Matronalia. As and to be out of the way. In 1806 he was recalled and became Caprotina she was especially worshipped by female slaves on governor of Paris. His extravagance and prodigality shocked the 7th of July (Nonae Caprotinae); as Sospita she was invoked the government, and some rumours of an intrigue with a lady all over Latium as the saviour of women in their perils, and of the imperial family—it is said Pauline Bonaparte-made it later as the saviour of the state; and under a number of other desirable again to send him away. He was therefore appointed titles, Cinxia, Unxia, Pronuba, &c., we find her taking a leading to lead an invading force into Portugal. For the first time part in the ritual of marriage. Her real or supposed connexion Junot had a great task to perform, and only his own resources to with the moon is explained by the alleged influence of the moon fall back upon for its achievement. Early in November 1807 on the lives of women; thus she became the deity of the Kalends, he set out from Salamanca, crossed the mountains of Beira, or day of the new moon, when the regina sacrorum offered a lamb rallied his wearied forces at Abrantes, and, with 1500 men, to her in the regia, and her husband the rex made known to the dashed upon Lisbon, in order, if possible, to seize the Portuguese people the day on which the Nones would fall. Thus she is fleet, which had, however, just sailed away with the regent and brought into close relation with Janus, who also was worshipped court to Brazil. The whole movement only took a month; on the Kalends by the rex sacrorum, and it may be that in the it was undoubtedly bold and well-conducted, and Junot was oldest Roman religion these two were more closely connected made duke of Abrantes and invested with the governorship than Juno and Jupiter. But in historical times she was asso- of Portugal. But administration was his weak point. He was ciated with Jupiter in the great temple on the Capitoline hill as not a civil governor, but a sabreur, brave, truculent, and also Juno Regina the queen of all Junones or queen of heaven, as dissipated and rapacious, though in the last respect he was far Jupiter there was Optimus Maximus (see JUPITER), and under from being the worst offender amongst the French generals in the same title she was enticed from Veii after its capture in Spain. His hold on Portugal was never supported by a really 392 B.C., and settled in a temple on the Aventine. Thus exalted | adequate force, and his own conduct, which resembled that of JUNOT, L.-JUPITER 561 an eastern monarch, did nothing to consolidate his conquest. a faction or cabal; it was particularly applied to the advisers of After Wellesley encountered him at Vimiera (see PENINSULAR Charles I., to the Rump under Cromwell, and to the leading War) he was obliged to conclude the so-called convention of members of the great Whig houses who controlled the govern- Cintra, and to withdraw from Portugal with all his forces. ment in the reigns of William III. and Anne. Napoleon was furious, but, as he said, was spared the necessity JUPITER, the chief deity of the Roman state. The great and of sending his old friend before a court martial by the fact that constantly growing influence exerted from a very early period the English put their own generals on their trial. Junot was on Rome by the superior civilization of Greece not only caused sent back to Spain, where, in 1810-1811, acting under Masséna, a modification of the Roman god on the analogy of Zeus, the he was once more seriously wounded. His last campaign was supreme deity of the Greeks, but led the Latin writers to identify made in Russia, and he received more than a just share of the one with the other, and to attribute to Jupiter myths and discredit for it. Napoleon next appointed him to govern family relations which were purely Greek and never belonged to Illyria. But Junot's mind had become deranged under the the real Roman religion. The Jupiter of actual worship was a weight of his misfortunes, and on the 29th of July 1813, at Roman god; the Jupiter of Latin literature was more than half Montbard, he threw himself from a window in a fit of insanity. Greek. This identification was facilitated by the community of JUNOT, LAURE, DUCHESS OF ABRANTES (1783–1834), wife of character which really belonged to Jupiter and Zeus as the Roman the preceding, was born at Montpellier. She was the daughter and Greek developments of a common original conception of of Mme. Permon, to whom during her widowhood the young the god of the light and the heaven. Bonaparte made an offer of marriage-such at least is the version That this was the original idea of Jupiter, not only in Rome, presented by the daughter in her celebrated Memoirs. The but among all Italian peoples, admits of no doubt. The earliest Permon family, after various vicissitudes, settled at Paris, and form of his name was Diovis pater, or Diespiter, and his special Bonaparte certainly frequented their house a good deal after priest was the flamen dialis; all these words point to a root div, the downfall of the Jacobin party in Thermidor 1794. Mlle. shining, and the connexion with dies, day, is obvious (cf. JUNO). Permon was married to Junot early in the consulate, and at One of his most ancient epithets is Lucetius, the light-bringer; once entered eagerly into all the gaieties of Paris, and became and later literature has preserved the same idea in such phrases as noted for her beauty, her caustic wit, and her extravagance. sub Jove, under the open sky. All days of the full moon (idus) The first consul nicknamed her petite peste, but treated her and were sacred to him; all emanations from the sky were due to him Junot with the utmost generosity, a fact which did not restrain and in the oldest form of religious thought were probably her sarcasms and slanders in her portrayal of him in her Memoirs. believed to be manifestations of the god himself. As Jupiter During Junot's diplomatic mission to Lisbon, his wife displayed Elicius he was propitiated, with a peculiar ritual, to send rain in her prodigality so that on his return to Paris in 1806 he was time of drought; as Jupiter Fulgur he had an altar in the Campus burdened with debts, which his own intrigues did not lessen. Martius, and all places struck by lightning were made his pro- She joined him again at Lisbon after he had entered that city perty and guarded from the profane by a circular wall. The as conqueror at the close of 1807; but even the presents and spoils vintage, which needs especially the light and heat of the sun, won at Lisbon did not satisfy her demands; she accompanied was under his particular care, and in the festivals connected Junot through part of the Peninsular War. On her return with it (Vinalia urbana) and Meditrinalia, he was the deity to France she displeased the emperor by her vivacious remarks invoked, and his flamen the priest employed. Throughout Italy and by receiving guests whom he disliked. The mental malady we find him worshipped on the summits of hills, where nothing of Junot thereafter threatened her with ruin; this perhaps intervened between earth and heaven, and where all the pheno- explains why she took some part in the intrigues for bringing mena of the sky could be conveniently observed. Thus on the back the Bourbons in 1814. She did not side with Napoleon Alban hill south of Rome was an ancient seat of his worship as during the Hundred Days. After 1815 she spent most of her Jupiter Latiaris, which was the centre of the league of thirty time at Rome amidst artistic society, which she enlivened with Latin cities of which Rome was originally an ordinary member. her sprightly converse. She also compiled her spirited but At Rome itself it is on the Capitoline hill that we find his oldest somewhat spiteful Memoirs, which were published at Paris in temple, described by Livy (i. 10); here we have a tradition of 1831-1834 in 18 volumes. Many editions have since appeared. his sacred tree, the oak, common to the worship both of Zeus Of her other books the most noteworthy are Histoires contempo- and Jupiter, and here too was kept the lapis silex, perhaps a raines (2 vols., 1835); Scènes de la vie espagnole (2 vols., 1836); celt, believed to have been a thunderbolt, which was used Histoire des salons de Paris (6 vols., 1837-1838); Souvenirs d'une symbolically by the fetiales when officially declaring war and ambassade et d'un séjour en Espagne et en Portugal, de 1808 à 1811 making treaties on behalf of the Roman state. Hence the (2 vols., 1837). (J. HL. R.) curious form of oath, Jovem lapidem jurare, used both in public JUNTA (from juntar, to join), a Spanish word meaning and private life at Rome. (1) any meeting for a common purpose; (2) a committee; (3) an In this oldest Jupiter of the Latins and Romans, the god of administrative council or board. The original meaning is the light and the heaven, and the god invoked in taking the most now rather lost in the two derivative significations. The solemn oaths, we may undoubtedly see not only the great Spaniards have even begun to make use of the barbarism protecting deity of the race, but one, and perhaps the only one, mélin, corrupted from the English “meeting.” The-word junta whose worship embodies a distinct moral conception. He is has always been and still is used in the other senses. Some specially concerned with oaths, treaties and leagues, and it was in of the boards by which the Spanish administration was conducted the presence of his priest that the most ancient and sacred form under the Habsburg and the earlier Bourbon kings were styled of marriage, confarreatio, took place. The lesser deities, Dius juntas. The superior governing body of the Inquisition was the Fidius and Fides, were probably originally identical with him, junta suprema. The provincial committees formed to organize and only gained a separate existence in course of time by a process resistance to Napoleon's invasion in 1808 were so called, and so familiar to students of ancient religion. This connexion with was the general committee chosen from among them to represent the conscience, with the sense of obligation and right dealing, the nation. In the War of Independence (1808-1814), and in all was never quite lost throughout Roman history. In Virgil's subsequent civil wars or revolutionary disturbances in Spain or great poem, though Jupiter is in many ways as much Greek as Spanish America, the local executive bodies, elected, or in some Roman, he is still the great protecting deity who keeps the hero in cases self-chosen, to appoint officers, raise money and soldiers, the path of duty (pietas) towards gods, state and family. look after the wounded, and discharge the functions of an But this aspect of Jupiter gained a new force and meaning at administration, have been known as juntas. the close of the monarchy with the building of the famous temple The form " Junto," a corruption due to other. Spanish words on the Capitol, of which the foundations are still to be seen. ending in -o, came into use in English in the 17th century, often It was dedicated to Jupiter Optimus Maximus, i.e. the best in a disparaging sense, of a party united for a political purpose, I and greatest of all the Jupiters, and with him were associated XV Io 2a 562 JUPITER Juno and Minerva, in a fashion which clearly indicates a period, or the mean interval separating his returns to opposition, Graeco-Etruscan origin; for the combination of three deities amounts to 398.87 days. His real polar and equatorial diameters in one temple was foreign to the ancient Roman religion, while measure 84,570 and 90,190 miles respectively, so that the mean is it is found both in Greece and Etruria. This temple was built 87,380 miles. His apparent diameter (equatorial) as seen from on a scale of magnificence quite unknown to primitive Rome, the earth varies from about 32", when in conjunction with the and was beyond doubt the work of Etruscan architects employed, sun, to 50° in opposition to that luminary. The oblateness, or we may presume, by the Tarquinii. Its three cellae contained compression, of his globe amounts to about if his volume the statues of the three deities, with Jupiter in the middle exceeds that of the earth 1390 times, while his mass is about 300 holding his thunderbolt. Henceforward it was the centre of times greater. These values are believed to be as accurate as the religious life of the state, and symbolized its unity and the best modern determinations allow, but there are some differ- strength. Its dedication festival fell on the 13th of September, ences amongst various observers and absolute exactness cannot on which day the consuls originally succeeded to office; accom- be obtained. panied by the senate and other magistrates and priests, and in The discovery of telescopic construction early in the 17th fulfilment of a vow made by their predecessors, they offered century and the practical use of the telescope by Galileo and others to the great god a white heifer, his favourite sacrifice, and greatly enriched our knowledge of Jupiter and his system. Four after rendering thanks for the preservation of the state during of the satellites were detected in 1610, but the dark bands or the past year, made the same vow as that by which they them- belts on the globe of the planet do not appear to have been selves had been bound. Then followed the epulum Jovis or noticed until twenty years later. Though Galileo first sighted feast of Jupiter, in which the three deities seem to have been the satellites and perseveringly studied the Jovian orb, he failed visibly present in the form of their statues, Jupiter having a to distinguish the belts, and we have to conclude either that these couch and each goddess a sella, and shared the meal with senate features were unusually faint at the period of his observations, and magistrates. In later times this day became the central or that his telescopes were insufficiently powerful to render them point of the great Roman games (ludi Romani), originally visible. The belts were first recognized by Nicolas Zucchi and games vowed in honour of the god if he brought a war to a Daniel Bartoli on the 17th of May 1630. They were seen also by successful issue. When a victorious army returned home, Francesco Fontana in the same and immediately succeeding years, it was to this temple that the triumphal procession passed, and by other observers of about the same period, including Zuppi, and the triumph of which we hear so often in Roman history may Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi. be taken as a religious ceremonial in honour of Jupiter. The Improvements in telescopes were quickly introduced, and be- general was dressed and painted to resemble the statue of Jupiter tween 1655 and 1666 C. Huygens, R. Hooke and J. D. Cassini himself, and was drawn on a gilded chariot by four white horses made more effective observations. Hooke discovered a large through the Porta Triumphalis to the Capitol, where he offered dark spot in the planet's southern hemisphere on the 19th of a solemn sacrifice to the god, and laid on his knees the victor's May 1664, and from this object Cassini determined the rotation laurels (see TRIUMPH). period, in 1665 and later years, as 9 hours 56 minutes. Throughout the period of the Republic the great god of the The belts, spots and irregular markings on Jupiter have now Capitol in his temple looking down on the Forum continued been assiduously studied during nearly three centuries. These to overshadow all other worships as the one in which the whole markings are extremely variable in their tones, tints and relative state was concerned, in all its length and breadth, rather than velocities, and there is little reason to doubt that they are atmo- any one gens or family. Under Augustus and the new monarchy spheric formations floating above the surface of the planet in a it is sometimes said that the Capitoline worship suffered to some series of different currents. Certain of the markings appear to extent an eclipse (J. B. Carter, The Religion of Numa, p. 160 seq.); be fairly durable, though their rates of motion exhibit consider- and it is true that as it was the policy of Augustus to identify able anomalies and prove that they must be quite detached from the state with the interests of his own family, he did what was the actual sphere of Jupiter. At various times determinations feasible to direct the attention of the people to the worships of the rotation period were made as follows: in which he and his family were specially concerned; thus his Date. Observer. Period. Place of Spot. temple of Apollo on the Palatine, and that of Mars Ultor in the 1672 J. D. Cassini 9 h. 55 m. 50 s. Lat. 16° S. Forum Augusti, took over a few of the prerogatives of the cult 1692 9 h. 50 m. Equator. on the Capitol. But Augustus was far too shrewd to attempt 1708 J. P."Maraldi 9 h. 55 m. 48 s. S. tropical zone to oust Jupiter Optimus Maximus from his paramount position; 1773 J. Sylvabelle 9 h. 56 m. and he became the protecting deity of the reigning emperor as 1788 J. H. Schröter 9 h. 55 m. 33.6 s. Lat! 12° N." 1788 9 h. 55 m. 176 s. Lat. 20° S. representing the state, as he had been the protecting deity of 1835 J. H. Mädler 9 h. 55 m. 26.5 s. Lat. 5° N. the free republic. His worship spread over the whole empire; 1835 G. B. Airy 9 h. 55 m. 21:3 S. N. tropical zone. it is probable that every city had its temple to the three deities A great number of Jovian features have been traced in more of the Roman Capitol, and the fact that the Romans chose the recent years and their rotation periods ascertained. According name of Jupiter in almost every case, by which to indicate the to the researches of Stanley Williams the rates of motion for chief deity of the subject peoples, proves that they continued different latitudes of the planet are approximately as under:- to regard him, so long as his worship existed at all, as the god Latitude. Rotation Period. whom they themselves looked upon as greatest. +85° to +28° 9 h. 55 m. 37.5 S. See Zeus, ROMAN RELIGION. Excellent accounts of Jupiter may +28° to +24 9 h. 541 m. to 9 h. 56} m. be found in Roscher's Mythological Lexicon, and in Wissowa's +24° to +20° 9 h. 48 m. to 9 h. 491 m. Religion und Kultus der Römer (p. 100 seq.). +20° to +10° 9 h. 55 m. 33.9 s. (W. M. Ra.; W. W. F.*) +10° to -12° 9 h. 50 m. 20 s. JUPITER, in astronomy, the largest planet of the solar system; to -18° 9 h. 55 m. 40 s. -18° to -37° 9 h. 55 m. 18.1 S. his size is so great that it exceeds the collective mass of all the -37° to -55° 9 h. 55 m. 5 s. others in the proportion of 5 to 2. 5 He travels in his orbit at a mean distance from the sun exceeding that of the earth 5-2 times, W. F. Denning gives the following relative periods for the years or 483,000,000 miles. The eccentricity of this orbit is consider- 1898 to 1905:- able, amounting to 0.048, so that his maximum and minimum Latitude. Rotation Period. distances are 504,000,000 and 462,000,000 miles respectively. N.N. temperate. 9 h. 55 m. 41.5 s. When in opposition and at his mean distance, he is situated N. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 53.8 s. N. tropical 9 h. 55 m. 30 s. 390,000,000 miles from the earth. His orbit is inclined about Equatorial 9 h. 50 m. 27 s. 1° 18' 40" to the ecliptic. His sidereal revolution is completed S. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 19.5 s. in 4332-585 days or if years 314:9 days, and his synodical S.S. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 7 s. -12 JUPITER 563 S. Polar h. m. s. S.S. 955 7 Temp. S. 9 55 19 Temp. S. 9 55 37 Trop. N. 9.55_30 Trop. N. 9 55 54 Temp. N.N. 9 55 40 Temp. N. Polar 9 The above are the mean periods derived from a large number | in 1873, by H. C. Russell in 1876–1877, and in later years it has of markings. The bay or hollow in formed an object of general observation. In fact it may safely the great southern equatorial belt be said that no planetary marking has ever aroused such wide- north of the red spot has perhaps been spread interest and attracted such frequent observation as the observed for a longer period than any great red spot on Jupiter. other feature on Jupiter except the red The slight inclination of the equator of this planet to the plane Equa. 9 50 30-Corial spot itself. H. Schwabe saw the of his orbit suggests that he experiences few seasonal changes. hollow in the belt on the 5th of From the conditions we are, in fact, led to expect a prevailing September 1831 and on many subse- calm in his atmosphere, the more so from the circumstance that quent dates. The rotation period of the amount of the sun's heat poured upon each square mile of this object during the seventy years it is (on the average) less than the 27th part of that received by Fig. 1.-Inverted disk to the sth of September 1901 was each square mile of the earth's surface. Moreover, the seasons of Jupiter, showing the different 9 h. 55 m. 36 s. from 61,813 rotations. of Jupiter have nearly twelve times the duration of ours, so currents and their rates of rotation. Since 1901 the mean period has been that it would be naturally expected that changes in his atmo- 9 h. 55 m. 40 s., but it has fluctuated sphere produced by solar action take place with extreme slowness. between 9 h. 55 m. 38 s. and 9 h. 55 m. 42.S. The motion of But this is very far from being the case. Telescopes reveal the the various features is not therefore dependent upon their latitude, indications of rapid changes and extensive disturbances in the though at the equator the rate seems swifter as a rule than in aspect and material forming the belts. New spots covering large other zones. But exceptions occur, for in 1880 some spots areas frequently appear and as frequently decay and vanish, appeared in about:23° N. which rotated in 9 h. 48 m. though in implying an agitated condition of the Jovian atmosphere, and the region immediately N. of this the spot motion is ordinarily leading us to admit the operation of causes much more active the slowest of all and averages 9 h. 55 m. 53.8 s. (from twenty than the heating influence of the sun. determinations). These differences of speed remind us of the When we institute a comparison between Jupiter and the earth sun-spots and their proper motions. The solar envelope, how- on the basis that the atmosphere of the former planet bears the ever, appears to show a pretty regular retardation towards the poles, for according to Gustav Spörer's formula, while the equa- beds torial period is 25 d. 2 h. 15 m. the latitudes 46° N. and S. give a period of 28 d. 15 h. o m. The Jovian currents flow in a due east and west direction as though mainly influenced by the swift rotatory movement of the globe, and exhibit little sign of deviation either to N. or S. These currents do not blend and pass gradually into each other, w E W but seem to be definitely bounded and controlled by separate phenomena well capable of preserving their individuality. Occasionally, it is true, there have been slanting belts on Jupiter (a prominent example occurred in the spring of 1861), as though the materials were evolved with some force in a polar direction, N N but these oblique formations have usually spread out in longitude FIG. 2.- Jupiter, 1903, July 10, and ultimately formed bands parallel with the equator. The longi- FIG. 3.-Jupiter, 1906, April 15, 2.50 a.m. 5.50 p.m. tudinal currents do not individually present us with an equable rate of motion. In fact they display some curious irregularities, same relation to his mass as the atmosphere of the earth bears the spots carried along in them apparently oscillating to and fro to her mass, we find that a state of things must prevail on Jupiter without any reference to fixed periods or cyclical variations. very dissimilar to that affecting our own globe. The density of Thus the equatorial current in 1880 moved at the rate of 9 h. 50 m. the Jovian atmosphere we should expect to be fully six times as 6 s. whereas in 1905 it was 9 h. 50 m. 33 s. The red spot in the great as the density of our air at sea-level, while it would be S. tropical zone gave 9 h. 55 m. 34 s. in 1879-1880, whereas during comparatively shallow. But the telescopic aspect of Jupiter 1900-1908 it has varied a little on either side of 9 h. 55. m. 40:6 s. apparently negatives the latter supposition. The belts and spots Clearly therefore no fixed period of rotation can be applied for any grow faint as they approach the limb, and disappear as they near spot since it is subject to drifts E. or W. and these drifts the edge of the disk, thus indicating a dense and deep atmosphere, sometimes come into operation suddenly, and may be either R. A. Proctor considered that the observed features suggested temporary or durable. Between 1878 and 1900 the red spot in inherent heat, and adopted this conclusion as best explaining the planet's S. hemisphere showed a continuous retardation of the surface phenomena of the planet. He regarded Jupiter as speed. belonging, on account of his immense size, to a different class of It must be remembered that in speaking of the rotation of bodies from the earth, and was led to believe that there existed these markings, we are simply alluding to the irregularities in greater analogy between Jupiter and the sun than between the vaporous envelope of Jupiter. The rotation of the planet Jupiter and the earth. Thus the density of the sun, like that of itself is another matter and its value is not yet exactly known, Jupiter, is small compared with the earth's; in fact, the mean though it is probably little different from that of the markings, density of the sun is almost identical with that of Jupiter, and and especially from those of the most durable character, which the belts of the latter planet may be much more aptly compared indicate a period of about 9 h. 56 m. We never discern the with the spot zones of the sun than with the trade zones of the actual landscape of Jupiter or any of the individual forms really earth. diversifying it. In support of the theory of inherent heat on Jupiter it has been Possibly the red spot which became so striking an object in said that his albedo (or light reflected from his surface) is much 1878, and which still remains faintly visible on the planet, is the greater than the amount would be were his surface similar to same feature as that discovered by R. Hooke in 1664 and watched that of the moon, Mercury or Mars, and the reasoning has been by Cassini in following years. It was situated in approximately applied to the large outer planets, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, the same latitude of the planet and appears to have been hidden as well as to Jupiter. The average reflecting capacity of the temporarily during several periods up to 1713. But the lack of moon and five outer planets would seem to be on the assumption fairly continuous observations of this particular marking makes that they possess no inherent light) as follows:- its identity with the present spot extremely doubtful. The latter was seen by W. R. Dawes in 1857, by Sir W. Huggins in Moon. 0.1736 Jupiter 0.6238 Uranus 0.6400 1858, by T. Baxendell in 1859, by Lord Rosse and R. Copeland | Mars . 0.2672 0.4981 Neptune. 0.4848 Saturn 564 JUPITER These values were considered to support the view that the four Under good conditions and sufficient telescopic power the larger and more distant orbs shine partly by inherent lustre, satellites are visible as disks, and not mere points of light. and the more so as spectroscopic analysis indicates that they Measures of the apparent diameter of objects so faint are, how- are each involved in a deep vapour-laden atmosphere. But ever, difficult and uncertain. The results for the Galilean certain observations furnish a contradiction to Proctor's views. satellites range between 0".9 and 1":5, corresponding to dia- The absolute extinction of the satellites, even in the most power- meters of between 3000 and 5000 kilometres. The smallest is ful telescopes, while in the shadow of Jupiter, shows that they therefore about the size of our moon. Satellite I. has been found cannot receive sufficient light from their primary to render them to exhibit marked variations in its brightness and aspect, but visible, and the darkness of the shadows of the satellites when the law governing them has not been satisfactorily worked out. projected on the planet's disk proves that the latter cannot be It seems probable that one hemisphere of this satellite is brighter self-luminous except in an insensible degree. It is also to be than the other, or that there is a large dark region upon it. A remarked that, were it only moderately self-luminous, the colour revolution on its axis .corresponding with that of the orbital of the light which it sends to us would be red, such light being revolution around the planet has also been suspected, but is not at first emitted from a heated body when its temperature is yet established. Variations of light somewhat similar, but less raised. Possibly, however, the great red spot, when the colouring in amount, have been noticed in the second and third satellites. was intense in 1878 and several following years, may have repre- The most interesting and easily observed phenomena of these sented an opening in the Jovian atmosphere, and the ruddy bodies are their eclipses and their transits across the disk of belts may be extensive riſts in the same envelope. If Jupiter's Jupiter. The four inner satellites pass through the shadow of actual globe emitted a good deal of heat and light we should Jupiter at every superior conjunction, and across his disk at probably distinguish little of it, owing to the obscuring vapours every inferior conjunction. The outer Galilean satellite does floating above the surface. Venus reflects relatively more light the same when the conjunctions are not too near the line of than Jupiter, and there is little doubt that the albedo of a planet nodes of the satellites' orbit. When most distant from the is dependent upon atmospheric characteristics, and is in no case nodes, the satellites pass above or below the shadow and below a direct indication of inherent light and heat. or above the disk. These phenomena for the four Galilean The colouring of the belts appears to be due to seasonal satellites are predicted in the nautical almanacs. variations, for Stanley Williams has shown that their changes When one of the four Galilean satellites is in transit across have a cycle of twelve years, and correspond as nearly as possible the disk of Jupiter it can generally be seen projected on the with a sidereal revolution of Jupiter. The variations are of face of the planet. It is commonly brighter than Jupiter when such character that the two great equatorial belts are alter-it first enters upon the limb but sometimes darker near the nately affected; when the S. equatorial belt displays maximum centre of the disk. This is owing to the fact that the planet is redness the N. equatorial is at a minimum and vice versa. much darker at the limb. During these transits the shadow of The most plausible hypothesis with regard to the red spot is the satellites can also be seen projected on the planet as a dark that it is of the nature of an island floating upon a liquid surface, point. though its great duration does not favour this idea. But it is The theories of the motion of these bodies form one of the more an open question whether the belts of Jupiter indicate a liquid interesting problems of celestial mechanics. Owing to the great or gaseous condition of the visible surface. The difficulty in ellipticity of Jupiter, growing out of his rapid rotation, the influence the way of the liquid hypothesis is the great difference in the of this ellipticity upon the motions of the five inner satellites is much times of rotation between the equatorial portions of the planet eater than that of the sun, or of the satellites on each other. The inclination of the orbits to the equator of Jupiter is quite small and the spots in temperate latitudes. The latter usually rotate and almost constant, and the motion of cach node is nearly uniform in periods between 9 h. 55 m. and 9 h. 56 m., while the equatorial around the plane of the planet's equator. . markings make a revolution in about five minutes less, 9 h. 50 m. The most marked feature of these bodies is a relation between to 9 h. 51 m. The difference amounts to 7.5° in a terrestrial the mean longitudes of Satellites I., II. and III. The mean longitude of I. plus twice that of III. minus three times that of II. is constantly day and proves that an equatorial spot will circulate right round near to 180°. It follows that the same relations subsist among the the enormous sphere of Jupiter (circumference 283,000 m.) in mean motions. The cause of this was pointed out by Laplace. 48 days. The motion is equivalent to about 6000 m. per day If we put L, L, and L3 for the mean longitudes, and define an angle U as follows: and 250 m. per hour. (W. F. D.) U=L1-3L2+2Ls. Satellites of Jupiter. it was shown mathematically by Laplace that if the longitudes Jupiter is attended by eight known satellites, resolvable as re- and mean motions were such that the angle U differed a little gards their visibility into two widely different classes. Four satel-mutual actions of the several bodies tending to bring this angle from 180°, there was a minute residual force arising from the lites were discovered by Galileo and were the only ones known towards the value 180°. Consequently, if the mean motions were until 1892. In September of that year E. E. Barnard, at the such that this angle increased only with great slowness, it would Lick Observatory, discovered a fifth extremely faint satellite, per- beyond it, exactly as a pendulum drawn out of the perpendicular after a certain period tend back toward the value 180°, and then forming a revolution in somewhat less than twleve hours. In 1904 oscillates towards and beyond it. Thus an oscillation would be two yet fainter satellites, far outside the other five, were photo- engendered in virtue of which the angle would oscillate very graphically discovered by C. D. Perrine at the Lick Observatory. slowly on each side of the central value. Computation of the The eighth satellite was discovered by P. J. Melotte of Greenwich does differ from 180°, but it is not certain whether this deviation mean longitude from observations has indicated that the angle on the 28th of February 1908. It is of the 17th magnitude and is greater than the possible result of the errors of observation. How- appears to be very distant from Jupiter; a re-observation on ever this may be, the existence of the libration, and its period the 16th of January 1909 proved it to be retrograde, and to have if it does exist, are still unknown. a very eccentric orbit. These bodies are usually numbered in The following are the principal elements of the orbits of the five the order of their discovery, the nearest to the sun being V. In the mean longitudes are for 1891, 20th of October, G.M.T., and are inner satellites, arranged in the order of distance from Jupiter. apparent brightness each of the four Galilean satellites may referred to the equinox of the epoch, 1891, 2nd of October :- be roughly classed as of the sixth magnitude; they would therefore be visible to a keen eye Satellite V. I. II. III. IV. if the brilliancy of the planet did not obscure them. Some observers profess to have seen Mean Long. 264°:29 313°:7193 39° • 1187 171°:2448 62° 2000 one or more of these bodies with the naked Synodic Period I h. 58 m. 1 d. 18 h..48 3d. 13h. -30 7d. 3h..99 16d. 18m. .09 Mean Distance 106,400 m. 260,000 m. 414,000 m. 661,000 m. 1,162,000 m. eye notwithstanding this drawback, but the Mass + Mass of Jup. (?) ·00002831 .00002324 .00008125 00002149 evidence can scarcely be regarded as con- Stellar Mag. 13 6.0 6.1 5.6 6.6 clusive. It does not however seem unlikely The following numbers relating to the planet itself have been conjunction . supplied mostly by Professor Hermann Struve. tbny uthe third: whoise of the brightest , might be visible when in | JUR-JURA 565 ) 3° 4'.80 Filar Mic. Heliom. | where), the manufacture of nails, tools and other iron goods, Equatorial diameter of Jupiter (Dist. 5.2028) 38":50 37":50 Polar diameter of Jupiter 36".02 35".23 paper, leather, brier-pipes, toys and fancy wooden-ware and Ellipticity 1:15.5 1716-5 basket-work. The making of clocks, watches, spectacles and Theoretical ellipticity from motion of 900" in the pericentre measures, which are largely exported, employs much labour in of Sat. V. 1:15.3 and around Morez. Imports consist of grain, cattle, wine, leaf- Centrifugal force 1 gravity at equator 0.0900 copper, horn, ivory, fancy-wood; exports of manufactured Mass of Jupiter : Mass of Sun, now used in tables I: 1047:34 articles, wine, cheese, stone, timber and salt. The department Inclination of planet's equator to ecliptic 20,9:07 +0.006t is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway, the orbit Long. "of Node of equator on ecliptic 336° 21':47 +0.7621 main line from Paris to Neuchâtel traversing its northern region. orbit 135°25'.81 +-0.729! | The canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, which utilizes the channel The longitudes are referred to the mean terrestrial equinox, and t is the time in years from 1900.. of the Doubs over portions of its course, traverses it for 25 m. For the elements of Jupiter's orbit, see SOLAR System; and for Lons-le-Saunier is the chief town of Jura, which embraces four physical constants, see PLANET. (S. N.) arrondissements named after the towns of Lons-le-Saunier, Dôle, Poligny and St Claude, with 32 cantons and 584 communes. JUR (Diur), the Dinka name for a tribe of negroes of the The department forms the diocese of St Claude and part of the upper Nile valley, whose real name is Luoh, or Lwo. They ecclesiastical province of Besançon; it comes within the region appear to be immigrants, and tradition places their home in of the VIIth army corps and the educational circumscription the south; they now occupy a district of the Bahr-el-Ghazal (académie) of Besançon, where is its court of appeal. Lons-le- between the Bongo and Dinka tribes. Of a reddish black Saunier, Dôle, Arbois, Poligny, St Claude and Salins, the more colour, fairer than the Dinka, they are well proportioned, with noteworthy towns, receive separate notices. At Baume-les- the hair short. Tattooing is not common, but when found is Messieurs, 8 m. N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier, there is an ancient similar to that of the Dinka; they pierce the ears and nose, and abbey with a fine church of the 12th century. in addition to the ornaments found among the Dinka (q.v.) JURA (" deer island”), an island of the inner Hebrides, the wear a series of iron rings on the forearm covering it from fourth largest of the group, on the west coast of Argyllshire, wrist to elbow. They are mainly agricultural, but hunt and fish Scotland. Pop. (1901), 560: On the N. it is separated from to a considerable extent; they are also skilful smiths, smelting the island of Scarba by the whirlpool of Corrieyreckan, caused their own iron, of which they supply quantities to the Dinka. by the rush of the tides, often running over 13 m. an hour, They are a prosperous tribe and in consequence spinsters and sometimes accelerated by gales, on the E. from the main- are unknown among them. Their chief currency is spears and land by the sound of Jura, and on the S. and S.W. from Islay hoe-blades, and cowrie shells are used in the purchase of wives. by the sound of Islay. At Kinuachdrach there is a ferry to Their chief weapons are spears and bows. Aird in Lorne, in Argyllshire, and at Faolin there is a ferry to See G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa: Travels. 1868-1871, Port Askaig in Islay. Its area is about 160 sq. m., the greatest trans. G. E. E. Frewer (2nd ed., 1874); W. Junker, Travels in Africa length is about 27 m., and the breadth varies from 2 m. to 8 m. (Eng. ed., 1890–1892). The surface is mountainous and the island is the most rugged JURA, a department of France, on the eastern frontier, of the Hebrides. A chain of hills culminating in the Paps of formed from the southern portion of the old province of Franche- Jura-Beinn-an-Oir (2571 ft.) and Beinn Chaolais (2407 ft.) Comté. It is bounded N. by the department of Haute-Saône, runs the whole length of the island, interrupted only by Tarbert N.E. by Doubs, E. by Switzerland, S. by Ain, and W. by Saône- loch, an arm of the sea, which forms an indentation nearly 6 m. et-Loire and Côte d'Or. Pop. (1906), 257,725. Area, 1951 sq.m. deep and almost cuts the island in two. Jura derived its name Jura comprises four distinct zones with a general direction from from the red deer which once abounded on it. Cattle and sheep north to south. In the S.E. lie high eastern chains of the central are raised; oats, barley and potatoes are cultivated along the Jura, containing the Crêt Pela (4915 ft.), the highest point in eastern shore, and there is some fishing. Granite is quarried the department. More to the west there is a chain of forest- and silicious sand, employed in glass-making is found. The clad plateaus bordered on the E. by the river Ain. Westward parish of Jura comprises the islands of Balnahua, Fladda, of these runs a range of hills, the slopes of which are covered Garvelloch, Jura, Lunga, Scarba and Skervuile. with vineyards. The north-west region of the department is JURA, a range which may be roughly described as the block occupied by a plain which includes the fertile Finage, the north- of mountains rising between the Rhine and the Rhone, and form- ern portion of the Bresse, and is traversed by the Doubs and ing the frontier between France and Switzerland. The gorges its left affluent the Loue, between which lies the fine forest of by which these two rivers force their way to the plains cut off Chaux, 76 sq. m. in area. Jura falls almost wholly within the the Jura from the Swabian and Franconian ranges to the north basin of the Rhone. Besides those mentioned, the chief rivers and those of Dauphiné to the south. But in very early days, are the Valouze and the Bienne, which water the south of the before these gorges had been carved out, there were no openings department. There are several lakes, the largest of which is in the Jura at all, and even now its three chief rivers—the Doubs, that of Chalin, about 12 m. E. of Lons-le-Saunier. The climate the Loue and the Ain-flow down the western slope, which is is, on the whole, cold; the temperature is subject to sudden and both much longer and but half as steep as the eastern. Some violent changes, and among the mountains winter sometimes geographers extend the name Jura to the Swabian and Fran- lingers for eight months. The rainfall is much above the average conian ranges between the Danube and the Neckar and the Main; of France. but, though these are similar in point of composition and direc- Jura is an agricultural department: wheat, oats, maize and tion to the range to the south, it is most convenient to limit the barley are the chief cereals, the culture of potatoes and rape being name to the mountain ridges lying between France and Switzer- also of importance. Vines are grown mainly in the cantons of land, and this narrower sense will be adopted here. Arbois, Poligny, Salins and Voiteur. Woodlands occupy about The Jura has been aptly described as a huge plateau about a fifth of the area: the oak, hornbeam and beech, and, in the 156 m. long and 38 m. broad, hewn into an oblong shape, and mountains, the spruce and fir, are the principal varieties. Natural raised by internal forces to an average height of from 1950 to pasture is abundant on the mountains. Forests, gorges, torrents 2600 ft. above the surrounding plains. The shock by which it and cascades are characteristic features of the scenery. Its was raised and the vibration caused by the elevation of the great minerals include iron and salt and there are stone-quarries. chain of the Alps, produced many transverse gorges or “cluses,” Peat is also worked. Lons-le-Saunier and Salins have mineral while on the plateaus between these subaerial agencies have springs. Industries include the manufacture of Gruyère, Sept. exercised their ordinary influence. moncel and other cheeses (made in co-operative cheese factories Geologically the Jura Mountains belong to the Alpine system; or fruitières), metal founding and forging, saw-milling, flour- and the same forces which crumpled and tore the strata of the milling, the cutting of precious stones (at Septmoncel and else- one produced the folds and faults in the other. Both chains 566 JURA owe their origin to the mass of crystalline and unyielding rock | many transverse gorges or “cluses " (due to fracture and not to which forms the central plateau of France, the Vosges and the erosion), by which access is gained to the great central plateau of Pontarlier, though these are seen more plainly on the east face than Black Forest, and which, between the Vosges and the central on the west ; thus the gorges at the exit from which Lons-le-Saunier, plateau, lies at no great depth beneath the surface. Against Poligny, Arbois and Salins are built balance those of the Suze, of this mass the more yielding strata which lay to the south and the Val de Ruz, of the Val de Travers, and of the Val d'Orbe, though west were crushed and folded, and the Alps and the Jura were important routes— Neuchâtel. This town is thus marked out by on the east face there is but one city which commands all these carved from the ridges which were raised. But the folding nature as a great military and industrial centre, just as is Besançon decreases in intensity towards the north; the folding in the Alps on the west, which has besides to defend the route from Belfort is much more violent than the folding in the Jura, and in the down the Doubs. These easy means of communicating with the Jura itself the folding is most marked along its southern flanks. Free County of Burgundy or Franche-Comté account for the fact that the dialect of Neuchâtel is Burgundian, and that it was held The Jura is composed chiefly of Jurassic rocks-it is from this generally by Burgundian nobles, though most of the country near chain that the Jurassic system derives its name--but Triassic, it was in the hands of the house of Savoy until gradually annexed Cretaceous and Tertiary beds take part in its formation. It may by Bern. The Chasseron (5286 ft.) is the central point of the eastern be divided into three zones which run parallel to the length of face, commanding the two great railways which join Neuchâtel and Pontarlier. This ridge is in a certain sense parallel to the valley the chain and differ from one another in their structure. The of the Loue on the west face, which flows into the Doubs a little to innermost zone, which rises directly from the plain of Switzer- the south of Dôle, the only important town of the central portion land, is the folded Jura (Jura plissé, Keltenjura), formed of narrow of the Saône basin. The Chasseron is wholly Swiss, as are the lower parallel undulations which diminish in intensity towards the summits of the Chasseral (5279 ft.), the Mont Suchet (5220 ft.), French border. This is followed by the Jura plateau (Jura tabu- the Weissenstein (4223 ft.), and the Chaumont (3845 ft.), the two the Aiguille de Baulmes (5128 ſt.), the Dent de Vaulion (4879 ſt.), laire, Tafeljura), in which the beds are approximately horizontal last-named points being probably the best-known points in the but are broken up into blocks by fractures or faults. Finally, Jura, as they are accessible by carriage road from Soleure and along its western face there is a zone of numerous dislocations, becomes a rocky wall which is crowned by all the highest summits Neuchâtel respectively., South of the Orbe valley. the east face and the range descends abruptly to the plain of the Saône. (the first and second Swiss, the rest French) of the chain-the Mont This is the Région du vignoble and is well shown at Arbois. Tendre (5512. ft.), the Dôle (5505 ft.), the Reculet (5643 ft.), the Owing to the convergence of the faults which bound it, the Crêt de la Neige (5653 ft.) and the Grand Crédo (5328 ft.), the uni- plateau zone decreases in width towards the south, while towards formity of level being as striking as on the west edge of the the north it forms a large proportion of the chain. The folded Jura, though there the absolute height is far less. The position of the Dole is similar to that of the Chasseron, as along the sides of it zone is more constant. Along its inner margin the folds are run the great roads of the Col de St Cergues (3973 ſt.) and the Col frequently overthrown, leaning towards France, but elsewhere de la Faucille (4341 ft.), the latter leading through the Vallée des they are simple anticlinals and synclinals, parallel to the length Dappes, which was divided in 1862 between France and Switzer- of the chain, and as a rule there is a remarkable freedom from land, after many negotiations. The height of these roads shows that they are passages across the chain, rather than through natural dislocations of any importance, except towards Neuchâtel and depressions. Bienne. 3. The southern face is supported by two great pillars-on the The countless blocks of gneiss, granite and other crystalline east by the Grand Crédo and on the west by the ridge of Revermont formations which are found in such numbers on the slopes of the 12529 ft.)above Bourg en Bresse; between these a huge bastion (the district of Bugey) stretches away to the south, forcing the Jura, and go by the name of “ erratic blocks” (of which the best Řhone to make a long détour. On the two sides of this bastion the known instance-the Pierre à Bot-is 40 ft. in diameter, and plains in which Ambérieu and Culoz stand balance one another, and rests on the side of a hill 800 ft. above the Lake of Neuchâtel), are the meeting points of the routes which cut through the bastion have been transported thither from the Alps by ancient glaciers, steep and rugged, ending in the Grand Colombier (5033 ft.) above by means of deep gorges. On the eastern side this great wedge is which have left their mark on the Jura range itself in the shape Culoz, and it sinks on the western side to the valley of the Ain, the of striations and moraines. district of Bresse, and the plateau of Dombes. The junction of the The general direction of the chain is from north-east to south- Ain and the Surand at Pont d'Ain on the west balances that of the Valserine and the Rhone at Bellegarde on the east. west, but a careful study reveals the fact that there were in The Jura thus dominates on the north one of the great highways reality two main lines of upheaval, viz. north to south and east of Europe, on the east and west divides the valleys of the Saône and to west, the former best seen in the southern part of the range the Aar, and stretches out to the south so as nearly to join hands and the latter in the northern; and it was by the union of these with the great mass of the Dauphiné Alps. It therefore commands two forces that the lines north-east to south-west (seen in the hence its enormous historical importance. the routes from France into Germany, Switzerland and Italy, and greater part of the chain), and north-west to south-east (seen in Let us now examine the topography of the interior of the range. the Villebois range at the south-west extremity of the chain), This naturally falls into three divisions, cach traversed by one were produced. This is best realized if we take Besançon as of the three great rivers of the Jura--the Doubs, the Loue and the Ain. centre; to the north the ridges run east and west, to the south, 1. In the northern division it is the east and west line which north and south, while to the east the direction is north-east to prevails—the Lomont, the Mont Terrible, the defile of the Doubs south-west. from St Ursanne to St Hippolyte, and the “ Trouée " of the Black Before considering the topography of the interior of the Jura, it Forest towns. It thus bars access to the contral plateau from the may be convenient to take a brief survey of its outer slopes. north, and this natural wall does away with the necessity of artificial 1. The northern face dominates on one side the famous" Trouée" fortifications. This division falls again into two distinct portions. (or Trench) of Belfort, one of the great geographical centres of (a) The first is the part east of the deep gorge of the Doubs after it Europe, whence routes run north down the Rhine to the North Sea, turns south at St Hippolyte; it is thus quite cut off on this side, and south-east to the Danube basin and Black Sea, and south-west into is naturally Swiss territory. It includes the basin of the river France, and so to the Mediterranean basin. It is now so strongly Birse, and the great plateau between the Doubs and the Aar, on fortified that it becomes a question of great strategical importance which, at an average height of 2600 ft., are situated a number of to prevent its being turned by means of the great central plateau of towns, one of the most striking features of the Jura. These include the Jura, which, as we shall see, is a network of roads and railways. Le Locle (2.0.) and La Chaux de Fonds (q.v.), and are mainly occupied On the other side it overhangs the “Trouée" of the Black Forest with watch-making, an industry which does not require bulky towns on the Rhine (Rheinfelden, Säckingen, Laufenburg and machinery, and is therefore well fitted for a mountain district. Waldshut), through which the central plain of Switzerland is easily (6) The part west of the “cluse". of the Doubs: of this, the gained. On this north slope two openings offer routes into the district east of the river Dessoubre, isolated in the interior of the interior of the chain—the valley of the Doubs belonging to France, rangę (unlike the Le Locle plateau), is called the Haute Montagne, and the valley of the Birse belonging to Switzerland. Belfort is and is given up to cheese-making, curing of hams, saw-mills, &c. the military, Mülhausen the industrial, and Basel the commercial But little watch-making is carried on there, Besançon being the centre of this slope. chief French centre of this industry, and being connected with 2. The eastern and western faces offer many striking parallels. Geneva by a chain of places similarly occupied, which fringe the The plains through which flow the Aar and the Saône have each been west plateau of the Jura. The part west of the Dessoubre, or the the bed of an ancient lake, traces of which remain in the lakes of Moyenne Montagne, a huge plateau north of the Loue, is more Neuchâtel, Bienne and Morat. The west face runs mainly north especially devoted to agriculture, while along its north edge metal- and south like its great river, and for a similar reason the cast face working and manufacture of hardware are carried on, particularly runs north-east to south-west. Again, both slopes are pierced by'at Besançon and Audincourt. " JURASSIC 567 11 2. The central division is remarkable for being without the deep | ages the southern, western and northern sides were parcelled out gorges which are found so frequently in other parts of the range into a number of districts, all of which were gradually absorbed It consists of the basin of which Pontarlier is the centre, through notches in the rim of which routes converge from every direction; by the French crown, viz., Gex, Val Romey, Bresse and Bugey this is the great characteristic of the middle region of the Jura. (exchanged in 1601 by Savoy for the marquisate of Saluzzo), Hence its immense strategical and commercial importance. On the Franche-Comté, or the Free County of Burgundy, an imperial north-east roads run to Morteau and Le Locle, on the north-west to Besançon, on the west to Salins, on the south-west to Dole and fief till annexed in 1674, the county of Montbéliard (Mömpelgard) Lons-le-Saunier, on the east to the Swiss plain. The Pontarlier acquired in 1793, and the county of Ferrette (French 1648-1871). plateau is nearly horizontal, the slight indentations in it being due The northern part of the eastern side was held till 1792 (part till to erosion, e.g. by the river Drugeon. The keys to this important 1797) by the bishop of Basel as a fief of the empire, and then plateau are to the east the Fort de Joux, under the walls of which belonged to France till 1814, but was given to Bern in 1815 (as meet the two lines of railway from Neuchâtel, and to the west Salins, the meeting place of the routes from the Col de la Faucille, a recompense for its loss of Vaud), and now forms the Bernese from Besançon, and from the French plain. Jura, a French-speaking district. The centre of the eastern The Ain rises on the south edge of this plateau, and on a lower slope formed the principality of Neuchâtel (q.v.) and the county shelf or step, which it waters, are situated two points of great of Valangin, which were generally held by Burgundian nobles, military importance-Nozeroy and Champagnole. The latter is specially important, since the road leading thence to Geneva came by succession to the kings of Prussia in 1707, and were traverses one after another, not far from their head, the chief valleys formed into a Swiss canton in 1815, though they did not become which run down into the South Jura, and thus commands the free from formal Prussian claims until 1857. The southern part southern routes as well as those by St Cergues and the Col de la of the eastern slope originally belonged to the house of Savoy, Faucille from the Geneva region, and a branch route along the Orbe river from Jougne. The fort of Les Rousses, near the foot of the but was conquered bit by bit by Bern, which was forced in 1815 Dôle, serves as an advanced post to Champagnole, just as the Fort to accept its subject district Vaud as a colleague and equal in de Joux does to Pontarlier. the Swiss Confederation. It was Charles the Bold's defeats at The above sketch will serve to show the character of the central Jura as the meeting place of routes from all sides, and the importance federates of these portions of Savoyard territory. Grandson and Morat which led to the annexation by the con- to France of its being strongly fortified, lest an enemy approaching from the north-east should try to turn the fortresses of the Trouée AUTHORITIES.-E.F.Berlioux, Le Jura (Paris, 1880); F. Machacek, de Belfort." It is in the western part of the central Jura that the north and south lines first appear strongly marked. There are said (Paris, 1895); J. Zimmerli, Der Schweizer Jura (Gotha, 1905); A. Magnin, Les lacs du Jura to be in this district no less than fifteen ridges running parallel to Die Sprachgrenze im Jura " (vol. i. of his Die Deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz (Basel, each other, and it is these which force the Loue to the north, and thereby occasion its very eccentric course. The cultivation of 1891): For the French slope see Joanne's large Ilinéraire to thé Jura, and the smaller volumes relating to the departments of wormwood wherewith to make the tonic "absinthe " has its head- the Ain, Doubs and Jura, in his Géographies départementales. For quarters at Pontarlier. 3. The southern division is by far the most complicated and the Swiss slope see 3 vols. in the series of the Guides Monod entangled part of the Jura. The lofty ridge which bounds it to the (Geneva); A. Monnier, La Chaux de Fonds et le Haut-Jura Neuchâle- east forces all its drainage to the west, and the result is a number of lois; J: Monod, Le Jura Bernois; and E. J. P. de la Harpe, Le Jura Vaudois. valleys of erosion (of which that of the Ain is the chief instance), (W. A. B. C.) quite distinct from the natural “cluses or fissures of those of the JURASSIC, in geology, the middle period of the Mesozoic era, Doubs and of the Loue. Another point of interest is the number of roads which intersect it, despite its extreme irregularity. This that is to say, succeeding the Triassic and preceding the Creta- is due to the great cluses of Nantua and Virieu, which traverse ceous periods. The name Jurassic (French jurassique; German it from east to west. The north and south line is very clearly seen Juraformation or Jura) was first employed by A. Brongniart and in the eastern part of this division; the north-east and south-west A. von Humboldt for the rocks of this age in the western Jura is entirely wanting, but in the Villebois range south of Ambérieu we have the principal example of the north-west to south-east line. mountains of Switzerland, where they are well developed. It The plateaus west of the Ain are cut through by the valleys of the was in England, however, that they were first studied by William Valouse and of the Surand, and like all the lowest terraces on the Smith, in whose hands they were made to lay the foundations west slope do not possess any considerable towns. The Ain receives of stratigraphical geology. The names adopted by him for the three tributaries from the east : (a) The Bienne, which flows from the fort of Les Rousses by subdivisions he traced across the country have passed into St Claude, the industrial centre of the south Jura, famous for the universal use, and though some of them are uncouth English manufacture of wooden toys, owing to the large quantity of box: provincial names, they are as familiar to the geologists of France, wood in the neighbourhood. Septmoncel is busied with cutting of Switzerland and Germany as to those of England. During the gems, and Morez with watch and spectacle making. Cut off to the east by the great chain, the industrial prosperity of this valley is of following three decades Smith's work was elaborated by W. D. recent origin. Conybeare and W. Phillips. The Jurassic rocks of fossils of the (b) The Oignin, which flows from south to north. It receives the European continent were described by d'Orbigny, 1840-1846; drainage of the lake of Nantua, a town noted for combs and silk by L. von Buch, 1839; by F. A. Quenstedt, 1843–1888; by weaving, and which communicates by the “cluse" of the Lac de Silan with the Valserine valley, and so with the Rhone at Bellegarde, A. Oppel , 1856–1858; and since then by many other workers: and again with the various routes which meet under the walls of the E. Benecke, E. Hébert, W. Waagen, and others. The study of fort of Les Rousses, while by the Val Romey and the Séran Culoz is Jurassic rocks has continued to attract the attention of geolo- easily gained. (c) The Albarine, connected with Culoz by the "cluse " of Virieu, gists, partly because the bedding is so well defined and regular- and by the Furan flowing south with Belley, the capital of the the strata are little disturbed anywhere outside the Swiss Jura district of Bugey (the old name for the South Jura), and the Alps-and partly because the fossils are numerous and The “cluses of Nantua and Virieu are now both traversed by usually well-preserved. The result has been that no other important railways; and it is even truer than of old that the keys system of rocks has been so carefully examined throughout its of the south Jura are Lyons and Geneva. But of course the entire thickness; many" zones" have been established by means strategic importance of these gorges is less than appears at first sight, because they can be turned by following the Rhone in its of the fossils--principally by ammonites and these zones are great bend to the south. not restricted to limited districts, but many of them hold good over wide areas. Oppel distinguished no fewer than thirty-three The range is mentioned by Caesar (Bell. Gall. i. 2–3, 6 (1), and zonal horizons, and since then many more sub-zonal divisions 8 (1)), Strabo (iv. 3, 4, and 6, 11), Pliny (iii. 31; iv. 105; Xvi. 197) have been noted locally. and Ptolemy (ii. ix. 5), its nam being a word which appears The existence of faunal regions in Jurassic times was first under many forms (e.g. Joux, Jorat, Jorasse, Juriens), and is a pointed out by J. Marcou; later M. Neumayr greatly extended synonym for a wood or forest. The German name is Leberberg, observations in this direction. According to Neumayr, three Leber being a provincial word for a hill. distinct geographical regions of deposit can be made out among Politically the Jura is French (departments of the Doubs, Jura the Jurassic rocks of Europe: (1) The Mediterranean province, and Ain) and Swiss (parts of the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, embracing the Pyrenees, Alps and Carpathians, with all the Neuchâtel, Bern, Soleure and Basel); but at its north extremity tracts lying to the south. One of the biological characters of it takes in a small bit of Alsace (Pfirt or Ferrette). In the middle | this area was the great abundance of ammonites belonging to > 568 JURASSIC 000 Avia Bay of MOSCOW a Iste of Touran de Sino cent Malayan Continent Map of the probable distribution of Land & Sea in the after Neumayr. the groups of Heterophylli (Phylloceras) and Fimbriati (Lyloceras). | rocks represent the deposits of shallow seas, but estuarine con- (2) The central European province, comprising the tracts lying ditions and land deposits occur as in the Purbeck beds of Dorset to the north of the Alpine ridge, and marked by the comparative and the coals of Yorkshire. Coal is a very important feature rarity of the ammonites just mentioned, which are replaced by among Jurassic rocks, particularly in the Liassic division; it is others of the groups Inflati (Aspidoceras) and Oppelia, and by found in Hungary, where there are twenty-five workable beds; abundant reefs and masses of coral. (3) The boreal or Russian in Persia, Turkestan, Caucasus, south Siberia, China, Japan, province, comprising the middle and north of Russia, Spitzbergen Further India, New Zealand and in many of the Pacific Islands. and Greenland. The life in this area was much less varied than Being shallow water formations, petrological changes come in in the others, showing that in Jurassic times there was a per- rapidly as many of the beds are traced out; sandstones pass ceptible diminution of temperature towards the north. The laterally into clays, and the latter into limestones, and so on, ammonites of the more southern tracts here disappear, together but a reliable guide to the classification and correlation is found with the corals. in the fossil contents of the rocks. In the accompanying table The cause of these faunal regions Neumayr attributed to a list is given of some of the zonal fossils which regularly occur climatic belts—such as exist to-day-and in part, at least, he in the order indicated; other forms are known that are equally useful. It will be noticed that while there is general agreement as to the order in which the zonal forms occur, the line of division between one formation and another is liable to vary according to factors in the personal equation of the authors. The Jurassic formations stretch across England in a varying band from the mouth of the Tees to the coast of Dorsetshire. They consist of harder sandstones and limestones interstratified Nearçti çontinent with softer clays and shales. Hence they give rise to a character- istic type of scenery—the more durable beds standing out as long ridges, sometimes even with low cliffs, while the clays under. lie the level spaces between. Jurassic rocks cover a vast area in Central Europe. They rise Brazilo - Ethiopian from under the Cretaceous formations in the north-east of France, whence they range southwards down the valleys of the Saone and Rhone to the Mediterranean. They appear as a broken border round the old crystalline nucleus of Auvergne. Eastwards they range through the Jura Mountains up to the high grounds of Bo- hemia. They appear in the outer chains of the Alps on both sides, and on the south they rise along the centre of the Apennines, and Jurassic Period here and there over the Spanish Peninsula. Covered by more recent formations they underlie the great plain of northern Germany, whence they range eastwards and occupy large tracts in central and eastern Russia. was probably correct. It should be borne in mind, however, that although Neumayr was able to trace a broad, warm belt, Lower Jurassic rocks are absent from much of northern Russia, some 60° in width, right round the earth, with a narrower mild (of Professor S. Nikitin); the fauna differs considerably from that of the stages represented being the Callovian, Oxfordian and Volgian belt to the north and an arctic or boreal belt beyond, and certain western Europe, and the marine equivalents of the Purbeck beds indications of a repetition of the climatic zones on the southern are found in this region. In south Russia, the Crimea and Caucasus, side of the thermal equator, more recent discoveries of fossils Lias and Lower Jurassic rocks are present. In the Alps, the Lower seem to show that other influences must have been at work in formations, and resemble them in consisting, largely of reddish Jurassic rocks are intimately associated with the underlying Triassic determining their distribution; in short, the identity of the limestones and marbles; the ammonites in this region differ in Neumayrian climatic boundaries becomes increasingly obscured certain respects from those of western and central Europe. The by the advance of our knowledge. Oxfordian, Callovian, Corallian and Astartian stages are also The Jurassic period was marked by a great extension of the present. The Upper Jurassic is mainly represented by a uniform sea, which commenced after the close of the Trias and reached which Oppel gave the name series of limestones, with a peculiar and characteristic fauna, to Tithonian." This includes most of its maximum during the Callovian and Oxfordian stages; conse- the horizons from Kimeridgian to Cretaceous; it is developed on the quently, the Middle Jurassic rocks are much more widely spread southern flanks of the Alps, Carpathians, Apennines, as well as in than the Lias. In Europe and elsewhere Triassic beds pass characteristic formation on this horizon is the “ Diphya limestone," south France and other parts of the Mediterranean basin. А gradually up into the Jurassic, so that there is difficulty some- so-called from the fossil Terebratula diphya (Pygope janilor) seen times in agreement as to the best line for the base of the latter; in the well-known escarpments (Hochgebirge Kalk). Above the similarly at the top of the sytsem there is a passage from the Diphya limestone comes the Stramberg limestone (Stramberg in Jurassic to the Cretaceous rocks (Alps). Moravia), with “ Aptychus " beds and coral reefs. The rocks of the Mediterranean basin are on the whole more calcareous than Towards the close of the period elevation began in certain those of corresponding age in north-west Europe; thus the Lias is regions; thus, in America, the Sierras, Cascade Mountains, represented by 1500 ft. of white crystalline limestone in Calabria Klamath Mountains, and Humboldt Range probably began to and a similar rock occurs in Sicily, Bosnia, Epirus, Corfu; in Spain emerge. In England the estuarine Portlandian resulted partly the Liassic strata are frequently dolomitic; in the Apennines they are variegated limestones and marls. The Higher Jurassic beds of from elevation, but in the Alps marine conditions steadily per- Portugal show traces of the proximity of land in the abundant plant sisted (in the Tithonian stage). There appears to have been remains that are found in them. In Scania the Lias succeeds the very little crustal disturbance or volcanic activity; tuffs are Rhaetic beds in a regular manner, and Jurassic rocks have been known in Argentina and California; volcanic rocks of this age the Lofoten Isles, Spitzbergen, east Greenland, King Charles's traced northward well within the polar circlc; they are known in occur also in Skye and Mull. Island, Cape Stewart in Scoresby Sound, Grinnell Land, Prince The rocks of the Jurassic system present great petrological Patrick Land, Bathurst and Exmouth Island; in many cases the diversity. In England the name Oolites was given to the possils denote a climate considerably milder than now obtains in middle and higher members of the system on account of the these latitudes. In the American continent Jurassic rocks are not well developed. prevalence of oolitic structure in the limestones and ironstones; Marine Lower and Middle Jurassic beds occur on the Pacific coast the same character is a common feature in the rocks of northern (California and Oregon), and in Wyoming, the Dakotas, Colorado, east Europe and elsewhere, but it must not be overlooked that clays Mexico and Texas. Above the marine beds in the interior are brack- and sandstones together bulk more largely in the aggregate than ish and fresh-water deposits, the Morrison and Como beds (Atlanto- the polites. The thickness of Jurassic rocks in England is found in northern British Columbia and perhaps in Alaska, Wyoming, saurus and Baptanodon beds of Marsh). Later Jurassic rocks are 4000 to 5000 ft., and in Germany 2000 to 3000 ft. Most of the Utah, Montana, Colorado, the Dakotas, &c. In California some of the JURASSIC 569 | == series Bathonian. In the western half of the Salt Range and the Himalayas, Spiti shales are the equivalents of the European Callovian and Kimeridgian. The upper part of the Gondwana series is not improbably Jurassic. On the African continent, Liassic strata are found in Algeria, and Bathonian formations occur in Abyssinia, Somaliland, Cape Colony and western Madagascar. In. Australia the Permo-Carboniferous formations are succeeded in Queensland and Western Australia by what may be termed the Jura-Trias, Substages Von, of Buch A. de Lapparent, Trailé, 5th ed. Alpine 1 Y @ 40 १ A B Lower or Black Jura Middle or Brown Jura δ Upper or White Jura Purbeckien or Aquilonien Bononien Virgulien Pteroceran Astartien Rauracien Argovien Neuvizien Upper Divesien Lower Divęsien Diphya-Kalke Acanthicus Beds Mésojurassique Callovien Oxfor- dien Sequa- Kimerid- nien gien Néojurassique Portlandien Ammonitico rosso of Tithonien, southern'Alps Aptychen-Kalke and Radiolariengesteine Bathonien Bajocien Toarcien Charmouthien Sinemourien Hettangien (part) Hettangien (part) Rhétien Système Liassique Éojurassique Adneter Kalke Brachiopod or Hierlatz facies Algäu Beds Fleckenmergel Grestener Beds (Coal) LIAS Lower Qolites OOLITES Middle Oolites JURASSIC SYSTEM gold-bearing metamorphic slates are of this age. Marine Jurassic rocks have not been clearly identified on the Atlantic side of America. The Patuxent and Arundel formations (non-marine) are doubtfully referred to this period. Lower and Middle Jurassic formations occur in Argentina and Bolivia. Jurassic rocks have been recognized in Asia, including India, Afghanistan, Persia, Kurdistan, Asia Minor, the Caspian region, Japan and Borneo. The best marine development is in Cutch, where the following groups Stages¹ Ammonite Zones Oppel Quenstedt Upper Oolites Purbeckian Perisphinctes transitorius Portlandian Perisphinctes giganteus Qlcostephanus gigas Kimeridgian Reineckia eudoxus Oppelia tenuilobata → { * Corallian Peltoceras bimammatum Malm Oxfordian Peltoceras transversarium Aspidoceras perarmatum Peltoceras athleta Callovian Bathonian Cosmoceras Jason Macrocephalites macrocephalus Oppelia aspidoides Parkinsonia ferruginea Parkinsonia Parkinsoni Caloceras Humphresianus Bajocian (Inferior Oolite) Sphæroceras Sauzei Sonninia Sowerbyi Harpoceras Murchisonae (passage beds) Harpoceras (Lioceras) opalinum Upper Lias Lytoceras jurense Posidonia Bronni Amaltheus spinatus Dogger Middle Lias Lower Lias Amaltheus margaritatus Dactylioceras Davoëi Phylloceras ibex Aegoceras Jamesoni Arietites raricostatus Oxynoticeras oxynotum Arietites obtusus Arietites Bucklandi Schlotheimia angulata Psiloceras planorbis Lias Infra-Lias are distinguished from above downwards: the Umia series-Port- | landian and Tithonian of south Europe, passing upwards into the Neocomian; the Katrol series-Oxfordian (part) and Kimeridgian; the Chari series = Callovian and part of the Oxfordian; the Patcham ¹ Purbeckian from the "Isle" of Purbeck. Aquilonien from Aquilo (Nord). Bononien from Bononia (Boulogne). Virgulien from Exogyra virgula. Pleroceran from Pteroceras oceani. Astarlien from Astarte supracorallina. Rauracien from Rauracia (Jura). Argovien from Argovie (Switzerland). Neuvizien from Neuvizy (Ardennes). Divesien from Dives_(Calvados). Bathonien from Bath (England). Bajocien from Bayeux (Calvados). Toarcien from Toarcium (Tours). Charmouthien from Charmouth (England). Sinemourien from Sinemurum, Semur (Côte d'Or). Hettangien from Hettange (Lorraine). which include the coal-bearing "Ipswich " and " Burrum" forma- tions of Queensland. In New Zealand there is a thick series of marine beds with terrestrial plants, the Mataura series in the upper part of Hutton's Hokanui system. Sir J. Hector included also the Putakaka series (as Middle Jurassic) and the Flag series with the Catlin's River and Bastion series below. Jurassic rocks have been recorded from New Guinea and New Caledonia. Life in the Jurassic Period.—The expansion of the sea during this period, with the formation of broad sheets of shallow and probably warmish water, appears to have been favourable to many forms of marine life. Under these conditions several groups of organisms developed rapidly along new directions, so that the Jurassic period as a whole came to have a fauna differing clearly and distinctly from the preceding Palaeozoic or succeeding Tertiary faunas. In the seas, all the main groups were represented as they are to-day Posidonien Beds (S. Alps) Klauss Beds (N. Alps) Sauzei-Kalke Oolite of San Vigilio 570 JURAT-JURIEN DE LA GRAVIÈRE Corals were abundant, and in later portions of the period covered | Solenhofen slates of Bavaria. Although this was a great advance large areas in Europe; the modern type of coral became dominant; beyond the Pterodactyls in avian characters, yet many reptilian besides reef-building forms such as Thamnastrea, Isastrea, Thecos- features were retained. milia, there were numerous single forms like Montivaltia. Crinoids Comparatively little change took place in the vegetation in the existed in great numbers in some of the shallow seas; compared with time that elapsed between the close of the Triassic and the middle Palaeozoic forms there is a marked reduction in the size of the of the Jurassic periods. Cycads, Zamites, Podozamites, &c., ap- calyx with a great extension in the number of arms and pianules; peared to reach their maximum; Equisetums were still found growing Pentacrinus, Eugeniacrinus, Apiocrinus are all well known; Antedon to a great size and Ginkgos occupied a prominent place; ferns were was a stalkless genus, Echinoids (urchins) were gradually develop common; so too were pines, yews, cypresses and other conifers, which ing the so-called "irregular type, Echinobrissus, Holectypus, while they outwardly resembled their modern representatives, were Collyrites, Clypeus, but the regular forms prevailed, Cidaris, quite distinct in species. No flowering plants had yet appeared, Hemicidaris, Acrosalenia. Sponges were important rock-builders although a primitive form of angiosperm has been reported from the in Upper Jurassic times (Spongiten Kalk); they include lithistids Upper Jurassic of Portugal. such as Čnemediastrum, Hyalotragus, Peronidella; hexactinellids, Tremadictyon, Craticularia; and horny sponges have been found in the Lias and Middle Jurassic. 11 Polyzoa are found abundantly in some of the beds, Stomatopora, Berenicia, &c. Brachiopods were represented principally by terebratulids (Terebratula, Waldheimia, Megerlea), and by rhyn- chonellids; Thecae, Lingula and Crania were also present. The Palaeozoic spirifirids and athyrids still lingered into the Lias. More important than t⚫ brachiopods were the pelecypods; Ostrea, Exogyra, Gryphaea were very abundant (Gryphite limestone, Gryphite grit); the genus Trigonia, now restricted to Australian waters, was present in great variety; Aucella, Lima, Pecten, Pseudomonotis Gervillia, Astarte, Diceras, Isocardia, Pleuromya may be mentioned out of many others. Amongst the gasteropods the Pleurolomariidae and Turbinidae reached their maximum development; the Palaeo- zoic Conularia lived to see the beginning of this period (Pleurotomaria, Nerinea, Pteroceras, Cerithium, Turritella). The economic products of the Jurassic system are of considerable importance, the valuable coals have already been noticed; the well- known iron ores of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire and those of the Northampton sands occur respectively in the Lias and Inferior Oolites. Oil shales are found in Germany, and several of the Jurassic formations in England contain some petroleum. Building stones of great value are obtained from the Chat Oolite, the Portlandian and the Inferior Oolite; large quantities of hydraulic cement and lime have been made from the Lias. The celebrated lithographic stone of Solenhofen in Bavaria belongs to the upper portion of this system. 44 See D'Orbigny, Paléontologie française, Terrain Jurassique (1840, 1846); L. von Buch," Über den Jura in Deutschland" (Ábhand. d. Berlin Akad., 1839); F. A. Quenstedt, Flötzgebirge Württembergs (1843) and other papers, also Der Jura (1883-1888); A. Oppel, Die Juraformation Englands, Frankreichs und s.w. Deutschlands (1856- 1858). For a good general account of the formations with many Cephalopods flourished everywhere; first in importance were the references to original papers, see A. de Lapparent, Trailé de géologie, ammonites; the Triassic genera Phylloceras and Lytoceras were still vol. ii. 5th ed. (1906). The standard work for Great Britain is the found in the Jurassic waters, but all the other numerous genera series of Memoirs of the Geological Survey entitled The Jurassic Rocks were new, and their shells are found with every variation of size of Britain, i and ii. "Yorkshire" (1892); iii. “The Lias of England and ornamentation. Some are characteristic of the older Jurassic and Wales " (1893); iv. "The Lower Oolite Rocks of England (York- rocks, Arielites, Aegoceras, Amaltheus, Harpoceras, Oxynoliceras, shire excepted)" (1894); v. The Middle and Upper Ŏolitic Rocks Stepheoceras, and the two genera mentioned above; in the middle of England (Yorkshire excepted)" (1895). The map is after that of stages are found Cosmoceras, Perisphinctes, Cardioceras, Kepplerites M. Neumayr, " Die geographische Verbreitung der Juraformation,' Aspidoceras; in the upper stages Olcoslephanus, Perisphinctes, Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss., Wien, Math, u. Naturwiss., cl. L., Reineckia, Oppelia. So regularly do certain forms characterize | Abth. i., Karte 1. (1885). (J. A. H.) definite horizons in the rocks that some thirty zones have been distinguished in Europe, and many of them can be traced even as far as India. Another cephalopod group, the belemnites, that had been dimly outlined in the preceding Trias, now advanced rapidly in numbers and in variety of form, and they, like the ammonites, have proved of great value as zone-indicators. The Sepioids or cuttlefish made their first appearance in this period (Beloteuthis, Geoteuthis,) and their ink-bags can still be traced in examples from the Lias and lithographic limestone. Nautiloids existed but they were somewhat rare. A great change had come over the crustaceans; in place of the Palaeozoic trilobites we find long-tailed lobster-like forms, Penaeus, Eryon, Magila, and the broad crab-like type first appeared in Pro- sopon. Isopods were represented by Archaeoniscus and others. Insects have left fairly abundant remains in the Lias of England, Schambelen (Switzerland) and Dobbertin (Mecklenburg), and also in the English Purbeck. Neuropterous forms predominate, but hemiptera occur from the Lias upwards; the earliest known flies (Diptera) and ants (Hymenoptera) appeared; orthoptera, cock- roaches, crickets, beetles, &c., are found in the Lias, Stonesfield slate and Purbeck beds. Fishes were approaching the modern forms during this period, heterocercal ganoids becoming scarce (the Coelacanthidae reached their maximum development), while the homocercal forms were abundant (Gyodus, Microdon, Lepidosteus, Lepidotus, Dapedius). The Chimaeridae, sea-cats, made their appearance (Squaloraja). The ancestors of the modern sturgeons, garpikes and selachians, Hybodus, Acrodus were numerous. Bony-fish were represented by the small Leptolepis. " There JURAT (through Fr. from med. Lat. juratus, one sworn, Lat. jurare, to swear), a name given to the sworn holders of certain offices. Under the ancien régime in France, in several towns, of the south-west, such as Rochelle and Bordeaux, the jurats were members of the municipal body. The title was also borne by officials, corresponding to aldermen, in the Cinque Ports, but is now chiefly used as a title of office in the Channel Islands. are two bodies, consisting each of twelve jurats, for Jersey and the bailiwick of Guernsey respectively. They are elected for life, in Jersey by the ratepayers, in Guernsey by the elective states. They form, with the bailiff as presiding judge, the royal court of justice, and are a constituent part of the legislative bodies. In English law, the word jurat (juratum) is applied to that part of an affidavit which contains the names of the parties swearing the affidavit and the person before whom it was sworn, the date, place and other necessary particulars. JURIEN DE LA GRAVIÈRE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDMOND (1812-1892), French admiral, son of Admiral Jurien, who served through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars and was a peer of France under Louis Philippe, was born on the 19th of Novem- ber 1812. He entered the navy in 1828, was made a commander in 1841, and captain in 1850. During the Russian War he com- manded a ship in the Black Sea. He was promoted to be rear- So important a place was occupied by reptiles during this period admiral on the 1st of December 1855, and appointed to the that it has been well described as the " age of reptiles.' In the command of a squadron in the Adriatic in 1859, when he abso- seas the fish-shaped Ichthyosaurs and long-necked Plesiosaurs dwelt in great numbers and reached their maximum development; lutely sealed the Austrian ports with a close blockade. In the latter ranged in size from 6 to 40 ft. in length. The Pterosaurs, October 1861 he was appointed to command the squadron in with bat-like wings and pneumatic bones and keeled breast-bone, the Gulf of Mexico, and two months later the expedition against flew over the land; Pterodactyl with short tail and Rhamphorhyncus Mexico. On the 15th of January 1862 he was promoted to be with long tail are the best known. Curiously modified crocodilians vice-admiral. During the Franco-German War of 1870 he had appeared late in the period (Mystriosaurus, Geosaurus, Steneosaurus, Teleosaurus). But even more striking than any of the above were command of the French Mediterranean fleet, and in 1871 he was the Dinosaurs; these ranged in size from a creature no larger appointed" director of charts." As having commanded in chief than a rabbit up to the gigantic Atlantosaurus, 100 ft. long, in the before the enemy, the age-limit was waived in his favour, and he Jurassic of Wyoming. Both herbivorous and carnivorous forms were present; Brontosaurus, Megalosaurus, Stegosaurus, Celiosaurus, was continued on the active list. Jurien died on the 4th of Diplodocus, Ceratosaurus and Campsognathus are a few of the March 1892. He was a voluminous author of works on naval genera. By comparison with the Dinosaurs the mammals took a history and biography, most of which first appeared in the Revue very subordinate position in Jurassic times; only a few jaws have des deux mondes. Among the most noteworthy of these are been found, belonging to quite small creatures; they appear to have Guerres maritimes sous la république et l'empire, which was trans- been marsupials and were probably insectivorous (Plagiaulaxlated by Lord Dunsany under the title of Sketches of the Last Naval Bolodon, Triconodon, Phascolotherium, Stylacodon). Of great interest are the remains of the earliest known bird (Archaeopteryx) from the War (1848); Souvenirs d'un amiral (1860), that is, of his father, JURIEU— JURISPRUDENCE 571 Admiral Jurien; La Marine d'autrefois (1865), largely autobio- | Holland); see Law. The essential principles involved are dis- graphical; and La Marine d'aujourd'hui (1872). In 1866 he was cussed below and in JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE; the details elected a member of the Academy. of particular laws or sorts of law (CONTRACT, &c.) and of in- JURIEU, PIERRE (1637–1713), French Protestant divine, was dividual national systems of law (ENGLISH Law, &c.) being dealt born at Mer, in Orléanais, where his father was a Protestant with in separate articles. pastor. He studied at Saumur and Sedan under his grandfather, The human race may be conceived as parcelled out into a Pierre Dumoulin, and under Leblanc de Beaulieu. After com- number of distinct groups or societies, differing greatly in size pleting his studies in Holland and England, Jurieu received and circumstances, in physical and moral characteristics of all Anglican ordination; returning to France he was ordained again kinds. But they all resemble each other in that they reveal on and succeeded his father as pastor of the church at Mer. Soon examination certain rules of conduct in accordance with which after this he published his first work, Examen de livre de la the relations of the members inter se are governed. Each society réunion du Christianisme (1671). In 1674 his Traité de la dévo- has its own system of laws, and all the systems, so far as they lion led to his appointment as professor of theology and Hebrew are known, constitute the appropriate subject matter of juris- at Sedan, where he soon became also pastor. A year later he prudence. The jurist may deal with it in the following ways. published his A pologie pour la morale des Réformés. He obtained He may first of all examine the leading conceptions common a high reputation, but his work was impaired by his controver- to all the systems, or in other words define the leading terms sial temper, which frequently developed into an irritated fanati- common to them all. · Such are the terms law itself, right, duly, cism, though he was always entirely sincere. He was called property, crime, and so forth, which, or their equivalents, may, by his adversaries “the Goliath of the Protestants.” On the notwithstanding delicate differences of connotation, be regarded suppression of the academy of Sedan in 1681, Jurieu received an as common terms in all systems. That kind of inquiry is known invitation to a church at Rouen, but, afraid to remain in France in England as analytical jurisprudence. It regards the concep- on account of his forthcoming work, La Politique du clergé de tions with which it deals as fixed or stationary, and aims at France, he went to Holland and was pastor of the Walloon expressing them distinctly and exhibiting their logical relations church of Rotterdam till his death on the IIth of January 1713. with each other. What is really meant by a right and by a duty, He was also professor at the école illustre. Jurieu did much to and what is the true connexion between a right and a duty, are help those who suffered by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes types of the questions proper to this inquiry. Shifting our point (1685). He himself turned for consolation to the Apocalypse, of view, but still regarding systems of law in the mass, we may and succeeded in persuading himself (Accomplissement des pro- consider them, not as stationary, but as changeable and chang- phéties, 1686) that the overthrow of Antichrist (ie. the papal ing, we may ask what general features are exhibited by the church) would take place in 1689. H. M. Baird says that “this record of the change. This, somewhat crudely put, may serve persuasion, however fanciful the grounds on which it was based, to indicate the field of historical or comparative jurisprudence. exercised no small influence in forwarding the success of the In its ideal condition it would require an accurate record of the designs of William of Orange in the invasion of England.” history of all legal systems as its material. But whether the Jurieu defended the doctrines of Protestantism with great ability material be abundant or scanty the method is the same. It against the attacks of Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole and seeks the explanation of institutions and legal principles in the Bossuet, but was equally ready to enter into dispute with his facts of history. Its aim is to show how a given rule came to be fellow Protestant divines (with Louis Du Moulin and Claude what it is. The legislative source-the emanation of the rule Payon, for instance) when their opinions differed from his own from a sovereign authority-is of no importance here; what is even on minor matters. The bitterness and persistency of his important is the moral source the connexion of the rule with attacks on his colleague Pierre Bayle led to the latter being the ideas prevalent during contemporary periods. This method, deprived of his chair in 1693. it is evident, involves not only a comparison of successive stages One of Jurieu's chief works is Lettres pastorales adressées aux in the history of the same system, but a comparison of different fidèles de France (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1686-1687; Eng. trans., 1689), systems, of the Roman with the English, of the Hindu with the which, notwithstanding the vigilance of the police, found its way Irish, and so on. The historical method as applied to law may into France and produced a deep impression on the Protestant be regarded as a special example of the method of comparison. population. His last important work was the Histoire critique des dogmes et des cultes (1704; Eng. trans., 1715). He wrote a great The comparative method is really employed in all generalizations number of controversial works. about law; for, although the analysis of legal terms might be See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie; also H. M. conducted with exclusive reference to one system, the advantage Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1895). of testing the result by reference to other systems is obvious. JURIS, a tribe of South American Indians, formerly occupying But, besides the use of comparison for purposes of analysis and the country between the rivers Iça (lower Putumayo) and Japura, in tracing the phenomena of the growth of laws, it is evident that north-western Brazil. In ancient days they were the most for the purposes of practical legislation the comparison of differ- powerful tribe of the district, but in 1820 their numbers did not ent systems may yield important results. Laws are contrivances exceed 2000. Owing to inter-marrying, the Juris are believed for bringing about certain definite ends, the larger of which are. to have been extinct for half a century. They were closely identical in all systems. The comparison of these contrivances related to the Passēs, and were like them a fair-skinned, finely not only serves to bring their real object, often obscured as it is built people with quite European features. in details, into clearer view, but enables legislators to see JURISDICTION, in general, the exercise of lawful authority, where the contrivances are deficient, and how they may be especially by a court or a judge; and so the extent or limits improved. within which such authority is exercisable. Thus each court The “science of law,” as the expression is generally used, has its appropriate jurisdiction; in the High Court of Justice in means the examination of laws in general in one or other of the England administration actions are brought in the chancery ways just indicated. It means an investigation of laws which division, salvage actions in the admiralty, &c. The jurisdiction of exist or have existed in some given society in fact-in other a particular court is often limited by statute, as that of a county words, positive laws; and it means an examination not limited to court, which is local and is also limited in amount. In inter- the exposition of particular systems. Analytical jurisprudence is national law jurisdiction has a wider meaning, namely, the rights in England associated chiefly with the name of John Austin (q.v.), exercisable by a state within the bounds of a given space. This whose Province of Jurisprudence Determined systematized and is frequently referred to as the territorial theory of jurisdiction. completed the work begun in England by Hobbes, and continued (See INTERNATIONAL LAW; INTERNATIONAL LAW, Private.) at a later date and from a different point of view by Bentham. JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudentia, knowledge of law, Austin's first position is to distinguish between laws properly from jus, right, and prudcnlia, from providere, to foresee), the so called and laws improperly so called. In any of the older general term for “the formal science of positive law” (T..E. I writers on law, we find the various' senses in which the word is 572 JURISPRUDENCE 3) used grouped together as variations of one common meaning. general order to go into mourning addressed to the whole nation Thus Blackstone advances to his proper subject, municipal for a particular occasion would not be a law. laws, through (1) the laws of inanimate matter, (2) the laws So far we have arrived at a definition of laws properly so called. of animal nutrition, digestion, &c., (3) the laws of nature, Austin holds superiority and inferiority to be necessarily implied which are rules imposed by God on men and discoverable in command, and such statements as that“ laws emanate from by reason alone, and (4) the revealed or divine law which superiors” to be the merest tautology and trifling. Elsewhere is part of the law of nature directly expounded by God. All, he sums up the characteristics of true laws as ascertained by the of these are connected by this common element that they are analysis thus: (1) laws, being commands, emanate from a “ rules of action dictated by some superior, being." And some determinate source; (2) every sanction is an evil annexed to a such generalization as this is to be found at the basis of most command; and (3) every duty implies a command, and chiefly treatises on jurisprudence which have not been composed under means obnoxiousness to the evils annexed to commands. the influence of the analytical school. Austin disposes of it by Of true laws, those only are the subject of jurisprudence which the distinction that some of those laws are commands, while are laws strictly so called, or positive laws. Austin accordingly others are not commands. The so-called laws of nature are not proceeds to distinguish positive from other true laws, which are commands; they are uniformities which resemble commands either laws set by God to men or laws set by men to men, not, only in so far as they may be supposed to have been ordered by however, as political superiors nor in pursuance of a legal right. some intelligent being. But they are not commands in the only The discussion of the first of these true but not positive laws leads proper sense of that word-they are not addressed to reasonable Austin to his celebrated discussion of the utilitarian theory. The beings, who may or may not will obedience to them. Laws of laws set by God are either revealed or unrevealed, i.e. either ex- nature are not addressed to anybody, and there is no possible pressed in direct command, or made known to men in one or other question of obedience or disobedience to them. Austin accord of the ways denoted by such phrases as the “ light of nature,” ingly pronounces them laws improperly so called, and confines “ natural reason, ," " dictates of nature," and so forth. Austin his attention to laws properly so called, which are commands maintains that the principle of general utility, based ultimately addressed by a human superior to a human inferior. on the assumed benevolence of God, is the true index to such of This distinction seems so simple and obvious that the energy His commands as He has not chosen to reveal. Austin's exposi- and even bitterness with which Austin insists upon it now seem tion of the meaning of the principle is a most valuable contribu- superfluous. But the indiscriminate identification of everything tion to moral science, though he rests its claims ultimately on to which common speech gives the name of a law was, and still a basis which many of its supporters would disavow. And the is, a fruitful source of confusion. Blackstone's statement that whole discussion is now generally condemned as lying outside when God “put matter into motion He established certain laws the proper scope of the treatise, although the reason for so con- of motion, to which all movable matter must conform,” and that demning it is not always correctly stated. It is found in such in those creatures that have neither the power to think nor to assumptions of fact as that there is a God, that He has issued will such laws must be invariably obeyed, so long as the creature commands to men in what Austin calls the “truths of revela- itself subsists, for its existence depends on that obedience, im- tion,” that He designs the happiness of all His creatures, that putes to the law of gravitation in respect of both its origin and there is a predominance of good in the order of the world-which its execution the qualities of an act of parliament. On the other do not now command universal assent. It is impossible to place hand the qualities of the law of gravitation are imputed to certain these propositions on the same scientific footing as the assump- legal principles which, under the name of the law of nature, are tions of fact with reference to human society on which juris- asserted to be binding all over the globe, so that “no human laws prudence rests. If the “ divine laws" were facts like acts of are of any validity if contrary to this.” Austin never fails to parliament, it is conceived that the discussion of their character- stigmatize the use of “natural laws” in the sense of scientific istics would not be out of place in a scheme of jurisprudence. facts as improper, or as metaphorical. The second set of laws properly so called, which are not positive Having eliminated metaphorical or figurative laws, we restrict laws, consists of three classes: (1) those which are set by men ourselves to those laws which are commands. This word is the living in a state of nature; (2) those which are set by sovereigns key to the analysis of law, and accordingly a large portion of but not as political superiors, e.g. when one sovereign commands Austin's work is occupied with the determination of its meaning. another to act according to a principle of international law; and A command is an order issued by a superior to an inferior. It (3) those set by subjects but not in pursuance of legal rights. is a signification of desire distinguished by this peculiarity that This group, to which Austin gives the name of positive morality, the party to whom it is directed is liable to evil from the other, helps to explain his conception of positive law. Men are living in case he comply not with the desire.” “If you are able and in a state of nature, or a state of anarchy, when they are not living willing to harm me in case I comply not with your wish, the in a state of government or as members of a political society. expression of your wish amounts to a command.” Being liable “ Political society” thus becomes the central fact of the theory, to evil in case I comply not with the wish which you signify, I and some of the objections that have been urged against it arise am bound or obliged by it, or I lie under a duty to obey it. The from its being applied to conditions of life in which Austin would evil is called a sanction, and the command or duty is said to be not have admitted the existence of a political society. Again, sanctioned by the chance of incurring the evil. The three terms the third set in the group is intimately connected with positive command, duty and sanction are thus inseparably connected. As laws on the one hand and rules of positive morality which are not Austin expresses it in the language of formal logic, “ each of the even laws properly so called on the other. Thus laws set by three terms signifies the same notion, but each denotes a different subjects in consequence of a legal right are clothed with legal part of that notion and connotes the residue.” sanctions, and are laws positive. A law set by guardian to ward, All commands, however, are not laws. That term is reserved in pursuance of a right which the guardian is bound to exercise, for those commands which oblige generally to the performance. is a positive law pure and simple; a law set by master to slave, in of acts of a class. A command to your servant to rise at such an pursuance of a legal right, which he is not bound to exercise, is, hour on such a morning is a particular command, but not a law in Austin's phraseology, to be regarded both as a positive moral or rule; a command to rise always at that hour is a law or rule. rule and as a positive law. On the other hand the rules set by of this distinction it is sufficient to say in the meantime that it a club or society, and enforced upon its members by exclusion involves, when we come to deal with positive laws, the rejection from the society, but not in pursuance of any legal right, are laws, of particular enactments to which by inveterate usage the term but not positive laws. They are imperative and proceed from law would certainly be applied. On the other hand it is not, according to Austin, necessary that a true law should bind 1 This appears to be an unnecessary complication. The sovereign has authorized the master to set the law, although not compelling persons. as a class. Obligations imposed on the grantee of an him to do so, and enforces the law when set. There seems no good office specially created by parliament would imply a law; a reason why the law should be called a rule of positive morality at all. ( JURISPRUDENCE 573 6 a determinate source, but they have no legal or political sanction. stated in his own words. He supposes a society which may be Closely connected with this positive morality, consisting of true styled independent, which is considerable in numbers, and which but not positive laws, is the positive morality whose rules are is in a savage or extremely barbarous condition. In such a not laws properly so called at all, though they are generally society,“ the bulk of its members is not in the habit of obedience denominated laws. Such are the laws of honour, the laws of to one and the same superior. For the purpose of attacking an fashion, and, most important of all, international law. external enemy, or for the purpose of repelling an attack, the Nowhere does Austin's phraseology come more bluntly into bulk of its members who are capable of bearing arms submits to conflict with common usage than in pronouncing the law of one leader or one body of leaders. But as soon as that emergency nations (which in substance is a compact body of well-defined rules passes the transient submission ceases, and the society reverts resembling nothing so much as the ordinary rules of law) to be to the state which may be deemed its ordinary state. The bulk not laws at all, even in the wider sense of the term. That the of each of the families which compose the given society renders rules of a private club should be law properly so called, while the habitual obedience to its own peculiar chief, but those domestic whole mass of international jurisprudence is mere opinion, shocks societies are themselves independent societies, or are not united our sense of the proprieties of expression. Yet no man was more and compacted into one political society by habitual and general careful than Austin to observe these properties. He recognizes obedience to one common superior, and there is no law (simply fully the futility of definitions which involve a painful struggle or strictly so styled) which can be called the law of that society. with the current of ordinary specch. But in the present instance The so-called laws which are common to the bulk of the com- the apparent paralogism cannot be avoided if we accept the munity are purely and properly customary laws-that is to say, limitation of laws properly so called to commands proceeding laws which are set or imposed by the general opinion of the com- from a determinate source. And that limitation is so generally munity, but are not enforced by legal or political sanctions.” present in our conception of law that to ignore it would be a worse Such, he says, are the savage societies of hunters and fishers in anomaly than this. No one finds fault with the statement that North America, and such were the Germans as described by the so-called code of honour or the dictates of fashion are not, Tacitus. He takes no account of societies in an intermediate properly speaking, laws. We repel the same statement applied stage between this and the condition which constitutes political to the law of nature, because it resembles in so many of its most society. striking features-in the certainty of a large portion of it, in its We need not follow the analysis in detail. Much ingenuity terminology, in its substantial principles--the most universal is displayed in grouping the various kinds of government, in elements of actual systems of law, and because, moreover, the detecting the sovereign authority under the disguises which it assumption that brought it into existence was nothing else than wears in the complicated state system of the United States or this, that it consisted of those abiding portions of legal systems under the fictions of English law, in elucidating the precise mean- which prevail everywhere by their own authority. But, though ing of abstract political terms. Incidentally the source of many “positive morality may not be the best phrase to describe celebrated fallacies in political thought is laid bare. That the such a code of rules, the distinction insisted on by Austin is question who is sovereign in a given state is a question of fact and unimpeachable. not of law or morals or religion, that the sovereign is incapable The elimination of those laws properly and improperly so called of legal limitation, that law is such by the sovereign's command, which are not positive laws brings us to the definition of positive that no real or assumed compact can limit his action-are posi- law, which is the keystone of the system. Every positive law tions which Austin has been accused of enforcing with needless is “set by a sovereign person, or sovereign body of persons, to a iteration. He cleared them, however, from the air of paradox member or members of the independent political society wherein with which they had been previously encumbered, and his influ- that person or body is sovereign or superior.” Though pos- ence was in no direction more widely felt than in making them sibly sprung directly from another source, it is a positive law, by the commonplaces of educated opinion in this generation. the institution of that present sovereign in the character of a Passing from these, we may now consider what has been said political superior. The question is not as to the historical origin against the theory, which may be summed up in the following of the principle, but as to its present authority. “The legislator terms. Laws, no matter in what form they be expressed, are in is he, not by whose authority the law was first made, but by the last resort reducible to commands set by the person or body whose authority it continues to be law.” This definition in- of persons who are in fact sovereigns in any independent political volves the analysis of the connected expressions sovereignty, society. The sovereign is the person or persons whose commands subjection and independent political society, and of determinale are habitually obeyed by the great bulk of the community; and body—which last analysis Austin performs in connexion with by an independent society we mean that such sovereign head is that of commands. These are all excellent examples of the not himself habitually obedient to any other determinate body logical method of which he was so great a master. The broad of persons. The society must be sufficiently numerous to be results alone need be noticed here. In order that a given society considerable before we can speak of it as a political society. may form a society political and independent, the generality or From command, with its inseparable incident of sanction, come bulk of its members must be in a habit of obedience to a certain the duties and rights in terms of which laws are for the most part and common superior; whilst that certain person or body of expressed. Duty means that the person of whom it is predicated persons must not be habitually obedient to a certain person or is liable to the sanction in case he fails to obey the command. body. All the italicized words point to circumstances in Right means that the person of whom it is predicated may set which it might be difficult to say whether a given society is the sanction in operation in case the command be disobeyed. political and independent or not. Several of these Austin has We may here interpolate a doubt whether the condition of inde- discussed-e.g. the state of things in which a political society pendence on the part of the head of a community is essential to the yields obedience which may or may not be called habitual to legal analysis. It seems to us that we have all the elements of a some external power, and the state of things in which a political to the authority of a person or determinate body of persons, no matter true law present when we point to a community habitually obedient society is divided between contending claimants for sovereign what the relations of that superior may be to any external or superior power, and it is uncertain which shall prevail, and over how power. Provided that in fact the commands of the lawgiver are much of the society. So long as that uncertainty remains we those beyond which the community never looks, it seems immaterial have a state of anarchy. Further, an independent society to be to inquire whether this lawgiver in turn takes his orders from some- body else or is habitually obedient to such orders when given. One political must not fall below a number which can only be called may imagine a community governed by a dependent legislatorial considerable. Neither then in a state of anarchy, nor in incon- body or person, while the supreme sovereign whose representative siderable communities, nor among men living in a state of nature, and nominee such body or person may be never directly addresses have we the proper phenomena of a political society. The last the community at all. We do not see that in such a case anything is gained in clearness by representing the law of the community as limitation goes some way to meet the most serious criticism to set by the suzerain, rather than the dependent legislator. Nor is which Austin's system has been exposed, and it ought to be the ascertainment of the ultimate seat of power necessary to define 574 JURISPRUDENCE 06 sources be in the habit of obedience to a single person or to a determinate again, the rule that “a legacy to the witness of a will.is void." political societies. That we get when we suppose a community to right in any determinate person of a definite description. So, combination of persons. The use of the word command " is not unlikely to lead to a Such a rule is not “ designed to give any one any rights, but misconception of Austin's meaning. When we say that a law is simply to protect the public against wills made under undue a command of the sovereign, we are apt to think of the sovereign as influence.” Again, the technical rule in Shelley's case that a gift enunciating the rule in question for the first time. Many laws are to A for life, followed by a gift to the heirs of A, is a gift to A in not traceable to the sovereign at all in this sense. Some are based upon immemorial practices, some can be traced to the influence of fee simple, is pronounced to be inconsistent with the definition. private citizens, whether practising lawyers or writers on law, and It is an idle waste of ingenuity to force any of these rules into a in most countries a vast body of law owes its existence as such to form in which they might be said to create rights. the fact that it has been observed as law in some other society. The great bulk of modern law owes its existence and its shape ultimately to take any of these rules separately and analyse it into a com. This would be a perfectly correct description of any attempt to the labours of the Roman lawyers of the empire. Austin's definition has nothing to do with this, the historical origin of laws. plete command creating specific rights and duties. But there Most books dealing with law in the abstract generalize the modes is no occasion for doing anything of the kind. It is not contended in which laws may be originated under the name of the " that every grammatically complete sentence in a textbook or of law, and one of these is legislation, or the direct command of the sovereign body. The connexion of laws with each other as principles a statute is per se a command creating rights and duties. A law, is properly the subject matter of historical jurisprudence, the ideal like any other command, must be expressed in words, and will perſection of which would be the establishment of the general laws require the use of the usual aids to expression. The gist of it governing the evolution of law in the technical sense. Austin's definition looks, not to the authorship of the law as a principle, not may be expressed in a sentence which, standing by itself, is not to its inventor or originator, but to the person or persons who in intelligible; other sentences locally separate from the principal the last resort cause it to be obeyed. If a given rule is enforced one may contain the exceptions and the modifications and the by the sovereign it is a law. interpretations to which that is subject. In no one of these taken It may be convenient to notice here what is usually said about by itself, but in the substance of them all taken together, is the the sources of law, as the expression sometimes proves a stumbling. block to the appreciation of Austin's system. In the corpus juris true law, in Austin's sense, to be found. Thus the rule that every of any given country, only a portion of the laws is traceable to the will must be in writing is a mere fragment-only the limb of a direct expression of his commands by the sovereign. Legislation law. It belongs to the rule which fixes the rights of devisees or is one, but only one, of the sources of law. Other portions of the legatees under a will. That rule in whatever form it may be law may be traceable to other sources, which may vary in effect in different systems. The list given in the Institutes of Justinian of expressed is, without any straining of language, a command of the ways in which law may be made-lex, plebiscitum, principis the legislator. That" every person named by a teslator in his placita, edicta magistratuum, and so on-is a list of sources. Among last will and testament shall be entitled to the property thereby the sources of law other than legislation which are most commonly given him ” is surely a command creating rights and duties. exemplified are the laws made by judges in the course of judicial After testament add" expressed in writing "; it is still a con- decisions, and law originating as custom. The source of the law in the one case is the judicial decision, in the other the custom. In mand. Add further, “provided he be not one of the witnesses consequence of the decisions and in consequence of the custom the to the will," and the command, with its product of rights and rule has prevailed. English law is largely made up of principles duties, is still there. derived in each of those ways, while it is deficient in principles of the command stated imperatively in the first sentence. So Each of the additions limits the operation derived from the writings of independent teachers, such as have in other systems exercised a powerful influence on the development with the rule in Shelley's case. It is resolvable into the rule that of law. The responsa prudentum, the opinions of learned men, every person to whom an estate is given by a conveyance ex. published as such, did undoubtedly originate an immense portion of pressed in such and such a way shall take such and such rights. Roman law. No such influence has affected English law to any appreciable extent-a result owing to the activity of the courts of To take another example from later legislation. An English the legislature. This difference has profoundly affected the form statute passed in 1881 enacts nothing more than this, that an act of English law as compared with that of systems which have been of a previous session shall be construed as if“ that meant “this." developed by the play of free discussion. These are the most It would be futile indeed to force this into conformity with definite of the influences to which the beginning of laws may be traced. The law once established, no matter how, is nevertheless law Austin's definition by treating it as a command addressed to the in the sense of Austin's definition. It is enforced by the sovereign judges, and as indirectly creating rights to have such a construc- authority. It was originated by something very different. But tion respected. As it happens, the section of the previous act when we speak of it as a command we think only of the way in referred to (the Burials Act 1880) was an undeniable command which it is to-day presented to the subject. The newest order of an act of parliament is not more positively presented to the people addressed to the clergy, and imposed upon them a specific duty. as a command to be obeyed than are the elementary rules of the The true command—the law-is to be found in the two sections common law for which no legislative origin can be traced. It is taken together. not even necessary to resort to the figure of speech by which alone, All this confusion arises from the fact that laws are not habitu- according to Sir Henry Maine (Early History of Institutions, p. 314), the common law can be regarded as the commands of the govern. ally expressed in imperative terms. Even in a mature system “The common law," he says, “consists of their commands like that of England the great bulk of legal rules is hidden under because they can repeal or alter or restate it at pleasure." “ They forms which disguise their imperative quality. They appear command because, being by the assumption possessed of uncontrol: as principles, maxims, propositions of fact, generalizations, points lable force, they could innovate without limit at any moment." On the contrary, it may be said that they command because they of pleading and procedure, and so forth. Even in the statutes do as a matter of fact enforce the rules laid down in the common the imperative form is not uniformly observed. It might be said law. It is not because they could innovate if they pleased in the that the more mature a legal system is the less do its individual common law that they are said to command it, but because it is rules take the form of commands. The greater portion of known that they will enforce it as it stands. Roman law is expressed in terms which would not misbecome The criticism of Austin's analysis resolved itself into two scientific or speculative treatises. The institutional works different sets of objections. One relates to the theory of sove abound in propositions which have no legal significance at all, reignty which underlies it; the other to its alleged failure to but which are not distinguished from the true law in which they include rules which in common parlance are laws, and which it are embedded by any difference in the forms of expression. is felt ought to be included in any satisfactory definition of law. Assertions about matters of history, dubious speculations in As the latter is to some extent anticipated and admitted by philology, and reflections on human conduct are mixed up in the Austin himself, we may deal with it first. same narrative with genuine rules of law. Words of description Frederic Harrison (Fortnightly Review, vols. xxx., xxxi.) was are used, not words of command, and rules of law assimilate at great pains to collect a number of laws or rules of law which do themselves in form to the extraneous matter with which they are not square with the Austinian definition of law as a command mixed up. creating rights and duties. Take the rule that " every will must It has been said that Austin himself admitted to some extent be in writing.” It is a very circuitous way of looking at things, the force of these objections. He includes among laws which according to Harrison, to say that such a rule creates a specific I are not imperative “declaratory laws, or laws explaining the ment. ) JURISPRUDENCE 575 import of existing positive law, and laws abrogating or repealing villages which recalcitrated at his exactions, and he executed great numbers of men. existing positive law." He thus associates them with rules of He levied great armies; he had all material of positive morality and with laws which are only metaphorically law. The rules which regulated the lives of his subjects were power, and he exercised it in various ways. But he never made a so called. This collocation is unfortunate and out of keeping derived from their immemorial usages, and those rules were admin- with Austin's method. Declaratory and repealing laws are as istered by domestic tribunals in families or village communities - completely unlike positive morality and metaphorical laws as that is, in groups no larger or little larger than those to which the application of Austin's principles cannot be effected on his own are the laws which he describes as properly so called. And if we admission without absurdity.' avoid the error of treating each separate proposition enunciated by the lawgiver as a law, the cases in question need give us no So far as the mere size the community is concerned, there is trouble. Read the declaratory and the repealing statutes along no difficulty in applying the Austinian theory. In postulating with the principal laws which they affect, and the result is per a considerably numerous community Austin was thinking fectly consistent with the proposition that all law is to be resolved evidently of small isolated groups which could not without pro- into a species of command. In the one case we have in the voking a sense of the ridiculous be termed nations. Two or principal taken together with the interpretative statute a law, three families, let us suppose, occupying a small island, totally and whether it differs or not from the law as it existed before the disconnected with any great power, would not claim to be and interpretative statute was passed makes no difference to the true would not be treated as an independent political community. character of the latter. It contributes along with the former But it does not follow that Austin would have regarded the to the expression of a command which is a true law. In the same village communities spoken of by Maine in the same light. Here way repealing statutes are to be taken together with the laws we have a great community, consisting of a vast number of small which they repeal—the result being that there is no law, no communities, each independent of the other, and disconnected command, at all. It is wholly unnecessary to class them as laws with all the others, so far as the administration of anything like which are not truly imperative, or as exceptions to the rule that law is concerned. Suppose in each case that the headman or laws are a species of commands. The combination of the two council takes his orders from Runjeet Singh, and enforces them, sentences in which the lawgiver has expressed himself, yields the each in his own sphere, relying as the last resort on the force at result of silence-absence of law—which is in no way incompat- the disposal of the suzerain. The mere size of the separate ible with the assertion that a law, when it exists, is a kind of communities would make no sort of difference to Austin's theory. command. Austin's theory does not logically require us to treat He would probably regard the empire of Runjeet Singh as divided every act of parliament as being a complete law in itself, and into small districts-an assumption which inverts no doubt the therefore to set aside a certain number of acts of parliament as true historical order, the smaller group being generally more being exceptions to the great generalization which is the basis ancient than the larger. But provided that the other conditions, of the whole system. prevail, the mere fact that the law is administered by local Rules of procedure again have been alleged to constitute tribunals for minute areas should make no difference to the another exception. They cannot, it is said, be regarded as theory. The case described by Maine is that of the undoubted commands involving punishment if they be disobeyed. Nor is possession of supreme power by a sovereign, coupled with the anything gained by considering them as commands addressed to total absence of any attempt on his part to originate a law. That the judge and other ministers of the law. There may be no no doubt is, as we are told by the same authority,“ the type of doubt in the law of procedure a great deal that is resolvable into all Oriental communities in their native state during their rare law in this sense, but the great bulk of it is to be regarded like intervals of peace and order.” The empire was in the main in the rules of interpretation as entering into the substantive com- each case a tax-gathering empire. The unalterable law of the mands which are laws. They are descriptions of the sanction Medes and Persians was not a law at all but an occasional com- and its mode of working. The bare prohibition of murder with-mand. So again Maine puts his position clearly in the following out any penalty to enforce it would not be a law. To prohibit sentences: The Athenian assembly made true laws for resi- it under penalty of death implies a reference to the whole dents on Attic territory, but the dominion of Athens over her machinery of criminal justice by which the penalty is enforced. subject cities and islands was clearly a tax-taking as distinguished Taken by themselves the rules of procedure are not, any more from a legislațing empire.” Maine, it will be observed, does not than canons of interpretation, complete laws in Austin's sense say that the sovereign assembly did not command the laws in of the term. But they form part of the complete expression of the subject islands-only that it did not legislate. true laws. They imply a command, and they describe the In the same category may be placed without much substantial sanction and the mode in which it operates. difference all the societies that have ever existed on the face of A more formidable criticism of Austin's position is that which the earth previous to the point at which legislation becomes attacks the definition of sovereignty. There are countries, it is active. Maine is undoubtedly right in connecting the theories said, where the sovereign authority cannot by any. stretch of of Bentham and Austin with the overwhelming activity of language be said to command the laws, and yet where law mani- legislatures in modern times. And formal legislation, as he else- festly exists. The ablest and the most moderate statement of where shows, comes late in the history of most legal systems. this view is given by Sir Henry Maine in Early History of Law is generated in other ways, which seem irreconcilable with Institutions, p. 380:- anything like legislation. Not only the tax-gathering emperors : "It is from no special love of Indian examples that I take one of the East, indifferent to the condition of their subjects, but from India, but because it happens to be the most modern precedent even actively benevolent governments have up to a certain point in point. My instance the Indian province called the Punjaub, left the law to grow by other means than formal enactments. the country of the Five Rivers, in the state in which it was for about What is ex facie more opposed to the idea of a sovereign's com- a quarter of a century before its annexation to the British Indian mands than the conception of schools of law? Does it not Empire. After passing through every conceivable phase of anarchy and dormant anarchy, it fell under the tolerably consolidated “sting us with a sense of the ridiculous "to hear principles which dominion of a half-military half-religious oligarchy known as the are the outcome of long debates between Proculians and Sabi- Sikhs. The Sikhs themselves were afterwards reduced to subjection nians described as commands of the emperor? How is sectarian- by a single chieftain belonging to their order, Runjeet Singh. At first sight there could be no more perfect embodiment than Runjeet is meant by a law? No mental attitude is more common than ism in law possible if the sovereign's command is really all that Şingh of sovereignty as conceived by Austin. He was absolutely that which regards law as a natural product-discoverable by a despotic. Except occasionally on his wild frontier he kept the most perfect order. He could have commanded anything; the smallest diligent investigator, much in the same way as the facts of science disobedience to his commands would have been followed by death or the principles of mathematics. The introductory portions or mutilation; and this was perfectly well known to the enormous majority of his subjects. Yet I doubt whether once in all his life of Justinian's Institutes are certainly written from this point of he issued a command which Austin would call a law. He took as view, which may also be described without much unfairness as his revenue a prodigious share of the produce of the soil. He harried | the point of view of German jurisprudence. And yet the English 576 JURISPRUDENCE jurist who accepts Austin's postulate as true for the English of fashion no one would hésitate. Why should laws or rules system of our own day would have no difficulty in applying it to having no support from any political authority be termed laws. German or Roman law generated under the influence of such positive merely because there are no other rules in the society ideas as these. having such support? Again, referring to the instance of Runjeet Singh, Sir H. Maine. The question may perhaps be summed up as follows. Austin's says no doubt rightly that" he never did or could have dreamed definitions are in strict accordance with the facts of government of changing the civil rules under which his subjects lived. Pro- in civilized states; and, as it is put by Maine, certain assumptions bably he was as strong a believer in the independent obligatory or postulates having been made, the great majority of Austin's force of such rules as the elders themselves who applied them.” positions follow as of course or by ordinary logical process. But That too might be said with truth of states to which the applica- at the other extreme end of the scale of civilization are societies tion of Austin's system would be far from difficult. The sovereign to which Austin himself refuses to apply his system, and where, it body or person enforcing the rules by all the ordinary methods would be conceded on all sides, there is neither political commu- of justice might conceivably believe that the rules which he nity nor sovereign nor law-none of the facts which jurisprudence enforced had an obligatory authority of their own, just as most assumes to exist. There is an intermediate stage of society in lawyers at one time, and possibly some lawyers now, believe in which, while the rules of conduct might and generally would be the natural obligatoriness, independently of courts or parlia- spoken of as laws, it is difficult to trace the connexion between ments, of portions of the law of England. But nevertheless, them and the sovereign authority whose existence is necessary whatever ideas the sovereign or his delegates might entertain as to Austin's system. Are such societies to be thrown out of to the independent obligatory force' of the rules which they account in analytical jurisprudence, or is Austin's system to be enforce, the fact that they do enforce them distinguishes them regarded as only a partial explanation of the field of true law, and from all other rules. Austin seizes upon this peculiarity and his definitions good only for the laws of a portion of the world? fixes it as the determining characteristic of positive law. When The true answer to this question appears to be that when the rules the rule is enforced by a sovereign authority as he defines it, it is in any given case are habitually enforced by physical penalties, his command, even if he should never so regard it himself, or administered by a determinate person or portion of the com- should suppose himself to be unable to alter it in a single munity, they should be regarded as positive laws and the ap- particular. propriate subject matter of jurisprudence. Rules which are not It may be instructive to add to these examples of dubious cases so enforced, but are enforced in any other way, whether by what one taken from what is called ecclesiastical law. In so far as this is called public opinion, or spiritual apprehensions, or natural has not been adopted and enforced by the state, it would, on instinct, are rightly excluded from that subject matter. In all Austin's theory, be, not positive law, but either positive morality stages of society, savage or civilized, a large body of rules of or possibly a portion of the Divine law. No jurist would deny that there is an essential difference between so much of ecclesiastical law conduct, habitually obeyed, are nevertheless not enforced by as is adopted by the state and all the rest of it, and that for scientific any state sanction of any kind. Austin's method assimilates purposes this distinction ought to be recognized. How near this such rules in primitive society, where they subserve the same kind of law approaches to the positive or political law may be seen from the sanctions on which it depended. “The theory of peniten- purpose as positive laws in an advanced society, not to the tial discipline was this: that the church was an organized body positive laws which they resemble in purpose but to the with an outward and visible form of government; that all who were moral or other rules which they resemble in operation. If outside her boundaries were outside the means of divine grace; that we refuse to accept this position we must abandon the attempt she had a command laid upon her, and authority given to her, to to frame a general definition of law and its dependent terms, or gather men into her fellowship by the ceremony of baptism, but, as some of those who were admitted proved unworthy of their calling, we must content ourselves with saying that law is one thing in she also had the right by the power of the keys to deprive them one state of society and another thing in another. On the temporarily or absolutely of the privilege of communion with her, ground of clearness and convenience Austin's method is, we be- and on their amendment to restore them once more to church lieve, substantially right, but none the less should the student of membership. On this power of exclusion and restoration was founded the system of ecclesiastical discipline. It was a purely jurisprudence be on his guard against such assumptions as that spiritual jurisdiction. It obtained its hold over the minds of men legislation is a universal phenomenon, or that the relation of from the belief, universal in the Catholic church of the early ages, sovereign and subject is discernible in all states of human society. that he who was expelled from her pale was expelled also from the And a careful examination of Maine's criticism will show that it way of salvation, and that the sentence which was pronounced by is devoted not so much to a rectification of Austin's position as to God's church on earth was ratified by Him in heaven." (Smith's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art.“ Penitence,” p. 1587.) correction of the misconceptions into which some of his disciples These laws are not the laws of the jurists, though they resemble may have fallen. It is a misconception of the analysis to suppose them closely in many points-indeed in all points except that of the that it involves a difference in juridical character between custom sanction by which they are enforced., . It is a spiritual not a political sanction. The force which lies behind them is not that of the not yet recognized by any judicial decision and custom after such sovereign or the state. When physical force is used to compel recognition. There is no such difference except in the case of obedience to the laws of the church they become positive laws. what is properly called “judicial legislation "-wherein an abso- But so long as the belief in future punishments or the fear of the lutely new rule is added for the first time to the law. The purely spiritual punishments of the church is sufficient to procure obedience to them, they are to be regarded as commands, not by recognition of a custom or law is not necessarily the beginning the state, but by the church. That difference Austin makes essen- of the custom or law. Where a custom possesses the marks by tial. In rejecting spiritual laws from the field of positive law which its legality is determined according to well understood his example would be followed by jurists who would nevertheless principles, the courts pronounce it to have been law at the time include other laws, not ecclesiastical in purpose, but enforced by of the happening of the facts as to which their jurisdiction is very similar methods. invoked. The fact that no previous instance of its recognition Austin's theory in the end comes to this, that true laws are in by a court of justice can be produced is not material. A lawyer all cases obeyed in consequence of the application of regulated before any such decision was given would nevertheless pronounce physical force by some portion of the community. That is a the custom to be law-with more or less hesitation according fair paraphrase of the position that laws are the commands as the marks of a legal custom were obvious or not. The char- of the sovereign, and is perhaps less objectionable inasmuch as it acter of the custom is not changed when it is for the first time does not imply or suggest anything about the forms in which laws enforced by a court of justice, and hence the language used by are enunciated. All rules, customs, practices and laws-or by Maine must be understood in a very limited sense. whatever name these uniformities of human conduct may be customs are enforced by courts of justice ”-so he puts the posi- called-have either this kind of force at their back or they have tion of Austin-they are merely “positive morality,” rules en- not. Is it worth while to make this difference the basis of a forced by opinion; but as soon as courts of justice enforce them scientific system or not? Apparently it is. If it were a question they become commands of the sovereign, conveyed through the of distinguishing between the law of the law courts and the laws I judges who are his delegates or deputies. This proposition, op “ Until " « JURISPRUDENCE 577 Austin's theory, would only be true of customs as to which these That distinction in rights which appears in the division of law marks were absent. It is of course true that when a rule enforced into the law of persons and the law of things is thus stated by only by opinion becomes for the first time enforceable by a court Austin. There are certain rights and duties, with certain capa. of justice which is the same thing as the first time of its being cities and incapacities, by which persons are determined to various actually enforced—its juridical character is changed. It was classes. The rights, duties, &c., are the condition or status of positive morality; it is now law. So it is when that which was the person; and one person may be invested with many status or before the opinion of the judge only becomes by his decision-a conditions. The law of persons consists of the rights, duties, &c., rule enforceable by courts of justice. It was not even positive constituting conditions or status; the rest of the law is the law of morality but the opinion of an individual; it is now law. things. The separation is a mere matter of convenience, but of The most difficult of the common terms of law to define is convenience so great that the distinction is universal. Thus any right; and, as right rather than duty is the basis of classification, given right may be exercised by persons belonging to innumerable it is a point of some importance. Assuming the truth of the classes. The person who has the right may be under twenty-one analysis above discussed, we may go on to say that in the notion years of age, may have been born in a foreign state, may have been of law is involved an obligation on the part of some one, or on the convicted of crime, may be a native of a particular county, or a part of every one, to do or forbear from doing. That obligation member of a particular profession or trade, &c.; and it might very is duty; what is right? Dropping the negative of forbearance, well happen, with reference to any given right, that, while persons and taking duty to mean an obligation to do something, with the in general, under the circumstances of the case, would enjoy it in alternative of punishment in default, we find that duties are of the same way, a person belonging to any one of these classes two kinds. The thing to be done may have exclusive reference would not. If belonging to any one of those classes makes a to a determinate person or class of persons, on whose motion or difference not to one right merely but to many, the class may complaint the sovereign power will execute the punishment or conveniently be abstracted, and the variations in rights and sanction on delinquents; or it may have no such reference, the duties dependent thereon may be separately treated under the thing being commanded, and the punishment following on dis- law of persons. The personality recognized in the law of persons obedience, without reference to the wish or complaint of india is such as modifies indefinitely the legal relations into which the viduals. The last are absolute duties, and the omission to do, individual clothed with the personality may enter. or forbear from doing, the thing specified in the command is in T. E. Holland disapproves of the prominence given by Austin general what is meant by a crime. The others are relative to this distinction, instead of that between public and private law. duties, each of them implying and relating to a right in some one This, according to Holland, is based on the public or private else. A person has a right who may in this way set in operation character of the persons with whom the right is connected, the sanction provided by the state. In common thought and public persons being the state or its delegates. Austin, holding speech, however, right appears as something a good deal more that the state cannot be said to have legal rights or duties, recog. positive and definite than this—as a power or faculty residing nizes no such distinction. The term “public law" he confines in individuals, and suggesting not so much the relative obligation strictly to that portion of the law which is concerned with political as the advantage or enjoyment secured thereby to the person conditions, and which ought not to be opposed to the rest of the having the right. J. S. Mill, in a valuable criticism of Austin, law, but“ ought to be inserted in the law of persons as one of the suggests that the definition should be so modified as to introduce limbs or members of that supplemental department." the element of “ advantage to the person exercising the right.” Lastly, following Austin, the main division of the law of things But it is exceedingly difficult to frame a positive definition of is into (1) primary rights with primary relative duties, (2) sanc- right which shall not introduce some term at least as ambiguous tioning rights with sanctioning duties (relative or absolute). as the word to be defined. T. E. Holland defines right in general The former exist, as it has been put, for their own sake, the latter as a man's “ capacity of influencing the acts of another by means, for the sake of the former. Rights and duties arise from facts not of his own strength, but of the opinion or the force of society." and events; and facts or events which are violations of rights and Direct influence exercised by virtue of one's own strength, physical duties are delicts or injuries. Rights and duties which arise from or otherwise, over another's acts, is "might” as distinguished delicts are remedial or sanctioning, their object being to prevent from right. When the indirect influence is the opinion of the violation of rights which do not arise from delicts. society, we have a “moral right" When it is the force There is much to be said for Frederic Harrison's view (first exercised by the sovereign, we have a legal right. It would expressed in the Fortnightly Review, vol. xxxi.), that the re- be more easy, no doubt, to pick holes in this definition than to arrangement of English law on the basis of a scientific classifi- frame a better one.! cation, whether Austin's or any other, would not result in The distinction between rights available against determinate advantages at all compensating for its difficulties. If anything persons and rights available against all the world, jura in per- like a real code were to be attempted, the scientific classification sonam and jura in rem, is of fundamental importance. The would be the best; but in the absence of that, and indeed phrases are borrowed from the classical jurists, who used them in the absence of any habit on the part of English lawyers originally to distinguish actions according as they were brought of studying the system as a whole, the arrangement of facts to enforce a personal obligation or to vindicate rights of property. does not very much matter. It is essential, however, to the The owner of property has a right to the exclusive enjoyment abstract study of the principles of law. Scientific arrangement thereof, which avails against all and sundry, but not against one might also be observed with advantage in treatises affecting person more than another. The parties to a contract have rights to give a view of the whole law, especially those which are available against each other, and against no other persons. The meant for educational rather than professional uses. jus in rem is the badge of property; the jus in personam is a mere example of the practical application of a scientific system of personal claim. classification to a complete body of law, we may point to W. A. in many languages besets the phrase hex presin diritto, and the prudence in anything like the same shape as those which we have In English speech another ambiguity is happily wanting which Hunter's elaborate Exposition of Roman Law (1876). a . It is impossible to present the conclusions of historical juris- Latin .“ Italian French express, not only a right, but also law in the been discussing. Under the heading JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARA- abstract. To indicate the distinction between “law" and "a right the Germans are therefore obliged to resort to such phrases TIVE, an account will be found of the method and results of what objectives " and " subjectives Recht," meaning by the former is practically a new science. The inquiry is in that stage which law in the abstract, and by the latter a concrete right. And is indicated in one way by describing it as a philosophy. It Blackstone, paraphrasing the distinction drawn by, Roman law resembles, and is indeed only part of, the study which is described between the "jus quod ad res " and the “jus quod ad personas attinet," devotes the first two volumes of his Commentaries to the as the philosophy of history. Its chief interest has been in the “ Rights of Persons and the Rights of Things." See Holland's light which it has thrown upon rules of law and legal institutions Elements of Jurisprudence, 10th ed., 78 seq., which had been and are generally contemplated as positive facts 6 As an droit" as 578 JURISPRUDENCE merely, without reference to their history, or have been associated connexion of its principles inter se, and its relations to historical historically with principles and institutions not really connected facts, were distinctly if erroncously recognized. with them. While the historical method has superseded the verbal and The historical treatment of law displaces some very remarkable metaphysical explanation of legal principles, it had apparently, misconceptions. Peculiarities and anomalies abound in every in some cases, come into conflict with the conclusions of the legal system; and, as soon as laws become the special study of a analytical school. The difference between the two systems comes -professional class, some mode of explaining or reconciling them out most conspicuously in relation to customs. There is an will be resorted to. One of 'the prehistorical ways of philoso- unavoidable break in the analytical method between societies phizing about law was to account for what wanted explanation in which rules are backed by regulated physical force and those by some theory about the origin of technical words. This implied in which no such force exists. At what point in its develop- some previous study of words and their history, and is an instance ment a given society passes into the condition of“ an independent of the deep-seated and persistent tendency of the human mind political society” it may not be easy to determine, for the to identify names with the things they represent. The Institutes evidence is obscure and conflicting. To the historical jurist of Justinian abound in explanations, founded on a supposed there is no such breach. The rule which in one stage of society derivation of some leading term. Testamentum, we are told, ex is a law, in another merely a rule of “positive morality," is the eo appellatur quod testatio mentis est. A testament was no doubt, same thing to him throughout. By the Irish Land Act 1881 the in effect, a declaration of intention on the part of the testator Ulster custom of tenant-right and other analogous customs were when this was written. But the -mentum is a mere termination, legalized. For the purposes of analytical jurisprudence there is and has nothing to do with mens at all. The history of testaments, no need to go beyond the act of parliament. The laws known as which, it may be noted incidentally, has been developed with the Ulster custom are laws solely in virtue of the sovereign conspicuous success, gives a totally different meaning to the government. Between the law as it now is and the custom as it institution from that which was expressed by this fanciful deriva existed before the act there is all the difference in the world. tion. So the perplexing subject of possessio was supposed in To the historical jurist no such separation is possible. His some way to be explained by the derivation from pono and sedeo account of the law would not only be imcomplete without embrac- -quasi sedibus positio. Posthumi was supposed to be a coming the precedent custom, but the act which made the custom pound of post and humus. These examples belong to the class law is only one of the facts, and by no means the most significant of rationalizing derivations with which students of philosophy are or important, in the history of its development. An exactly familiar. Their characteristic is that they are suggested by parallel case is the legalization in England of that customary some prominent feature of the thing as it then appeared to tenant-right known as copyhold. It is to the historical jurist observers—which feature thereupon becomes identified with the exactly the same thing as the legalization of the Ulster tenant essence of the thing at all times and places. right. In the one case a practice was made law by formal legis- Another prehistorical mode of explaining law may be described lation, and in the other without formal legislation. And there as metaphysical. It conceives of a rule or principle of law as can be very little doubt that in an earlier stage of society, when existing by virtue of some more general rule or principle in the formal legislation bad not become the rule, the custom would nature of things. Thus, in the English law of inheritance, until have been legalized relatively much sooner than it actually was. the passing of the Inheritance Act 1833, an estate belonging to a Customs then are the same thing as laws to the historical deceased intestate would pass to his uncle or aunt, to the ex-jurist, and his business is to trace the influences under which they clusion of his father or other lineal ancestor. This anomaly have grown up, flourished and decayed, their dependence on from an early time excited the curiosity of lawyers, and the the intellectual and moral conditions of society at different explanation accepted in the time of Bracton was that it was an times, and their reaction upon them. The recognized science example of the general law of nature: “Descendit itaque jus -and such it may now be considered to be-with which historical, quasi ponderosum quid cadens deorsum recta linea vel trans- or more properly comparative, jurisprudence has most analogy is versali, et nunquam reascendit ea via qua descendit.” It has the science of language. Laws and customs are to the one what been suggested that the “ rule really results from the associations words are to the other, and each separate municipal system has involved in the word descent.” It seems more likely, however, its analogue in a language. Legal systems are related together that these associations explained rather than that they suggested like languages and dialects, and the inyestigation in both cases the rule--that the omission of the lineal ancestor existed in brings us back at last to the meagre and obscure records of custom before it was discovered to be in harmony with the law savage custom and speech. A great master of the science of of nature. It would imply more influence than the reasoning language (Max Müller) has indeed distinguished it from juris- of lawyers is likely to have exercised over the development of prudence, as belonging to a totally different class of sciences. law at that time to believe that a purely artificial inference of “It is perfectly true,” he says, " that if language be the work of this kind should have established so very remarkable a rule. man in the same sense in which a statue, or a temple, or a poem, However that may be, the explanation is typical of a way of or a lay are properly called the works of man, the science of looking at law which was common enough before the dawn of language would have to be classed as an historical science. We the historical method. Minds capable of reasoning in this way should have a history of language as we have a history of art, of were, if possible, farther removed from the conceptions implied poetry and of jurisprudence; but we could not claim for it a in the reasoning of the analytical jurists than they were from place side by side with the various branches of natural history." the historical method itself. In this connexion it may be noticed Whatever be the proper position of either philology or juris- that the great work of Blackstone marks an era in the develop- prudence in relation to the natural sciences, it would not be ment of legal ideas in England. It was not merely the first, as difficult to show that laws and customs on the whole are equally it still remains the only, adequate attempt to expound the leading independent of the efforts of individual human wills--which principles of the whole body of law, but it was distinctly inspired appears to be what is meant by language not being the work of by a rationalizing method. Backstone tried not merely to man. The most complete acceptance of Austin's theory that express but to illustrate legal rules, and he had a keen sense of law everywhere and always is the command of the sovereign does the value of historical illustrations. He worked of course with not involve any withdrawal of laws from the domain of natural the materials at his command. His manner and his work are science, does not in the least interfere with the scientific study obnoxious alike to the modern jurist and to the modern historian. of their affinities and relationships. Max Müller elsewhere He is accused by the one of perverting history, and by the other illustrates his conception of the different relations of words and of confusing the law. But his scheme is a great advance on laws to the individual will by the story of the emperor Tiberius, anything that had been attempted before; and, if his work has who was reproved for a grammatical mistake by Marcellus, been prolific in popular fallacies, at all events it enriched English whereupon Capito, another grammarian, observed that, if what literature by a conspectus of the law, in which the logical I the emperor said was not good Latin, it would soon be so. < JURISPRUDENCE 579 a Capito," said Marcellus, “is a liar; for, Caesar, thou canst give faltogether from the character of the first principles. Such, the Roman citizenship to men, but not to words.” The mere for instance, is Savigny's famous examination of the law of impulse of a single mind, even that of a Roman emperor, how- possession. ever, probably counts for little more in law than it does in lan- There is only one other system of law which is worthy of being guage. Even in language one powerful intellect or one influ- placed by the side of Roman law, and that is the law of England. ential academy may, by its own decree, give a bent to modes of No other European system can be compared with that which is speech which they would not otherwise have taken. But whether the origin and substratum of them all; but England, as it happens, law or language be conventional or natural is really an obsolete is isolated in jurisprudence. She has solved her legal problems question, and the difference between historical and natural for herself. Whatever element of Roman law may exist in the sciences in the last result is one of names. English system has come in, whether by conscious adaptation or The application of the historical method to law has not resulted otherwise, ab extra; it is not of the essence of the system, nor in anything like the discoveries which have made comparative does it form a large portion of the system. And, while English philology a science. There is no Grimm's law for jurisprudence; law is thus historically independent of Roman law, it is in all but something has been done in that direction by the discovery respects worthy of being associated with it on its own merits. of the analogous processes and principles which underlie legal Its originality, or, if the phrase be preferred, its peculiarity, is systems having no external resemblance to each other. But not more remarkable than the intellectual qualities which have the historical method has been applied with special success to a gone to its formation—the ingenuity, the rigid logic, the reason- single system-the Roman law. The Roman law presents itself ableness, of the generations of lawyers and judges who have to the historical student in two different aspects. It is, regarded built it up. This may seem extravagant praise for a legal system, as the law of the Roman Republic and Empire, a system whose the faults of which are and always have been matter of daily history can be traced throughout a great part of its duration complaint, but it would be endorsed by all unprejudiced students. with certainty, and in parts with great detail. It is, moreover, What men complain of is the practical hardship and inconve- a body of rationalized legal principles which may be considered nience of some rule or process of law. They know, for example, apart from the state system in which they were developed, and that the law of real property is exceedingly complicated, and which have, in fact, entered into the jurisprudence of the whole of that, among other things, it makes the conveyance of land ex- modern Europe on the strength of their own abstract authority pensive. But the technical law of real property, which rests to —so much so that the continued existence of the civil law, after this day on ideas that have been buried for centuries, has never- the fall of the Empire, is entitled to be considered one of the first theless the qualities we have named. So too with the law of discoveries of the historical method. Alike, therefore, in its procedure as it existed under the “science" of special pleading. original history, as the law of the Roman state, and as the source The greatest practical law reformer, and the severest critic of from which the fundamental principles of modern laws have existing systems that has ever appeared in any age or country, been taken, the Roman law presented the most obvious and Jeremy Bentham, has admitted this: “Confused, indetermi. attractive subject of historical study. An immense impulse nate, inadequate, ill-adapted, and inconsistent as to a vast was given to the history of Roman law by the discovery of the extent the provision or no provision would be found to be that Institutes of Gaius in 1816 A complete view of Roman law, has been made by it for the various cases that have happened as it existed three centuries and a half before Justinian, was to present themselves for decision, yet in the character of a then obtained, and as the later Institutes were, in point of form, repository of such cases it affords, for the manufactory of real a recension of those of Gaius, the comparison of the two stages law, a stock of materials which is beyond all price. Traverse in legal history was at once easy and fruitful. Moreover, Gaius the whole continent of Europe, ransack all the libraries belonging dealt with antiquities of the law which had become obsolete in the to all the jurisprudential systems of the several political states, time of Justinian, and were passed over by him without notice. add the contents together, you would not be able to compose a Nowhere did Roman law in its modern aspect give a stronger collection of cases equal in variety, in amplitude, in clearness of impulse to the study of legal history than in Germany. The statement-in a word, all points taken together, in constructive- historical school of German jurists led the reaction of national ness—to that which may be seen to be afforded by the collection sentiment against the proposals for a general code made by of English reports of adjudged cases" (Bentham's Works, iv.460). Thibaut. They were accused by their opponents of setting up on the other hand, the fortunes of English jurisprudence are the law of past times as intrinsically entitled to be observed, and not unworthy of comparison even with the catholic position of they were no doubt strongly inspired by reverence for customs Roman law. In the United States of America, in India, and in and traditions. Through the examination of their own custom- the vast Colonial Empire, the common law of England constitutes ary laws, and through the elimination and separate study of the most of the legal system in actual use, or is gradually being super- Roman element therein, they were led to form general views of imposed upon it. It would hardly be too much to say that the history of legal principles. In the hands of Savigny, the English law of indigenous growth, and Roman law, between greatest master of the school, the historical theory was developed them govern the legal relations of the whole civilized world. into a universal philosophy of law, covering the ground which Nor has the influence of the former on the intellectual habits we should assign separately to jurisprudence, analytical and his and the ideas of men been much if at all inferior. · Those who torical, and to theories of legislation. There is not in Savigny's set any store by the analytical jurisprudence of the school of system the faintest approach to the Austinian analysis. The Austin will be glad to acknowledge that it is pure outcome of range of it is not the analysis of law as a command, but that of a English law. Sir Henry Maine associated its rise with the Rechtsverhältniss or legal relation. Far from regarding law as activity of modern legislatures, which is of course a characteristic the creation of the will of individuals, he maintains it to be the of the societies in which English laws prevail. And it would natural outcome of the consciousness of the people, like their not be difficult to show that the germs of Austin's principles are social habits or their language. And he assimilates changes in to be found in legal writers who never dreamed of analysing a law to changes in language. “ As in the life of individual men law. It is certainly remarkable, at all events, that the accep- no moment of complete stillness is experienced, but a constant tance of Austin's system is as yet confined strictly to the domain organic development, such also is the case in the life of nations, of English law. Maine found no trace of its being even known and in every individual element in which this collective life to the jurists of the Continent, and it would appear that it has consists; so we find in language a constant formation and develop been equally without influence in Scotland, which, like the con- ment, and in the same way in law.” German jurisprudence is tinent of Europe, is essentially Roman in the fundamental darkened by metaphysical thought, and weakened, as we believe, elements of its jurisprudence. by defective analysis of positive law. But its conception of The substance of the above article is repeated from Professor E. laws is exceedingly favourable to the growth of a historical Robertson's (Lord Lochee's) article “ Law," in the 9th ed. of this philosophy, the results of which have a value of their own, apart I work. 580 JURISPRUDENCE, , COMPARATIVE Among numerous English textbooks, those specially worth men. countries should be compared for the purpose of deducing tion are: T. E. Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence (1880: general principles from them is as old as political science itself. 10th ed., 1906); J. Austin, Lectures on Jurisprudence (4th ed., 1873); W. Jethro Brown, The Austinian Theory of Law (1906): Sir F. Pollock, | It was realized with especial vividness in epochs when a con- A First Book on Jurisprudence (1896; 2nd ed., 1904). siderable material of observations was gathered from different JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE. The object of this sources and in various forms. The wealth of varieties and the article is to give a general survey of the study of the evolution recurrence of certain leading views in them led to comparison of law. It is not concerned with analytical jurisprudence as a and to generalizations based on comparison. Aristotle, who theory of legal thought, or an encyclopaedic introduction to lived at the close of a period marked by the growth of free legal teaching. Jurisprudence in such a philosophic or peda-Greek cities, summarized, as it were, their political experience gogical sense has certainly to reckon with the methods and in his Constitutions and Politics; students of these know that results of a comparative study of law, but its aims are distinct the Greek philosopher had to deal with not only public law and from those of the latter: it deals with more general problems. political institutions, but also to some extent private, criminal On the other hand, the comparative study of law may itself be law, equity, the relations between law and morals, &c. treated in two different ways: it may be directed to a comparison Another great attempt at comparative observation was made of existing systems of legislation and law, with a view to tracing at the close of the pre-revolutionary period of modern Europe. analogies and contrasts in the treatment of practical problems Montesquieu took stock of the analogies and contrasts of law in and taking note of expedients and of possible solutions. Or else the commonwealths of his time and tried to show to what it may aim at discovering the principles regulating the develop- extent particular enactments and rules were dependent on certain ment of legal systems, with a view to explain the origin of insti- general currents in the life of societies-on forms of government, tutions and to study the conditions of their life. In the first on moral conditions corresponding to these, and ultimately on sense, comparative jurisprudence resolves itself into a study of the geographical facts with which various nationalities and states home and foreign law (cf. Hofmann in the Zeitschrift für das have to reckon in their development. private und öffentliche Recht der Gegenwart, 1878). In the second These were, however, only slight beginnings, general forecasts sense, comparative jurisprudence is one of the aspects of so- of a coming line of thought, and Montesquieu's remarks on laws called sociology, being the study of social evolution in the and legal customs read now almost as if they were meant to special domain of law. From this point of view it is, in substance, serve as materials for social utopias, although they were by no immaterial whether the legal phenomena subjected to investi- means conceived in this sense. At this distance of time we gation are ancient or modern, are drawn from civilized or from cannot help perceiving how fragmentary, incomplete and un- primitive communities. The fact that they are being observed critical his notions of the facts of legal history were, and how and explained as features of social evolution characterizes the strongly his thought was biased by didactic considerations, by inquiry and forms the distinctive attribute separating these the wish to teach his contemporaries what politics and law studies from kindred subjects. It is only natural, however, should be. that early periods and primitive conditions have attracted It was reserved for the 19th century to come forward with investigators in this field more than recent developments. The connected and far-reaching investigations in this field as in interest of students seems to have stood in inverse ratio to many others. We are not deceived by proximity and self- the chronological vicinity of the facts under consideration-the consciousness when we affirm that comparative jurisprudence, farther from the observer, the more suggestive and worthy of as understood in these introductory remarks, dates from the attentic fa were foi nd to be. This peculiarity is easily 19th century and especially from its second half. explained if we take into account the tendency of all evolution- There were many reasons for such a new departure: two of ary investigations to obtain a view of origins in order to follow these reasons have been especially manifest and decisive. The up the threads of development from their initial starting-point. 19th century was an eminently historical and an eminently Besides, it has been urged over and over again that the simpler scientific age. In the domain of history it may be said that it phenomena of ancient and primitive society afford more con- opened an entirely new vista. While, speaking roughly, before venient material for generalizations as to legal evolution than that time history was conceived as a narrative of memorable the extremely complex legal institutions of civilized nations. events, more or less skilful, more or less sensational, but appealing But there is no determined line of division between ancient and primarily to the literary sense of the reader, it became in the modern comparative jurisprudence in so far as both are aiming course of the 19th century an encyclopaedia of reasoned know- at the study of legal development. The law of Islam or, for ledge, a means of understanding social life by observing its that matter, the German civil code, may be taken up as a subject phenomena in the past. The immense growth of historical of study quite as much as the code of Hammurabi or the marriage scholarship in that sense, and the transformation of its, aims, customs of Australian tribes. can hardly be denied. The fact that the comparative study of legal evolution is Apart from the personal efforts of eminent writers, a great chiefly represented by investigations of early institutions is and general movement has to be taken into account in order therefore a characteristic, but not a necessary feature in the to explain this remarkable stage of human thought. The treatment of the subject. But it is essential to this treatment historic bent of mind of 19th-century thinkers was to a great that it should be historical and comparative. Historical, because extent the result of heightened political and cultural self-con- it is only as history, i.e. a sequence of stages and events, that sciousness. It was the reflection in the world of letters of the development can be thought of. Comparative, because it is tremendous upheaval in the states of Europe and America not the casual notices about one or the other chain of historical which took place from the close of the 18th century onwards. facts that can supply the basis for any scientific induction. As one of the greatest leaders of the movement, Niebuhr, Comparisons of kindred processes have to be made in order to pointed out, the fact of being a witness of such struggles and arrive at any conception of their general meaning and scientific catastrophes as the American Revolution, the French Revolu- regularity. As linguistic science differs from philology in so tion, the Napoleonic Empire and the national reaction against il, far as it treats of the general evolution of language and not of taught every one to think historically, to appreciate the impor- particular languages, even so comparative jurisprudence dịffers tance of historical factors, to measure the force not only of from the history of law as a study of general legal evolution logical argument and moral impulse, but also of instinctive distinct from the development of one or the other national habits and traditional customs. It is not a matter of chance branch of legal enactment. Needless to say that there are in that the historical school of jurisprudence, Savigny's doctrine termediate shades between these groups, but it is not to these of the organic growth of law, was formed and matured while shades we have to attend, but to the main distinctions and Europe collected its forces after the most violent revolutionary divisions. crisis it had ever experienced, and in most intimate con- 1. The idea that the legal enactments and customs of different Inexion with the romantic movement, a movement animated by JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE 581 enthusiastic belief in the historical, traditional life of social stantly on questions of family law, marriage, property, public groups as opposed to the intellectual conceptions of indi- authority, in his attempt to reconstruct the common civilization vidualistic radicalism. of the Aryan race, and he did so on the strength of a comparative On the other hand, the 19th century was a scientific age and study of terms used in the different Indo-European languages. especially an age of biological science. Former periods--the He showed, for instance, how the idea of protection was the 16th and 17th centuries especially—had bequeathed to it high predominant element in the position of the father in the Aryan standards of scientific investigation, an ever-increasing weight household. The names pitar, pater, natúp, father, which of authority in the direction of an exact study of natural phe- recur in most branches of the Aryan race, go back to a root pā-, nomena and a conception of the world as ruled by laws and not pointing to guardianship or protection. Thus we are led to by capricious interference. But these scientific views had been consider the patria potestas, so stringently formulated in Roman chiefly applied in the domain of mathematics, astronomy and law, as an expression of a common Aryan notion, which was physics; although great discoveries had already been made in already in existence before the Aryan tribes parted company and physiology and other branches of biology, yet the achievements went their different ways. Descriptions of Aryan early culture of 19th-century students in this respect far surpassed those of have been given several times since in connexion with linguistic the preceding period. And the doctrine of transformation observations. An example is W. E. Hearn's Aryan Household which came to occupy the central place in scientific thought was (1879). Fustel de. Coulanges' famous volume on the ancient eminently fitted to co-ordinate and suggest investigations of city and Rudolf von Jhering's studies of primitive Indo-European social facts. As F. York Powell put it, Darwin is the greatest institutions (Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer) start from similar historian of modern times, and certainly an historian not in the observations, although the first of these scholars is chiefly sense of a reader of annals, but in that of a guide in the under interested in tracing the influence of religion on the material standing of organic evolution. Though much is expressed in arrangements of life, while the latter draws largely on principles the one name of Darwin, it is perhaps even more momentous as a of public and private law, studied more especially in Roman symbol of the tendency of a great age than as a mark of personal antiquity. work. To this tendency we are indebted for the rise of anthro- 3. The chief work in that direction has been achieved in one pology and of sociology, of the scientific study of man and of the sense by a German scholar, B. W. Leist. His Graeco-Roman legal scientific study of society. Of course it ought not to be disre-history, his Jus Gentium of Primitive Aryans, and his Jus Civile garded that the application of scientific principles and methods of Primitive Aryans, form the most complete and learned attempt to human and social facts was made possible by the growth of not only to reconstitute the fundamental rules of common knowledge in regard to savage and half-civilized nations called Aryan law before the separation of tongues and nations, but also forth by the increased activity of European and American to trace the influence of this original stock of juridical ideas in business men, administrators and explorers. Ethnography and the later development of different branches of the Aryan race. ethnology have brought some order into the wealth of materials These three books present three stages of comparison, marked accumulated by generations of workers in this direction, and it by a successive widening of the horizon. He began his legal is with their help that the far-reaching generalizations of modern history by putting together the data as to Roman and Greek inquirers as to man and society have been achieved. legal origins; in the Alt-arisches Jus Gentium the material of 2. It is not difficult to see that the comparative study of Hindu law is not only drawn into the range of observation, but legal evolution finds its definite place in a scientific scheme becomes its very centre; in the Alt-arisches Jus Civile the legal elaborated from such points of view. Let us see how, as a customs of the Zend branch, of Celts, Germans and Slavs, are matter of fact, the study in question arose and what its progress taken into account, although the most important part of the has been. The immediate incitement for the formation of com- inquiry is still directed to the combination of Hindu, Greek and parative jurisprudence was given by the great discoveries of Roman law. In this way Leist builds up his theories by the comparative philology. When the labours of Franz Bopp, comparative method, but he restricts its use consciously and con- August Schleicher, Max Müller, W. D. Whitney and others sistently to a definite range. He does not want to plunge into revealed the profound connexion between the different branches haphazard analogies, but seeks common ground before all things of the Indo-European race in regard to their languages, and in order to be able to watch for the appearance of ramifications showed that the development of these languages proceeded on and to explain them. According to his view comparison is of lines which might be studied in a strictly scientific manner, on use only between “coherent " lines of facts. Common origin, the basis of comparative observation and with the object of not similarity of features, appears to him as the fundamental tracing the uniformities of the process, it was natural that basis for fruitful comparison. It may be said that Leist's work students of religion, of folk-lore and of legal institutions took is characterized by the attempt to draw up a continuous history up the same method and tried to win similar results (Sir H. of a supposed archaic common law of the Aryan race rather Maine, Rede lecture in Village Communities, 3rd ed.). than to put different solutions of kindred legal problems by the It is interesting to note that one of the leading scholars of the side of each other. For him Aryan tribal organization with its Germanistic revival in the beginning of the 19th century, Jacob double-sided relationship-cognatic and agnatic-through men Grimm, a compeer of Savigny in his own line, took up with and through women-is one, and although he does not draw its fervent zeal and remarkable results not only the scientific study picture as Fustel de Coulanges does by the help of traits taken in- of the German language, but also that of Germanic mythology discriminately from Hindu, Roman and Greek material, although and popular law. . His Rechtsalterthümer are still unrivalled as a he notices divisions, degrees and variations, at bottom he writes collection of data as to the legal lore of Teutonic tribes. Their the history of one set of principles exemplified and modulated, basis is undoubtedly a narrow one: they treat of the varieties of as it were, in the six or seven main varieties of the race. Even legal custom among the continental Germans, the Scandinavians so the nine rules of conduct prescribed by Hindu sacral law and the Germanic tribes of Great Britain, but the method of are, according to his view, the directing rules of Roman, Greek, treatment is already a comparative one. Grimm takes up the Germanic, Celtic, Slavonic legal custom-the duties in regard to different subjects-property, contract, procedure, succession, gods, parents and fatherland, guests, personal purity, the pro- crime, &c.-and examines them in the light of national, provin- hibitions against homicide, adultery and theft-are variations cial and local customs, sometimes noticing expressly affinities of one and the same religious, moral and legal system, and their with Roman and Greek law (e.g. the subject of imprisonment for original unity is reflected and proved by the unity of legal debt, Rechtsalterthümer, 4th ed., vol. ij., p. 165). terminology itself. A broader basis was taken up by a linguist who tried to trace The same leading idea is embodied in the books of Otto the primitive institutions and customs of the early Aryans before Schrader-Urgeschichte und Sprachvergleichung (ist ed., 1883; their separation into divers branches. Adolphe Pictet (Les 2nd ed., 1890) and Reallexikon der indogermanischen Alter- Origines indo-européennes, i. 1859; ii. 1863) bad to touch con- tumskunde (1901). In this case we have to do not with a jurist 582 JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE a but with a linguist and a student of cultural history. His took up the study in the field of ancient history, but treated it training made him especially fit to trace the national affinities from the beginning in such a way as to break up the subdivisions in the data of language, and the sense of the intimate connexion of historic races and to direct the inquiry to a state of culture best between the growth of institutions on one side, of words and illustrated by savage customs. The first impulse may be said linguistic forms on the other, underlies all his investigations. to have come from J. J. Bachofen (Mutterrecht, 1861; Anti- But Schrader testifies also to another powerful influence-to that quarische Brieſe, 1880; Die Sage von Tanaquil). All the repre- of Victor Hehn, the author of a remarkable book on early civili-sentatives of Aryan antiquities are at one in laying stress on the zation, Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem Übergang aus Asien patriarchal and agnatic system of the kindreds in the different in Europa (ist ed., 1870; 7th ed., 1902), dealing with the migra- Aryan nations; even Leist, although dwelling on the importance tions of tribes and their modes of acquiring material civilization. of cognatic ties, looks to agnatic relationship for the explana- Although the linguistic and archaeological sides naturally pre- tion of military organization and political authority. And un- dominate in Schrader's works, he has constantly to consider doubtedly, if we argue from the predominant facts and from the legal subjects, and he strives conscientiously to obtain a clear and linguistic evidence of parallel terms, we are led to assume that common-sense view of the early legal notions of the Aryans. already before their separation the Aryans lived in a patriarchal Speaking of the “ordeals,” the "waging of God's law,” for state of society. Now, Bachofen discovered in the very tradition example, he traces the customs of purification by fire, water, of classical antiquity traces of a fundamentally different state iron, &c., to the practice of oaths (Sans. am; Gr. ouvoje; O. Ital. of things, the central conception of which was not patriarchal omr = first group; O. Ger. aibs, Ir. beth = second group; O. power, but maternity, relationship being traced through mothers, Norse rota, Arm. erdnum = I swear = third group). The central the wife presenting the constant and directing element of the idea of the ordeal is thus shown to be the imprecation—" Let household, while the husband (and perhaps several husbands) him be cursed whose assertion is false." joined her from time to time in more or less inconstant unions. The comparative study of the Aryan group assumed another Such a state of society is definitely described by Herodotus in aspect in the works of Sir Henry Maine. He did not rely on the case of the Lycians, it is clearly noticeable even in later his- linguistic affinities, but made great use of another element of torical times in Sparta; the passage from this matriarchal investigation which plays hardly any part in the books of the conception to the recognition of the claims of the father is writers mentioned hitherto. His best personal preparation for reflected in poetical fiction in the famous Orestes myth, based the task was that he had not only taught law in England, but on the struggle between the moral incitement which prompted had come into contact with living legal customs in India. For the son to avenge his father and the absolute reverence for the him the comparison between the legal lore of Rome and that of mother required by ancient law. Although chiefly drawing his India did not depend on linguistic roots or on the philological materials from classical literature, Bachofen included in his study of the laws of Manú, but was the result of recognizing Antiquarian Letters an interesting study of the marriage custom again and again, in actual modern custom, the views, rules and and systems of relationship of the Malabar Coast in India; they institutions of which he had read in Gaius or in the fragments attracted his attention by the contrasts between different layers of the Twelve Tables. The sense of historical analogy and evolu- of legal tradition-the Brahmans living in patriarchal order, tion which had shown itself already in the lectures on Ancient, while the class next to them, the Nayirs (Nairs), follow rules of Law, which, after all, were mainly a presentment of Roman legal matriarchy. history mapped out by a man of the world, averse from pedantic Similar ideas were put forward in a more comprehensive form disquisitions. But what appea as the expression of Maine's by J. F. McLennan. His early volume (Studies in Ancient personal aptitude and intelligent reading in Ancient Law gets History, 1876) contains several essays published some time before to be the interpretation of popular legal principles by modern as that date. He starts from the wide occurrence of marriage by well as by ancient instances of their application in Village Com- capture in primitive societies, and groups the tribes of which munities, The Early History of Institutions, Early Law and Custom. we have definite knowledge into endogamous and exogamous The evolution of property in land out of archaic collectivism, societies according as they take their wives from among the ancient forms of contract and compulsion, rudimentary forms of kindred or outside it. Marriage by capture and by purchase feudalism and the like, were treated in a new light in conse- are signs of exogamy, connected with the custom in many tribes quence of systematic comparisons with the conditions not only of killing female offspring. The development of marriage by of India but of southern Slavonic nations, medieval celts and capture and purchase is a powerful agent in bringing about Teutons. This breadth of view seemed startling when the patriarchal rule, agnatic relationship, and the formation of clans lectures appeared, and the original treatment of the subject or gentes, but the more primitive forms of relationship appear was hailed on all sides as a most welcome new departure in the as variations of systems based on mother-right. These views study of legal customs and institutions. And yet Maine set are supported by ethnological observations and used as a clue very definite boundaries to his comparative surveys. He re- to the history of relationship and family law in ancient Greece. nounced the chronological limitation confining such inquiries In further contributions published after McLennan's death to the domain of antiquaries, but he upheld the ethnographical these researches are supplemented and developed in many ways. limitation confining them to laws of the same race. In his case The peculiarities of exogamous societies, for instance, are traced it was the Aryan race, and in his Law and Custom he opposed in back to the even more primitive practice of Totemism, the a determined manner the attempts of more daring students to grouping of men according to their conceptions of animal worship extend to the Aryans generalizations drawn from the life of and to their symbols. McLennan's line of inquiry was taken up savage tribes unconnected with the Aryans by blood. in a very effective manner not only by anthropologists like Thus, notwithstanding all diversities in the treatment of E. B. Tylor or A. Lang, but also in a more special manner by particular problems, one leading methodical principle runs students of primitive family law. One of the most brilliant through the works of all the above-mentioned exponents of monographs in this direction is Robertson Smith's study of comparative study. It was to proceed on the basis of common Kinship and Marriage in Arabia. origin and on the assumption of a certain common stock of But perhaps the most decisive influence was exercised on language, religion, material culture, and law to start with the development of the ethnological study of law by the dis- What Pictet, Leist, Schrader, and Maine were doing for the coveries of an American, Lewis H. Morgan. In his epoch- Aryans, F. Hommel, Robertson Smith and others did in a lesser making works on Systems of Consanguinity (1869) and on Ancient degree for the Semitic race. Society (1877) he drew attention to the remarkable fact that in 4. The literary group which started from the discoveries of the case of a number of tribes-the Red Indians of America, the comparative philology and history was met on the way by what Australian black tribes, some of the polar races, and several may be called the ethnological school of inquirers. The original Asiatic tribes, mostly of Turanian race-degrees of relationship impetus was given, in this case, by jurists and historians who I are reckoned and distinguished by names, not as ties between JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE 583 individuals, but as ties between entire groups, classes or genera- | in which he ranges over the whole domain of mankind-Hovas, tions. Instead of a mother and a father a man speaks of fathers Zulus, Maoris, Tunguses, alternating in a kaleidoscopic fashion and mothers; all the individuals of a certain group are deemed with Hindus, Teutons, Jews, Egyptians. The order of his com- husbands or wives of corresponding individuals of another group; positions is systematic, not chronological or even ethnographical sisters and brothers have to be sought in entire generations, and in the sense of grouping kindred races together. He takes up not among the descendants of a definite and common parent, and the different subdivisions of law and traces them through all so forth. There are variations and types in these forms of the various tribes which present any data in regard to them. organization, and intermediate links may be traced between His method is not only not bound by history, it is opposed to it. unions of consanguine people brothers and sisters of the same He writes:- blood-on the one hand, and the monogamic marriage prevailing “The method of comparative ethnology is different from the nowadays, on the other; but the central and most striking fact historical method, inasmuch as it collects the given material from seems to be that in early civilizations, in conditions which we an entirely distinct point of view. Historical investigation tries to should attribute to savage and barbarian liſe, marriage appears get at the causes of the facts of rational life by observing the develop. ment of these facts from such as preceded them within the range of as a tie, not between single pairs, but between classes, all the separate kindreds, tribes and peoples. The investigation of com- men of a class being regarded as potential or actual husbands parative ethnology inquires alter the causes of facts in national of the women of a corresponding class. Facts of this kind life by collecting identical or similar ethnological data wherever they produce very peculiar and elaborate systems of relationship, materials to identical or similar causes. may be found in the world, and by drawing inferences from these This method is therefore which have been copiously illustrated by Morgan in his tables. quile unhistorical. It severs things that have been hitherto regarded In his Ancient Society he attempted to reduce all the known as closely joined and arranges these shreds into new combinations forms and facts of marriage and kinship arrangements to a (Grundriss, i. 14). comprehensive view of evolution leading up to the Aryan, This is not a mere paradox, but the necessary outcome of the Semitic and Uralian family, as exhibiting the most modern situation in respect of the material used. What is being sought type of relationship. is not common origin or a common stock of ideas, but recourse These observations, in conjunction with Bachofen's and to similar expedients in similar situations, and it is one of the McLennan's teaching on mother-right, brought about a complete most striking results of ethnology that it can show how peoples change of perspective in the comparative study of man and entirely cut off from each other and even placed in very different society. The rights of ethnologists to have their say in regard planes of development can resort to analogous solutions in to legal, political and social development was forcibly illustrated analogous emergencies. Is not the custom of the so-called from both ends, as it were. On the one hand, classical antiquity Couvade-the pretended confinement of the husband when a itself proved to be a rather thin layer of human civilization child is born to his wife-a most quaint and seemingly recondite hardly sufficient to conceal the long periods of barbarism and ceremony? Yet we find it practised in the same way by Basques, primitive evolution which had gone to its making. On the Californian Indians, and some Siberian tribes. They have surely other hand, unexpected combinations in regard to family, not borrowed from each other, nor have they kept the ceremony property, social order, were discovered in every corner of the as a remnant of the time when they formed one race: in each inhabited world, and our trite notions as to the character of case, evidently the passage from a matriarchal state to a patri- laws and institutions were reduced to the rank of variations on archal has suggested it, and a very appropriate method it seems to themes which recur over and over again, but may be and have establish the fact of fatherhood in a solemn and graphic though been treated in very different ways. artificial manner. Again, an inscription from the Cretan town There is no need to speak of the use made of ethnological of Gortyn, published in the American Journal of Archaeology material in the wider range of anthropological and sociological (2nd series, vol. i., 1897) by Halbherr, tells us that the weapons of studies—the works of Tylor, Lubbock, Lippert, Spencer are in a warrior, the wool of a woman, the plough of a peasant, could everybody's hands—but attention must be called to the further not be taken from them as pledges. We find a similar idea in influence of the ethnological point of view in comparative the prohibition to take from a knight his weapons, from a villein jurisprudence. An interesting example of the passage from one his plough, in payment of fines, which obtained in medieval line of investigation to another, from the historical to the anthro- England and was actually inserted in Magna Carta. Here also pological line, if the expression may be used for the sake of the similarity extends to details, and is certainly not derived brevity, is presented in the works of one of the founders of the from direct borrowing or common origin but from analogies of Zeitschrift für vgl. Rechtswissenschaft-Franz Bernhöft. He situations translating themselves into analogies of legal thought. appears in his earlier books as an exponent of the comparative It may be said in a sense that for the ethnological school the less study of Greek and Roman antiquities, more or less in the style relationship there is between the compared groups the more of Leist. Like the latter he was gradually incited to draw India instructive the comparison turns out to be. into the range of his observations, but unlike Leist, he ended by The collection of ethnological parallels for the use of sociology fully recognizing the importance of ethnological evidence, and and comparative jurisprudence has proceeded in a most fruitful although he did not do much original research in that direction manner. By the side of special monographs about single tribes himself, the influence of Bachofen and of the ethnologists made or geographical groups of tribes, such as Kamilaroi and Kurnai, itself felt in Bernhöft's treatment of classical antiquity itself: by L. Fison & A. W. Howitt (1880), and The Native Tribes of in his State and Law in Rome at the Time of the Kings he starts Australia, by Baldwin Spencer & F. G. Gillen (1899), the whole from the view that patricians and plebeians represent two range of ethnological jurisprudence was gone through by Wilken ethnological layers of society-a patriarchal Aryan and a in regard to the inhabitants of the Dutch possessions in Asia, by matriarchal pre-Aryan one. M. M. Kovalevsky in regard to Caucasians, &c. As a rule the But, of course, the utmost use was made of ethnological special monographs turned out to be more successful than the evidence by writers who cut themselves entirely free from the general surveys, but the interest of the special monographs special study of classical or European antiquities. The enthu-themselves depended partly on the fact that people's eyes had siasm of the explorers of new territory led them naturally to been opened to the recurrence of certain widespread phenomena disregard the peculiar claims of European development in the and types of development. history of higher civilization They wanted material for a study 5. Ethnologists of Post's school have not had it entirely of the genus homo in all its varieties, and they had no time to their own way, however. Not only did their natural opponents, look after the minute questions of philological and antiquarian the philologists, historians and jurists, reproach them with lack research which had so long constituted the daily bread of of critical discrimination, with a tendency to disregard funda- inquirers into the history of laws. The most characteristic mental distinctions, to wipe out characteristic features, 10 throw representative of the new methods of extensive comparison was the most disparate elements into the same pot. In their own undoubtedly A H. Post (1839-1895)-the aui hor of many works, I ranks a number of conscientious and scientifically trained 584 JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE investigators protested against the haphazard manner in which the 6. The necessity of employing more stringent standards of most intricate problems were treated, and sought to evolve more criticisms and more exact methods is now recognized, and it definite methodical rules. P.and F. Sarrasin in their description is characteristic that the foremost contemporary representative of the Ceylon Veddahs showed a most primitive race scattered of comparative jurisprudence, Joseph Kohler of Berlin, principal in small clusters, monogamous and patriarchal in their marriage editor of the Zeitschrift fur vgl. Rechtswissenschaft, often customs and systems of relationship. E. A. Westermarck gives expression to this view. Beginning with studies of challenged the sweeping generalizations indulged in by many procedure and private law in the provinces of Germany where ethnologists about primitive promiscuity in sexual relations the French law of the Code Napoléon was still applied, he has and the necessary passage of all human tribes through the stages thrown his whole energy into monographic surveys and investi. of matriarchy and group marriage. gations in all the departments of historical and ethnological A very interesting departure was attempted by Dargun in his jurisprudence. The code of Khammurabi and the Babylonian studies on the origin and development of property and his treatise contracts, the ancient Hindu codes and juridical commentaries on mother-right and marriage by capture. His lead was followed on them, the legal customs of the different tribes and provinces by R. Hildebrand in the monograph on law and custom. The of India, the collection and siſting of the legal customs of abori- principal idea of these inquirers may be stated as follows. We gines in the German colonies in Africa, the materials supplied must utilize ethnological as well as historical materials from the by investigators of Australian and American tribes, the history whole world, but it is no use doing this indiscriminately. Fruit- of legal customs of the Mahommedans, and numberless other ful comparisons may be instituted mainly in the case of tribes points of ethnological research, have been treated by him in on the same level in their general culture and especially their articles in his Zeitschriſt and in other publications. Comprehen- economic pursuits. Hunting tribes must be primarily compared sive attempts have also been made by him at a synthetic treat- with other hunters, fishers with fishers, pastoral nations with ment of certain sides of the law-like the law of debt in his Shake- pastoral nations, agriculturists with agriculturists; nations in speare vor dem Forum der Jurisprudenz (1883) or his Primilive iransitional stages from one type of culture to the other have to History of Marriage. Undoubtedly we have not to deal in this case be grouped and examined by themselves. The result would be with mere accumulation of material or with remarks on casual to establish certain parallel lines in the development of institu- analogies. And yet the importance of these works consists tions and customs. From this point of view both Dargun and mainly in their extensive range of observation. The critical Hildebrand attacked the prevailing theory of primitive commun- side is still on the second plane, although not conspicuously ism and insisted on the atomistic individualism of the rudimen- absent as in the case of Post and some of his followers. We may tary civilization of hunting tribes. Collectivism in the treatment sympathize cordially with Kohler's exhortation to work for a of ownership, common field husbandry, practices of joint universal history of law without yet perceiving clearly what the holdings, co-aration, common stores, &c., make their appearance stages of this universal history are going to be. We may acknow- according to Dargun in consequence of the drawing together of ledge the enormous importance of Morgan's and Bachofen's scattered groups and smaller independent settlements. An discoveries without feeling bound to recognize that all tribes evolution of the same kind leading from loose unions around and nations of the earth have gone substantially through the mothers through marriage by capture to patriarchal kindreds same forms of development in respect of marriage custom, and was traced in the history of relationship. Grosse (Die Formen without admitting that the evidence for a universal spread of der Familie und der Wirtschaft, 1896) followed in a similar strain. group-marriage has been produced. Altogether the reproach Another line of criticism was opened up from the side of exact seems not entirely unfounded that investigations of this kind sociological study. Its best exponent is Steinmetz, who represents are carried on too much under the sway of a preconceived notion with Wilken the Dutch group of investigators of social pheno- that some highly peculiar arrangement entirely different from mena. He takes up a standpoint which severs him entirely from what we are practising nowadays-say sexual promiscuity or the linguistic and historic school. In a discourse on the Meaning communism in the treatment of property-must be made out of Sociology (p. 10) he expresses himself in the following words: as a universal clue to earlier stages of development. Kohler's “One who judges of the social state of the Hindus by the book occasional remarks on matters of method (e.g. Zeitschift für of Manu takes the ideal notions of one portion of the people for vgl. Rechtswissenschaft, xii. 193 seq.) seem hardly adequate to the actual conditions of all its parts.” In regard to jurisprudence dispel this impression. But in his own work and in that of some he distinguishes carefully between art and science. “ Juris- of his compeers and followers, J. E. Hitzig, Hellwig, Max Huber, prudence in the wider sense is an art, the art of framing rules R. Dareste, more exact forms and means of inquiry are gradually for social intercourse in so far as these rules can be put into exe- put into practice, and the results testify to a distinct heightening cution by the state and its organs, as well as the art of inter- of the scientific standard in this group of studies on comparative preting and applying these rules. In another sense it is pure jurisprudence. Especially conspicuous in this respect are science, the investigation of all consciously formulated and three tendencies: (a) the growing disinclination. to accept super- actually practised rules, and of their conditions and founda- ficial analysis between phenomena belonging to widely different tions, in fact of the entire social life of existing and bygone spheres of culture as necessarily produced by identical causes nations, without a knowledge and understanding of which a (e.g. Darinsky's review of Kovalevsky's assumptions as to group knowledge and understanding of law as its outcome is, of course, marriage among the Caucasian tribes, 2. für vgl. Rw., xiv. 151 impossible.” In this sense jurisprudence is a part of ethnology seq.); (b) the selection of definite historical or ethnological terri. and of the comparative history of culture. But in order to tories for monographic inquiries, in the course of which arrange- grapple with such a tremendous task comparative jurisprudence ments observed elsewhere are treated as suggestive material has not only to call to help the study of scattered ethnological for supplying gaps and starting possible explanations: Kohler's facts. This is not sufficient to widen the frame of observation own contributions have been mainly of this kind; (c) the treat- and to realize the relative character of the principles with which ment of selected subjects by an intensive legal analysis, bringing practical lawyers operate, without ever putting in question their out the principles underlying one or the other rule, ils possible general acceptance or logical derivations. Ethnological studies differentiation, the means of its application in practice, &c.: themselves have to look for guidance to psychology, especially Hellwig's monograph on the right of sanctuary in savage com- to the psychology of emotional life and of character. Although munities (Das Asylrecht der Naturvölker) may be named in illus- these branches of psychological science have been much lesstration of this analytical tendency. Altogether, there can be no investigated than the study of intellectual processes, they still doubt that the stage has been reached by comparative juris. afford material help to the ethnologist and the comparative prudence when, after a hasty, one might almost say a voracious jurist, and Steinmetz himself made a remarkable attempt to consumption of materials, investigators begin to strive towards utilize a psychological analysis of the feelings of revenge in his careful siſting of evidence and a conscious examination of Origins of Punishment. methods and critical rules which have to be followed in order JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE 585 to make the investigations undertaken in this line worthy of their It is much more difficult to make out the share of direct scientific aims. Until the latter has been done many students, borrowing in the case of peoples who might conceivably have in- whose trend of thought would seem to lead them naturally into fluenced one another. A hard and fast rule cannot be laid down this domain, may be repelled by the uncritical indistinctness in such cases, and everything depends on the weighing of evidence with which mere analogies are treated as elusive proofs by some and sometimes on almost instinctive estimates. The use of a of the representatives of the comparative school. F. W. Mait- wager for the benefit of the tribunal in the early procedure of the land, for instance, was always kept back by such considerations. Romans and Greeks, the sacramentum and the ar putavela, with 7. It is desirable, in conclusion, to review the entire domain a similar growth of the sum laid down by the parties in proportion of comparative jurisprudence, and to formulate the chief prin to the interests at stake, has been explained by a direct borrow- ciples of method which have to be taken into consideration in ing by the Romans from the Greeks at the time of the Twelve the course of this study. It is evident, to begin with, that a Tables · legislation (Hofmann, Beiträge zur Geschichte des scientific comparison of facts must be directed towards two aims griechischen und römischen Rechts). No direct proof is available --towards establishing and explaining similarity, and towards for this hypothesis, and the question in disputė might have enumerating and explaining differences. As a matter of fact lain for ever between this explanation and that based on the the same material may be studied from both points of view, analogous development in the two closely related branches though logically these are two distinct processes. of law. The further study of the legal antiquities of other (a) Now at this initial stage we have already to meet a diffi- branches of the Aryan race leads one to suppose, however, that culty and to guard against å misconception: we have namely we have actually to do with the latter and not with the former to reckon with the plurality of causes, and are therefore debarred eventuality. Why should the popular custom of the Vzdání in from assuming that wherever similar phenomena are forth- Bohemia (Kapras, “Das Pfandrecht in altböhmischen Land- coming they are always produced by identical causes. Death recht,” Z. für vgl. R.-wissenschaft, xvii. 424 seq.), regulating the may be produced by various agents—by sickness, by poison, by wager of litigation in the case of two parties submitting their a blow. The habit of wearing mourning upon the death of a dispute to the decision of a public tribunal, turn out to be so relation is a widespread habit, and yet it is not always to be similar to the Greek and the Roman process? And the Teutonic ascribed to real or supposed grief and the wish to express it in Wedde would further countenance the view that we have to one's outward get-up. Savage people are known to go into do in this case with analogous expediency or, possibly, common mourning in order to conceal themselves from the terrible spirit origin, not loans. But while dwelling on considerations which of the dead which would recognize them in their everyday cos- may disprove the assumption of direct loans, we must not omit to tụme (Jhering, Der Zweck im Recht, 2nd ed., 1884–1886). This is mention circumstances that may render such an assumption the certainly a momentous difficulty at the start, but it can be greatly best available explanation for certain points of similarity. We reduced and guarded against in actual investigation. In the mean especially the recurrence of special secondary traits not example taken we are led to suppose different origin because deducible from the nature of the relations compared. Termino- we are informed as to the motives of the external ceremony, and logical parallels are especially convincing in such cases. An thus we are taught to look not only to bare facts, but to the example of most careful linguistic investigation attended by psychological environment in which they appear. And it is important results is presented by W. Thomsen's treatment of evident that the greater the complexity of observed phenomena, the affinities between the languages and cultures of the peoples. the more they are made up of different elements welded into one of northern and eastern Europe. Taking the indications in sum, the less probability there is that we have to do with conse- regard to the influence of Germanic tribes on Finns and Lapps, quences derived from different causes, The recurrence of group- we find, for instance, that the Finnish race has stood for some marriage in Australia and among the Red Indians of North 1500 or 2000 years under “ the influence of several Germanic America can in no way be explained by the working of entirely languages-partly of a more ancient form of Gothic than that different agencies. And it may be added that in most cases of represented by Ulfilas, partly of a northern (Scandinavian) an analysis of social institutions the limits of human probability tongue and even possibly of a common Gothic-northern one.” and reasonable assumption do not coincide with mathematical The importance of these linguistic investigations for our subject possibility in any sense. When we register our facts and causes becomes apparent when we find that a series of most important in algebraic forms, marking the first with a, b, c, and the latter legal and political terms has been imported from Teutonic into with x, y, 2, we are apt to demand a degree of precision which is Finnish. For example, the Finnish Kuningas, “ king," comes hardly ever to be met with in dealing with social facts and from a Germanic root illustrated by O. Norse konung, O. H. Ger. Let us rest content with reasonable inferences and chuning, A.-S.cyning, Goth.thiudans. The Finnish valta,“ power," probable explanations. authority," is of Germanic origin, as shown by O. N. vald, (6) The easiest way of explaining a given similarity is by Goth. valdan. The Finnish kihla, a compact secured by solemn attributing it to a direct loan. The process of reception, of the promise, is akin with 0. N. A.-S. gisel, O. H. Ger. gisal, borrowing of one people from the other, plays a most notable " hostage.” The explanation for Finnish vuokra, “interest," part in the history of institutions and ideas. The Japanese “usury," is to be found in Gothic vokrs, 0. N. okr, Ger. Wucher, &c. have in our days engrafted many European institutions on their (W. Thomsen, Über den Einfluss der germanischen Sprachen auf perfectly distinct ċivilization; the Germans have used for cen- die Finnisch-lappischen, trans. E. Sievers, 1870, p. 166 seq.; turies what was termed euphemistically the Roman 'law of the cf. W. Thomsen, The Relations between Ancient Russia and Scan- present time (heutiges römisches Recht); the Romans absorbed dinavia and the Origin of the Russian State, p. 127 seq.; Miklosich, an enormous amount of Greek and Oriental law in their famous “ Die Fremdwörter in den slavischen Sprachen,” Denkschriften jurisprudence. A check upon explanation by direct loan will, der Wiener Akademie, Ph, hist. Klasse, XV.). of course, lie in the fact that two societies are entirely discon- (c) The next group of analogies is formed by cases which nected, so that it comes to be very improbable that one drew its may be reduced to common origin. In addition to what has laws from the other. Although migrations of words, legends, already been said on the subject in connexion with the literature beliefs, charms, have been shown by Theodor Benfey and his of the historical school, we must point out that in the case of school to range over much wider areas than might be supposed kindred peoples this form of derivation has, of course, to be on the face of it, still, in the case of law, in so far as it has to primarily considered. This is especially the case when we have regulate material conditions, the limits have perhaps to be drawn to deal with the original stock of cultural notions of a race, rather narrowly. In any case we shall not look to India in order and when analogies in the framing and working of institutions to explain the burning of widows among the negroes of Africa; and legal rules are supported by linguistic affinities. The testi- the suttee may be the example of this custom which happens mony of the Aryan languages in regard to terms denoting to be most familiar to us, but it is certainly not the only root of family organization and relationship can in no way be dis- it on the surface of the earth. regarded, whatever our view may be about the most primitive 9) causes. 586 JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE 9, 15). This may stages of development in this respect. The fact that the common Their condition, as it may to-day be observed, is truly the most ancient condition of man stock of Aryan languages and of Aryan legal customs points to (Studies in Ancient History, and series, a patriarchal organization of the family may be regarded On this basis we might draw up tables of consecutive stages, as established, and it is certainly an important fact drawn from a very ancient stage of human history, although there of which the simplest may be taken from Post:- are indications that still more primitive formations may be .“ Four types of organization: the tribal, the territorial, the seignorial, and the social. The first has as its basis marriage and discovered. relationship by blood; the second, neighbouring, occupation of a Inferences in the direction of common origin become more district; the third, patronage relations between lord and dependants; doubtful when we argue, not that certain facts proceed from the fourth, social intercourse and contractual relations between a common stock of notions embodied in the early culture of a individual personalities " (Post, Grundriss, i. 14). race before it was broken up into several branches, but that be supplemented from Friedrichs in regard to they have to be accounted for as instances of a similar treatment initial stages of family organization. He reckons four stages of of legal problems by different peoples of the same ethnic family. this kind: promiscuity, loose relations, matriarchal family, The only thing that can be said in such a case is that, methodi patriarchal family, modern, bilateral family (Z. f. vgl. R. cally, the customs of kindred nations have the first claim to wissenschaft). This mode of grouping similar phenomena as a comparison. It is evident that in dealing with blood feud, sequence of stages leads to a conception of universal history of a composition for homicide, and the like, among the Germans pr peculiar kind. And as such it has been realized and advocated Slavs, the evidence of other Aryan tribes has to be primarily by Kohler (see e.g. his article in Helmolt's World's History, studied. But it is by no means useless for the investigator of these Eng. trans. i.). Prompted by this conception several represen- problems to inform himself about the aspect of such customs tatives of comparative jurisprudence have found no difficulty in the life of nations of other descent, and especially of savage to insert such a peculiar institution as group-marriage into the tribes. The motives underlying legal rules in this respect are general and obligatory course of legal evolution. It is to be to a large extent suggested by feelings and considerations which noticed, however, that Kohler himself has entered a distinct are not in any way peculiarly Aryan, and may be fully illustrated protest against McLennan's and Post's view that the more from other sources, as has been done e.g. in Steinmetz's Origins rudimentary a people's culture is, the more archaic it is, of Punishment. and the earlier it has to be placed in the natural sequence (d) This leads to the consideration of what may be called discon- of evolution. This would create difficulties in the case of tribes nected analogies. They are instructive in so far as they go back, of exceedingly low culture, like the Ceylon Veddahs, who live in not to any continuous development, but to the fundamental, monogamous and patriarchal groups. According to Kohler's psychological and logical unity of human nature. In similar view, neither the mere fact of a low standard of culture, nor the Circumstances human beings are likely to solve the same problems fact that a certain legal custom precedes another in some cases in the same way. Take a rather late and special case. In the in point of time, settles the natural sequence of development. Anglo-Saxon laws of Ine, a king who lived in the 7th century, The process of development must be studied in cases when it is it is enacted that no landowner should be allowed to claim per- sufficiently clear, gaps in other cases have to be supplied sonal labour service from his tenants unless he provides them accordingly, and the working together of distinct institutions, not merely with land, but with their homesteads. Now an especially in cases when there is no ethnic connexion, has to exactly similar rule is found in the statement of rural by-laws be especially noticed. These are counsels of perfection, but to be enforced on great domains in Africa, which had been taken Kohler's own example shows sufficiently that it is not easy to over by the imperial fiscus--the Ļex Manciana (cf. Schulten, follow them to the letter. One thing is, however, clearly Lex manciana). There is absolutely no reason for assuming indicated by these and similar criticisms; it is, at the least, a direct transference of the rule from one place to the other: premature to sketch anything like a course of universal develop- it reflects considerations of natural equity which in both cases ment for legal history. We have grave doubts whether the were directed against similar encroachments of powerful land time will ever come for laying down any single course of that owners on a dependent peasant population. In both instances kind. The attempts made hitherto have generally led to over- government interfered to draw the line between the payment stating the value of certain parts of the evidence and to squeezing of rent and the performance of labour, and fastened on the special traits into a supposed general course of evolution. same feature to fix the limit, namely, on the difference between () Another group of thinkers is therefore content to systema- peasants living in their own homes and those who had been tize and explain the material from the point of view, not of settled by the landowner on his farms. Of such analogies, universal history, but of correspondence to economic stages and. the study of savage life presents a great number, e.g. the widely types. This is, as we have seen, the leading idea in Dargun's or spread practices of purification by ordeal (H. C. Lea, Superstition Hildebrand's investigations. It is needless to go into the ques- and Force). tion of the right or wrong of particular suggestions made by these (e) Organizing thought always seeks to substitute order for writers. The place assigned to individualism and collectivism chaotic variety. Observations as to disconnected analogies lead may be adequate or not; how far can be settled only by special to attempts to systematize them from some comprehensive point inquiries. But the general trend of study initiated in this direc- of view. These attempts may take the shape of a theory tion is certainly a promising one, if only one consideration of of consecutive stages of development. Similar facts appear over method is well kept in view. Investigators ought to be very and over again in ethnological and antiquarian evidence, chary of laying down certain combinations as the necessary because all peoples and tribes, no matter what their race and outcome of certain economic situations. Such combinations or geographical position, go through the same series of social consequences certainly exist; pastoral husbandry, the life of arrangements. This is the fundamental idea which directed scattered hunting groups, the conditions of agriculturists under the researches of Maine, McLennan, Morgan, Post, Kohler, feudal rule, certainly contain elements which will recur in divers although each of these scholars formulated his sequence of ethnical surroundings. But we must not forget a feature which is stages in a peculiar way. McLennan, for instance, puts the idea constantly before our eyes in real life: namely, that different referred to in the following words: minds and characters will draw different and perhaps opposite vard conditions. In short, it is suggested to us, that the history of human society conclusions in exactly similar out is that of a development following very slowly one general law, and happen in identical or similar geographical environment; let us that the variety of forms of life of domestic and civil institution only think of ancient Greeks and Turks on the Balkan peninsula, -is ascribable mainly to the unequal development of the different or of ancient Greeks and modern Greeks for that matter. But sections of mankind... The first thing to be done is to inform ourselves of the facts relating to the least developed races. To begin even the same historical medium leaves, as a rule, scope for with them is to begin with history at the farthest-back point of treatment of legal problems on divers. lines. Take systems of time to which, except by argument and inference, we can reach. succession. They exercise the most potent influence on the This may JURJĀNĪ—JURY 587 structure and life of society. Undivided succession, whether Famille celtique (1905); J: J. Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht (1861), in the form of. primogeniture or in that of junior right, sacrifices Antiquarische Briefe (1880); J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient equity and natural affection to the economic efficiency of estates. (2nd series, 1896); Giraud Teulon, Origines de la famille et du mariage History (1876), Patriarchal Theory (1885), Studies in Ancient History Equal-partition rules, like gavelkind or parage, lead in an exactly (1884); L. H. Morgan, “Systems of Consanguinity" in the publica- opposite direction. And yet both sets of rules co-existed among tions of the Smithsonian Institution, vol. xvii. (1869); Ancient Society the agriculturists of feudal England; communities placed in (1877); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (1871); Lord Avebury (Sir J. Lubbock), Origin of Civilization (1870); J. Lippert, Kulturgeschichte nearly identical historical positions followed one or the other der Menschheil (1887); W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage of these rules. The same may be said of types of dwelling and in Arabia (1885); F. Bernhöft, Staat und Recht der römischen Königszeit forms of settlement. In other words, it is not enough to start im Verhältniss zu verwandten Rechten (1882); A. H. Post, Aufgaben from a given economic condition as if it were bound to regulate einer allgemeinen Rechtswissenschaft (1891), Die Anfänge des Staats- with fatalistic precision all the incidents of legal custom and auf vergleichend-ethnologischer Basis (1881), Einleitung in das Studium und Rechtslebens (1878), Bausteine einer allgemeinen Rechtsgeschichte social intercourse. We have to start from actual facts as der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz (1886), Grundlagen des Rechts und complex results of many causes, and to try to reduce as much as Grundzüge seiner Entwickelungsgeschichte (1882), Studien zur Ent- we can of this material to the action of economic forces in a wickelungsgeschichte des Familienrechts (1889), Afrikanische Juris- prudenz (1887), Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz (1894); particular stage or type of development. Wilken, Das Matriarchat im alten Arabien (1884); M. M. Kovalevsky, (8) The psychological diversities of mankind in dealing Coutume contemporaine et loi ancienne (1893), Gesetz und Gewohnheit with the same or similar problems of food and property, of im Kaukasus (1890), Tableau du développement de la famille et de la procreation and marriage, of common defence and relationship, Gierke's Untersuchungen zur deutschen Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte propriété (1889); Dargun, “Mutterrecht und Raubehe,” in Otto of intercourse and contrast, &c., open another possibility for (1883); R. Hildebrand, Das Problem einer allgemeinen Entwickelungs- the grouping of facts and the explanation of their evolution. geschichte des Rechts und der Sitte (1894), Recht und Sitte auf den It may be difficult or impossible to trace the reasons and causes verschiedenen wirtschaftlichen Kulturstufen (1896); E. Grosse, Die of synthetic combinations in the history of society. That is, we Formen der Familie und der Wirtschaft (1896); E. A. Westermarck, can hardly go beyond noting that certain disconnected features of Moral ideas (1906); C. N. Starcke, Die primitive Familie (1888); History of Human Marriage (1894), The Origin and Development of the social life appear together and react on each other. But it is G. Tarde, Les Transformations du droit (2nd ed., 1894); Steinmetz, easier and more promising to approach the mass of our material Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwickelung der Strafe (1894); from the analytical side, taking hold of certain principles,!; Kohler, Das Recht als Kulturerscheinung: Einleitung in die ver- gleichende Rechtswissenschaft (1885), Shakespeare vor dem Forum der or rules, or institutions, and tracing them to their natural Turisprudenz (1884), “ Das chinesische Strafrecht," Beitrag zur Uni- consequences either through a direct systematization of reversalgeschichte des Strafrechts (1886), Rechtsvergleichende Studien über corded facts or, when these fail, through logical inferences. islamitisches Recht, Recht der Berbern, chinesisches Recht und Recht auf Some of the most brilliant and useful work in the historical Ehe (1897), Kulturrechte des Alten Amerikas, das Rechi der Azteken Ceylon (1889), Allindisches Prozessrecht (1892), Zur Urgeschichte der study of law has been effected on these lines. Mommsen's (1892), Das Negerrecht (1895); Kohler and Peisker, Aus dem babylon- theory of Roman magistracy, Jhering's theory of the struggle ischen Rechtsleben (1890), Hammurubi's Gesetz (1904); A. Lang, The for right, Kohler's view of the evolution of contract, &c., have Secret of the Totem (1905); P. J.H. Grierson, The Silent Trade (1903); been evolved by such a process of legal analysis; and, even when : G. Frazer, Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (1905); R. Dareste, Études d'histoire de droit (1889), Nouvelles études d'histoire such generalizations have to be curtailed or complicated later de droit (1896); Lambert, La Fonction du droit civil comparé (1903); on, they serve their turn as a powerful means of organizing Fritz Hommel, Semitische Alterthumskunde (Eng. trans., The evidence and suggesting reasonable explanations. The attribute Ancient Hebrew Tradition as illustrated by the Monuments, 1897); of “reasonableness” has to be reckoned with largely in such H. C. Lea, Superstition and Force (1866); A. Hellwig, Das Asylrecht cases. Analytical explanations are attractive to students Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (1902). der Naturvölker (Berliner juristische Beiträge, 1893); F. Seebohm, (P. V1.) because they substitute logical clearness for irrational accumula- tion of traits and facts. They do so to a large extent through JURJĀNI, the name of two Arabic scholars. appeals to the logic and to the reason common to us and to JURJĀNI (d. 1078,) Arabian grammarian, belonged to the 1. ABÛ BAKR 'ABDU-L-QĀHIR IBN 'ABDUR-RAHMĀN UL- the people we are studying. This deductive element has to be closely watched and tested from the side of a concrete study Persian school and wrote a famous grammar, the Kitāb ul- of the evidence, but it seems destined to play a very prominent Awāmil ul-Mi'a or Kitāb Mi'at 'Āmil , which was edited by part in the comparative history of law, because legal analysis Erpenius (Leiden, 1617), by Baillie (Calcutta, 1803), and by and construction have at all times striven to embody logic A. Lockett (Calcutta, 1814). Ten Arabic commentaries on this and equity in the domain of actual interests and forces. And, work exist in MS., also two Turkish. It has been versified five as we have seen in our survey of the literature of the subject, works on which several commentaries have been written is the times and translated into Persian. Another of his grammatical recent comparative studies tend to make the share of juridical analysis in given relative surroundings larger and larger. What Kitāb Jumal fin-Nahw. is so difficult of attainment to single workers—a harmonious Litteratur (1898), i. 288. For other works see C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der Arabischen appreciation of the combined influences of common origin, re- ception of foreign custom, recurring psychological combinations, 2. 'ALI IBN MAĦOMMED UL-JURJĀNI (1339-1414), Arabian the driving forces of economic culture and of the dialectical encyclopaedic writer, was born near Astarābād and became process of legal thought, will be achieved, it may be hoped, by professor in Shīrāz. When this city was plundered by Tīmūr the enthusiastic and brotherly exertions of all the workers in (1387) he removed to Samarkand, but returned to Shīrāz in 1405, the field. and remained there until his death. Of his thirty-one extant BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Of the principal works of reference may be works, many being commentaries on other works, one of the best mentioned : Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, edited by known is the Ta'rifat (Definitions), which was edited by G. Flügel Bernhöft, Cohn and Kohler (1878– ); Nouvelle revue historique de droit français et étranger, edited by Dareste, Esmein, Appert, Fournier, (Leipzig, 1845), published also in Constantinople (1837), Cairo Tardiff and Prou (1877- ); A. Pictet, Les Origines 'indo-euro' | (1866, &c.), and St Petersburg (1897). (G. W. T.) péennes (i. 1859, ii. 1863); Fustel de Coulanges, La Cité antique (1890); JURY, in English law,.a body of laymen summoned and W. E. Hearn, The Aryan Household (1879); R. v. Jhering, Vor- sworn (jurati) to ascertain, under the guidance of a judge, the geschichte der Indoeuropäer (1894); B.W.Leist, Graekoitalische Rechts- truth as to questions of fact raised in legal proceedings whether geschichte (1884), Alt-arisches Jus Gentium (1889), Alt-arisches JusCivile civil or criminal. The development of the system of trial by (1892–1896); Hruza, Geschichte des griechischen und römischen Fami- lienrechtes (1893); O. Schrader, Urgeschichte und Sprachvergleichung jury has been regarded as one of the greatest achievements of (1890), Reallexikon des indo-germanischen Altertumskundë (1901); English jurisprudence; it has even been said that the ultimate B. Delbrück, Die indo-germanischen Verwandtschaftsnamen (1889), aim of the English constitution is “ to get twelve good men into Das Mutterrecht bei den Indogermanen; Sir H. S. Maine, Ancient Law, with notes by Sir F. Pollock (1906), Village Communities (1871), In modern times the English system of trial by jury Early History of Institutions (1875), Early Law and Custom (1883); il.e. the jury-box, or enclosed space in which the jurors sit in M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Études de droit cellique (1895), La a box.” 1 court. 588 JURY " has been adopted in many countries in which jury trial was not with Stubbs that the Norman recognition was the instrument native or had been strangled or imperfectly developed under which the lawyers in England ultimately shaped into trial by local conditions. jury, Freeman maintains none the less that the latter is dis- The origin of the system in England has been much investi- tinctively English. Forsyth comes to substantially the same gated by lawyers and historians. The result of these investiga- conclusion. Noting the jury germs of the Anglo-Saxon period, tions is a fairly general agreement that the germ of jury trial he shows how out of those elements, which continued in full is to be found in the Frankish inquest (recognitio or inquisitio) force under the Anglo-Normans, was produced at last the transplanted into England by the Norman kings. The essence institution of the jury. “As yet it was only implied in the of this inquest was the summoning of a body of neighbours by a requirement that disputed questions should be determined by public officer to give answer upon oath (recognoscere veritatem) the voice of sworn witnesses taken from the neighbourhood, and on some question of fact or law (jus), or of mixed fact and law. deposing to the truth of what they had seen or heard.” The At the outset the object of the inquiry was usually to obtain conclusions of Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, expressed in information for the king, e.g. to ascertain facts needed for their History of English Law, and based on a closer study, are to assessing taxation. Indeed Domesday Book appears to be made the same effect. up by recording the answers of inquests. This inquest then was a royal institution and not a survival The origin of juries is very fully discussed in W. Forsyth's from Anglo-Saxon law or popular custom, under which com- History of Trial by Jury(1852), and the various'theories advanced purgation and the ordeal were the accepted modes of trying are more concisely stated in W. Stubbs's Constitutional History issues of fact. (vol. i.) and in E. A. Freeman's Norman Conquest (vol. v.). The inquest by recognition, formerly an inquest of office, i.e. to Until the modern examination of historical documents proved ascertain facts in the interests of the crown or the exchequer, the contrary, the jury system, like all other institutions, was was gradually allowed between subjects as a mode of settling popularly regarded as the work of a single legislator, and in disputes of fact. This extension began with the assize of novel England it has been usually assigned to Alfred the Great. This disseisin, whereby the king protected by royal writ and inquest supposition is without historical foundation, nor is it correct to of neighbours every seisin of a freehold. This was followed by regard the jury as “copied from this or that kindred institution the grand assize, applicable to questions affecting freehold or to be found in this or that German of Scandinavian land," or status. A defendant in such an action was enabled by an brought over ready made by Hengist or by William. “Many enactment of Henry II. to decline trial by combat and choose writers of authority,” says Stubbs, “ have maintained that the trial by assize, which was conducted as follows. The sheriff entire jury system is indigenous in England, some deriving it summoned four knights of the neighbourhood, who being sworn from Celtic tradition based on the principles of Roman law, and chose the twelve lawful knights most cognisant of the facts, to adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and Normans from the people determine on their oaths which had the better right to the land. they had conquered. Others have regarded it as a product of If they all knew the facts and were agreed as to their verdict, that legal genius of the Anglo-Saxons of which Alfred is the well and good; if some or all were ignorant, the fact was certified mythical impersonation, or as derived by that nation from the in court, and new knights were named, until twelve were found customs of primitive Germany or from their intercourse with to be agreed. The same course was followed when the twelve the Danes. Nor even when it is admitted that the system were not unanimous. New knights were added until the twelve of recognition' was introduced from Normandy have legal were agreed. This was called afforcing the assize. At this writers agreed as to the source from which the Normans them- time the knowledge on which the jurors acted was their own selves derived it. One scholar maintains that it was brought personal knowledge, acquired independently of the trial.- “So. by the Norsemen from Scandinavia; another that it was derived entirely,” says Forsyth,“ did they proceed upon their own from the processes of the canon law; another that it was developed previously formed view of the facts in dispute that they seem on Gallic soil from Roman principles; another that it came to have considered themselves at liberty to pay no attention to from Asia through the crusades, or was borrowed by the evidence offered in court, however clearly it might disprove the Angles and Saxons from their Slavonic neighbours in northern case which they were prepared to support.” The use of recogni- Europe. The true answer is that forms of trial resembling the tion is prescribed by the constitutions of Clarendon (1166) for jury system in various particulars are to be found in the primitive cases of dispute as to lay or clerical tenure. See Forsyth, p. 131; institutions of all nations. That which comes nearest in time Stubbs, i. 617. and character to trial by jury is the system of recognition by This procedure by the assize was confined to real actions, and sworn inquest, introduced into England by the Normans. while it preceded, it is not identical with the modern jury trial “That inquest,” says Stubbs, “is directly derived from the in civil cases, which was gradually introduced by consent of the Frank capitularies, into which it may have been adopted from parties and on pressure from the judges. Jury trial proper the fiscal regulations of the Theodosian code, and thus own some differs from the grand and petty assizes in that the assizes were distant relationship with the Roman jurisprudence.” However summoned at the same time as the defendant to answer a that may be, the system of “recognition” consisted in questions question formulated in the writ; whereas in the ordinary jury of fact, relating to fiscal or judicial business, being submitted trial no order for a jury could be made till the parties by their by the officers of the crown to sworn witnesses in the local pleadings had come to an issue of fact and had put themselves courts. Freeman points out that the Norman rulers of England on the country, posuerunt se super patriam (Pollock and Mait- were obliged, more than native rulers would have been, to rely land, i. 119-128; ii. 601, 615, 621). on this system for accurate information. They needed to have The Grand Jury.-In Anglo-Saxon times there was an institu- a clear and truthful account of disputed points set before them, tion analogous to the grand jury in criminal cases, viz. the twelve and such an account was sought for in the oaths of the recog- senior thegns, who, according to an ordinance of Æthelred II., nitors. The Norman conquest, therefore, fostered the growth were sworn in the county court that they would accuse no of those native germs common to England with other countries innocent man and acquit no guilty one. The twelve thegns out of which the institution of juries grew. Recognition, as were a jury of presentment or accusation, like the grand jury of introduced by the Normans, is only, in this point of view, later times, and the absolute guilt or innocence of those accused another form of the same principle which shows itself in the by them had to be determined by subsequent proceedings-by compurgators, in the frith-borh (frank-pledge), in every detail of compurgation or ordeal. Whether this is the actual origin of the action of the popular courts before the conquest. Admitting the grand jury or not, the assizes of Clarendon (1166) and Northampton (1176) establish the criminal jury on a definite 1 Freeman, Norman Conquest, v, 451. basis. ? This fact would account for the remarkable development of the system on English ground, as contrasted with its decay and extinction In the laws of Edward the Confessor and the earlier Anglo- in France. Şaxon kings are found many traces of a public duty 10 bring ? JURY 589 offenders to justice, by hue and cry, or by action of the frith strong political or social sympathies. The qualification of the borh, township, tithing or hundred. By the assize of Clarendon grand jurymen is that they should be freeholders of the county- it is directed that inquiry be made in each county and in each to what amount appears to be uncertain-and they are sum- hundred by twelve lawful (legaliores) men of the hundred, and moned by the sheriff, or failing him by the coroner. by four lawful men from each of the four vills nearest to the The coroner's jury must by statute (1887) consist of not more scene of the alleged crime, on oath to tell the truth if in the than twenty-three nor less than twelve jurors. It is summoned hundred or vill there is any man accused (rettatus aut publicatus) by the coroner to hold an inquest super visum corporis in cases as a robber or murderer or thief, or receiver of such. The assize of sudden or violent death, and of death in prisons or lunatic of Northampton added forgery of coin or charters (falsonaria) asylums, and to deal with treasure trove. The qualification of and arson. The inquiry is to be held by the justices in eyre, the coroner's jurors does not depend on the Juries Acts 1825 and and by the sheriffs in their county courts. · On a finding on the 1870, and in practice they are drawn from householders in the oath aforesaid, the accused was to be taken and to go to the immediate vicinity of the place where the inquest is held. ordeal. By the articles of visitation of 1194, four knights are Unanimity is not required of a coroner's jury; but twelve must to be chosen from the county who by their oath shall choose concur in the verdict. If it charges anyone with murder or two lawful knights of each hundred or wapentake, or, if knights manslaughter, it is duly recorded and transmitted to a court of be wanting, free and legal men, so that the twelve may answer assize, and has the same effect as an indictment by a grand for all matters within the hundred, including, says Stubbs, “all jury, i.e. it is accusatory only and is not conclusive, and is the pleas of the crown, the trial of malefactors and their receivers, traversable, and the issue of guilt or innocence is tried by a as well as a vast amount of civil business." The process thus petty jury. described is now regarded as an employment of the Frankish The Petty Jury. The ordeal by water or fire was used as the inquest for the collection of fama publica. It was alternative to final test of guilt or innocence until its abolition by decree of the the rights of a private accuser by appeal, and the inquest were Lateran council (1219). On its abolition it became necessary not exactly either accusers or witnesses, but gave voice to public to devise a new mode of determining guilt as distinguished from repute as to the criminality of the persons whom they presented. ill fame as charged by the grand jury. So early as 1221 accused From this form of inquest has developed the grand jury of pre- persons had begun to put themselves on the country, or to pay sentment or accusation, and the coroner's inquest, which works to have a verdict for “good or ill ”; and the trial seems to have partly as a grand jury as to homicide cases, and partly as an been by calling for the opinions of the twelve men and the four inquest of office as to treasure trove, &c. townships, who may have been regarded as a second body of The number of the grand jury is fixed by usage at not less than witnesses who could traverse the opinion of the hundred jury. twelve nor more than twenty-three jurors. Unanimity is not (See Pollock and Maitland, ii. 646.) The reference to judicium required, but twelve must concur in the presentment or indict- parium in Magna Carta is usually taken to refer to the jury, but ment. This jury, retains so much of its ancient character that it is clear that what is now known as the petty jury was not it may present of its own knowledge or information, and is not then developed in its present form. “ The history of that tied down by rules of evidence. After a general charge by the institution is still in manuscript,” says Maitland. judge as to the bills of indictment on the file of the court, the It is not at all clear that at the outset the trial by the country grand jury considers the bills in private and hears upon oath in (in pais; in patria) was before another and different jury. The the grand jury chamber some or all the witnesses called in support earliest instances look as if the twelve men and the four vills of an indictment whose names are endorsed upon the bill. It were the patria and had to agree. But by the time of Edward I. does not as a rule hear counsel or solicitors for the prosecution, the accused seems to have been allowed to call in a second jury. nor does it see or hear the accused or his witnesses, and it is not a person accused by the inquest of the hundred was allowed to concerned with the nature of the defence, its functions being to have the truth of the charge tried by another and different ascertain whether there is a prima facie case against the accused jury? There is," says Forsyth, “no possibility of assigning justifying his trial. If it thinks that there is such a case, the a date to this alteration." “ In the time of Bracton (middle of indictment is returned into court as a true bill; if it thinks that the 13th century) the usual mode of determining innocence or there is not, the bill is ignored and returned into court torn up or guilt was by combat or appeal. But in most cases the appellant marked “no bill,” or “ignoramus." Inasmuch as no man can had the option of either fighting with his adversary or putting be put on trial for treason or felony, and few are tried for mis- himself on his country for trial”-the exceptions being murder demeanour, without the intervention of the grand jury, the latter by secret poisoning, and certain circumstances presumed by the has a kind of veto with respect to criminal prosecutions. The law to be conclusive of guilt.3. But the separation must have grand jurors are described in the indictment as “the jurors for been complete by 1352, in which year it was enacted “that no our lord the king.” As such prosecutions in respect of indictable indictor shall be put in inquests upon deliverance of the indictees offences are now in almost all cases begun by a full preliminary of felonies or trespass if he be challenged for that same cause inquiry before justices, and inasmuch as cases rarely come before by the indictee." a grand jury until after committal of the accused for trial, the The jurors, whatever their origin, differed from the Saxon present utility of the grand jury depends very much on the doomsmen and the jurats of the Channel Islands in that they character of the justices' courts. As a review of the discretion adjudged nothing; and from compurgators or oath-helpers in of stipendiary magistrates in committing cases for trial, the jatervention of the grand jury is in most cases superfluous; and ? The distinction between the functions of the grand jury, which presents or accuses criminals, and the petty jury, which tries them, even when the committing justices are not lawyers, it is now a has suggested the theory that the system of compurgation is the common opinion that their views as to the existence of a case origin of the jury system--the first jury representing the compur- to be submitted to a jury for trial should not be over-ridden by gators of the accuser, the second the compurgators of the accused. a lay tribunal sitting in private, and in this opinion many grand for some unfounded theories of the origin of the system. This use Forsyth, 206. The number of the jury, (twelve) is responsible jurors concur. But the abolition of the grand jury would involve of twelve is not confined to England, nor in England or elsewhere to great changes in criminal procedure for which parliament seems judicial institutions." Its general prevalence," says Hallam (Middle to have no appetite. Forsyth thinks that the grand jury will Ages, ch. viii.), "shows that in searching for the origin of trial by often bafile the attempts of malevolence" by ignoring a jury we nnot rely for a moment upon any analogy which the mere number affords." In a Guide to English Juries (1682), by a person malicious and unfounded prosecution; but it may also defeat of quality (attributed to Lord Somers), the following passage the ends of justice by shielding a criminal with whom it has occurs: " In analogy of late the jury is reduced to the number of twelve, like as the prophets were twelve to foretell the truth; the 1 Blackstone puts the principle as being that no man shall be apostles twelve to preach the truth; the discoverers twelve, sent convicted except by the unanimous voice of twenty-four of his into Canaan to seek and report the truth; and the stones twelve equals or neighbours-twelve on the grand, and twelve on the petty that the heavenly. Hierusalem is built on.' Lord Coke indulged jury. in similar speculations. 66 (6 1) 590 JURY that they were not witnesses called by a litigant to support his be agreed. The afforcing of the jury, already described, marks case (Pollock and Maitland, i. 118). Once established, the jury an intermediate stage in the development. Where the juries of trial whether of actions or indictments developed on the same were not unanimous new jurors were added until twelve were lines. But at the outset this jury differed in one material found to be of the same opinion. From the unanimous twelve respect from the modern trial jury. The ancient trial jury selected out of a large number to the unanimous twelve consti- certify to the truth from their knowledge of the facts, however tuting the whole jury was a natural step, which, however, was acquired. In other words, they resemble witnesses or collectors not taken without hesitation. In some old cases the verdict of local evidence or gossip rather than jurors. The complete of eleven jurors out of twelve was accepted, but it was decided withdrawal of the witness character from the jury is connected in the reign of Edward III. that the verdict must be the unani- by Forsyth with the ancient rules of law as to proof of written mous opinion of the whole jury. Diversity of opinion was taken instruments, and a peculiar mode of trial per sectam. When a to imply perversity of judgment, and the law sanctioned the deed is attested by witnesses, you have a difference between the application of the harshest methods to produce unanimity. testimony of the witness, who deposes to the execution of the The jurors while considering their verdict were not allowed a deed, and the verdict of the jury as to the fact of execution. It fire nor any refreshment, and it is said in some of the old books has been contended with much plausibility that in such cases that, they failed to agree, they could be put in a cart and the attesting witnesses formed part of the jury. Forsyth doubts drawn after the justices to the border of the county, and then that conclusion, although he admits that, as the jurors themselves upset into a ditch. These rude modes of enforcing unanimity were originally mere witnesses, there was no distinction in has been softened in later practice, but in criminal cases the principle between them and the attesting witnesses, and that rule of unanimity is still absolutely fixed. the attesting witnesses might be associated with the jury in the In civil cases and in trials for misdemeanour, the jurors are discharge of the function of giving a verdict. However that allowed to separate during adjournments and to return to their may be, in the reign of Edward III., although the witnesses are homes; in trials for treason, treason-felony and murder, the spoken of as joined to the assize,” they are distinguished from jurors, once sworn, must not separate until discharged. But the jurors. The trial per sectam was used as an alternative to by an act of 1897 jurors on trials for other felonies may be the assize or jury, and resembled in principle the system of allowed by the court to separate in the same way as on trials compurgation. The claimant proved his case by vouching a for misdemeanour. certain number of witnesses (secta), who had seen the transaction These rules do not apply to a jury which has retired to in question, and the defendant rebutted the presumption thus consider its verdict. During the period of retirement it is under created by vouching a larger number of witnesses on his own the keeping of an officer of the court. side. In cases in which this was allowed, the jury did not At common law aliens were entitled to be tried by a jury interpose at all, but in course of time the practice arose of the de medietate linguae-half Englishmen, half foreigners, not neces- witnesses of the secta telling their story to the jury. In these sarily compatriots of the accused. This privilege was abolished two instances we have the jury as judges of the facts sharply by the Naturalization Act 1870; but by the Juries Act 1870 contrasted with the witnesses who testify to the facts; and, with aliens who have been domiciled in England or Wales for ten the increasing use of juries and the development of rules of years or upwards, if in other respects duly qualified, are liable evidence, this was gradually established as the true principle to jury service as if they were natural-born subjects (s. 8). of the system. In the reign of Henry IV. we find the judges A jury of matrons is occasionally summoned, viz. on a writ declaring that the jury after they have been sworn should not see de ventre nspiciendo, or where a female condemned to death or take with them any other evidence than that which has been pleads pregnancy in stay of execution. offered in open court. But the personal knowledge of the The jurors are selected from the inhabitants of the county, jurors was not as yet regarded as outside the evidence on which borough or other area for which the court to which they are they might found a verdict, and the stress laid upon the selection summoned is commissioned to act. In criminal cases, owing to of jurymen from the neighbourhood of the cause of the action the rules as to venue and that crime is to be tried in the neigh- shows that this element was counted on, and, in fact, deemed bourhood where it is committed, the mode of selection involves essential to a just consideration of the case. Other examples a certain amount of independent local knowledge on the part of the same theory of the duties of the jury may be found in the of the jurors. Where local prejudice has been aroused for or language used by legal writers. Thus it has been said that the against the accused, which is likely to affect the chance of a fair jury may return a verdict although no evidence at all be offered, trial, the proceedings may be removed to another jurisdiction, and again, that the evidence given in court is not binding on and there are a good many offences in which by legislation the the jury, because they are assumed from their local connexion accused may be tried where he is caught, irrespective of the to be sufficiently informed of the facts to give a verdict without place where he is alleged to have broken the law. As regards or in opposition to the oral evidence. A recorder of London, civil cases, a distinction was at an early date drawn between lemp. Edward VI., says that, “if the witnesses at a trial do not local actions which must be tried in the district in which they agree with the jurors, the verdict of the twelve shall be taken originated, and transitory actions which could be tried in any and the witnesses shall be rejected.” Forsyth suggests as a county. These distinctions are now of no importance, as the reason for the continuance of this theory that it allowed the jury place of trial of a civil action is decided as a matter of procedure an escape from the attaint, by which penalties might be imposed and convenience, and regard is not necessarily paid to the place on them for delivering a false verdict in a civil case. They at which a wrong was done or a contract broken. could suggest that the verdict was according to the fact, though The qualifications for, and exemptions from, service as a petty not according to the evidence. juror are in the main contained in the Juries Acts 1825 and 1870, In England the trial jury (also called petty jury or traverse though a number of further exemptions are added by scattered jury) consists of twelve jurors, except in the county court, where enactments. The exemptions include members of the legislature the number is eight. In civil but not in criminal cases the trial and judges, ministers of various denominations, and practising may by consent be by fewer than twelve jurors, and the verdict barristers and solicitors, registered medical practitioners and may by consent be that of the majority. The rule requiring dentists, and officers and soldiers of the regular army. Persons a unanimous verdict has been variously explained. Forsyth over sixty are exempt but not disqualified. Lists of the jurors regards the rule as intimately connected with the original are prepared by the overseers in rural parishes and by the town character of the jury as a body of witnesses, and with the clerks in boroughs, and are submitted to justices for revision. conception common in primitive society that safety is to be When jurors are required for a civil or criminal trial they are found in the number of witnesses, rather than the character of summoned by the sheriff or, if he cannot act, by the coroner. their testimony. The old notion seems to have been that to Special and Common Juries.- For the purpose of civil trials in justify an accusation, or to find a fact, twelve sworn men must the superior courts there are two lists of jurors, special and JURY 591 " common. The practice of selecting special jurors to try impor- far as it proceeds from what is called a "view" of the subject tant civil cases appears to have sprung up, without legislative matter of the litigation. Indeed it is now well established that enactment, in the procedure of the courts. Forsyth says that if a juror is acquainted with facts material to the case, he the first statutory recognition of it is so late as 3 Geo. II. c. 25, should inform the court so that he may be dismissed from the and that in the oldest book of practice in existence (Powell's jury and called as a witness; and Lord Ellenborough ruled that Allourney's Academy, 1623) there is no allusion to two classes of a judge would misdirect the jury if he told them that they might jurymen. The acts, however, which regulate the practice allude reject the evidence and go by their own knowledge. The old to it as well established. The Juries Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. decantatum assigns to judge and jury their own independent c. 77) defines the class of persons entitled and liable to serve on functions: Ad quaestionem legis respondent judices: ad quaes- special juries thus: Every man whose name shall be on the tionem facti juratores (Plowden, 114). But the independence jurors' book for any county, &c., and who shall be legally of the jurors as to matters of fact was from an early time entitled to be called an esquire, or shall be a person of higher not absolute. In certain civil cases a litigant dissatisfied by degree, or a banker or merchant, or who shall occupy a house of the verdict could adopt the procedure by attaint, and if the a certain rateable value (e.g. £100 in a town of 20,000 inhabitants, attaint jury of twenty-four found that the first jury had given a £50 elsewhere), or a farm of £300 or other premises at £100. false verdict, they were fined and suffered the villainous judg- A special juryman receives a fee of a guinea for each cause. ment. Attaints fell into disuse on the introduction about 1665 Either party may obtain an order for a special jury, but must of the practice of granting new trials when the jury found against pay the additional expenses created thereby unless the judge the weight of the evidence, or upon a wrong direction as to the certifies that it was a proper case to be so tried. For the law of the case. common jury any man is qualified and liable to serve who has In criminal cases the courts attempted to control the verdicts £10 by the year in land or tenements of freehold, copyhold or by fining the jurors for returning a verdict contra plenam et customary tenure; or £20 on lands or tenement held by lease manifestam evidentiam. But this practice was declared illegal for twenty-one years or longer, or who being a householder is in Bushell's case (1670); and so far as criminal cases are concerned rated at £30 in the counties of London and Middlesex, or £20 the independence of the jury as sole judges of fact is almost in any other county. A special jury cannot be ordered in cases absolute. If they acquit, their action cannot be reviewed nor of treason or felony, and may be ordered in cases of misdemeanour punished, except on proof of wilful and corrupt consent to only when the trial is in the king's bench division of the High“ embracery” (Juries Act 1825, s. 61). If they convict no new Court, or the civil side at assizes. trial can be ordered except in the rare instances of misdemeanours Challenge. It has always been permissible for the parties to tried as civil cases in the High Court. In trials for various forms challenge the jurors summoned to consider indictments or to of libel during the 18th century, the judges restricted the powers try cases. Both in civil and criminal cases a challenge "for of juries by ruling that their function was limited to finding cause” is allowed, in criminal cases a peremptory challenge is whether the libel had in fact been published, and that it was for also allowed. Challenge "for cause may be either to the the court to decide whether the words published constituted an array, i.e. to the whole number of jurors returned, or to the polls, offence.' By Fox's Libel Act 1792 the jurors in such cases i. e. to the jurors individually. A challenge to the array is either were expressly empowered to bring in a general verdict of libel a principal challenge (on the ground that the sheriff is a party or no libel, i.e. to deal with the whole question of the meaning to the cause, or related to one of the parties), or a challenge for and extent of the incriminated publication. In other words, favour (on the ground of circumstances implying " at least a they were given the same independence in cases of libel as in probability of bias or favour in the sheriff”). A challenge to other criminal cases. This independence has in times of public the polls is an exception to one or more jurymen on either of excitement operated as a kind of local option against the existing the following grounds: (1) propter honoris respectum, as when law and as an aid to procuring its amendment. Juries in a lord of parliament is summoned; (2) propter defectum, for want Ireland in agrarian cases often acquit in the teeth of the evidence. of qualification; (3) propter affectum, on suspicion of bias or In England the independence of the jury in criminal trials is partiality; and (4) propter delictum, when the juror has been to some extent menaced by the provisions of the Criminal convicted of an infamous offence. The challenge propter Appeal Act 1907. affectum is, like the challenge to the array, either principal While the jury is in legal theory absolute as to matters of fact, challenge or “ to the favour." In England as a general rule the it is in practice largely controlled by the judges. Not only does juror may be interrogated to show want of qualification; but in the judge at the trial decide as to the relevancy of the evidence other cases the person making the challenge must prove it tendered to the issues to be proved, and as to the admissibility without questioning the juror, and the courts do not allow the of questions put to a witness, but he also advises the jury as to protracted examination on the voir dire which precedes every the logical bearing of the evidence admitted upon the matters cause célèbre in the United States. On indictments for treason to be found by the jury. The rules as to admissibility of evidence, the accused has a right peremptorily to challenge thirty-five of largely based upon scholastic logic, sometimes difficult to apply, the jurors on the panel; in cases of felony the number is limited and almost unknown in continental jurisprudence, coupled with to twenty, and in cases of misdemeanour there is no right the right of an English judge to sum up the evidence (denied to of peremptory challenge. The Crown has not now the right of French judges) and to express his own opinion as to its value peremptory challenge and may challenge only for cause certain (denied to American judges), fetter to some extent the indepen- (Juries Act 1825, s. 29). In the case of felony, on the first call dence or limit the chances of error of the jury. of the list jurors objected to by the Crown are asked to stand by, The whole theory of the jurisdiction of the courts to interfere and the cause of challenge need not be assigned by the Crown with the verdict of the constitutional tribunal is that the court until the whole list has been perused or gone through, or unless is satisfied that the jury have not. acted reasonably upon the there remain no longer twelve jurors left to try the case, exclusive evidence but have been misled by prejudice or passion” (Watt v. of those challenged. This arrangement practically amounts to Watt (1905), App. Cas. 118, per Lord Halsbury). In civil cases giving the Crown the benefit of a peremptory challenge. the verdict may be challenged on the ground that it is against the Function of Jury.- The jurors were originally the mouthpiece evidence or against the weight of the evidence, or unsupported by of local opinion on the questions submitted to them, or witnesses any evidence. It is said to be against the evidence when the to fact as to such questions. They have now become the jury have completely misapprehended the facts proved and have judges of fact upon the evidence laid before them. Their drawn an inference so wrong as to be in substance perverse. The province is strictly limited to questions of fact, and within that dissatisfaction of the trial judge with the verdict is a potent but province they are still further restricted to matters proved by not conclusive element in determining as to the perversity of a evidence in the course of the trial and in theory must not act verdict, because of his special opportunity of appreciating the upon their own personal knowledge and observation except so See R. v, Dean of St. Asaph (1789), 3 T.R. 418. 592 JURY evidence and the demeanour of the witnesses. But his opinion to serious punishment as a result of conviction before a judge is less regarded now that new trials are granted by the court of sitting without a jury, and the judges themselves would be the appeal than under the old system when the new trial was sought first to deprecate so great a responsibility, and the Criminal in the court of which he was a member. Appeal Act 1907, which constituted the court of criminal appeal, The appellate court will not upset a verdict when there is recognized the responsibility by requiring a quorum of three substantial and conflicting evidence before the jury. In such judges in order to constitute a court. The same act, by permit- cases it is for the jury to say which side is to be believed, and the ting an appeal to persons convicted on indictment both on court will not interfere with the verdict. To upset a verdict questions of fact and of law, removed to a great extent any on the ground that there is no evidence to go to the jury implies possibility of error by a jury. But in civil causes, where the that the judge at the trial ought to have withdrawn the case issue must be determined one way or the other on the balance from the jury. Under modern procedure, in order to avoid the of probabilities, a single judge would probably be a better risk of a new trial, it is not uncommon to take the verdict of a tribunal than the present combination of judge and jury. Even jury on the hypothesis that there was evidence for their considera- if it be assumed that he would on the whole come to the same tion, and to leave the unsuccessful party to apply for judgment conclusion as a jury deliberating under his directions, he would notwithstanding the verdict. The question whether there was come to it more quickly. Time would be saved in taking any evidence proper to be submitted to the jury arises oftenest evidence, summing up would be unnecessary, and the addresses in cases involving an imputation of negligenceme.g. in an action of counsel would inevitably be shortened and concentrated on of damages against a railway company for injuries sustained in a the real points at issue. Modern legislation and practice in collision. Juries are somewhat ready to infer negligence, and England have very much reduced the use of the jury both in the court has to say whether, on the facts proved, there was any civil and criminal cases. evidence of negligence by the defendant. This is by no means In the county courts trial by jury is the exception and not the the same thing as saying whether, in the opinion of the court, rule. In the court of chancery and the admiralty court it was there was negligence. The court may be of opinion that on the never used. Under the Judicature Acts many cases which in facts there was none, yet the facts themselves may be of such a the courts of common law would have been tried with a jury are nature as to be evidence of negligence to go before a jury. When now tried before a judge alone, or (rarely) with assessors, or the facts proved are such that a reasonable man might have come before an official referee. Indeed cynics say that a jury is in- to the conclusion that there was negligence, then, although the sisted on chiefly in cases when a jury, from prejudice or other court would not have come to the same conclusion, it must admit causes, is likely to be more favourable than a judge alone. that there is evidence to go before the jury. This statement In criminal cases, by reason of the enormous number of indicates existing practice but scarcely determines what relation offences punishable on summary conviction and of the provi- between the facts proved and the conclusion to be established is sions made for trying certain indictable offences summarily if necessary to make the facts evidence from which a jury may infer the offender is young or elects for summary trial, juries are less the conclusion. The true explanation is to be found in the prin- called on in proportion to the number of offences committed ciple of relevancy. Any fact which is relevant to the issue con- than was the practice in former years. stitutes evidence to go before the jury, and any fact, roughly Scotland.--According to the Regiam Majestatem, which is speaking, is relevant between which and the fact to be proved identical with the treatise of Glanvill on the law of England (but there may be a connexion as cause and effect (see EVIDENCE). whether the original or only a copy of that work is disputed), trial As regards damages the court has always had wide powers, as by jury existed in Scotland for civil and criminal cases from as early damages are often a question of law. But when the amount of the system became established at a very early date. Its history a date as in England, and there is reason to believe that at all events the damages awarded by a jury is challenged as excessive or was very different from that of the English jury system. There was inadequate, the appellate court, if it considers the amount un- no grand jury under Scots law, but it was introduced in 1708 for the reasonably large or unreasonably small, must order a new trial purpose of high treason (7 Anne c. 21). For the trial of criminal This unless both parties consent to a reduction or increase of the jury has always consisted of fifteen persons and the jurors are chosen cases the petty jury is represented by the criminal." assize." damages to a figure fixed by the court; see Watt v. Watt (1905), by ballot by the clerk of the court from the list containing the names App. Cas. 115. of the special and common jurors, five from the special, ten from the Prosecutor and accused each have five peremptory Value of Jury System.--The value of the jury in past history challenges, of which two only may be directed against the special as a bulwark against aggression by the Crown or executive cannot jurors; but there is no limit to challenges for cause. The jury is be over-rated, but the working of the institution has not escaped not secluded during the trial except in capital cases or on special criticism. Its use protracts civil trials. The jurors are usually order of the court made proprio motu or on the application of unwilling and are insufficiently remunerated; and jury trials in prosecutor or accused. The verdict need not be unanimous, nor is enclosure a necessary preliminary to a majority verdict. It is civil cases often drag out much longer and at greater expense returned viva voce by the chancellor or foreman, and entered on the than trials by a judge alone, and the proceedings are occasionally record by the clerk of the court, and the entry, read to the jury. rendered ineffective by the failure of the jurors to agree. Besides the verdicts of " guilty and " not guilty," a Scots jury There is much force in the arguments of Bentham and others may return a verdict of “not proven," which has legally the same against the need of unanimity—the application of pressure to effect as not guilty in releasing the accused from further proceedings on the particular charge, but inflicts on him the stigma of moral force conviction on the minds of jurors, the indifference to veracity guilt. which the concurrence of unconvinced minds must produce in Jury trial in civil cases was at one time in general if not prevailing the public mind, the probability that jurors will disagree and use, but was gradually superseded for most purposes on the institu- trials be rendered abortive, and the absence of any reasonable tion of the Court of Session (i Mackay, Ct. Sess. Pr. 33). In this, as in many other matters, Scots law and procedure tend to follow security in the unanimous verdict that would not exist in the continental rather than insular models. The civil jury was reintro- verdict of a majority. All this is undeniably true, but disagree: duced in 1815 (55 Geo. III.C: 42), mainly on account of the difficulties ments are happily not frequent, and whatever may happen in the experienced by the House of Lords in dealing with questions of fact jury room no compulsion is now used by the court to induce tuted in the nature of a judicial commission to ascertain by means of raised on Scottish appeals.. At the outset a special court was insti. agreement. a jury facts deemed relevant to the issues in a cause and sent for But, apart from any incidental defects, it may be doubted such determination at the discretion of the court in which the cause whether, as an instrument for the investigation of truth, the was pending. The process was analogous to the sending of an issue jury system deserves all the encomiums which have been passed court of assize. In 1830 the jury court ceased to exist as a separate out of chancery for trial in a superior court of common law, or in a In criminal cases, especially of the graver kind, it is tribunal and was merged in the Court of Session. By legislation of perhaps the best tribunal that could be devised. There the 1819 and 1825 certain classes of cases were indicated as appropriate element of moral doubt enters largely into the consideration of common. 64 to be tried by a jury; but in 1850 the cases so to be tried were the case, and that can best be measured by a popular tribunal. limited to actions for defamation and nuisance, or properly and in Opinion in England has hitherto been against subjecting a man substance actions for damages, and under an act of 1866 even in these cases the jury may be dispensed with by consent of parties. upon it, JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS–JUSSIEU 593 (0 The civil jury consists as in England of twelve jurors chosen by clerical admonition was extended to the first three days of ballot from the names on the list of those summoned. There is a right of peremptory challenge limited to four, and also a right fact that the feudal lord extorted fines on the marriages of his marriage. This religious abstention, added to the undoubted to challenge for cause. Unanimity was at first but is not now required. The jury if unanimous may return a verdict immediately vassals and their children, doubtless gave rise to the belief that on the close of the case. If they are not unanimous they are the jus was once an established custom. enclosed and may at any time not less than three hours after being enclosed return a verdict by a bare majority. If after six hours The whole subject has been exhaustively treated by Louis Veuillot they do not agree by the requisite majority, i.e. are equally divided, in Le Droit du seigneur au moyen âge (1854). they must be discharged. It was stated by Commissioner Adam, under whom the Scots civil jury was originated, that in twenty years JUS RELICTAE, in Scots law, the widow's right in the movable in civil cases in Scotland has not flourished or given general satisfac- been domiciled in Scotland, but the right accrues from movable he knew of only one case in which the jury disagreed. Jury trial property of her deceased husband. The deceased must have tion, and is resorted to only in a small proportion of cases. This is partly due to its being transplanted from England. property, wherever situated, The widow's provision amounts Ireland. - The jury laws of Ireland do not differ in substance from to one-third where there are children surviving, and to one-half those of England. The qualifications of jurors are regulated by where there are no surviving children. The widow's right vests O'Hagan's Acts 1871 and 1872, and the Juries Acts 1878 and 1894. In criminal cases much freer use is made than in England of the by survivance, and is independent of the husband's testamentary rights of the accused to challenge, and of the Crown to order jurors provisions; it may however be renounced by contract, or be dis- to stand by, and what is called jury-packing" seems to be the charged by satisfaction. It is subject to alienation of the object of both sides when some political or agrarian issue is involved husband's movable estate during his lifetime or by its conversion in the trial. Until the passing of the Irish Local Government Act into heritage. See also WILL. 1898, the grand jury, besides its functions as a jury of accusation, had large duties with respect to local government which are now JUSSERAND, JEAN ADRIEN ANTOINE JULES (1855- ), transferred to the county councils and other elective bodies. French author and diplomatist, was born at Lyons on the 18th British Empire.-In most parts of the British Empire the jury of February 1855. Entering the diplomatic service in 1876, he system is in force as part of the original law of the colonists or under became in 1878 consul in London. After an interval spent in the colonial charters of justice or by local legislation. The grand jury is not in use in India; was introduced but later abolished in the Tunis he returned to London in 1887 as a member of the French Cape Colony; and in Australia has been for most purposes superseded Embassy. In 1890 he became French minister at Copenhagen, by the public prosecutor. The ordinary trial jury for criminal cases and in 1902 was transferred to Washington. A close student is twelve, but in India may be nine, seven, five or three, according of English literature, he produced some very lucid and vivacious to certain provisions of the Criminal Procedure. Code 1898. In countries where the British Crown has foreign jurisdiction the jury monographs on comparatively little-known subjects: Le Théâtre for criminal trials has in some cases been fixed at a less number than en Angleterre depuis la conquête jusqu'aux prédécesseurs immédiats twelve and the right of the Crown to fix the number is established; de Shakespeare (1878); Le Roman au temps de Shakespeare (1887; see ex p. Carew, 1897, A.C. 719. In civil cases the number of the jury Eng. trans. by Miss E. Lee, 1890); Les Anglais au moyen âge: la is reduced in some colonies, e.g. to sevenin Tasmania and Trinidad. European Countries.-In France there is no civil jury. In vie nomade et les routes d'Angleterre au XIVe siècle (1884; Eng. criminal cases the place of the grand jury is taken by the chambre trans., English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages, by L. T. Smith, des mises en accusation, and the more serious crimes are tried before 1889); and L'épopée de Langland (1893; Eng. trans., Piers Plow- a jury of twelve which finds its verdict by a majority, the exact number of which may not be disclosed. in Belgium, Spain, Italy man, by M. C. R., 1894), His Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais, and Germany, certain classes of crime are tried with the aid of a jury: the first volume of which was published in 1895, was completed United States.-The English jury system was part of the law of in three volumes in 1909. In English he wrote A French the American colonies before the declaration of independence; and Ambassador at the Court of Charles II. (1892), from the un- grand jury, coroner's jury and petty jury continue in full use in the published papers of the count de Cominges. United States. Under the Federal Constitution (Article iii.) there is a right to trial by jury in all criminal cases (except on JUSSIEU, DE, the name of a French family which came into impeachment) and in all civil actions at common law in which prominent notice towards the close of the 16th century, and for a the subject matter exceeds $20 in value (amendments vi. and vii.). century and a half was distinguished for the botanists it pro- The trial jury must be of twelve and its verdict must be unanimous; duced. The following are its more eminent members: see Cooley, Constitutional Limitations (6th ed.), 389. The respective provinces of judge and jury have been much discussed and there has 1. ANTOINE DE JUSSIEU (1686-1758), born at Lyons on the been a disposition to declare the jury supreme as to law as well as 6th of July 1686, was the son of Christophe de Jussieu (or fact. The whole subject is fully treated by reference to English Dejussieu), an apothecary of some repute, who published a and American authorities, and the conflicting views are stated Nouveau traité de la thériaque (1708). Antoine studied at the in Sparf v. United States, 1895, 156 U.S. 61. The view of the majority of the court in that case was that it is the duty of the jury university of Montpellier, and travelled with his brother Bernard in a criminal case to receive the law from the court and to apply it through Spain, Portugal and southern France. He went to as laid down by the court, subject to the condition that in giving a Paris in 1708, J. P. de Tournefort, whom he succeeded at the general verdict the jury may incidentally, determine both law and Jardin des Plantes, dying in that year. His own original publica- fact as compounded in the issues submitted to them in the particular tions are not of marked importance, but he edited an edition of The power to give a general verdict renders the duty one of imperfect obligation and enables the jury to take its own view of Tournefort's Institutiones rei herbariae (3 vols., 1719), and also a the terms and merits of the law involved. posthumous work of Jacques Barrelier, Plantae per Galliam, The extent to which the jury system is in force in the states of Hispaniam, et Italiam observatae, &c. (1714). He practised the union depends on the constitution and legislation of each state. In some the use of juries in civil and even in criminal cases is reduced medicine, chiefly devoting himself to the very poor. He died at or made subject to the election of the accused. In others unanimous Paris on the 22nd of April 1758. verdicts are not required, while the constitutions of others require 2. BERNARD DE JUSSIEU (1699-1777), a younger brother of the unanimous verdict of the common law dozen. (W. F. C.) the above, was born at Lyons on the 17th of August 1699. He JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS, or DROIT DU SEIGNEUR, a custom took a medical degree at Montpellier and began practice in 1720, alleged to have existed in medieval Europe, giving the overlord but finding the work uncongenial he gladly accepted his brother's a right to the virginity of his vassals' daughters on their wedding invitation to Paris in 1722, when he succeeded Sébastien Vaillant night. For the existence of the custom in a legalized form there as sub-demonstrator of plants in the Jardin du Roi. In 1725 he is no trustworthy evidence. That some such abuse of power may brought out a new edition of Tournefort's Histoire des plantes have been occasionally exercised by brutal nobles in the lawless qui naissent aux environs de Paris, 2 vols., which was afterwards days of the early middle ages is only too likely, but the jus, it translated into English by John Martyn, the original work being seems, is a myth, invented no earlier than the 16th or 17th incomplete. In the same year he was admitted into the acadé- century. There appears to have been an entirely religious mie des sciences, and communicated several papers to that body. custom established by the council of Carthage in 398, whereby Long before Abraham Trembley (1700-1784) published his the Church required from the faithful continence on the wedding. Histoire des polypes d'eau douce, Jussieu maintained the doctrine night, and this may have been, and there is evidence that it was, that these organisms were animals, and not the flowers of marine known as Droit du Seigneur, or “God's right.” Later the plants, then the current notion; and to confirm his views he made case. XVIO 594 JUSTICE-JUSTICE OF THE PEACE three journeys to the coast of Normandy. Singularly modest | all the judges in the supreme court of judicature-a judge in the and retiring, he published very little, but in 1759 he arranged the High Court of Justice being styled Mr Justice, and in the court plants in the royal garden of the Trianon at Versailles, according of appeal Lord Justice. The president of the king's bench to his own scheme of classification. This arrangement is printed division of the High Court is styled Lord Chief Justice (9.0.). in his nephew's Genera, pp. lxiii. lxx., and formed the basis of The word is also applied, and perhaps more usually, to certain that work. He cared little for the credit of enunciating new subordinate magistrates who administer justice in minor matters, discoveries, so long as the facts were made public. On the and who are usually called justices of the peace (q.v.). death of his brother Antoine, he could not be induced to succeed JUSTICE OF THE PEACE, an inferior magistrate appointed in him in his office, but prevailed upon L. G. Lemonnier to assume England by special commission under the great seal to keep the the higher position. He died at Paris on the 6th of November peace within the jurisdiction for which he is appointed. The 1777. title is commonly abbreviated to J.P. and is used after the name. 3. JOSEPH DE JUSSIEU (1704-1779), brother of Antoine and The whole Christian world,” said Coke, “ hath not the like Bernard, was born at Lyons on the 3rd of September 1704. office as justice of the peace if duly executed.” Lord Cowper, on Educated like the rest of the family for the medical profession, the other hand, described them as men sometimes illiterate he accompanied C. M. de la Condamine to Peru, in the expedition and frequently bigoted and prejudiced.” The truth is that the for measuring an arc of meridian, and remained in South America justices of the peace perform without any other reward than for thirty-six years, returning to France in 1771. Amongst the the consequence they acquire from their office a large amount seeds he sent to his brother Bernard were those of Heliotropium of work indispensable to the administration of the law, and peruvianum, Linn., then first introduced into Europe. He died (though usually not professional lawyers, and therefore apt to be at Paris on the nth of April 1779. ill-informed in some of their decisions) for the most part they 4. ANTOINE LAURENT DE JUSSIEU (1748-1836), nephew of the discharge their duties with becoming good sense and impartiality. three preceding, was born at Lyons on the 12th of April 1748. For centuries they have necessarily been chosen mainly from Called to Paris by his uncle Bernard, and carefully trained by him the landed class of country gentlemen, usually Conservative in for the pursuits of medicine and botany, he largely profited by the politics; and in recent years the attempt has been made by the opportunities afforded him. Gifted with a tenacious memory, Liberal party to reduce the balance by appointing others than and the power of quickly grasping the salient points of subjects those belonging to the landed gentry, such as tradesmen, under observation, he steadily worked at the improvement of Nonconformist ministers, and working-men. But it has been that system of plant arrangement which had been sketched out recognized that the appointment of justices according to their by his uncle. In 1789 was issued his Genera plantarum secundum political views is undesirable, and in 1909 a royal commission ordines naturales disposita, juxta methodum in horto regio Parisi- was appointed to consider and report whether any and what ensi exaratam, anno MDCCLXXIV. This volume formed the basis steps should be taken to facilitate the selection of the most of modern classification; more than this, it is certain that Cuvier suitable persons to be justices of the peace irrespective of creed derived much help in his zoological classification from its perusal. and political opinion. In great centres of population, when Hardly had the last sheet passed through the press, when the the judicial business of justices is heavy, it has been found French Revolution broke out, and the author was installed in necessary to appoint paid justices or stipendiary magistrates! *charge of the hospitals of Paris. The muséum d'histoire naturelle to do the work, and an extension of the system to the country was organized on its present footing mainly by him in 1793, and districts has been often advocated. he selected for its library everything relating to natural history The commission of the peace assigns to justices the luty of from the vast materials obtained from the convents then broken keeping and causing to be kept all ordinances and statutes for up. He continued as professor of botany there from 1770 to the good of the peace and for preservation of the same, and for 1826, when his son Adrien succeeded him. Besides the Genera, the quiet rule and government of the people, and further assigns he produced nearly sixty memoirs on botanical topics. He died to every two or more of you (of whom any one of the at Paris on the 17th of September 1836. aforesaid A, B, C, D, &c., we will, shall be one) to inquire the 5. Adrien LAURENT HENRI DE JUSSIEU (1797-1853), son truth more fully by the oath of good and lawful men of the county of Antoine Laurent, was born at Paris on the 23rd of Decem- of all and all manner of felonies, poisonings, enchantments, ber 1797. He displayed the qualities of his family in his thesis sorceries, arts, magic, trespasses, forestallings, regratings, en- for the degree of M.D., De Euphorbiacearum generibus medicisque grossings, and extortions whatever.” This part of the commission earundem viribus tentamen, Paris, 1824. He was also the author is the authority for the jurisdiction of the justices in sessions. of valuable contributions to botanical literature on the Rutaceae, Justices named specially in the parenthetical clause are said to Meliaceae and Malpighiaceae respectively, of “ Taxonomie " in be on the quorum. Justices for counties are appointed by the the Dictionnaire universelle d'histoire naturelle, and of an intro-Crown on the advice of the lord chancellor, and usually with the ductory work styled simply Botanique, which reached nine recommendation of the lord lieutenant of the county. Justices editions, and was translated into the principal languages of for boroughs having municipal corporations and separate com- Europe. He also edited his father's Introductio in historiam missions of the peace are appointed by the crown, the lord plantarum, issued at Paris, without imprint or date, it being a chancellor either adopting the recommendation of the town coun- fragment of the intended second edition of the Genera, which cil or acting independently. Justices cannot act as such until Antoine Laurent did not live to complete. He died at Paris on they have taken the oath of allegiance and the judicial oath. A the 29th of June 1853, leaving two daughters, but no son, so justice for a borough while acting as such must reside in or within that with him closed the brilliant botanical dynasty. seven miles of the borough or occupy a house, warehouse or 6. LAURENT PIERRE DE JUSSIEU (1792–1866), miscellaneous other property in the borough, but he need not be a burgess. writer, nephew of Antoine Laurent, was born at Villeurbanne The mayor of a borough is ex officio a justice during his year of on the 7th of February 1792. His Simon de Nantua, ou le mar- office and the succeeding year. He takes precedence over all chand forain (1818), reached fifteen editions, and was translated borough justices, but not over justices acting in and for the into seven languages. He also wrote Simples notions de physique county in which the borough or any part thereof is situated, et d'histoire naturelle (1857), and a few geological papers. He died unless when acting in relation to the business of the borough. at Passy on the 23rd of February 1866. JUSTICE (Lat. justitia), a term used both in the abstract, for magistrate they may present a petition for the same to the secretary ? Where a borough council desire the appointment of a stipendiary the quality of being or doing what is just, i.e. right in law and of state and it is thereupon lawful for the king to appoint to that equity, and in the concrete for an officer deputed by the sove- office a barrister of seven years' standing. He is by virtue of his reign to administer justice, and do right by way of judgment. office a justice for the borough, and receives a yearly salary, payable It has long been the official title of the judges of two of the in four' equal quarterly instalments. On a vacancy, application must again be made as for a first appointment. There may be more English superior courts of common law, and it is now extended to than one stipendiary magistrate for a borough. 66 you and JUSTICIAR—JUSTIFICATION 595 The chairman of a county council is ex officio a justice of the p. 276). The sheriff“ was the king's representative in all matters peace for the county, and the chairman of an urban or rural judicial, military and financial in the shire. From him, or from district council for the county in which the district is situ- the courts of which he was the presiding officer, appeal lay to the ated. Justices cannot act beyond the limits of the jurisdic-king alone; but the king was often absent from England and did tion for which they are appointed, and the warrant of a justice not understand the language of his subjects. In his absence the cannot be executed out of his jurisdiction unless it be backed, administration was entrusted to a justiciar, a regent or lieutenant that is, endorsed by a justice of the jurisdiction in which it is to of the kingdom; and the convenience being once ascertained of be carried into execution. A justice improperly refusing to act having a minister who could in the whole kingdom represent on his office, or acting partially and corruptly, may be proceeded the king, as the sheriff did in the shire, the justiciar became a against by a criminal information, and a justice refusing to act permanent functionary.” may be compelled to do so by the High Court of Justice. An The fact that the kings were often absent from England, and action will lie against a justice for any act done by him in excess that the justiciarship was held by great nobles or churchmen, of his jurisdiction, and for any act within his jurisdiction which made this office of an importance which at times threatened to has been done wrongfully and with malice, and without reason- overshadow that of the Crown. It was this latter circumstance able or probable cause. But no action can be brought against a which ultimately led to its abolition. Hubert de Burgh (q.v.) justice for a wrongful conviction until it has been quashed. By was the last of the great justiciars; after his fall (1231) the jus- the Justices' Qualification Act 1744, every justice for a county ticiarship was not again committed to a great baron, and the was required to have an estate of freehold, copyhold, or custo-chancellor soon took the position formerly occupied by the mary tenure in fee, for life or a given term, of the yearly value of justiciar as second to the king in dignity, as well as in power and £100. By an act of 1875 the occupation of a house rated at £100 influence. Finally, under Edward I. and his successor, in place was made a qualification. No such qualifications were ever of the justiciar-who had presided over all causes vice regis- required for a borough justice, and it was not until 1906 that separate heads were established in the three branches into which county justices were put on the same footing in this respect. the cúria regis as a judicial body had been divided: justices of The Justices of the Peace Act 1906 did away with all qualifica- common pleas. justices of the king's bench and barons of the tion by estate. It also removed the necessity for residence exchequer. within the county, permitting the same residential qualification Outside England the title justiciar was given under Henry II. as for borough justices, “ within seven miles thereof." The same to the seneschal of Normandy. In Scotland the title of justiciar act removed the disqualification of solicitors to be county justices was borne, under the earlier kings, by two high officials, one and assimilated to the existing power to remove other justices having his jurisdiction to the north, the other to the south of the from the commission of the peace the power to exclude ex officio Forth. They were the king's lieutenants for judicial and ad- justices. ministrative purposes and were established in the 12th century, The justices for every petty sessional division of a county or either by Alexander I. or by his successor David I. In the for a borough having a separate commission of the peace must 12th century a magister justitiarius also appears in the Norman appoint a fit person to be their salaried clerk. He must be either kingdom of Sicily, title and office being probably borrowed a barrister of not less than fourteen years' standing, or a solicitor from England; he presided over the royal court (Magna curia) of the supreme court, or have served for not less than seven and was, with his assistants, empowered to decide, inter alia, years as a clerk to a police or stipendiary magistrate or to a all cases reserved to the Crown (see Du Cange, s.v. Magister metropolitan police court. An alderman or councillor of a Justitiarius). borough must not be appointed as clerk, nor can a clerk of the See W. Stubbs, Const. Hist. of England; Du Cange, Glossarium peace for the borough or for the county in which the borough is (Niort, 1885) s.v. “ Justitiarius.” situated be appointed. A borough clerk is not allowed to JUSTICIARY, HIGH COURT OF, in Scotland, the supreme prosecute. The salary of a justice's clerk comes, in London, criminal court, consisting of five of the lords of session together out of the police fund; in counties out of the county fund; in with the lord justice-general and the lord justice-clerk as president county boroughs out of the borough fund, and in other boroughs and vice-president respectively. The constitution of the court out of the county fund. is settled by the Act 1672 C. 16. The lords of justiciary hold The vast and multifarious duties of the justices cover some circuits regularly twice a year according to the ancient practice, portion of every important head of the criminal law, and extend which, however, had been allowed to fall into disuse until revived to a considerable number of matters relating to the civil law. in 1748. For circuit purposes Scotland is divided into northern, In the United States these officers are sometimes appointed by southern and western districts (see CIRCUIT). Two judges the executive, sometimes elected. In some states, justices of the generally go on a circuit, and in Glasgow they are by special peace have jurisdiction in civil cases given to them by local statute authorized to sit in separate courts. By the Criminal regulations. Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887 all the senators of the college of JUSTICIAR (med. Lat. justiciarius or justitiarius, a judge), in justice are lords commissioners of justiciary. The high court, English history, the title of the chief minister of the Norman and sitting in Edinburgh, has, in addition to its general juris- earlier Angevin kings. The history of the title in this connota- diction, an exclusive jurisdiction for districts not within the tion is somewhat obscure. Justiciarius meant simply “judge,” | jurisdiction of the circuits—the three Lothians, and Orkney and and was originally applied, as Stubbs points out (Const. Hist. Shetland. The high court also takes up points of difficulty i. 389, note), to any officer of the king's court, to the chief justice, arising before the special courts, like the court for crown cases or in a very general way to all and sundry who possessed courts reserved in England. The court of justiciary has authority to of their own or were qualified to act as judices in the shire-courts, try all crimes, unless when its jurisdiction has been excluded by even the style capitalis justiciarius being used of judges of the special enactment of the legislature. It is also stated to have an royal court other than the chief. It was not till the reign of inherent jurisdiction to punish all criminal acts, even if they Henry II. that the title summus or capitalis justiciarius, or have never before been treated as crimes. Its judgments are justiciarius totius Angliae was exclusively applied to the king's believed to be not subject to any appeal or review, but it may be chief minister. The office, however, existed before the style of doubted whether an appeal on a point of law would not lie to the its holder was fixed; and, whatever their contemporary title (e.g. house of lords. The following crimes must be prosecuted in the Custos Angliae), later writers refer to them as justiciarii, with court of justiciary: treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising, or without the prefix summus or capitalis (ibid. p. 346). Thus deforcement of messengers, breach of duty by magistrates, and Ranulf Flambard, the minister of William II., who was probably all offences for which a statutory punishment higher than the first to exercise the powers of a justiciar, is called justiciarius imprisonment is imposed. by Ordericus Vitalis. JUSTIFICATION, in law, the showing by a defendant in a suit The origin of the justiciarship is thus given by Stubbs (ibid. I of sufficient reason why he did what he was called upon to answer, 596 JUSTIN–JUSTINIAN I. For example, in an action for assault and battery, the defendant Ed. princeps (1470); J. G.Graevius (1668); J. F. Gronovius (1719); may prove in justification that the prosecutor assaulted or beat C. H. Frotscher (1827-1830); J. Jeep (1859); F. Rühl (1886, with pro: him first, and that he acted merely in self-defence. The word logues); see also J. F. Fischer, De elocutione Justini (1868); F. Rühi, Die Verbreitung des J. im Mittelalter (1871); O. Eichert, Wörterbuch is employed particularly in actions for defamation, and has in zu J. (1881); Köhler and Rühl in Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie, this connexion a somewhat special meaning. When a libel xci., ci., cxxxiii. There are translations in the chief European consists of a specific charge a plea of justification is a plea that the languages; in English by A. Goldyng (1564); R. Codrington (1682); words are true in substance and in fact (see LIBEL AND SLANDER). Brown Dykes (1772); G. Turnbull" (1746); J. Clarke (1790); (1853). JUSTIN I. (450-527), East Roman emperor (518-527), was born in 450 as a peasant in Asia, but enlisting under Leo I. he rose to be JUSTINIAN I. (483-565). Flavius Anicius Justinianus, sur- commander of the imperial guards of Anastasius. On the latter's named the Great, the most famous of all the emperors of the death in 518 Justin used for his own election to the throne Eastern Roman Empire, was birth a barbarian, native of a money that he had received for the support of another candidate. place called Tauresium in the district of Dardania, a region of Being ignorant even of the rudiments of letters, Justin entrusted Illyricum,' and was born, most probably, on the 11th of May 483. the administration of state to his wise and faithful quaestor His family has been variously conjectured, on the strength of Proclus and to his nephew Justinian, though his own experience the proper names which its members are stated to have borne, dictated several improvements in military affairs. An orthodox to have been Teutonic or Slavonic. The latter seems the more churchman himself, he effected in 519 a reconciliation of the probable view. His own name was originally Uprauda.? Justini- Eastern and Western Churches, after a schism of thirty-five anus was a Roman name which he took from his uncle Justin I., years (see HORMISDAS). In 522 he entered upon a desultory war who adopted him, and to whom his advancement in life was due. with Persia, in which he co-operated with the Arabs. In 522 also of his early life we know nothing except that he went to Con- Justin ceded to Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy, the right of stantinople while still a young man, and received there an excellent naming the consuls. On the ist of April 527 Justin, enfeebled education, Doubtless he knew Latin before Greek; it is alleged by an incurable wound, yielded to the request of the senate and that he always spoke Greek with a barbarian accent. When assumed Justinian at his colleague; on the ist of August he died. Justin ascended the throne in 518, Justinian became at once a Justin bestowed much care on the repairing of public buildings person of the first consequence, guiding, especially in church throughout his empire, and contributed large sums to repair the matters, the policy of his aged, childless and ignorant uncle, damage caused by a destructive earthquake at Antioch. receiving high rank and office at his hands, and soon coming to See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, having been a few months earlier associated with him as co- be regarded as his destined successor. On Justin's death in 527, 1896), iv. 206–209. emperor, Justinian succeeded without opposition to the throne. JUSTIN II. (d. 578), East Roman emperor (565-578), was the About 523 he had married the famous Theodora (q.v.), who, as nephew and successor of Justinian I. He availed himself of his empress regnant, was closely associated in all his actions till her influence as master of the palace, and as husband of Sophia, the death in 547. niece of the late empress Theodora, to secure a peaceful election. Justinian's reign was filled with great events, both at home and The first few days of his reign--when he paid his uncle's debts, abroad, both in peace and in war. They may be classed under administered justice in person, and proclaimed universal religious four heads: (1) his legal reforms; (2) his administration of the toleration-gave bright promise, but in the face of the lawless empire; (3) his ecclesiastical policy; and (4) his wars and foreign aristocracy and defiant governors of provinces he effected few policy generally. subsequent reforms. The most important event of his reign 1. It is as a legislator and codifier of the law that Justinian's was the invasion of Italy by the Lombards (q.v.), who, entering name is most familiar to the modern world; and it is therefore in 568, under Alboin, in a few years made themselves masters of this department of his action that requires to be most fully dealt nearly the entire country. Justin's attention was distracted with here. He found the law of the Roman empire in a state of from Italy towards the N. and E. frontiers. After refusing to great confusion. It consisted of two masses, which were usually pay the Avars tribute, he fought several unsuccessful campaigns distinguished as old law (jus velus) and new law (jus novum). against them. In 572 his overtures to the Turks led to a war The first of these comprised: (i.) all such of the statutes (leges) with Persia. After two disastrous campaigns, in which his passed under the republic and early empire as had not become enemies overran Syria, Justin bought a precarious peace by pay- obsolete; (ii.) the decrees of the senate (senatus consulta) passed ment of a yearly tribute. The temporary fits of insanity into at the end of the republic and during the first two centuries of the which he fell warned him to name a colleague. Passing over his empire; (iii.) the writings of the jurists of the later republic and own relatives, he raised, on the advice of Sophia, the general of the empire, and more particularly of those jurists to whom the Tiberius (q.v.) to be Caesar in December 574 and withdrew for his right of declaring the law with authority (jus respondendi) had remaining years into retirement. been committed by the emperors. As these jurists had in their See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, commentaries upon the leges, senatus consulta and edicts of the 1896), v. 2-17; G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877), i. 291-297; magistrates practically incorporated all that was of importance J. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), ii. 67-79. (M. O. B. C.) in those documents, the books of the jurists may substantially JUSTIN (JUNIANUS JUSTINUS), Roman historian, probably be taken as including (i.) and (ii.). These writings were of course lived during the age of the Antonines. Of his personal history very numerous, and formed a vast mass of literature. Many of nothing is known. He is the author of Historiarum Philippi- them had become exceedingly scarce-many had been altogether carum libri XLIV., a work described by himself in his preface lost. Some were of doubtful authenticity. They were so costly as a collection of the most important and interesting passages that no person of moderate means could hope to possess any large from the voluminous Historiae philippicae et totius mundi number; even the public libraries had nothing approaching to a origines et terrae situs written in the time of Augustus by Pompeius complete collection. Moreover, as they proceeded from a large Trogus (q.v.). The work of Trogus is lost; but the prologi or number of independent authors, who wrote expressing their own arguments of the text are preserved by Pliny and other writers. opinions, they contained many discrepancies and contradictior.w, Although the main theme of Trogus was the rise and history of the dicta of one writer being controverted by another, while yet the Macedonian monarchy, Justin yet permitted himself con- both writers might enjoy the same formal authority. A remedy siderable freedom of digression, and thus produced a capricious had been attempted to be applied to this evil by a law of the anthology instead of a regular epitome of the work. As it stands, ? It is commonly identified with the modern Küstendil, but however, the history contains much valuable information. The Usküb (the ancient Skupi) has also been suggested. See Tozer, style, though far from perfect, is clear and occasionally elegant. Highlands of European Turkey, ii. 370. The book was much used in the middle ages, when the author which in Old Slavic means jus, justitia, the prefix being simply a ? The name Uprauda is said to be derived from the word prauda, was sometimes confounded with Justin Martyr. breathing frequently attached to Slavonic names. JUSTINIAN I. 597 emperors Theodosius II. and Valentinian III., which gave special vated by the general decline, during the last two centuries, of the weight to the writings of five eminent jurists (Papinian, Paulus, level of forensic and judicial learning. This was accomplished Ulpian, Modestinus, Gaius); but it was very far from removing by a series of constitutions known as the “ “Fifty Decisions” it. As regards the jus vetus, therefore, the judges and practi- (Quinquaginta decisiones), along with which there were published tioners of Justinian's time had two terrible difficulties to contend other ordinances amending the law in a variety of points, in with-first, the bulk of the law, which made it impossible for any which old and now inconvenient rules had been suffered to subsist. one to be sure that he possessed anything like the whole of the Then in December 530 a new commission was appointed, con- authorities bearing on the point in question, so that he was always sisting of sixteen eminent lawyers, of whom the president, the liable to find his opponent quoting against him some authority famous Tribonian (who had already served on the previous com- for which he could not be prepared; and, secondly, the uncer- mission), was an exalted official (quaestor), four were professors tainty of the law, there being a great many important points on of law, and the remaining eleven practising advocates. The which differing opinions of equal legal validity might be cited, instructions given to them by the emperor were as follows: so that the practising counsel could not advise, nor the judge they were to procure and peruse all the writings of all the author- decide, with any confidence that he was right, or that a superior ized jurists (those who had enjoyed the jus respondendi); were to court would uphold his view. extract from these writings whatever was of most permanent The new law (jus novum), which consisted of the ordinances of and substantial value, with power to change the expressions of the emperors promulgated during the middle and later empires the author wherever conciseness or clearness would be thereby (edicta, rescripla, mandata, decreta, usually called by the general promoted, or wherever such a change was needed in order to name of constitutiones), was in a condition not much better. adapt his language to the condition of the law as it stood in These ordinances or constitutions were extremely numerous. Justinian's time; were to avoid repetitions and contradictions by No complete collection of them existed, for although two collec- giving only one statement of the law upon each point; were to tions (Codex gregorianus and Codex hermogenianus) had been insert nothing at variance with any provision contained in the made by two jurists in the 4th century, and a large supple-Codex constitutionum; and were to distribute the results.of their mentary collection published by the emperor Theodosius II. in labours into fifty books, subdividing each book into titles, and 438 (Codex theodosianus), these collections did not include all following generally the order of the Perpetual Edict.? the constitutions; there were others which it was necessary to ob- These directions were carried out with a speed which is surpris- tain separately, but many whereof it must have been impossible ing when we remember not only that the work was interrupted for a private person to procure. In this branch too of the law by the terrible insurrection which broke out in Constantinople in there existed some, though a less formidable, uncertainty; for January 532, and which led to the temporary retirement from there were constitutions which practically, if not formally, office of Tribonian, but also that the mass of literature which had repealed or superseded others without expressly mentioning to be read through consisted of no less than two thousand treat, them, so that a man who relied on one constitution might find ises, comprising three millions of sentences. The commissioners, that it had been varied or abrogated by another he had never heard who had for greater despatch divided themselves into several com- of or on whose sense he had not put such a construction. It was mittees, presented their selection of extracts to the emperor in therefore clearly necessary with regard to both the older and the 533, and he published it as an imperial statute on December 16th newer law to take some steps to collect into one or more bodies or of that year, with two prefatory constitutions (those known as masses so much of the law as was to be regarded as binding, Omnem reipublicae and Dedit nobis). It is the Latin volume reducing it within a reasonable compass, and purging away the which we now call the Digest (Digesta) or Pandects (II SVSEKTAI) contradictions or inconsistencies which it contained. The evil and which is by far the most precious monument of the legal had been long felt, and reforms apparently often proposed, but genius of the Romans, and indeed, whether one regards the intrin- nothing (except by the compilation of the Codex theodosianus) sic merits of its substance or the prodigious influence it has exerted had been done till Justinian's time. Immediately after his and still exerts, the most remarkable law-booķ that the world has accession, in 528, he appointed a commission to deal with the seen. The extracts comprised in it are 9123 in number, taken imperial constitutions (jus novum), this being the easier part of from thirty-nine authors, and are of greatly varying length, the problem. The commissioners, ten in number, were directed mostly only a few lines long. About one-third (in quantity) to go through all the constitutions of which copies existed, to come from Ulpian, a very copious writer; Paulus stands next. To select such as were of practical value, to cut these down by each extract there is prefixed the name of the author, and of the retrenching all unnecessary matter, and gather them, arranged treatise whence it is taken. The worst thing about the Digest in order of date, into one volume, getting rid of any contradictions is its highly unscientificarrangement. The order of the Perpetual by omitting one or other of the conflicting passages. These Edict, which appears to have been taken as a sort of model for the statute law commissioners, as one may call them, set to work general scheme of books and titles, was doubtless convenient to forthwith, and completed their task in fourteen months, dis- the Roman lawyers from their familiarity with it, but was in tributing the constitutions which they placed in the new collec-itself rather accidental and historical than logical. The dis- tion into ten books, in general conformity with the order of the position of the extracts inside each title was still less rational; Perpetual Edict as settled by Salvius Julianus and enacted by it has been shown by a modern jurist to have been the result of Hadrian. By this means the bulk of the statute law was the way in which the committees of the commissioners worked immensely reduced, its obscurities and internal discrepancies in through the books they had to peruse. In enacting the Digest great measure removed, its provisions adapted, by the abrogation as a law book, Justinian repealed all the other law contained of what was obsolete, to the circumstances of Justinian's own in the treatises of the jurists (that jus vetus which has been already time. This Codex constitutionum was formally promulgated and mentioned), and directed that those treatises should never be enacted as one great consolidating statute in 529, all imperial cited in future even by way of illustration; and he of course at ordinances not included in it being repealed at one stroke. the same time abrogated all the older statutes, from the Twelve The success of this first experiment encouraged the emperor Tables downwards, which had formed a part of thejus vetus. This to attempt the more difficult enterprise of simplifying and was a necessary incident of his scheme of reform. But he went digesting the older law contained in the treatises of the jurists. 2 See the constitution Deo auctore (Cod. i. 17, 1). Before entering on this, however, he wisely took the preliminary : In the middle ages people used to cite passages by the initial step of settling the more important of the legal questions as to words; and the Germans do so still, giving, however, the number of which the older jurists had been divided in opinion, and which the paragraph in the extract (if there are more paragraphs than one), had therefore remained sources of difficulty, a difficulty aggra- and appending the number of the book and title. We in Britain and America usually cite by the numbers of the book, the title and - See, for an account of the instructions given to the commission, the paragraph, without referring to the initial words, the constitution Haec quae, prefixed to the revised Codex in the + See Bluhme, “ Die Ordnung der Fragmente in den Pandekten- Corpus juris civilis. titcln," in Savigny's Zeitschr. f. gesch. Rechtswissenschaft, vol. iv, 598 JUSTINIAN I. too far, and indeed attempted what was impossible, when he off. Moreover, the very simplifications that had been so far effected forbade all commentaries upon the Digest. He was obliged to brought into view with more clearness such anomalies or pieces of allow a Greek translation to be made of it, but directed this injustice as still continued to deform the law. Thus no sooner had the work been rounded off than fresh excrescences began to be created translation to be exactly literal. by the publication of new laws. Between 534 and 565 Justinian These two great enterprises had substantially despatched issued a great number of ordinances, dealing with all sorts of sub- Justinian's work; however, he, or rather Tribonian, who seems jects and seriously altering the law on many points—the majority to have acted both as his adviser and as his chief executive appearing before the death of Tribonian, which happened in 543. These ordinances are called, by way of distinction, new constitu- officer in all legal affairs, conceived that a third book was needed, tions, Novellae constitutiones post codicem (veapal olaragels), Novels. viz. an elementary manual for beginners which should present Although the emperor had stated in publishing the Codex that all an outline of the law in a clear and simple form. The little work further statutes (if any) would be officially collected, this promise does not seem to have been redeemed. The three collections of the of Gaius, most of which we now possess under the title of Com- Novels which we possess are apparently, private collections, nor do mentarii institutionum, had served this purpose for nearly four we even know how many such constitutions were promulgated. centuries; but much of it had, owing to changes.in the law, be- One of the three contains 168 (together with 13 Edicts), but some come inapplicable, so that a new manual seemed to be required. of these are by the emperors Justin II. and Tiberius !1. Another, Justinian accordingly directed Tribonian, with two coadjutors, the third, the Liber authenticarum or vulgata versio, has 134, also the so-called Epitome of Julian, contains 125 Novels in Latin; and Theophilus, professor of law in the university of Constantinople, in Latin. This last was the collection first known and chiefly used and Dorotheus, professor in the great law school at Beyrout, to in the West during the middle ages; and of its 134 only 97 have been prepare an elementary textbook on the lines of Gaius. This written on by the glossatores or medieval commentators; these there- they did while the Digest was in progress, and produced the useful recognize and obey the Roman law,-according to the maxim fore alone have been received as binding in those countries which little treatise which has ever since been the book with which Quicquid non agnoscit glossa, nec agnoscit curia. And, whereas students commonly begin their studies of Roman law, the Insti- Justinian's constitutions contained in the Codex were all issued in lutes of Justinian. It was published as a statute with full legal Latin, the rest of the book being in that tongue, these Novels were validity shortly before the Digest . Such merits as it possesses made for the use of the western provinces. They are very bulky, nearly all published in Greek, Latin translations being of course simplicity of arrangement, clearness and conciseness of expres- and with the exception of a few, particularly the 116th and 118th, sion-belong less to Tribonian than to Gaius, who was closely which introduce the most sweeping and laudable reforms into the followed wherever the alterations in the law had not made him law of intestate succession, are much more interesting, as supplying obsolete. However, the spirit of that great legal classic seems to siastical, than in respect of any purely legal merits. They may be materials for the history of the time, social, economical and eccle- have in a measure dwelt with and inspired the inferior men who found printed in any edition of the Corpus juris civilis. were recasting his work; the Institutes is better both in Latinity This Corpus juris, which bears and immortalizes Justinian's name, and in substance than we should have expected from the con- consists of the four books described above: (1) The authorized collection of imperial ordinances (Codex constitutionum); (2) the dition of Latin letters at that epoch, better than the other laws authorized collection of extracts from the great jurists (Digesta or which emanate from Justinian. Pandectae); (3) the elementary handbook (Institutiones); (4) the In the four years and a half which elapsed between the publica- unauthorized collection of constitutions subsequent to the Codex tion of the Codex and that of the Digest, many important changes (Novellae). had been made in the law, notably by the publication of the From what has been already stated, the reader will perceive “ Fifty Decisions,” which settled many questions that had exer- that Justinian did not, according to a strict use of terms, codify cised the legal mind and given occasion to intricate statutory the Roman law. By a codification we understand the reduction provisions. It was therefore natural that the idea should present of the whole pre-existing body of law to a new form, the re-stating itself of revising the Codex, so as to introduce these changes it in a series of propositions, scientifically ordered, which may or into it, for by so doing, not only would it be simplified, but the may not contain some new substance, but are at any rate new in one volume would again be made to contain the whole statute form. If he had, so to speak, thrown into one furnace all the law law, whereas now it was necessary to read along with it the contained in the treatises of the jurists and in the imperial ordinances issued since its publication. Accordingly another ordinances, fused them down, the gold of the one and the silver commission was appointed, consisting of Tribonian with four of the other, and run them out into new moulds, this would have other coadjutors, full power being given them not only to been codification. What he did do was something quite different. incorporate the new constitutions with the Codex and make in It was not codification but consolidation, not remoulding but it the requisite changes, but also to revise the Codex generally, abridging. He made extracts from the existing law, preserving cutting down or filling in wherever they thought it necessary the old words, and merely cutting out repetitions, removing con- to do so. This work was completed in a few months; and in tradictions, retrenching superfluities, so as immensely to reduce November 534 the revised Codex (Codex repetitae praelectionis) the bulk of the whole. And he made not one set of such extracts was promulgated with the force of law, prefaced by a con- but two, one for the jurist law, the other for the statute law. He stitution (Cordi nobis) which sets forth its history, and declares gave to posterity not one code but two digests or collections of it to be alone authoritative, the former Codex being abrogated. extracts, which are new only to this extent that they are arranged It is this revised Codex which has come down to the modern in a new order, having been previously altogether unconnected world, all copies of the earlier edition having disappeared. with one another, and that here and there their words have been The constitutions contained in it number 4652, the earliest modified in order to bring one extract into harmony with some dating from Hadrian, the latest being of course Justinian's own. other. Except for this, the matter is old in expression as well as A few thus belong to the period to which the greater part of the in substance. Digest belongs, i.e. the so-called classical period of Roman law down to the time of Alexander Severus (244); but the great majority are Thus regarded, even without remarking that the Novels, never later, and belong to one or other of the four great eras of imperial having been officially collected, much less incorporated with the legislation, the eras of Diocletian, of Constantine, of Theodosius II. Codex, mar the symmetry of the structure, Justinian's work may and of Justinian himself. Although this Codex is said to have the same general order as that of the Digest, viz. the order of the Per-appear to entitle him and Tribonian to much less credit than they petual Edict, there are considerable differences of arrangement have usually received for it. But let it be observed, first, that to between the two. It is divided into twelve books. Its contents, reduce the huge and confused mass of pre-existing law into the although of course of the utmost practical importance to the lawyers compass of these two collections was an immense practical benefit of that time, and of much value still, historical as well legal, are far less interesting and scientifically admirable than the extracts to the empire; secondly, that, whereas the work which he under- preserved in the Digest. The difference is even greater than that took was accomplished in seven years, the infinitely more difficult between the English reports of cases decided since the days of Lord task of codification might probably have been left unfinished at Holt and the English acts of parliament for the same two centuries. Tribonian's death, or even at Justinian's own, and been aban- The emperor's scheme was now complete. All the Roman law had been gathered into two volumes of not excessive size, and a doned by his successor; thirdly, that in the extracts preserved in satisfactory manual for beginners added. But Justinian and Tribo- the Digest we have the opinions of the greatest legal luminaries nian had grown so fond of legislating that they found it hard to leave given in their own admirably lucid, philosophical and concise JUSTINIAN I. 599 language, while in the extracts of which the Codex is composed | complaints of Procopius, what was the nature and justification we find valuable historical evidence bearing on the administra- of the changes made in the civil administration. But the tion and social condition of the later Pagan and earlier Christian general conclusion seems to be that these changes were always empire; fourthly, that Justinian's age, that is to say, the intellect in the direction of further centralization, increasing the power of of the men whose services he commanded, was quite unequal to the chief ministers and their offices, bringing all more directly so vast an undertaking as the fusing upon scientific principles under the control of the Crown, and in some cases limiting the into one new organic whole of the entire law of the empire. With powers and appropriating the funds of local municipalities. sufficient time and labour the work might no doubt have been Financial necessities compelled retrenchment, so that a certain done; but what we possess of Justinian's own legislation, and number of offices were suppressed altogether, much to the dis- still more what we know of the general condition of literary and gust of the office-holding class, which was numerous and wealthy, legal capacity in his time, makes it certain that it would not have and had almost come to look on the civil service as its hereditary been well done, and that the result would have been not more possession. The most remarkable instance of this policy was valuable to the Romans of that age, and much less valuable to the discontinuance of the consulship. This great office had re- the modern world, than are the results, preserved in the Digest mained a dignity centuries after it had ceased to be a power; and the Codex, of what he and Tribonian actually did. but it was a very costly dignity, the holder being expected to To the merits of the work as actually performed some reference spend large sums in public displays. As these sums were provided has already been made. The chief defect of the Digest is in point by the state, Justinian saved something considerable by stopping of scientific arrangement, a matter about which the Roman the payment. He named no consul after Basilius, who was the lawyers, perhaps one may say the ancients generally, cared very name-giving consul of 541. little. There are some repetitions and some inconsistencies, but In a bureaucratic despotism the greatest merit of a sovereign not more than may fairly be allowed for in a compilation of such is to choose capable and honest ministers. Justinian's selections magnitude executed so rapidly. Tribonian has been blamed for were usually capable, but not so often honest; probably it was the insertions the compilers made in the sentences of the old hard to find thoroughly upright officials; possibly they would not jurists (the so-called Emblemata Triboniani); but it was a part of have been most serviceable in carrying out the imperial will, and Justinian's plan that such insertions should be made, so as to especially in replenishing the imperial treasury. Even the great adapt those sentences to the law as settled in the emperor's Tribonian labours under the reproach of corruption, while the time. On Justinian's own laws, contained in the Codex and in fact that Justinian maintained John of Cappadocia in power long his Novels, a somewhat less favourable judgment must be pro- after his greed, his unscrupulousness, and the excesses of his nounced. They, and especially the latter, are diffuse and often private life had excited the anger of the whole empire, reflects lax in expression, needlessly prolix, and pompously rhetorical. little credit on his own principles of government and sense of The policy of many, particularly of those which deal with ecclesi- duty to his subjects. The department of administration in astical matters, may also be condemned; yet some gratitude is which he seems to have felt most personal interest was that of due to the legislator who put the law of intestate succession on public works. He spent immense sums on buildings of all sorts, that plain and rational footing whereon it has ever since con- on quays and harbours, on fortifications, repairing the walls of tinued to stand. It is somewhat remarkable that, although cities and erecting castles in Thrace to check the inroads of the Justinian is so much more familiar to us by his legislation than barbarians, on aqueducts, on monasteries, above all, upon by anything else, this sphere of his imperial labour is hardly churches. Of these works only two remain perfect, St Sophia in referred to by any of the contemporary historians, and then only Constantinople, now a mosque, and one of architectural with censure. Procopius complains that he and Tribonian were wonders of the world, and the church of SS Sergius and Bacchus, always repealing old laws and enacting new ones, and accuses now commonly called Little St Sophia, which stands about half them of vënal motives for doing so. a mile from the great church, and is in its way a very delicate and The Corpus Juris of Justinian continued to be, with naturally a beautiful piece of work. The church of S. Vitale at Ravenna, few additions in the ordinances of succeeding emperors, the chief though built in Justinian's reign, and containing mosaic pictures law-book of the Roman world till the time of the Macedonian dynasty of him and Theodora, does not appear to have owed anything to when, towards the end of the 9th century, a new system was prepared his mind or purse. and issued by those sovereigns, which we know as the Basilica. It is of course written in Greek, and consists of parts of the substance 3. Justinian's ecclesiastical policy was so complex and varying of the Codex and the Digest, thrown together and often altered in that it is impossible within the limits of this article to do more expression, together with some matter from the Novels and imperial than indicate its bare outlines. For many years before the ordinances posterior to Justinian. In the western provinces, which of the Basilica, the law as settled by Justinian held its ground; by the struggles of the Monophysite party, who recognized only had been wholly severed from the empire before the publication accession of his uncle Justin, the Eastern world had been vexed but copies of the Corpus Juris were extremely rare, nor did the one nature in Christ, against the view which then and ever since study of it revive until the end of the 11th century. has maintained itself as orthodox, that the divine and human The best edition of the Digest is that of Mommsen (Berlin natures coexisted in Him. The latter doctrine had triumphed at 1868-1870), and of the Codex that of Krüger (Berlin 1875-1877). the council of Chalcedon, and was held by the whole Western 2. In his financial administration of the empire, Justinian is Church, but Egypt, great part of Syria and Asia Minor, and a represented to us as being at once rapacious and extravagant. considerable minority even in Constantinople clung to Monophy- His unwearied activity and inordinate vanity led him to under- sitism. The emperors Zeno and Anastasius had been strongly take a great many costly public works, many of them, 'such as suspected of it, and the Roman bishops had refused to communi- the erection of palaces and churches, unremunerative. The cate with the patriarchs of Constantinople since 484, when they money needed for these, for his wars, and for buying off the had condemned Acacius for accepting the formula of conciliation barbarians who threatened the frontiers, had to be obtained by issued by Zeno. One of Justinian's first public acts was to put increasing the burdens of the people. They suffered, not only an end to this schism by inducing Justin to make the then patri- from the regular taxes, which were seldom remitted even after arch renounce this formula and declare his full adhesion to the bad seasons, but also from monopolies; and Procopius goes so far creed of Chalcedon. When he himself came to the throne he as to allege that the emperor made a practice of further recruiting endeavoured to persuade the Monophysites to come in by sum- his treasury by confiscating on slight or fictitious pretexts the moning some of their leaders to a conference. This failing, he property of persons who had displeased Theodora or himself. ejected suspected prelates, and occasionally persecuted them, Fiscal severities were no doubt one cause of the insurrections though with far less severity than that applied to the heretics of which now and then broke out, and in the gravest of which, a deeper dye, such as Montanists or even Arians. Not long after- (532) thirty thousand persons are said to have perished in the wards, his attention having been called to the spread of Origen- capital. It is not always easy to discover, putting together the istic opinions in Syria, he issued an edict condemning fourteen trustworthy evidence of Justinian's own laws and the angry | propositions drawn from the writings of the great Alexandrian. 600 JUSTINIAN 1. and caused a synod to be held under the presidency of Mennas secluded districts, such as parts of Asia Minor and Pelopon- (whom he had named patriarch of Constantinople), which renewed nesus; and we are told that the efforts directed against them the condemnation of the impugned doctrines and anathematized resulted in the forcible baptism of 70,000 persons in Asia Origen himself. Still later, he was induced by the machinations Minor alone. Paganism, however, survived; we find it in of some of the prelates who haunted his court, and by the influence Laconia in the end of the 9th century, and in northern Syria it of Theodora, herself much interested in theological questions, has lasted till our own times. There were also a good many and more than suspected of Monophysitism, to raise a needless, crypto-pagans among the educated population of the capital. mischievous, and protracted controversy. The Monophysites Procopius, for instance, if he was not actually a Pagan, was sometimes alleged that they could not accept the decrees of the certainly very little of a Christian. Inquiries made in the third council of Chalcedon because that council had not condemned, year of Justinian's reign drove nearly all of these persons into an but (as they argued) virtually approved, three writers tainted outward conformity, and their offspring seem to have become with Nestorian principles, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, ordinary Christians. At Athens, the philosophers who taught in and Ibas, bishop of Edessa. It was represented to the emperor, the schools hallowed by memories of Plato still openly professed who was still pursued by the desire to bring back the schismatics, what passed for Paganism, though it was really a body of moral that a great step would have been taken towards reconciliation if doctrine, strongly tinged with mysticism, in which there was far a condemnation of these teachers, or rather of such of their books more of Christianity and of the speculative metaphysics of the as were complained of, could be brought about, since then the East than of the old Olympian religion. Justinian, partly from Chalcedonian party would be purged from any appearance of religious motives, partly because he discountenanced all rivals sympathy with the errors of Nestorius. Not stopping to reflect to the imperial university of Constantinople, closed these that in the angry and suspicious state of men's minds he was sure Athenian schools (529). The professors sought refuge at the to lose as much in one direction as he would gain in the other, court of Chosroes, king of Persia, but were soon so much disgusted Justinian entered into the idea, and put forth an edict exposing by the ideas and practices of the fire-worshippers that they re- and denouncing the errors contained in the writings of Theodoreturned to the empire, Chosroes having magnanimously obtained generally; in the treatise of Theodoret against Cyril of Alexandria, from Justinian a promise that they should be suffered to pass and in a letter of Bishop Ibas (a letter whose authenticity was the rest of their days unmolested. Heresy proved more obstinate. doubted, but which passed under his name) to the Persian bishop The severities directed against the Montanists of Phrygia led to a Maris. This edict was circulated through the Christian world to furious war, in which most of the sectaries perished, while the be subscribed by the bishops. The four Eastern patriarchs, and doctrine was not extinguished. Harsh laws provoked the the great majority of the Eastern prelates generally, subscribed, Samaritans to a revolt, from whose effects Palestine had not though reluctantly, for it was felt that a dangerous precedent recovered when conquered by the Arabs in the following century. was being set when dead authors were anathematized, and that The Nestorians and the Eutychian Monophysites were not threa- this new movement could hardly fail to weaken the authority of tened with such severe civil penalties, although their worship the council of Chalcedon. Among the Western bishops, who was interdicted, and their bishops were sometimes banished; were less disposed both to Monophysitism and to subservience, but this vexatious treatment was quite enough to keep them dis- and especially by those of Africa, the edict was earnestly resisted. affected, and the rapidity of the Mahommedan conquests may be When it was found that Pope Vigilius did not forthwith comply, partly traced to that alienation of the bulk of the Egyptian and he was summoned to Constantinople. Even there he resisted, a large part of the Syrian population which dates from Justinian's not so much, it would seem, from any scruples of his own, for he persecutions. was not a high-minded man, as because he knew that he dared 4. Justinian was engaged in three great foreign wars, two of not return to Italy if he gave way. Long disputes and negotia-them of his own seeking, the third a legacy which nearly eyery tions followed, the end of which was that Justinian summoned emperor had come into for three centuries, the secular strife of a general council of the church, that which we reckon the Fifth, Rome and Persia. The Sassanid kings of Persia ruled a dominion which condemned the impugned writings, and anathematized which extended from the confines of Syria to those of India, and several other heretical authors. Its decrees were received in the from the straits of Oman to the Caucasus. The martial char- East but long contested in the Western Church, where a schism acter of their population made them formidable enemies to the arose that lasted for seventy years. This is the controversy Romans, whose troops were at this epoch mainly barbarians, known as that of the Three Chapters (Tria capitula, tpia kepalala), the settled and civilized subjects of the empire being as a rule apparently from the three propositions or condemnations con- averse from war. When Justinian came to the throne, his troops tained in Justinian's original edict, one relating to Theodore's were maintaining an unequal struggle on the Euphrates against writings and person, the second to the incriminated treatise of the armies of Kavadh I. (q.v.). After some campaigns, in which Theodoret (whose person was not attacked), the third to the the skill of Belisarius obtained considerable successes, a peace letter (if genuine) of Ibas (see Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii:777). was concluded in 533 with Chosroes I. (q.v.). This lasted till At the very end of his long career of theological discussion, 539, when Chosroes declared war, alleging that Justinian had, Justinian himself lapsed into heresy, by accepting the doctrine been secretly intriguing against him with the Hephthalite Huns, that the earthly body of Christ was incorruptible, insensible to and doubtless moved by alarm and envy at the victories which the weaknesses of the flesh, a doctrine which had been advanced the Romans had been gaining in Italy. The emperor was too by Julian, bishop of Halicarnassus, and went by the name of much occupied in the West to be able adequately to defend his Aphthartodocetism. According to his usual practice, he issued eastern frontier. Chosroes advanced into Syria with little an edict enforcing this view, and requiring all patriarchs, metro- resistance, and in 540 captured Antioch, then the greatest city politans, and bishops to subscribe to it. Some, who not un- in Asia, carrying off its inhabitants into captivity. The war naturally held that it was rank Monophysitism, refused at once, continued with varying fortunes for four years more in this and were deprived of their sees, among them Eutychius the quarter; while in the meantime an even fiercer struggle had begun eminent patriarch of Constantinople. Others submitted or in the mountainous region inhabited by the Lazi at the south- temporized; but before there had been time enough for the matter eastern corner of the Black Sea (see COLCHIS). When after to be carried through, the emperor died, having tarnished if not two-and-twenty years of fighting no substantial advantage had utterly forfeited by this last error the reputation won by a life been gained by either party, Chosroes agreed in 562 to a peace devoted to the service of Orthodoxy. which left Lazica to the Romans, but under the dishonourable - As no preceding sovereign had been so much interested in condition of their paying 30,000 pieces of gold annually to the church affairs, so none seems to have shown so much activity as a Persian king. Thus no result of permanent importance flowed persecutor both of pagans and of heretics. He renewed with from these Persian wars, except that they greatly weakened the additional stringency the laws against both these classes. The Roman Empire, increased Justinian's financial embarrassments, former embraced a large part of the rural population in certain I and prevented him from prosecuting with sufficient vigour his JUSTINIAN I. bor enterprises in the West. (See further PERSIA: Ancient History, conduct was in the circumstances only what might have been “ The Sassanid Dynasty.”) expected from an ambitious prince who perceived an opportunity These enterprises had begun in 533 with an attack on the of recovering territories that had formerly belonged to the Vandals, who were then reigning in Africa. Belisarius, des- empire, and over which its rights were conceived to be only patched from Constantinople with a large fleet and army, landed suspended. without opposition, and destroyed the barbarian power in two Besides these three great foreign wars, Justinian's reign was engagements. North Africa from beyond the straits of Gibraltar troubled by a constant succession of border inroads, especially to the Syrtes became again a Roman province, although the on the northern frontier, where the various Slavonic and Hunnish Moorish tribes of the interior maintained a species of indepen-tribes who were established along the lower Danube and on the dence; and part of southern Spain was also recovered for the north coast of the Black Sea made frequent marauding expedi- empire. The ease with which so important a conquest had been tions into Thrace and Macedonia, sometimes penetrating as far as effected encouraged Justinian to attack the Ostrogoths of Italy, the walls of Constantinople in one direction and the Isthmus of whose kingdom, though vast in extent, for it included part of Corinth in another. Immense damage was inflicted by these south-eastern Gaul, Raetia, Dalmatia and part of Pannonia, as marauders on the subjects of the empire, who seem to have well as Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, had been grievously been mostly too peaceable to defend themselves, and whom the weakened by the death first of the great Theodoric, and some emperor could not spare troops enough to protect. Fields were years later of his grandson Athalaric, so that the Gothic nation laid waste, villages burnt, large numbers of people carried into was practically without a head. Justinian began the war in captivity; and on one occasion the capital was itself in danger. 535, taking as his pretext the murder of Queen Amalasuntha, 5. It only remains to say something regarding Justinian's daughter of Theodoric, who had placed herself under his pro- personal character and capacities, with regard to which a great tection, and alleging that the Ostrogothic kingdom had always diversity of opinion has existed among historians. The civilians, owned a species of allegiance to the emperor at Constantinople. looking on him as a patriarch of their science, have as a rule There was some foundation for this claim, although of course it extolled his wisdom and virtues; while ecclesiastics of the could not have been made effective against Theodoric, who was Roman Church, from Cardinal Baronius downwards, have been more powerful than his supposed.suzerain. Belisarius, who had offended by his arbitrary conduct towards the popes, and by been made commander of the Italian expedition, overran Sicily, his last lapse into heresy, and have therefore been disposed to reduced southern Italy, and in 536 occupied Rome. Here he was accept the stories which ascribe to him perfidy, cruelty, rapacity attacked in the following year by Vitiges, who had been chosen and extravagance. The difficulty of arriving at a fair conclusion king by the Goths, with a greatly superior force. After a siege is increased by the fact that Procopius, who is our chief authority of over a year, the energy, skill, and courage of Belisarius, and the for the events of his reign, speaks with a very different voice sickness which was preying on the Gothic troops, obliged Vitiges in his secret memoirs (the Anccdota) from that which he has used to retire. Belisarius pursued his diminished army northwards, in his published history, and that some of the accusations con- shut him up in Ravenna, and ultimately received the surrender tained in the former work are so rancorous and improbable that a of that impregnable city. Vitiges was sent prisoner to Constanti-certain measure of discredit attaches to everything which it con- nople, where Justinian treated him, as he had previously treated | tains. The truth seems to be that Justinian was not a great the captive Vandal king, with clemency. The imperial adminis-ruler in the higher sense of the word, that is to say, a man of tration was established through Italy, but its rapacity soon began large views, deep insight, a capacity for forming just such plans to excite discontent, and the kernel of the Gothic nation had not as the circumstances needed, and carrying them out by a skilful submitted. After two short and unfortunate reigns, the crown adaptation of means to ends. But he was a man of considerable had been bestowed on Totila or Baduila, a warrior of distinguished abilities, wonderful activity of mind, and admirable industry. abilities, who by degrees drove the imperial generals and governors He was interested in many things, and threw himself with ardour out of Italy. Belisarius was sent against him, but with forces | into whatever he took up; he contrived schemes quickly, and too small for the gravity of the situation. He moved from place pushed them on with an energy which usually made them succeed to place during several years, but saw city after city captured when no long time was needed, for, if a project was delayed, there by or open its gates to Totila, till only Ravenna, Otranto and was a risk of his tiring of it and dropping it. Although vain and Ancona remained. Justinian was occupied by the ecclesiastical full of self-confidence, he was easily led by those who knew how controversy of the Three Chapters, and had not the money to fit to get at him, and particularly by his wife. She exercised over out a proper army and fleet; indeed, it may be doubted whether him that influence which a stronger character always exercises he would ever have roused himself to the necessary exertions but over a weaker, whatever their respective positions; and unfortu- for the presence at Constantinople of a knot of Roman exiles, nately it was seldom a good influence, for Theodora (q.v.) seems who kept urging him to reconquer Italy, representing that with to have been a woman who, with all her brilliant gifts of intelli- their help and the sympathy of the people it would not be a gence and manner, had no principles and no pity. Justinian was difficult enterprise. The emperor at last complied, and in 552 rather quick than strong or profound; his policy does not strike a powerful army was despatched under Narses, an Armenian one as the result of deliberate and well-considered views, but eunuch now advanced in life, but reputed the most skilful general dictated by the hopes and fancies of the moment. His activity of the age, as Belisarius was the hottest soldier. He marched was in so far a misfortune as it led him to attempt too many things along the coast of the Gulf of Venice, and encountered the army at once, and engage in undertakings so costly that oppression of Totila at Taginae not far from Cesena. Totila was slain, and became necessary to provide the funds for them. Even his the Gothic cause irretrievably lost. The valiant remains of the devotion to work, which excites our admiration, in the centre of a nation made another stand under Teias on the Lactarian Hill in luxurious court, was to a great extent unprofitable, for it was Campania; after that they disappear from history. Italy was mainly given to theological controversies which neither he nor recovered for the empire, but it was an Italy terribly impoverished any one else could settle. Still, after making all deductions, it is and depopulated, whose possession carried little strength with plain that the man who accomplished so much, and kept the it. Justinian's policy both in the Vandalic and in the Gothic War whole world so occupied, as Justinian did during the thirty-eight stands condemned by the result. The resources of the state, years of his reign, must have possessed no common abilities. He which might better have been spent in defending the northern was affable and easy of approach to all his subjects, with a frontier against Slavs and Huns and the eastern frontier against pleasant address; nor does he seem to have been, like his wife, Persians, were consumed in the conquest of two countries which either cruel or revengeful. We hear several times of his sparing had suffered too much to be of any substantial value, and which, those who had conspired against him. But he was not scrupulous separated by language as well as by intervening seas, could in the means he employed, and he was willing to maintain in power not be permanently retained. However, Justinian must have detestable ministers if only they served him efficiently and filled been almost preternaturally wise to have foreseen this: his his coffers. His chief passion, after that for his own fame and 602 JUSTINIAN II.-JUSTIN MARTYR glory, seems to have been for theology and religion; it was according to his own account, were Pagans (Diol. c. Tryph. 28). in this field that his literary powers exerted themselves (for he He describes the course of his religious development in the wrote controversial treatises and hymns), and his taste also, for introduction to the dialogue with the Jew Trypho, in which among his numerous buildings the churches are those on which he he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger brought spent most thought and money. Considering that his legal reforms him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of are those by which his name mainly known to posterity, it is truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough curious that we should have hardly any information as to his legal study of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, knowledge, or the share which he took in those reforms. In Stoics and Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction person he was somewhat above the middle height, well-shaped, that true knowledge was not to be found in them. On the other with plenty of fresh colour in his cheeks, and an extraordinary hand, he came to look upon the Old Testament prophets as power of doing without food and sleep. He spent most of the approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery and prophecies night in reading or writing, and would sometimes go for a day to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us in another with no food but a few green herbs. Two mosaic figures of him place (A pol. ii. 12), must be added the deep impression pro- exist at Ravenna, one in the apse of the church of S. Vitale, the duced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion other in the church of S. Apollinare in Urbe; but of course one apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places cannot be sure how far in such a material the portrait fairly repre- his decisive interview with the old man, and there he had sents the original. He had no children by his marriage with those discussions with Jews and converts to Judaism, the re- Theodora, and did not marry after her decease. On his death, sults of which he in later years set down in his Dialogue. After which took place on the 14th of November 565, the crown passed his conversion he retained his philosopher's cloak (Euseb., to his nephew Justin II. Hist. Eccl. iv. 11. 8), the distinctive badge of the wandering pro- AUTHORITIES.- For the life of Justinian the chief authorities are fessional teacher of philosophy, and went about from place to Procopius (Historiae, De aedificiis, Anecdota) and (from 552 A.D.) place discussing the truths of Christianity in the hope of bringing the History of Agathias; the Chronicle of Johannes Malalas is also educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought, through of value. Occasional reference must be made to the writings of Jordanes and Marcellinus, and even to the late compilations of philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay, Cedrenus and Zonaras. The Vita Justiniani of Ludewig or Ludwig giving lectures in a class-room of his own, though not without (Halle, 1731), a work of patient research, is frequently referred to opposition from his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents by Gibbon in his important chapters relating to the reign of Justinian, was the Cynic Crescentius (A pol. ii. 13). Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. in the Decline and Fall (see Bury's edition, 1900). There is a Vie de iv. 16. 7-8) concludes somewhat hastily, from the statement Justinien by Isambert (2 vols., Paris, 1856). See also Hutton's Church of the Sixth Century (1897); J. B. Bury's Later Roman Empire of Justin and his disciple Tatian (Orat. ad Graec. 19), that the (1889): Hodgkin's Italy and her Invaders (1880). (J. BR.) accusation of Justin before the authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we know, from the un- JUSTINIAN II., RHINOTMETUS (669–711), East Roman emperor doubtedly genuine Acta SS Justini et sociorum, that Justin 685-695 and 704–711, succeeded his father Constantine IV., suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus at the age of sixteen. His reign was unhappy both at home and between 163 and 167. abroad. After a successful invasion he made a truce with the To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, Arabs, which admitted them to the joint possession of Armenia, we must turn to his A pology and to the Dialogue with the Jew Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000 Christian Maronites Trypho, for the authenticity of all other extant works attri- from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a command over buted to him is disputed with good reason. The Apology--it Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by conquering all is more correct to speak of one Apology than of two, for the second Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the Bulgarians. is only a continuation of the first, and dependent upon it was Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the written in Rome about 150. In the first part Justin defends his emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the fellow-believers against the charge of atheism and hostility to rapacity with which, through his creatures Stephanus and the state. He then draws a positive demonstration of the truth Theodatus, he extorted the means of gratifying his sumptuous of his religion from the effects of the new faith, and especially tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings, drove his from the excellence.of its moral teaching, and concludes with a subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose under Leontius, comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which the and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his surname), latter are set down with naive confidence as the work of demons. banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a As the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned appears his detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the by Tiberius Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Jus-old dispensation, which are older than the Pagan poets and philo- tinian meanwhile had escaped from Cherson and married Theo- sophers, have found their fulfilment in Christianity. A third part dora, sister of Busirus, khan of the Khazars. Compelled, shows, from the practices of their religious worship, that the however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his new home, he Christians had in truth dedicated themselves to God. The fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of 15,000 whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with a reference horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians. In slew his rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their the so-called Second A pology, Justin takes occasion from the partisans, and once more ascended the throne in 704. His trial of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the inno- second reign was marked by an unsuccessful war against Ter- cence of the Christians was proved by the very persecutions. belis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by devastating expedi- Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By tions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and Cherson, his conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a pre- where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected paration for the truths of the Christian religion, he appears nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards as the first and most distinguished in the long list of those who his subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, sur- have endeavoured to reconcile Christian with non-Christian named Philippicus, assumed the purple, and Justinian, the culture. Christianity consists for him in the doctrines, guaran. last of the house of Heraclius, was assassinated in Asia Minor, teed by the manifestation of the Logos in the person of Christ, December 711. of God, righteousness and immortality, truths which have been See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic religious 1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), ii. philosophies. In this process the conviction of the recon. 320-330, 358-367. ciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian and the individual through Christ, fell into the background apologists, was born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc. Sichem), before the vindication of supernatural truths intellectually now Nablus, in Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents, I conceived. Thus Justin may give the impression of having JUTE 603 rationalized Christianity, and of not having given it its full JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manu- value as a religion of salvation. It must not, however, be facturing scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of Christi- appears to have been first used in 1746, when the captain of the anity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view “Wake” noted in his log that he had sent on shore 60 bales of life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not of gunney with all the jute rope" (New Eng. Dict. s.v.). In 1795 expect an intimate comprehension of the religious position of W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of the East India Company a Christians. That he himself had a thorough comprehension of bale of the fibre which he described as “the jute of the natives." it he showed in the Dialogue with the Jew Trypho. Here, where Importations of the substance had been made at earlier times he had to deal with the Judaism that believed in a Messiah, he under the name of păt, an East Indian native term by which was far better able to do justice to Christianity as a revelation; the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early years and so we find that the arguments of this work are much more of the 19th century, when it was supplanted by the name it now completely in harmony with primitive Christian theology than bears. This modern name appears to be derived from jhot or those of the Apology. He also displays in this work a consider- jhout (Sansk. jhat), the vernacular name by which the substance able knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful polemical is known in the Cuttack district, where the East India Company method which was surpassed by none of the later anti-Jewish had extensive roperies when Roxburgh first used the term. writers. Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian Church in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have else- where no connected account of this, Justin's Apology contains a few paragraphs (61 seq.), which give a vivid description of the public worship of the Church and its method of celebrating the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist). And from this it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to go his own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of faith. His works are also of great value for the history of the New Testament writings. He knows of no.canon of the New Testament, i.e. no fixed and inclusive collection of the apostolic writings. His sources for the teachings of Jesus are the “Memoirs of the Apostles,” by which are probably to be under- stood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel according to St John), which, according to his account, were read along with the prophetic writings at the public services. From his writings we derive the impression of an amiable personality, who is honestly at pains to arrive at an understanding with his opponents. As a theologian, he is of wide sympathies; as a writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat dull. There are not many traces of any particular literary influence of his writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise us. The Church as a whole took but little interest in apolo- getics and polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive feeling that in these controversies that which she held holy might easily suffer loss. Thus Justin's writings were not much read, and at the present time both the Apology and the Dialogue are preserved in but a single MS. (cod. Paris, 450, A.D. 1364). FIG. 1.--Capsules of Jute Plants. a, Corchorus capsularis; b, C. olitorius. BIBLIOGRAPHY.The editions of Robert Étienne (Stephanus) (1551); H. Sylburg (1593): F. Morel (1615); Prudentius Maranuis The fibre is obtained from two species of Corchorus (nat. ord. (1742) are superseded by J. C. T. Otto, Justini philosophi et martyris Tiliaceae), C. capsularis and C. olitorius, the products of both opera quae feruntur omnia (3rd ed. 5 vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This edition contains besides the Apologies (vol. i.) and the Dialogue being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agricul- (vol. ii.) the following writings: Speech to the Greeks (Oratio); Address ture is any distinction made between them. These and various to the Greeks (Cohortatio): On the Monarchy of God; Epistle to other species of Corchorus are natives of Bengal, where they have Diognetus; Fragments on the Resurrection and other Fragments; been cultivated from very remote times for economic purposes, Exposition of the True Faith; Epistle to Zenas and Serenus; Refutation although there is reason to believe that the cultivation did not of certain Doctrines of Aristotle ; Questions and Answers to the Orthodox; Questions of Christians to Pagans; Questions of Pagans to Christians: originate in the northern parts of India. The two species None of these writings, not even the Cohortatio, which former critics cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects very similar to each ascribed to Justin, can be attributed to him. The authenticity of other, except in their fructification and the relatively greater the Dialogue has occasionally been disputed, but without reason. For a handy edition of the Apology see G. Krüger, Die Apologien size attained by C. capsularis . They are annual plants from Justins des Märtyrers (3rd ed. Tübingen, 1904). There is a good 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's German translation with a comprehensive commentary by H. Veil finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light- (1894). For English translations consult the ... Oxford Library of green leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 14 in. broad above the the Fathers" and the “ Ante-Nicene Library." Full information about Justin's history and views may be had from the following base, and taper upward into a fine point; the edges are serrated; monographs: Ç. Semisch, Justin der Märtyrer (2 vols., 1840-1842); the two lower teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The J. Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine, small whitish-yellow flowers are produced in clusters of two or vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, St Justin (3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von three opposite the leaves. Engelhardt, Das Christentum Justins des Märtyrers (1878); T. Wehofer, Die Apologie Justins des Philosophen und Märtyrers in The capsules or seed-pods in the case of C. capsularis are litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten Male untersucht (1897); globular, rough and wrinkled, while in C. olitorius they are Alfred Leonhard Feder, justins des Märtyrers Lehre von Jesus slender, quill-like cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked Christus (1906). On the critical questions raised by the spurious distinction, as may be noted from fig. 1, in which a and b show writings consult W. Gaul, Die Abfassungsverhältnisse der pseudo- the capsules of C. capsularis and C. olitorius respectively. justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos (1902); Adolf Harnack, Diodor von Tarsus. Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum Diodors Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of C. olitorius. nachgewiesen (1901). G. K.) Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account Q0 604 JUTE of their fibre, but also for the sake of their leaves, which are there for gathering when the flowers appear; if gathered before, the extensively used as a pot-herb. The use of C. olitorius for the fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is ripe, the fibre is lâtter purpose dates from very ancient times, it if may be identi- stronger, but is coarser and lacks the characteristic lustre. fied, as some suppose, with the mallows (7150) mentioned in The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting Job xxx. 4; hence the name Jew's mallow. It is certain that similar to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of the Greeks used this plant as a pot-herb; and by many other Bengal it is the practice to stack the crop for a few days previous nations around the shores of the Mediterranean this use of it to retting in order to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the was, and is still, common. Throughout Bengal the name stalks. It is stated that the colour of the fibre is darkened if the by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are recog- leaves are allowed to remain on during the process of retting. nized is nalitā; when on the other hand they are spoken of It is also thought that the drying of the plants before retting as fibre-producers it is generally under the name pål. The culti-facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any simple operation vation of C. capsularis is most prevalent in central and eastern which improves the colour of the fibre or shortens the operation Bengal, while in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where, however, of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be derived the area under cultivation is limited, C. olitorius is principally from the above process, however, cannot be great, for the bundles grown. The fibre known as China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period product of another plant, Abutilon Avicennae, a member of the necessary for the completion of the retting process varies Mallow family. according to the temperature and to the properties of the water, Cultivation and Cropping.–Attempts have been made to grow and may occupy from two days to a month. After the first few the jute plant in America, Egypt, Africa. and other places, but days of immersion the stalks are examined daily to test the up to the present the fibre has proved much inferior to that progress of the retting. When the fibres are easily separated obtained from plants grown in India. Here the cultivation from the stalk, the operation is complete and the bundles should of the plant extends from the Hugli through eastern and be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant jute is taken from Royle's Fibrous Plants of India:- demands a hot, moist climate, with a fair amount of rain. Too much rain at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the "The proper point being attained, the na ve operator, standing growth, while a very dry season is disastrous. The climate of up to his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his hands eastern and northern Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth ends next the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the as he can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the of the plant. whole with a little management from end to end, without breaking The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend.in a either stem or fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this measure on the preparation of the soil. The ground should be half state, he next proceeds to wash off : this is done by taking a large handful; swinging it round his head he dashes it repeatedly ploughed about four times and all weeds removed. The seed is against the surface of the water, drawing it through towards him, then sown broadcast as in the case of flax. It is only within so as to wash off the impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he quite recent years that any attention has been paid to the fans it out on the surface of the water and carefully picks off all selection of the seed. The following extract from Capital remaining black spots. It is now wrung out so as to remove as (Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it. much water as possible, and then hung up on lines prepared on the spot, to dry in the sun.' " Jute seed experiments are being continued and the report for The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for 1906 has been issued. The object of these experiments is, of course, sending to one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted to obtain a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially into different qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enor- for no other purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural department has about 300 maunds (25,000. Ib) of selected seed for mous hydraulic pressure from which it emerges in the shape distribution this year. The selling price is to be Rs. 10 per maund. of the well-known bales, each weighing 400 Ib. The agricultural department of the government of Bengal are now The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil, fully alive to the importance of fostering the jute industry by showing and upon the attention which the fibre has received in its conclusively that attention to scientific agriculture will make two maunds of jute grow where only one maund grew before. Let them various stages; the yield per acre varies in different districts: go on (as they will) till all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated Three bales per acre, or•1 200 lb is termed a 100% crop, but the into the new system." usual quantity obtained is about 2:6 bales per acre. Sometimes the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales each. The crop in The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the 1906 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1907 nearly middle of June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time 10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued of sowing and upon the weather, is performed from the end of on the 19th of September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co., June to the middle of October. The crop is said to be ready | Dundee:- 1 Year. Actual acreage. Estimated yield Estimated (100% total equal 3 bales crop. per acre). Bales. Shipment to Europe. Jute. Cuttings. Bales. Bales. Shipment to America. Jute. Cuttings. Bales. Bales. Supplies to Indian mills and local consumption. Out-turn total crop. Bales. 94 3,528,691 54,427 295,921 230,415 2,773,621 3,161,791 39,019 59,562 426,331 207,999 236,959 290,854 3,100,000 7,405,370 2,600,000 = 5,851,054 3,650,000 = 7,437,360 3.475,782 = 7,004,460 329,048 253,882. 2,939,940 44,002 1901-Ist 2,216,500 6,250,000 Final 2,249,000 6,500,000 1902-Ist 2,200,000 80 5,280,000 Final 2,200,000 80 5,280,000 1903-Ist 2,100,000 5,400,000 Final 2,250,000 93 6,500,000 1904-15 2,700,000 7,100,000 Final 2,850,000 7,400,000 1905-1st 3,163,500 8,250,000 Pinal 3,145,000 8,200,000) Outlying 200,000) 4,018,523} Madras 1906- Ist 3,271,400 87% 8,713,000 Outlying 67,000) Madras 100,000 Final 3,336,400 8,736,220 (Outlying districts and Madras, say 250,000 bales additional) 63,118 347,974 245,044 3,483,315 75,384 8,233,358 JUTE 605 5 England 160,000 in ga In America. " » do Ordinary ZUW Ordinary Estimated corisumption of jute 1906–1907. Mata dora white to grey. Naraingunge is a strong fibre, possesses good spinning eji In European Bales per annum. Igninnice qualities, and is very suitable for good warp yarns. Its colour, Scotland 1,250,000 naud and one which is not so high as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and 20,000 tol best approaches red at the roots. All the better class yarns are spun Ireland 425,000 ke ti ant bates is of good quality and of great length; its drawback is the low France from these two kinds. Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness, 2 Belgium 120,000 onsd Talagat colour, and hence it is not so suitable for using in natural colour. It i Germany 750,000 VISNI ZB oggi anita is, however, a valuable fibre for carpet yarns, especially for dark Austria and Bohemia 262,000 OD DATUTSETEST Sbiroyarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh and low quality fibre, and is Norway and Sweden 62,500 Russia used principally for heavy wefts. Each class is subdivided according 180,000 ON 701 to the quality and colour of the material, and each class receives a 99 Holland 25,000 odini bakal distinctive mark called a baler's mark. Thus, the finest fibres may Jeo Spain od 90,000 wo dieubet be divided as follows: Italy quote haleel yogvSuperfine first marks. nomowa Humingi 3,419,500 bales 600,000 Extra fine first marks Ist, 2nd and 3rd numbers. ou have brow Ob 37 Superior first marks 600,000 olvsow Standard 1251 In India - Duro Sex Good Part 1 an Mills 3,900,000 "una bolsas Local 500,000 euro Good second SY love bancis baie og ung alina Bila but 4,400,000 970W 379) Toorn Dinwintit 19910 8,419,500 bales cuisho The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties. Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed 10 Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings. vidi equal in equality to some standard 1894 1906. 1904: Consumption. mark. It would diota un Bales. Bales. Bales. be impossible tonight de 03 og og give a list of the fore a ob United Kingdom 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,295,000 different marks, for adu Continent 1,100,000 1,800,000 2,124,500 there are hun- America 500,000 500,000 600,000 dreds, and new Indian mills: 1,500,000 2,900,000 3,900,000 marks are con- O Obvo Local Indian consumption 500,000 500,000 500,000 stantly being added. A list of 100l Total jute crop consumption 4,800,000 6,900,000 8,419,500 all the principal marks is issued in A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made book form by the POHOD during 1906, and the report showed that very encouraging Calcutta Jute 2013 results were obtained from land manured with cow-dung. If Baler's association. The relative more scientific attention be given to the cultivation it is quite prices of the dif- possible that what is now considered as 100% yield may be ferent classes de- mo exceeded. pend upon the End dow Characteristics.—The characters by which qualities of jute are crop, upon the de- mand and STOOD judged are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness, the quality of the uniformity and absence of roots. The best qualities are of a fibre; in 1905 the -303 53 clear whitish-yellow colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and prices of Daisee smooth to the touch, and fine, long and uniform in fibre. ljute and First Marks were prac- When the fibre is intended for goods in the natural colour it is tically the same, beat essential that it should be of a light shade and uniform, but if although the for- be no di lub (at) best intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark shade, the colour mer is always con- is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a fibre with a sidered inferior to od side length of from 6 to 10 ft., but in exceptional cases it has been the latter. It does Du ben not follow that a si known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly large crop of D D y Sonia inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing will result in low Ni bor: to a peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walls prices, for the year up in TS ETTE of the separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness 1906–1907 was not al at different points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal for crops, but also only a record one FIG. 2.-Corchorus olitorius. 300 strength. Recently prepared fibre is always stronger, more for prices. R. F. C. grade has been as high as £40 per ton, while its lustrous, softer and whiter than such as has been stored for some lowest recorded price is £12. Similarly the price for First Marks time--age and exposure rendering it brown in colour and harsh reached £29, 155. in 1906 as compared with £9, 5s. per ton in 1897. and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much more woody in prices during December for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906. The following table shows a few well-known grades with the average texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may be easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate re- Class. Dec. 1903. Dec. 1904. Dec. 1905. Dec. 1906. agents; and to that fact is due the change in colour and character be £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. it undergoes on exposure to the air. The fibre bleaches with First marks 12 15 0 19 15 0 27 15 0 facility, up to a certain point, sufficient to enable it to take Black SCC 614 5 017 15 o 20 15 brillian, and delicate shades of dye colour, but it is with great Red SCC 12 0 0 14 17 6 18 15 023 15 difficulty brought to a pure white by bleaching, A very striking Native rejections. 8 2 614 10 0 15 17 6 and remarkable fact, which has much practical interest, is its S. 4 group 25 10 0 38 0 0 RF block D group highly hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and atmo-RF circle D group 360 14 10 0 16 15 sphire it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under R F D group II 15 0 14 2 617 12 damp conditions it will absorb as much as 23%. N B green D 14 5 0 -21 00 132 Heart T 4.14 12 6 17 10 022 10 034 Sir G. Watt, in his Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Heart T 5. 14 12 6 17 10 021 031 mentions the following eleven varieties of jute fibre: Serajganji, Daisee 2 12 17 6 18 15 025 10 Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Deswāl, Bākrabadi, Bhatial, Daisee assortment 0 14 17 5 o Karimginji, Mirganji and Jungipuri. There are several other Mixed cuttings 4 50 varieties of minor importance. The first four form the four classes into which the commercial fibre is divided, and they are commonly Jute Manufacture.—Long before ; jute came to occupy a known as Serajgungę, Naraingunge, Daisee and Dowrah. Seraj- gunge is a soft fibre, but it is superior in colour, which ranges from prominent place amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed to sa jute 016 o II 2 o o 21 10 0 6 22 o o 0 OOOOO 0 12 10 16 18 -- ΙΟ o o 10 0 0 | 606 JUTE 1893-4 the raw material of a large and important industry throughout proper start. That fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the the regions of Eastern Bengal. The Hindu population made the spinning of the fibre which it never lost, and since that period its material up into cordage, paper and cloth, the chief use of the progress has been truly astonishing." latter being in the manufacture of gunny bags. Indeed, up to The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine 1830-1840 there was little or no competition with hand labour for hessian yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form this class of material. The process of weaving gunnies for bags an important branch of the Dundee trade, and in some weeks and other coarse articles by these hand-loom weavers has been during 1906 as many as 1000 bales were despatched to Brazil, described as follows: besides numerous quantities to other parts of the world. Seven sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called tanā para or warp, For many years Great Britain was the only European country are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to the measure engaged in the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee. of the piece to be woven, and a sufficient number of twine or thread Gradually, however, the trade began to extend, and now almost is moved on the meas warm called tanāwo The carp is taken up and to weaving machine. pieces wood are placed every European country is partly engaged in the trade. at two ends, which are tied to the ohari and okher or roller; they are The success of the mechanical method of spinning and made fast to the khoti. The belut or treadle is put into the warp; weaving of jute in Dundee and district led to the introduction next to that is the sarsul; a thin piece of wood is laid upon the of textile machinery into and around Calcutta. The first mill warp, called chupari or regulator. There is no sley used in this, nor is a shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered with to be run there by power was started in 1854, while by 1872 thread called singa is thrown into the warp as woof, which is beaten three others had been established. In the next ten years no in by a piece of plank called beyno, and as the cloth is woven it is fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and equipped with wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood called modern machinery from Great Britain, while in 1907 there were khetone, which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof; a stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight." thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The expansion of Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the the Indian power trade may be gathered from the following purpose to which it is devoted. Some kinds are made close and particulars of the number of looms and spindles from 1892 to dense in texture, for carrying such seed as poppy or rape and 1906. In one or two cases the number of spindles is obtained sugar; others less close are used for rice, pulses, and seeds of like approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per loom, which is size, and coarser and opener kinds again are woven for the outer about the average for the Indian mills. cover of packages and for the sails of country boats. There is Year. Looms. Spindles. a thin close-woven cloth made and used as garments among the females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the Himalayas, 1892-3 8,479 177.732 9,082 189,144 and in various localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute mixed with 1894-5 9,504 197,673 cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing pur- 1895-6 10,071 212,595 poses. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied, 1896-7 12,276 254,610 the following quotation may be cited from the official report of 1897-8 12,737 271,363 1898-9 13,323 277,398 Hem Chunder Kerr as applying to Midnapur, 1899-1900 14,021 293,218 “ The articles manufactured from jute are principally (1) gunny 1900-01 15,242 315,264 bags; (2) string, rope and cord; (3) kampa, a net-like bag for carrying 1901-02 16,059 329,300 wood or hay on bullocks; (4) chat, a strip of stuff for tying bales of 1902-03 17,091 350,120 cotton or cloth; (5) dola, a swing on which infants are rocked to 1904 19.901 398,0202 sleep; (6) shika, a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pots, &c.; 1905 21,318 426,3602 (7) dulina, a floor-cloth; (8) beera, a small circular stand for wooden 19061 26,79 520,980 ? plates used particularly in poojahs;(9) painter's brush and brush for white-washing; (10) ghunsi, a waist-band worn next to the skin; The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few (11) gochh-dari, a hair-band worn by women; (12) mukbar, a net bag varieties of the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success used as muzzle for cattle; (13) parchula, false hair worn by players; in this direction has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the (14) rakhi-bandhan, a slender arm-band worn at the Rakhi-poprnima other hand, turns out not only the commoner classes of fabrics, festival; and (15) dhup, small incense sticks burned at poojahs." The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards but a very large variety of other fabrics. Amongst these may the close of the 18th century, and early in the 19th century it was be mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging, tarpaulin, spun into yarn and woven into cloth in the town of Abingdon. sacking, scrims, Brussels carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation It is claimed that this was the first British town to manufacture Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting, the material. For years small quantities of jute were imported in addition to a large variety of fabrics of which jute forms a part. into Great Britain and other European countries and into Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the fibre may Dundee held in its former days, but the continually increasing be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain. demands for jute fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made to enter new markets and so to take part in the prosperity of the in this year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experi- trade. ments proved to be the foundation of an enormous industry. It The development of the trade with countries outside India is interesting to note that the site of Chapelshade Works was in from 1828 to 1906 may be seen by the following figures of 1907 cleared for the erection of a large new technical college. exports: In common with practically all new industries progress was Average per year from 1828 to 1832–33 11,800 cwt. slow for a time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth 1833-34 , 1837-38 67,483 1838–39., 1842-43 117,047 produced from it had become known the development was more 1843-44 · 1847-48 234,055 rapid. The pioneers of the work were confronted with many 1848-49, 1852-53 439,850 difficulties; most people condemned the fibre and the cloth, many 1853-54 , 1857-58 710,826 . warps were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any attempt 1858-59 , 1862-63 1863-64, 1867-68 2,628,110, to mix the fibre with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of 1868-69 ,, 1872-73 4,858,162 deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the 1873-74 , 1877-78 5.362,267 fact that suitable machinery and methods of treatment had 1878-79 ,, 1882-83 7,274,000 1 not been developed for preparing yarns from this useful fibre. 1883-84., 1887-88 8,223,859 Warden in his Linen Trade says: 1888-89 ,. 1892-93 10,372,991 .. 1893-94 . 1897-98 12,084,292 "For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused 1898–99 ,, 1902-03 11,959,189 to have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long retained 1903-04 , 1905-06 13,693,090 a tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got the Dutch government, about 1838, to substitute jute yarns for 1 End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 31st of those made from flax in the manufacture of the coffee bagging for March, the end of financial year. their East Indian possessions, that the jute trade in Dundee got a ? Approximate number of spindles. 11 11 17 90 969,724 » 1 01 11 11 11 00 17 3 77 . JUTE 607 a the 31st 1 The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an thickness of material passing through the machine. The fibre agricultural, as well as from a manufacturing, point of view. is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth, and the batcher usually selects small streaks of about it th to 2 lb weight each and The difference between the production and the exports represents passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the softening machine. the native consumption, for very little jute is sent overland. These small streaks are now laid as regularly as possible upon the The figures are taken to of March, the end of the feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view of which is Indian financial year. ESITE al 972 shown in fig. 4.. The fibre passes between a series of fluted rollers, let etter teach pair of which is kept in contact by spiral springs as shown in the figure. The standard number of pairs is sixty-three, but different Acres under Production Exports by de lengths obtain. There is also a difference in the structure of the Year. cultivation. in cwt. sea in cwt.700 i blind 1893 2,181,334 20,419,000 10,537,5121 1894 2,230,570 17,863,000 8,690,133 1895 2,275,335 21,944,400 12,976,791 2,248,593 19,825,000 12,266,781 SITS 56.1897 2,215,105 20,418,000 11,464,356 o 1898 2,159,908 24,425,000 15,023,325 1899 1,690,739 19,050,000 9,864,545 1970 1900 2,070,668 19,329,000 9,725,245 rioss la ITO 1901 2,102,236 23,307,000 12,414,552 1902 2,278,205 26,564,000 14,755,115 V 10 1903 2,142,700 23,489,000 13,036,486 1904 2,275,050 25,861,000 13,721,447 1905 2,899,700 26,429,000 12,875,312 1906 3,181,600 29,945,000 14,581,307 Did 1896 MTOTO CAT som Manufacture.-In their general features the spinning and weaving of jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery and processes from those employed in the manufacture of are made by Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.) FIG. 3.-Jute Opener. (The three machines shown in this article hemp and heavy flax goods. Owing, however, to the woody and brittle nature of the fibre, it has to undergo a preliminary Autes, some being straight, and others spiral, and each pair may or treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the jute industry, may not contain the same number of flutes. The springs allow the who did not understand this necessity, or rather who did not top rollers of each pair to rise as the material passes through the know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be machine. Advantage is taken of this slight upward and downward of top to remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had water and oil upon the material. The apparatus for this function hairy yarn owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre. machine and an idea of its construction may be gathered from fig. 5. This peculiarity of jute, coupled also with the fact that the In many cases the water and oil are applied by less automatic, but machinery on which it was first spun, although quite suitable equally effective, means. The main object is to see that the liquids are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing through, and to for the stronger and more elastic fibres for which it was designed, stop the supply when the machine stops or when no fibre is passing. required certain modifications to suit it to the weaker jute, The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine facilitates the was the cause of many annoyances and failures in the early days subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this preliminary process (originally by hand) constituted the first important step in of the trade. the practical solution of the difficulties of jute spinning. The rela- The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching. tive quantities of oil and water depend upon the quality of the batch. Batch setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of select. Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used, but in most cases ing the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind the whale oil is omitted. About 1 to 11 gallons of oil is the usual of yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, in- amount given per bale of 400 lb of jute, while the quantity of water deed it is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The delivery attendants remove or even more varieties or marks. The "streaks "lor" heads" of jute the streaks, give them a twist to facilitate future handling, and place as they come from the bale are in a hard condition in consequence of having been loods vlastitog STS anis 9 Egitiseloos subjected to a high hydraulic pressure o borsqera od van To alla aid to soften them before any further process o Ah EVENETIEF is entered. The streaks are sometimes busy partly softened or crushed by means of a steam hammer during the process of opening the bale, then taken to the strikers-up" where the different varie- ties are selected and hung on pins, and then taken to the jute softening machine. A CUATRALIA The more general practice, however, is nudis to employ what is termed a bale opener," or "jute crusher.” The essential tadt parts of one type of bale opener are comi) 975 379 three specially shaped rollers, the period 76107 pheries of which contain a number of dil small knobs. Two of these rollers are 95 19.at supported in the same horizontal plane The maibs in of the framework, while the third or blons T- ICT 201918aiboi aninos top roller is kept in close contact by VOW Tits on 915 enda ortovom means of weights and springs acting on 9ubota od ni absu Yn90092102 bin ydinit each end of the arbor. Another type of buisvlis STL 2017 at anivestlan nitob HT machine termed the three pair roller jute FIG. 4.–Jute Softening Machine.iisau ai gimstb. braune adini opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the different bales are laid them on what are termed jute barrows. The streaks are now handed upon the feed cloth which carries them up to the rollers, between over to the cutters who cut off the roots, and finally the material is which the layers are crushed and partly separated. The proximity allowed to remain for twelve to twenty-four hours to allow the mix- of the weighted roller or rollers to the fixed ones depends upon the ture of oil and water to thoroughly spread over the fibre. 1 Also in the forms "streek," "strick" or " strike," as in Chaucer, to the" breaker card," the first machine in the preparing department. When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken Cant. Tales, Prologue 676, where the Pardoner's hair is compared A certain weight of jute, termed a "dollop," is laid upon the feed with a strike of flax." The term is also used of a handful of cloth for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be hemp or other fibre, and is one of the many technical applications arranged on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the of " strike " or“ streak," which etymologically are cognate words. feed cloth and passes between the feed roller and the shell on to the 392.b I HA OUR 14 bot90 MOTOR 608 JUTERBOG r large cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface speed, The final preparing process is that of roving. In this operation carries part of the fibre towards the workers and strippers, the there is no doubling of the slivers, but each sliver passes separately surface speed of the workers being much slower than that of the through the machine, from the can to the spindle, is drawn out to cylinder. The pins in the two rollers oppose each other, those of about eight times its length, and receives a small amount of twist the workers being “ back-set," and this arrangement, combined to strengthen it, in order that it may be successfully wound upon with the relative angle of the pins, and the difference in the surface the roving bobbin by the flyer. The chief piece of mechanism in speeds of the two rollers, results in part of the fibre being broken and the roving frame is the gearing known as the differential motion." carried round by the worker towards the stripper. This, as its It works in conjunction with the disk and scroll, the cones, or the expanding pulley, to impart an intermittingly variable speed to the bobbin (each layer of the bobbin has its own particular speed which is constant for the full traverse, but each change of direction of the builder is accompanied by a quick change of speed to the bobbin). It is essential that the bobbin should have such a motion, because the delivery of the sliver and the speed of the flyer are constant for a given size of rove, whereas the layers of rove on the bobbin increase in length as the bobbin fills. In the jute roving frame the bobbin is termed the “ follower," because its revolutions per minute are fewer than those of the flyer. Each layer of rove increases the diameter of the material on the bobbin shank; hence, at the beginning of each layer, the speed of the bobbin must be increased, and kept at this increased speed for the whole traverse from top to bottom or vice versa. Let R = the revolutions per second of the flyer; = the revolutions per second of the bobbin; d = the diameter of bobbin shaft plus the material; L = the length of sliver delivered per second; then (R — 1) d. i = L. In the above expression R, a and L are constant, therefore as d increases the term (R-1) must decrease; this can happen only when r is increased, that is, when the bobbin revolves quicker. It is easy to see from the above expression that if the bobbin were the leader " its speed would have to decrease as it filled. The builder, which receives its motion from the disk and scroll, Fig. 5.—Improved Batching Gear. from the cones, or from the expanding pulley, has also an inter: name implies, strips the fibre off the worker, and carries it round to mittingly variable speed. It begins at a maximum speed when the the cylinder. The pins of the stripper and cylinder point in the bobbin is empty, is constant for each layer, but decreases as the same direction, but since the surface speed of the cylinder is much bobbin fills. greater than the surface speed of the stripper, it follows that the The rove yarn is now ready for the spinning frame, where a further fibre is combed between the two, and that part is carried forward draft of about eight is given. The principles of jute spinning are by the cylinder to be reworked. The strippers and workers are in similar to those of dry spinning for flax. For very heavy jute yarns pairs, of which there may be two or more. After passing the last the spinning frame is not used—the desired amount of twist being pair of workers and strippers the fibre is carried forward towards the given at the roving frame. doffing roller, the pins of which are back-set, and the fibre is removed The count of jute yarn is based upon the weight in pounds of from the cylinder by the do fer, from which it passes between the 14,400 yds., such length receiving the name of spyndle.” The drawing and pressing rollers into the conductor, and finally between finest yarns weigh 24 th to 3 tb per spyndle, but the commonest kinds the delivery and pressing rollers into the sliver can. It may be are 7 lb, 8 lb. 9 lb and 10 tb per spyndle. The sizes rise in pounds up mentioned that more or less breaking takes place between each pair to about 20 tb, then by 2 lb up to about 50 lb per spyndle, with much of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and that combing and larger jumps above this weight. It is not uncommon to find 200 lb drawing out obtains between those rollers with pins pointing in to 300 lb rove yarn, while the weight occasionally reaches 450 Ib per the same direction. The ratio of the surface speeds of the drawing spyndle. The different sizes of yarn are extensively used in a large roller and the feed roller is termed the draft:- variety of fabrics, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction with surface speed of drawing roller other fibres, e.g. with worsted in the various kinds of carpets, with =draft. surface speed of feed roller cotton in tapestries and household cloths, with line and tow yarns In this machine the draft is usually about thirteen. for the same fabrics and for paddings, &c., and with wool for horse The sliver from the can of the breaker card may be wound into clothing. The yarns are capable of being dyed brilliant colours, balls, or it may be taken direct to the finisher card. In the latter but, unfortunately, the colours are not very fast to light. The fibre method from eight to fifteen cans are placed behind the feed rollers, can also be prepared to imitate human hair with remarkable close- and all the slivers from these cans are united before they emerge ness, and advantage of this is largely taken in making stage wigs. from the machine. The main difference between a breaker card For detailed information regarding jute, the cloths made from it and a finisher card is that the latter is fitted with finer pins, that it and the machinery used, see the following works: Watts's Dictionary contains two doffing rollers, and that it usually possesses a greater of the Economic Products of India; Royle's Fibrous Plants of India; number of pairs of workers and strippers a full circular finisher Sharp's Flax, Tow and jule Spinning; Leggatt's Jute Spinning; card having four sets. Woodhouse and Milne's Jule and Linen Weaving; and Woodhouse After the fibre has been thoroughly carded by the above machines, and Milne's Textile Design. Pure and Applied. (T. Wo.) the cans containing the sliver from the finisher card are taken to JUTERBOG, or GÜTERBOG, a town of Germany in the Prussian the first drawing frame. A very common method is to let four slivers run into one sliver at the first drawing, then two slivers from province of Brandenburg, on the Nuthe, 39 m. S. W of Berlin, the first drawing are run into one sliver at the second drawing frame. at the junction of the main lines of railway from Berlin to Dresden There are several types of drawing frames, e.g; push-bar or slide; and Leipzig. Pop. (1900), 7407. The town is surrounded by rotary, spiral, ring, open-link or chain, the spiral being generally a medieval wall, with three gateways, and contains two Protes- used for the second drawing. All, however, perform the same function, viz., combing out the fibres and thus laying them parallel, tant churches, of which that of St Nicholas (14th century) is and in addition drawing out the sliver. The designation of the remarkable for its three fine aisles. There are also a Roman machine indicates the particular method in which the gill pins are Catholic church, an old town-hall and a modern school. Jüter, moved. These pins are much finer than those of the breaker and bog carries on weaving and spinning both of flax and wool, and finisher cards, consequently the fibres are more thoroughly separated. The draft in the first drawing varies from three to five, while that trades in the produce of those manufactures and in cattle. in the second drawing is usually five to seven. It is easy to see that Vines are cultivated in the neighbourhood. Jüterbog belonged a certain amount of draft, or drawing out of the sliver, is necessary, in the later middle ages to the archbishopric of Magdeburg, otherwise the various doublings would cause the sliver to emerge passing to electoral Saxony in 1648, and to Prussia in 1815., It thicker and thicker from each machine. The doublings play a very important part in the appearance of the ultimate rove and yarn, was here that a treaty over the succession to the duchy of Jülich for the chief reason for doubling threads or slivers is to minimize was made in March 1611 between Saxony and Brandenburg, irregularities of thickness and of colour in the material. In an and here in November 1644 the Swedes defeated the Imperialists. ordinary case, the total doublings in jute from the breaker card to the end of the second drawing, is ninety-six: 12 X 4 X 2 = 96; Two miles S.W. of the town is the battlefield of Dennewitz and if the slivers were made thinner and more of them used the where the Prussians defeated the French on the 6th of Septem. ultimate result would naturally be improved. ber 1813. JUTES-JUTURNA 609 JUTES, the third of the Teutonic nations which invaded considerable river is the Gudenaa, flowing from S.W. into the Britain in the 5th century, called by Bede Iutae or Iuti (see Randersfjord (Cattegat), and rising among the picturesque BRITAIN, ANGLO-Saxon). They settled in Kent and the Isle of lakes of the county of Aarhus, where the principal elevated Wight together with the adjacent parts of Hampshire. In the ground in the peninsula is found in the Himmelbjerg and adjacent latter case the national name is said to have survived until hills (exceeding 500 ft.). The German portion of the peninsula Bede's own time, in the New Forest indeed apparently very is generally similar to that of western Jutland, the main difference much later. In Kent, however, it seems to have soon passed lying in the occurrence of islands (the North Frisian) off the west out of use, though there is good reason for believing that the coast in place of sand-bars and lagoons. Erratic blocks are of inhabitants of that kingdom were of a different nationality from frequent occurrence in south Jutland. (For geology, and the their neighbours (see KENT, KINGDOM OF). With regard to the general consideration of Jutland in connexion with the whole origin of the Jutes, Bede only says that Angulus (Angel) lay kingdom, see DENMARK.) between the territories of the Saxons and the lutae--a statement Although in ancient times well wooded, the greater portion which points to their identity with the Iuti or Jyder of later of the interior of Jutland consisted for centuries of barren drift- times, i.e. the inhabitants of Jutland. Some recent writers sand, which grew nothing but heather; but since 1866, chiefly have preferred to identify the Jutes with a tribe called Eucii through the instrumentality of the patriotic Heath association, mentioned in a letter from Theodberht to Justinian (Mon. assisted by annual contributions from the state, a very large Germ. Hist., Epist. iii., p. 132 seq.) and settled apparently in the proportion of this region has been more or less reclaimed for neighbourhood of the Franks. But these people may themselves cultivation. The means adopted are: (i.) the plantation of trees; have come from Jutland. (ii.) the making of irrigation canals and irrigating meadows; See Bede, Hist. Eccles. i. 15, iv. 16. (H. M. C.) (iii.) exploring for, extracting and transporting loam, a process JUTIGALPA, or JUTICALPA, the capital of the department of aided by the construction of short light railways; and (iv.), since Jutigalpa in eastern Honduras, on one of the main roads from 1889, the experimental cultivation of fenny districts. The the Bay of Fonseca to the Atlantic coast, and on a small left- activity of the association takes the form partly of giving hand tributary of the river Patuca. Pop. (1905), about 18,000. gratuitous advice, partly of experimental attempts, and partly Jutigalpa is the second city of Honduras, being surpassed only of model works for imitation. The state also makes annual by Tegucigalpa. It is the administrative centre of a moun- grants directly to owners who are willing to place their planta- tainous. region rich in minerals, though mining is rendered tions under state supervision, for the sale of plants at half price difficult by the lack of communications and the unsettled con- to the poorer peasantry, for making protective or sheltering dition of the country. The majority of the inhabitants are plantations, and for free transport of marl or loam. The species Indians or half-castes, engaged in the cultivation of coffee, of timber almost exclusively planted are the red fir (Picea bananas, tobacco, sugar or cotton. excelsa) and the mountain pine (Pinus montana). This admirable JUTLAND (Danish Jylland), though embracing several work quickly caused the population to increase at a more rapid islands as well as a peninsula, may be said to belong to the rate in the districts where it was practised than in any other part continental portion of the kingdom of Denmark. The peninsula of the Danish kingdom. The counties of Viborg, Ringkjöbing (Chersonese or Cimbric peninsula of ancient geography) extends and Ribe cover the principal heath district. northward, from a line between Lübeck and the mouth of the Jutland is well served by railways. Two lines cross the fron- Elbe, for 270 m. to the promontory of the Skaw (Skagen), thus tier from Germany on the east and west respectively and run preventing a natural communication directly east and west northward near the coasts. The eastern touches the ports of between the Baltic and North Seas. The northern portion only Kolding, Fredericia, Vejle, Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg is Danish, and bears the name Jutland. The southern is Ger- on Limfjord, Frederikshavn and Skagen. On the west the only man, belonging to Schleswig-Holstein. The peninsula is almost port of first importance is Esbjerg. The line runs past Skjerne, at its narrowest (36 m.) at the frontier, but Jutland has an Ringkjöbing, Vemb and Holstebro to Thisted. Both throw off extreme breadth of 110 m. and the extent from the south-western many branches and are connected by lines east and west between point (near Ribe) to the Skaw is 180 m. Jutland embraces nine Kolding and Esbjerg, Skanderborg and Skjerne, Langaa and amter (counties), namely, Hjörring, Thisted, Aalborg, Ringkjöb- Struer on Limfjord via Viborg. Of purely inland towns only ing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle and Ribe. The main water- Viborg in the midland and Hjörring in the extreme north are shed of the peninsula lies towards the east coast; therefore of importance. such elevated ground as exists is found on the east, while the JUTURNA (older form Diuturna, the lasting), an old Latin western slope is gentle and consists of a low sandy plain of divinity, a personification of the never failing springs. Her ori- slight undulation. The North Sea coast (western) and Skager- ginal home was on the river Numicius near Lavinium, where rack coast (north-western) consist mainly of a sweeping line there was a spring called after her, supposed to possess heal- of dunes with wide lagoons behind them. In the south the ing qualities (whence the old Roman derivation from juvare, northernmost of the North Frisian Islands (Fanö) is Danish. to help). Her worship was early transferred to Rome, Towards the north a narrow mouth gives entry to the Limfjord, localized by the Lacus Juturnae near the temple of Vesta, at or Liimfjord, which, wide and ramifying among islands to the which Castor and Pollux, after announcing the victory of lake west, narrows to the east and pierces through to the Cattegat, thus Regillus, were said to have washed the sweat from their horses. isolating the counties of Hjörring and Thisted (known together as At the end of the First Punic War Lutatius Catulus erected a Vendsyssel). It is, however, bridged at Aalborg, and its depth temple in her honour on the Campus Martius, subsequently re- rarely exceeds 12 ft. The seaward banks of the lagoons are frestored by Augustus. Juturna was associated with two festivals: quently broken in storms, and the narrow channels through them the Juturnalia on the inth of January, probably a dedication are constantly shifting. The east coast is slightly bolder than the festival of a temple built by Augustus, and celebrated by the west, and indented with true estuaries and bays. From the college of the foniani, workmen employed in the construction south-east the chain of islands forming insular Denmark ex- and maintenance of aqueducts and fountains; and the Volcan- tends towards Sweden, the strait between Jutland and Fünen alia on the 23rd of August, at which sacrifice was offered to having the name of the Little Belt. The low and dangerous Volcanus, the Nymphs and Juturna, as protectors against coasts, off which the seas are generally very shallow, are effi- outbreaks of fire. In Virgil, Juturna appears as the sister of ciently served by a series of lifeboat stations. The western coast Turnus (probably owing to the partial similarity of the names), region is well compared with the Landes of Gascony. The on whom Jupiter, to console her for the loss of her chastity, interior is low. The Varde, Omme, Skjerne, Stor and Karup, bestowed immortality and the control of all the lakes and rivers sluggish and tortuous streams draining into the western lagoons, of Latium. For the statement that she was the wife of Janus rise in and flow through marshes, while the eastern Limfjord and mother of Fontus (or Fons), the god of fountains, Arnobius is flanked by the swamps known as Vildmose. The only. (Adv. genles iii. 29) is alone responsible. 610 JUVENAL 66 1 40 See Virgil, Aeneid, xii. 139 and Servius ad loc.; Ovid, Fasti, ii. were written, as Paris was put to death in 83, and Juvenal was 583-616; Valerius Maximus, i. 8. 1; L. Deubner, Juturna und die The satire in which the Ausgrabungen auf dem römischen Forum," in 'Neue Jahrb. f. das certainly writing satires long after 100. klassische Åliertum (1902), p. 370. lines now appear was probably first published soon after the accession of Hadrian, when Juvenai was not an octogenarian JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (C. 60-140), Roman but in the maturity of his powers. The cause of the poet's poet and satirist, was born at Aquinum. Brief accounts of his banishment at that advanced age could not therefore have been life, varying considerably in details, are prefixed to different either the original composition or the first publication of the MSS. of the works. But their common original cannot be traced lines. to any competent authority, and some of their statements An expression in xv. 45 is quoted as a proof that Juvenal had are intrinsically improbable. According to the version which visited Egypt. He may have done so as an exile or in a military appears to be the earliest: command; but it seems hardly consistent with the importance Juvenal was the son or ward of a wealthy freedman; he practised which the emperors attached to the security of Egypt, or with declamation till middle age, not as a professional teacher, but as an the concern which they took in the interests of the army, that amateur, and made his first essay in satire by writing the lines on these conditions were combined at an age so unfit for military Paris, the actor and favourite of Domitian, now found in the seventh satire (lines 90 seq.). Encouraged by their success, he devoted him- employment. If any conjecture is warrantable on so obscure a self diligently to this kind of composition, but refrained for a long subject, it is more likely that this temporary disgrace should have time from either publicly reciting or publishing his verses. When at been inflicted on the poet by Domitian. Among the many vic- last he did come before the public, his recitations were attended by tims of Juvenal's satire it is only against him and against one of great crowds and received with the utmost favour. But the lines originally written on Paris, having been inserted in one of his new the vilest instruments of his court, the Egyptian Crispinus, that satires, excited the jealous anger of an actor of the time, who was a the poet seems to be animated by personal hatred. A sense of favourite of the emperor, and procured the poet's banishment under wrong suffered at their hands may perhaps have mingled with the form of a military appointment to the extremity of Egypt: the detestation which he felt towards them on public grounds. Being then eighty years of age, he died shortly afterwards of grief But if he was banished under Domitian, it must have been and vexation.' either before or after 93, at which time, as we learn from an Some of these statements are so much in consonance with the epigram of Martial, Juvenal was in Rome. indirect evidence afforded by the satires that they may be a More ancient evidence is supplied by an inscription found at series of conjectures based upon them. The rare passages in Aquinum, recording, so far as it has been deciphered, the dedi- which the poet speaks of his own position, as in satires xi. and cation of an altar to Ceres by a Iunius Iuvenalis, tribune of the xiii., indicate that he was in comfortable but moderate circum- first cohort of Dalmatians, duumvir quinquennalis, and flamen stances. We should infer also that he was not dependent on Divi Vespasiani, a provincial magistrate whose functions any professional occupation, and that he was separated in corresponded to those of the censor at Rome. This Juvenalis may social station, and probably too by tastes and manners, from the have been the poet, but he may equally well have been a relation. higher class to which Tacitus and Pliny belonged, as he was by The evidence of the satires does not point to a prolonged absence character from the new men who rose to wealth by servility from the metropolis. They are the product of immediate and under the empire. Juvenal is no organ of the pride and dignity, intimate familiarity with the life of the great city. An epigram still less of the urbanity, of the cultivated representatives of the of Martial, written at the time when Juvenal was most vigorously great families of the republic. He is the champion of the more employed in their composition, speaks of him as settled in Rome. sober virtues and ideas, and perhaps the organ of the rancours He himself hints (iii. 318) that he maintained his connexion with and detraction, of an educated but depressed and embittered Aquinum, and that he had some special interest in the worship middle class. He lets us know that he has no leanings to of the “ Helvinian Ceres." Nor is the tribute to the national philosophy (xiii. 121) and pours contempt on the serious epic religion implied by the dedication of the altar to Ceres incon- writing of the day (i. 162). The statement that he was a trained sistent with the beliefs and feelings expressed in the satires. and practised declaimer is confirmed both by his own words (i. 16) While the fables of mythology are often treated contemptuously and by the rhetorical mould in which his thoughts and illustra- or humorously by him, other passages in the satires clearly tions are cast. The allusions which fix the dates when his imply a conformity to, and even a respect for, the observances of satires first appeared, and the large experience of life which they the national religion. The evidence as to the military post filled imply, agree with the statement that he did not come before the by Juvenal is curious, when taken in connexion with the con- world as a professed satirist till after middle age. fused tradition of his exile in a position of military importance. The statement that he continued to write satires long before But it cannot be said that the satires bear traces of military he gave them to the world accords well with the nature of their experience; the life described in them is rather such as would contents and the elaborate character of their composition, and present itself to the eyes of a civilian. might almost be inferred from the emphatic but yet guarded The only other contemporary evidence which affords a glimpse statement of Quintilian in his short summary of Roman litera- of Juvenal's actual life is contained in three epigrams of Martial. ture. After speaking of the merits of Lucilius, Horace and Per. Two of these (vii. 24 and 91) were written in the time of Domitian, sius as satirists, he adds, “ There are, too, in our own day, dis- the third (xii. 18) early in the reign of Trajan, after Martial had tinguished writers of satire whose names will be heard of here- retired to his native Bilbilis. The first attests the strong regard after” (Inst. Or. X. 1, 94). There is no Roman writer of satire which Martial felt for him; but the subject of the epigram seems who could be mentioned along with those others by so judicious to hint that Juvenal was not an easy person to get on with. In. a critic, except Juvenal. The motive which a writer of satire the second, addressed to Juvenal himself, the epithet facundus must have had for secrecy under Domitian is sufficiently obvious; is applied to him, equally applicable to his “ eloquence and the necessity of concealment and self-suppression thus im- satirist or rhetorician. In the last Martial imagines his friend posed upon the writer may have permanently affected his whole wandering about discontentedly through the crowded streets of manner of composition. Rome, and undergoing all the discomforts incident to attendance So far the original of these lives follows a not improbable on the levées of the great. Two lines in the poem suggest that tradition. But when we come to the story of the poet's exile the satirist, who inveighed with just severity against the worst the case is otherwise. The undoubted reference to Juvenal incorruptions of Roman morals, was not too rigid a censor of the Sidonius Apollinaris as the victim of the rage of an actor only morals of his friend. Indeed, his intimacy with Martial is a proves that the original story from which all the varying versions ground for not attributing to him exceptional strictness of life. of the lives are derived was generally believed before the middle The additional information as to the poet's life and circum- of the 5th century of our era. If Juvenal was banished at the stances derivable from the satires themselves is not important, age of eighty, the author of his banishment could not have been He had enjoyed the training which all educated men received in the “ enraged actor” in reference to whom the original lines bis day (i. 15); he speaks of his farm in the territory of Tibur a " as JUVENAL 611 . (xi. 65.), which furnished a young kid and mountain asparagus trifler rather than as a monster of lust and cruelty, is the reproduc- for a homely dinner to which he invites a friend during the festivaltion of a real or imaginary scene from the reign of Domitian, and of the Megalesia. From the satire in which this invitation is is animated by the profoundest scorn and loathing both of the contained we are able to form an idea of the style in which he tyrant himself and of the worst instruments of his tyranny. habitually lived, and to think of him as enjoying a hale and The fifth is a social picture of the degradation to which poor vigorous age (203), and also as a kindly master of a household guests were exposed at the banquets of the rich, but many of the (159 seq.). The negative evidence afforded in the account of his epigrams of Martial and the more sober evidence of one of Pliny's establishment suggests the inference that, like Lucilius and letters show that the picture painted by Juvenal, though perhaps Horace, Juvenal had no personal experience of either the cares exaggerated in colouring, was drawn from a state of society or the softening influence of family life. A comparison of this prevalent during and immediately subsequent to the times of poem with the invitation of Horace to Torquatus (Ep.i. 5) brings Domitian. Book II. consists of the most elaborate of the out strongly the differences not in urbanity only but in kindly satires, by many critics regarded as the poet's masterpiece, the feeling between the two satirists. Gaston Boissier has drawn famous sixth satire, directed against the whole female sex, from the indications afforded of the career and character of which shares with Domitian and his creatures the most cherished the persons to whom the satires are addressed most unfavourable place in the poet's antipathies. It shows certainly no diminu- conclusions as to the social circumstances and associations of tion of vigour either in its representation or its invective. The Juvenal. If we believe that these were all real people, with whom time at which this satire was composed cannot be fixed with Juvenal lived in intimacy, we should conclude that he was most certainty, but some allusions render it highly probable that it unfortunate in his associates, and that his own relations to them was given to the world in the later years of Trajan, and before were marked rather by outspoken frankness than civility. But the accession of Hadrian. The date of the publication of they seem to be more " nominis umbrae” than real men; they Book III., containing the seventh, eighth and ninth satires, seems serve the purpose of enabling the satirist to aim his blows at to be fixed by its opening line to the first years after the accession one particular object instead of declaiming at large. They have of Hadrian. In the eighth satire another reference is made (120) none of the individuality and traits of personal character dis- to the misgovernment of Marius in Africa as a recent event, cernible in the persons addressed by Horace in his Satires and and at line 51 there may be an allusion to the Eastern wars that Epistles. It is noticeable that, while Juvenal writes of the poets occupied the last years of Trajan's reign. The ninth has no and men of letters of a somewhat earlier time as if they were still allusion to determine its date, but it is written with the same living, he makes no reference to his friend Martial or the younger outspoken freedom as the second and the sixth, and belongs to Pliny and Tacitus, who wrote their works during the years of his the period when the poet's power was most vigorous, and his own literary activity. It is equally noticeable that Juvenal's exposure of vice most uncompromising. In Book IV., comprising name does not appear in Pliny's letters. the famous tenth, the eleventh and the twelfth satires, the author The times at which the satires were given to the world do not appears more as a moralist than as a pure satirist. In the tenth, in all cases coincide with those at which they were written and the theme of the “vanity of human wishes” is illustrated by to which they immediately refer. Thus the manners and per- great historic instances, rather than by pictures of the men and sonages of the age of Domitian often supply the material of satiric manners of the age; and, though the declamatory vigour and representation, and are spoken of as if they belonged to the actual power of expression in it are occasionally as great as in the earlier life of the present, while allusions even in the earliest show that, satires; and although touches of Juvenal's saturnine humour, as à finished literary composition, it belongs to the age of Trajan. and especially of his misogyny, appear in all the satires of this The most probable explanation of these discrepancies is that in book, yet their general tone shows that the white heat of his their present form the satires are the work of the last thirty indignation is abated; and the lines of the eleventh, already years of the poet's life, while the first nine at least may have pre- referred to (201 seq.), served with little change passages written during his earlier “Spectent juvenes quos clamor et audax manhood. The combination of the impressions, and, perhaps Sponsio, quos cultae decet assedisse puellae: of the actual compositions, of different periods also explains a Nostra bibat vernum contracta cuticula solem," certain want of unity and continuity found in some of them. leave no doubt that he was well advanced in years when they There is no reason to doubt that the sixteen satires which we were written. possess were given to the world in the order in which we find them, Two important dates are found in Book V., comprising satires and that they were divided, as they are referred to in the ancient xiii. xvi. At xiii. 16 Juvenal speaks of his friend Calvinus as grammarians, into five books. Book I., embracing the first five now past sixty years of age, having been born in the consulship satires, was written in the freshest vigour of the author's powers, of Fonteius. Now L. Fonteius Capito was consul in 67. Again and is animated with the strongest hatred of Domitian. The at xv. 27 an event is said to have happened in Egypt "nuper publication of this book belongs to the early years of Trajan. consule Iunco.” There was a L. Aemilius Iuncus consul The mention of the exile of Marius (49) shows that it was not suffectus in 127. The fifth book must therefore have been pub- published before 100. In the second satire, the lines 29 seq., lished some time after this date. More than the fourth, this “Qualis erat nuper tragico pollutus adulter book bears the marks of age, both in the milder tone of the senti- Concubitu," ments expressed, and in the feebler power of composition exhi- show that the memory of one of the foulest scandals of the reign both of this and of the fifteenth has been questioned, though on bited. The last satire is now imperfect, and the authenticity of Domitian was still fresh in the minds of men. The third satire, imitated by Samuel Johnson in his London, presents such a picture. insufficient grounds. as Rome may have offered to the satirist at any time in the Thus the satires were published at different intervals, and for ist century of our era; but it was under the worst emperors, Nero the most part composed between 100 and 130, but the most and Domitian, that the arts of flatterers and foreign adventurers powerful in feeling and vivid in conception among them deal were most successful, and that such scenes of violence as that with the experience and impressions of the reign of Domitian, described at 277 seq. were most likely to occur;? while the mention occasionally recall the memories or traditions of the times of of Veiento (185) as still enjoying influence is a distinct reference Nero and Claudius, and reproduce at least one startling page to the court of Domitian. The fourth, which alone has any which constrained Tacitus (Agric. 2, 3), when the time of long from the annals of Tiberius. The same overmastering feeling political significance, and reflects on the emperor as a frivolous endurance and silence was over, to recall the “ memory of the * This is especially noticeable in the seventh satire, but it applies also to the mention of Crispinus, Latinus, the class of delatores, &c., * Pliny's remarks on the vulgarity as well as the ostentation of his in the first, to the notice of Veiento in the third, of Rubellius Blandus host imply that he regarded such behaviour as exceptional, at least in the eighth, of Gallicus in the thirteenth, &c. in the circle in which he himself lived (Ep. ii. 6). . Cf. Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 25. * x. 56-107. 612 JUVENAL (6 former oppression,” acted upon Juvenal. There is no evidence as mere examples of disappointed ambition; and, in the indis- that these two great writers, who lived and wrote at the same criminate condemnation of the arts by which men sought to gain time, who were animated by the same hatred of the tyrant under a livelihood, he leaves no room for the legitimate pursuits of whom the best years of their manhood were spent, and who both industry. His services to morals do not consist in any positive felt most deeply the degradation of their times, were even known contributions to the notions of active duty, but in the strength to one another. Tacitus belonged to the highest official and with which he has realized and expressed the restraining influ- senatorial class, Juvenal apparently to the middle class and to ence of the old Roman and Italian ideal of character, and also that of the struggling men of letters; and this difference in posi- of that religious conscience which was becoming a new power in tion had much influence in determining the different bent of their the world. Though he disclaims any debt to philosophy (xiii. genius, and in forming one to be a great national historian, the 121), yet he really owes more to the “Stoica dogmata," then other to be a great social satirist. If the view of the satirist is prevalent, than he is aware of. But his highest and rarest owing to this circumstance more limited in some directions, and literary quality is his power of painting characters, scenes, his taste and temper less conformable to the best ancient stan- incidents and actions, whether from past history or from con- dards of propriety, he is also saved by it from prejudices to which temporary life. In this power, which is also the great power of the traditions of his class exposed the historian. But both Tacitus, he has few equals and perhaps no superior among ancient writers are thoroughly national in sentiment, thoroughly mascu- writers. The difference between Tacitus and Juvenal in power line in tone. No ancient authors express so strong a hatred of of representation is that the prose historian is more of an imagi- evil. The peculiar greatness and value of both Juvenal and native poet, the satirist more of a realist and a grotesque humor- Tacitus is that they did not shut their eyes to the evil through ist. Juvenal can paint great historical pictures in all their which they had lived, but deeply resented it-the one with a detail-as in the famous representation of the fall of Sejanus; vehement and burning passion, like the “saeva indignatio " of he can describe a character elaborately or hit it off with a single Swift, the other with perhaps even deeper but more restrained stroke. The picture drawn may be a caricature, or a misrepre- emotions of mingled scorn and sorrow, like the scorn and sorrow sentation of the fact-as that of the father of Demosthenes, of Milton when“ fallen on evil days and evil tongues.” In one blear-eyed with the soot of the glowing mass,” &c.--but it is, respect there is a difference. For Tacitus the prospect is not with rare exceptions, realistically conceived, and it is brought wholly cheerless, the detested tyranny was at an end, and its before us with the vivid touches of a Defoe or a Swift, or of the effects might disappear with a more beneficent rule. But the great pictorial satirist of the 18th century, Hogarth. Yet even gloom of Juvenal's pessimism is unlighted by hope. in this, his most characteristic talent, his proneness to exaggera- A. C. Swinburne has suggested that the secret of Juvenal's tion, the attraction which coarse and repulsive images have for concentrated power consisted in this, that he knew what he his mind, and the tendency to sacrifice general effect to minute- hated, and that what he did hate was despotism and democracy. ness of detail not infrequently mar his best effects. But it would be hardly true to say that the animating motive of The difficulty is often felt of distinguishing between a powerful his satire was political. It is true that he finds the most typical rhetorician and a genuine poet, and it is felt particularly in the examples of lust, cruelty, levity and weakness in the emperors case of Juvenal. He himself knew and has well described and their wives-in Domitian, Otho, Nero, Claudius and Messa- (vii. 53 seq.) the conditions under which a great poet could lina. It is true also that he shares in the traditional idolatry of flourish; and he felt that his own age was incapable of producing Brutus, that he strikes at Augustus in his mention of the "three He has little sense of beauty either in human life or nature. disciples of Sulla," and that he has no word of recognition for Whenever such sense is evoked it is only as a momentary relief to what even Tacitus acknowledges as the beneficent rule of Trajan. his prevailing sense of the hideousness of contemporary life, or in So too his scorn for the Roman populace of his time, who cared protest against what he regarded as the enervating influences of only for their dole of bread and the public games, is unqualified. art. Even his references to the great poets of the past indicate But it is only in connexion with its indirect effects that he seems rather a blasé sense of indifference and weariness than a fresh to think of despotism; and he has no thought of democracy at enjoyment of them. Yet his power of touching the springs of all. It is not for the loss of liberty and of the senatorian rule tragic awe and horror is a genuine poetical gift, of the same kind that he chafes, but for the loss of the old national manliness and as that which is displayed by some of the early English dramatists. self-respect. This feeling explains his detestation of foreign But he is, on the whole, more essentially a great rhetorician than manners and superstitions, his loathing not only of inhuman a great poet. His training, the practical bent of his understand- crimes and cruelties but even of the lesser derelictions from self-ing, his strong but morose character, the circumstances of his respect, his scorn of luxury and of art as ministering to luxury, time, and the materials available for his art, all fitted him to his mockery of the poetry and of the stale and dilettante culture rebuke his own age and all after-times in the tones of a powerful of his time, and perhaps, too, his indifference to the schools of preacher, rather than charm them with the art of an accom- philosophy and his readiness to identify all the professors of plished poet. The composition of his various satires shows no stoicism with the reserved and close-cropped puritans, who negligenee, but rather excess of elaboration; but it produces concealed the worst vices under an outward appearance of the impression of mechanical contrivance rather than of organic austerity. The great fault of his character, as it appears in his growth. His movement is sustained and powerful, but there is writings, is that he too exclusively indulged this mood. It is no rise and fall in it. The verse is most carefully constructed, much more difficult to find what he loved and admired than and is also most effective, but it is so with the rhetorical effec- what he hated. But it is characteristic of his strong nature that, tiveness of Lucan, not with the musical charm of Virgil. The where he does betray any sign of human sympathy or tenderness, diction is full, even to excess, of meaning, point and emphasis. it is for those who by their weakness and position are dependent Few writers have added so much to the currency of quotation. on others for their protection-as for “ the peasant boy with the But his style altogether wants the charm of ease and simplicity. little dog, his playfellow,"1 or for “the home-sick lad from the It wearies by the constant strain after effect, its mock-heroics Sabine highlands, who sighs for his mother whom he has not seen and allusive periphrasis, and excites distrust by its want of for a long time, and for the little hut and the familiar kids."'? moderation. If Juvenal is to be ranked as a great moralist, it is not for his On the whole no one of the ten or twelve really great writers greatness and consistency as a thinker on moral questions. In of ancient Rome leaves on the mind so mixed an impression, the rhetorical exaggeration of the famous tenth satire, for in- both as a writer and as a man, as Juvenal. He has little, if stance, the highest energies of patriotism-the gallant and des- anything at all, of the high imaginative mood-the mood of perate defence of great causes, by sword or speech-are quoted reverence and noble admiration—which made Ennius, Lucretius “Meliusne hic rusticus infans and Virgil the truest poetical representatives of the genius of Cum matre et casulis et conlusore catello," &c.-ix. 60. Rome. He has nothing of the wide humanity of Cicero, of the 2 xi. 152, 153 urbanity of Horace, of the ease and grace of Catullus. Yet he one. " 1 JUVENCUS- JUVENILE OFFENDERS 613 64 represents another mood of ancient Rome, the mood natural to is known of him except that he was a Spanish presbyter of dis- her before she was humanized by the lessons of Greek art and tinguished family. About 330 he published his Libri evangeli- thought. If we could imagine the elder Cato living underorum IV., each book containing about 800 hexameters. The Domitian, cut off from all share in public life, and finding no out- division into books is possibly a reminiscence of the number of let for his combative energy except in literature, we should per- the Gospels. The work itself, written with the idea of ousting haps understand the motives of Juvenal's satire and the place the absurdities of Pagan mythology and replacing them by the which is his due as a representative of the genius of his country. truths of Christianity, may be called the first Christian epic. As a man he shows many of the strong qualities of the old Roman In the Praefatio the author expresses the hope that the sacred- plebeian-the aggressive boldness, the intolerance of superiority ness of his subject may procure him safety at the final con- and privilege, which animated the tribunes in their opposition flagration of the world and admission into heaven. The whole to the senatorian rule. Even where we least like him we find is, in the main, a poetical version of the Gospel of Matthew, the nothing small or mean to alienate our respect from him. Though other evangelists only being used for supplementary details. he loses no opportunity of being coarse, he is not licentious; It is founded upon a pre-vulgate Latin translation, although though he is often truculent, he cannot be called malignant. there is evidence that Juvencus also consulted the Greek. In It is, indeed, impossible to say what motives of personal chagrin, spite of metrical irregularities, the language and style are simple of love of detraction, of the mere literary passion for effective and show good taste, being free from the artificiality of other writing, may have contributed to the indignation which inspired Christian poets and prose writers, and the author has made his verse. But the prevailing impression we carry away after excellent use of Virgil (his chief model) and other classical reading him is that in all his early satires he was animated by a writers. Juvencus set the fashion of verse translations of the sincere and manly detestation of the tyranny and cruelty, the Bible, and the large number of MSS. of his poem mentioned in debauchery and luxury, the levity and effeminacy, the crimes lists and still extant are sufficient evidence of its great popularity. and frauds, which we know from other sources were then rife in According to Jerome, he was also the author of some poems on Rome, and that a more serene wisdom and a happier frame of the sacraments, but no trace of these has survived. The Latin mind were attained by him when old age had somewhat allayed Heptateuch, a hexameter version of the first seven books of the the fierce rage which vexed his manhood. Old Testament, has been attributed to Juvencus amongst AUTHORITIES.-The remarkable statements in a "life" found others; but it is now generally supposed to be the work of a in a late Italian Ms. (Barberini, viii. 18), “ Iunius luvenalis Aquinas certain Cyprianus, a Gaul who lived in the 6th century, possibly lunio Iuvenale patre matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio a bishop of Toulon, author of the Life of Caesarius, bishop of Claudio Nerone et L. Antistio consulibus (55) natus est, sororem Arelate (Arles). habuit Septumuleiam quae Fuscino (Sat. xiv. 1) nupsit," though not necessarily false, cannot be accepted without confirmation. See M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie (1891); The earliest evidence for the banishment of Juvenal is that of (1889); editions of Juvencus by C. Marold (1886); J. Hümer in A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters, vol. i.. Sidonius Apollinaris (c. 480), Carm. ix. 269, Caesaris secundi | Aeterno coluit Tomos reatu | Nec qui consimili Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, vol. xxiv. (Vienna, deinde casu | Ad vulgi tenuem strepentis auram | Irati fuit his. 1891); J. T. Hatfield, A Study of Juvencus (1890), dealing with syntax; trionis exul,"lines which by the exact parallel drawn between Cvid's (1889; reviewed by W. Sanday in Classical Review, October 1889, metre and language; editions of the Heptateuch by J. E. B. Mayor fate and Juvenal's imply the belief that Juvenal died in exile. The and by J. T. Hatfield in American Journal of Philology, vol. xi., 1890), banishment is also mentioned by J. Malalas, a Greek historian subsequent to Justinian, who gives the place as Pentapolis in Africa, and R. Peiper, vol. xxiii. of the Vienna series above. Chron. x. 262, Dindorf. The inscription (on a stone now lost) JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In modern social science the is as follows, the words and letters in brackets being the conjectural question of the proper penal treatment of juvenile (i.e. non- restorations of scholars:- (Cere) si sacrum! (D. lu nius luvenalis adult) offenders has been increasingly discussed; and the | trib.coh. [1] Delmatarum | II vir quinq. flamen | divi Vespasiani | vo- vit dedicav(it) que | sua pec., Corp. inscr. lat. X. 5382, xiii. 201 reformatory principle, first applied in the case of children, has sqq. The best of the known manuscripts of Juvenal (P) is at even been extended to reclaimable adult offenders (juveniles in Montpellier (125); but there are several others which cannot be crime, if not in age) in a way which brings them sufficiently neglected. Amongst these may be specially mentioned the Bodleian MS. (Canon. Lat. 41), which contains a portion of Satire vi., the within the same category to be noticed in this article. In the existence of which was unknown until e. o. Winstedt published it in old days the main idea in England was to use the same penal the Classical Review (1899), pp. 201 seq. Another fragment in the methods for all criminals, young and old; when the child broke Bibliothèque Nationale was described by C. E. Stuart in the Classical the law he was sent to prison like his elders. It was only in com- Quarterly (Jan. 1909). Numerous scholia and glossaries attest the interest taken in Juvenal in post-classical times and the middle ages. paratively recent times that it was realized that child criminals There are two classes of scholia--the older or “ Pithoeana, first were too often the victims to circumstances beyond their own published by P. Pithoeus, and the “ Cornutus scholia " of less control. They were cursed with inherited taint; they were value, specimens of which have been published by various scholars. brought up among evil surroundings; they suffered from the The earliest edition which need now be mentioned is that of P. Pithoeus, 1585, in which P was first used for the text. Amongst culpable neglect of vicious parents, and still more from bad later ones we may mention the commentaries of Ruperti (1819) and example and pernicious promptings. They were rather poten- C.F.Heinrich (1839, with the old scholia), 0. Jahn (1851, critical with tial than actual criminals, calling for rescue and regeneration the old scholia), A. Weidner (1889), L. Friedländer (1895, with a full rather than vindictive reprisals. Under the old system a verbal index). The most useful English commentaries are those of J. E. B. Mayor (a voluminous and learned commentary on thirteen painstaking English gaol chaplain calculated that 58% of of the Satires, ii., vi. and ix. being omitted), J. D. Lewis (1882, with all criminals had made their first lapse at fifteen. Boys a prose translation) and J. D. Duff (1898, expurgated, and ii. and ix. and girls laughed at imprisonment. Striplings of thirteen and being omitted). There are recent critical texts: conservative and fourteen had been committed ten, twelve, sixteen or seventeen chiefly based on P, by F. Buecheler (1893, with selections from the times. Religion and moral improvement were little regarded in scholia) and S. G. Owen (in the Oxford Series of Texts); on the other side; by A. E. Housman(1905)and by the same, but with fewer innova. prisons, industrial and technical training were impossible. The tions, in the new Corpus poetarum latinorum, fasc. v. The two last, chief lesson learnt was an intimate and contemptuous acquain- named editors alone give the newly discovered lines of Satire vi. tance with the demoralizing interior of a gaol. There were at There are no recent translations of Juvenal into English verse, flash houses” frequented by 6000 Dryden translated i., iii., vi., x. and xvi., the others being committed one time in London 200 to inferior hands. Other versions are Gifford's (1802), of some merit, boys trained and proficient in thieving and depredation. and 's (1814). Johnson's imitations Satires iii. and x. The substantial movement for reform dates from the protests are well known. For the numerous articles and contributions to of Charles Dickens, who roused public opinion to such an extent the criticism and elucidation of the Salires, reference should be made to Teuffel's Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (Eng: trans.by Warse). Sporadic efforts to meet the evil had indeed been made that the first Reformatory School Act was passed in 1854. $ 331, and Schanz, ditto (1901, ii. § 2, § 4202). (W.Y.S.;J. P. P.) earlier. In 1756 the Marine Society established a school for the JUVENCUS, GAIUS VETTIUS AQUILINUS, Christian poet, reception and reform of younger criminals; in 1788 the City of flourished during the reign of Constantine the Great. Nothing London formed a similar institution, which grew much later into 11 11 614 JUVENILE OFFENDERS 14 64 or family" 1) the farm school at Redhill. In 1838 an act of parliament of the law and to the establishment of two kinds of subsidiary creaied an establishment at Parkhurst for the detention and industrial schools, short detention of truant schools and day correction of juvenile offenders, to whom pardon was given industrial schools in which children do not reside but receive conditional on their entrance into some charitable institution. their meals, their elementary education and a certain amount Parkhurst was technically a prison, and the system combined of industrial training. The total admissions to truant schools industrial training with religious and educational instruction. in 1907 were 1368 boys, and the numbers actually in the schools These earlier efforts had, however, been quite insufficient to on the last day of that year were 1125 with 2568 on licence. meet the evils, for in the years immediately preceding 1854 The average length of detention was fourteen weeks and three crime was being so constantly reinforced in its beginnings, days on first admission, seventeen weeks and five days on first under the existing penal system, that it threatened to re-admission, and twenty-three weeks six days on second re- swamp the country. Unofficial, but more or less accurate, admission. The total number of admissions into truant schools figures showed that between 11,000 and 12,000 juveniles from 1878 to the end of 1907 was 44,315, of whom just half had passed annually through the prisons of England and Wales, a been licensed and not returned, 11,239 had been licensed and third of the whole number being contributed by London alone. once re-admitted, 8900 had been re-admitted twice or oftener. In 1854 the total reached 14,000. The ages of offenders ranged The day industrial schools owed their origin to another reason from less than twelve to seventeen; 60% of the whole were than the enforcement of the Education Acts. It was found that between fourteen and seventeen; 46% had been committed some special treatment was required for large masses of youths more than once; 18% four times and more. in iarge cities, who were in such a neglected or degraded con- The Reformatory School Act 1854, which was thrashed out dition that there was little hope of their growing into healthy at conferences held in Birmingham in 1851 and 1853, substituted men and women or becoming good citizens. They were left un- the school for the gaol, and all judicial benches were empowered clean, were ill-fed and insufficiently clothed, and were not use- to send delinquents to schools when they had been guilty of fully taught. The total number who attended these day schools acts punishable by short imprisonment, the limit of which was in 1907 was 1951 boys and 1232 girls. at first fourteen and became afterwards ten days. A serious The disciplinary system of the English schools is planned flaw in this act long survived; this was the provision that a upon the establishment or institution system, as opposed to short period of imprisonment in gaol must precede reception that of the boarding out systems adopted in into the reformatory; it was upheld by well-meaning but mis- some countries, and some controversy has been aroused as to taken people as essential for deterrence. But more enlightened the comparative value of the methods. The British practice opinion condemned the rule as inflicting an indelible prison has always favoured the well-governed school, with the proviso taint and breeding contamination, even with ample and effective that it is kept small so that the head may know all of his charges. safeguards. Wiser legislation has followed, and an act of 1899 But a compromise has been effected in large establishments by abolished preliminary imprisonment. dividing the boys into “houses,” each containing a small Existing reformatories, or “senior home office schools". as manageable total as a family under an official father or head. they are officially styled, in England numbered 44 in 1907. Under this system the idea of the home is maintained, while They receive all juvenile offenders, up to the age of sixteen, who uniformity of treatment and discipline is secured by grouping have been convicted of an offence punishable with penal servi- several houses together under one general authority. The plan tude or imprisonment. The number of these during the years of “ boarding out” is not generally approved of in England; the between 1894 and 1906 constantly varied, but the figure of the value of the domestic training is questionable and of uncertain earliest date, 6604, was never exceeded, and in some years it quality, depending entirely upon the character and fitness of was considerably less, while in 1906 it was no more than 5586: the foster-parents secured. Education must be less systematic though the general population had increased by several millions in the private home, industrial training is less easily carried out, in the period. These figures, in comparison with those of 1854, and there can be none of that esprit de corps that stimulates must be deemed highly satisfactory, even when we take into effort in physical training as applied to athletics and the playing account that the latter went up to the age of seventeen. Older of games. No very definite decision has been arrived at as to offenders, between sixteen and twenty-one, come within the the comparative merits of institution life and boarding out. category of juvenile adults and are dealt with differently (see Among the Latin races-France, Italy, Portugal and Spain- Borstal Scheme below). the former is as a rule preferred; also in Belgium; in Germany, Other schools must be classed with the reformatory, although Holland and the United States placing out in private families they have no connexion with prisons and deal with youths is very much the rule; in Austria-Hungary and Russia both who are only potential criminals. The first in importance are methods are in use. the industrial schools. When the newly devised reformatories The total admissions to English reformatory schools from their were doing excellent service it was realized that many of the creation to the 31st of December 1907, amounted to 76,455, or rising generation might some day lapse into evil ways but were 64,03! boys and 12,424 girls. The total discharges for the same still on the right side and might with proper precautions be kept period were 70,890, or 59,081 boys and 11,809 girls. The results may be tested by the figures for those discharged in 1904, 1905 there. They wanted preventive, not punitive treatment, and and 1906: for them industrial schools were instituted. The germ of these Boys.-3573 were placed out, of whom 66 had died, leaving 3507; establishments existed in the Ragged Schools, “ intended to of these it was found that 2735 (or about 78%) were in regular educate destitute children and save them from vagrancy and employment; 158 (or about 4%) were in casual employment: 439 crime.” They had been invented by John Pounds (1766-1839), lok about 13 %) had been convicted; and 175 (or about 5 %) were unknown. a. Portsmouth shoemaker, who, early in the 19th century, Girls.-480, of whom 11 had died, leaving 469; of these it was was moved with sympathy for these little outcasts and devoted found that 384 (or about 82%) were in regular employment; 28 (or himself to this good work. The ragged school movement found about 6%) were in casual employment; 17 (or about 4%) had been convicted, and 40 (or about 8%) were unknown. powerful support in active philanthropists when public atten- For industrial schools, including truant and day schools, the tion was aroused to the prevalence of juvenile delinquency: total admissions, up to the 31st of December 1907, were 153,893, or The first Industrial School Act was passed in 1856 and applied 120,955 boys and 32,938 girls. The total discharges to the same date only to Scotland. Next year its provisions were extended to (excluding transfers) were 136,961, or 108,398 boys and 28,563 girls. The results as tested by those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906 England, and their growth was rapid. There were 45 schools were as follow:- in the beginning; in 1878 the number had more than been Boys.-8909 were placed out, of whom 118 had since died, doubled; in 1907 there were 102 in England and Wales and 31 leaving 8791 to be reported on; of these it was found that 7547 in Scotland. (or about 86%) were in regular employment; 415 (or about 4: 7 %) were in casual employment; 419 (or about 4:7%) convicted or re- The provisions of the Education Acts 1871 and 1876 led to a committed; and 410 (or about 4.6%) unknown. iarge increase in the number of children committed for breaches Girls.-2505 placed out, of whom 50 had died, leaving 2455; of JUVENILE OFFENDERS 615 these 2180 (or aþout 89 %) were in regular employment; 112 (or was founded at Castle Jagerspris, which holds some 360 girls. about 4 %) were in casual employment;21 (or about i %) convicted Another of the same class is the Royal Vodrofsvei Bonnehjem or re-committed; and 142 (or about 6 %) unknown. These results are of course wholly independent of those achieved at Copenhagen, founded in the same year by Mlle Schneider, by the juvenile-adult prison reformatory at Borstal instituted in The régime preferred in Denmark is that of the family or the October 1902. The record of the first year's work of this excellent very small school. The Jagerspris system is to divide the whole system showed that 50 % of cases placed out had done well, thanks number of 360 into small parties of 20 each under a nurse or to the system and philanthropic labours of the Borstal Association. An interesting point in regard to the reclamation of these crimin- official mother. Employment in Danish schools is mainly ally inclined juveniles is the nature of the employments to which agricultural, field labour and gardening, with a certain amount they have been recommended, and in which, as shown, they have of industrial training; and on discharge the inmates go to done so well. In 1904, 1905 and 1906, the total number of boys farms or to apprenti ceship, while a few emigrate. discharged and placed was 12,482. By far the largest number of these, nearly a sixth, joined the army, 679 of them entering the France. There are five methods of disposing of juvenile bands; 292 joined the navy: 961 the mercantile marine; 1567 went offenders in France:- to farm service; 414 worked in factories or mills as skilled hands; but others joined as labourers, a general class the total of which was 1. The preliminary or preventative prison (maisons d'arrêt and 1096. Other jobs found included miners (629), carters (352), iron de justice) for those arrested and accused. 2. The ordinary prison for all sentenced to less than six months, or steel workers (214), mechanics (301), shoemakers (181), tailors whose time of detention is too short to admit of their transfer to a (161), shop assistants (228), carpenters (178), bakers (131), messen provincial colony. It also receives children whom parents have gers and porters, including 112 errand boys (315). The balance found unmanageable. found employment in smaller numbers at other trades. The late 3. The public or private penitentiary colony for the irresponsible of 585 was unknown, 858 had been re-convicted, and the balance children, acquitted as without discretion," as well as for the guilty were in unrecorded or casual employment. The outlets found by the girls from these various schools naturally sentenced to more than six months' and less than two years . follow lines appropriate to their sex and the instruction received. Out of a total of 2985 discharged in the three years mentioned, receiving all sentenced for more than two years and all who have 4. The correctional colony, where the system is more severe, 1235 became general servants, 268 housemaids, 203 laundry.maids, misconducted themselves in the milder establishments. 52 cooks, 98 nursemaids, 65 dressmakers, 221 were engaged in factories and mills, and the balance was made up by marriage, particular sentence. 5. Various penitentiary houses for young females, whatever their death or casual employment. In Ireland the reformatory and industrial school system conforms Foremost among French penal reformers stands the name of to that of Great Britain. There were in 1905, six reformatory and F. A. Demetz (1796-1873), the founder of the famous colony 70 industrial schools in Ireland, mostly under Roman Catholic of Mettray. M. Demetz was a judge who, aghast at the evils management. inflicted upon children whom he was compelled by law to im- A short account of the reformatory methods of dealing with prison, left the bench and undertook to find some other outlet juvenile offenders in certain other countries will fitly find a for them. At that time the French law, while it acquitted place here. minors shown to have acted without discretion, still consigned Austria-Hungary.-The law leaves children of less than ten them for safe keeping and inevitable contamination to the years of age to domestic discipline, as also children above that common gaols. M. Demetz conceived the idea of an agricul- age if not exactly criminal, although the latter may be sent to tural colony, and in 1840 organized a small " société palernelle," correctional schools. There they are detained for varying as it was called, of which he became vice-president. Another periods, but never after twenty years of age, and they may be philanthropist, the Vicomte de Bretignières de Courteilles, a sent out on licence to situations or employment found for them. landed proprietor in Touraine, associated himself in the enter- These schools also receive children between ten and fourteen prise and endowed the institution with land at Mettray near guilty of crimes which are, however, by law deemed “contra- Tours. The earliest labours at Mettray were in the development ventions ” only; also the destitute between the same ages and of the institution, but as this approached completion they were the incorrigible whose parents cannot manage them. applied to farmwork, agricultural employment being the chief In Hungary the penal code prescribes that children of less feature of the place. The motto and device of Mettray was than twelve cannot be charged with offences; those between “the moralization of youth by the cultivation of the soil "';. twelve and sixteen may be decmed to have acted without dis- a healthy life in the open air was to replace the enervating and cretion, and thus escape sentence, but are sent to a correctional demoralizing influences of the confined prisons; and this was school where they may be detained till they are twenty years of effected in the usual farming operations, to which were added age. An excellent system prevails in Hungary by which the gardening, vine-dressing, the raising of stock and the breeding supervision of those liberated is entrusted to a “protector," a of silkworms. The labour was not light; on the contrary, the philanthropic person in the district who visits and reports upon directors of the colony sought by constant employment to send the conduct of the boys, much like the“ probation officer "in the their charges to bed tired, ready to sleep soundly and not romp United States. and chatter in their dormitories. The excellence of its aims, Belgium.-The law of November 1891 places the whole and the manifestly good results that were growing out of the mass of juveniles-those who are likely to give trouble and system, soon made Mettray a model for imitation in France and those who have already done so-at the disposal of the state. beyond it. Many establishments were planned upon it, started The system is very elastic, realizing the infinite variety of child by the state or private enterprise; penitentiary colonies were ish natures. The purely paternal régime would be wasted upon created for boys in connexion with some of the great central the really vicious; a severe discipline would press too heavily prisons. The colony of Val de Yèvre has a good record. It on the well-disposed. Accordingly, all juveniles, male and was started by a private philanthropist, Charles J. M. Lucas, female, are divided into six principal classes with a corre- (1803–1889) but after five-and-twenty years was handed over to sponding treatment, it being strictly ruled that there is no the state. Other cognate establishments are those of Petit intermingling of the classes; the very youngest, rescued early, Quevilly near Rouen, Petit Bourg near Paris, St Hiliar and are never to be associated with the older, who may be already Eysses. There are several female colonies, especially that of vicious and degraded and who could not fail to exercise a per- Darnetal at Rouen. nicious influence. One of the great merits of the Belgian system It is for the magistrate or juge d'instruction to select the class is that the regulations may be relaxed, and children of whose of establishment to which the juvenile delinquents brought amendment good hopes are entertained may be released provi- before him shall be committed. The very young, those of twelve sionally, either to the care of parents and guardians or to em- years of age and under, are placed out in the country with fami- ployers, artisans or agriculturists who will teach them a trade. lies, unless they can be again entrusted to their parents or com- Denmark.—There were 61 establishments of all classes for mitted to maisons paternels, containing very limited numbers, juveniles in Denmark in 1906, holding some 2000 inmates. In twenty or thirty, in charge of a large staff. After twelve, and 1874, by the will of Countess Danner, a large female refuge from that age to fourteen or fifteen, the “ ungrateful age ܙܙ as 616 JUVENILE OFFENDERS 1 ) the French call it, boys are sent to a reformatory or “preservative / which are state institutions and the rest founded by private school," where they will be under stronger discipline. For the benevolence or by charitable associations or local communities. third class, from fifteen to sixteen or eighteen, stricter measures None of these is exclusively agricultural; ten are industrial, are necessary, so as to dispose of them in specially selected penal seven industrial and agricultural combined. In Italy the age colonies, as has already been done at Eysses, where the discipline of responsibility is nine, below which no child can be charged is severe, while embodying technical and industrial instruction. with an offence. The Italian schools are mostly planned on a Germany. --In most parts of the German Empire juvenile large scale. That of Marchiondi Spagliardi accommodatcs 550, delinquents and neglected youths are treated in the same estab- divided among three houses under one supreme head. The lishments. No child of less than twelve years of age can be Turazza institution at Treviso holds 380, and there are eight proceeded against in a court of law, although in some German others with from 200 to 300 inmates. The régime is very stales destitute or abandoned children have been taken at the various; the larger number of schools are on the congregate ages of six, five and even three years. Youths between twelve system, with daily labour in association and isolation by night. and eighteen may be convicted, but their offences are passed | The“ family" method is also practised with small groups, divi. over if they are proved to have acted without discretion. There sions or companies, into which the children are formed according are many kinds of correctional institutions and a number of to age or conduct. schools not of a correctional character. These last are generally Sweden.-All children below the age of sixteen may be sent very small, the largest taking barely a hundred, but are very to a correctional establishment or boarded out in respectable numerous. Many private persons have devoted themselves to the families:- work. Count A. von der Recke-Volmerstein (1791-1878) about 1821 founded a refuge for neglected children in Düsselthal, moral perversity and it is deemed advisable to correct them. 1. If they have committed acts punishable by law which indicate between Düsseldorf and Elberstadt. Pastor T. F. Fliedner 2. If they are neglected, ill-uscd, or if their moral deterioration is (1800-1864) built up a fine establishment at Kaiserswerth ſrom feared from the vicious life and character of parents or friends. 1833, in which was an infant school, a penitentiary and an 3. If their conduct at school or at home is such that a more severe orphan asylum. Another famous name is that of W. von Türk correctional treatment is necessary for their rescue. (1774-1846), who studied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland. Under this law the state is also to provide special schools to A school which has largely influenced public opinion in Great | take all above ten who have shown peculiar depravity; all Britain, as in Germany, is the Rauhe Haus, near Hamburg, who have reached eighteen and who are not yet thought fit founded by Dr Wickern in 1833. This began with a single for freedom; all who have relapsed after provisional release. cottage but had grown in twenty years to a hamlet of twenty Sweden is rich in institutions devoted to the care of destitute and houses, with from twelve to sixteen inmates in each. The deserted children, all due to the efforts of the charitable. The establishment is a Lutheran one; both boys and girls are ad-largest correctional establishment is that founded at Hall, mitted, in separate houses, and a marked feature of the place near the town of Sodertelge on the shores of the Baltic. This is the number of “brothers,” young men of good character admirable agricultural colony, modelled on that of Mettray, qualifying for rescue work as superintendents of homes, prison owes its existence to the “Oscar-Josephine sociéty,” founded by officers and schoolmasters. They take part in the work and are Queen Josephine, widow of Oscar I. in constant touch with the boys whom they closely supervise, United States.-In the words of a report made in 1878 by being bound to“ keep them in sight day and night, eat with them, F. B. Sanborn, secretary of the American Social Science Society, sleep in their dormitories, direct their labour, accompany them to “ America can justly plume herself upon the work accom- chapel, join in their recreations and sports." These “ brothers" plished by her juvenile reformatories since their inauguration are honourably known throughout the world and have per- down to the present time.” The first in point of date and still formed a large work in distant lands av missionaries, prison the most considerable of the reformatories in the United States officers and schoolmasters. The Rauhe Haus receives three is that founded in 1825, thanks to the unwearied efforts of the classes of juveniles: first, the boys, mostly street arabs; second, great American publicist and philanthropist Edward Livingston, girls of the same category; third, children taken as boarders which now has its home on Randall's Island in New York from private families, who confess their inability to manage City. In the following year a reformatory of the same class them. The instruction given is in trades, in farming operations, was founded in Boston, and another in the year after in gardening and fruit-raising. The pupils are largely assisted on Philadelphia. All were intended to receive criminal youth. release, through the good offices of the citizens of Hamburg. There are state reformatories now in almost all the states of Holland.-In the Low Countries, refuges, called “Gods- the Union, and those for juvenile adults in New York and huis,” were founded as early as the 14th century, intended for Massachusetts have attracted world-wide attention, aiming so the care and shelter of neglected youth and indigent old age. high and with such an elaboration of means that the deserve In the 19th century people came from all parts of Europe to particular description. learn from the Dutch how orphans and unfortunate children The great state reformatory establishment of Elmira, New could best be cared for. The Godshuis of Amsterdam was a vast York, called into existence in 1889 with the avowed aim of establishment, into which as many as 4000 juveniles were some compassing the reformation of the criminal by new processes, times crowded, with such disastrous effects that its name was partakes of the system involved in the treatment of juvenile changed to that of “pesthuis," and the government in the begin- offenders. It was based upon the principle that crime ought ning of the present century ordered it to be emptied and closed. to be attacked in its beginnings by other than ordinary punitive Other reformatory institutions in Holland are the Netherlands and prison methods. Under this view, the right of society to Mettray, the reform school of Zetten, near the Arnheim railway | defend itself by punishment was denied, and it was held that a station, for Protestant girls; and that of Alkmaar for boys; ! youthful offender was more sinned against than sinning. It was the reformatory school of St Vincent de Paul at Amsterdam for urged that his crime, due largely to inherited defects, mental or both sexes; the Amsterdam reformatory for young vagabonds, physical and vicious surroundings, was not his own fault, male and female; the reform school of Smallepod at Amsterdam. and he had a paramount claim to be treated differently by the The Netherlands Mettray, which is about five hours' journey state when in custody. The state was not justified in using powers from Amsterdam on a farm called Rissjelt, near Zutphen, is of repression to imprison him in the usual mechanical hard and planned on the model of the French Mettray and was founded fast fashion and then return him to society, no better, possibly about 1855 by M. Suringar, a veteran Dutch philanthropist, long worse, than before; it was bound to regenerate him, to change his vice-president of the directors of prisons in Amsterdam. nature, improve his physique, and give him a new mental equip- Ilaly.-In Italy there is no distinction between the treatment ment, so that when again at large he might be fitted to take his of the offending and the neglected or deserted in youth. There place amongst honest citizens, to earn his living by reputable are seventeen or more correctional establishments, eight of means and escape all temptation to driſt back into crime. This " JUVENILE OFFENDERS 617 is the plausible explanation given for the state reformatory reform. The difference in grades is denoted by small and movement, which led to the creation on such costly and extensive scarcely perceptible variations of the little details of everyday lines of Elmira, and of Concord in Massachusetts, a cognate life, such as are supposed in a peculiar degree to affect the appre- establishment. There is very little penal about the treatment, ciation of women, e.g. in the lowest division the women have which is that of a boarding school; the education, thorough and their meals off old and chipped china; in the next the china is carried far, includes languages, music, science and industrial less chipped; in the highest there is no chipped china; in the art; diet is plentiful, even luxurious; amusements and varied next prettily set out with tumblers, cruet-stands and a pepper recreation are permitted; well stocked libraries are provided pot to each prisoner. The superintendent relies greatly also on with entertaining books; a prison newspaper is issued (edited the moralizing influence of animals and birds. Well-behaved by an inmate). Physical development is sedulously cultivated convicts are allowed to - tend sheep, calves, pigs, chickens, both by gymnastics and military exercises, and the whole course canaries and parrots. This privilege is highly esteemed and is well adapted to change entirely the character of the individual productive, it is said, of the most softening influences. subjected to it. The trouble taken in the hope of transforming The “ George Junior Republic" (q.o.) is a remarkable institu- erring youth into useful members of society goes still further. tion established in 1895 at Freeville, near the centre of New The original sentence has been indefinite, and release on parole York State, by Mr. William Reuben George. The original will be granted to inmates who pass through the various courses features of the institution are that the motto “Nothing without with credit and are supposed to have satisfied the authorities labour" is rigidly enforced, and that self-government is carried of their desire to amend. The limit of detention need not exceed to a point that, with mere children, would appear whimsical twelve months, after which parole is possible, although the were it not a proved success. The place is, as the name implies, average period passed before it is granted is twenty-two months. a miniature “republic” with laws, legislature, courts and The hope of permanent amendment is further sought by the administration of its own, all made and carried on by the fact that a situation, generally with good wages and congenial “ citizens " themselves. The tone and spirit of the place work, provided by the authorities, awaits every inmate at the appeared to be excellent and there is much evidence that in time of his discharge. The inmates, selected from a very large many cases strong and independent character is developed in class, are first offenders, but guilty generally of criminal offences, children whose antecedents have been almost hopeless. which include manslaughter, burglary, forgery, fraud, robbery Borstal Scheme in England.—The American system of state and receiving. The exact measure of reformation achieved reformatories as above described has been sharply criticized, but can never be exactly known, from the absence of authentic the principle that underlies it is recognized as, in a measure, statistics and the difficulty of following up the surveillance of sound, and it has been adopted by the English authorities. Some individuals when released on parole. Reports issued by the time back the experiment of establishing a penal reformatory for manager of Elmira claim that 81% of those paroled have done offenders above the age hitherto committed to reformatory well, but these results are not definitely authenticated. They schools was resolved upon. This led to the foundation of the are based upon the ascertained good conduct during the term of Borstal scheme,' which was first formally started in October surveillance, six or twelve months only, during which time these 1902. The arguments which had led to it may be briefly stated subjects haye not yet spent the gratuities earned and have pro- here. It had been conclusively shown that quite half the whole bably still kept the situations found for them on discharge. number of professional criminals had been first convicted when No doubt the material treated at Elmira and Concord is of a under twenty-one years of age, when still at a malleable period kind to encourage hope of reformation, as they are first offenders of development, when in short the criminal habit had not yet and presumably not of the criminal classes. Although the been definitely formed. Moreover these adolescents escaped processes are open to criticism, the discipline enforced in these special reformatory treatment, for sixteen is in Great Britain the state reformatories does not err in excessive leniency. They are age of criminal majority, after which no youthful offenders can not “hotels," as has been sometimes said in ridicule, where be committed to the state reformatory schools. But there was prisoners gó to enjoy themselves, have a good time, study always a formidable contingent of juvenile adults between Plato and conic sections, and pass out to an assured future. sixteen and twenty-one, sent to penal servitude, and their numbers There is plenty of hard work, mental and physical, and the although diminishing rose to an average total of 15,000. It was “inmates” rather envy their fellows in state prisons. A point accordingly decided to create a penal establishment under state to which great attention is paid is that physical degeneracy lies control, which should be a half-way house between the prison at the bottom of the criminal character, and great attention and the reformatory school. A selection was made of juvenile is paid to the development of nervous energy and strengthening adults, sentenced to not less than six months and sent to Borstal by every means the normal and healthful functions of the in 1902 to be treated under rules approved by the home secretary. body. A leading feature in the treatment is the frequency and They were to be divided on arrival into three separate classes, perfection with which bathing is carried out. A series of penal, ordinary and special, with promotion by industry and Turkish baths forms a part of the course of instruction; the baths good conduct from the lowest to the highest, in which they being fitted elaborately with all the adjuncts of shower bath, enjoyed distinctive privileges. The general system, educational cold douche, ending with gymnastic exercises. and disciplinary, was intelligent and governed by common sense. A remarkable and unique institution is the state reformatory Instruction, both manual and educational, was well suited to for women at Sherborn, Massachusetts, for women with the recipients; the first embraced field work, market gardening, sentences of more than a year, who in the opinion of the court and a knowledge of useful handicrafts; the second was elemen- are fit subjects for reformatory treatment. The majority of tary but sound, aided by well-chosen libraries and brightened the inmates were convicted of drunkenness, an offence which by the privilege of evening association to play harmless but the law of Massachusetts visits with severity—a sentence of two interesting games. Physical development was also guaran- years being very common. This at once differentiates the teed by gymnastics and regular exercises. The results were class of women from that in ordinary penal establishments. distinctly encouraging. They arrived at Borstal rough, At the same time we find that other women guilty of serious untrained cubs,” but rapidly improved in demeanour and inward crime are sent by the courts to this prison with a view to character, gaining self-reliance and self-respect, and left the their reform. Thus of 352 inmates, while no fewer than 200 were prison on the high road to regeneration. It was wisely remem- convicted of drunkenness, there were also 63 cases of offences bered that to secure lasting amendment it is not enough to against chastity and 30 of larceny. The average age was chasten the erring subject, to train his hands, to strengthen his thirty-one and the average duration of sentence just over a moral sense while still in durance; it is essential to assist him year. In appearance and in character it more resembles a on discharge by helping him to find work, and encourage him hospital or home for inebriates than a state convict prison. Aby timely advice to keep him in the straight path. Too much system of grades or divisions is relied upon as a stimulus to 1 praise cannot be accorded to the agencies and associations 60 618 JUVENTAS-JUXON which labour strenuously and unceasingly to this excellent end. JUVENTAS (Latin for “youth”: later Juventus), in Roman Especial good work has been done by the Borstal association, mythology, the tutelar goddess of young men. She was wor- founded under the patronage of the best known and most shipped at Rome from very early times. In the front court of distinguished persons in English public life--archbishops, the temple of Minerva on the Capitol there was a chapel of judges, cabinet ministers and privy councillors—which receives Juventas, in which a coin had to be deposited by each youth on the juvenile adults on their release and helps them to employ- his assumption of the toga virilis, and sacrifices were offered ment. Their labours, backed by generous voluntary contribu- on behalf of the rising manhood of the state. In connexion with tions, have produced very gratifying results. Although the this chapel it is related that, when the temple was in course of offenders originally selected to undergo the Borstal treatment erection, Terminus, the god of boundaries, and Juventas refused were those committed for a period of six months, it was recog- to quit the sites they had already appropriated as sacred to nized that this limit was experimental, and that thoroughly themselves, which accordingly became part of the new sanctuary. satisfactory results could only be obtained with sentences of This was interpreted as a sign of the immovable boundaries and at least a year's duration, so as to give the reforming agencies cternal youth of the Roman state. It should be observed that in ample time to operate. In the second year's working of the the oldest accounts there is no mention of Juventas, whose name system it was formally applied to young convicts sentenced to (with that of Mars) was added in support of the augural predic- penal servitude between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one. tion. After the Second Punic War Greek elements were intro- In the next year it was adopted for all offenders between the duced into her cult. In 218 B.C., by order of the Sibylline books, ages of sixteen and twenty-one committed to prison, as far as a lectisternium was prepared for Juventas and a public thanks- the length of sentence would permit. The commissioners of giving to Hercules, an association which shows the influence of prisons, in their Report for the year 1908 (Cd. 4300) thus The Greek Hebe, the wife of Heracles. In 207 Marcus Livius expressed themselves on the working of the experiment:- Salinator, after the defeat of Hasdrubal at the battle of Sena, “Experience soon began to point to the probable success of this vowed another temple to Juventas in the Circus Maximus, general application of the principle, in spite of the fact that the which was dedicated in 191 by C. (or M.) Licinius Lucullus; it prevailing shortness of sentences operated against full benefit being was destroyed by fire in 16 B.C. and rebuilt by Augustus. In derived from reformatory effort. The success was most marked in imperial times, Juventas personified, not the youth of the Roman those localities where magistrates, or other benevolent persons, personally co-operated in making the scheme a success. Local state, but of the future emperor. Borstal committees were established at all prisons, and it was arranged See Dion. Halic., iii. 69, iv. 15; Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36. that those members of the local committees should become ex officio honorary members of the Central Borstal Association, which JUXON, WILLIAM (1582–1663), English prelate, was the it was intended should become, what it now is, the parent society son of Robert Juxon and was born probably at Chichester, being directing the general aid on discharge of this category of young educated at Merchant Taylors' School, London, and at St John's prisoners." College, Oxford, where he was elected to a scholarship in 1598. i In spite of the general adoption of the Borstal system, there He studied law at Oxford, but afterwards he took holy orders, was a large class of young criminals who were outside its effects, and in 1609 became vicar of St Giles, Oxford, a living which he those who were sentenced to terms of ten days and under for retained until he became rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, in trifling offences. These juvenile adults, once having had the fear 1615. In December 1621 he succeeded his friend, William of prison taken away by actual experience, were found to come Laud, as president of St John's College, and in 1626 and 1627 back again and again. To remedy this state of affairs, a bill he was vice-chancellor of the university. Juxon soon obtained was introduced in 1907 to give effect to the principle of a long other important positions, including that of chaplain-in-ordinary period of detention for all those showing a tendency to embark to Charles I. In 1627 he was made dean of Worcester and in on a criminal career. The bill was, however, dropped, but a 1632 he was nominated to the bishopric of Hereford, an event somewhat similar bill was introduced the next year and became which led him to resign the presidency of St John's in January law under the title of The Prevention of Crime Act 1908. 1633. However, he never took up his episcopal duties at Here- This measure introduces a new departure in the treatment of ford, as in October 1633 he was consecrated bishop of London professional crime by initiating a system of detention for habitual | in succession to Laud. He appears to have been an excellent criminals (see RECIDIVISM). The act attempts the reformation bishop, and in March 1636 Charles I. entrusted him with impor- of young offenders by giving the court power to pass sentence of tant secular duties by making him lord high treasurer of England; detention in a Borstal institution for a term of not less than one thus for the next five years he was dealing with the many year nor more than three on those between the ages of sixteen financial and other difficulties which beset the king and his and twenty-one who by reason of criminal habits or tendencies or advisers. He resigned the treasurership in May 1641. During association with persons of bad character require such instruction the Civil War the bishop, against whom no charges were brought and discipline as appear most conducive to their reformation. in parliament, lived undisturbed at Fulham Palace, and his The power of detention applies also to reformatory school offences, advice was often sought by the king, who had a very high while such persons as are already undergoing penal servitude or opinion of him, and who at his execution selected him to be with imprisonment may be transferred to a Borstal institution if him on the scaffold and to administer to him the last consola- detention would conduce to their advantage. The establish- tions of religion. Juxon was deprived of his bishopric in 1649 ment of other Borstal institutions is authorized by the act, while and retired to Little Compton in Gloucestershire, where he had a very useful provision is the power to release on licence if there bought an estate, and here he became famous as the owner of a is a reasonable probability that the offender will abstain from pack of hounds. At the restoration of Charles II. he became crime and lead a useful and industrious life. The licence is archbishop of Canterbury and in his official capacity he took part issued on condition that he is placed under the supervision or in the coronation of this king, but his health soon began to fail authority of some society or person willing to take charge of and he died at Lambeth on the 4th of June 1663. By his will him. Supervision is introduced after the expiration of the term the archbishop was a benefactor to St John's College, where of sentence, and power is given to transfer to prison incorrigibles he was buried; he also aided the work of restoring St Paul's or those exercising a bad influence on the other inmates of a Cathedral and rebuilt the great hall at Lambeth Palace. Borstal institution. The act marks a noteworthy advance in See W. H. Marah, Memoirs of Archbishop Juxon and his Times the endeavour to arrest the growing habit of crime. (18 ; the best au city for the archbishop's life is the article by (A. G.; T: A. I.) W. H. Hutton in the Dici. Nat. Biog. (1892). K-KABBABISH 619 K The eleventh letter in the Phoenician alphabet and in its | Later, Russian influence was counterbalanced by that of the descendant Greek, 'the tenth in Latin owing to the omis- Crimean khans, but the Kabardian nobles nevertheless supported sion of Teth (see I), and once more the eleventh in the Peter the Great during his Caucasian campaign in 1722-23. In alphabets of Western Europe owing to the insertion of J. 1739 Kabardia was recognized as being under the double pro- In its long history the shape of K has changed very little. It tectorate of Russia and Turkey, but thirty-five years later it was is on the inscription of the Moabite Stone (early 9th cent, B.c.) definitively annexed to Russia, and risings of the population in in the form (written from right to left) of x and *. Similar forms 1804 and 1822 were cruelly suppressed. Kabardia is considered are also found in early Aramaic, but another form 4 or 4, which as a school of good manners in Caucasia; the Kabardian dress is found in the Phoenician of Cyprus in the 9th or roth century sets the fashion to all the mountaineers. Kabardians constitute B.C. has had more effect upon the later development of the the best detachment of the personal Imperial Guards at St Semitic forms. The length of the two back strokes and the Petersburg. manner in which they join the upright are the only variations A short grammar of the Kabardian language and a Russian- in Greek. In various places the back strokes, treated as an Kabardian dictionary, by Lopatinsky, were published in Sbornik angle<, become more rounded (, so that the letter appears as Materialov dla Opisaniya Kavkaza (vol. xii., Tiflis, 1891). Frag. K, a form which in Latin probably affected the development of of the Mussulman religion were printed in Kabardian in 1864, by ments of the poem “Sosyruko," some Persian tales, and the tenets C (q.v.). In Crete it is elaborated into K and P. In Latin K, Kazi Atazhukin and Shardanov. The common law of the Kabar- which is found in the earliest inscriptions, was soon replaced by dians has been studied by Maxim Kovalevsky and Vsevolod Miller. C, and survived only in the abbreviations for Kalendae and the KABBA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern proper name Kaeso. The original name Kaph became in Greek Nigeria, situated chiefly on the right bank of the Niger, between Kappa. The sound of K throughout has been that of the un-7° 5' and 8° 45' N. and 5° 30' and 7° E. It has an area of 7800 sq. voiced guttural, varying to some extent in its pronunciation m. and an estimated population of about 70,000. The province according to the nature of the vowel sound which followed it. consists of relatively healthy uplands interspersed with fertile In Anglo-Saxon C replaced K through Latin influence, writing valleys. It formed part at one time of the Nupe emirate, and being almost entirely in the hands of ecclesiastics. As the sound- under Fula rule the armies of Bida regularly raided for slaves changes have been discussed under C it is necessary here only to and laid waste the country. Amongst the native inhabitants refer to the palatalization of K followed earlier by a final e as in the Igbira are very industrious, and crops of tobacco, indigo, all watch (Middle English wacche, Anglo-Saxon wecce) by the side the African grains, and a good quantity of cotton are already of wake (M.E. waken, A.-S. wacan); batch, bake, &c. Sometimes grown. The sylvan products are valuable and include palm oil, an older form of the substantive survives, as in the Elizabethan kolas, shea and rubber. Lokoja, a town which up to 1902 was and Northern make=male alongside match. (P. G.) the principal British station in the protectorate, is situated in K2, or Mr GODWIN-AUSTEN, the second highest mountain this province. The site of Lokoja, with a surrounding tract of in the world, ranking after Mt Everest. It is a peak of the country at the junction of the Benue and the Niger, was ceded Karakoram extension of the Muztagh range dividing Kashmir to the British government in 1841 by the attah of Idah, whose from Chinese Turkestan. The height of K, as at present deter- dominions at that time extended to the right bank of the river. mined by triangulation is 28,250 ft., but it is possible that an The first British settlement was a failure. In 1854 MacGregor ultimate revision of the values of refraction at high altitudes Laird, who had taken an active part in promoting the explora- may have the effect of lowering the height of K2, while it would tion of the river, sent thither Dr W. B. Baikie, who was success- elevate those of Everest and Kinchinjunga. The latter moun- ful in dealing with the natives and in 1857 became the first tain would then rank second, and K, third, in the scale of altitude, British consul in the interior. The town of Lokoja was founded Everest always maintaining its ascendancy. K, was ascended by him in 1860. In 1868 the consulate was abolished and the for the first time by the duke of the Abruzzi in June 1909, being settlement was left wholly to commercial interests. In 1879 the highest elevation on the earth's surface ever reached by man. Sir George Goldie formed the Royal Niger Company, which KABA, KAABA, or KAABEH, the sacred shrine of Mahom- bought out its foreign rivals and acquired a charter from the medanism, containing the “black stone,” in the middle of the British government. In 1886 the company made Lokoja its great mosque at Mecca (q.v.). military centre, and on the transfer of the company's territories KABARDIA, a territory of S. Russia, now part of the province to the Crown it remained for a time the capital of Northern of Terek. It is divided into Great and Little Kabardia by the Nigeria. In 1902 the political capital of the protectorate was upper river Terek, and covers 3780 sq. m. on the northern slopes shifted to Zungeru in the province of Zaria, but Lokoja remains of the Caucasus range (from Mount Elbruz to Pasis-mta, or the commercial centre. The distance of Lokoja from the sea Edena), including the Black Mountains (Kara-dagh) and the high at the Niger mouth is about 250 m. plains on their northern slope. Before the Russian conquest it In the absence of any central native authority the province extended as far as the Sea of Azov. Its population is now about is entirely dependent for administration upon British initiative. 70,000. One-fourth of the territory is owned by the aristocracy It has been divided into four administrative divisions. British and the remainder is divided among the auls or villages. A great and native courts of justice have been established. A British portion is under permanent pasture, part under forests, and some station has been established at Kabba town, which is an admir- under perpetual snow. Excellent breeds of horses are reared, able site some 50 m. W. by N. of Lokoja, about 1300 ft. above and the peasants own many cattle. The land is well cultivated the sea, and a good road has been made from Kabba to Lokoja. in the lower parts, the chief crops being millet, maize, wheat Roads have been opened through the province. (See Nigeria.) and oats. Bee-keeping is extensively practised, and Kabardian KABBABISH (“goatherds": James Bruce derives the name honey is in repute. Wood-cutting and the manufacture of from Hebsh, sheep), a tribe of African nomads of Semitic origin. wooden wares, the making of búrkas (felt and fur cloaks), and It is perhaps the largest “ Arab ” tribe in the Anglo-Egyptian saddlery are very general. Nalchik is the chief town. Sudan, and its many clans are scattered over the country. extend- The Kabardians are a branch of the Adyghè (Circassians). ing S.W. from the province of Dongola to the confines of Darfur, The policy of Russia was always to be friendly with the Kabardian The Kabbabish speak Arabic, but their pronunciation differs aristocracy, who were possessed of feudal rights over the Ossetes, much from that of the true Arabs. The Kabbabish have a the Ingushes, the Abkhasians and the mountain Tatars, and had tradition that they came from Tunisia and are of Mogrebin or command of the roads leading into Transcaucasia. Ivan the western descent; but while the chiefs look like Arabs, the tribes. Terrible took Kabardia under his protection in the 16th century: meu resemble the Beja family. They themselves declare that 620 KABBALAH man. Doctrine of the one of their clans, Kawahla, is not of Kabbabish blood, but was pairs of Sephiroth successively emanated" (Zohar, iii. 290). These affiliated to them long ago. Kawahla is a name of Arab forma- two opposite potencies, viz. the masculine Wisdom or Sephirah No. 2 and the feminine Intelligence or Sephirah No. 3 are joined tion, and J. L.. Burckhardt spoke of the clan as a distinct one together by the first potency, the Crown or Sephirah No. 1; they living about Abu Haraz and on the Atbara. The Kabbabish yield the first triad of the Sephiric decade, and constitute the divine probably received Arab rulers, as did the Abābda. They are head of the archetypal man. chiefly employed in cattle, camel and sheep breeding, and before line potency Love or Mercy (4) and the feminine potency Justice From the junction of Sephiroth Nos. 2 and 3 emanated the mascu- the Sudan wars of 1883-99 they had a monopoly of all trans-(s), and from the junction of the latter two emanated again the port from the Nile, north of Abu Gussi, to Kordofan. They also uniting potency Beauty (6). Beauty, the sixth Sephirah, consti- cultivate the lowlands which border the Nile, where they have tutes the chest in the archetypal man, and unites Love (4) and permanent villages. They of fine physique, dark with black Justice (5), which constitute the divine arms, thus yielding the second triad of the Sephiric decade. From this second conjunction wiry hair, carefully arranged in tightly rolled curls which cling emanated again the masculine potency Firmness (7) and the feminine to the head, with regular features and rather thick aquiline noses. potency Splendour (8), which constitute the divine legs of the Some of the tribes wear large hats like those of the Kabyles of archetypal man; and these sent forth Foundation (9), which is the Algeria and Tunisia. genital organ and medium of union between them, thus yielding the See James Bruce, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790); from the ninth Sephirah, encircles all the other nine, inasmuch as third triad in the Sephiric decade. Kingdom (10), which emanated A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (1884); Anglo-Egyptian it is the Shechinah, the divine halo, which encompasses the whole by Sudan (edited by Count Gleichen, 1905). its all-glorious presence. KABBALAH (late Hebrew kabbalah, qabbūlah), the technical In their totality and unity the ten Sephiroth are not only name for the system of Jewish theosophy which played an im- denominated the World of Sephiroth, or the World of Emana- portant part in the Christian Church in the middle ages. The tions, but, owing to the above representation, are called the term primarily denotes“ reception” and then “ doctrines primordial or archetypal man (=mpwtóyovos) and the heavenly received by tradition.” In the older Jewish literature the name It is this form which, as we are assured, the prophet is applied to the whole body of received religious doctrine with Ezekiel saw in the mysterious chariot (Ezek. i. 1-28), and of the exception of the Pentateuch, thus including the Prophets and which the earthly man is a faint copy. Hagiographa as well as the oral traditions ultimately embodied As the three triads respectively represent intellectual, moral in the Mishnah. It is only since the 11th or 12th century that and physical qualities, the first is called the Intellectual, the Kabbalah has become the exclusive appellation for the renowned second the Moral or Sensuous, and the third the Material World. system of theosophy which claims to have been transmitted According to this theory of the archetypal man the three uninterruptedly by the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets Sephiroth on the right-hand side are masculine and represent ever since the creation of the first man. the principle of rigour, the three on the left are feminine and The cardinal doctrines of the Kabbalah embrace the nature represent the principle of mercy, and the four central or uniting of the Deity, the Divine emanations or Sephiroth, the cosmogony, Sephiroth represent the principle of mildness. Hence the right the creation of angels and man, their destiny, and is called “the Pillar of Judgment,” the left“ the Pillar of Mercy," the import of the revealed law. According to this and the centre “the Middle Pillar.” The middle Sephiroth are Sephiroth. esoteric doctrine, God, who is boundless and above synecdochically used to represent the worlds or triads of which everything, even above being and thinking, is called Ēn Soph they are the uniting potencies. Hence the Crown, the first (átelpos); He is the space of the universe containing tò Tây, Sephirah, which unites Wisdom and Intelligence to constitute but the universe is not his space. In this boundlessness the first triad, is by itself denominated the Intellectual World. He could not be comprehended by the intellect or described in So Beauty is by itself described as the Sensuous World, and in words, and as such the En Soph was in a certain sense Ăyłn, non- this capacity is called the Sacred King or simply the King, whilst existent (Zohar, iii. 283). To make his existence known and Kingdom, the tenth Sephirah, which unites all the nine Sephiroth, comprehensible, the Ēn Soph had to become active and creative. is used to denote the Material World, and as such is denominated As creation involves intention, desire, thought and work, and as the Queen or the Matron. Thus a trinity of units, viz. the these are properties which imply limit and belong to a finite Crown, Beauty and Kingdom, is obtained within the trinity of being, and morcover as the imperfect and circumscribed nature triads. But further, each Sephirah is as it were a trinity in of this creation precludes the idea of its being the direct work itself. It (1) has its own absolute character, (2) receives from of the infinite and perfect, the Ēn Sõph had to become creative, above, and (3) communicates to what is below. * Just as the through the medium of ten Sephiroth or intelligences, which Sacred Aged is represented by the number three, so are all the emanated from him like rays proceeding from a luminary. other lights (Sephiroth) of a threefold nature” (Zohar, iij. 288). Now the wish to become manifest and known, and hence the In this all-important doctrine of the Sephiroth, the Kabbalah idea of creation, is co-eternal with the inscrutable Deity, and the insists upon the fact that these potencies are not creations of first manifestation of this primordial will is called the first the Ēn Soph, which would be a diminution of strength; that they Sephirah or emanation. This first Sephirah, this spiritual sub- form among themselves and with the Ēn Sõph a strict unity, and stance which existed in the Ēn Sõph from all eternity, contained simply represent different aspects of the same being, just as the nine other intelligences or Sephiroth. These again emanated different rays which proceed from the light, and which appear one from the other, the second from the first, the third from the different things to the eye, are only different manifestations of second, and so on up to ten. one and the same light; that for this reason they all alike partake The ten Sephiroth, which form among themselves and with the of the perfections of the En Soph; and that as emanations from En Sõph a strict unity, and which simply represent different aspects the Infinite, the Sephiroth are infinite and perfect like the En Crown, (2) Wisdom, (3) Intelligence, (4) Love, (5) Justice, (6) Beauty, and perfect when the En Soph imparts his fullness to them, and of one and the same being, are respectively denominated (1) the Sõph, and yet constitute the first finite things. They are infinite (7) Firmness, (8) Splendour, (9) Foundation, and (10) Kingdom. finite and imperfect when that fullness is withdrawn from them. Their evolution was as follows: “When the Holy Aged, the con- cealed of all concealed, assumed a form, he produced everything in The conjunction of the Sephiroth, or, according to the language the form of male and female, as things could not continue in any of the Kabbalah, the union of the crowned King and Queen, pro- other form. Hence Wisdom, the second Sephirah, and the beginning duced the universe in their own image. Worlds of development, when it proceeded from the Holy Aged (another The name of the first Sephirah) emanated in male and female, for came into existence before the Ēn Sõph maniſested Valverse. Wisdom expanded, and Intelligence, the third Sephirah, proceeded himself in the human form of emanations, but they from it, and thus were obtained male and female, viz, Wisdom the could not continue, and necessarily perished because the con- father and Intelligence the mother, from whose union the other ditions of development which obtained with the sexual opposites 1C. Taylor, Sayings of the Jewish Fathers (1897); PR; 106 sqq. compared to sparks which fly out from a red-hot iron beaten by of the Sephiroth did not exist. These worlds which perished are 175 seq.; W, Bacher, Jew. Quart. Rev. xx: 572 sqq. (1908). 2 On the Zohar, " the Bible of the Kabbalists," see below, a hammer, and which are extinguished according to the distance KABBALAH 621 name men. they are removed from the burning mass. Creation is not ex | the mysteries in the human face” (Zohar, ii. 76). The human form nihilo; it is simply a further expansion or evolution of the is shaped after the four letters which constitute the Jewish Sephiroth. The world reveals and makes visible the Boundless Tetragrammaton (q.v.; see also JEHOVAH). The head is in the and the concealed of the concealed. And, though it exhibits shape of the arms and the shoulders are like 7, the breast like the Deity in less splendour than its Sephiric parents exhibit the ', and the two legs with the back again resembler (Zohar, ii. 72). En Sõph, because it is farther removed from the primordial The souls of the whole human race pre-exist in the World of source of light than the Sephiroth, still, as it is God manifested, Emanations, and are all destined to inhabit human bodies. all the multifarious forms in the world point out the unity which Like the Sephiroth from which it emanates, every soul has ten they represent. Hence nothing in the whole universe can be potencies, consisting of a trinity of triads. (1) The Spirit annihilated. Everything, spirit as well as body, must return (něshāmah), which is the highest degree of being, corresponds to the source whence it emanated (Zohar, f. 218). The universe to and is operated upon by the Crown, which is the highest consists of four different worlds, each of which forms a separate triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Intellectual World; Sephiric system of a decade of emanations. (2) the Soul (rūă”), which is the seat of the moral qualities, They were evolved in the following order. (1) The World of corresponds to and is operated upon by Beauty, which is Emanations, also called the Image and the Heavenly or Archetypal the second triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Moral Man, is, as we have seen, a direct emanation from the En Sõph, World; and (3) the Cruder Soul (nephesh), which is imme- Hence it is most intimately allied to the Deity, and is perfect and diately connected with the body, and is the cause of its lower immutable. From the conjunction of the King and Queen (i.e. these ten Sephiroth) is produced (2) the World of Creation, or the Briatic instincts and the animal life, corresponds to and is operated world, also called the Throne.". Its ten Sephiroth, being farther upon by Foundation, the third triad in the Sephiroth, called removed from the En Sõph, are of a more limited and circumscribed the Material World. Each soul prior to its entering into potency, though the substances they comprise are of the purest this world consists of male and female united into one being. nature and without any admixture of matter. The angel Metatron inhabits this world. He alone constitutes the world of pure spirit, When it descends on this earth the two parts are separated and and is the garment of Shaddai, i.e. the visible manifestation of the animate two different bodies. “ At the time of marriage the Deity. numerically, equivalent to that of the Lord Holy One, blessed be he, who knows all souls and spirits, unites (Zohar, iii. 231):, He governs the visible world, preserves the them again as they were before; and they again constitute one harmony and guides the revolutions of all the spheres, and is the captain of all the myriads of angelic beings. This Briatic world body and one soul, forming as it were the right and the left of again gave rise to (3) the World of Formation, or Yetziratic World. the individual. This union, however, is influenced by the Its ten Sephiroth, being still farther removed from the Primordial deeds of the man and by the ways in which he walks. If the Source, are of a less refined substance. Still they are yet without man is pure and his conduct is pleasing in the sight of God, he is matter. It is the abode of the angels, who are wrapped in luminous garments, and who assume a sensuous form when they appear to united with that female part of the soul which was his component The myriads of the angelic hosts who people this world are part prior to his birth” (Zohar, i. 91). The soul's destiny upon divided into ten ranks, answering to the ten Sephiroth, and each earth is to develop those perfections the germs of which are eter- one of these numerous angels is set over a different part of the nally implanted in it, and it ultimately must return to the infinite universe, and derives his name from the heavenly body or element which he guards (Zohar, i. 42). From this world finally emanated source from which it emanated. Hence, if, after assuming a (4) the World of Action, also called the World of Matter. Its ten body and sojourning upon earth, it becomes polluted by sin and Sephiroth are made up of the grosser elements of the former three fails to acquire the experience for which it descends from heaven, worlds; they consist of material substance limited by, space and it must three times reinhabit a body, till it is able to ascend in a perceptible to the enses in a multiplicity of forms. This world is subject to constant changes and corruption, and is the dwelling of purified state through repeated trials. If, after its third resi- the evil spirits. These, the grossest and most deficient of all forms, dence in a human body, it is still too weak to withstand the con- are also divided into ten degrees, each lower than the other. The tamination of sin, it is united with another soul, in order that by first two are nothing more than the absence of all visible forni and their combined efforts it may resist the pollution which by itself organization; the third degree is the abode of darkness; whilst the When the whole pleroma of pre- remaining seven are the seven infernal halls," occupied by the it was unable to conquer. demons, who are the incarnation of all human vices. These seven. existent souls in the world of the Sephiroth shall have descended hells are subdivided into innumerable compartments corresponding and occupied human bodies and have passed their period of to every species of sin, where the demons torture the poor deiuded probation and have returned purified to the bosom of the infinite human beings who have suffered themselves to be led astray whilst on earth. The prince of this region of darkness is Sāmāel, the evil Source, then the soul of Messiah will descend from the region of spirit, the serpent who seduced Eve. His wife is the Harlot or the souls; then the great Jubilee will commence. There shall be no Woman of Whoredom. The two are treated as one person, and are more sin, no more temptation, no more suffering. Universal called the Beast" (Zohar, ii. 255-259, with i. 35). restoration will take place. Satan himself, the venomous The whole universe, however, was incomplete, and did not Beast,” will be restored to his angelic nature. Life will be an receive its finishing stroke till man was formed, who is the everlasting feast, a Sabbath without end. All souls will be united acme of the creation and the microcosm. The with the Highest Soul, and will supplement each other in the heavenly Adam (i.e. the ten Sephiroth) who eman-Holy of Holies of the Seven Halls (Zohar, i. 45, 168; ii. 97). ated from the highest primordial obscurity (i.e. the En Soph) According to the Kabbalah all these esoteric doctrines are created the earthly Adam” (Zohar, ii. 70). “Man is both the contained in the Hebrew Scriptures. The uninitiated cannot import and the highest degree of creation, for which reason he perceive them; but they are plainly revealed to the Antiquity was formed on the sixth day. As soon as man was created spiritually minded, who discern the profound import and influ. everything was complete, including the upper and nether worlds, of this theosophy beneath the surface of the letters ence of for everything is comprised in man. He unites in himself all and words of Holy Writ. “If the law simply con- Kabbalah forms ” (Zohar, iii. 48). Each member of his body corresponds sists of ordinary expressions and narratives, such as the words to a part of the visible universe.“ Just as we see in the firma- of Esau, Hagar, Laban, the ass of Balaam or Balaam himself, ment above, covering all things, different signs which are formed why should it be called the law of truth, the perfect law, the true of the stars and the planets, and which contain secret things and witness of God? Each word contains a sublime source, each profound mysteries studied by those who are wise and expert in narrative points not only to the single instance in question, but these things; so there are in the skin, which is the cover of the also to generals ” (Zohar, iii. 149, cf. 152). body of the son of man, and which is like the sky that covers all To obtain these heavenly mysteries, which alone make the Torah things above, signs and features which are the stars and planets superior to profane codes, definite hermeneutical rules are employed, of the skin, indicating secret things and profound mysteries of which the following are the most important. (1) The words of whereby the wise are attracted who understand the reading of several verses in the Hebrew Scriptures which are regarded as containing a recondite sense are placed over each other, and the 1 The view of a mediate creation, in the place of immediate letters are formed into new words by reading them vertically. (2) creation out of nothing, and that the mediate beings were emana- The words of the text are ranged in squares in such a manner as to tions, was much influenced by Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021-1070). be read either vertically or boustrophedon. (3) The words are 66 Doctrine of Man. 622 KABBALAH 7 99 joined together and redivided. (4) The initials and final letters of and the evil effects of nervous degeneration find a more recent several words are formed into separate words. (5) Every letter of illustration in the mysticism of the Chasidim (Håsidim,“ saints "), a word is reduced to its numerical value, and the word is explained by another of the same quantity. (6) Every letter of a word is i a Jewish sect in eastern Europe which started from a movement taken to be the initial or abbreviation of a word. (7) The twenty: in the 18th century against the exaggerated casuistry of con- two letters of the alphabet are divided into two halves; one half temporary rabbis, and combined much that was spiritual and is placed above the other, and the two letters which thus become beautiful with extreme emotionalism and degradation. The associated are interchanged. By this permutation, Aleph, the first letter of the alphabet. becomes Lamed, the twelfth letter; Beth appearance of the Kabbalah and of other forms of mysticism in becomes Mem, and so on. This cipher alphabet is called Albam, Judaism may seem contrary to ordinary and narrow concep- from the first interchangeable pairs. (8) The commutation of the tions of orthodox Jewish legalism. Its interest lies, not in its twenty-two letters is effected by the last letter of the alphabet doctrines, which have often been absurdly over-estimated taking the place of the first, the last but one the place of the second (particularly among Christians), but in its contribution to the and so forth. This cipher is called Atbash canons are much older than the Kabbalah. They obtained in the study of human thought. It supplied a want which has always synagogue from time immemorial, and were used by the Christian been felt by certain types, and it became a movement which fathers in the interpretation of Scripture.? . Thus Canon V., accord: had mischievous effects upon ill-balanced minds. As usual, ing to which a word is reduced to its numerical value and interpreted by another word of the same value, is recognized in the New Testa- | the excessive self-introspection was not checked by a rational ment (cf. Rev. xiii. 18). Canon VI. is adopted by Irenacus, who criticism; the individual was guided by his own reason, the tells us that, according to the learned among the Hebrews, the name limitations of which he did not realize; and in becoming a Jesus contains two letters and a half, and signifies that Lord who law unto himself he ignored the accumulated experiences of contains heaven and earth (v=p789 o'cu mury (Against Heresies, civilized humanity? ii. xxiv., i. 205. ed. Clark)... The cipher Atbash (Canon VIII.) is used in Jeremiah xxv. 26, li. 41, where Sheshach is written for A feature of greater interest is the extraordinary part which Babel. In Jer. li. I, op 35, Leb-Kamai (“the heart of them that this theosophy played in the Christian Church, especially at the rise up against me"), is written for oºiw, Chaldea, by the same time of the Renaissance. We have already seen that the Sephiric rule. decade or the archetypal man, like Christ, is considered to be of a Exegesis of this sort is not the characteristic of any single circle, double nature, both infinite and finite, perfect and imperfect. people or century; unscientific methods of biblical interpreta- More distinct, however, is the doctrine of the Trinity. In tion have prevailed from Philo's treatment of the Pentateuch Deut. vi. 43, where Yahweh occurs first, then Ælõhēnū, and then to modern apologetic interpretations of Genesis, ch. i.? The again Yahweh, we are told “ The voice though one, consists of Kabbalah itself is but an extreme and remarkable develop- three elements, fire (i.e. warmth), air (i.e. breath), and water ment of certain forms of thought which had never been absent (z.e. humidity), yet all three are one in the mystery of the voice from Judaism; it is bound up with earlier tendencies to mysti- and can only be one. Thus also Yahweh, šlõhēnū, Yahweh, con- cism, with man's inherent striving to enter into communion with stitute one-three forms which are one (Zohar, ii. 43; compare the Deity. To seek its sources would be futile. The Pytha- iii. 65). Discussing the thrice holy in Isaiah vi. 3, one codex of the gorean theory of numbers, Neoplatonic ideas of emanation, the Zohar had the following remark: “ The first holy denotes the Logos, the personified Wisdom, Gnosticism-these and many Holy Father, the second the Holy Son, and the third the Holy other features combine to show the antiquity of tendencies which, Ghost " (cf. Galatinus, De arcanis cathol. lib. ii. c. 3, p. 31; clad in other shapes, are already found in the old pre-Christian Wolf, Bibliotheca hebraica, i. 1136). Still more distinct is Oriental religions. In its more mature form the Kabbalah the doctrine of the atonement. The Messiah invokes all the belongs to the period when medieval Christian mysticism was sufferings, pain, and afflictions of Israel to come upon Him. Now beginning to manifest itself (viz. in Eckhart, towards end of if He did not remove them thus and take them upon Himself, 13th century); it is an age which also produced the rationalism no man could endure the sufferings of Israel, due as their of Maimonides (q.v.). Although some of its foremost exponents punishment for transgressing the law; as it is written (Isa. liii. 4), were famous Talmudists, it was a protest against excessive Surely He hath borne our griefs and carried our sorrows intellectualism and Aristotelian scholasticism. It laid stress, (Zohar, ii. 12). These and similar statements favouring the not on external authority, as did the Jewish law, but on in- doctrines of the New Testament made many Kabbalists of the dividual experience and inward meditation. “ The mystics highest position in the synagogue embrace the Christian faith accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a and write elaborate books to win their Jewish brethren over to mystical progress towards God, dernanding a state of ecstasy.' Christ. As early as 1450 a company of Jewish converts in Spain, As a result, some of the finest specimens of Jewish devotional at the head of which were Paul de Heredia, Vidal de Saragossa literature and some of the best types of Jewish individual de Aragon, and Davila, published compilations of Kabbalistic character have been Kabbalist. On the other hand, the Treatises to prove from them the doctrines of Christianity. Kabbalah has been condemned, and nowhere more strongly They were followed by Paul Rici, professor at Pavia, and physi- than among the Jews themselves. Jewish orthodoxy found cian to the emperor Maximilian I. Among the best-known itself attacked by the more revolutionary aspects of mysticism non-Jewish exponents of the Kabbalah were the Italian count and its tendencies to alter established customs. While the Pico di Mirandola (1463-1494), the renowned Johann Reuchlin medieval scholasticism denied the possibility of knowing (1455-1522), Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim (1487- anything unattainable by reason, the spirit of the Kabbalah held 1535), Theophrastus Paracelsus (1493–1541), and, later, the that the Deity could be realized, and it sought to bridge the gulf. Englishman Robert Fludd (1574-1637). Prominent among the Thus it encouraged an unrestrained emotionalism, rank super- “ nine hundred theses ” which Mirandola had placarded in stition, an unhealthy asceticism, and the employment of artificial Rome, and which he undertook to defend in the presence means to induce the ecstatic state. That this brought moral of all European scholars, whom he invited to the Eternal laxity was a stronger reason for condemning the Kabbalah, City, promising to defray their travelling expenses, was the 1 See F. Weber, Jüdische Theologie (1897), pp. 118 sqq. following: “No science yields greater proof of the divinity of 2 See C. A. Briggs. Study of Holy Scripture (1899), pp. 427 sqq.. 570. Christ than magic and the Kabbalah.” Mirandola so convinced 3 Even the over-Soul of the mystic Isaac Luria (1534-1572) Pope Sixtus of the paramount importance of the Kabbalah is a conception known in the 3rd century A.D. (Rabbi Resh Lakish). as an auxiliary to Christianity that his holiness exerted himself For the early stages of Kabbalistic theories, see K. Kohler, Jew. Ency. iii. 457 seq. and L. Ginzberg, ibid. 459 seq.; and for examples to have Kabbalistic writings translated into Latin for the use of of the relationship between old Oriental (especially Babylonian) divinity students. With equal zeal did Reuchlin act as the and Jewish Kabbalistic teaching (early and late), see especially A. Jeremias, Babylonisches in N. Test. (Leipzig, 1905); E. Bischoff, 6 See the instructive article by S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism Bab. A strales im Weltbilde des Thalmud u. Midrasch (1907). (London, 1896), pp. 1-55. * L. Ginzberg, Jew. Ency. iii. 465. See the discriminating estimates by S. A. Hirsch, Jew. Quart. • See, especially, on the mystics of Safed in Upper Galilee, S. Rev. xx. 50–73: I. Abrahams, Jew. Lil. (1906), ch. xvii.: Judaism Schechter, Studies (1908), pp. 202-285. (I907), chu vi. 19 114 KABINDA-KABIR 623 Sources. apostle of the Kabbalah. His treatises exercised an almost to the 13th century. Hence it is now believed that Moses de Leon magic influence upon the greatest thinkers of the time. Pope (d. 1305), who first circulated and sold the Zohar as the production Leo X. and the early Reformers were alike captivated by the scholars both in the synagogue and in the church should have been of R. Simon, was himself the author or compiler. That eminent charms of the Kabbalah as propounded by Reuchlin, and not induced to believe in its antiquity is owing to the fact that the only divines, but statesmen and warriors, began to study the Zohar embodies many older opinions and doctrines, and the un- Oriental languages in order to be able to fathom the mysteries minds of these scholars to raise the late speculations about the En doubted antiquity of some of them has served as a lever in the of Jewish theosophy. The Zohar, that farrago of absurdity Sõph, the Sephiroth, &c., to the same age. and spiritual devotion, was the weapon with which these LITERATURE.—The study of the whole subject being wrapped up Christians defended Jewish literature against hostile ecclesiastic with Gnosticism and Oriental theosophy, the related literature is bodies (Abrahams, Jew. Lit. p. 106). Thus the Kabbalah immense. Among the more important works may be mentioned, Baron von Rosenroth's Kabbala Denudata (Sulzbach, 1677-1678; linked the ld scholasticism with the new and independent Frankfort, 1684); A. Franck, La Kabbale Paris, 2nd ed., 1889; inquiries in learning and philosophy after the Renaissance, German by Jellinek, Leipzig, 1844); C. D. Ginsburg, The Kabbalah, and although it had evolved a remarkably bizarre conception its Doctrines, Development and Literature (London, 1865); 1. Meyer, of the universe, it partly anticipated, in its own way, the scientific Cabbalah (Philadelphia, 1888), Rubin, Kabbala und Agada (Vienna, study of natural philosophy.! Jewish theosophy, then, with its du Žohar (Paris, 1891); A. E. Waite, Doctrine and Literature of the 1895), Heidentum und Kabbalah (1893); Karppe, Ét. sur les origines good and evil tendencies, and with its varied results, may thus Kabbalah (London, 1902); Flügel, Philosophy, Kabbala, &c. (Balti- claim to have played no unimportant part in the history of more, 1902); D. Neumark, Gesch. d. Jüd. Philosophie d. Millelalters European scholarship and thought. (Berlin, 1907); also S. A. Binion, in C. D. Warner's World's Best Literature, 8425 sqq. See further the very full articles in the Jewish The main sources to be noticed are:- Ency. by K. Kohler and L. Ginzberg (“Cabbala "), I. Broydé 1. The Sēpher Yěşīrah, or " book of creation,” not the old (“ Bahir," “ Zohar "), with the references. (C. D. G.; S. A. C.) Hilkoth Y. (" rules of creation "), which belongs to the Talmudic period (on which see Kohler, Jew. Ency. xii. 602 seq.), KABINDA, a Portuguese possession on the west coast of Main but a later treatise, a combination of medieval natural Africa north of the mouth of the Congo. Westwards it borders philosophy and mysticism. It has been variously the Atlantic, N. and N.E. French Congo, S. and S.E. Belgian ascribed to the patriarch Abraham and to the illustrious rabbi "Aqiba; its essential elements, however, may be of the 3rd or 4th Congo. It has a coast-line of 93 m., extends inland, at its century A.D., and it is apparently earlier than the 9th (see L. Ginz- greatest breadth, 70 m., and has an area of about 3000 sq. m. berg, op. cit . 603 sqq.). It has had a greater influence on the In its physical features, flora, fauna and inhabitants, it resembles development of the Jewish mind than almost any other book after the coast region of French Congo (q.v.). The only considerable the completion of the Talmud” (ibid.). 2. The Bāhir (“ brilliant," Job. xxxvii. 21), though ascribed to river is the Chiloango, which in part forms the boundary between Neḥunyah b. Haqqanah (1st century, A.D.), is first quoted by Portuguese and Belgian territory, and in its lower course divides Nahmanides, and is now attributed to his teacher Ezra or Azriel Kabinda into two fairly even portions. The mouth of the (1160–1238). It shows the influence of the Sépher Yēșīrah, is river is in 5° 12' S., 12° 5' E. The chief town, named Kabinda, marked by the teaching of a celestial Trinity, is a rough outline of what the Zohar was destined to be, and gave the first opening to is a seaport on the right bank of the small river Bele, in 5° 33' S., a thorough study of metaphysics among the Jews. (See further 12° 10' E.; pop. about 10,000. From the beauty of its situation, I. Broydě, Jew. Éncy. ii. 442 seq.). and the fertility of the adjacent country, it has been called the 3. The Zohar ("shining, Dan. xii. 3) is a commentary on the paradise of the coast. The harbour is sheltered and commo- Pentateuch, according to its division into fifty-two hebdomadal lessons. It begins with the exposition of Gen. 1. 4 (" let there be dious, with anchorage in four fathoms. Kabinda was formerly light "') and includes eleven dissertations: (1) Additions and a noted slave mart. Farther north are the ports of Landana and Supplements "; (2) “The Mansions and Abodés,”, describing the Massabi. Between Kabinda and Landana is Molembo at the structure of paradise and hell; (3)" The Mysteries of the Pentateuch,' head of a small bay of the same name. There is a considerable describing the evolution of the Sephiroth, &c.; (4) “The Hidden Interpretation," deducing esoteric doctrine from the narratives in trade in palm oil, ground nuts and other jungle produce, largely the Pentateuch; (5) “ The Faithful Shepherd," recording discussions in the hands of British and German firms. between Moses the faithful shepherd, the prophet Elijah and R. The possession of the enclave of Kabinda by Portugal is a Simon b. Yohai, the reputed compiler of the Zohar; (6) "The Secret result of the efforts made by that nation during the last quarter of Secrets,” a treatise on physiognomy and psychology; (7) “ The Aged," i.e. the prophet Elijah, discoursing with R. Simon on the of the 19th century to obtain sovereignty over both banks of doctrine of transmigration as evolved from Exod. xxi. 1-xxiv. 18; the lower Congo. Whilst Portugal succeeded in obtaining the (8) “The Book of Secrets," discourses on cosmogony and demon- southern bank of the river to the limit of navigability from ology; (9) “ The Great Assembly," discourses of R. Simon to his the sea, the northern bank became part of the Congo Free State numerous assembly of disciples on the form of the Deity and on pneumatology; (10) “ The Young Man," discourses by young men (see AFRICA, 8 5). Portuguese claims to the north of the river of superhuman origin on the mysteries of ablutions; and (11) * The were, however, to some extent met by the recognition of her Small Assembly," containing the discourses on the Sephiroth which right to Kabinda. The southernmost part of Kabinda is R. Simon delivered to the small congregation of six surviving 25 m. (following the coast-line) north of the mouth of the Congo. disciples. The Zohar pretends to be a compilation made by Simon b. Yohai (the second century A.D.) of doctrines which God com- This district as far north as the Chiloango river (and including municated to Adam in Paradise, and which have been received the adjacent territory of Belgian Congo) is sometimes spoken uninterruptedly from the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets. of as Kacongo. The name Loango (9.0.) was also applied to this It was discovered, so the story went, in a cavern in Galilee where it region as well as to the coast-lands immediately to the north. had been hidden for a thousand years. Amongst the many facts; Administratively Kabinda forms a division of the Congo dis- however, established by modern criticism which prove the Zohar to be a compilation of the 13th century, are the following: (1) the trict of the province of Angola (q.v.). The inhabitants are Bantu Zohar itself praises most fulsomely R. Simon, its reputed author, negroes who are called Kabindas. They are an intelligent, and exalts him above Moses; (2) it mystically explains the Hebrew energetic and enterprising people, daring sailors and active vowel points, which did not obtain till 570; (3) the compiler borrows traders. two verses from the celebrated hymn called “The Royal Diadem," written by Ibn Gabirol, who was born about 1021; (4) it mentions KABIR, the most notable of the Vaishnava reformers of the capture of Jerusalem by the crusaders and the re-taking of the religion in northern India, who flourished during the first half at Rome, 15th July 1264, under the pontificate of Urban IV.: (6) by of Rāmānand, the great preacher in the north (about A.D. 1400) Holy City by the Saracens; (5) it speaks of the comet which appeared of the 15th century. He is counted as one of the twelve disciples a slip the Zohar assigns a reason why its contents were not revealed before 5060–5066 A.M., i.e. 1300-1306 A.D., (7) the doctrine of the of the doctrine of bhakti addressed to Rāma, which originated En Sõph and the Sephiroth was not known before the 13th century; with Rāmānuja (12th century) in southern India. He himself and (8) the very existence of the Zohar itself was not known prior also mentions among his spiritual forerunners Jaidēo and Nămdēo (or Nāmā) the earliest Marāthi poet (both about 1250). G. Margoliouth, "The Doctrine of Ether in the Kabbalah,” 'Jew. Quart. Rev. xx. 828 sqq. On the influence of the Legend relates that Kabīr was the son of a Brāhman widow, by Kabbalah on the Reformation, see Stöcki, Gesch. d. Philosophie des whom he was exposed, and was found on a lotus in Lahar Talão, Mittelalters, ii. 232-251. a pond near Benares, by a Musalmān weayer named 'Ali (or 1 See, c.pis 624 KABUL Nūrī), who with his wife Nīmă adopted him and brought him there is My abode." The distinctions of creeds are declared to up in their craft as á Musalmãn. He lived most of his life at be of no importance in the presence of God: “The city of Haras Benares, and afterwards removed to Maghar (or Magahar), in is to the east, that of 'Ali 5 is to the west; but explore your own the present district of Bastī, where he is said to have died in heart, for there are both Rāma and Karim;"6" Behold but One 1449. There appears to be no reason to doubt that he was in all things: it is the second that leads you astray. Every man originally a Musalmān and a weaver; his own name and that and woman that has ever been born is of the same nature as of his son Kamál are Mahommedan, not Hindu. His adhesion yourself. He, whose is the world, and whose are the children of to the doctrine of Rāmānand is not a solitary instance of the 'Ali and Rāma, He is my Guru, He is my Pir.” He proclaims religious syncretism which prevailed at this time in northern the universal brotherhood of man, and the duty of kindness to India. The religion of the earlier Sikh Gurus, which was largely all living creatures. Life is the gift of God, and must not be based upon his teaching, also aimed at the fusion of Hinduism violated, the shedding of blood, whether of man or animals, is a and Islam; and the example of Malik Muhammad, the author heinous crime. The followers of Kabir do not observe celibacy, of the Padmāwat, who lived a century later than Kabir, shows and live quiet unostentatious lives; Wilson (p. 97) compares that the relations between the two creeds were in some cases them to Quakers for their hatred of violence and unobtrusive extremely intimate. It is related that at Kabīr's death the piety. Hindūs and Musalmāns each claimed him as an adherent of The resemblance of many of Kabir's utterances to those of their faith, and that when his funeral issued forth from his house Christ, and especially to the ideas set forth in St John's gospel, at Maghar the contention was only assuaged by the appearance is very striking; still more so is the existence in the ritual of the of Kabir himself, who bade them look under the cloth which sect of a sacramental meal, involving the eating of a consecrated covered the corpse, and immediately vanished. On raising the wafer and the drinking of water administered by the Mahant or cloth they found nothing but a heap of flowers. This was spiritual superior, which bears a remarkable likeness to the divided between the rival faiths, half being buried by the Eucharist. Yet, though the deities of Hinduism and the prophet Musalmāns and the other half burned by the Hindus.? of Islam are frequently mentioned in his sayings, the name of Kabir’s fame as a preacher of bhakli, or enthusiastic devotion Jesus has nowhere been found in them. It is conjectured that to a personal God, whom he preferred to call by the Hindu names the doctrine of Rāmānand, which came from southern India, has of Rāma and Hari, is greater than that of any other of the been influenced by the Christian settlements in that region, Vaishnava spiritual leaders. His fervent conviction of the truth which go back to very early times. It is also possible that and power of his doctrine, and the homely and searching expres- Sūfīism, the pietistic (as distinguished from the theosophic) form sion given to it in his utterances, in the tongue of the people and of which seems to owe much to eastern Christianity, has contri- not in a learned language remote from their understanding, won buted some echo of the Gospel to Kabir's teaching. A third for him multitudes of adherents; and his sect, the Kabirpanthis, (but scarcely probable) hypothesis is that the sect has borrowed is still one of the most numerous in northern India, its numbers both maxims and ritual, long after Kabīr's own time, from the exceeding a million. Its headquarters are the Kabir Chaurā at teaching of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who were estab- Benares, where are preserved the works attributed to Kabir lished at Agra from the reign of Akbar (1556–1605) onwards. (called the Granth), the greater part of which, however, were No critical edition of the writings current under the name of written by his immediate disciples and their followers in his Kabir has yet been published, though collections of his sayings name. (chiefly the Sākhis) are constantly appearing from Indian presses. The reader is referred, for a summary account of his life and doctrine, Those works which seem to have the best claim to be considered to H. H. Wilson's Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus (Works, his own compositions are the Sūknīs, or stanzas, some 5000 in i. 68 sqq.). Dr E. Trumpp's edition of the Ādi Granth (Introduction, number, which have a very, wide currency even among those who pp. xcvii. sqq.) may also be consulted. Recent publications dealing do not formally belong to the sect, and the Shabdūwali, consisting with the subject are the Rev. G. H. Westcott's Kabir and the Kabir of a thousand “words (shatd), or short doctrinal expositions. Panth (Cawnpore, 1908), and Mr.M.A. Macauliffe's The Sikh Religion Perhaps some of the Rekhtas, or odes (100 in number), and of the (Oxford, 1909), vi. 122–316. (C. J. L.) Ramainis--brief mystical poems in very obscure language---may also be from his hand. Of these different forms specimens will be KABUL, the.capital of Afghanistan, standing at an elevation found translated in Professor H. H. Wilson's Sketch of the Religious of 6900 ft. above the sea in 34° 32' N. and 69° 14' E. Estimated Sects of the Hindus, i. 79-90. Besides the followers who call them- selves by Kabir's name, there may be reckoned to him many other pop. (1901), 140,000. Lying at the foot of the bare and rocky religious sects which bear that of some intermediate guru or master, mountains forming the western boundary of the Kabul valley, but substantially concur with Kabir in doctrine and practice. just below the gorge made by the Kabul River, the city extends Such, for instance, are the Nanakshāhīs in the United Provinces, a mile and a half east to west and one mile north to south. the Central Provinces, and Bombay, and the Dādī-panthīs, numerous in Rajpūtānā (Wilson, loc. cit. pp. 103 sqq.); the Sikhs, numbering two Hemmed in by the mountains, there is no way of extending it, and a half millions in the Panjab, are also his spiritual descendants, except in a northerly direction towards the Sherpur cantonment. and their Granth or Scripture is largely stocked with texts drawn from As the key of northern India, Kabul has been a city of vast his works. importance for countless ages. It commands all the passes Kabir taught the life of bhakti (faith, or personal love and which here debouch from the north through the Hindu Kush, devotion), the object of which is a personal God, and not a philo- and from the west through Kandahar; and through it passed sophical abstraction or an impersonal quality-less, all-pervading successive invasions of India by Alexander the Great, Mahmud spiritual substance (as in the Vēdānta of Sankaráchārya). His of Ghazni, Jenghiz Khan, Baber, Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah. utterances do not, like those of Tulsi Dās, dwell upon the inci- Indeed from the time of Baber to that of Nadir Shah (1526–1738) dents of the human life of Rāma, whom he takes as his type of the Kabul was part of the empire of Delhi. It is now some 160 m. Supreme; nevertheless, it is the essence of his creed that God from the British frontier post of Jamrud near Peshawar. became incarnate to bring salvation to His children, mankind, Kabul was formerly walled; the old wall had seven gates, of and that the human mind of this incarnation stiil subsists in the which two alone remain, the Lahori and the Sirdar. The city Divine Person. He proclaims the unity of the Godhead, the itself is a huddle of narrow and dirty streets, with the Bala vanity of idols, the powerlessness of brāhmans or mullās to guide Hissar or fort forming the south-east angle, and rising about or help, and the divine origin of the human soul, divinae particula 150 ft. above the plain. The Amir’s palace is situated outside All evil in the world is ascribed to Māyā, illusion or false- the town about midway between it and the Sherpur cantonment hood, and truth in thought, word and deed is enjoined as the which lies about a mile to the north-east. Formerly the greatest chief duty of man: “No act of devotion can equal truth; no crime is so heinous as falsehood; in the heart where truth abides Professor Wilson's translation of 100 Sākhis, pp. 83-90. 3 This and the following passages in quotation marks are from 1 See article HINDOSTANI LITERATURE. * Benares; Hara, a name of Śiva. .? An exactly similar tale is told of Nānak, the first Guru of the 51.e. Mecca. Sikhs, who died in 1538. 6“The Bountiful," one of the Korānic names of God (Allah). aurae KABUL RIVER-KABYLES 625 64 ornament of the city was the arcaded and roofed bazaar called that the graveyard of those officers who fell in the Kabul Chihår Chåtå, ascribed to Ali Mardan Khan, a noble of the 17th campaign of 1879-1880, which lies at the northern end of the century, who has left behind him many monuments of his munifi- Bemaru ridge, is not uncared for. cent public spirit both in Kabul and in Hindustan. Its four Kabul is believed to be the Ortospanum or Ortospana of the arms had an aggregate length of about 600 ft., with a breadth geographies of Alexander's march, a name conjectured to be a of 30. The display of goods was remarkable, and in the evening corruption of Urddhasthâna,“ high place." This is the meaning of it was illuminated. This edifice was destroyed by Sir G. Pollock the name Bala Hissar.. But the actual name is perhaps also found as that of a people in this position (Ptolemy's Kaboliiae), if not in on evacuating Kabul in 1842 as a record of the treachery of the name of a city apparently identical with Ortospana, Carura, the city. in some copies read Cabura. It was invaded by the Arabs as early The tomb of the Sultan Baber stands on a slope about a mile as the thirty-fifth year of the Hegira, but it was long before the to the west of the city in a charming spot. The grave is marked Mahommedans effected any lasting settlement. In the early by two erect slabs of white marble. Near him lie several of his favourite Arabic love of jingle) Kabul and Zâbul constantly asso- Mahommedan histories and geographies we find (according to a wives and children; the garden was formerly enclosed by a ciated. Zâbul appears to have been the country about Ġhazni. marble wall; a clear stream waters the flower-beds. From the Kabul first became a capital when Baber made himself master of it hill that rises behind the tomb there is a noble prospect of his in. 1504, and here he reigned for fifteen years before his invasion of Hindustan. In modern times it became a capital again, under beloved city, and of the all-fruitful plain stretching to the north Timur Shah (see AFGHANISTAN), and so has continued both to the of it. end of the Durani dynasty, and under the Barakzais, who now reign. After the accession of Abdur Rahman in 1880 the city under- It was occupied by Sir John Keane in 1839, General Pollock in went great changes. The Bala Hissar was destroyed and has 1842, and again by Sir Frederick, afterwards Lord Roberts, in 1879. Kabul is also the name of the province including the city. so called. never since been entirely rebuilt, and a fortified cantonment at It may be considered to embrace the whole of the plains called Sherpur (one side of which was represented by the historic Koh Daman and Beghram, &c., to the Hindu Kush northward, with Bemaru ridge) had taken the place of the old earthworks of the the Kohistan or hill country, adjoining. Eastward it extends to the British occupation of 1842 which were constructed on nearly the border of Jalalabad at Jagdalak; southward it includes the Logar same site. The city streets were as narrow and evil-smelling, the includes the Paghman hills, and the valley of the upper Kabul district, and extends to the border of Ghazni; north-westward it surrounding gardens as picturesque and attractive, and the wealth river, and so to the Koh-i-Baba. Roughly it embraces a territory of fruit was as great, as they had been fifty years previously. of about 100 m. square, chiefly mountainous. Wheat and barley are The amir, however, effected many improvements. Kabul is now the staple products of the arable tracts. Artificial grasses are also connected by well-planned and metalled roads with Afghan Turk, | A considerable part of the population spends the summer in tents. much cultivated, and fruits largely, especially in the Koh Daman. estan on the west, with the Oxus and Bokhara on the north, and The villages are not enclosed by fortifications, but contain small with India on the east. The road to India was first made by private castles or fortalices. British and is now maintained by Afghan engineers. The road See C. Yate, Northern Afghanistan (1888); J. A. Gray, At the Cour! southwards to Ghazni and Kandahar was always naturally ex- of the Amir (1895); Sir T. H. H. Holdich, The Indian Borderland (1901). (T. H. H.*) cellent and has probably needed little engineering, but the general principle of road-making in support of a military advance has KABUL RIVER, a river of Afghanistan, 300 m. in length. The always been consistently maintained, and the expeditions of Kabul (ancient Kophes), which is the most important (although Kabul troops to Kafiristan have been supported by a very well not the largest) river in Afghanistan, rises at the foot of the Unai graded and substantially constructed road up the Kunar valley pass leading over the Sanglakh range, an offshoot of the Hindu from Jalalabad to Asmar, and onwards to the Bashgol valley of Kush towards Bamian and Afghan Turkestan. Its basin forms Kafiristan. The city ways have been improved until it has be- the province of Kabul, which includes all northern Afghanistan come possible for wheeled vehicles to pass, and the various roads between the Hindu Kush and the Safed Koh ranges. From its connecting the suburbs and the city are efficiently maintained. source to the city of Kabul the course of the river is only 45 m., A purely local railway has also been introduced, to assist in and this part of it is often exhausted in summer for purposes of transporting building material. The buildings erected by Abdur irrigation. Half a mile east of Kabul it is joined by the Logar, Rahman were pretentious, but unmarked by any originality a much larger river, which rises beyond Ghazni among the slopes in design and hardly worthy representation of the beauty and of the Gul Koh (14,200 ft.), and drains the rich and picturesque dignity of Mahommedan architecture. They included a new valleys of Logar and Wardak. Below the confluence the Kabul palace and a durbar hall, a bridge across the river and embank- becomes a rapid stream with a great volume of water and gradu- ment, a pavilion and garden laid out around the site of Baber's ally absorbs the whole drainage of the Hindu Kush. About 40 m. tomb overlooking the Chardeh valley; and many other buildings below Kabul the Panjshir river joins it; 15 m. farther the Tagao; of public utility connected with stud arrangements, the manu- 20 m. from the Tagao junction the united streams of Alingar and facture of small arms and ammunition, and the requirements Alishang (rivers of Kafiristan); and 20 m. below that, at Balabagh, of what may be termed a wholesale shop under European direc- the Surkhab from the Safed Koh. Two or three miles below Jala- tion, besides hospitals, dispensaries, bazaars, &c. The new labad it is joined by the Kunar, the river of Chitral. Thence. palace is within an entrenchment just outside the city. It is forward it passes by deep gorges through the Mohmand hills, enclosed in a fine garden, well planted with trees, where the harem curving northward until it emerges into the Peshawar plain at serai (or ladies' apartments) occupies a considerable space. The Michni. Soon afterwards it receives the Swat river from the public portion of the buildings comprise an ornamental and lofty north and the Bara river from the south, and after a further pavilion with entrances on each side, and a high-domed octagonal course of 40 m. falls into the Indus at Attock. From Jalalabad room in the centre, beautifully fitted and appointed, where public downwards the river is navigable by boats or rafts of inflated receptions take place. The durbar hall, which is a separate build- skins, and is considerably used for purposes of commerce. ing, is 60 yards long by 20 broad, with a painted roof supported KABYLES, or KABAIL, a confederation of tribes in Algeria, by two rows of pillars. But the arrangement of terraced gardens Tunisia, and a few oases of the Sahara, who form a branch and the lightly constructed pavilion which .graces the western of the great Berber race. Their name is the Arabic gabilat slopes of the hills overlooking Chardeh are the most attractive (pl.: gabāil), and was at first indiscriminately applied by the of these innovations. Here, on a summer's day, with the scent Arabs to all Berber peoples. The part of Algeria which they of roses pervading the heated air, the cool refreshment of the inhabit is usually regarded as consisting of two divisions Great passing breezes and of splashing fountains may be enjoyed by Kabylia and Lesser Kabylia, the former being also known as the officials of the Kabul court, whilst they look across the beauty the Kabylia of the Jurjura (also called Adrar Budfel,“ Mountain of the thickly planted plains of Chardeh to the rugged outlines of Snow"). Physically many Kabyles do not present much of Paghman and the snows of the Hindu Kush. The artistic contrast to the Arabs of Algeria. Both Kabyle and Arab are taste of the landscape gardening is excellent, and the mountain white at birth, but rapidly grow brown through exposure to air scenery is not unworthy of Kashmir. It is pleasant to record | and sunshine. Both have in general brown eyes and wavy hair XV 11 1 La 626 KACH GANDAVA-KADUR of coarse quality, varying from dark brown to jet black. In of the Kachins or Chingpaw were the Indo-Chinese race who, stature there is perhaps a little difference in favour of the Kabyle, before the beginnings of history, but after the Môn-Annam wave and he appears also to be of heavier build and more muscular. had covered Indo-China, forsook their home in western China Both are clearly long-headed. Some, however, of the purer to pour over the region where Tibet, Assam, Burma and China type of Kabyles in Kabylia proper have fair skins, ruddy com- converge, and that the Chingpaw are the residue left round the plexions and blue or grey eyes. In fact there are two distinct headquarters of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin after those types of Kabyles: those which by much admixture have branches, destined to become the Tibetans, the Nagas, the Bur- approximated to Arab and negroid types, and those which pre- mans and the Kuki Chins, had gone westwards and southwards. serve Libyan features. Active, energetic and enterprising, the In the middle of the i9th century the southern limit of the Kabyle is to be found far from home-as a soldier in the French Kachins was 200 m. farther north than it is now. Since then army, as a workman in the towns, as a field labourer, or as a the race has been drifting steadily southward and eastward, pedlar or trader earning the means of purchasing his bit of ground a vast aggregate of small independent clans united by no in his native village. The Kabyles are Mahommedans of the common government, but all obeying a common impulse to Sunnite branch and the Malikite rite, looking to Morocco as the move outwards from their original seats along the line of least nearer centre of their religion. Some of the Kabyles retain their resistance. Now the Kachins are on both sides of the border of vernacular speech, while others have more or less completely Upper Burma, and are a force to be reckoned with by frontier adopted Arabic. The best known of the Kabyle dialects is administrators. According to the Kachin Hill Tribes Regula- the Zouave? or Igaouaouen, those speaking it having been tion of 1895, administrative responsibility is accepted by the settled on the northern side of the Jurjura at least from the time British government on the left bank of the Irrawaddy for the of Ibn Khaldun; it is the principal basis of Hanoteau's Essai country south of the Nmaikha, and on the right bank for the de grammaire kabyle (Paris, 1858). Unlike their southern country south of a line drawn from the confluence of the Malikha brethren, the Kabyles have no alphabet, and their literature is and Nmaikha through the northern limit of the Laban district still in the stage of oral transmission, for the most part by pro- and including the jade mines. The tribes north of this line were fessional reciters. Hanoteau's Poésies populaires de la Kabylie told that if they abstained from raiding to the south of it they du Jurjura (Paris, 1867) gives the text and translation of would not be interfered with, South of that line peace was to be considerable number of historical pieces, proverbial couplets and enforced and a small tribute exacted, with a minimum of inter- quatrains, dancing songs, &c. ference in their private affairs. On the British side of the border Consult General L. L. C. Faidherbe and Dr Paul Topinard, Instruc- the chief objects have been the disarmament of the tribes and tions sur l'anthropologie de l'Algérie (Paris, 1874); Melchior Joseph the construction of frontier and internal roads. A light tribute Eugène Daumas, Le Sahara algérien (Paris, 1845), and Mäurs et is exacted. coutumes de l'Algérie (1857); De Slane's translation of Ibn Khaldun's Hist. des Berbères (Algiers, 1852); Aucapitaine, Les Kabyles et la The Kachins have been the object of many police operations and colonie de l'Algérie (Paris, 1864) and'Les Beni M'zab (1868); L. J.A.C. two regular expeditions: (1) Expedition of 1892-93. Bhamo was Hanoteau and A. Letourneux, La Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles occupied by the British on the 28th of December 1885, and almost (Paris, 1893); Charmetant, in Jahrbücher der Verbreitung des Glaubens immediately trouble began. Constant punitive measures were carried (1874); Masqueray, Formation des cités de l'Algérie (1886); Dugas, on by the military police; but in December 1892 a police column La Kabylie et le peuple kabyle (Paris, 1878); Récoux, La Démographie proceeding to establish a post at Sima was heavily attacked, and de l'Algérie (Paris, 1880); J. Liorel, Races berbères: les Kabyles simultaneously the town of Myitkyina was raided by Kachins. A (Paris, 1893); Maciver and Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901). force of 1200 troops was sent to put down the rising. The enemy received their final blow at Palap, but not before three officers were KACH GANDAVA, or KACHHI (Kach, Kej, Kiz), a low-lying killed, three wounded, and 102 sepoys and followers killed and flat region in Baluchistan separating the Bugti hills from those wounded. (2) Expedition of 1895-96.' The continued misconduct of Kalat. It is driven, like a wedge, into the frontier mountain of the Sana Kachins from beyond the administrative border ren- system and extends for 150 m. from Jacobabad to Sibi, with since the attack on Myitkyina in December 1892. Two columns were dered punitive measures necessary. They had remained unpunished nearly as great a breadth at its base on the Sind frontier. Area, sent up, one of 250 rifles from Myitkyina, the other of 200 rifles 5310 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 82,909. The Mula pass, which con- from Mogaung, marching in December 1895. The resistance was А nects it with the Kalat highlands, was once (when the ancient insignificant, and the operations were completely successful. city of Kandabel was the capital of Gandava) a much trodden strong force of military police is stationed at Myitkyina, with several outposts in the Kachin hills, and the country is never wholly free trade highway, and is still a practicable route though no longer from crimes of violence committed by the Kachins. a popular one. The soil is fertile wherever it can be irrigated by the floods brought down from the surrounding hills; but much KADUR, a district of Mysore state, in southern India, with an of the central portion is sandy waste. It is traversed by the area of 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 362,752, showing an increase North-Western railway. The climate is unhealthy in summer, of 9% in the decade. The larger portion of the district consists when pestilential hot winds are sometimes destructive to life. of the Malnad or hill country, which contains some of the wildest The annual rainfall averages only 3 in. Kachhi, though subject mountain scenery in southern India. The western frontier is to the khan of Kalat, is administered under the tribal system. formed by the chain of the Ghats, of which the highest peaks There are no schools, dispensaries or gaols. are the Kudremukh (6215 ft.) and the Meruti Gudda (5451 ft.). The centre is occupied by the horse-shoe range of the Baba See Baluchistan District Gazetteer, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907). Budans, containing the loftiest mountain in Mysore, Mulaingiri KACHIN HILLS, a mountainous tract in Upper Burma, in-(6317 ft.). The Maidan or plain country lying beneath the habited by the Kachin or Chingpaw, who are known on the amphitheatre formed by the Baba Budan hills is a most fertile Assam frontier as Singphos. Owing to the great number of region, well watered, and with the famous “ black cotton soil." tribes, sub-tribes and clans of the Kachins, the part of the Kachin The principal rivers are the Tunga and Bhadra, which rise near hills which has been taken under administration in the Myitkyina each other in the Ghats, and unite to form the Tungabhadra, a and Bhamo districts was divided into 40 Kachin hill tracts tributary of the Kistna. The eastern region is watered by the (recently reduced to five). Beyond these tracts there are many Vedavati. At the point where this river leaves the Baba Budan Kachins in Katha, Möng Mit and the northern Shan States. hills it is embanked to form two extensive tanks which irrigate The country within the Kachin hill tracts is roughly estimated at the lower valley. From all the rivers water is drawn off into 19,177 sq. m., and consists of a series of ranges, for the most part irrigation channels by means of anicuts or weirs. The chief running north and south, and intersected by valleys, all leading natural wealth of Kadur is in its forests, which contain inex- towards the Irrawaddy, which drains the country. There were haustible supplies of the finest timber, especially teak, and also 64,405 Kachins enumerated at the census of 1901. Philological furnish shelter for the coffee plantations. Iron is found and investigations show that it is probable that the progenitors smelted at the foot of the hills, and corundum exists in certain 1 From the enlistment of Kabyles speaking the Zouave dialect localities. Wild beasts and game are numerous, and fish are the Zouave regiments of the French army came to be so called. abundant. KAEMPFER-KAFFIRS 627 The largest town is Tarikere (pop. 10,164); the headquarters of Jimma, 60 m. N.E. of Bonga, is a still more important town, are at Chikmagalur (9515). The staple crop is rice, chiefly its weekly market being attended by some 20,000 persons. grown on the hill slopes, where the natural rainfall is sufficient, A great variety of races inhabit these countries of southern or in the river valley, where the fields can be irrigated. Coffee Ethiopia. The Kaficho (people of Kaffa proper) are said to be cultivation is said to have been introduced by a Mahommedan of the same stock as the northern Abyssinians and to have been saint, Baba Budan, more than two centuries ago; but it first separated from the rest of the country by the Mahommedan attracted European capital in 1840. The district is served by invasion of the 16th century. Thus Jimma, immediately north the Southern Mahratta railway. of Kaffa proper, is peopled by Mahommedan Gallas. The KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT (1651-1716), German traveller Kaficho, though much mixed with Galla blood, retained their and physician, was born on the 16th of November 1651 at Lemgo Christianity and a knowledge of Geez, the ecclesiastical tongue in Lippe-Detmold, Westphalia, where his father was a pastor. of Abyssinia. The ordinary language of the Kaficho has no He studied at Hameln, Lüneburg, Hamburg, Lübeck and outward resemblance to modern Abyssinian. Their speech was, Danzig, and after graduating Ph.D. at Cracow, spent four years however, stated by Dr C. T. Beke (c. 1850) to be cognate with at Königsberg in Prussia, studying medicine and natural science.. the Gonga tongue, spoken in a portion of Damot, on the northern In 1681 he visited Upsala in Sweden, where he was offered side of the Abai. Kaffa, after having been ruled by independent inducements to settle; but his desire for foreign travel led him to sovereigns, who were also suzerains of the neighbouring states, become secretary to the embassy which Charles XI. sent through was about 1895 conquered by the Abyssinians. The first Russia to Persia in 1683. He reached Persia by way of Moscow, European explorer of Kaffa was Antoine de’Abbadie, who visited Kazan and Astrakhan, landing at Nizabad in Daghestan after it in 1843. Not until the early years of the 20th century was a voyage in the Caspian; from Shemakha in Shirvan he made an the country accurately mapped. expedition to the Baku peninsula, being perhaps the first modern KAFFIR BREAD, in botany, the popular name for a species scientist to visit these fields of “eternal fire." In 1684 he of Encephalartos (E. caffra), one of the cycads, a native of South arrived in Isfahan, then the Persian capital. When after a stay Africa, so called from the farinaceous food-stuff which is found at of more than a year the Swedish embassy prepared to return, the apex of the stem (Gr. év, in, Kepalý, head, and äptos, bread). Kaempfer joined the fleet of the Dutch East India Company in It is a tree reaching nearly 20 ft. in height, with very stiff, the Persian Gulf as chief surgeon, and in spite of fever caught spreading pinnate leaves 3 to 4 ft. long and recurving at the tip. at Bander Abbasi he found opportunity to see something of The species of Encephalartos, which are natives of tropical and Arabia and of many of the western coast-lands of India. In South Africa, form handsome greenhouse and conservatory September 1689 he reached Batavia; spent the following winter plants; some species are effectively used in subtropical gardening in studying Javanese natural history; and in May 1690 set out in the summer months. for Japan as physician to the embassy sent yearly to that country KAFFIRS (Arabic Kafir, an unbeliever), a name given by the by the Dutch. The ship in which he sailed touched at Siam, Arabs to the native races of the east coast of Africa. The term whose capital he visited; and in September 1690 he arrived at was current along the east coast at the arrival of the Portuguese, Nagasaki, the only Japanese port then open to foreigners. and passed from them to the Dutch and English, and to the Kaempfer stayed two years in Japan, during which he twice natives themselves under the form of Kafula. There are no visited Tokyo. His adroitness, insinuating manners and medical general or collective national names for these peoples, and the skill overcame the habitual jealousy and reticence of the natives, various tribal divisions are mostly designated by historical or and enabled him to elicit much valuable information. In legendary chiefs, founders of dynasties or hereditary chief- November 1692 he left Japan for Java and Europe, and intaincies. The term has no real ethnological value, for the Kaffirs October 1693 he landed at Amsterdam. Receiving the degree have no national unity. To-day it is used to describe that large of M.D. at Leiden, he settled down in his native city, becom- family of Bantu negroes inhabiting the greater part of the Cape, ing also physician to the count of Lippe. He died at Lemgo on the whole of Natal and Zululand, and the Portuguese dominions the end of November 1716. on the east coast south of the Zambezi. The name is also loosely The only work Kaempfer lived to publish was Amoenitatum applied to any negro inhabitant of South Africa. For example, exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V. (Lemgo, 1712), the Bechuana of the Transvaal and Orange Free State are usually a selection from his papers giving results of his invaluable observa called Kaffirs. tions in Georgia, Persia and Japan. At his death the unpublished manuscripts were purchased by Sir Hans Sloane, and conveyed to The Kaffirs are divisible into two great branches: the Ama. England. Among them was a History of Japan, translated from the Zulu with the Ama-Swazi and Ama-Tonga and the Kaffirs proper, manuscript into English by J. G. Scheuchzer and published at London, represented by the Ama-Xosa, the Tembu (q.v.) and the Pondo in 2 vols., in 1727. The original German has never been published, (q.v.). Hence the compound term Zulu-Kaffir applied in a the extant German version being taken from the English. Besides collective sense to all the Kaffir peoples. Intermediate between Japanese history, this book contains a description of the political, social and physical state of the country in the 17th century. For these two branches were several broken tribes now collectively upwards of a hundred years it remained the chief source of informa- known as Ama-Fengu, i.e. “ wanderers needy” people, tion for the general reader, and is still not wholly obsolete. A life from fenguza, to seek service(see FINGO). of the author is prefixed to the History. The ramifications of the Kaffirs proper cannot be understood KAFFA, a country of N.E. Africa, part of the Abyssinian without reference to the national genealogies, most of the tribal empire. Kaffa proper (formerly known also as Gomara) has names, as already stated, being those of real or reputed founders an area of little more than 5000 sq. m., but the name is used of Xosa," a somewhat mythical chief supposed to have flourished of dynasties. Thus the term Ama-Xosa means simply the “ people in a general sense to include the neighbouring territories of about the year 1530. Ninth in descent from his son Toguh was Gimirra, Jimma, Ennarea, &c. In this larger acceptation Kaffa Palo, who died about 1780, leaving two sons, Gcaleka and Rarabe extends roughly from 6° to 9° N. and from 35° to 371° E. It (pronounced Kha-Kha-bē), from whom came the Ama-Gcaleka, Ama-Dhlambe (T'slambies) and the Ama-Ngquika (Gaika or forms the S.W. part of the great Abyssinian plateau and consists Sandili's people). The Pondo do not descend from Xosa, but of broken table-land deeply scored by mountain torrents and probably from an elder brother, while the Tembu, though apparently densely wooded. The general elevation is about 8000 ft., while representing a younger branch, are regarded by all the Kaffir tribes several peaks are over 10,000 ft. From the western slopes of as the royal race. Hence the Gcaleka chief, who is the head of all the plateau descend headstreams of the Sobat. The principal river however is the Omo, the chief feeder of Lake Rudolf. *The Ama-Fengu are regarded both by the Zulu and Ama-Xosa as slaves or out-castes, without any right to the privileges of true. Kaffa proper is believed to be the native home of the coffee plant born Kaffirs. Any tribes which become broken and mixed would Hence (whence the name), which grows in profusion on the mountain probably be regarded as Ama-Fengu by the other Kaffirs. sides. The principal town was Bonga, 71° N., 36° 12' E., a the multiplicity of clans, such as the Ama-Bele, Aba-Sembotweni Ama-Zizi. Ama-Kuze, Aba-Sekunene, Ama-Ntokaze, Ama-Tetyeni great trading centre, but the Abyssinian headquarters are at Aba-Shwawa, &c., all of whom are collectively grouped as Ama. Anderacha, about 12 m. S.S.W. of Bonga. Jiren, the capital | Fengu. 66 or 628 KAFFIRS ? the Ama-Xosa tribes, always takes his first or “great wife". from prevalent amongst the southern Tembu becomes gradually the Tembu royal family, and her issue alone have any claim to darker as we proceed northwards, passing at last to the blue- the succession. The subjoined genealogical tree will place Kaffir black and sepia of the Ama-Swazi and Tekeza. Even many of relations in a clearer light: the mixed Fingo tribes are of a polished ebony colour, like that Zuide (1500?), reputed founder of the nation. of the Jolofs and other Senegambian negroes. The Kaffir hair is uniformly of a woolly texture. The head is dolichocephalic, Tembu. Xosa (1530 ?). Mpondo. but it is also high or long vertically, and it is in this feature of hypsistenocephaly (height and length combined) that the Kaffir Ama-Tembu Toguh. presents the most striking contrast with the pure Negro. But, (Tambookies), Ama-Mponda, Ama-Mpondu. the nose being generally rather broadand the lips thick, the Tembuland Palo (ob. 1780?), between river misi and Emigrant 10th in descent Umtata and Kaffir face, though somewhat ova), is never regular in the Tembuland. from Xosa. Natal. · Abelungu European sense, the deviations being normally in the direction (dispersed?) of the Negro, with which race the peculiar odour of the skin again connects the Kaffirs. In stature they rank next to the Gcaleka. Rarabe Patagonians, Polynesians and West Africans, averaging from (Khakhabe). Klanta. 5 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. 11 in., and even 6 ft.* They are slim, well- proportioned and muscular. Owing to the hard life they lead, Hinza. Omlao. Mbalu. Ndhlambe the women are generally inferior in appearance to the men, except amongst the Zulu, and especially the Tembu. Hence Kreli. Ngqika. Ama-Mbalus. Ama-Ndhlambes in the matrimonial market, while the Ama-Xosa girl realizes no Ama-Gwali. or T'slambies, Ama-Gcaleka Macomo Ama-Ntinde. between the more than ten or twelve head of cattle, the Tembu belle fetches (Galeka), Ama-Gqunuk- Keiskamma and as many as forty, and if especially fine.even eighty. between the Tyali. webi. Great Kei rivers. Bashee and Ama-Velelo. The more warlike tribes were usually arrayed in leopard or ox Umtata rivers. Sandili. Ama-Baxa. skins, of late years generally replaced by European blankets, with Imi-Dange. feather head-dresses, coral and metal ornainents, bead armlets and Ama-Ngqika Imi-Dushane. recklaces. The Makua and a few others practise tattooing, and the (Gaika), Ama-Xosa are fond of painting or smearing their bodies with red Amatola highlands. ochre. Their arms consist chiefly of ox-hide shields 4 to 6 ft. long, the kerrie or club, and the assegai, of which there are two kinds, Ama-Khakhabe. one long, with 9-in. narrow blade, for throwing, the other short, with broad blade 12 to 18 in. long, for stabbing. The dwellings are simple. Ama-Xosa. conical huts grouped in kraals or villages. Although cattle form their It will be seen that, as representing the elder branch, the Gcaleka chief wealth, and hunting and stock-breeding their main pursuits, many have turned to husbandry. The Zulu raise regular crops of stand apart from the rest of Xosa's descendants, whom they group mealies (maize), and the Pondo cultivate a species of millet, collectively as Ama-Rarabe (Ama-Khakhabe), and whose genealogies, except in the case of the Gaikas and T'slambies, are very confused tobacco, water melons, yams and other vegetables. Milk (never The Ama-Xosa country lies mainly between the Keiskama and taken fresh), millet and maize form the staples of food, and mcat is seldom eaten except in time of war. Umtata rivers. The Zulu call themselves Abantu ba-Kwa-Zulu, i.e. W people of young Kaffir attains man's estate socially, not at puberty, but Zulu's land,” or briefly Bakwa-Zulu, from a legendary chief "Zulu, upon his marriage. Polygyny is the rule and each wife is regarded founder of the royal dynasty. They were originally an obscure tribe as adding dignity, to the household. Marriage is by purchase, the occupying the basin of the Umfolosi river, but rose suddenly to price being paid in cattle. Upon the husband's death family life power under Chaka,' , who had been brought up among the neigh; widows by virtue of levirate becoming the property of the uncle or is continued under the headship of the eldest son of the house, the bouring and powerful Umtetwas, and who succeeded the chiefs of that tribe and of his own in the beginning of the 19th century. I if he can, his father's debts. nearest males, not sons, A son inherits and honourably liquidates, But the true mother tribe seems to have been the extinct Ama- Ntombela, whence the Ama-Tefulu, the U'ndwande, U'mlelas, and political relations they display great tact and intelligence; Mentally the Kaffirs are superior to the Negro. In their social U'mtetwas and many others, all absorbed or claiming to be true Žulus. But they are only so by political subjection, and the gradual and truthful until through contact with the whites they became they are remarkably brave, warlike and hospitable, and were honest adoption of the Zulu dress, usages and speech. Hence in most cases the term Zulu implies political rather than blood relationship: vices. Of religion as ordinarily understood they have very little, suspicious, revengeful and thievish, besides acquiring most European This remark applies also to the followers of Mosilikatze (properly and have certainly never developed any mythologies or dogmatic Umsilikazi), who, after a fierce struggle with the Bechuana, founded about 1820'a second Zulu state about the head waters of the Orange formed any notion of a Supreme Being. Some conception, however, systems. It is more than doubtful whether they had originally river. In 1837 most of them were driven northwards by the Boers of a future state is implied by a strongly developed worship of and are now known as Matabele. ancestry, and by a belief in spirits and ghosts to whom sacrifices are made. There are no idols of priests, but belief in witchcraft formerly The origin of the Zulu-Kaffir race has given rise to much gave the “ witch-doctor" or medicine-man overwhelming power. controversy. It is obvious that they are not the aborigines Circumcision and polygyny are universal; the former is sometimes of their present domain, whence in comparatively recent times- attributed to Mahommedan influences, but has really prevailed since the beginning of the 16th century—they have displaced almost everywhere in East Africa from the remotest time. Dearer than anything else to the Kaffir are his cattle; and many the Hottentots and Bushmen of fundamentally distinct stock. ceremonial observances in connexion with them were once the rule. They themselves are conscious of their foreign origin. Yet Formerly ox-racing was a common sport, the oxen running, riderless, they are closely allied in speech (see BANTU LANGUAGES) and over a ten-mile course. The owner of a champion racing ox was a physique to the surrounding Basuto, Bechuana and other mem- popular hero, and these racers were valued at hundreds of head of bers of the great South African Negroid family. Hence their Ten to twenty head are the price of a wife. cattle. Cattle are the currency of the Kaffirs in their wild state. When a girl marries, appearance in the south-east corner of the continent is sufficiently explained by the gradual onward movement of the populations ? P. Topinard, Anthropology (1878), p. 274., pressing southward on the Hottentot and Bushman domain. 3 This feature varies considerably, in the T'slambie tribes being The specific differences in speech and appearance by which they broader and more of the Negro shape than in the Gaika or Gcaleka, are distinguished from the other branches of the family must while among the Ama-Tembu and Ama.Mpondo it assumes more of in the same way be explained by the altered conditions of their the European character. In many of them the perfect Grecian and Roman noses are discernible" (Fleming's Kaffraria, p. 92). new habitat. Hence it is that the farther they have penetrated Gustav Fritsch gives the mean of the Ama-Xosa as 1.718 metres, southwards the farther have they become differentiated from less than that of the Guinca Negro (1•724), but more than the English the pure Negro type. Thus the light and clear brown complexion (1:708) and Scotch (1.710). Since the early years of the 19th century Protestant and Roman 1 Seventh in descent from Zulu, through Kumede, Makeba, Catholic missions have gained hundreds of thousands of converts Punga, Ndaba, Yama and Tezengakona or Senzangakona (Bleek, among the Kaffirs. Purely native Christian churches have also Zulu Legends). been organized. KAFFRARIA 629 4 her father (if well off) presents her with a cow from his herd. Tsitza, possessing a magnificent waterfall, the river leaping over an This animal is called ubulungu or“ doer of good” and is regarded as almost vertical precipice of 375 ft. The St John's reaches the sacred. It must never be killed nor may its descendants, as long sea between precipitous cliffs some 1200 ft. high and covered with as it lives. A hair of its tail is tied round the neck of each child verdure. The mouth is obstructed by a sand bar over which there immediately after birth. In large kraals there is the “dancing-ox," is 14. ft. of water. None of the rivers of Kaffraria except the usually of red colour. Its horns are trained to peculiar shapes by St John's is navigable. early mutilations. It figures in many ceremonies when it is paid Kaffraria is one of the most fertile regions in South Africa. The a kind of knee-worship. mountain gorges abound in fine trees, thick forest and bush cover The Kaffirs have three, not four, seasons: Green Heads,' the river banks, grass grows luxuriantly in the lower regions, and " Kindness” and “Cutting "; the first and last referring to the the lowlands and valleys are favourable to almost any kind of fruit, crops, the second to the warm weather." Women and children field and garden cultivation. The coast districts are very hot in only eat after the men are satisfied. A light beer made from summer, the temperature from October to April on an average sorghum is the national drink. varying from 70° to 90° F., while in winter the day temperature is of the few industries the chief are copper and iron smelting, seldom below 50°, though the nights are very cold. But the varia- practised by the Tembu, Zulu and Swazi, who manufacture weapons, tion in altitude places climates of all grades within easy reach, spoons and agricultural implements both for their own use and for from the burning coast to the often snow-clad mountain. Thunder- trade. The Swazi display some taste in wood-carving, and others storms are frequent in summer; the winters are generally, dry. prepare a peculiar water-tight vessel of grass. Characteristic of this on the whole the climate is extremely healthy. At St John's are race is their neglect of the art of navigation. Not the smallest sulphur springs. boats are ever made for crossing the rivers, much less for venturing A considerable area is devoted to the raising of wheat and other on the sea, except by the Makazana of Delagoa Bay and by the cereals, especially in the northern district (Griqualand East), where Zambezi people, who have canoes and flat-bottomed boats made of in the higher valleys are many farms owned by Europeans. Large planks. quantities of stock are raised. Most of the land is held by the The Kaffir race had a distinct and apparently very old political natives under tribal tenure, and the ease with which their wants are system, which may be described as a patriarchal monarchy limited supplied is detrimental to the full cultivation of the land. Kaffraria by a powerful aristocracy. Under British rule the tribal'indepen- is, however, one of the chief recruiting grounds for labour throughout dence of the Kaffirs has disappeared. Varying degrees of autonomy South Africa, Most of the white inhabitants are engaged in trade. have been granted, but the supreme powers of the chiefs have gone, Towns and Communication.-The chief town is Kokstad (q.v.), the Swazi being in 1904 the last to be brought to order. In the pop. (1904), 2903, the capital of Griqualand East. Umtata (2100 ft. Transkeian Territories tribal organization exists, but it is modified above the sea, pop. 2342) on the river of the same name, capital of by special legislation and the natives are under the control of Tembuland, is the residence of an assistant chief magistrate, head- special magistrates. To a considerable extent in Natal and through. quarters of a division of the Cape Mounted Rifles, and seat of the out Zululand the Kaffirs are placed in reserves, where tribal Anglican bishopric of Kaffraria. The principal buildings are the organization is kept up under European supervision. In Basuto- cathedral, a Gothic structure, built 1901-1906, and the town-hall; land the tribal organization is very strong, and the power of chiefs a fine building in Renaissance style, erected 1907-1908. Port St John is upheld by the imperial government, which exercises general is the chief town in Pondoland, and the only harbour of the country. supervision. Butterworth is the chief town in Transkei. Cala (pop. about 1000), See Gustav Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Südafrikas, with atlas, 30 in the N.W. part of Tembuland, is the educational centre of Kaffraria. plates and 120 typical heads (Breslau, 1872); W. H. I. Bleek, A railway, 107 m. long, the first link in the direct Cape-Natal line, Comparative Grammar of the South African Languages (London and runs from Indwe, 65 m. from Sterkstroom Junction on the main Cape Town, pt. i., 1862; pt. ii., 1869); Theo. Hahn, Grundzüge line from East London to the Transvaal, to Maclear, an agricultural einer Grammatik des Herero (Berlin, 1857); Dr Colenso, Grammar of centre in Griqualand East. Another railway parallel but south of the Zulu-Kafir Language (1855); Girard de Rialle, Les Peuples de that described also traverses Kaffraria. Starting from Amabele, l'Afrique et de l'Amérique (Paris, 1880); G. W. Stow, The Native a station on the main line from East London to the north, it goes Races of South Africa (London, 1905); G. McC. Theal, History and via Butterworth (132 m. from East London) to Umtata (234.m.). Ethnography of South Africa, 1505 to 1795 (3 vols., London, 1907- Administration and Justice.-The Cape administrative and judicial 1910) and History of South Africa since 1795 (5 vols., London, 1908), system is in force, save as modified by special enactments of the specially valuable for the political history of the Kaffirs; Caesar Ć. Cape parliament. A" Native Territories Penal Code " which came Henkel, The Native or Transkeian Territories (Hamburg, 1903); | into operation on the 1st of January 1887 governs the relations of The Natives of South Africa (1901), and its sequel, The South African the natives, who are under the jurisdiction of a chief magistrate Natives (1908); Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kafir (1904) and Kafir (resident at Cape Town) with subordinate magistrates in the Terri- Socialism. The last four books deal with the many social and tories. In civil affairs the tribal organization and native laws are economic questions raised by the contact of the Kaffír races with maintained. Nochief, however, exercises criminal jurisdiction. Since Europeans. 1898 certain provisions of the Glen Grey Act have been applied to Kaffraria (see GLEN GREY). The revenue is included in the ordi- KAFFRARIA, the descriptive name given to the S.E. part of nary, budget of the Cape province. The expenditure on Kaffraria the Cape province, South Africa. Kaffraria, i.e. the land of the considerably exceeds the revenue derived from it. The franchise Kaffirs (q.v.), is no longer an official designation. It used to com- laws are the same as in the Cape proper. Though the Kaffirs out- prise the districts now known as King William's Town and electorate, which in 1904 numbered 4778. number the whites by fifty to one, white men form the bulk of the East London, which formed British Kaffraria, annexed to Cape Religion. --Numbers of Protestant missionary societies have Colony in 1865, and the territory beyond the Kei River south of churches and educational establishments in Kaffraria, but, except the Drakensberg Mountains as far as the Natal frontier, known profess Christianity and have their own churches and ministers. in Fingoland, the bulk of the Kaffirs are heathen. The Griquas as Kaffraria proper. As a geographical term it is still used to The Anglican diocese of St John's, Kaffraria, was founded in 1873. indicate the Transkeian territories of the Cape provinces com- prising the four administrative divisions of Transkei, Pondoland, Annexation to the Cape.—The story of the conflicts between Tembuland and Griqualand East, incorporated into Cape the Kaffir tribes and the Cape colonists is told under Cafe Colony at various periods between 1879 and 1894. They have a COLONY. As early as 1819 Kaffirland, or Kaffraria, was held total area of 18,310 sq. m., and a population (1904) of 834,644, not to extend west beyond the Keiskamma River. The region of whom 16,777 were whites. Excluding Pondoland--not east of that river as far as the Kei River became in 1847 the counted previously to 1904—the population had increased from Crown colony of British Kaffraria, and was annexed to Cape 487,364 in 1891 to 631,887 in 1904. Colony in 1865. The Trạnskeian territories remained in nominal Physical Features.— The physical characteristics of Kaffraria bear independence until 1875, when the Tembu sought British pro- a general resemblance to those of the Cape province proper. The tection. An inter-tribal war in 1877 between Fingo and Gcaleka country rises from sea-level in a series of terraces to the rugged range resulted in the territory of the Gcaleka chief Kreli being occupied of the Drakensberg. Between that range and the coast-lands by the British. It was not, however, till 1879 that Fingoland are many subsidiary ranges with fertile valleys through which a large number of rivers make their way to the Indian Ocean. These and the Idutywa Reserve, together with the district then rivers have very rapid falls in comparison to their length and when commonly called Noman’s-land, were proclaimed an integral less than 40 m. from the coast are still 2000 ft. above sea level. part of the Cape. About this time most of the rest of The chief, beginning at the south, are the Kei, the Bashee, the Kaffraria came under British control, but it was 1885 before Umtata, the St John's or Umzimvubu, and the Umtamvuna, Gcalekaland, the coast region of Transkei, and the various dis- which separates Kaffraria from Natal. The St John's River rises tricts comprising Tembuland-Bomvanaland on the coast, Tem- in the Drakensberg near the Basuto-Natal frontier. valley has a length of 140 m., the river with its many twists being buland Proper and Emigrant Tembuland—were annexed to the double that length. It receives numerous tributaries, one, the I colony. By the annexation, the frontier of the colony was 630 KAFIRISTAN man. carried to the Umtata River, so that by 1885 only Pondoland, General Sir W. (then Colonel) Lockhart headed a mission to fronting on the Indian Ocean, separated the Cape from Natal. examine the passes of the Hindu Kush range in 1885-1886. He In Pondoland, Port St John, proclaimed British territory in 1881, penetrated into the upper part of the Bashgal valley, but after was, along with the lower reaches of the St John's River, incor- a few days he found himself compelled to return to Chitral, porated with Cape Colony in 1884; in 1886 the Xesibe country Previously Major Tanner, R.A., had sought to enter Kafiristan (Mount Ayliff) was annexed to the Cape and added to Griqua- from Jalalabad, but sudden severe illness cut short his enterprise. land East; and in the following year Rhode Valley was included M‘Nair, the famous explorer of the Indian Survey department, within the boundary line. The rest of Pondoland, chiefly in virtue believed that he had actually visited this little-known land of a British protectorate established over all the coast region during an adventurous journey which he made from India and in 1885, was already more or less under British control, and in through Chitral in disguise; but the internal evidence of his 1894 it was annexed to the Cape in its entirety. Thus the whole reports shows that he mistook the Kalash district of Chitral, of Kaffraria was incorporated in Cape Colony, with the exception with its debased and idolatrous population, for the true Kafir- of some 1550 sq. m., then part of Noman's-land, annexed by istan of his hopes. In 1889 Mr G. S. Robertson (afterwards Sir Natal in 1866 and named Alfred county. To the wise adminis-George Robertson, K.C.S.I.) was sent on a mission to Kafiristan. tration of Major Sir Henry G. Elliot, who served in Kaffraria in He only remained a few days, but a year later he revisited various official capacities from 1877 to 1903, the country owes the country, staying amongst the Kafirs for nearly a year. much of its prosperity. Although his movements were hampered, his presence in the Particulars concerning each of the four divisions of Kaffraria country being regarded with suspicion, he was able to study follow. the people, and, in spite of intertribal jealousy, to meet members Griqualand East (area, 7594 sq. m.), so called to distinguish it of many of the tribes. The facts observed and the information from Griqualand West, a district north of the Orange River, lies collected by him during his sojourn in eastern Kafiristan, and between Basutoland (N.W.), Natal (N.E.), Tembuland (S.W.) and Pondoland (S.E.). It occupies the southern slopes of the during short expeditions to the inner valleys, are the most trust- Drakensberg or the fertile valleys at their feet. It includes most of worthy foundations of our knowledge of this interesting country. the region formerly called Noman's-land, and afterwards named Kafiristan, which literally means “the land of the infidel,” is Adam Kok's Land from the Griqua chief who occupied it in 1862 with the consent of the British authorities, and governed, the and Afghan territory. It was formerly peopled by pagan the name given to a tract of country. enclosed between Chitral country till his death in 1876, establishing a volksraad on the Dutch model. The Griquas are still ruled by an officially appointed head- mountaineers, who maintained a wild independence until 1895, The majority of the inhabitants are Basutos and Kaffirs when they were finally subdued by Abdur Rahman, the amir of (Pondomisi, Ama-Baka and other tribes). The Griquas number Kabul, who also compelled them to accept the religion of Islam. about 6000. Since its annexation to Cape Colony Griqualand East The territory thus ill named is included between 34° 30' and has made fairly rapid progress. The population rose from 121,000 in 1881 to 222,685 in 1904, of whom 5901 were whites. Stock-breed- 36° N., and from about 70° to 71° 30' E. As the western and ing on the uplands, tillage on the lower slopes of the Drakensberg, northern boundaries are imperfectly known, its size cannot be are the chieł industries. On these slopes and uplands the climate estimated with any certainty. Its greatest extent is from east is delightful and well suited to Europeans. There is considerable trade with Basutoland in grain and stock, and through Kokstad to west at 35° 10' N.; its greatest breadth is probably about with Port St John and Port Shepstone, Natal. Much of the best 71° E. The total area approximates to 5000 sq. m. Along the agricultural land is owned by Europeans. N. the boundary is the province of Badakshan, on the N.E. the Tembuland (area. 4122 sq. m.), which lies S.W. of Griqualand East Lutkho valley of Chitral. Chitral and lower Chitral enclose it and comprises the districts of Tembuland Proper, Emigrant Tembu- land and Bomvanaland, takes its name from the Tombu nation, to the E., and the Kunar valley on the S.E. Afghanistan proper called sometimes Tambookies, one of the most powerful of the supplies the S. limit. The ranges above the Nijrao and Pansher Kaffir groups. In the national genealogies the Tembu hold an valleys of Afghanistan wall it in upon the W. The northern honourable position, being traditionally descended from Tembu, frontier is split by. the narrow Minjan valley of Badakshan, elder brother of Xosa, from whom most of the other Kaffirs claim which seems to rise in the very heart of Kafiristan. descent. The inhabitants increased from about 160,000 in 1881 to 231,472 in 1904, of whom 8056 were whites. The chief town is Umtata. Speaking generally, the country consists of an irregular series of Transkei (area, 2552 sq. m.) comprises the districts of Fingoland, main valleys, for the most part deep, narrow and tortuous, into which the Idutywa Reserve and Goalekaland, this last being named from a varying number of still deeper, narrower and more twisted valleys, the Gcaleka nation, who claim to be the senior branch of the Xosa ravines and glens pour their torrent water. The mountain ranges family, the principal royal line of the Kaffir tribes. They still form of Metamorphic rock, which separate the main drainage valleys, are the chief element of the population, which rose from 136,000 in all of considerable altitude, rugged and difficult, with the outline of 1881 to 177,730 in 1904 (1707 whites). Here are some prosperous a choppy sea petrified. During the winter months, when the snow missionary stations, where the natives are taught agriculture, lies deep, Kafiristan becomes a number of isolated communities, mechanical industries and a knowledge of letters. The heroic with few if any means of intercommunication. In the whole land deeds of Hinza, Kreli and other chiefs famous in the wars are still there is probably nothing in the shape of a plain. Much of the silent, remembered; but witchcraft, rain-making and other pagan practices gigantic country, warms the heart as well as captivates the eye with seem to have died out. Even more advanced in all social respects its grandeur and varied beauty; much of it is the bare skeleton of are the Fingo, who give their name to the district of Fingoland, and the world wasted by countless centuries of storms and frost, and also form the bulk of the population in the Idutywa Reserve. They profoundly melancholy in its sempiternal ruin. Every variety of wear European clothes, support their schools by voluntary contri- mountain scenery can be found: silent peaks and hard, naked ridges, butions, edit newspapers, translate English poetry, set their national snowfields and glaciers; mighty pine forests, wooded slopes and songs to correct music, and the majority profess Christianity: grazing grounds; or wild vine and pomegranate thickets bordering The industrial institution of. Blythswood, about 20 m. N.W. of sparkling streams. At low elevations the hill-sides are covered with Butterworth, is a branch of Lovedale (q.v.), and is largely supported the wild olive and evergreen oaks. Many kinds of fruit trees-- by the Fingo. walnuts, mulberries, apricots and apples-grow near the villages Pondoland (area, 4040 sq. m.; pop. (1904), 202,757 (including or by the wayside, as well as splendid horse-chestnuts and other 1113 whites), an estimated increase of 36,000 since 1891) is bounded shade trees. Higher in elevation, and from 4000 to 8000 ft., are E. by the sea, N. by Natal, W. by Griqualand East, by S. and the dense pine and cedar forests. Above this altitude the slopes Tembuland. In Pondoland the primitive organization of the natives become dreary, the juniper, cedar and wild rhubarb gradually has been little altered and the influence of the chiefs is very great. giving place to scanty willow patches, tamarisk and stunted birches. Land is held almost wholly in tribal tenure, though a number of Over 13,000 ft. there are merely mosses and rough grass. Familiar whites possess farms acquired before the annexation of the country. wildflowers blossom at different heights. The rivers teem with fish. The Pondo have shown some appreciation of the benefits of educa. Immense numbers of red-legged partridges live in the lower valleys, tion. as well as pigeons and doves. Gorgeously plumaged pheasants are See G, McCall Theal's History of South Africa and other works plentiful. Of wild animals the chief are the markhor (a goat) and cited under CAPE COLONY; also The Native or Transkeian Territories, the oorial (a sheep); In the winter.the former are recklessly slaugh- by C. C. Henke! (Hamburg, 1903), a useful handbook by an ex-official' tered by hunters, being either brought to bay by trained hounds, in the Transkeian Territories. or trapped in pits, or caught floundering in the snow-drifts; but in the summer immense herds 'move on the higher slopes. The ibex is very KAFIRISTAN, a province of Afghanistan. Very little of this Bears and leopards are fairly common, as well as the smaller country was known with accuracy and nothing at first hand until | hill creatures. rare. KAFIRISTAN 631 Posh. tarn. All the northern passes leading into Badakshan or into the Minjan / scientific nor convenient, for while the Siah-Posh have much in valley of Badakshan seem to be over 15,000 ft. in altitude. Of these the chief are the Mandal, the Kamah (these two common in dress, language, customs and appearance, the Safed- Passes and Roads. alone have been explored by a European traveller), the Posh divisions were not more dissimilar from the Siah-Posh Kti, the Kulam and the Ramgal passes. Those to the than they were from one another. Perhaps the best division east, the Chitral passes, are somewhat lower, ranging from 12,000 to at present possible is into (1) Siah-Posh, (2) Waigulis, and 14,000 ft., e.g. the Zidig, the Shui, the Shawal and the Parpit, while (3) Presungalis or Viron folk. the Patkun, which crosses one of the dwindled spurs near the Kunar river, is only 8400 ft. high. Between neighbouring valleys the The black-robed Kafirs consist of one very large, widely spread very numerous communicating footways must rarely be lower than 10,000, while they sometimes exceed 14,000 ft. The western passes the Madugalis, the Kashtan or Kashtoz, and the tribe, the Katirs, and four much smaller communities, the Kam, are unknown. All these toilsome paths are so faintly indicated, guide is usually unsafe. Yet the light-framed cattle of these jagged together. They inhabit several valleys, each community being even when free from snow, that to adventure them without a local Gourdesh. Numerically, it is probable that the Katirs The Siah- are more important than all the remaining tribes put mountains can be forced over many of the worst passes. Ordinarily the herding tracks, near the crest of the ridges and high above the independent of the others, but all acknowledging the same origin white torrents, are scarcely discoverable to untutored eyes. They groups: (a) Those of the Bashgal valley, also called Kamoz and and a general relationship. The Katirs fall readily into the following wind and waver, rise, drop and twist about the irregular semi- precipitous slopes with baffing eccentricity and abruptness. Never-- Lutdehchis, who occupy eleven villages between Badawan and theless the cattle nose their way along blunderingly, but without Sunra, the border hamlet of the Madugal country, namely, Ptsigrom, hạrt. Of no less importance in the open months, and the sole trade Pshui or Pshowar, Apsai, Shidgal, Bragamatal (Lutdeh), Bajindra, routes during winter, are the lower paths by the river. An unguided Katwar Kafirs, who live in two settlements in the Kti valley; (c) the Badamuk, Oulagal, Chabu, Baprok and Purstam; (b) the Kti or traveller is continually at fault upon these main lines of intercourse Kulam people , who have four villages in the valley of the same and traffic. All the rivers find their tumultuous way into the Kabul, either name; (d) the Ramgalis, or Gabariks, who are the most numerous, directly, as the Alingar at Laghman, or after commingling with the remaining tribes of the Siah-Posh, the chief is the Kam or Kamtoz, the western part on the Afghan border. Of the Kunar at Arundu and at Chigar-Serai. The Bashgal, who inhabit the Bashgal valley, from the Madugal boundary to the Rivers. draining the eastern portion of the country, empties Kunar valley, and its lateral branches in seven chief settlements, itself into the Kunar at Arundu. It draws its highest waters from namely, Urmir, Kambrom or Kamdesh, Mergrom, Kamu, Şarat, three main sources at the head of the Bashgal valley. It glides gently through a lake close to this origin, and then through a smaller Pittigal and Bazgal. The next Siah-Posh tribe in importance is the The first affluent of importance is the Skorigal, which joins tract between the Katirs and the Kam in the Bashgal valley. The Muman or Madugal Kafirs, who have three villages in the short it above the village of Pshui. Next comes the noisier Manangal water, last Siah-Posh tribe is the Kashtan or Kashtoz, who in 1891 were from the Shawal pass, which enters the main stream at Lutdeh or Bragamatal, the chief settlement of the Bashgal branch of the Katir all located in one greatly overcrowded village, their outlying settle- tribe. By-and-by, the main stream becomes, at the hamlet of valley. One colony of Siah-Posh Kafirs lives in the Gourdesh ment having been plundered by the Afghan tribes of 'the Kunar Sunra, a raging, shrieking torrent in a dark narrow valley, its run obstructed by giant boulders and great tree-trunks. Racing past descended, in great part, from the ancient people called the Aroms. valley; but they differ from all the other tribes, and are believed to be Bagalgrom, the chief village of the Madugal Kafirs, the river clamours round the great spur which, 1800 ft. higher up, gives space for the related in language and origin with a people fierce, shy and isolated, Our exact knowledge of the Waigulis is scanty. They seem to be terraces and houses of Kamdesh, the headquarters of the Kam people. The next important affluent is the river which drains the called the Ashkun, who are quite unknown. The Wai The Pittigal valley, its passes and branches. Also on the left bank, and speakiant ons nie altogether different from that spoken by Waigulis . Siah-Posh and by . still lower down, is the joining-place of the Gourdesh valley waters. Finally it ends in the Kunar just above Arundu and Birkot." The their ten chief villages are Runchi, Nishi, Jamma, Amzhi, Chimion, Of these middle part of Kafiristan, including the valleys occupied by the Kegili ; Akun or. Akum, Mildesh, Bargal and Prainta. Amzhi and Nishi are the best known. Presun, Kti, Ashkun and Wai tribes, is drained by a river variously called the Pech, the Kamah, and the Presun or Viron River. It has The Presungalis, also called Viron, live in a high valley.. In all been only partially explored. Fed by the fountains and snows of respects they differ from other Kafirs, in none more than in their the upper Presun valley, it is joined at the village of Shteygrom by and rather clumsy, they are remarkable for their in-p. unwarlike disposition. Simple, timid,, stolid-featured The the torrent from the Kamah 'pass. Thence it moves quietly past Presungalls. meadowland, formerly set apart as holy ground, watering on its dustry and powers of endurance. They probably repre- way all the Presun villages. Below the last of them, with an abrupt sent some of the earliest immigrants. Six large well-built villages bend, it hurries into the unexplored and rockbound Tsaru country, are occupied by them-Shtevgrom, Pontzgrom, Diogrom, Kstigi- where it absorbs on the right hand the Kti and the Ashkun and grom, Satsumgrom and Paskigrom. on the left the Wai rivers, finally losing itself in the Kunar, close The slaves are fairly numerous. Their origin is probably partly from the very ancient inhabitants and partly from war prisoners. to Chigar-Serai. Concerning the Alingar or Kao, which carries the drainage of western Kaħristan into the Kabul at Laghman, distinguished from the lowest class of freemen, while Coarse in feature and dark in tint, they cannot be The Slaves, there are no trustworthy details. It is formed from the waters of all the valleys inhabited by the Ramgal Kafirs, and by that small their dress is indistinctive. They are of two classes-household branch of the Katirs known as the Kalam tribe. slaves, who are treated not unkindly; and artisan slaves, who are The climate varies with the altitude, but in the summer-time it is the skilled handicraftsmen-carvers, blacksmiths, bootmakers and hot at all elevations. In the higher valleys the winter is rigorous. particular portion of a village, and were considered to a certain so forth; many of the musicians are also slaves. They live in a Climate. Snow falls heavily everywhere over 4000 ft. above the sea-level. During the winter of 1890-1891 at Kamdesh extent unclean, and might not approach closely to certain sacred (elevation 6100 ft.) the thermometer never fell below 17° F. In spots. All slaves seem to wear the Siah-Posh dress, even when they many of the valleys the absence of wind is remarkable. Conse- own as masters the feeble Presungal folk. quently a great deal of cold can be borne without discomfort. The Little respoct is shown to women, except in particular cases to a Kunar valley, which is wet and windy in winter, but where snow, few of advanced years. Usually they are mistresses and slaves, saleable chattels and field-workers. Degraded, immoral, if it falls, melts quickly, gives a much greater sensation of cold than Womea, the still Kafiristan valleys of much lower actual temperature. A overworked and carelessly, fed, they are also, as a rule, deficiency of rain necessitates the employment of a somewhat, unpleasant to the sight. Little girls are sometimes quite beautiful, elaborate system of irrigation, which in its turn is dependent upon complexions coarse and dark. They are invariably dirty and but rough usage and exposure to all weathers soon make their the snowfall. uncombed. In comparison with the men they are somewhat short. The present inhabitants are probably mainly descended from Physically they are capable of enormous labour, and are very the broken tribes of eastern Afghanistan, who, refusing to accept inferior Occupations, such as load-carrying. They have no rights as enduring: All the field-work falls to them, as well as all kinds of The Kaflrs. Islam (in the 10th century), were driven away by the against their husbands or, failing them, their male relations. They fervid swordsmen of Mahomet. Descending upon cannot inherit or possess property. the feeble inhabitants of the trackless slopes and perilous valleys thathused by the Siah-Posh being of course There are certainly three tongues spoken, besides many dialects, most common; and of modern Kafiristan, themselves, most likely, refugees of an although it has many dialects, the employers of one seem Language. earlier date, they subjugated and enslaved them and partially to understand all the others. It is a Prakritic language. amalgamated with them. These ancient peoples seem to be of the remaining two, the Wai and the Presun have no similarity: represented by the Presun tribe, by the slaves and by fragments they are also unlike the Siah-Posh. Kafirs themselves maintain of lost peoples, now known as the Jazhis and the Aroms. The that very young children from any valley can acquire the Wai speech, but that only those born in the Presungal can ever converse old division of the tribes into the Siah-Posh, or the black-robed in that language, even roughly. To European ears it is disconcert- Kafirs, and the Safed-Posh, or the white-robed, was neither | ingly difficult, and it is perhaps impossible to learn. 632 KAFIRISTAN Before their conquest by Abdur Rahman all the Kafirs were heavy doors fastened by a sliding wooden pin, are common. idolaters of a rather low type. There were lingering traces of The nature of the ground, its defensible character, the necessity Religion. ançestor-worship, and perhaps of fire-worship, also.. The of not encroaching upon the scanty arable land, and such Houses and gods were numerous; tribal, family, household deities considerations, determine the design of the villages. Speci- Villages. had to be propitiated, and mischievous spirits and fairies haunted mens of many varieties may be discovered. There is the forests, rivers, vales and great stones. Imra was the Creator, and shockingly overcrowded oblong kind, fort-shaped, three storeys all the other supernatural powers were subordinate to him. Of the high, and on a river's bank, which is pierced by an underground inferior gods, Moni seemed to be the most ancient; but Gish, the way leading to the water. Here all rooms look on to the large war-god, was by far the most popular. It was his worship, doubt. central courtyard; outwards are few or no windows. There is also less, which kept the Kafirs so long independent. In life as a hero, the tiny hamlet of a few piled-up hovels perched on the flattish top and after death as a god, he symbolized hatred to the religion of of some huge rock, inaccessible when the ladder connecting it with Mahomet. Every village revered his shrine; some possessed two. the neighbouring hill-side or leading to the ground is withdrawn. Imra, Gísh and Moni were honoured with separate little temples, Some villages on mounds are defended at the base by a circular wall as was usually Dizáni goddess; but three or four of the others would strengthened with an entanglement of branches. "Others cling to share one between them, each looking out of a small separate square the knife-edged back of some difficult spur. Many are hidden away window. The worshipped object was either a large fragment of up side ravines. A few boldly rely upon the numbers of their stone or an image of wood conventionally carved, with round white fighting men, and are unprotected save by watch-towers. While stones for eyes. Different animals were sacrificed at different frequently very picturesque at a distance, all are dirty and grimed shrines: cows to Imra, male goats and bulls to Gísh, sheep to the with smoke; bones and horns of slaughtered animals litter the god of wealth; but goats were generally acceptable, and were also ground. The ground floor of a house is usually a winter stable for slain ceremonially to discover a complaisant god, to solemnize a vow, cows and the latrine, as well as the manure store for the household; to end a quarrel, to ratify brotherhood. The ministers of religion the middle part contains the family treasures; on the top is the were a hereditary, priest, a well-born chanter of praise, and a buffoon living-place." In cold valleys, such as the Presungal, the houses are of low station, who was supposed to become inspired at each sacrifice, often clustered upon a hillock, and penetrate into the soil to the and to have the power of seeing fairies and other spirits whenever depth of two or more apartments. Notched poles are the universal they were near, also of understanding their wishes. The blood of ladders and stairways. the offering, together with flour, wine and butter, was cast on the In height Kafirs average about 5 ft. 6 in. They are lean; always shrine after the animal and the other gifts had been sanctified with in hard condition; active jumpers, untiring walkers, expert moun- water sprinkled by the officiating priests, while he cried "Súch, taineers; exceptionallythey are tall and heavy. With Character súch!" ("Be pure!"). Denise clouds of smoke from burning chests fairly deep, and muscular, springy legs, there is istics juniper-cedar, which crackled and gave forth pungent incense, added some lightness and want of power about the shoulder to the spectacle, which was digniñed by the bearing of the officials muscles, the arms and the hand-grasp. In complexion they are and solemnized by the devout responses of the congregation. There purely Eastern. Some tribes, notably the Wai, are fairer than vas no human sacrifice except when a prisoner of war, after a others, but the average colour is that of the natives of the Punjab. solemn service at a shrine, was taken away and stabbed before the Albinos, or red-haired people, number less than 1% of the popula- wooden tomb of some unavenged headman. Kafirs believed in a tion. As a rule, the features are well-shaped, especially the nose. kind of Hell where wicked people burned; but the Hereafter was an The glance is wild and bold, with the wide-lidded, restless gaze of underground region entered by a guarded aperture, and inhabited the hawk; or the exact converse--a shifty, furtive peer under by the shapes which men see in dreams. Suicide was as unknown lowered brows. This look is rather common amongst the wealthier as fear of dying. Melancholy afflicted only the sick and the be- families and the most famous tribesmen. The shape of a man's reaved. Religious traditions, miracles and anecdotes were puerile, head not uncommonly indicates his social rank. Several have the and pointed no social lesson or any religious law. Music, dancing brows of thinkers and men of affairs. The degraded forms are the and songs of praise were acceptable to the gods, and every village bird-of-prey type--low, hairy foreheads, hooked noses with receding (grom) had its dancing platform and dancing house (grom ma), chin, or the thickened, coarse features of the darker slave class. furnished with a simple altar. No prayers were offered, only Intellectually they are of good average power. Their moral charac- invocations, exhortative or remonstrant. teristics are passionate covetousness, and jealousy so intense that The great majority of the tribes were made up of clans. A it. smothers prudence. Before finally destroying, it constantly person's importance was derived chiefly from the wealth of his endangered their wildly, cherished independence. Revenge, espe- Tribal family and the number of male adults which it containedcially on neighbouring Kafirs, is obtained at any price. Kafirs are The power of a family, as shown by the number and subtle, crafty, quick in danger and resolute, as might be expected Organiza- quality of its fighting men as well as by the strength of of people who have been plunderers and assassins for centuries, its followers, was the index of that family's influence. whose lives were the forfeit of a fault in unflinchingness or of a Weak clans and detached families, or poor but free households, moment's vacillation. Stealthy daring, born of wary and healthy carried their independence modestly. The lowest clan above the nerves and the training of generations, almost transformed into an slaves sought service with their wealthier tribesmen as henchmen instinct, is the national characteristic. Ghastly shadows, they and armed shepherds. By intricate ceremonial, associated with fitted in the precincts of hostile villages far distant from their own complicated duties, social and religious, which extended over two valleys, living upon the poorest food carried in a fetid goatskin years, punctuated at intervals by prodigious compulsory banquets, bag; ever ready to stab in the darkness or to wriggle through aper- rich men could become elders or jast. Still further outlay and tures, to slay as they slept men, women and babies. Then, with ostentation enabled the few who could sustain the cost to rank still clothing for prize, and human ears as a trophy, they sped, watchful higher as chief or Mír. Theoretically, all the important and outside as hares, for their far-away hills, avenger Pathans racing furiously affairs of the tribe were managed by the jast in council; actually in their track., Kafirs, most faithful to one another, never aban- they were controlled by two or three of the most respected of that doned a comrade. If he were killed, they sought to carry away his class. Very serious questions which inflamed the minds of the people head for funeral observances. As traders, though cunning enough, would be debated in informal parliaments of the whole tribe. Kafirs they are no match for the Afghan. They were more successful as have a remarkable fondness for discussing in conclave. Orators, brigands and blackmailers than as skilled thieves. In night robbery consequently, are influential. The internal business of a tribe was and in pilfering they showed little ingenuity. Truth was considered managed by an elected magistrate with twelve assistants. It was innately dangerous; but a Kafir is far more trustworthy than his their duty to see that the customs of the people were respected; Mahommedan neighbours. Although hospitality is generally that the proper seasons for gathering fruit were rigidly observed viewed as a hopeful investment, it can be calculated on, and is They regulated the irrigation of the fields, moderating the incessant unstinted. Kafirs are capable of strong friendship. They are not quarrels which originated in the competition for the water; and they cruel, being kind to children and to animals, and protective to the kept the channels in good repair. Their chief, helped by contribu- weak and the old. Family ties and the claim of blood even triumph tions in kind from all householders, entertained tribal guests. He over jealousy and covetousness. also saw that the weekly Kafir Sabbath, from the sowing to the The national attire of the men is a badly-cured goatskin, confined carrying of the crops, was carefully observed, the fires kept burning, at the waist by a leather belt studded with nails, supporting the and the dancers collected and encouraged. Opposition to these I-hilted dagger, strong but clumsy, of slave manufacture, Dress, annual magistrates or infraction of tribal laws was punished by fines, sheathed in wood covered with iron or brass, and often Weapons, which were the perquisites and the payment of those officials. prettily ornamented. Women are dressed in a long, Utensils,&a Serious offences against the whole people were judged by the com- very dark tunic of wool, ample below the shoulders, and munity itself; the sentences ranged as high as expulsion from the edged with red. This is fastened at the bosom by an iron pin, a settlement, accompanied with the burning of the culprit's house thorn, or a fibula; it is gathered round the body by a woven band, and the spoliation of his goods. In such cases, the family and the an inch wide, knotted in front to dangle down in tassels. On this clan refusing to intervene, the offender at once became cowed into girdle is carried a fantastically handled knife in a leather covering. submission. The woman's tunic is sometimes worn by men. As worn by women Habitations are generally strong, and built largely of wood. its shape is something between a long frock-coat and an Inverness They are frequently two or more storeys high, often with an open cape. Its hue and the blackness of the hairy goatskin give the gallery at the top. Wealthy owners were fond of elaborate carving name of Siah-Posh, “ black-robed," to the majority of the clans. in simple designs and devices. A room is square, with a smoke- / The other tribes wear such articles of cotton attire as they can hole when possible; small windows, with shutters and bolts, and obtain by barter, by theft, or by killing beyond the border, for tion. KAFIRISTAN 633 women. Peculiar only woollen cloth is made in the country: Of late years long robes dignity. All the laws to punish theft, assault, adultery and other from Chitral and Badakshan have been imported by the wealthy, injury are based on a system of compensation whenever possible, as well as the material for loose cotton trousers and wide shirts and of enlisting the whole of the community in all acts of punish Clothing, always hard to obtain, is precious property. Formerly ment. Kafirs have true conceptions of justice. There is no death little girls, the children of slaves, or else poor relations, used to be penalty;, a fighting male is too valuable a property of the whole sold in exchange for clothes and ammunition. Mahommedans tribe to be so wasted. War begins honourably with proper notice, eagerly bought the children, which enabled them in one transaction as a rule, but the murder of an unsuspecting traveller may be the to acquire a female slave and to convert an infidel. Men go bare first intimation. Bullets or arrow-heads sent to a tribe or village headed, which wrinkles them prematurely, or they wear Chitral is the correct announcement of hostilities. The slaying of a tribes- caps. Certain priests, and others of like degree, wind a strip of man need not in all cases cause a war. Sometimes it may be avoided cotton cloth round their brows. Siah-Posh women wear curious by the sinning tribe handing over a male to be killed by the injured horned caps or a small square white head-dress upon informal relations. Ambush, early morning attacks by large numbers, and occasions. Females of other tribes bind their heads with turbans stealthy killing, parties of two or three are the favourite tactics. ornamented with shells and other finery. Excellent snow gaiters Peace is made by the sacrifice of cows handed over by the weaker are made of goat's hair for both sexes, and of woollen material for tribe to be offered up to a special god of the stronger. When both Boots, strong!y sewn, of soft red leather cannot be used sides have shown equal force and address, the same number of in the snow or when it is wet, because they are imperfectly tanned, animals are exchanged. Field-work falls exclusively to the women. For the ceremonial dances all manner of gay-coloured articles of It is poor. The ploughs are light and very shallow. A woman, who attire, made of cheap silk, cotton velvet, and sham cloth-of-gold, only looks as if she were yoked with the ox, keeps the beast in the are displayed, and false jewelry and tawdry ornaments; but they furrows, while a second holds the handle. All the operations of are not manufactured in the country, but brought from Peshawar agriculture are done primitively. Grazing and dairy-farming are by pedlars. Woollen blankets and goat's-hair mats cover the bed- the real trade of the Kafirs, the surplus produce being exchanged on steads-four-legged wooden frames laced across with string or the frontier or sold for Kabul rupees. Herders watch their charges leather thongs. Low square stools, 18 in. broad, made upon the fully armed against marauders. same principle as the bedsteads, are peculiar to the Kafirs and their half-breed neighbours of the border. Iron tripod tables, singularly Greek in design, are fashioned in Waigul. A warrior's weapons are History.—The history of Kafiristan has always been of the a matchlock (rarely a flintlock), a bow and arrows, a spear and the floating legendary sort. At the present day there are men living dagger which he never puts aside day or night. The axes, often in Chitral and on other parts of the Kafiristan frontier who carried, are light and weak, and chiefly indicate rank. Clubs, care- are prepared to testify as eye-witnesses to marvels observed, fully ornamented by carving, are of little use in a quarrel; their and also heard, by them, not only in the more remote valleys purpose is that of a walking-stick. As they are somewhat long, these walking-clubs have been often supposed to be leaping-poles. but even in the Afghan borderland itself. It is not surprising Swords are rarely seen, and shields, carried purely for ostentation, therefore that the earlier records are to a great extent fairy tales seldom. Soft stone is quarried to make large utensils, and great of a more or less imaginative kind and chiefly of value to those grim chests of wood become grain boxes or coffins indifferently: Prettily carved bowls with handles, or with dummy spouts, hold interested in folk-lore. Sir Henry Yule, a scientific soldier, a milk, butter, water or small quantities of flour. Wine, grain, profound geographer and a careful student, as the result of his everything else, is stored or carried in goatskin bags. Musical researches thought that the present Kafiristan was part of that instruments are represented by reed Aageolets, small drums, primi- pagan country stretching between Kashmir and Kabul which tive fiddles, and a kind of harp. Isolated and at the outskirts of every village is a house used by found in Marco Polo as Bolor. The first distinct mention of the medieval Asiatics referred to vaguely as Bilaur, a name to be women when menstruating and for lying-in. Children are named as soon as born. The infant is given to the mother to Kafirs as a separate people appears in the history of Timur. suckle, while a wise woman rapidly recites the family On his march to the invasion of India the people at Andarab Customs. ancestral names; the name pronounced at the instant the baby, begins to feed is that by which it is thereafter known. I appealed to Timur for help against the Kator and the Siah-Posh Everybody has a double namė, the father's being prefixed to that Kafirs. He responded and entered the country of those tribes given at birth. Very often the two are the same. There is a special through the upper part of the Panjhir valley. It was in deep day for the first head-shaving. No hair is allowed on a male's winter weather and Timur had to be let down the snows by scalp, except from a 4-in. circle at the back of the head, whence long glissade in a basket guided by ropes. A detachment of 10,000 locks' hang down straight. Puberty is attained ceremoniously by horse which he speaks of as having been sent against the Siah- boys. . Girls simply change a fillet for a cotton cap, when nature proclaims womanhood. Marriage is merely the purchase of a wife Posh to his left, presumably therefore to the north, met with merely a sale or the sending away of a wife to slave for her parents theless he seems quickly to have evacuated the impracticable through intermediaries, accompanied by feasting: Divorce is often disaster; but he himself claims to have been victorious. Never- in shame. Sexual morality is low. Public opinion applauds gal: mountain land, quitting the country at Khawak. He caused an lantry, and looks upon adáltery as hospitality, provided it is not discovered by the husband. If found out, in flagrante delicto, there is a inscription to be carved in the defiles of Kator to commemorate fiscal fine in cows. There is much collusion to get this penalty paid his invasion and to explain its route. Inside the Kafir country in poor households. Funeral rites are most elaborate, according to the on the Najil or Alishang River there is a fort still called Timur's rank and warrior fame of the deceased, if a male, and to the wealth and standing of the family, if a woman. Children are simply carried Castle, and in the Kalam fort there is said to be a stone engraved to the cemetery in a blanket, followed by a string of women lamenting to record that as the farthest point of his advance. In the A really great man is mourned over for days with orations, dancing, Memoirs of Baber there is mention of the Kafirs raiding wine-drinking and food distribution. Gun-firing gives notice of into Panjhir and of their taste for drinking, every man having a the procession. After two or three days the corpse is placed in the leathern wine bottle slung round his neck. The Ain-i-Akbari coffin at a secluded spot, and the observances are continued with a straw figure lashed upon a bed, to be danced about, lamented over, makes occasional mențion of the Kafirs, probably on the autho- and harangued as before. During regular intervals for business and rity of the famous Memoirs; it also contains a passage which refreshment old women wail genealogies. A year later, with some- what similar ritual, a wooden statue is inaugurated preliminary to Kafirs were descendants of the Greeks. may possibly have originated the widespread story that the Yule however be- erection on the roadside or in the village Valhalla. The dead are not buried, but deposited in great boxes collected in an assigned lieved that this passage did not refer to the Kafirs at all, but place. Finery, is placed with the body, as well as vessels holding to the claims to descent from Alexander of the rulers in Swat water and food. Several corpses may be heaped in one receptacle, before the time of the Yusufzai. Many of the princelings which is, rarely, ornamented with Aags; its lid is kept from warping of the little Hindu-Kush states at the present day pride them- by heavy stones. The wooden statues or effigies are at times sacrificed to when there is sickness, and at one of the many annual selves on a similar origin, maintaining the founders of their festivals food is set before them. Among the Presungal there are race to be Alexander, “the two-horned," and a princess sent none of these images. Blood-feuds within a tribe do not exist: down miraculously from heaven to wed him. The slayer of his fellow, even by accident, has to pay a heavy compensation or else become an outcast. Several hamlets and at Benedict Goes, travelling from Peshawar to Kabul in 1603, least one village are peopled by families who had thus been driven heard of a place called Capperstam, where no Mahommedan forth from the community: The stigma attaches itself to children might enter on pain of death. Hindu traders were allowed to and their marriage connexions. Its outward symbol is an inability visit the country, but not the temples. Benedict Goes tasted to look in the face any of the dead person's family. This avoidance is ceremonial. In private and after dark all may be good friends the Kafir wine, and from all that he heard suspected after a decorous interval. The compensation is seldom paid, that the Kafirs might be Christians. Nothing more is heard of although payment carries with it much enhancement of family the Kafirs until 1788, when Rennell's Memoir of a Map of 634 KAGERA-K’AI-FÊNG FU Hindostan was published. Twenty-six years later Elphinstone's he founded at the Odéon, the Théâtre Antoine and the Théâtre Caubal was published. During the British occupation of Sarah Bernhardt, matinees for the production of the plays of Kabul in 1839-1840 a deputation of Kafirs journeyed there to the younger poets. He claimed to be the earliest writer of the invite a visit to their country from the Christians whom they vers libre, and explained his methods and the history of the move- assumed to be their kindred. But the Afghans grew furiously ment in a preface to his Premiers poèmes (1897). Later books are jealous, and the deputation was sent coldly away. Le Livre d'images (1897); Les Fleurs de la passion (1900); some After Sir George Robertson's sojourn in the country and the novels; and a valuable contribution to the history of modern visit of several Kafirs to India with him in 1892 an increasing French verse in Symbolistes et décadents (1902). intimacy continued, especially with the people of the eastern KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1814-1888), German valleys, until 1895, when by the terms of an agreement entered Lutheran theologian, was born at Greiz on the 22nd of December into between the government of India and the ruler of Afghani-1814. He studied at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor stan the whole of the Kafir territory came nominally under the ordinarius at Leipzig. Ten years later he was made canon of sway of Kabul. The amir Abdur Rahman at once set about Meissen. He retired in 1886, and died on the 20th of June enforcing his authority, and the curtain, partially lifted, fell 1888 at Leipzig. Kahnis was at first a neo-Lutheran, blessed again heavily and in darkness. Nothing but rumours reached by E. W. Hengstenberg and his pietistic friends. He then the outside world, rumours of successful invasions, of the attached himself to the Old Lutheran party, interpreting Luther- wholesale deportation of boys to Kabul for instruction in the anism in a broad and liberal spirit and showing some appre- religion of Islam, of rebellions, of terrible repressions. Finally ciation of rationalisın. His Lutherische Dogmatik, historisch- even rumour ceased. A powerful Asiatic ruler has the means genetisch dargestellt (3 vols., 1861–1868; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., of ensuring a silence which is absolute, and nothing is ever 1874–1875), by making concessions to modern criticism, by known from Kabul except what the amir wishes to be known. spiritualizing and adapting the old dogmas, by attacking the Probably larger numbers of the growing boys and young men of idea of an infallible canon of Scripture and the conventional Kafiristan are fanatical Mahommedans, fanatical with the zeal theory of inspiration, by laying stress on the human side of of the recent convert, while the older people and the majority Scripture and insisting on the progressive character of revelation, of the population cherish their ancient customs in secret and brought him into conflict with his former friends. A. W. their degraded religion in fear and trembling-waiting dumbly Diekhoff, Franz Delitzsch (Fiir und wider Kahnis, 1863) and for a sign. Hengstenberg (Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, 1862) protested See Sir G. S. Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush (London, loudly against the heresy, and Kahnis replied to Hengstenberg 1896). (G.S.R.) in a vigorous pamphlet, Zeugniss für die Grundwahrheiten des KAGERA, a river of east equatorial Africa, the most remote Protestantismus gegen Dr Hengstenberg (1862) headstream of the Nile. The sources of its principal upper Other works by Kahnis are Lehre vom Abendmahl (1851), Der branch, the Nyavarongo, rise in the hill country immediately innere Gang des deutschen Protestantismus seit Mitte des vorigen east of Lake Kivu. After a course of over 400 m. the Kagera Jahrhunderts (1854: 3rd ed. in 2 vols., 1874; Enģ. trans., 1856); enters Victoria Nyanza on its western shore in o° 58' S. It is Christentum und Luthertum (1871); Geschichie der deutschen Reforma. navigable by steamers for 70 m. from its mouth, being lion, yol. i, (1872); Der Gang der Kirche in Lebensbildern (1881, &c.); and Über das Verhällnis der alten Philosophie zum Christentum (1884). obstructed by rapids above that point. The river was first heard of by J. H. Speke in 1858, and was first seen (by white K'AI-FÊNG FU, the capital of the province of Honan, China. men) by the same traveller (Jan. 16, 1862) on his journey to It is situated in 34° 52' N., 114° 33' E., on a branch line of discover the Nile source. Speke was well aware that the Kagera the Peking-Hankow railway, and forms also the district city of was the chief river emptying into the Victoria Nyanza and in Siang-fu. A city on the present site was first built by Duke that sense the headstream of the Nile. By him the stream was Chwang (774-700 B.C.) to mark off (k’ai) the boundary of his called “ Kitangủlé,” kagera being given as equivalent to“ river.” fief (fêng); hence its name. It has, however, passed under The exploration of the Kagera has been largely the work of several aliases in Chinese history. During the Chow, Suy and German travellers. T'ang dynasties (557-907) it was known as P'ien-chow. During See Nile; also Speke s Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edin. the Wu-tai, or five dynasties (907-960), it was the Tung-king, or burgh, 1863); R. Kandt's Capul Nili (Berlin, 1904); and map by eastern capital. Under the Sung and Kin dynasties (960–1260) P. Sprigade and M. Moisel in Grosser deutscher Kolonialallas, No. 16 it was called P'ien-king. By the Yuan or Mongol dynasty (Berlin, 1906). (1260-1368) its name was again changed to P'ien-liang, and KAHLUR, or BILASPUR, a native state of India, within the on the return of the Chinese to power with the establishment of Punjab. It is one of the hill states that came under British | the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), its original name was restored. protection after the first Sikh war in 1846. The Gurkhas The city is situated at the point where the last spur of the had overrun the country in the early part of the 19th century, Kuen-lun mountain system merges in the eastern plain, and a and expelled the raja, who was, however, reinstated by the few miles south of the Hwang-ho. Its position, therefore, lays it British in 1815. The state occupies part of the basin of the open to the destructive influences of this river. In 1642 it was Sutlej amid the lower slopes of the Himalaya. Area, 448 sq. m. totally destroyed by a flood caused by the dikes bursting, and Pop. (1901), 90,873; estimated gross revenue, £10,000; tribute, on several prior and subsequent occasions it has suffered injury £530. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Chandel Rajput. The from the same cause. The city is large and imposing, with town of Bilaspur is situated on the left bank of the Sutlej, broad streets and handsome buildings, the most notable of 1465 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 3192. which are a twelve-storeyed pagoda 600 ft. high, and a watch KAHN, GUSTAVE (1859- ), French poet, was born at tower from which, at a height of 200 ft., the inhabitants are Metz on the 21st of December 1859. He was educated in Paris able to observe the approach of the yellow waters of the at the École des Chartes and the Ecole des langues orientales, river in times of flood. The city wall forms a substantial and began to contribute to obscure Parisian reviews. After protection and is pierced by five gates. The whole neighbour- four years spent in Africa he returned to Paris in 1885, and hood, which is the site of one of the earliest settlements of founded in 1886 a weekly review, La Vogue, in which many of the Chinese in China, is full of historical associations, and it his early poems appeared. In the autumn of the same year he was in this city that the Jews who entered China in A.D. 1163 founded, with Jean Moréas and Paul Adam, a short-lived periodi- first established a colony. For many centuries these people cal, Le Symboliste, in which they preached the nebulous poetic held themselves aloof from the natives, and practised the doctrine of Stéphane Mallarmé; and in 1888 he became one rites of their religion in a temple built and supported by of the editors of the Revue indépendante. He contributed themselves. At last, however, they fell upon evil times, and poetry and criticism to the French and Belgian reviews favour- in 1851, out of the seventy families which constituted the able to the extreme symbolists, and, with Catulle Mendès, I original colony, only seven remained. For fifty years no rabbi KAILAS-KAIRAWĀN 635 « had ministered to the wants of this remnant. In 1853 the though well-cultivated tract of rice-land, growing more barren city was attacked by the T'ai-p'ing rebels, and, though at and open till it reaches the maritime belt, whitened by a salt-like the first assault its defenders successfully resisted the enemy, crust, along the Gulf of Cambay. The chief rivers are the it was subsequently taken. The captors looted and partially Mahi on the south-east and south, and the Sabarmati on the destroyed the town. It has now little commerce, but contains western boundary. The Mahi, owing to its deeply cut bed and several schools on Western lines—including a government college sandbanks, is impracticable for either navigation or irrigation; opened in 1902, and a military school near the railway station.. but the waters of the Sabarmati are largely utilized for the latter A mint was established in 1905, and there is a district branch purpose. A smaller stream, the Khari, also waters a consider- of the imperial post. The population--largely Mahommedan--able area by means of canals and sluices. The principal crops was estimated (1908) at 200,000. Jews numbered about 400. are cotton, millets, rice and pulse; the industries are calico- KAILAS, a mountain in Tibet. It is the highest peak of printing, dyeing, and the manufacture of soap and glass. The the range of mountains lying to the north of Lake Manasora- chief centre of trade is Nadiad, on the railway, with a cotton- war, with an altitude of over 22,000 ft. It is famous in Sanskrit mill. A special article of export is ghi, or clarified butter. The literature as Siva's paradise, and is a favourite place of pil- Bombay & Baroda railway runs through the district. The famine grimage with Hindus, who regard it as the most sacred spot of 1899–1900 was felt more severely here than in any other part on earth. A track encircles the base of the mountain, and it of the province, the loss of cattle being specially heavy. takes the pilgrim three weeks to complete the round, pros- KAIRAWAN (KEROUAN), the “sacred ” city of Tunisia, 36 m. trating himself all the way. S. by W. by rail from Susa, and about 80 m. due S. from the KAIN, the name of a sub-province and of a town of Khorasan, capital. Kairawān is built in an open plain a little west of a Persia. The sub-province extends about 300 m. N. to S., from stream which flows south to the Sidi-el-Hani lake. Of the Khāſ to Seīstān, and about 150 m. W. to E., from the hills of luxuriant gardens and olive groves mentioned in the early Arabic Tūn to the Afghan frontier, comprising the whole of south-accounts of the place hardly a remnant. is left. Kairawān, western Khorasan. It very hilly, but contains many wide in shape an irregular oblong, is surrounded by a crenellated plains and fertile villages at a mean elevation of 4000 ft. It has brick wall with towers and bastions and five gates. The city, a population of about 150,000, rears great numbers of camels however, spreads beyond the walls, chiefly to the south and and produces much grain, saffron, wool, silk and opium. The west. Some of the finest treasures of Saracenic art in Tunisia chief manufactures are felts and other woollen fabrics, princi- are in Kairawān; but the city suffered greatly from the vulgari- pally carpets, which have. a world-wide reputation. The best zation which followed the Turkish conquest, and also from the Kaini carpets are made at Darakhsh, a village in the Zīrkūh blundering attempts of the French to restore buildings falling district and 50 m. N.E. of Birjend. It is divided into eleven into ruin. The streets have been paved and planted with administrative divisions:-Shāhābād (with the capital Birjend), trees, but the town retains much of its Oriental aspect. The Naharjān, Alghur, Tabas sunni Khaneh, Zirkūh Shakhan, Kain, houses are built round a central courtyard, and present nothing Nīmbulūk, Nehbandān, Khūsf, Arab Khāneh or Momenabad. but bare walls to the street. The chief buildings are the mosques, The town of Kain, the capital of the sub-province until 1740, which are open to Christians, Kairawān being the only town in when it was supplanted by Birjend, is situated 65 m. N. of Tunisia where this privilege is granted. Birjend on the eastern side of a broad valley, stretching from In the northern quarter stands the great mosque founded by N. to S., at the base of the mountain Abuzar, in 33° 42' N. and Sidi Okba ibn Nafi, and containing his shrine and the tombs of 59° 8' E., and at an elevation of 4500 ſt. Its population is many rulers of Tunisia. To the outside it presents a heavy barely 5000. It is surrounded by a mud wall and bastions, buttressed wall, with little of either grandeur or grace. It and near it, on a hill rising 500 ft. above the plain, are the ruins consists of three parts: a cloistered court, from which rises the of an ancient castle which, together with the old town, was massive and stately minaret, the maksura or mosque proper, and destroyed either by Shah Rukh (1404-1447), a son, or by the vestibule. The maksura is a rectangular domed chamber Baysunkur (d. 1433), a grandson of Timur (Tamerlane), who divided by 296 marble and porphyry columns into 17 aisles, afterwards built a new town. After a time the Uzbegs took each aisle having 8 arches. The central aisle is wider than the possession and held the town until Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) others, the columns being arranged by threes. All the columns expelled them. In the 18th century it fell under the sway of the are Roman or Byzantine, and are the spoil of many ancient Afghans and remained a dependency of Herat until 1851. cities. Access to the central aisle is gained through a door of A large number of windmills are at work outside the town. The sculptured wood known as the Beautiful Gate. It has an in- great mosque, now in a ruinous state, was built A.H. 796 (A.D. scription with the record of its construction. The walls are of 1394) by Kāren b. Jamshid and repaired by Yusof Dowlatyår. painted plaster-work; the mimbar or pulpit is of carved wood, KAIRA, or Kheda, a town and district of British India, each panel bearing a different design. The court is surrounded in the northern division of Bombay. The town is 20 m. S.W. by a double arcade with coupled columns. In all the mosque of Ahmedabad and 7 m. from Mehmadabad railway station. contains 439 columns, including two of alabaster given by one Pop. (1901), 10,392. Its antiquity is proved by the evidence of of the Byzantine emperors. To the Mahommedan mind the copperplate grants to have been known as early as the 5th crowning distinction of the building is that through divine century. Early in the 18th century it passed to the Babi family, inspiration the founder was enabled to set it absolutely true with whom it remained till 1763, when it was taken by the to Mecca. The mosque of Sidi Okba is the prototype of Mahrattas; it was finally handed over to the British in 1803. many other notable mosques (see MoSQUE). Of greater external It was a large military station till 1830, when the cantonment beauty than that of Sidi Okba is the mosque of the Three Gates. was removed to Deesa. Cufic inscriptions on the façade record its erection in the 9th and The DISTRICT OF KAIRA has an area of 1595 sq. m.; pop. its restoration in the 15th century A.D. Internally the mosque (1901), 716,332, showing a decrease of 18% in the decade, due is a single chamber supported by sixteen Roman columns. One to the results of famine. Except a small corner of hilly ground of the finest specimens of Moorish architecture in Kairawan is near its northern boundary and in the south-east and south, the zawia of Sidi Abid-el-Ghariani (d. C. A.D. 1400), one of the where the land along the Mahi is furrowed into deep ravines, Almoravides, in whose family is the hereditary governorship the district forms one unbroken plain, sloping gently towards of the city. The entrance, a door in a false arcade of black the south-west. The north and north-east portions are dotted with and white marble, leads into a court whose arches support an patches of rich rice-land, broken by untilled tracts of low brush- upper colonnade. The town contains many other notable wood. The centre of the district is very fertile and highly buildings, but none of such importance as the mosque of the cultivated; the luxuriant fields are surrounded by high hedges, Companion (i.e. of the Prophet), outside the walls to the N.W. and the whole country is clothed with clusters of shapely trees. This mosque is specially sacred as possessing what are said to be To the west this belt of rich vegetation passes into a bare I three hairs of the Prophet's beard, buried with the saint, who 636 KAISERSLAUTERN-KAKAPO was one of the companions of Mahomet. (This legend gave risc Roman Catholic church of the 12th or 13th century, with a to the report that the tomb contained the remains of Mahomct's valuable shrine, said to contain the bones of St Suitbert, and has barber.) The mosque consists of several courts and chambers, several benevolent institutions, of which the chief is the Diakon- and contains some beautiful stained glass. The court which issen Anstalt, or training-school for Protestant sisters of charity. forms the entrance to the shrine of the saint is richly adorned This institution, founded by Pastor Theodor Fliedner (1800- with tiles and plaster-work, and is surrounded by an arcade of 1864) in 1836, has more than 100 branches, some being in Asia white .narble columns, supporting a painted wooden roof. The and America; the head establishment at Kaiserswerth includes minaret is faced with tiles and is surmounted by a gilded crescent. an orphanage, a lunatic asylum and a Magdalen institution. The 19th-century mosque of Sidi Amar Abada, also outside the The Roman Catholic hospital occupies the former Franciscan wall, is in the form of a cross and is crowned with seven cupolas. convent. The population is engaged in silk-weaving and other In the suburbs are huge cisterns, attributed to the 9th century, small industries. which still supply the city with water. The cemetery covers a In 710 Pippin.of Heristal presented the site of the town to Bishop large area and has thousands of Cufic and Arabic inscriptions. Suitbert, who built the Benedictine monastery round which the Formerly famous for its carpets and its oil of roses, Kairawān town gradually formed. Until 1214 Kaiserswerth lay on an island, is now known in northern Africa rather for copper vessels, dammed up effectually one arm of the Rhine. but in that year Count Adolph V. of Berg, who was besieging it, About the beginning articles in morocco leather, potash and saltpetre. The town of the 14th century Kaiserswerth, then an imperial city, came to has a population of about 20,000, including a few hundred the archbishopric of Cologne, and afterwards to the duchy of Europeans. Juliers, whence, after some vicissitudes, it finally passed into the Arab historians relate the foundation of Kairawān by Okba with disputed by the elector of Cologne, were legally settled in 1772. possession of the princes of the palatinate, whose rights, long In miraculous circumstances (Tabari ii. 63; Yãqūt iv. 213). The date 1702 the fortress was captured by the Austrians and Prussians, and is variously given (see Weil, Gesch. d. Chalifen, i. 283 seq.); accord: the Kaiserpfalz, whence the young emperor Henry IV. was abducted ing to Țabari it must have been before 670. legend Okba determined to found a city which should be a rallying-point for bysArchbishop Anne of Cologne in 1062, was blown up. the followers of Mahomet in Africa. He led his companions into (new ed., 1903; Eng. trans., 1883). See J. Disselhoff , Das Diaconissenmutterhaus zu Kaiserswerth the desert, and having exhorted the serpents and wild beasts, in the name of the Prophet, to retire, he struck his spear into the ground KAITHAL, or KYTHAL, an ancient town of British India in exclaiming “Here is your Kairawān” (resting-place), so naming Karnal district, Punjab. Pop. (1901), 14,408. It is said to have the city. In the 8th century Kairawan was the capital of the been founded by the mythical hero Yudisthira, and is con- province of Ifrikia governed by amirs appointed by the caliphs. nected by tradition with the monkey-god Hanuman. In 1767 Later it became the capital of the Aghlabite princes, thereafter following the fortunes of the successive rulers of the country (see it fell into the hands of the Sikh chieftain, Bhai Desu Singh, TUNISIA: History). After Mecca and Medina Kairawān is the most whose descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, ranked among the sacred city in the eyes of the Mahommedans of Africa, and constant most powerful Cis-Sutlej chiefs. Their territories lapsed to the pilgrimages are made to its shrines. Until the time of the French British in 1843. There remain the fort of the bhais, and several occupation no. Christian was allowed to pass through the gates without a special permit from the bey, whilst Jews were altogether Mahommedan tombs of the 13th century and later. There is forbidden to approach the holy city. Contrary to expectation no some trade in grain, sal-ammoniac, live stock and blankets; and opposition was offered by the citizens to the occupation of the place cotton, saltpetre, lac ornaments and toys are manufactured. by the French troops in 1881. On that occasion the native troops KAKAPO, the Maori name, signifying “night parrot,” and hastened to the mosques to perform their devotions; they were followed by European soldiers, and the mosques having thus been frequently adopted by English writers, of a bird, commonly “ violated” have remained open ever since to non-Mahommedans. called by the British in New Zealand the “ground-parrot” or See Murray's Handbook to Algeria and Tunis, by Sir R. L. Playfair, “owl-parrot.” The existence of this singular form was first (1895); A. M. Broadley, The Last Punic War: Tunis Past and made known in 1843 by Ernst Dieffenbach (Travels in N. Zealand, Present (1882) and H. Saladin, Tunis et Kairouan (1908). ii. 194), from some of its tail-feathers obtained by him, and he KAISERSLAUTERN, a town in the Bavarian palatinate, on suggested that it was one of the Cuculidae, possibly belonging the Waldlauter, in the hilly district of Westrich, 41 m. by rail to the genus Centropus, but he added that it was becoming scarce, W. of Mannheim. Pop. (1905), 52,306. Among its educational and that no example had been seen for many years. G. R. Gray, institutions are a gymnasium, a Protestant normal school, a noticing it in June 1845 (Zool. Voy." Erebus” and “ Terror," commercial school and an industrial museum. The house of pt. ix. p. 9), was able to say little more of it, but very soon after- correction occupies the site of Frederick Barbarossa's castle, wards a skin was received at the British Museum, of which, in which was demolished by the French in 1713. Kaiserslautern is the following September, he published a figure (Gen. Birds, one of the most important industrial towns in the palatinate. pt. xvii.), naming it Strigops 2 habroptilus, and rightly placing Its industries include cotton and wool spinning and weaving, it among the parrots, but he did not describe it technically for iron-founding, and the manufacture of beer, tobacco, gloves, another eighteen months (Proc. Zool. Society, 1847, p. 61). Many boots, furniture, &c. There is some trade in fruit and in timber. specimens have now been received in Europe, so that it is repre. · Kaiserslautern takes its name from the cmperor (Kaiser) sented in most museums, and several examples have reached Frederick I., who built a castle here about 1152, although it England alive. appears to have been a royal residence in Carolingian times. It In habits the kakapo is almost wholly nocturnal, hiding in became an imperial city, a dignity which it retained until 1357, holes (which in some instances it seems to make for itself) under when it passed to the palatinate. In 1621 it was taken by the the roots of trees or rocks during the day time, and only issuing Spanish, in 1631 by the Swedish, in 1635 by the imperial and forth about sunset to seek its food, which is solely vegetable in in 1713 by the French troops. During 1793 and 1794 it was the kind, and consists of the twigs, leaves, seeds and fruits of trees; scene of fighting; and in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 it was grass and fern roots-some observers say mosses also. It some- the base of operations of the second German army, under Prince | times climbs trees, but generally remains on the ground, only Frederick Charles. It was one of the early stations of the using its comparatively short wings to balance itself in running Reformation, and in 1849 was the centre of the revolutionary or to break its fall when it drops from a tree-though not always spirit in the palatinate. then-being apparently incapable of real flight. It thus becomes See Lehmann, Urkundliche Geschichte von Kaiserslautern (Kaisers an easy prey to the marauding creatures-cats, rats and so forth lautern, 1853), and E. Jost, Geschichte der Stadt Kaiserslautern -which European colonists have, by accident or design, let (Kaiserslautern, 1886). loose in New Zealand. Sir G. Grey says it had been, within the KAISERSWERTH, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 6 m. below Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905), memory of old people, abundant in every part of that country, 2462. It possesses a Protestant and a large old Romanesque rather pedantically, to Stringops, a spelling now generally adopted: * This generic term was subsequently altered by Van der Hoeven, 1 Though Okba founded his city in a desert place, excavations 3 It has, however, been occasionally observed abroad by day: undertaken in 1908 revealed the existence of Roman ruins, including and, in captivity, one example at least is said to have been as active a temple of Saturn, in the neighbourhood. by day as by night. KAKAR-KALAHARI DESERT 637 9 but (writing in 1854) was then found only in the unsettled | the Don, 31 m. N.E. of Nizhne-Chirskaya, in 43° 30' E. and 48° districts. 43' N. Its permanent population, only about 1200, increases The kakapo is about the size of a raven, of a green or brownish- greatly in summer. It is the terminus of the railway (45 m.} green colour, thickly freckled and irregularly barred with dark which connects the Don with Tsaritsyn on the Volga, and all the brown, and dashed here and there with longitudinal stripes of goods (especially fish, petroleum, cereals and timber) brought light yellow. Examples are subject to much variation in colour from the Caspian Sea up the Volga and destined for middle and shade, and in some the lower parts are deeply tinged with Russia, or for export through the Sea of Azov, are unloaded at yellow. Externally the most striking feature of the bird is its Tsaritsyn and sent over to Kalach on the Don. head, armed with a powerful beak that it well knows how to use, KALAHANDI (formerly KAROND), a feudatory state of India, and its face clothed with hairs and elongated feathers that which was transferred from the Central Provinces to the Orissa sufficiently resemble the physiognomy of an owl to justify the division of Bengal in 1905. range of the Eastern Ghats runs generic name bestowed upon it. Of its internal structure little from N.E. to S.W. through the state, with open undulating has been described, and that not always correctly. Its furcula country to the north. Area 3745 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 350,529; has been said (Proc. Zool. Society, 1874, p. 594) to be “lost," estimated revenue, £8000; tribute, £800. The inhabitants whereas the clavicles, which in most birds unite to form that mostly belong to the aboriginal race of Khonds. A murderous bone, are present, though they do not meet, while in like manner outbreak against Hindu settlers called for armed intervention the bird has been declared (op. cit., 1867, p. 624, note) to furnish in 1882. The chief, Raghu Kishor Deo, was murdered by a among the Carinalae“ the only apparent exception to the pres- servant in 1897, and during the minority of his son, Brij Mohan ence of a keel” to the sternum. The keel, however, is undoubt. Deo, the state was placed in charge of a British political agent. edly there, as remarked by Blanchard (Ann. Nat. Sc., Zoologie, The capital is Bhawani Patna. 4th series, vol. xi. p. 83) and A. Milne Edwards (Ois. Foss. de la KALAHARI DESERT, a region of South Africa, lying mainly France, ii. 516), and, though much reduced in size, is nearly as between 20° and 28° S. and 19° and 24° E., and covering fully much developed as in the Dodo and the Ocydrome. The aborted 120,000 sq. m. The greater part of this territory forms the condition of this process can hardly be regarded but in connexion western portion of the (British) Bechuanaland protectorate, but with the incapacity of the bird for flight, and may very likely be it extends south into that part of Bechuanaland annexed to the the result of disuse. There can be scarcely any doubt as to the Cape and west into German South-West Africa. The Orange propriety of considering this genus the type of a separate family river marks its southern limit; westward it reaches to the foot of of Psittaci; but whether it stands alone or some other forms the Nama and Damara hills, eastward to the cultivable parts (Pezoporus or Geopsittacus, for example, which in coloration and of Bechuanaland, northward and north-westward to the valley habits present some curious analogies) should be placed with it, of the Okavango and the bed of Lake Ngami. The Kalahari, must await future determination. In captivity the kakapo is part of the immense inner table-land of South Africa, has an said to show much intelligence, as well as an affectionate and average elevation of over 3000 ft. with a general slope from east playful disposition. Unfortunately it does not seem to share to west and a dip northward to Ngami. Described by Robert the longevity characteristic of most parrots, and none that has Moffat as “the southern Sahara," the Kalahari resembles the been held in confinement appears to have long survived, while great desert of North Africa in being generally arid and in being many succumb speedily. scored by the beds of dried-up rivers. It presents however For further details see Gould's Birds of Australia (ii. 247), and many points of difference from the Sahara. The surface soil Handbook (ii, 539); Dr Finsch's Die Papageien (i. 241), and Sir Walter is mainly red sand, but in places limestone overlies shale and Buller's Birds of New Zealand especially. (A. N.) conglomerates. The ground is undulating and its appearance KAKAR, a Pathan tribe on the Zhob valley frontier of Balu- is comparable with that of the ocean at times of heavy swell. chistan. The Kakars inhabit the back of the Suliman mountains The crests of the waves are represented by sand dunes, rising between Quetta and the Gomal river; they are a very ancient from 30 to 100 ft.; the troughs between the dunes vary greatly race, and it is probable that they were in possession of these in breadth. On the eastern border long tongues of sand project slopes long before the advent of Afghan or Arab. They are into the veld, while the veld in places penetrates far into the divided into many distinct tribes who have no connexion beyond desert. There are also, and especially along the river beds, the common name of Kakar. Not only is there no chief of the extensive mud flats. After heavy rain these become pans or Kakars, or general jirgah (or council) of the whole tribe, but in lakes, and water is then also found in mud-bottomed pools along most cases there are no recognized heads of the different clans. the beds of the rivers. The water in the pans is often brackish, In 1901 they numbered 105,444. During the second Afghan and in some cases thickly encrusted with salt. Pans also occur War the Kakars caused some annoyance on the British line of in crater-like depressions where rock rises above the desert sands. communications; and the Kakars inhabiting the Zhob valley A tough, sun-bleached grass, growing knee-high in tufts at were punished by the Zhob valley expedition of 1884. intervals of about 15 in., covers the dunes and gives the. KALA-AZAR, or Dum-Dum fever, a tropical disease, character general colour of the landscape. Considerable parts of the ized by remittent fever, anaemia and enlargement of the spleen Kalahari, chiefly in the west and north, are however covered (splenomegaly) and often of the liver. It is due to a protozoon with dense scrub and there are occasional patches of forest. parasite (see PARASITIC DISEASES), discovered in 1900 by Leish- Next to the lack of water the chief characteristics of the desert man in the spleen, and is of a malarial type. The treatment is are the tuberous and herbaceous plants and the large numbers similar to that for malaria. In Assam good results have been of big game found in it. Of the plants the most remarkable is obtained by segregation. the water-melon, of which both the bitter and sweet variety are KALABAGH, a town of British India in the Mianwali district found, and which supplies both man and beast with water. The of the Punjab. Pop. (1901), 5824. It is picturesquely situated game includes the lion, leopard, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, at the foot of the Salt range, on the right bank of the Indus, buffalo, zebra, quagga, many kinds of antelope (among them opposite the railway station of Mari. The houses nestle against the kudu and gnu), baboon and ostrich. The elephant, giraffe the side of a precipitous hill of solid rock-salt, piled in successive and eland are also found. The hunting of these three last-named tiers, the roof of each tier forming the street which passes in front animals is prohibited, and for all game there is a close time from of the row immediately above, and a cliff, also of pure rock-salt, the beginning of September to the end of February, towers above the town. The supply of salt, which is worked The climate is hot, dry and healthy, save in the neighbourhood from open quarries, is practically inexhaustible. Alum also of the large marshes in the north, where malarial fever is preva- occurs in the neighbouring hills, and forms a considerable item lent. In this region the drainage is N.E. to the great Makarikari of local trade. Iron implements are manufactured. marsh and the Botletle, the river connecting the marsh with the KALACH, also known as DONSKAYA, a village of S.E. Ngami system. In the south the drainage is towards the Orangę. Russia, in the territory of the Don Cossacks, and a river port on The Molopo and the Kuruman, which in their upper course in 638 KALAMATA-KALAT eastern Bechuanaland are perennial streams, lose their water Vessels load and discharge by means of lighters, the outer by evaporation and percolation on their way westward through harbour having a depthi at entrance of 24 ft. and inside of 14 ft. the Kalahari. The Molopo, a very imposing river on the map, The ioner harbour has a depth of 15 ft. and is sheltered by a is dry in its lower stretches. The annual rainfall does not breakwater 1640 ft. in length; in the winter months the fishing exceed 10 in. It occurs in the summer months, September to craft take shelter in the haven of Armyro. The silk industry, March, and chiefly in thunderstorms. The country is suffering formerly important, still employs about 300 women and girls from progressive desiccation, but there is good evidence of an in four spinning establishments. Olive oil and silk are the chief abundant supply of water not far beneath the surface. In the exports. water-melon season a few white farmers living on the edge of KALAMAZOO, a city and the county-seat of Kalamazoo the desert send their herds thither to graze. Such few spots as county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kalamazoo have been under cultivation by artificial irrigation yield excellent River, about 49 m. S. of Grand Rapids and 144 m. W. of Detroit. returns to the farmer; but the chief commercial products of the Pop. (1900) 24,404, of whom 4710 were foreign-born; (1910 desert are the skins of animals. census) 39,437. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake The Kalahari is the home of wandering Bushmen (q.v.), who live Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the entirely by the chase, killing their prey with poisoned arrows, of Kalamazoo, Lake Shore & Chicago, and the Chicago, Kalamazoo Ba-Kalahari, and along the western border of Hottentots, who are both hunters and cattle-rearers. The Ba-Kalahari. (men of the has a public. library, and is the seat of Kalamazoo college & Saginaw railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city Kalahari), who constitute the majority of the inhabitants, appear to belong to the Batau tribe of the Bechuanas, now no longer (Baptist), which grew out of the Kalamazoo literary institute having separate tribal existence, and traditionally reported to be (1833) and was chartered under its present name in 1855; the the oldest of the Bechuana tribes. Their features are markedly | Michigan female seminary (Presbyterian), established in 1866; negroid, though their skin is less black than that of many negro peoples. They have thin legs and arms. The Ba-Kalahari are the Western State normal school (1904); Nazareth Academy said to have possessed enormous herds of large horned cattle until (1897), for girls; Barbour Hall (1899), a school for boys; two deprived of them and driven into the desert by a fresh migration of private schools for the feeble-minded; and the Michigan asylum more powerful Bechuana tribes. Unlike the Bushmen, and in spite for the insane, opened in 1859. The surrounding country is of desert life, the Ba-Kalahari have a true passion for agriculture famous for its celery, and the city is an important manufacturing and cattle-breeding. They carefully cultivate their gardens, though in many cases all they can grow is a scanty supply of melons and centre, ranking third among the cities of the state in the value pumpkins, and they rear small herds of goats. They are also clever of its factory products in 1904. The value of the factory pro- hunters, and from the neighbouring Bechuana chiefs obtain spears, duct in 1904 was $13,141,767, an increase of 82.9% since 1900. knives, tobacco and dogs in exchange for the skins of the animals The waterworks and electric-lighting plant are owned and they kill. In disposition they are peaceful to timidity, grave and almost morose. Livingstone states that he never saw Ba-Kalahari operated by the municipality. Kalamazoo was settled in 1829, children at play. An ingenious method is employed to obtain water was known as Bronson (in honour of Titus Bronson, an early is . end a about 2 ft. long a bunch of grass is tied, and this end of the reed is settler) until 1836, was incorporated as the village of Kalamazoo inserted in a hole dug at a spot where water is known to exist under- in 1838, and in 1884 became a city under a charter granted in ground, the wet sand being rammed down firmly round it. An ostrich the preceding year. egg-shell , the usual water vessel, is placed on the ground alongside KALAPUYA, or CALLAPOOYA, a tribe and stock of North- the reed. The water-drawer, generally a woman, then sucks up the American Indians, whose former range was the valley of the water through the reed, dexterously squirting it into the adjacent egg-shell. To aid her aim she places between her lips a straw, the Willamette River, Oregon. They now number little more than other end of which is inserted in the shell. The shells, when filled, a hundred, on a reservation on Grande Ronde reservation, are buried, the object of the Ba-Kalahari being to preserve their Oregon. supplies from any sudden raid by Bushmen or other foe. Early KALAT, the capital of Baluchistan, situated in 29° 2' N. and travellers stated that no amount of bullying or hunting in a Ba- Kalahari village would result in a find of water; but that on friendly 66° 35' E., about 6780 ft. above sea-level, 88 m. from Quetta. relations being established the natives would bring a supply. The town gives its name also to a native state with an area, in- however arid the district. The British government has since sunk cluding Makran and Kharan, of 71,593 m. and a population (1901) wells in one or two districts. Though the Ba Kalahari have no religion in the strict sense of the word, they show traces of totemişm: and Kalat is the most picturesque fortress in the Baluch high- of 470,336. The word Kalat is derived from kala—a fortress; and as Batau, i.e. "men of the lion," revere rather than fear that beast. lands. It crowns a low hill, round the base of which clusters The Kalahari was first crossed to Lake Ngami by David Living the closely built mass of flat-roofed mud houses which form the stone, accompanied by William C. Oswell, in 1849. In 1878–1879 a insignificant town. A miri or citadel, having an imposing ap- party of Boers, with about three hundred wagons, trekked from the Transvaal across the Kalahari to Ngami and thence to the hinterland pearance, dominates the town, and contains within its walls the of Angola. Many of the party, men, women and children, perished palace of the khan. It was in an upper room of this residence of thirst during the journey: Survivors stated that in all some that Mehrab Khan, ruler of Baluchistan, was killed during the • 250 people and 9000 cattle died. storming of the town and citadel by the British troops at the See BECHUANALAND. Die Kalahari, by Dr Siegfried Passarge close of the first Afghan War in 1839. In 1901 it had a popu. (Berlin, 1904), is a valuable treatise on the geology, topography, hydrography, climate and Aora of the desert, with maps and biblio | lation of only 2000. The valleys immediately surrounding the graphy. The author spent two years (1896-1898) in the Kalahari. fortress are well cultivated and thickly inhabited, in spite of See also Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, &c., by their elevation and the extremes of temperature to which they David Livingstone (London, 1857). are exposed. Recent surveys of Baluchistan have determined KALAMATA (officially Kalámal, from an ancient town near the position of Hozdar or Khozdar (27° 48' N., 66° 38' E.) to the site), chief town of the modern Greek nomarchy of Messenia be about 50 m. S. of Kalat. Khozdar was the former capital in the Morea, situated on the left bank of the Nedon, about of Baluchistan, and is as directly connected with the southern 1 m. from the sea. Pop. (1907), 13,123. There is a suburb on branches of the Mulla Pass as Kalat is with the northern, the the right bank of the stream. On a hill behind the town are the Mulla being the ancient trade route to Gandava (Kandabe) and ruins of a medieval castle, but no ancient Greek remains have Sind. In spite of the rugged and barren nature of the mountain been discovered, although some travellers have identified the districts of the Kalat highlands, the main routes through them site with that of the classical Pharae or Pherae. It is the seat (concentrating on Khozdar rather than on Kalat) are compara- of a court of justice and of an archbishop. During the middle tively easy. The old“ Pathan vat,” the trade highway between ages it was for a time a fief of the Villehardouins. In 1685 Kalat and Karachi by the Hab valley, passes through Khozdar. Kalamata was captured by the Venetians; in 1770, and again From Khozdar another route strikes a little west of south to in 1821, it was the revolutionary headquarters in the Morea. In Wad, and then passes easily into Las Bela. This is the “ Kohan 1825 it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha. Kalamata is situated in A third route runs to Nal, and leads to the head of the a very fruitful district, of which it is the emporium. The harbour, Kolwa valley (meeting with no great physical obstruction), though recently improved, offers little shelter to shipping. I and then strikes into the open high road to Persia. Some of the vat.” KALAT-I-GHILZAI-KALEIDOSCOPE 639 valleys about Kalat (Mastang, for instance) are wide and fertile, Charlotte road which he had previously refused to take. On the full of thriving villages and strikingly picturesque; and in spite of 14th Cornwallis had occupied Camden, and a battle took place the great preponderance of mountain wilderness (a wilderness there on the 16th when, the other American troops having broken which is, however, in many parts well adapted for the pasturage and fled, Kalb, unhorsed and fighting fiercely at the head of his of sheep) existing in the Sarawan lowlands almost equally with right wing, was wounded eleven times. He was taken prisoner the Jalawan highlands, it is not difficult to understand the import and died on the 19th of August 1780 in Camden. Here in 1825 ance which the province of Kalat, anciently called Turan (or Lafayette laid the corner-stone of a monument to him. In 1887 Tubaran), maintained in the eyes of medieval Arab geographers a statue of him by Ephraim Keyser was dedicated in Annapolis, (see BALUCHISTAN). New light has been thrown on the history of Maryland. Kalat by the translation of an unpublished manuscript obtained at Tatta by Mr Tate, of the Indian Survey Department, who has Kalb (Stuttgart, 1862; English version, privately printed, New See Friedrich Kapp, Leben des amerikanischen Generals Johann added thereto notes from the Tufhat-ul-Kiram, for the use of York, 1870), which is summarized in George W. Greene's The which he was indebted to Khan Sahib Rasul Baksh, mukhtiardar German Element in the War of American Independence (New York, of Tatta. According to these authorities, the family of the khans 1876). of Kalat is of Arabic origin, and not, as is usually stated, of KALCKREUTH (or KALKREUTH), FRIEDRICH ADOLF, Brahuic extraction. They belong to the Ahmadzai branch of the Count VON (1737-1818), Prussian soldier, entered the regiment Mirwari clan, which originally emigrated from Oman to the of Gardes du Corps in 1752, and in 1758 was adjutant or aide de Kolwa valley of Mekran. The khan of Kalat, Mir Mahmud Khan, camp to Frederick the Great's brother, Prince Henry, with whom who succeeded his father in 1893, is the leading chieftain in the he served throughout the later stages of the Seven Years' War. Baluch Confederacy. The revenue of the khan is estimated at He won special distinction at the battle of Freiberg (Sept. 29, nearly £60,000, including subsidies from the British government; 1762), for which Frederick promoted him major. Personal and an accrued surplus of £240,000 has been invested in Indian differences with Prince Henry severed their connexion in 1766, securities. and for many years Kalckreuth lived in comparative retirement. See G. P. Tate, Kalat (Calcutta, 1896); Baluchistan District But he made the campaign of the War of the Bavarian Succession Gazetteer, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907). (T. H. H. *) as a colonel, and on the accession of Frederick William II. was KALAT-I-GHILZAI, a fort in Afghanistan. It is situated on restored to favour. He greatly distinguished himself as a major- an isolated rocky eminence 5543 ft. above sea-level and 200 ft. general in the invasion of Holland in 1787, and by 1792 had be- above the plain, on the right bank of the river Tarnak, on the come count and lieutenant-general. Under Brunswick he took road between Kabul and Kandahar, 87 m. from Kandahar and a conspicuous part in the campaign of Valmy in 1792, the siege 229 m. from Kabul. It is celebrated for its gallant defence by and capture of Mainz in 1793, and the battle of Kaiserslautern in Captain Craigie and a sepoy garrison against the Afghans in the 1794. In the campaigns against Napoleon in 1806 he played a first Afghan War of 1842. In memory of this feat of arms, the marked part for good or evil, both at Auerstädt and in the miser- 12th Pioneers still bear the name of “The Kalat-i-Ghilzai able retreat of the beaten Prussians. In 1807 he defended Danzig Regiment,” and carry a special colour with the motto “Invicta." for 78 days against the French under Marshal Lefebvre, with far KALB, JOHANN (“ BARON DE KALB") (1721-1780), German greater skill and energy than he had shown in the previous year. soldier in the American War of Independence, was born in He was promoted field marshal soon afterwards, and conducted Hüttendorf, near Bayreuth, on the 29th of June 1721. He was of many of the negotiations at Tilsit. He died as governor of Berlin peasant parentage, and left home when he was sixteen to become in 1818. a butler; in 1743 he was a lieutenant in a German regiment The Dictées du Feldmaréchal Kalckreuth were published by his son in the French service, calling himself at this time Jean de Kalb. (Paris, 1844). He served with the French in the War of the Austrian Succes- KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD, COUNT VON (1855- ), German sion, becoming captain in 1747 and major in 1756, in the Seven Years' War he was in the corps of the comte de Broglie, render- painter, a direct descendant of the famous field-marshal (see ing great assistance to the French after Rossbach (November above), was born at Düsseldorf, received his first training at 1757) and showing great bravery at Bergen (April 1759); and in Weimar from his father, the landscape painter Count Stanislaus 1763 he resigned his commission. As secret agent, appointed by von Kalckreuth (1820-1894), and subsequently studied at the Choiseul, he visited America in 1768-1769 to inquire into the feel academies of Weimar and Munich. Although he painted some ing of the colonists toward Great Britain. From his retirement at portraits remarkable for their power of expression, he devoted Milon la Chapelle, Kalb went to Metz for garrison duty under himself principally to depicting with relentless realism the de Broglie in 1775. Soon afterwards he received permission to monotonous life of the fishing folk on the sea-coast, and of the volunteer in the army of the American colonies, in which the peasants in the fields. His palette is joyless, and almost melan- rank of major-general was promised to him by Silas Deane. choly, and in his technique he is strongly influenced by the im- After many delays he sailed with eleven other officers on the ship pressionists. He was one of the founders of the secessionist fitted out by Lafayette and arrived at Philadelphia in July 1777. movement. From 1885 to 1890 Count von Kalckreuth was His commission from Deane was disallowed, but the Continentai professor at the Weimar art school. In 1890 he resigned his pro- Congress granted him the rank of major-general (dating from the ſessorship and retired to his estate of Höckricht in Silesia, where 15th of September 1777), and in October he joined the army, he occupied himself in painting subjects drawn from the life of where his growing admiration for Washington soon led him to the country-folk. In 1895 he became a professor at the art view with disfavour de Broglie's scheme for putting a European bow” and the Dresden Gallery his “Old Age.” Among his school at Karlsruhe. The Munich Pinakothek has his “Rain- officer in chief command. Early in 1778, as second in command “ Homewards,” to Lafayette for the proposed expedition against Canada, he chief works are the “ Funeral at Dachau," accompanied Lafayette to Albany; but no adequate preparations Gleaners, " « Old Age,” “Before the Fish Auction,” “Summer," 'Wedding Procession in the Carpathian Mountains,' had been made, and the expedition was abandoned. April 1780, he was sent from Morristown, New Jersey, with his division and “Going to School.” of Maryland men, his Delaware regiment and the ist artillery, to See A. Ph. W. v. Kalckreuth, Gesch. der Herren, Freiherren und relieve Charleston, but on arriving at Petersburg, Virginia, he Grafen von Kalckreuth (Potsdam, 1904). learned that Charleston had already fallen. In his camp at KALEIDOSCOPE (from Gr. kalós, beautiful, eidos, form, and Buffalo Ford and Deep River, General Horatio Gates joined him OKOTEîv, to view). The article REFLECTION explains the sym- on the 25th of July; and next day Gates led the army by the short metrical arrangement of images formed by two mirrors inclined at and desolate road directly towards Camden. On the lith-13th an angle which is a sub-multiple of four right angles. This is of August, when Kalb advised an immediate attack on Rawdon, the principle of the kaleidoscope, an optical toy which received Gates hesitated and then marched to a position on the Salisbury- | its present form at the hands of Sir David Brewster about the “The . ) 640 KALERGIS-KALGOORLIE year 1815, and which at once became exceedingly popular owing upon it and woos the exquisite Aino. She disappears into space, to the beauty and variety of the images and the sudden and and it is to recover from his loss and to find another bride that unexpected changes from one graceful form to another. AWäinämöinen makes his series of epical adventures in the dismal hundred years earlier R. Bradley had employed a similar arrange- country of Pohjola. Various episodes of great strangeness and ment which seems to have passed into oblivion (New Improvements beauty accompany the lengthy recital of the struggle to acquire of Planting and Gardening, 1710). The instrument has been the magical Sanpo, which gives prosperity to whoever possesses extensively used by designers. In its simplest form it consists it. In the midst of a battle the Sanpo is broken and falls into of a tube about twelve inches long containing two glass plates, the sea, but one fragment floats on the waves, and, being stranded extending along its whole length and inclined at an angle of 60°. on the shores of Finland, secures eternal felicity for that country. The eye-end of the tube is closed by a metal plate having a small | At the very close of the poem a virgin, Mariatta, brings forth a hole at its ntre near the intersection of the glass plates. The king who drives Wäinämöinen ou of the country, and this is other end is closed by a plate of muffed glass at the distance of understood to refer to the ultimate conquest of Paganism by distinct vision, and parallel to this is fixed a plate of clear glass. Christianity. In the intervening space (the object-box) are contained a number The Kalewala was probably composed at various times and by of fragments of brilliantly coloured glass, and as the tube is various bards, but always in sympathy with the latent traditions turned round its axis these fragments alter their positions and of the Finnish race, and with a mixture of symbolism and realism give rise to the various patterns. A third reflecting plate is exactly accordant with the instincts of that race. While in the sometimes employed, the cross-section of the three forming an other antique epics of the world bloodshed takes a predominant equilateral triangle. Sir David Brewster modified his apparatus place, the Kalewala is characteristically gentle, lyrical and even by moving the object-box and closing the end of the tube by a domestic, dwelling at great length on situations of moral beauty lens of short focus which forms images of distant objects at the and romantic pathos. It is entirely concerned with the folk-lore distance of distinct vision. These images take the place of the and the traditions of the primeval Finnish race. The poem is coloured fragments of glass, and they are symmetrically multi-written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse, and an idea of its style plied by the mirrors. In the polyangular kaleidoscope the angle may be obtained from Longfellow's Hiawatha, which is a pretty between the mirrors can be altered at pleasure. Such instruments true imitation of the Finnish epic. are occasionally found in old collections of philosophical appara- Until the 19th century the Kalewala existed only in fragments in tus and they have been used in order to explain to students the the memories and on the lips of the peasants. A collection of a few formation of multiple images. (C. J. J.) of these scattered songs was published in 1822 by Dr Zacharius KALERGIS, DIMITRI (DEMETRIOS) (1803-1867), Greek Topelius, but it was not until 1835. that anything like a complete statesman, was a Cretan by birth, studied medicine at Paris and and systematically arranged collection was given to the world by Dr Elias Lönnrot. For years Dr Lönnrot wandered from place to on the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence went to the place in the most remote districts, living with the peasantry, and Morca and joined the insurgents. He fought under Karaiskakis, taking down from their lips all that they knew of their popular songs. was taken prisoner by the Turks before Athens and mulcted of Some of the most valuable were discovered in the governments of an ear; later he acted as aide de camp to the French philhellenė Archangel and Olonetz. After unwearied diligence Lönnrot was Colonel Fabvier and to Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece. successful in collecting, 12,000 lines. These he arranged as methodi. cally as he could into thirty-two runes or cantos, which he published In 1832 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1843, as com- exactly as he heard them sung or chanted. Continuing his re- mander of a cavalry division, he was the prime mover in the searches, Dr Lönnrot published in 1849 a new edition of 22,793 insurrection which forced King Otto to dismiss his Bavarian verses in fifty runes. A still more complete text was published by A. V. For an in 1887: The importance of this indigenous epic ministers. He was appointed military commandant of Athens was at once recognized in Europe, and translations were made into and aide de camp to the king, but after the fall of the Mavro- Swedish, German and French. Several translations into English cordato ministry in 1845 was forced to go into exile, and spent exist, the fullest being that by J. M. Crawford in 1888. The best several years in London, where he became an intimate of Prince foreign editions are those of Castren in Swedish (1844), Leouzon le Duc in French (1845 and 1868), Schiefner in German (1852). (E. G.) Louis Napoleo... In 1848 he made an abortive descent on the Greek coast, in the hope of revolutionizing the kingdom. He KALGAN (CHANG-CHIA K'ow), a city of China, in the pro- was captured, but soon released and, after a stay in the island vince of Chih-li, with a population estimated at from 70,000 to of Zante, went to Paris (1853). At the instance of the Western 100,000. It lies in the line of the Great Wall, 122 m. by rail N.W. Powers he was recalled on the outbreak of the Crimean War and of Peking, commanding an important pass between China and appointed minister of war in the reconstituted Mavrocordato Mongolia. Its position is stated as in 40° 50' N. and 114° 54' E., cabinet (1854). He was, however, disliked by King Otto and and its height above the sea as 2810 ft. The valley amid the his consort, and in October 1855 was forced to resign. In 1861 mountains in which it is situated is under excellent cultivation, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Paris, in which and thickly studded with villages. Kalgan consists of a walled capacity he took an important part in the negotiations which town or fortress and suburbs 3 m. long. The streets are wide, followed the fall of the Bavarian dynasty and led to the accession and excellent shops are abundant; but the ordinary houses have of Prince George of Denmark to the Greek throne. an unusual appearance, from the fact that they are mostly roofed KALEWALA, or KALEVALA, the name of the Finnish national with earth and become covered with green-sward. Large epos. It takes its name from the three sons of Kalewa (or quantities of soda are manufactured; and the town is the seat Finland), viz. the ancient Wäinämöinen, the inventor of the of a very extensive transit trade. In October 1909 it was con- sacred harp Kantele; the cunning art-smith, Ilmarinen; and the nected by railway with Peking. In early autumn long lines of gallant Lemminkäinen, who is a sort of Arctic Don Juan. The camels come in from all quarters for the conveyance of the tea- adventures of these three heroes are wound about a plot for chests from Kalgan to Kiakhta; and each caravan usually makes securing in marriage the hand of the daughter of Louhi, a hero three journeys in the winter. Some Russian merchants have from Pohjola, a land of the cold north. Ilmarinen is set to permanent residences and warehouses just outside the gate. On construct a magic mill, the Sanpo, which grinds out meal, salt the way to Peking the road passes over a beautiful bridge of seven and gold, and as this has fallen into the hands of the folk of arches, ornamented with marble figures of animals. The name Pohjola, it is needful to recover it. The poem actually opens, Kalgan is Mongolian, and means a barrier or “gate-beam." however, with a very poetical theory of the origin of the world. KALGOORLIE, a mining town of Western Australia, 24 m. The virgin daughter of the atmosphere, Luonnotar, wanders for by rail E.N.E. of Coolgardie. Pop. (1901), 6652. It is a thriving seven hundred years in space, until she bethinks her to invoke town with an electric tramway service, and is the junction of four Ukko, the northern Zeus, who sends his eagle to her; this bird lines of railway. The gold-field, discovered in 1893, is very makes its nest on the knees of Luonnotar and lays in it seven rich, supporting about 15,000 miners. The town is supplied eggs. Out of the substance of these eggs the visible world is with water. like Coolgardie, from a source near Perth 360 m. made. But it is empty and sterile until Wäinämöinen descends I distant. KALI-KĀLIDĀSA 641 « RALI (black), or Kali Me (the Black Mother), in Hindu He wrote three plays, the plots of which all bear a general resem- mythology, the goddess of destruction and death, the wife blance, inasmuch as they consist of love intrigues, which, after numerous and seemingly insurmountable impediments of a similar of Siva. According to one theory, Calcutta owes its name to nature, are ultimately brought to a successful conclusion. her, being originally Kalighat, “ Kali's landing-place." Siva's Of these, Sakuntalā is that which has always justly enjoyed the consort has many names (e.g. Durga, Bhawani, Parvati, &c.). greatest fame and popularity. The unqualified praise bestowed Her idol is black, with four arms, and red palms to the hands. upon it by Goethe sufficiently guarantees its poetic merit. There are two recensions of the text in India, the Bengali and the Devanā. Her eyes are red, and her face and breasts are besmeared with gari, the latter being generally considered older and purer. Şakun. blood. Her hair is matted, and she has projecting fang-like teeth, talā was first translated into English by Sir William Jones (Calcutta, between which protrudes a tongue dripping with blood. She :789), who used the Bengali recension. It was soon after translated wears a necklace of skulls, her earrings are dead bodies, and she into German by G. Forster (1791; new ed. Leipzig, 1879). An edition of th Sanskrit original, with French translation, was pub- is girded with serpents. She stands on the body of Siva, to lished by A. L. Chézy at Paris in 1830. This formed the basis of a account for which attitude there is an elaborate legend. She is translation by B. Hirzel (Zürich, 1830); later trans. by L. Fritze more worshipped in Gondwana and the forest tracts to the east (Chemnitz, 1876). Other editions of the Bengali recension were and south of it than in any other part of India. Formerly published by Prema Chandra (Calcutta, 1860) for the use of European human sacrifice was the essential of her ritual. The victim, recension was first edited by O. Böhtlingk (Bonn, 1842), with a students and by R. Pischel (2nd ed., Kiel, 1886). The Devanāgari always a male, was taken to her temple after sunset and im- German translation. On this were based the successive German prisoned there. When morning came he was dead: the priests translations of E. Meier (Tübingen, 1851) and E. Lobedanz (8th told the people thai Kali had sucked his blood in the night. At ed., Leipzig: 1892). The same recension has been edited by Dr C. Burkhard with a Sanskrit-Latin vocabulary and short Prākrit gram. Dantewara in Bastar there is a famous shrine of Kali under the mar (Breslau, 1872), and by Professor Monier Williams (Oxford, 2nd name of Danteswari. Here many a human head has been ed. 1876), who also translated the drama (5th ed., 1887). There is presented on her altar. About 1830 it is said that upwards of another translation by P. N. Patankar (Poona, 1888– ). There twenty-five full-grown men were immolated at once by the raja. are also a South Indian and a Cashmir recension. The Vikramoruasi, or Urvasi won by Valour, abounds with fine Cutting their flesh and burning portions of their body were lyrical passages, and is of all Indian dramas second only to Sakuntala among the acts of devotion of her rippe Kali is goddess in poetic beauty. It was edited by R. Lenz (Berlin, 1833) and trans- of small-pox and cholera. The Thugs murdered their victims lated into German by C. G. A. Höfer (Berlin, 1837), by B. Hirzel in her honour, and to her the sacred pickaxe, wherewith their (1838), by E. Lobedanz (Leipzig, 1861) and F. Bollensen (Petersburg, 1845). There is also an English edition by Monier Williams, a graves were dug, was consecrated. metrical and prose version by Professor H. H. Wilson, and a literal The Hook-swinging Festival (Churruk or Churuck Puja), prose translation by Professor E. B. Cowell (1851). The latest one of the most notable celebrations in honour of the editions are by S. P. Pandit (Bombay, 1879) and K. B. Paranjpe goddess Kali , has now been prohibited in British territory. (ibid. 1898). Those who had vowed themselves to self-torture submitted to poetical and dramatic merit, but is confessedly inferior to the other The third play, entitled Mālavikāgnimitra, has considerable be swung in the air supported only by hooks passed through the two. It possesses the advantage, however, that its hero Agnimitra muscles over the blade-bones. These hooks were hung from a and its heroine Mālavikā are more ordinary and human characters long crossbeam, which see-sawed upon a huge upright pole. I than those of the other plays. It is edited by O. F. Tullberg Hoisted into the air by men pulling down the other end of the S. S. Ayyar (Poona, 1896); translated into German by A. Weber (Bonn, 1840), by Shankar P. Pandit, with English notes (1869), and see-saw beam, the victim was then whirled round in a circle. (1856), and into English by C. H. Tawney (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1898). The torture usually lasted fifteen or twenty minutes. Two epic poems are also attributed to Kālidāsa. The longer of See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897). these is entitled Raghuvamsa, the subject of which is the same as KĀLIDĀSA, the most illustrious name among the writers of that of the Rāmāyana, viz. the history of Rāma, but beginning with a long account of his ancestors, the ancient rulers of Ayodhya the second epoch of Sanskrit literature, which, as contrasted (ed. by A. F. Stenzler, London. 1832; and with Eng. trans. and notes with the age of the Vedic hymns, may be characterized as the by Gopal Raghunath Nandargikar, Poona, 1897; verse trans. by period of artificial poetry. Owing to the absence of the historical P. de Lacy Johnstone, 1902). The other epic is the Kumārasam. sense in the Hindu race, it is impossible to fix with chronological Kārttikeya or Skanda, god of war (ed. by Stenzler, London, 1838; bhava, the theme of which is the birth of Kumāra, otherwise called exactness the lifetime of either Kālidāså or any other Sanskrit K. M. Banerjea, 3rd ed. Calcutta, 1872; Parvanikara and Parab, author. Native tradition places him in the 1st century B.C.; Bombay, 1893; and M. R. Kale and S. R. Dharadhara, ibid. 1907; but the evidence on which this belief rests is worthless. The Eng. trans. by R. T. Griffith, 1879). Though containing many fine works of the poet contain no allusions by which their date can passages, it is tame as a whole. His lyrical poems are the Meghaduta and the Ritusamhāra. The be directly determined; yet the extremely corrupt form of the Meghaduta, or the Cloud-Messenger, describes the complaint of an Prakrit or popular dialects spoken by the women and the sub- exiled lover, and the message he sends to his wife by a cloud. It is ordinate characters in his plays, as compared with the Prākrit full of deep feeling, and abounds with fine descriptions of the beauties of nature. in inscriptions of ascertained age, led such authorities as Weber H. H. Wilson (Calcutta, 1813), and by J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1841); It was edited with free English translation by and Lassen to agree in fixing on the 3rd century A.D. as the a German adaptation by M. Müller appeared at Königsberg (1847), approximate period to which the writings of Kálidāsa should and one by C. Schütz at Bielefeld (1859). It was edited by F. be referred. Johnson, with vocabulary and Wilson's metrical translation (London, He was one of the “ nine gems ” at the court of King Vikra-1867); later editions by K. P. Parab (Bombay, 1891) and K. B. Pathak (Poona, 1894). The Ritusamhāra, or Collection of the maditya or Vikrama, at Ujjain, and the tendency is now to Seasons, is a short poem, of less importance, on the six seasons of regard the latter as having flourished about a.d. 375; others, the year. There is an edition by P: von Bohlen, with prose Latin however, place him as late as the 6th century. The richness of and metrical German translation (Leipzig, 1840); Eng. trans. by C. S. Sitaram Ayyar (Bombay, 1897). his creative fancy, his delicacy of sentiment, and his keen appre- Another poem, entitled the Nalodaya, or Rise of Nala, edited by ciation of the beauties of nature, combined with remarkable F. Benary (Berlin, 1830), W.Yates (Calcutta, 1844) and Vidyasagara powers of description, place Kālidāsa in the first rank of Oriental (Calcutta, 1873), is a treatment of the story of Nala and Damayanti, poets. The effect, however, of his productions as a whole is but describes especially the restoration of Nala to prosperity and greatly marred by extreme artificiality of diction, which, though probably written by another poet of the same name. It is full of power. It has been ascribed to the celebrated Kālidāsa, but was to a less extent than in other Hindu poets, not unfrequently most absurd verbal conceits and metrical extravagances. takes the form of puerile conceits and play on words. In this So many poems, partly of a very different stamp, are attributed respect his writings contrast very unfavourably with the more to Kālidāsa' that it is scarcely possible to avoid the necessity of assuming the existence of. more authors than one of that name. It genuine poetry of the Vedas. Though a true poet, he is wanting is by no means improbable that there were three poets thus named; in that artistic sense of proportion so characteristic of the Greek indeed modern native astronomers are so convinced of the existence mind, which exactly adjusts the parts to the whole, and combines of a triad of authors of this name that they apply the term Kālidāsa form and matter into an inseparable poetic unity. Kālidāsa's to designate the number three. fame rests chiefly on his dramas, but he is also distinguished as On Rālidāsa generally, see A. A. Macdonell's History of Sanskrit Literature (1900), and on his date G. Huth, Die Zeit des K. (Berlin, an epic and a lyric poet 1890). (A, A. M) 9) 642 KALIMPONG-KALKBRENNER KALIMPONG, a village of British India, in the Darjeeling | Leviticus in two parts (1867-1872). Kalisch wrote before the district of Bengal, 4000 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 1069. publication of Wellhausen's works, and anticipated him in some It is a frontier market for the purchase of wool and mules from important points. Besides these works, Kalisch published in Tibet, and an important agricultural fair is held in November. 1877-1878 two volumes of Bible studies (on Balaam and Jonah). In 1900 Kalimpong was chosen by the Church of Scotland as the He was also author of a once popular Hebrew grammar in two site of cottage homes, known as St Andrew's Colonial Homes, volumes (1862-1863). In 1880 he published Path and Goal, a for the education and training of poor European and Eurasian brilliant discussion of human destiny. His commentaries are children. of permanent value, not only because of the author's originality, KALINGA, or CALINGA, one of the nine kingdoms of southern but also because of his erudition. No other works in English India in ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included contain such full citations of earlier literature. (1. A.) the eastern Madras coast from Pulicat to Chicacole, running KALISPEL, or PEND D'OREILLE, a tribe of North-American inland from the Bay of Bengal to the Eastern Ghats. The name Indians of Salishan stock. They formerly ranged the country at one time had a wider and vaguer meaning, comprehending around Pend d'Oreille Lake, Washington. They number some Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges valley. The Kalinga 600, and are settled on a reservation in Montana. of Pliny certainly included Orissa, but latterly it seems to have KALISZ, a government of Russian Poland, having Prussia on been confined to the Telugu-speaking country; and in the the W., and the governments of Warsaw and Piotrków on the E. time of Hsüan Tsang (630 A.D.) it was distinguished on the south Its area is 4390 sq. m. Its surface is a lowland, sloping towards and west from Andhra, and on the north from Odra or Orissa. the west, and is drained by the Prosna and the Warta and their Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, speaks of Kalinga as one tributaries, and also by the Bzura. It was formerly covered division of the country of Telinga. Hsuan Tsang speaks of with countless small lakes and thick forests; the latter are now. Kalinga (“Kie-ling-kia ") having its capital at what has been mostly destroyed, but many lakes and marshes exist still. identified with the site either of Rajahmundry or Coringa. Pop. (1897), 844,358 of whom 427,978 were women, and 113,609 Both these towns, as well as Singapur, Calingapatam and Chica- lived in towns; estimated pop. (1906), 983,200. They are chiefly cole, share the honour of having been the chief cities of Kalinga Poles. Roman Catholics number 83%; Jews and Protestants at different periods; but inscriptions recently deciphered seem each amount to 7%. Agriculture is carried to perfection on to prove that the capital of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga was a number of estates, as also livestock breeding. The crops at Mukhalingam in the Ganjam district. principally raised are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. KALINJAR, a town and hill fort of British India in the Banda Various domestic trades, including the weaving of linen and wool, district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 3015. The fort are carried on in the villages. There are some factories, pro- stands on an isolated rock, the termination of the Vindhya ducing chiefly cloth and cottons. The government is divided range, at an elevation of 1203 ft., overlooking the plains of into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their popula- Bundelkhand. Kalinjar is the most characteristic specimen of tions in 1897, are: Kalisz (21,680), Kolo (9400), Konin (8530), the hill-fortresses, originally hill-shrines, of central India. Its Leczyca (8863), Slupec (3758), Sieradz (7019), Turek (8141) antiquity is proved by its mention in the Mahābhārata. It was and Wielun (7442). besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1023, and here the Afghan KALISZ, the chief town of the above government, situated in emperor Sher Shah met his death in 1545, and Kalinjar played 51° 46' N. and 18° E., 147 m. by rail W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the a prominent part in history down to the time of the Mutiny in banks of the Prosna, which there forms the boundary of Prussia. 18 when it was held by a small British garrison. Both the Pop. (1871), 18,088; (1897), 21,680, of whom 37% were ews. fort and the town, which stands at the foot of the hill, are of It is one of the oldest and finest cities of Poland, is the seat of a interest to the antiquary on account of their remains of temples, Roman Catholic bishop, and possesses a castle, a teachers' insti- sculptures, inscriptions and caves. tute and a large public park. The industrial establishments KALIR (QALIR), ELEAZER, Hebrew liturgical poet, whose comprise a brewery, and factories for ribbons, cloth and sugar, hymns (piyyutim) are found in profusion in the festival prayers and tanneries. of the German synagogal rite. The age in which he lived is Kalisz is identified with the Calisia of Ptolemy, and its antiquity unknown. Some (basing the view on Saadiah's Sefer ha-galuy) is indicated by the abundance of coins and other objects of ancient place him as early as the 6th century, others regard him as art which have been discovered on the site, as well as by the numerous burial mounds existing in the vicinity. It was the scene of the belonging to the roth century. Kalir's style is powerful but decisive victory of Augustus the Strong of Poland over the Swedes involved; he may be described as a Hebrew Browning. on the 29th of October 1706, of several minor conflicts in 1813, and Some beautiful renderings of Kalir's poems may be found in the of the friendly meeting of the Russian and Prussian troops in 1835, volumes of Davis & Adler's edition of the German Festival Prayers in memory of which an iron obelisk was erected in the town by entitled Service of the Synagogue. Nicholas I. in 1841. The treaty of 1813 between Russia and Prussia KALISCH, ISIDOR (1816–1886), Jewish divine, was born at was signed here. Krotoschin in Prussia on the 15th of November 1816, and was KALK, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right educated at Berlin, Breslau and Prague. In 1848 he came to bank of the Rhine, 2 m. E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905), 25,478. London, but passed on in 1849 to America, where he ministered Kalk is an important junction of railway lines connecting Cologne as rabbi in Cleveland, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Detroit and Newark, with places on the right bank of the river. It has various icon New Jersey. At Newark from 1875 he gave himself entirely and chemical industries, brickworks and breweries, and an to literary work, and exercised a strong influence as leader of electric tramway joins it with Cologne. the radical and reforming Jewish party. KALKAS, or KHALKAS, a Mongoloid people mainly concen- Among his works are Wegweisen für rationelle Forschungen in den trated in the northern steppes of Mongolia near their kinsmen, biblischen Schriften (1853); and translations of Nathan der Weise the Buriats. According to Sir H. Howorth they derive their (1869); Sepher Jezirah (1877); and Munz's History of Philosophy name from the river Kalka, which runs into the Buir lake. Of among the Jews (1881). He also wrote a good deal of German and all Mongolians they physically differ most from the true Mongol Hebrew verse. type (see MONGOLS). Their colour is a brown rather than a KALISCH, MARCUS (or MAURICE) (1828–1885), Jewish scholar, yellow, and their eyes are open and not oblique. They have, was born in Pomerania in 1828, and died in England 1885. however, the broad flat face, high cheekbones and lank black He was one of the pioneers of the critical study of the old hair of their race. They number some 250,000, and their terri. Testament in England. At one time he was secretary to the tory is divided into the four khanates of Tushetu (Tushiyetu), Chief Rabbi; in 1853 he became tutor in the Rothschild family Tsetien (Setzen), Sai’noi'm (Sain Noyan) and Jesaktu (Jassaktu). and enjoyed leisure to produce his commentaries and other KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1849), works. The first instalment of his commentary on the Penta- German pianist and composer, son of Christian Kalkbrenner touch was Exodus (1855); this was followed by Genesis (1858) and (1755-1806), a Jewish musician of Cassel, was educated at the KÁLLAY-KALNOKY 643 Paris Conservatoire, and soon began to play in public. From (d. 1577), an historical museum, and in the courtyard a fine ornate 1814 to 1823 he was well known as a brilliant performer and a well-cover. This stronghold stood several sieges in the 14th, successful teacher in London, and then settled in Paris, dying at 15th and 16th centuries, and the town gives name to the treaty Enghien, near there, in 1849. He became a member of the Paris (Kalmar Union) by which Sweden, Norway and Denmark were piano-manufacturing firm of Pleyel & Co., and made a fortune united into one kingdom in 1397. Kalmar has an artificial by his business and his art combined. His numerous compo- harbour admitting vessels drawing 19 ft. There are a school of sitions are less remembered now than his instruction-book, with navigation, and tobacco and match factories, the produce of "studies," which have had considerable vogue among pianists. which, together with timber and oats, is exported. Ship- KÁLLAY, BENJAMIN VON (1839-1903), Austro-Hungarian building is carried on. statesman, was born at Budapest on the 22nd of December 1839. KALMUCK, or KALMYK STEPPE, a territory or reservation His family derived their name from their estates at Nágy Kallo, belonging to the Kalmuck or Kalmyk Tatars, in the Russian in Szabolcs, and claimed descent from the Balogh Semjen government of Astrakhan, bounded by the Volga on the N.E., tribe, which colonized the counties of Borsod, Szabolcs, and the Manych on the S.W., the Caspian Sea on the E., and the Szatmár, at the close of the 9th century, when the Magyars territory of the Don Cossacks on the N.W. Its area is 36,900 conquered Hungary. They played a prominent part in Hun. sq. m., to which has to be added a second reservation of 3045 garian history as early as the reign of Koloman (1095-1114); sq. m. on the left bank of the lower Volga. According to I. V. and from King Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490) they received Mushketov, the Kalmuck Steppe must be divided into two parts, their estates at Mezö Tur, near Kecskemét, granted to Michael western and eastern. The former, occupied by the Ergeni hills, Kállay for his heroic defence of Jajce in Bosnia, and still held by is deeply trenched by ravines and rises 300 and occasionally his descendants. The father of Benjamin von Kállay, a superior 630 ft. above the sea. It is built up of Tertiary deposits, official of the Hungarian Government, died in 1845, and his belonging to the Sarmatian division of the Miocene period and widow, who survived until 1903, devoted herself to the education covered with loess and black earth, and its escarpments repre- of her son. At an early age Kállay manifested a deep interest sent the old shore-line of the Caspian. No Caspian deposits in politics, and especially in the Eastern Question. He travelled are found on or within the Ergeni hills. These hills exhibit the in Russia, European Turkey and Asia Minor, gaining a thorough usual black earth flora, and they have a settled population. The knowledge of Greek, Turkish and several Slavonic languages. eastern part of the steppe is a plain, lying for the most part He became as proficient in Servian as in his native tongue. In 30 to 40 ft. below the level of the sea, and sloping gently towards 1867 he entered the Hungarian Diet as Conservative deputy for the Volga. Post-Pliocene “ Aral-Caspian deposits," containing Mühlbach (Szásy-Szebes); in 1869 he was appointed consul- the usual fossils (Hydrobia, Neritina, eight species of Cardium, general at Belgrade; and in 1872 he visited Bosnia for the first two of Dreissena, three of Adacna and Lithoglyphus caspius), time. His views on Balkan questions strongly influenced attain thicknesses varying from 105 ft. to 7 or 10 ft., and dis- Count Andrássy, the Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign appear in places. Lacustrine and fluviatile deposits occur affairs. Leaving Belgrade in 1875, he resumed his seat in the intermingled with the above. Large areas of moving sands Diet, and shortly afterwards founded the journal Kélet Nepe, or exist near Enotayevsk, where high dunes or barkhans have been Eastern Folk, in which he defended the vigorous policy of formed. A narrow tract of land along the coast of the Caspian, Andrássy. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he went to known as the “ hillocks of Baer," is covered with hillocks Philippopolis as Austro-Hungarian envoy extraordinary on the elongated from west to east, perpendicularly to the coast-line, International Eastern Rumelian Commission. In 1879 he became the spaces between them being filled with water or overgrown second, and soon afterwards first, departmental chief at the with thickets of reed, Salix, Ulmus campestris, almond trees, foreign office in Vienna. On the 4th of June 1882 he was &c. An archipelago of little islands is thus formed close to the appointed Imperial minister of finance and administrator of shore by these mounds, which are backed on the N. and N.W. Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the distinction with which he by strings of salt lakes, partly desiccated. Small streams filled this office, for a period of 21 years, is his chief title of fame originate in the Ergenis, but are lost as soon as they reach the (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA). Kállay was an honorary lowlands, where water can only be obtained from wells. The member of the Budapest and Vienna academies of science, and scanty vegetation is a mixture of the flora of south-east Russia attained some eminence as a writer. He translated J. S. Mill's and that of the deserts of central Asia. The steppe has an Liberty into Hungarian, adding an introductory critique; while estimated population of 130,000 persons, living in over 27,700 his version of Galatea, a play by the Greek dramatist S. N. kibitkas, or felt tents. There are over 60 Buddhist monasteries. Basiliades (1843-1874), proved successful on the Hungarian Part of the Kalmucks are settled (chiefly in the hilly parts), the stage. His monographs on Servian history (Geschichte der remainder being nomads. They breed horses, cattle and sheep, Serben) and on the Oriental ambition of Russia (Die Orientpolitik but suffer heavy losses from murrain. Some attempts at Russlands) were translated into German by J. H. Schwicker, agriculture and tree-planting are being made. The breeding of and published at Leipzig in 1878. But, in his own opinion, his livestock, fishing, and some domestic trades, chiefly carried on masterpiece was an academic oration on the political and geo- by the women, are the principal sources of maintenance. graphical position of Hungary as a link between East and West. In 1873 Kállay married the countess Vilma Bethlen,.who bore See 1. V. Mushketov, Geol. Researches in the Kalmyk Steppe in 1884–1885 (St Petersburg, 1894, in Russian); Kostenkov's works him two daughters and a son. His popularity in Bosnia was (1868–1870); and other works quoted in Semenov's Geogr. Dict. partly due to the tact and personal charm of his wife. He died and Russ. Encycl. Dict. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) on the 13th of July 1903. KALMAR (CALMAR), a seaport of Sweden on the Baltic coast, KALNOKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND, COUNT (1832–1898), Austro- chief town of the district (län) of Kalmar, 250 m. S.S. W. of Hungarian statesman, was born at Lettowitz, in Moravia, on Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900), 12,715. It lies opposite the the 29th of December 1832, of an old Transylvanian family island of Oland, mainly on two small islands, but partly on the which had held countly rank in Hungary from the 17th century. mainland, where there is a pleasant park. The streets are After spending some years in a hussar regiment, in 1854 he entered regular, and most of the houses are of wood. The principal the diplomatic service without giving up his connexion with the public edifices, however, are constructed of limestone from army, in which he reached the rank of general in 1879. He was Öland, including the cathedral, built by Nicodemus Tessin and for the ten years 1860 to 1870 secretary of embassy at London, his son Nicodemus in the second half of the 17th century. and then, after serving at Rome and Copenhagen; was in 1880 Kalmar, a town of great antiquity, was formerly strongly forti- appointed ambassador at St Petersburg. His success in Russia fied, and there remains the island-fortress of Kalmarnahus, procured for him, on the death of Baron v. Haymerle in 1881, the dating partly from the 12th century, but mainly from the 16th appointment of minister of foreign affairs for Austria-Hungary, and 17th. It contains the beautiful chamber of King Eric XIV. a post which he held for fourteen years. Essentially a diplomatist, 644 KALOCSA-KALYAN he took little or no part in the vexed internal affairs of the Cawnpore, which here crosses the Jumna. There are manufac- Dual Monarchy, and he came little before the public except at tures of sugar and paper. the annual statement on foreign affairs before the Delegations. KALUGA, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by His management of the affairs of his department was, however, those of Moscow, Smolensk, Orel and Tula, with an area of very successful; he confirmed and maintained the alliance with 11,942 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain, reaching 800 Germany, which had been formed by his predecessors, and co- to 900 ft. in its highest parts, which lie in the S.W., and deeply operated with Bismarck in the arrangements by which Italy trenched by watercourses, especially in the N.E. The Oka, a joined the alliance. Kalnoky's special influence was seen in the main tributary of the Volga, and its confluents (the Zhizdra and improvement of Austrian relations with Russia, following on Ugra) drain all but a strip of country in the west, which is the meeting of the three emperors in September 1884 at Skier- traversed by the Bolva, an affluent of the Dnieper. The govern- nevice, at which he was present. His Russophile policy caused ment is built up mainly of carboniferous deposits (coal-bearing), some adverse criticism in Hungary. His friendliness for Russia with patches of the soft Jurassic clays and limestones which did not, however, prevent him from strengthening the position formerly covered them. Cretaceous deposits occur in the S.W., of Austria as against Russia in the Balkan Peninsula by the and Devonian limestones and shales crop out in the S.E. The establishment of a closer political and commercial understanding government is covered with a thick layer of boulder clay in the with Servia and Rumania. In 1885 he interfered after the north, with vast ridges and fields of boulders brought during the battle of Slivnitza to arrest the advance of the Bulgarians on Glacial Period from Finland and the government of Olonets; large Belgrade, but he lost influence in Servia after the abdication of areas in the middle are strewn with flint boulders and patches King Milan. Though he kept aloof from the Clerical party, of loess are seen farther south. The mean annual temperature is Kalnoky was a strong Catholic; and his sympathy for the 41° F. Iron ores are the chief mineral wealth, nearly 40,000 difficulties of the Church caused adverse comment in Italy, persons being engaged in mining. Beds of coal occur in several when, in 1891, he stated in a speech before the Delegations that places, and some of them are worked. Fireclay, china-clay, the question of the position of the pope was still unsettled. chalk, grindstone, pure quartz sand, phosphorite and copper are He subsequently explained that by this he did not refer to the also extracted. Forests cover 20% of the surface, and occur Roman question, which was permanently settled, but to the chiefly in the south. The soil is not very suitable for agriculture, possibility of the pope leaving Rome. The jealousy felt in and owing to a rather dense population, considerable numbers of Hungary against the Ultramontanes led to his fall. In 1895 a the inhabitants find occupation in industry, or as carriers and case of clerical interference in the internal affairs of Hungary by carpenters for one-half of the year at the Black Sea ports. the nuncio Agliardi aroused a strong protest in the Hungarian The population (1,025,705 in 1860) was 1,176,353 in 1897, parliament, and consequent differences between Bánffy, the nearly all Great Russians. There were 116 women to 100 men, Hungarian minister, and the minister for foreign affairs led to and out of the total population 94,853 lived in towns. The Kalnoky's resignation. He died on the 13th of February 1898 estimated population in 1906 was 1,287,300. Of the total area at Prödlitz in Moravia. over 4,000,000 acres are owned by the peasant communities, KALOCSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis- nearly 3,000,000 acres by private owners and some 250,000 by Solt-Kis-Kun, 88 m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), the Crown. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, 11,372. It is situated in a marshy but highly productive dis- and potatoes. Hemp is grown for local use and export. Bees trict, near the left bank of the Danube, and was once of far are kept. The chief non-agricultural industries are distilleries, greater importance than at present. Kalocsa is the see of one iron-works, factories for cloth, cottons, paper, matches, lçather of the four Roman Catholic archbishops in Hungary. Amongst and china, flour-mills and oil works. Large quantities of wooden its buildings are a fine cathedral, the archiepiscopal palace, an wares are fabricated in the villages of the south. A considerable astronomical observatory, a seminary for priests, and colleges trade is carried on in hemp, hempseed and hempseed oil, corn for training of male and female teachers. The inhabitants of and hides; and iron, machinery, leather, glass, chemicals and Kalocsa and its wide-spreading communal lands are chiefly linen are exported. The government is divided into 11 employed in the cultivation of the vine, fruit, flax, hemp and districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in cereals, in the capture of water-fowl and in fishing. Kalocsa 1897, are: Kaluga (49,728), Borovsk (8407), Kozelsk (5908), is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. The present arch- Likhvin (1776), Maloyaroslavets (2500), Medyń (4392), bishopric, founded about 1135, is a development of a bishopric Meshchovsk (3667), Mosalsk (2652), Peremyshl (3956), Tarusa said to have been founded in the year 1000 by King Stephen the (1989) and Zhizdra (5996). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) Saint. It suffered much during the 16th century from the KALUGA, the chief town of the above government, situated hordes of Ottomans who then ravaged the country. A large on the left bank of the Oka, 117 m. S.W. of Moscow by rail, part of the town was destroyed by a fire in 1875. in 54° 31' N. and 36° 6' E. Pop. (1870), 36,880; (1897) 49,728. KALPI, or CALPEE, a town of British India, in the Jalaun It is the see of a Greek Orthodox bishop. The public buildings district of the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, include the cathedral of the Trinity (rebuilt in the 19th century 45 m. S.W. of Cawnpore. Pop. (1901), 10,139. It was founded, in place of an older edifice dating from 1687), two monastic according to tradition, by Vasudeva, at the end of the 4th century establishments, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a lunatic asylum. A.D. In 1196 it fell to Kutab-ud-din, the viceroy of Mahommed The principal articles of industrial production are leather, oil, Ghori, and during the subsequent Mahommedan period it played bast mats, wax candles, starch and Kaluga cakes. The first a large part in the annals of this part of India. About the historical mention of Kaluga occurs in 1389; its incorporation middle of the 18th century it passed into the hands of the Mah- with the principality of Moscow took place in 1518. In 1607 rattas. It was captured by the British in 1803, and since 1806 it was held by the second false Demetrius and vainly besieged has remained in British possession. In May 1858 Sir Hugh for four months by the forces of Shuisky, who had ascended the Rose (Lord Strathnairn) defeated here a force of about 10,000 Russian throne as Basil IV. on the death of the first false rebels under the rani of Jhansi. Kalpi had a mint for copper Demetrius. In 1619 Kaluga fell into the hands of the hetman coinage in the reign of Akbar; and the East India Company made or chief of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Later two-thirds of its it one of their principal stations for providing the “commercial inhabitants were carried off by a plague; and in 1622 the whole investment. The old town, which is beside the river, has ruins place was laid waste by a conflagration. It recovered, however, of a fort, and several temples of interest, while in the neighbour- in spite of several other conflagrations (especially in 1742 and hood are many ancient tombs. There is a lofty modern tower 1754). On several occasions Kaluga was the residence of politi. ornamented with representations of the battles of the Ramayana. cal prisoners; among others Shamyl, the Lesghian chief, spent The new town lies away from the river to the south-east. Kalpi his exile there (1859-1870). is still a centre of local trade (principally in grain, ghi and cotton), KALYAN, a town of British India, in the Thana district of with a station on the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to | Bombay, situated 33 m. N.E. of Bombay city, where the two KAMA KAME .645 2 . main lines of the Great Indian Peninsula railway diverge. Pop. six extinct volcanoes, from 7000 to more than 15,000 ft. high. (1901), 10,749. There is a considerable industry of rice-hušking. The highest volcanoes are grouped under 56° N., and the highest Kalyan is known to have been the capital of a kingdom and a of them, Kluchevskaya (16,990 ft.), is in a state of almost in- centre of sea-borne commerce in the early centuries of the cessant activity(notable outbreaks in 1729, 1737, 1841, 1853-1854, Christian era. The oldest remains now existing are of Mahom- and 1896–1897), a flow of its lava having reached to Kamchatka medan times. river in 1853. The active Shiveluch (9900 ft.) is the last volcano KAMA, or KAMADEVA, in Hindu mythology, the god of love. of this chain. Several lakes and probably Avacha Bay are old He is variously stated to have been the child of Brahma or craters. Copper, mercury, and iron ores, as also pure copper, Dharma (virtue). In the Rig Veda, Kama (desire) is described ochre and sulphur, are found in the peninsula. The principal as the first movement that arose in the One after it had come river is the Kamchatka (325 m. long), which ilows first north- into life through the power of fervour, or abstraction. In the eastwards in a fertile longitudinal valley, and then, bending Atharva-Veda Kama does not mean sexual desire, but rather the suddenly to the east, pierces the above-mentioned volcanic yearning after the good of all created things. Later Kama is chain. The other rivers are the Tighil (135 m.) and the Bólstraya simply the Hindu Cupid. While attempting to lure Siva to (120 m.), both flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk; and the Avacha, sin, he was destroyed by a fiery glance of the goddess' third eye. flowing into the Pacific. Thus in Hindu poetry Kama is known as Ananga, the “ bodiless The floating ice which accumulates in the northern parts of god.” Kama's wife Rati (voluptuousness) mourned him so the Sea of Okhotsk and the cold current which flows along the greatly that Siva relented, and he was reborn as the child of east coast of the peninsula render its summers chilly, but the Krishna and Rukmini. The babe was called Pradyumna winter is relatively warm, and temperatures below -40° F.are (Cupid). He is represented armed with a bow of sugar-cane; experienced only in the highlands of the interior and on the it is strung with bees, and its five arrows are tipped with flowers Okhotsk littoral. The average temperatures at Petropavlovsk which overcome the five senses. A fish adorns his flag, and he (53° N.) are: year 37° F., January 17°, July 58°; while in the rides a parrot or sparrow, emblemátic of lubricity. valley of the Kamchatka the average temperature of the winter is KĀMALĀ, a red powder formerly use in medicine as an 16°, and of the summer as high as 58º and 64º. Rain and snow anthelmintic and employed in India as a yellow dye. It is are copious, and dense fogs enshroud the coast in summer; consė- obtained from Mallotus philippinensis, Müll., a small euphor- quently the mountains are well clothed with timber and the biaceous tree from 20 to 45 ft. in height, distributed from southern meadows with grass, except in the tundras of the north. The Arabia in the west to north Australia and the Philippines in the natives eat extensively the bulbs of the Martagon lily, and weave east. In India kāmalā has several ancient Sanskrit names, one cloth out of the fibres of the Kamchatka nettle. Delphinopterus of which, kapila, signifies dusky or tawny red. Under the name leucus, the sea-lion (Otaria Stelleri), and walrus abound off the of wars, kanbil, or qinbil, kāmalā appears to have been known to coasts. The sea-otter (Enhydris marina) has been destroyed. the Arabian physicians as a remedy for tapeworm and skin • The population (5846 in 1870). was 7270 in 1900. The diseases as early as the roth century, and indeed is mentioned southern part of the peninsula is occupied by Kamchadales, who by Paulus Ægineta still earlier. The drug was formerly in the exhibit many attributes of the Mongolian race, but are more British Pharmacopoeia, but is inferior to many other anthel- similar to the aborigines of N.E. Asia and N.W. America. mintics and is not now employed. Fishing (quantities of salmon enter the rivers) and hunting are KAMCHATKA, a peninsula of N.-E. Siberia, stretching from their chief occupations. Dog-sledges are principally used as the land of the Chukchis S.S.W. for 750 m., with a width of from means of communication. The efforts of the government to 80 to 300 m. (51° to 62° N., and 156° to 163º E.), between the Sea introduce cattle-breeding have failed. The Kamchadale lan- of Okhotsk and Bering Sea. It forms part of the Russian guage cannot be assigned to any known group; its vocabulary is Maritime Province. Area, 104,260 sq. m. extremely poor. The purity of the tongue is best preserved The isthmus which connects the peninsula with the mainland by the people of the Penzhinsk district on the W. coast. North is a flat tundra, sloping gently both ways. The mountain chain, of 57° N. the peninsula is peopled with Koryaks, settled and which Ditmar calls central, seems to be interrupted under 57° nomad, and Lamuts (Tunguses), who came from the W. coast of N. by a deep indentation corresponding to the valley of the the Sea of Okhotsk. The principal Russian settlements are: Tighil. There too the hydrographical network, as well as the Petropavlovsk, on the E. coast, on Avacha Bay, with an ex- south-west to north-east strike of the clay-slates and metamor-cellent roadstead; Verkhne-Kamchatsk and Nizhne-Kamchatsk phic schists on Ditmar's map, seem to indicate the existence in the valley of the Kamchatka river; Bolsheryetsk, on the of two chains running south-west to north-east, parallel to the Bolshaya; and Tighil, on the W. coast. . volcanic chain of S.-E. Kamchatka. Glaciers were not known The Russians made their first settlements in Kamchatka till the year 1899, when they were discovered on the Byelaya in the end of the 17th century; in 1696 Atlasov founded and Ushkinskaya (15,400 ft.) mountains. Thick Tertiary Verkhne-Kamchatsk, and in 1704 Robelev founded Bolsheryetsk. deposits, probably Miocene, overlie the middle portions of the In 1720 a survey of the peninsula was undertaken; in 1725-1730 west coast. The southern parts of the central range are com- it was visited by Bering's expedition; and in 1733-1745 it was posed of granites, syenites, porphyries and crystalline slates, the scene of the labours of the Krasheninnikov and Steller while in the north of Ichinskaya volcano, which is the highest expedition. summit of the peninsula (16,920 ft.), the mountains consist See G. A. Erman, Reise um die Erde iii., (Berlin, 1849); C. von chiefly of Tertiary sandstones and old volcanic rocks. Coal- Ditmar, Reisen und Aufenthalt in Kamchatka in den Jahren 1851– bearing clays containing fresh-water molluscs and dicotyledo-1855 (1890-1900); G. Kennan, Tent Life in Siberia (1870), and paper nous plants, as also conglomerates, alternate with the sandstones Mitteilungen (1891, vol. xxxvii.); V. A. Obruchev, in Izvestia of the in Jour. of American Geog. Soc. (1876); K. Diener, in Petermann's in these Tertiary deposits. Amber is found in them. Very East Siberian Geographical Society (xxiii. 4, 5; 1892); F. H. H. extensive layers of melaphyre and andesite, as also of con- Guillemard, Cruise of the " Marchesa" (2nd ed., London, 1889); and glomerates and volcanic tuffs, cover the middle portions of the G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton in Scott. Geog. Mag. (May, 1899), with (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) peninsula. The south-eastern portion is occupied by a chain bibliography. of volcanoes, running along the indented coast, from ape KAME (a form of Scandinavian comb, hill), in physical Lopatka to Cape Kronotskiy (54° 25' N.), and separated from geography, a short ridge or bunched mound of gravel or sand, the rest of the peninsula by the valleys of the Bystraya (an tumultuously stratified,” occurring in connexion with glacial affluent of the Bolstraya, on the west coast) and Kamchatka deposits, having been formed at the mouths of tunnels under the rivers. Another chain of volcanoes runs from Ichinskaya ice. When the ice-sheet melts, these features, formerly con- (which burst into activity several times in the 18th and 19th cealed by the glacier, are revealed. They are common in the centuries) to Shiveluch, seemingly parallel to the above but glaciated portions of the lower Scottish valleys. By some farther north. The two chains contain twelve active and twenty-1 authorities the term kame," or specifically serpentine 60 66 646 KAMENETS-KAMPEN kame," is taken as synonymous with “ esker,” which however is court of session under the title of Lord Kames, and in 1763 he was preferably to be applied to the long mound deposited within the made one of the lords of justiciary. In 1741 he married Agatha ice-tunnel, not to the bunched mound at its mouth. Drummond, through whom in 1761 he succeeded to the estate KAMENETS PODOLSKIY, or PODOLIAN KAMENETS (Polish of Blair Drummond, Perthshire. He continued to discharge his Kamieniec), a town of S.-W. Russia, chief town of the govern- judicial duties till within a few days of his death at Edinburgh ment of Podolia. It stands in 48° 40' N. and 26° 30' E., on a on the 27th of December 1782. high, rocky bluff of the river Smotrich, a left hand tributary of the Dniester, and near the Austrian frontier. Pop. (1863), affairs. In 1755 he was appointed a member of the board of trustees Lord Kames took a special interest in agricultural and commercial 20,699; (1900) 39,113, of whom 50% were Jews and 30% for encouragement of the fisheries, arts and manufactures of Scotland, Poles. Round the town lies a cluster of suburban villages, and about the same time he was named one of the commissioners Polish Folwark, Russian Folwark, Zinkovtsui, Karvasarui, &c.; | On the subject of agriculture he wrote The Gentleman Farmer (1776). for the management of the forfeited estates annexed to the Crown. and on the opposite side of the river, accessible by a wooden In 1765, he published a small pamphlet On the Flax Husbandry of bridge, stands the castle which long frowned defiance across the Scotland; and, besides availing himself of his.extensive acquaintance Dniester to Khotin in Bessarabia. Kamenets is the see of a with the proprietors of Scotland to recommend the introduction of Roman Catholic and a Greek Orthodox bishop. The Roman manufactures, he took a prominent part in furthering the project Catholic cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, built in 1361, is dis- the Physical and Literary Society, afterwards the Royal Society of of the Forth and Clyde Canal. He was also one of the founders of tinguished by a minaret, recalling the time when it was used as a Edinburgh. It is, however, as a writer on philosophy that Lord mosque by the Turks (1672–1699). The Greek cathedral of John Kames is best known. In 1751 he published his Essays on the the Baptist dates from the 16th century, but up to 1798 belonged Principles of. Morality, and Natural Religion (Ger, trans., Leipzig, to the Basilian monastery. Other buildings are the Orthodox :772), in which he endeavoured to maintain the doctrine of innate ideas, but conceded to man an apparent but only apparent freedom Greek monastery of the Trinity, and the Catholic Armenian of the will. His statement of the latter doctrine so aroused the church (founded in 1398), possessing a 14th-century missal and an alarm of certain clergymen of the Church of Scotland that he found image of the Virgin Mary that saw the Mongol invasion of 1239- it necessary to withdraw what was regarded as a serious error, and 1242. The town contains Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic conviction implanted by God, but to the influence to attribute man's delusive sense of freedom, not to an innate the passions. seminaries, Jewish colleges, and an archaeological museum for His other philosophical works are An Introduction to the Art of church antiquities, founded in 1890. Kamenets was laid waste Thinking (1761), Elements of Criticism (1762), Sketches of the by the Mongol leader Batu in 1240. In 1434 it was made the History of Man (1774), chief town of the province of Podolia. In the 15th and 16th See Life of Lord Kames, by A. F. Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee (2 vols., 1807). centuries it suffered frequently from the invasions of Tatars, KAMMIN, or CAMMIN, a town in the Prussian province of Moldavians and Turks; and in 1672 the hetman of the Cossacks, Doroshenko, assisted by Sultan Mahommed IV. of Turkey, made Pomerania, 24 m. from the Baltic, on the Kamminsche Bodden, himself master of the place. Restored to Poland by the peace a lake connected with the sea by the Dievenow. Pop. (1905), of Karlowitz (1699), it passed with Podolia to Russia in 5923. Among its four Evangelical churches, the cathedral 1795. Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1633, and here and the church of St Mary are noteworthy. Iron-founding and twenty years later peace was concluded between the same brewing are carried on in the town, which has also some fishing antagonists. The fortifications were demolished in 1813. and shipping. There is steamer communication with Stettin, KAMENZ, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Black about 40 m. S.S.W. Kammin is of Wendish origin, and obtained Elster, 21 m. N.E. of Dresden, on a branch line of railway the seat of a bishopric, which at the latter date became a secular municipal privileges in 1274. From about 1200 till 1628 it was from Bischofswerda. Pop. (1900), 9726. It has four Evangelio principality, being in 1648 incorporated with Brandenburg. cal churches, among them a Wendish one, and a handsome new town-hall with a library. The hospital is dedicated to the See Küchen, Geschichte der Stadt Kammin (Kammin, 1885). memory of Lessing, who was born here. A colossal bust of the KAMPEN, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on poet was placed opposite the Wendish church in 1863, and a the left bank of the Ysel, 31 m. above its mouth, and a terminal monument was raised to him on a neighbouring hill in 1864. railway station 8 m. N.W. of Zwolle. It has regular steamboat The industries of Kamenz include wool-spinning, and the manu- communication with Zwolle, Deventer, Amsterdam, and Enk- facture of cloth, glass, crockery and stoneware. Built about huizen. Pop. (1900), 19,664. Kampen is surrounded by beauti- 1200, Kamenz, was known by the name Dreikretcham until the ful gardens and promenades in the place of the old city walls, 16th century. In 1318 it passed to the mark of Brandenburg; and has a fine river front. The four turreted gateways furnish in 1319 to Bohemia; and in 1635, after suffering much in the excellent examples of 16th and 17th century architecture. Of Hussite and Thirty Years' wars, it came into the possession of the churches the Bovenkerk (“ upper church"), or church of St Saxony. In 1706 and 1842 it was almost entirely consumed Nicholas, ranks with the cathedral of Utrecht and the Janskerk by fire. at 's rtogenbosch as one of the three great medieval churches Kamenz is also the name of a village in Prussia, not far from in Holland. It was begun in 1369, and has double aisles, ambula- Breslau; pop. 900. This is famous on account of its Cisterciantory and radiating chapels, and contains some finely carved monastery, founded in 1994. Of the house, which was closed in woodwork. The Roman Catholic Buitenkerk ("outer church”) 1810, only a few buildings remain. is also a fine building of the 14th century, with good modern KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD (1696–1782), Scottish lawyer panelling. There are many other, though slighter, remains of and philosopher, son of George Home of Kames, in Berwickshire, the ancient churches and monasteries of Kampen; but the most where he was born in 1696. After receiving a somewhat remarkable building is the old town-hall, which is unsurpassed in imperfect education from a private tutor, he was in 1712 inden-Holland. It dates from the 14th century, but was partly restored tured to a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, but an accidental after a fire in 1543. The exterior is adorned with niched statues introduction to Sir Hew Dalrymple, then president of the court and beautiful iron trellis work round the windows. The old of session, determined him to aspire to the position of advocate. council-chamber is wainscoted in black oak, and contains a He accordingly set himself to studying various branches of remarkable sculptured chimney-piece (1545) and fine wood literature, specially metaphysics and moral philosophy. He was carving. The town-hall contains the municipal library, collec- called to the bar in January 1724, and, as he lacked those tions of tapestry, portraits and antiquities, and valuable archives brilliant qualities which sometimes command immediate success, relating to the town and province. Kampen is the seat of a he employed his leisure in the compilation of Remarkable Deci- Christian Reformed theological school, a gymnasium, a higher sions in the Court of Session from 1716 to 1728 (1728). This bargher school, a municipal school of design, and a large orphan- work having attracted attention, his power of ingenious age. There are few or no local taxes, the municipal chest being reasoning and mastery of law gradually gained him a leading filled by the revenues derived from the fertile delta-land, the position at the bar. In 1752 he was appointed a judge in the Kampeneiland, which is always being built up at the mouth of KAMPTEEKANARIS 647 the Ysel. There is a considerable trade in dairy produce; and | 454,490, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. The trade of there are shipyards, rope-walks, a tool factory, cigar factories; the interior, which used to pass down to the seaports, has been paper mills, &c. largely diverted by the opening of the Southern Mahratta rail- KAMPTEE, or KAMTHI, a town of British India, in the Nagpur way. Along the coast rice is the chief crop, and coco-nut palms district of the Central Provinces, just below the confluence of the are also important. In the upland there are valuable gardens of Kanhan with the rivers Pench and Kolar; 10 m. N.E. of Nagpur areca palms, cardamoms and pepper. Rice and timber are by rail. Pop. (1901), 38,888, showing a continuous decrease since exported, and sandalwood-carving and salt manufacture are 1881. Kamptee was founded in 1821, as a military cantonment carried on. The main feature in the physical geography of the in the neighbourhood of the native capital of Nagpur, and became district is the range of the Western Ghats, which, running from an important centre of trade. Since the opening of the railway, north to south, divides it into two parts, a lowland or coast strip trade has largely been diverted to Nagpur, and the garrison has (Payanghat), and an upland plateau (Balaghat). The coast-line recently been reduced. The town is well laid out with wide is only broken by the Karwar headland in the north, and by the roads, gardens and tanks. estuaries of four rivers and the mouths of many smaller streams, KAMRUP, a district of British India, in the Brahmaputra through which the salt water finds an entrance into numerous valley division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The headquarters lagoons winding several miles inland. The breadth of the low- are at Gauhati. Area, 3858 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 589,187, lands varies from 5 to 15 miles. From this narrow belt rise a few showing a decrease of 7% in the decade. In the immediate smooth, flat-topped hills, from 200 to 300 ft. high; and at places neighbourhood of the Brahmaputra the land is low, and exposed it is crossed by lofty, rugged, densely wooded spurs, which, start- to annual inundation. In this marshy tract reeds and canesing from the main range, maintain almost to the coast a height of flourish luxuriantly, and the only cultivation is that of rice. At not less than 1000 ft. Among these hills lie well-tilled valleys of a comparatively short distance from the river banks the ground garden and rice land. The plateau of the Balaghat is irregular, begins to rise in undulating knolls towards the mountains of varying from 1500 to 2000 ft. in height. In some parts the Bhutan on the north, and towards the Khasi hills on the south.. country rises into well-wooded knolls, in others it is studded by The hills south of the Brahmaputra in some parts reach the small, isolated, steep hills. Except on the banks of streams and height of 800 ft. The Brahmaputra, which divides the district in the more open glades, the whole is one broad waste of wood- into two nearly equal portions, is navigable by river steamers land and forest. The open spaces are dotted with hamlets or throughout the year, and receives several tributaries navigable parcelled out into rice clearings. Of the rivers flowing eastward by large native boats in the rainy season. The chief of these are from the watershed of the Sahyadri hills the only one of impor- the Manas, Chaul Khoya and Barnadi on the north, and the tance is the Wardha or Varada, a tributary of the Tungabhadra. Kulsi and Dibru on the south bank. There is a government Of those that flow westwards, the four principal ones, proceeding forest .preserve in the district and also a plantation where from north to south, are the Kali, Gungawali, Tadri and Shara. seedlings of teak, sál, sissu, súm, and nahor are reared, and vati. The last of these forms the famous Gersoppa Falls. Exten- experiments are being made with the caoutchouc tree. The sive forests clothe the hills, and are conserved under the rules population is entirely rural, the only town with upwards of 5000 of the forest department. inhabitants being Gauhati (11,661). The temples of Hajo and SOUTH KANARA DISTRICT has its headquarters at Mangalore. Kamākhya attract many pilgrims from all quarters. The staple Area, 4021 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,134,713, showing an increase crop of the district is rice, of which there are three crops. The of 7% in the decade. The district is intersected by rivers, none indigenous manufactures are confined to the weaving of silk and of which exceeds 100 miles in length. They all take their rise cotton cloths for home use, and to the making of brass cups and in the Western Ghats, and many are navigable during the fair plates. The cultivation and manufacture of tea by European weather for from 15 to 25 miles from the coast. The chief of capital is not very prosperous. The chief exports are rice, oil- these streams are the Netravati, Gurpur and Chendragiri. seeds, timber and cotton; the imports are fine rice, salt, piece Numerous groves of coco-nut palms extend along the coast, goods, sugar, betel-nuts, coco-nuts and hardware. A section of and green rice-fields are seen in every valley. The Western Ghats, the Assam-Bengal railway starts from Gauhati, and a branch rising to a height of 3000 to 6000 ft., fringe the eastern boundary. of the Eastern Bengal railway has recently been opened to the Forest land of great extent and value exists, but most of it is opposite bank of the river. A metalled road runs due south from private property. Jungle products (besides timber) consist of Gauhati to Shillong. bamboo, cardamoms, wild arrowroot, gall-nuts, gamboge, catechu, KAMYSHIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov, fibrous bark, cinnamon, gums, resin, dyes, honey and beeswax. 145 m. by river S.S.W. of the city of Saratov, on the right bank of The forests formerly abounded in game, which, however, is the Volga. Pop. (1861), 8644; (1897), 15,934. Being the terminus rapidly decreasing under incessant shooting. The staple crop of the railway to Tambov, Moscow and the Baltic ports, it is an is rice. The chief articles of import are piece goods, cotton yarn, important port for the export of cereals and salt from the Volga, oils and salt. Tiles are manufactured in several places out of a and it imports timber and wooden wares. It is famous for its fine potter's clay. The Azhikal-Mangalore line of the Madras water-melons. Peter the Great built here a fort, which was railway serves the district. known at first as Dmitrievsk, but acquired its present name See South Canara District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895). in 1780. KANAKA, a Polynesian word meaning "man,” used by Poly. KANARESE, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken by nesians to describe themselves. Its ethnical value, never great, about ten millions of people in southern India, chiefly in Mysore, has been entirely destroyed by its indiscriminate use by the Hyderabad, and the adjoining districts of Madras and Bombay. French to describe all South Sea islanders, whether black or It has an ancient literature, written in an alphabet closely brown. The corrupt French form canaque has been used by resembling that employed for Telugu. Since the 12th century some English writers. The term came into prominence in 1894- the Kanarese-speaking people have largely adopted the Lingayat 1885 in connexion with the scandals arising over the kidnap-form of faith, which may be described as an anti-Brahmanical ping of South Sea islanders for enforced labour on the sugar sect of Siva worshippers (see HINDUISM). Most of them are plantations of north Queensland. agriculturists, but they also engage actively in trade. KANARA, or Canara, the name of two adjoining districts of KANARIS (or CANARIS), CONSTANTINE (1790–1877), Greek British India: North Kanara in the presidency of Bombay, patriot, belonged to the class of coasting sailors who produced South Kanara in that of Madras. Both are on the western if not the most honest, at least the bravest, and the most success- coast. ful of the combatants in the cause of Greek independence. He NORTA KANARA DISTRICT forms part of the southern division belonged by birth to the little island of Psara, to the north-west of Bombay. The administrative headquarters are at Karwar, of Chio. He first became prominent as the effective leader of which is also the chief seaport. Area, 3945 sq. m.; pop .(1901), I the signal vengeance taken by the Greeks for the massacre at 648 KANAUJ—KANDAHAR Chio in April 1822 by the Turkish Capitan Pasha. The com- and bounded by a double line of hills, rising to about 1000 ft. mander of the force of fifty small vessels and eight fireships sent above ils general level, and breaking its dull monotony with to assail the Turkish fleet was.the navarch Miaoulis, but it was irregular lines of scarped precipices, crowned with fantastic Kanaris who executed the attack with the fireships on the flag- | pinnacles and peaks. To the nortb-west these hills form the ship of the Capitan Pasha on the night of the 18th of June 1822. watershed between the valleys of the Arghandab and the Tarnak, The Turks were celebrating the feast of Bahram at the end of the until they are lost in the mountain masses of the Hazarajat-a Ramadān fast. Kanaris had two small brigs fitted as fireships, wild region inhabited by tribes of Tatar origin, which effectually and thirty-six men. He was allowed to come close to the shuts off Kandahar from communication with the north. On the Turkish flagship, and succeeded in attaching his fireships to south-west they lose themselves in the sandy desert of Registan, her, setting them on fire, and escaping with his party. The which wraps itself round the plain of Kandahar, and forms fire reached the powder and the flagship blew up, sending the another impassable barrier. But there is a break in these hills-a Capitan Pasha and 2000 Turks into the air. Kanaris was gate, as it were, to the great high road between Herat and India; undoubtedly aided by the almost incredible sloth and folly of and it is this gate which the fortress of Kandahar so effectually his opponents, but he chose his time well, and the service of the guards, and to which it owes its strategic iniportance. Oiher fireships was always considered peculiarly dangerous. That routes there are, open to trade, between Herat and northern Kanaris could carry out the venture with a volunteer party not India, either following the banks of the Hari Rud, or, more belonging to a regularly disciplined service, not only proved him circuitously, through the valley of the Helmund to Kabul; or the to be a clever partisan fighter, but showed that he was a leader line of hills between the Arghandab and the Tarnak may be of men. He repeated the feat at Tenedos in November of 1822, crossed close to Kalat-i-Ghilzai; but of the two former it may and was then considered to have disposed of nearly 4000 Turks be said that they are not ways open to the passage of Afghan in the two ventures. When his native island, Psara, was occu- armies owing to the hereditary hostility existing between the pied by the Turks he continued to serve under the command Aeimak and Hazara tribes and the Afghans generally, while the of Miaoulis. He was no less distinguished in other attacks with latter is not beyond striking distance from Kandahar. The one fireships at Samos and Mytilene in 1824, which finally established great high road from Herat and the Persian frontier to India is an utter panic in the Turkish navy. His efforts to destroy the that which passes by Farah and crosses the Helmund at Girishk. ships of Mehemet Ali at Alexandria in 1825 were defeated by Between Kandahar and India the road is comparatively open, contrary winds. When the Greeks tried to organize a regular and would be available for railway communication but for the navy he was appointed captain of the frigate “ Hellas” in 1826. jealous exclusiveness of the Afghans. In politics he was a follower of Capo d'Istria. He helped to upset To the north-west, and parallel to the long ridges of the Tarnak the government of King Otho and to establish his successor, watershed, stretches the great road to Kabul, traversed by Nott was prime minister in 1864-1865, came back from retirement to in 1842, and by Stewart and subsequently by Roberts in 1880. preside over the ministry formed during the crisis of the Russo- Between this and the direct route to Peshin is a road which leads Turkish war, and died in office on the 15th of September 1877. through Maruf to the Kundar river and the Guleri pass into the Kanaris is described as of small stature, simple in appearance, plains of Hindustan at Dera Ismail Khan. This is the most somewhat shy and melancholy. He is justly remembered as the direct route to northern India, but it involves the passage of most blameless of the popular heroes of the War of Independence. some rough country, across the great watershed between the He was almost the only one among them whom Dundonald, with basins of the Helmund and the Indus. But the best known road whom he served in a successful attack on an Egyptian war-ship from Kandahar to India is that which stretches across the series near Alexandria, exempts from the sweeping charges of cowardice of open stony plains interspersed with rocky hills of irregular he brings against the Greeks. (D. H.) formation leading to the foot of the Kwaja Amran (Khojak) KANAUJ, an ancient city of British India, in Farukhabad range, on the far side of which from Kandahar lies the valley of district, United Provinces, near the left bank of the Ganges. Peshin. The passage of the Kwaja Amran involves a rise and Pop. (1901), 18,552. Kanauj in early times formed the capital of fall of some 2300 ft., but the range has been tunnelled and a a great Hindu kingdom. Its prosperity dates from a prehistoric railway now connects the frontier post of New Chaman with period, and seems to have culminated about the 6th century | Quetta. Two lines of railway now connect Quetta with Sind, under Harsha. In 1019 it fell before Mahmud of Ghazni, and the one known as the Harnai loop, the other as the Bolan or again in 1194 before Mahommed Ghori. The existing ruins Mashkaf line. They meet at Sibi (see BALUCHISTAN). Several extend over the lands of five villages, occupying a semicircle roads to India have been developed through Baluchistan, but fully 4 m. in diameter. No Hindu buildings remain intact; but they are all dominated from Kandahar. Thus Kandahar be- the great mosque, constructed by Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur in comes a sort of focus of all the direct routes converging from the 1406 out of Hindu temples, is still called by Hindus“ Sita's wide-stretching western frontier of India towards Herat and Kitchen.” Kanauj, which is traditionally said to be derived Persia, and the fortress of Kandahar gives protection on the one from Kanyakubja (=the crooked maiden), has given its name hand to trade between Hindustan and Herat, and on the other to an important division of Brahmans in northern India. Hindu-it lends to Kabul security from invasion by way of Herat. ism in Lower Bengal also dates its origin from a Brahman migra- Kandahar is approximately a square-built city, surrounded tion southwards from this city, about 800 or 900. Kanauj is by a wall of about 31 m. circuit, and from 25 to 30 ft. high, with now noted for the distilling of scents. an average breadth of 15 ft. Outside the wall is a ditch 10 ft. KANDAHAR, the largest city in Afghanistan, situated in deep. The city and its defences are entirely mud-built. There 31° 37' N. lat. and 65° 43' E. long., 3400 ft. above the sea. It is are four main streets crossing each other nearly at right angles, 370 m. distant from Herat on the N.W., by Girishk and the central“ chouk " being covered with a dome. These streets Farah--Girishk being 75 m., and Farab 225 m. from Kandahar. are wide and bordered with trees, and are flanked by shops with From Kabul, on the N.E., it is distant 315 m., by Kalat-i- open fronts and verandas. There are no buildings of any great Ghilzai and Ghazni-Kalat-i-Ghilzai being 85 m., and Ghazni pretension in Kandahar, a few of the more wealthy Hindus 225 m. from Kandahar. To the Peshin valley the distance is cccupying the best houses. The tomb of Ahmad Shah is the about 110 m., and from Peshin to India the three principal routes only attempt at monumental architecture. This, with its rather measure approximately as follows: by the Zhob valley to Dera handsome cupola, and the twelve minor tombs of Ahmad Shah's Ismail Khan, 300 m.; by the Bori valley to Dera Ghazi Khan, children grouped around, contains a few good specimens of -275 m.; by Quetta and the Bolan to Dadar, 125 m.; and by fretwork and of inlaid inscriptions. The four streets of the city Chappar and Nari to Sibi, 120 m. The Indian railway system divide it into convenient quarters for the accommodation of its extends to New Chaman, within some 80 m. of Kandahar. Im-mixed population of Duranis, Ghilzais, Parsiwans and Kakars, mediately round the city is a plain, highly cultivated and well numbering in all some 30,000 souls. Of these the greater populated to the south and west; but on the north-west barren, I proportion are the Parsiwans (chiefly Kizilbashes). KANDI-KANDY 649 " It is reckoned that there are 1600 shops and 182 mosques in system of underground channelling which usually taps a sub-surface the city. The mullahs of these mosques are generally men of water supply at the foot of some of the many rugged and apparently waterless hills which cover the face of the country. The water is considerable power. The walls of the city are pierced by the not brought to the surface, but is carried over long distances by an four principal gates of " Kabul,” “Shikarpur,” “ Herat ” and underground channel or drain, which is constructed by sinking the “ Idgah,” opposite the four main streets, with two minor shafts at intervals along the required course and connecting the gates, called the Top Khana and the Bardurani respectively, in shafts by tunnelling. The general agricultural products of the the western half of the city. The Idgah gate passes through country are wheat, barley, pulse, fruit, madder, asafoetida, lucerne, clover and . the citadel, which is a square-built enclosure with sides of about Of the mineral resources of the Kandahar district not much is 260 yds, in length. The flank defences of the main wall are known, but an abandoned gold mine exists about 2 m. north of the insufficient; indeed there is no pretence at scientific structure town. Some general idea of the resources of the Kandahar district may about any part of the defences; but the site of the city is well with everything except luxuries during the entire period of occupa- be gathered from the fact that it supplied the British troops chosen for defence, and the water supply (drawn by canals from tion in 1879–81; and that, in spite of the great strain thrown on the Arghandab or derived from wells) is good. those resources by the presence of the two armies of Ayub Khan and About 4 m. west of the present city, stretched along the slopes of and only a partial harvest the previous spring, the army was fed of General Roberts, and after the total failure of the autumn crops a rocky ridge, and extending into the plains at its foot, are the ruins of the old city of Kandahar sacked and plundered by Nadir Shah without great difficulty until the final evacuation, at one-third of in 1738. From the top of the ridge a small citadel overlooks the the prices paid in Quetta for supplies drawn from India. half-buried ruins. On the north-east face of the hill forty steps: Ghazni took it in the 11th century from the Afghans who then held History.-- Kandahar has a stormy history. Sultan Mahmud of cut out of solid limestone, lead upward to a small, domé-roofed recess, which contains some interesting Persian inscriptions cut in it. In the beginning of the 13th century it was taken by Jenghiz relief on the rock, recording particulars of the history of Kandahar, Khan, and in the 14th by Timur. In 1507 it was captured by the and defining the vast extent of the kingdom of the emperor Baber. emperor Baber, but shortly afterwards it fell again into Afghan Popular belief ascribes the foundation of the old city to Alexander hands to be retaken by Baber in 1521. Baber's son, Humayun, agreed to cede Kandahar to Persia, but failed to keep his word, and the Great. Although Kandahar has long ceased to be the seat of govern: in the possession of the Moguls till 1625, when it was taken by Shah the Persians besieged the place unsuccessfully. Thus it remained ment, it is nevertheless by far the most important trade centre in Afghanistan, and the revenues of the Kandahar province assist failed. Another attempt in 1652 was equally unsuccessful. It Abbas. Aurangzeb tried to take it in 1649 with 5000 men, but largely in supporting the chief power at Kabul. There are no manufactures or industries of any importance peculiar to Kandahar, Afghans, but was rctaken after a two years' siege by Nadir Shah. remained in Persian possession till 1709, when it was taken by the but the long lines of bazaars display goods from England, Russia, Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1749, and immediately, on hearing Hindustan, Persia and Turkestan, embracing a trade arca as large the news of his death Ahmad Shah (Abdali) seized Nadir Shah's probably as that of any city in Asia. The customs and town dues treasure at Kandahar, and proclaimed himself king, with the consent, together amount to a sum equal to the land revenue of the Kandahar province, which is of considerable extent, stretching to Pul-i-Sangin, Baluchis as well. He at once changed the site of the city to its not only of the Afghans, but, strange to say, of the Hazaras and io m. south of Kalat-i-Ghilzai on the Kabul side, to the Helmund on the west, and to the Hazara country on the north. Although modern Kandahar as its capital. Ahmad Shah died in 1773, and present position, and thus founded the Afghan kingdom, with Farah has been governed from Kandahar since 1863, its revenues was succeeded by his son Timur, who died in 1793, and left the are not reckoned as a part of those of the province. The land revenue proper is assessed in grain, the salaries of government half-brother Mahmud, who was in his turn deposed by Shah Shuja, throne to his son Zaman Shah. This prince was deposed by his officials, pay of soldiers, &c., being disbursed by “ barats or orders the full brother of Zaman Shah. After a short reign Shah Shuja for grain at rates fixed by government, usually about 20 % above the city market prices. The greater part of the English goods sold was compelled to abdicate from his inability to repress the rising at Herat are imported by Karachi and Kanda har--a fact which power of Fateh Khan, a Barakzai chief, and he took refuge first testifies to the great insecurity of trade between Meshed and Herat. with Ranjit Singh, who then ruled the Punjab, and finally secured Some of the items included as town dues are curious. For instance, the protection of British power.. Afghanistan was now practically dismembered. the tariff on animals exposed for sale includes a charge of 5 %, ad appointed his vizier, and whose nephews, Dost Mahommed Khan Mahmud was reinstated by Fateh Khan, whom he valorem on slave girls, besides a charge of 1 rupee per head. The and Kohn dil Khan, he placed respectively in the governments of kidney fat of all sheep and the skins of all goats slaughtered in the Kabul and Kandahar. Fateh Khan was barbarously murdered by public yard are perquisites of government, the former being used for Kamran (Mahmud's son) near Ghazni in 1818;.and in retaliation ihe manufacture of soap, which, with snuff, is a government mono- poly. The imports consist chiefly of English goods, indigo, cloth; secured the sovereignty of Afghanistan. While Dost Mahommed Mahmud himself was driven from power, and the Barakzai clan boots, leather, sugar, salt, iron and copper, from Hindustan, and of shawls, carpets, barak (native woollen cloth), postins (coats held Kabul, Kandahar became temporarily a sort of independent made of skins), 'shoes, silks, opium and carpets from Meshed, Herat chieſship under two or three of his brothers. In 1839 the cause of and Turkestan. The exports are wool, cotton, madder, cummin Shah Shuja was actively supported by the British. Kandahar was seed, asafoetida, fruit, silk and horses. The system of coinage is occupied, and Shah Shuja reinstated on the throne of his ancestors. also curious: 105 English rupees are melted down, and the alloy the British force, was deported into Hindustan. The British army Dost Mahommed was defeated near Kabul, and after surrender to extracted, leaving 100 rupees' worth of silver; 295 more English of occupation in southern Afghanistan continued to occupy Kandahar rupees are then melted, and the molten metal mixed with the 100 from 1839 till the autumn of 1842, when General Nott marched on rupees silver; and out of this 808 Kandahari rupees are coined. As the Kandahari rupee is worth about 8 annas (half an English rupee) Kabul to meet Pollock's advance from Jalalabad. The cantonments the government thus realizes a profit of : %. Government accounts occupied by the British army in 1879, when Shere Ali was driven near the city, built by Nott's division, were repaired and again are kept in “ Kham" " being worth about from power by the invasion of Afghanistan, nor were they finally five-sixths of a Kandahari rupee; in other words, it about equals evacuated till the spring of 1881. Trade statistics of late years the franc, or the Persian " kran.'' Immediately to the south and west of Kandahar is a stretch of show a gradual increase of exports to India from Kandahar and the well-irrigated and highly cultivated country, but the valley of the countries adjacent thereto, but a curious falling-off in imports. The Arghandab is the most fertile in the district, and, from the luxuriant short-sighted policy of the amir Abdur Rahman in discouraging scenes of landscape beauty. The pomegranate fields form a striking the Peshin side of the Khojak) conduce to the improvement of trade. abundance of its orchards and vineyards, 'offers the most striking imports doubtless affected the balance, nor did his affectation of ignoring the railway between New Chaman and Kila Abdulla (on feature in the valley—the pomegranates of Kandahar, with its (T. H. H.*) " sirdar" melons and grapes, being unequalled in quality by any in the East. The vines are grown on artificial banks, probably for want of the necessary wood to trellis them--the grapes being largely KANDI, a town of British India, in Murshidabad district, exported in a semi-dried state. Fruit, indeed, besides being largely Bengal. Pop. (1901), 12,037. It is the residence of the rajas exported, ſorms the chief staple of the food supply of the inhabitants of Paikpara, a wealthy and devout Hindu family. The founder throughout Afghanistan. The art of irrigation is so well understood of this family was Ganga Govind Singh, the banyan or agent of that the water supply is at times exhausted, no river water being Warren Hastings, who was born at Kandi, and retired hither allowed to run to waste. The plains about Kandahar are chiefly watered by canals drawn from the Arghandab near Baba-wali, and in his old age with an immense fortune. His name has acquired conducted through the same gap in the hills which admits the Herat celebrity for the most magnificent sraddha, or funeral obsequies, road. The amount of irrigation and the number of water channels ever performed in Bengal, celebrated in honour of his mother, at form a considerable impediment to the movements of troops, not a cost, it is said, of £200,000. only immediately about Kandahar, but in all districts where the main rivers and streams are bordered by green bands of cultivation. KANDY, a town near the centre of Ceylon, 75 m. from Colombo Irrigation by “ karez" is also largely resorted to. The karez is aby rail, formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name, rupees, the “ Kham 650 KANE-KANGAROO situated towards the heart of the island, 1718 ft. above the sea. command. She sailed in June 1853, and passing up Smith It lies round the margin of an artificial lake constructed by the Sound at the head of Baffin Bay advanced into the enclosed last king of Kandy in 1806, and is beautifully surrounded by sea which now bears the name of Kane Basin, thus establishing hills. The most striking objects are the temples (of which twelve the Polar route of many future Arctic expeditions. Here, of are Buddhist and four Brahman), the tombs of the Kandian the coast of Greenland, the expedition passed two winters, kings, and the various buildings of the royal residence, partly accomplishing much useful geographical, as well as scientific, allowed to fall into disrepair, partly utilized by the government. work, including the attainment of what was to remain for sixteen Of the temples the Dalada Malagawa is worthy of particular years the highest northern latitude, 80° 35' N. (June 1854). mention; it claims, as the name indicates, to be in possession of a From this point a large area of open water was seen which was Buddha tooth. believed to be an open Polar Sea,” a chimera which played an Kandy was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century and important and delusive rôle in subsequent explorations. After by the Dutch in 1763; but in both instances the native kings enduring the greatest hardships it was resolved to abandon the succeeded in shaking off the foreign yoke. The British got ship, Upernivik being reached on the 5th of August 1855, possession of the place in 1803, but the garrison afterwards whence a relief expedition brought the explorers home. Medals capitulated and were massacred, and it was not till 1814-15 were authorized by Congress, and in the following year Dr Kane that the king was defcated and dethroned. The British autho-rèceived the founder's medal of the Royal Geographical Society, rity was formally established by the convention of March 2, 1815. and, two years later, a gold medal from the Paris Geographical In 1848, owing to an attempt at rebellion, the town was for a Society. He published The Second Grinnell Expedition in 1856. time under martial law. It has been greatly improved of recent Dr Kane died at Havana on the 16th of February 1857, at the years. Sir William Gregory when governor did much to restore age of thirty-seven. Between his first and second arctic voyages the ancient Kandy decorations, while the Victoria Jubilee he made the acquaintance of the Fox family, the spiritualists. Commemoration Building, including “Ferguson Memorial Hall,” With one of the daughters, Margaret, he carried on a long corre- and two fine hotels, add to the improvements. The Royal spondence, which was afterwards published by the lady, who Botanic Gardens are situated at Peradeniya, m. distant. declared that they were privately married. Kandy is a uniquely beautiful, highland, tropical town, full of See Biography of E. K. Kane, by William Elder (1858); Life of interesting historical and Buddhistic associations. A water E. K. Kane and other American Explorers, by S. M. Smucker (1858); supply and electric lighting have been introduced. Roman The Love-Life of Dr Kune, containing the Correspondence and e History Catholic missions are active in the work of education, for which of the Engagement and Secret Marriage between E. K. Kane and a large block of buildings has been erected. Church of England, Jour. of the Roy. Geog Soc., vol. xxviii. (reprinted in R. G. S. Arctic Margaret Fox (New York, 1866); " Discoveries of Dr Kane," in Wesleyan and Baptist missions are also at work. The population Papers of 1875). of the town in 1900 was 26,386; of the district, 377,591. Average annual rainfall, 811 in.; average temperature, 75.3. There is a KANE, a borough of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., branch railway from Kandy, north to Matale, 17 m. about go m. E.S.E. of Erie. Pop. (1890), 2944; (1900), 5296, KANE, ELISHA KENT (1820-1857), American scientist and (971 foreign-born); (1910) 6626. It is served by the Pennsyl- explorer, was born in Philadelphia on the 20th of February 1820, vania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Kane & Elk, and the Big Level the son of the jurist John Kintzing Kane (1795-1858), a friend & Kinzua railways. It is situated about 2015 ft. above the and supporter of Andrew Jackson, attorney-general of Pennsyl- sea in a region producing natural gas, oil, lumber and silica, and vania in 1845-1846, U.S. judge of the Eastern District of Pennsyl. has some reputation as a summer resort. The borough has vania after 1846, and president of the American Philosophical manufactories of window glass, plate glass and bottles, and Society in 1856-1858. Young Kane entered the university of repair shops of the Pennsylvania railroad. Kane was settled Virginia and obtained the degree of M.D. in 1842, and in the in 1859, and was incorporated as a borough in 1887. It was following year entered the U.S. navy as surgeon. He had named in honour of John Kintzing Kane, father of Elisha Kent already acquired a considerable reputation in physiological Kane, the Arctic explorer. research. The ship to which he was appointed was ordered to KANGAROO, the universally accepted, though not apparently China, and he found opportunities during the voyage for indulg- the native, designation of the more typical representatives of the ing his passion for exploration, making a journey from Rio marsupial family Macropodidae (see MARSUPIALIA). Although de Janeiro to the base of the Andes, and another from Bombay | intimately connected with the cuscuses and phalangers by through India to Ceylon. On the arrival of the ship at its des- means of the musk-kangaroo, the kangaroos and wallabies, tination he provided a substitute for his post and crossed over together with the rat-kangaroos, are easily distinguishable from to the island of Luzon, which he explored. In 1844 he left other diprotodont marsupials by their general conformation, and China, and, returning by India, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Greece, by peculiarities in the structure of their limbs, teeth and other Austria, Germany and Switzerland, reached America in 1846. organs. They vary in size from that of a sheep to a small rabbit. In that year he was ordered to the west coast of Africa, where he The head, especially in the larger species, is small, compared with visited Dahomey, and contracted fever, which told severely on the rest of the body, and tapers forward to the muzzle. The his constitution. On his return in 1847, he exchanged the naval shoulders and fore-limbs are feebly developed, and the hind-limbs for the military service, and was sent to join the U.S. army in of disproportionate strength and magnitude, which give the Mexico, where he had some extraordinary adventures, and where animals a peculiarly awkward appearance when moving about on he was again stricken with fever. all-fours, as they occasionally do when feeding. Rapid progres- On the fitting out of the first Grinnell expedition, in 1850, 'sion is, however, performed only by the powerful hind-limbs, the to search for Sir John Franklin, Kane was appointed surgeon animals covering the ground by a series of immense bounds, and naturalist under Lieut. de Haven, who commanded the during which the fore part of the body is inclined forwards, and ships “ Advance” and “Rescue.” The expedition, after an balanced by the long, strong and tapering tail, which is carried absence of sixteen months, during nine of which the ships were horizontally backwards. When not moving, they often assume ice-bound, returned without having found any trace of the miss- a perfectly upright position, the tail aiding the two hind-legs to ing vessels. Kane was in feeble health, but worked on at his form a tripod, and the front-limbs dangling by the side of the narrative of the expedition, which was published in 1854, under chest. This position gives full scope for the senses of sight, the title of The U.S. Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John hearing and smell to warn of the approach of enemies. The Franklin. He was determined not to give up the search for fore-paws have five digits, each armed with a strong, curved Franklin, and in spite of ill-health travelled through the States claw. The hind-foot is extremely long, narrow and (except in lecturing to obtain funds, and gave up his pay for twenty the musk-kangaroo) without the first toe. It consists mainly months. At length Henry Grinnell fitted out an expedition, of one very large and strong toe, corresponding to the fourth of in the little brig“ Advance,” of which Kane was given the I the human foot, ending in a strong curved and pointed claw KANGAROO 651 (fig. 2). Close to the outer side of this lies a smaller fifth digit, and the radius and ulna are well developed, allowing of con- and to the inner side two excessively slender toes (the second and siderable freedom of motion of the fore-paw. The pelvis has large third), bound together almost to the extremity in a common epipubic or “marsupial” bones. The femur is short, and the tibia and fibula of great length, as is the foot, the whole of which is applicd to the ground when the animal is at rest in the upright position. The stomach is large and very complex, its walls being puc- kered by longitudinal muscular bands into a number of folds. The alimentary canal is long, and the caecum well developed. The young (which, as in other marsupials, leave the uterus in an extremely small and imperfect condition) are placed in the pouch as soon as they are born; and to this they resort temporarily for shelter for some time after they are able to run, jump and feed upon the herbage which forms the nourishment of the parent. During the early period of their sojourn in the pouch, the blind, naked, helpless young creatures (which in the great kangaroo scarcely exceed an inch in length) are attached by their mouths to the nipple of the mother, and are fed by milk injected into their stomach by the contraction of the muscle covering the mammary gland. In this stage of existence the elongated upper part of the larynx projects into the posterior nares, and so main- tains a free communication between the lungs and the external surface, independently of the mouth and gullet, thus averting danger of suffocation while the milk is passing down the gullct. Fig. 1.—The Great Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). Kangaroos are vegetable-feeders, browsing on grass and various kinds of herbage, but the smaller species also eat integument. The two little claws of these toes, projecting to- gether from the skin, may be of use in scratching and cleaning the fur of the animal, but the toes must have quite lost all con- nexion with the functions of support or progression. This type of foot-structure is termed syndactylous. The dental formula, when completely de- veloped, is incisors i, canines, premolars 3, molars on each side, giving a total of 34 teeth. The three incisors of the upper jaw are arranged in a continuous arched series, and have crowns with broad cutting edges; the first or middle incisor is often larger than the others. Corresponding to these in the lower jaw is but one tooth on each side, which is of great size, directed horizontally forwards, narrow, lanceolate and pointed with sharp edges. Owing to the slight union of the two halves of the lower jaw in front in many bennettii): il, 12, 2, first, second and third upper incisors: pm, FIG. 3.—Skull and teeth of Bennett's Wallaby (Macropus ruficollis species the two lower incisors 'work together second premolar (the first having been already shed); m', m?, m3, ma like the blades of a pair of scissors. The last premolar and three molars. The last, not fully developed, is canines are absent or rudimentary in the nearly concealed by the ascending part of the lower jaw. lower, and often deciduous at an early age in the upper jaw. The first two premolars kinds when hard pressed will turn and defend themselves, roots. They are naturally timid and inoffensive, but the larger are compressed, with cutting longitudinal sometimes killing a dog by grasping it in their fore-paws, and cdges, the anterior one is deciduous, being inflicting terrible wounds with the sliarp claws of their powerful lost about the time the second one replaces hind-legs, supporting themselves meanwhile upon the tail. the milk-molar, so that three premolars are The majority are inhabitants of Australia and Tasmania, never found in place and use in the same indi- forming one of the most prominent and characteristic features vidual. The last premolar and the molars of the fauna of these lands, and performing the part of the deer have quadrate crowns, provided with two strong transverse ridges, or with four obtuse and antelopes of other parts of the world. They were important sources of food-supply to the natives, and are hunted by the cusps. In Macropus gigantcus and its imme- diate allies, the premolars and sometimes the colonists, both for sport and on account of the damage they do first molar are shed, so that in old examples in consuming grass required for cattle and sheep. A few species only the two posterior molars and the incisors in the zoological sense, to the Australian province, beyond the are found in New Guinea, and the adjacent islands, which belong, FIG. 2.--Skeleton are found in place. The milk-dentition, as of right hind- bounds of which none occurs. foot of Kan- in other marsupials, is confined to a single garoo. tooth on each side of each jaw, the other The more typical representatives of the group constitute the sub- molars and incisors being never changed. The family Macropodinae, in which the cutting-edges of the upper dentition of the kangaroos, functionally considered, thus consists incisors are nearly level, or the first pair but slightly longer than the others (fig. 3). The canines are rudimentary and often wanting. of sharp-edged incisors, most developed near the median line of The molars are usually not longer (from before backwards) than the the mouth, for the purpose of cropping herbage, and ridged or anterior premolars, and less compressed than in the next section. tuberculated molars for crushing. The crowns of the molars have two prominent transverse ridges. "The number of vertebrae is—in the cervical region 7, dorsal The fore-limbs are small with subequal toes, armed with strong, 13, lumbar 6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of moderately long, curved claws. Hind-limbs very long and strongly Head small, with more or less elongated muzzle. Ears the tail, but generally from 21 to 25. In the fore-limb the clavicle | generally rather long and ovate. m 77 MTL 652 KANGAROO-RAT-KANGRA | The group is The typical genus Macropus, in which the muzzle is generally | grass with which these animals build their nests. naked, the ears large, the fur on the nape of the neck usually directed confined to Australia and Tasmania, and all the species are rela- backwards, the claw of the fourth hind-toe very large, and the tail tively small. stout and tapering, includes a large number of species. Among In the members of the typical genus Potorous (formerly known as these, the great grey kangaroo (M. giganteus, fig. 1) deserves special Hypsiprymnus) the head is long and slender, with the auditory mention on account of having been discovered during Captain bullae somewhat swollen; while the ridges on the first two premolars Cook's first voyage in 1770. The great red kangaroo (M. rufus) is are few and perpendicular, and there are large vacuities on the The genus about the same size, while other large species are M. antilopinus and palate. The tarsus is short and the muzzle naked. M. robustus. The larger wallabies, or brush-kangaroos, such as the includes P. tridactylus, P. gilberti and P. platyops. In Bellongia, on red-necked wallaby (M. ruficollis) constitute a group of smaller- the other hand, the head is shorter and wider, with smaller and more sized species; while the smaller wallabies, such as the filander (g.v.) rounded ears, and more swollen auditory bullae. The ridges on the (M. muelleri) and M. thetidis, constitute yet another section. The first two premolars are also more numerous and somewhat oblique genus ranges from the eastern Austro-Malay islands to New Guinea. (fig. 4); the tarsus is long and the tail is prehensile. The species Nearly allied are the rock-wallabies of Australia and Tasmania, include B. lesueuiri, B. gaimardi and B. cuniculus. The South constituting the genus Petrogale, chiefly distinguished by the thinner Australian Caloprymnus campestris represents a genus near akin tail being more densely haired and terminating in a tuff. Well- to the last, but with the edge of the hairy border of the bare muzzle known species are P. penicillata, P. xanthopus and P. lateralis. The less emarginate in the middle line, still more swollen auditory bullae, few species of nail-tailed wallabies, Onychogale, which are confined to very large and posterially expanded nasals and longer vacuities on the Australian mainland, take their name from the presence of a the palate. The list is completed by Aepyprymnus rufescens, which horny spur at the end of the tail, and are further distinguished by differs from all the others by the hairy muzzle, and the absence the hairy muzzle.. O. unguifer, O. fraenatus and O. lunatus repre- of inflation in the auditory bullae and of vacuities in the palate. sent the group. The hare-wallabies, such as Lagorchestes leporoides, Perhaps, however, the most interesting member of the whole L. hirsutus and L. consepicillatus, constitute a genus with the same group is the tiny musk-kangaroo (Hypsifrymnodon moschatus) distribution as the last, and likewise with a hairy muzzle, but with of north-east Australia, which alone represents the sub-family a rather short, evenly furred tail, devoid of a spur. They are great Hypsiprymnodontinae, characterized by the presence of an opposable leapers and swift runners, mostly frequenting open stony plains. first toe on the hind-foot and the outward inclination of the penulti- More distinct is the Papuan genus Dorcopsis, as typified by D. mate upper premolar, as well by the small and feeble claws. In muelleri, although it is to some extent connected with Macropus all these features the musk-kangaroo connects the Macropodidae by D. macleyi. The muzzle is naked, the fur on the nape of the neck with the Phalangeridae. The other teeth are like those of the rat- directed more or less completely forward, and the hind-limbs are kangaroos. (W. H. F.; R. L.*) less disproportionately elongated. Perhaps, however, the most p.m Fig. 4.-Skull and teeth of Lesueuir's Rat-Kangaroo (Bellongia lesueuiri). c, upper canine. Other letters as in fig. 3. The anterior premolar has been shed. distinctive feature of the genus is the great fore-and-aft length of the penultimate premolar in both jaws. Other species are D. rufolateralis__and D. aurantiacus. In the tree-kangaroos, which include the Papuan Dendrolagus inustus, D. ursinus, D. dorianus, D. benelianus and D. maximus, and the North Queensland D. lum- holtzi, the reduction in the length of the hind-limbs is carried to a still further degree, so that the proportions of the fore and hind limbs are almost normal. The genus agrees with Dorcopsis in the direction of the hair on the neck, but the muzzle is only partially hairy, and the elongation of the penultimate premolar is less. These kangaroos are largely arboreal in their habits, but they descend to the ground to feed. Lastly, we have the banded wallaby, Lago- strophus fasciatus, of Western Australia, a small species character- ized by its naked muzzle, the presence of long bristles on the hind- feet which conceal the claws, and also of dark transverse bands on the lower part of the back. The skull has a remarkably narrow and pointed muzzle and much inflated auditory bullae; while the two halves of the lower jaw are firmly welded together at their junction, thus effectually preventing the scissor-like action of the lower incisors distinctive of Macropus and its immediate allies. As regards the teeth, canines are wanting, and the penultimate upper premolar is short, from before backwards, with a distinct ledge on the inner side. or as are called in Australia, constituting the sub-family Potoroinae, the first upper incisor is narrow, curved, and much exceeds the others in length; the upper canines are persistent, flattened, blunt and slightly curved, and the first two premolars of both jaws have large, simple, com- pressed crowns, with a nearly straight or slightly concave free cut- ting-edge, and both outer and inner surfaces usually marked by a series of parallel, vertical grooves and ridges. Molars with quadrate crowns and a blunt conical cusp at each corner, the last notably smaller than the rest, sometimes rudimentary or absent. Fore- feet narrow; the three middle toes considerably exceeding the first and fifth in length and their claws long, compressed and but slightly curved. Hind-feet as in Macropus. Tail long, and some times partially prehensile when it is used for carrying bundles of KANGAROO-RAT, a name applied in different parts of the world to two widely different groups of mammals. In Australia it is used to denote the small kangaroo-like marsupials techni- cally known as Potoroinae, which zoologists prefer to call rat- kangaroos (see MARSUPIALIA and KANGAROO). In North America it is employed for certain small jumping rat-like rodents nearly allied to the pocket-gophers and belonging to the family Geomyidae. Kangaroo-rats in this latter series are represented by three North American genera, of which Dipodomys phillipsi, Cricelodipus agilis and Microdipodops megacephalus may respec- tively be taken as examples. Resembling pocket-gophers in the possession of cheek-pouches, kangaroo-rats, together with pocket-mice, are distinguished by their elongated hind-limbs and tails, large eyes, well-developed ears and general jerboa-like appearance and habits. The upper incisor teeth are also rela- tively narrower, and there are important differences in the skull. The cheek-teeth are rootless in kangaroo-rats, but they develop roots in the pocket-mice. The former inhabit open, sandy districts, where they burrow beneath rocks or stones, and hop about like jerboas; their food consisting of grasses and other plants. KANGAVAR, a small district of Persia, situated between Hamadan and Kermanshah, and, being held in fief by the family of a deceased court official, forming a separate government. The district is very fertile and contains 30 villages. Its revenues amount to about £500 per annum, and its chief place is the large village of Kangavar, which has a population of about 2500 and is 47 m. from Hamadan on the high road to Kermanshah. KANGRA, a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town, sometimes called Nagarkot, is situated 2409 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 4746. The Katoch rajas had a stronghold here, with a fort and rich temples. Mahmud of Ghazni took the fort in 1009 and from one of the temples carried off a vast treasure. In 1360 Kangra was again plundered, by Feroz Shah. The temple of Devi Bajreshri was one of the oldest and wealthiest in northern India. It was de- stroyed, together with the fort and the town, by an earthquake on the 4th of April 1905, when 1339 lives were lost in this place alone, and about 20,000 elsewhere. In 1855 the headquarters of the district were removed to the sanitarium of Dharmsala. The district of Kangra extends from the Jullundur Doab far into the southern ranges of the Himalaya. Besides some Rajput states, annexed after the Sikh wars, it includes Lahul, Spiti and Kulu, which are essentially Tibetan. The Beas is the only important river. Area, 9978 sq. m., of which Kangra proper only 2725. Pop. (1901), 768,124; average density 77 persons per sq. m., but with only one person per sq. m. in Spiti. Tea has KANISHKA-KANO 653 cultivation was introduced into Kangra about 1850. The Palampur fair, established by government with a view to foster- ing commerce with central Asia, attracts a small concourse of Yarkandi merchants. The Lahulis carry on an enterprising trade with Ladakh and countries beyond the frontier, by means of pack sheep and goats. Rice, tea, potatoes, opium, spices; wool and honey are the chief exports. See Kangra District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1906). KANISHKA, king of Kabul, Kashmir, and north-western India in the 2nd century A.D., was a Tatar of the Kushan tribe, one of the five into which the Yue-chi Tatars were divided. His dominions extended as far down into India as Madura, and probably as far to the north-west as Bokhara. Private inscrip- tions found in the Punjab and Sind, in the Yusufzai district and at Madura, and referred by European scholars to his reign, are dated in the years five to twenty-eight of an unknown era. It is the references by Chinese historians to the Yue-chi tribes before their incursion into India, together with conclusions drawn from the history of art and literature in his reign, that render the date given the most probable. Kanishka's predecessors on the throne were Pagans; but shortly after his accession he professed himself, probably from political reasons, a Buddhist. He spent vast sums in the construction of Buddhist monuments; and under his auspices the fourth Buddhist council, the council of Jalandhara (Jullunder) was convened under the presidency of Vasumitra. At this council three treatises, commentaries on the Canon, one on each of the three baskets into which it is divided, were composed. King Kanishka had these treatises, when completed and revised by Asvaghosha, written out on copper plates, and enclosed the latter in stone boxes, which he placed in a memorial mound. For some centuries afterwards these works survived in India; but they exist now only in Chinese translations or adaptations. We are not told in what were written. It probably Sanskrit (not Pali, the language of the Canon)-just as in Europe we have works of exegetical commentary composed, in Latin, on the basis of the Testament and Septuagint in Greek, This change of the language used as a medium of literary inter- course was partly the cause, partly the effect, of a complete re- vulsion in the intellectual life of India. The reign of Kanishka was certainly the turning-point in this remarkable change. It has been suggested with great plausibility, that the wide extent of his domains facilitated the incursion into India of Western modes of thought; and thus led in the first place to the corruption and gradual decline of Buddhism, and secondly to the gradual rise of Hinduism. Only the publication of the books written at the time will enable us to say whether this hypothesis-for at present it is nothing more is really a sufficient explanation of the very important results of his reign. In any case it was a migration of nomad hordes in Central Asia that led, in Europe, to the downfall of the Roman civilization; and then, through the conversion of the invaders, to medieval conditions of life and thought. It was the very same migration of nomad hordes that led, in India, to the downfall of the Buddhist civilization; and subsequently, after the conversion of the Saka and Tatar invaders, to medieval Hinduism. As India was nearer to the starting-point of the migration, its results were felt there what sooner. St Joseph's Seminary (Roman Catholic) and a Conservatory of Music. At Bourbonnais Grove, 3 m. N. of Kankakee is St Viateur's College (founded 1868), a well-known Roman Catholic divinity school, and Notre Dame Academy, another Catholic institution. The city has a public library and four large parks; in Court House Square there is a monument erected by popular subscription in honour of the soldiers from Kankakee county who died in the Civil War. There are rock quarries here, and the city manufactures sewing machines, musical instruments, especially pianos, foundry and machine shop products, agri- cultural implements and furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,089,143, an increase of 222 % since 1900. Kankakee is also a shipping point for agricultural products. It was first settled in 1832; was platted as the town of Bourbonnais in 1853, when Kankakee county was first- organized; was chartered as the city of Kankakee in 1855, and was re-chartered in 1892. KANKER, a feudatory state of India, within the Central Provinces; area, 1429 sq. m.; pop.. (1901), 103,536; estimated revenue, £10,000. It is a hilly tract, containing the headwaters of the Mahanadi. The extensive forests have recently been made profitable by the opening of a branch railway. The residence of the raja, who is of an old Rajput family though ruling over Gonds, is at Kanker (pop. 3906). KANO, one of the most important provinces of the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the ancient emirates of Kano, Katsena, Daura and Kazaure, and covers an area of about 31,000 sq. m. The sub-province of Katagum was incorporated with Kano in 1905, and is included within this area. The population of the double province is estimated at about 2,250,000. annals carry the record of its kings back to about A.D. 900. Kano was one of the original seven Hausa states. Written Legendary history goes back much further. It was conquered by the Songhoi (Songhay) in the early part of the 16th century, and more than once appears to have made at least partial sub- which, according to the system adopted for the dating of the to Bornu. Mahommedanism was introduced at a period annals, must be placed either in the 12th or the 14th century. The Hausa system of government and taxation was adopted by the Fula when in the early part of the 19th century that Mahommedan people overran the Hausa states. It has been erroneously stated The fact that they adopted the existing system of government that the Fula imposed Mahommedanism on the Hausa states. and taxation, which are based upon Koranic law, would in itself be sufficient proof that this was not the case. But the annals of Kano distinctly record the introduction and describe the develop- ment of Mahommedanism at an early period of local history. The capital is the city of KANO, situated in 12° N. and 8° 20' E., 220 m. S.S.E. of Sokoto and 500 N.E. of Lagos. It is built on an open plain, and is encompassed by a wall 11 m. in perimeter and pierced by thirteen gates. The wall is from 30 to 50 ft. high and about 40 ft. thick at the base. Round the wall is a deep double ditch, a dwarf wall running along its centre. The gates are simply cow-hide, but are set in massive entrance towers. Only some-inhabited nor was the whole space ever occupied by buildings, about a third of the area (7 sq. m.) enclosed by the walls is AUTHORITIES.-Vincent A. Smith, The Early History of India (Oxford, 1908); "The Kushan Period of Indian History," in J.R.A (1903); M. Boyer, "L'Époque de Kaniska," in Journal Asiatique (1900); T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang (London, 1904, 1905); J. Taka- kusu," The Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma Books," in Jour. of the Pali Text Soc. (1905), esp. pp. 118-130; Rhys Davids, Buddhist India (London, 1903), ch. xvi., Kanishka." (T. W. R. D.) KANKAKEE, a city and the county-seat of Kankakee county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Kankakee river, 56 m S. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 13,595, of whom 3346 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,986. Kankakee is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Illinois Central, and the Chicago, Indiana & Southern (con- trolled by the New York Central) railways. It is the seat of the Eastern Hospital for the Insane (1879) a state institution; the intention of the founders of the city being to wall in ground sufficient to grow food for the inhabitants during a siege. The arable land within the city is mainly on the west and north; only to the south-east do the houses come right to the walls. Within the walls are two steep hills, one, Dala, about 120 ft. high being the most ancient quarter of the town. Dala lies north-west. To its east is a great pond, the Jakara, 1 m. long, and by its north- east shore is the market of the Arab merchants. Here also was the slave market. The palace of the emir, in front of which is a large open space, is in the Fula quarter in the south-east of the city. The palace consists of a number of buildings covering 33 acres and surrounded by a wall 20 to 30 ft. high. The architecture of the city is not without merit. The houses are built of clay with (generally) flat roofs impervious to fire. Traces of Moorish influence are evident and the horseshoe arch is common. The 654 KANSAS V . 66 audience hall of the emir's palace-25 ft. sq. and 18 ft. high-is populated, with some 40 walled towns and with villages and hamlets decorated with designs in black, white, green and yellow, the hardly half a mile apart. Kano district proper contains 170 walled yellow designs (formed of micaceous sand) glistening like gold. is chiefly obtained from wells 15. to 40 ft. deep. The principal towns and about 450 villages. There are many streams, but water The dome-shaped roof is supported by twenty arches. crops are African grains, wheat, onions, cotton, tobacco, indigo, with The city is divided into fourteen quarters, each presided over sugar-cane, cassava, &c. The population is chiefly agricultural, but by a headman, and inhabited by separate sections of the com- also commercial and industrial. The chief industries are weaving, leather-making, dyeing and working in iron and pottery. Cattle munity. It is probably the greatest commercial city in the are abundant. (See NIGERIA: History; and Sokoto.) central Sudan. Other towns, like Zaria, may do as much trade, Consult the Travels of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890); but Kano is pre-eminent as a manufacturing centre. The chief Hausaland, by, C. H. Robinson (London, 1896); Northern Nigeria, industry is the weaving of cloth from native grown cotton. by Sir F. D. Lugard, in vol. xxii. Geographical Journal (London, 1904); A Tropical Dependency, by Lady Lugard (London, 1905); the Leather goods of all kinds are also manufactured, and m Kano * Colonial Office Reports on Northern Nigeria from 1902 onward, and come most of the “ morocco leather goods on the European other works cited under NIGERIA. (F. L. L.) markets. Dyeing is another large trade, as is the preparation of KANSAS (known as the Sunflower State"), the central indigo. Of traders there are four distinct classes. They are: commonwealth of the United States of America, lying between (1) Arabs from Tripoli, who export ostrich feathers, skins and 37º and 40° N. lat. and between 94° 38' and 102° 1' 34" W. long. ivory, and bring in burnouses, scents, sweets, tea, sugar, &c.; (i.e. 25° W. long. from Washington). It is bounded on the N. (2) Salaga merchants who import kola nuts from the hinterland by Nebraska, on the E. by Missouri, on the S. by Oklahoma, and of the Guinea Coast, taking in exchange cloth and live stock and on the W. by Colorado. The state is nearly rectangular in shape, leather and other goods; (3) the Asbenawa traders, who come with a breadth of about 210 m. from N. to S. and a length of from the oases of Asben or Air with camels laden with salt and about 410 m. from E. to W. It contains an area of 82,158 sq. m. potash ” (i.e. sodium carbonates), and with herds of cattle and including 384 sq. m. of water surface). sheep, receiving in return cotton and hardware and kolas; Physiography.-Three physiographic regions may be distin- (4) the Hausa merchants. This last class trades with the other guished within the state—the first, a small portion of the Ozark three and despatches caravans to Illorin and other places, where uplift in the extreme south-east corner; the second, the Prairie the Kano goods, the “potash ” and other merchandise are ex- Plains, covering approximately the east third of the state; the changed for kolas and European goods. The “potash " finds third, the Great Plains, covering the remaining area. Between a ready sale among the Yorubas, being largely used for cooking the latter two there is only the most gradual transition. The purposes. In Kano itself is a great market for livestock: camels, entire state is indeed practically an undulating plain, gently horses, oxen, asses and goats being on sale. sloping from west to east at an average of about 7 ft. per mile. Besides Hausa, who represent the indigenous population, There is also an inclination in the eastern half from north to there are large colonies of Kanuri (from Bornu) and Nupians south, as indicated by the course of the rivers, most of which in Kano. The Fula form the aristocratic class. The population flow south-easterly (the Kansas, with its general easterly course, is said to amount to 100,000. About a mile and a half east of is the principal exception), the north-west corner being the Kano is Nassarawa, formerly the emir's suburban residence, but highest portion of the state. The lowest point in the state in its since 1902 the British Residency and barracks. south-east part, in Montgomery county, is 725 ft. above sea level. The city of Kano appears on the map of the Arab geographer, The average elevation of the east boundary is about 850 ft., while Idrisi, A.D. 1145, and the hill of Dala is mentioned in the earliest records as the original site of Kano. Barth, however, concluded that what more than half the total area is below 2000 ft. The contour lines of 3500-3900 ft. run near the west border. Some- the present town does not date earl tha th second half of the 16th century, and that before the rise of the Fula power (c. 1800) gently rolling prairie surface is diversified by an endless suc- scarcely any great Arab merchant ever visited Kano. The present cession of broad plains, isolated hills and ridges, and moderate town may be the successor of an older town occupying a position of valleys. In places there are terraced uplands, and in others the similar pre-eminence. Kano submitted to the Fula without much resistance, and under them in the first half of the 19th century undulating plain is cut by erosion into low escarpments. The flourished greatly. It was visited by Hugh Clapperton, an English | bluffs on the Missouri are in places 200 ft. high, and the valley of officer, in 1824, and in it Barth lived some time in 1851 and again the Cimarron, in the south-west, has deep cuts, almost gorges. in 1854. Barth's descriptions of the wealth and importance of the The west central portion has considerable irregularities of city attracted great attention in Europe, and Kano was subsequently visited by several travellers, missionaries, and students of Hausa, contour, and the north-west is distinctively hilly. In the south- but none was permitted to live permanently in the city. In the west, below the Arkansas river, is an area of sandhills, and the closing years of the century, Kano became the centre of resistance Ozark Plateau region, as above stated, extends into the south- to British influence, and the emir, Alieu, was the most inveterate of east corner, though not there much elevated. The great central Fula slave raiders. In February, 1903 the city, was captured by a valley is traversed by the Kansas (or Kaw) river, which, inclusive British force under Colonel T. L. N. Morland, and a new emir, Abbas, a brother of Alieu, installed. of the Smoky Hill Branch, extends the entire length of the state, After the occupation by the British in the province was with lateral valleys on the north. Another broad valley is formed organized for administration on the same system as that adopted in the south half of the state by the Arkansas river, with lateral throughout northern Nigeria. The emir on his installation takes an oath of allegiance to the British Crown, and accepts the position valleys on the north and south. The south-east portion contains of a chief of the first class under British rule. A resident is placed the important Neosho and smaller valleys. In the extreme south- at his court, and assistant residents have their headquarters in the west is the valley of the Cimarron, and along the south boundary administrative districts of the province. British courts of justice is a network of the south tributaries of the Arkansas. Numerous are established side by side with the native courts throughout the small affluents of the Missouri enrich and diversify the north-east province. Taxation is assessed under British supervision and paid into the native treasury. A fixed portion is paid by the emir to the quarter. The streams of Kansas are usually fed by perennial British government. The emir is not allowed to maintain a standing springs, and, as a rule, the east and middle portions of the state army, and the city of Kano is the headquarters of the British garrison. are well watered. Most of the streams maintain a good flow of The conditions of appointment of the emirs are fully laid down water in the driest seasons, and in case of heavy rains many of in the terms accepted at Sokoto on the close of the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903. Since the introduction of British rule there them “underflow” the adjacent bottom lands, saturating the has been no serious trouble in the province. The emir Abbas worked permeable substratum of the country with the surplus water, loyally with the British and proved himself a ruler of remarkable which in time drains out and feeds the subsiding streams. This ability and intelligence. He was indefatigable in dispensing justice, feature is particularly true of the Saline, Solomon and Smoky Hill and himself presided over a native court in which he disposed of from fifty to a hundred cases a month. He also took an active in rivers. The west part is more elevated and water is less abundant. terest in the reform and reorganization of the system of taxation, Climate. --The climate of Kansas is exceptionally salubrious. and in the opening of the country to trade. He further showed him- Extremes of heat and cold occur, but as a rule the winters are dry self helpful in arranging difficulties which at times arose in connexion and mild, while the summer heats are tempered by the perpetual with the lesser chiefs of his province. prairie breezes, and the summer nights are usually cool and refresh. The province of Kano is generally fertile. For a radius of 30 m. ing. The average annual temperature of the state for seventeen years round the capital the country is closely cultivated and densely preceding 1903 was 54•3° F., the warmest mean being 560°, the પત્ન R B • Stockville Osburn B 102 ite; Imperial mans OF Champion A OLCHIC Republican N ΤΟΥ Hayes Center Trenton RY Mc.Cook BURL Benkelman 100 Elwood Q. 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SANTA FE Spearville, Ft.Dodge Cimarron GRAY F hnsone ANTON COR ANT New QUlysses, Ford Santa Fe HASKELL Montezuma O & D Fowler STEVENS Meade S MEADE Hugoton Liberal North Richfield MORTO-N 37°. Cimarron O Barden KANSAS Scale, 1:2,750,000 05 10 20 A O Naron luka CIFI Wellsford RY. Bucklin Greensburg KO WA Belvidere Englewood arron Mule Coldwater Protection COMANCHE Kingman County Seats............ County Boundaries............. Railways... Fork Pondcreekt SAN Arkansas Κ L FRAN White Eagle Pawhuska B 100° с 99° D Longitude West 98° of Greenwich E 97° F English Miles 3º 40. 50 60 70 80 101° 96° 37 G UIS inita Neosho R A 95° H Emery Walker sc 7 1 KANSAS 655 of a coldest 52•6º. The extreme variation of yearly means throughout the Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture, the the east, west and middle sections during the same period was crop in 1906 was 81,830,611 bushels, almost one-ninth of the crop very slight, 516° to 566°, and the greatest variation for any one of the entire country for that year, and much more than the crop of section was 397°.. The absolute extremes were 116° and -34°. The any other state. In 1909 it was 87,203,000 bushels (less than the crops dryness of the air tempers exceedingly to the senses the cold of of either Minnesota or North Dakota). Winter wheat constitutes winter and the heat of summer. The temperature over the state almost the entirc output. The hard varieties rank in the flour market is much more uniform than is the precipitation, which diminishes with the finest Minnesota wheat. The wheat belt crosses the state somewhat regularly westward. In the above period of seventeen from north to south in its central third. Greater even than wheat in years the yearly means in the west section varied from 11'93 to absolute output, though not relatively to the output of other states, 29-21 in. (av. 19-21), in the middle from 18°58 to 34'30 (av, 2668), is Indian corn. In 1906 the crop was 195,075,000 bushels, and in in the east from 26.00 to 45.71 (av. 34.78); the mean for the state 1909 it was 154,225,000. The crop is very variable, according to ranging from 20*12 to 35'50 (av. 27'12). The precipitation in the seasons and prospective markets; ranging e.g. in the decade 1892– west is not sufficient for confident agpiculture in any series of years, 1901 from 42*6 (1901) to 225ʻI (1899) million bushels. The Indian since agriculture is practically dependent upon the mean fall; a. fact corn belt is mainly in the eastern third of state. In the five years that has been and is of profound importance in the history of the 1896-1900 the combined value of the crops of Indian corn and wheat state, The line of 20 in. fall (about the limit of certain agriculture) exceeded the value of the same crops in any other state of the approximately bisects the state in dry years. The precipitation is Union (Illinois being a close second). In the western third irrigation very largely in the growing season-at Dodge the fall between April has been tried, in the earlier years unsuccessfully; in all Kansas, in and October is 78% of that for the year. Freshets and droughts 1899, there were 23,620 acres irrigated, of which 8939 were in at times work havoc. The former made notable 1844 and 1858; and Finney and 7071 in Kearney county. In this western third the the latter 1860, 1874 and 1894. Tornadoes are also a not infrequent rainfall is insufficient for Indian corn; but Kafir corn, an exceptional infliction, least common in the west. The years 1871, 1879, 1881 and drought-resisting cereal, has made extraordinary progress in this 1892 were made memorable by particularly severe storms. There region, and indeed generally over the state, since 1893, its acreage are 150 to 175 " growing days " for crops between the frosts of spring increasing 416-1 % in the decade 1895-1904. With the saccharine and autumn, and eight in ten days are bright with sunshine-half variety of sorghum, which increased greatly in the same period, this of them without a cloud. Winds are prevailingly from the south (in grain is replacing Indian corn. Oats are the third great cereal crop, the winter often from the north-west). the yield being 24,780,000 bushels in 1906 and 27,185,000 in 1909. Fauna and Flora.--The fauna and flora of the state are those which Alfalfa showed an increased acreage in 1895-1904 of 310.8 %; it is are characteristic of the plain region generally of which Kansas valuable in the west for the same qualities as the Kafir corn. The is a part. The state lies partly in the humid, or Carolinian, and hay crop in 1909 was 2,652,000 tons. Alfalfa, the Japanese soy bean partly in the arid, or Upper Sonoran, area of the Uppe Austral and the wheat fields—which furnish the finest of pasture in the early life-zone; 100° W. long. is approximately the dividing line between spring and ordinarily well into the winter season-are the props these areas. The bison and elk have disappeared. A very great prosperous dairy industry. In the early 'eighties the organization variety of birds is found within the state, either as residents or as of creameries and cheese factories began in the county-seats; they visitants from the adjoining avifaunal regions-mountain, plain, depended upon gathered cream. About 1889 separators and the northern and southern. In 1886 Colonel N. S. Goss compiled a list of whole-milk system were introduced, and about the same time began 335 species, of which 175 were known to breed in the state. The the service of refrigerator cars on the railways; the hand separator wild turkey, once abundant, was near extermination in 1886, and became common about 1901. Western Kansas is the dairy country. prairie chickens (pinnated grouse) have also greatly diminished in Its great ranges, whose insufficient rainfall makes impossible the number. The jack-rabbit is characteristic of the prairie. Locusts certain, and therefore the profitable, cultivation of cereals, or other ("grasshoppers" in local usage) have worked incalculable damage, settled agriculture, lend themselves with profit to stock and dairy notably in 1854, 1866, and above all in 1874-1875., In the last two farming. Dairy products increased 606 % in value from 1895 to cases their ravages extended over a great portion of the state. 1904, amounting in the latter year to $16,420,095. This value was Kansas has no forests. Along the streams there is commonly a almost equalled by that of eggs and poultry ($14,050,727), which fringe of timber, which in the east is fairly heavy. There is an in- | increased 79.7 % in the same decade. The livestock interest is creasing scarcity westward. With the advancing settlement of the stimulated by the enormous demand for beef-cattle at Kansas City. state thin wind-break rows become a feature of the prairies. The Sugar-beet culture was tried in the years following 1890 with lessened ravages of prairie fires have facilitated artificial afforesting, indifferent success until the introduction of bounties in 1901. It and many cities, in particular, are abundantly, and beautifully has extended along the Arkansas valley from the Colorado beet shaded. Oaks, elms, hickory, honey-locusts, white ash, sycamore district and into the north-western counties. There is a large beet- and willows, the rapid growing but miserable box-elder and cotton- sugar factory at Garden City, Finney county. Experiments have wood, are the most common trees. Black walnut was common in been made unsuccessfully in sugar cane (1885) and silk, culture the river valleys in Territorial days. The planting of tree reserves (1885 seq.). The bright climate and pure atmosphere are admirably by the United States government in the arid counties of this state adapted to the growth of the apple, fear, peach, plum, grape and promises great success. A National Forest of 302,387 acres in cherry. The smaller fruits also, with scarce an exception; Aourish Finney, Kearney, Hamilton and Grant counties was set aside in finely. The fruit product of Kansas ($2,431,773 in 1899) is not, May 1908. Buffalo and bunch, and other short native prairie however, as yet particularly notable when compared with that of grasses, very nutritious ranging food but unavailable as hay, once various other states. covered the plains and pastured immense herds of buffalo and other According to the estimates of the state department of agriculture, animals, but with increasing settlement they have given way gener- of the total value of all agricultural products in the twenty years ally to exotic bladed species, valuable alike for pasture and for hay, 1885-1904, ($3,078,999,855), Indian corn and wheat together except in the western regions. The hardy and ubiquitous sunflower represented more than two-fifths (821'3 and 518'1 million dollars has been chosen as the state flower or floral emblem. Cactus and respectively), and livestock products nearly one-third . (1024.9 yucca occur in the west. millions). The aggregate value of all agricultural products in 1903– The soil of the upland prairies is generally a deep rich clay loam 1904. was $754,954,208. of a dark colour. The bottom lands near the streams are a black Minerals.- In the east portion of the state are immense beds of sandy loam; and the intermediate lands, or “second bottoms, bituminous coal, often at shallow depths or cropping out on the show a rich and deep black loam, containing very little sand. These surface. In 1907 more than 95 % of the coal came from Crawford, soils are all easily cultivated, free from stones, and exceedingly Cherokee, Leavenworth and Osage counties, and about 91'5 % from productive. There are exceptional spots on the upland prairies the first two. The total value of the production of coal in 1905 composed of stiff clay, not as easily cultivated, but very productive (6,423,979 tons) was $9,350,542, and in 1908 (6,245,508 tons) when properly managed and enriched. The south-west section is $9,292,222. In the central portion, which belongs to the Triassic distinctively sandy formation, magnesian limestone, ferruginous sandstone and gypsum Agriculture.-The United States Census of 1900 shows that of the are representative rocks. Gypsum (in beautiful crystalline form) is farming area of the state in 1900 (41,662,970 acres, 796 % of the found in an almost continuous bed across the state running north- total area), 60*1 % was * improved.' The value of all farm east and south-west with three principal areas, the northern in property was $864,100,286-of which land and improvements Marshall county, the central in Dickinson and Saline counties, and (including buildings), livestock and implements and machinery the southern (the heaviest, being 3 to 40 ft. thick) in Barber and represented respectively 74'5, 22:1 and 34 %. Almost nine-tenth's Comanche counties. The product in 1908 was valued at $281,339. of all farms derived their principal income from livestock or hay Magnesian limestone, or dolomite, is especially plentiful along the and grain, these two sources being about equally important. Of the Blue, Republican and Neosho rivers and their tributaries. This total value of farm products in 1899 ($209,895,542), crops represented beautiful stone, resembling white, grey and cream-coloured marble, 53-7, animal products 45'9 and forest products only 0.4 %. In is exceedingly useful for building purposes. It crops out in the 1899 the wheat crop was 38,778,450 bushels, being less than that of bluffs in endless quantities, and is easily worked. The stone Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio or South Dakota According to resources of the state are largely, but by no means exclusively, confined to the central part. There are marbles in Osage and For the thirty years 1877-1906 the mean rainfall for ten-year other counties, shell marble in Montgomery county, white limestone periods was: at Dodge, 22.8 in., 184 in. and 22'7 in.; and at Law- in Chase county, a valuable bandera fagstone and hydraulic cement rence, 35'1 in., 3962 in. and 36*7 in. for the first, second and third rock near Fort Scott, &c. The limestones produced in 1908 were periods respectively. valued at $403,176 and the sandstones at $67,950. In the central 60 656 KANSAS 1900 and region salt is produced in immense quantities, within a great north to Communications.-Kansas is excellently provided with railways, south belt about Hutchinson. The beds, which are exploited by the with an aggregate length in January 1909, of 8914.77 m. (in 1870, brine method at Hutchinson, at Ellsworth (Ellsworth county), at 1880, 1890 respectively, 1,501, 3,244 and 8,710 m.). The most Anthony (Harper county) and at Sterling, (Rice county), lie from important systems are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the 400 to 1200 ft. underground, and are in places as much as 350 ft. Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union thick and 99 % pure. At Kanopolis in Ellsworth county, at Lyons Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington & in Rice county and at Kingman, Kingman county, the salt is mined Quincy, and the St Louis & San Francisco systems. The first train and sold as rock-salt. In the south-west salt is found in beds and entered Kansas on the Union Pacific in 1860. During the following dry incrustations, varying in thickness from a few inches to 2 ft. The decade the lines of the Missouri Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & total product from 1880-1899 was valued at $5,538,855; the product Texas and the Santa Fé were well under construction. These roads of 1908 (when Kansas ranked fourth among the states producing give excellent connexions with Chicago, the Gulf and the Pacific. salt) was valued at $882,984.. The development has been mainly Kansas has an eastern river front of 150 m. on the Missouri, which is since 1887 at Hutchinson and since about 1890 in the rock-salt navigable for steamboats of good size. The internal rivers of the mines. In the west portion of the state, which belongs to the state are not utilized for commercial purposes. Cretaceous formation, chalks and a species of native quicklime are very prominent in the river bluffs. The white and cream-coloured Population.-In population Kansas ranked in 1910 chalks are much used for building purposes, but the blue is usually (1,690,949) twenty-second in the Union. The decennial in- too soft for exposure to the weather. The quicklime as quarried creases of population from 1860 to 1900 were 239.9, 173•4, 43.3 from the bluffs slakes perfectly, and with sand makes a fairly good and 3.0%, the population in 1900 being 1,470,495, or 18 to the mortar, without calcination or other previous preparation. The lignite found near the Colorado line makes a valuable domestic sq. m.? Of this number 22.5% lived in cities of 2500 or more fuel. inhabitants. Nine cities numbered more than 10,000 inhabi- Natural gas, oil, zinc and lead have been discovered in south-east tants: Kansas City (51,418), Topeka-the state capital (33,608), Kansas and have given that section an extraordinary growth and Wichita (24,671), Leavenworth (20,735), Atchison (15,722), prosperity. Indications of gas were found about the time of the Lawrence-the seat of the state university (10,862), Fort Scott Civil War, but only in the early 'seventies were they recognized as unmistakable, and they were not successfully developed until the (10,322), Galena (10,155) and Pittsburg (10,112). The life of 'eighties. Jola, in Allen county, is the centre of the field, and the all of these save the last two goes back to Territorial days; but gas yields heat, light, and a cheap, fuel for smelters, cement-works the importance of Fort Scott, like that of Galena and Pittsburg, and other manufacturing plants throughout a large region. The pools lie from 400 to 950 ft. below the surface; some wells have been is due to the development of the mineral counties in the south- drilled 1500 ft. deep. The value of the natural gas produced in east. Other cities of above 5000 inhabitants were Hutchinson the state was $15,873 in 1889, $2,261,836 in 1905 and $7,691,587 in (9379), Emporia (8223), Parsons (7682), Ottawa (6934), Newton 1908, when there were 1997 producing wells, and Kansas ranked fourth of the states of the United States in the value of the natural (6208), Arkansas City (6140), Salina (6074), Argentine (5878) gas product, being surpassed by Pennsylvania, West Virginia and and Iola (5791). The number of negroes (3.5%) is somewhat Ohio. Petroleum was discovered about 1865 in Miami and Bourbon large for a northern and western state. This is largely owing to counties, and about 1892 at Neociesha, Wilson county. There was an exodus of coloured people from the South in 1878-1880, at a only slight commercial exploitation before 1900. The production time when their condition was an unusually hard one: an exodus increased from 74,714 barrels in that year to 4,250,779 in 1904; in 1908 it was 1,801,781 barrels. Chanute has been the most active turned mainly toward Kansas. The population is very largely centre of production. The field was prospected here in the 'nineties, American-born (91.4% in 1900; 47•1% being natives of Kansas). but developed only after 1900. In 1877 an immense deposit of Germans, British, Scandinavians and Russians constitute the lead was discovered on land now within the limits of Galena, Rich | bulk of the foreign-born. The west third of the state is compara- zinc blendes were at first thrown away, among the by products of tively scantily populated, owing to its aridity. In the 'seventies, the lead mines. After the discovery of their true nature there was a slow development, and at the end of the century a notable boom after a succession of wet seasons, and again in the 'eighties, in the fields. From 1876 to 1897 the total value of the output of settlement was pushed far westward, beyond the limits of safe the Galena field was between $25,000,000 and $26,000,000; but at agriculture, but hundreds of settlers-and indeed many entire present Kansas is far more important as a smelter than as a miner of zinc and lead, and in 1906 58% of all spelter produced in the communities-- were literally starved out by the recurrence of United States came from smelters in Kansas. In 1908 the mines droughts. Irrigation has made a surer future for limited areas, output was 2293 tons of lead valued at $192,612 and 8628 tons however, and the introduction of drought-resisting crops and the of zinc valued at $811,032. Pottery, fire, ochre and brick clays substitution of dairy and livestock interests in the place of are abundant, the first two mainly in the eastern part of the state, agriculture have brightened the outlook in the western counties, Coffeyville has large vitrified brick interests. In 1908 the total .value of all the mineral products (incompletely reported) of Kansas whose population increased rapidly after 1900. The early was $26,162,213. 'eighties were made notable by a tremendous “ boom” in real Industry and Trade.—Manufactures are not characteristic of the estate, rural and urban, throughout the commonwealth. As state. The rank of the state in manufactures in 1900 was sixteenth and in farm products seventh in the Union. The value of the regards the distribution of religious sects, in 1906 there were manufactured product in 1900, according to the Twelfth United 458,190 communicants of all denominations, and of this number States Census, was $172,129,398, an increase of 56-2% over the 121,208 were Methodists (108,097 being Methodist Episcopalians output of 1890; of this total value;, the part representing establish- of the Northern Church), 93,195 were Roman Catholics, 46,299 ments under the "factory system was $154,008,544,' and in 1905 the value of the factory product was $198,244,992, an increase of were Baptists (34,975 being members of the Northern Baptist 28.7%. Kansas City, Topeka, Wichita, Leavenworth and Atchison Convention and 10,011 of the National (Colored) Baptist Con. were the only cities which had manufactures whose gross product vention), 40,765 were Presbyterians (33,465 being members of was valued in 1905 at more than $3,000,000 each; their joint pro- the Northern Church) and 40,356 were Disciples of Christ. The duct was valued at $126,515,804, and that of Kansas City alone was $96,473,050, almost half the output of the state. The most impor German-Russian Mennonites, whose immigration became notable tant inanufacturing industry, both in 1900 and in 1905, was slaugh about 1874, furnished at first many examples of communal tering and meat-packing-for which Kansas City is the second centre economy, but these were later abandoned. In 1906 the total of the country-with a product for the state valued at $77,411,883 number of Mennonites was 7445, of whom 3581 were members in 1900, and $96,375,639 in 1905; in both these years the value of of the General Conference of Mennonites of North America, 1825 the product of Kansas was exceeded only by that of Illinois. The four and grist mill industry ranked next, with a product valued at belonged to the Schellenberger Brüder-gemeinde, and the others $21,328,747 in 1900 and nearly twice that amount, $42,034,019, were distributed among seven other sects. in '1905. In 1900 a quarter of the wheat crop was handled by the mills of the state. Lesser manufacturing interests are railway shop population of 1,544,968; nearly 28% lived in cities of 2500 or more 2 According to the state census Kansas had in 1905 a total construction (value in 1905, $11,521,144); zinc smelting and refining inhabitants; 13 cities had more than 10,000 inhabitants: Kansas (value in 1905, $10,999,468); the manufacture of cheese, butter and condensed milk (value in 1905, $3,946,349); and of foundry and (20,934), Atchison (18,159), Pittsburg (15,012), Coffeyville (13,196), City (67,614). Topeka (37,641), Wichita (31,110), Leavenworth machine shop products (value in 1905, $3,756,825). Fort Scott (12,248), Parsons (11,720), Lawrence (11,708), Hutchinson (11,215), Independence (11,206), and Iola (10,287). Other cities of * All subsequent figures in this paragraph for manufactures in above 5000 inhabitants each were. Chanute (9704), Emporia (8974), 1900 are given for establishments under the factory system "only, Winfield (7845), Salına (7829), Ottawa (7727), Arkansas City (7634). so as to be comparable with statistics for 1905, which do not include Newton (6601), Galena (6449), Argentine (6053), Junction City (5264) minor establishments. and Cherryvale (5089). . KANSAS 657 Government. The constitution is that adopted at Wyandotte of the petition. A married woman has the same rights to her on the 29th of July 1859 and ratified by the people on the 4th property after marriage as before marriage, except that she is not of October 1859; it came into operation on the 29th of January of it without his written consent, and no will made by the husband permitted to bequeath away from her husband more than one-half 1861, and was amended in 1861, 1864, 1867, 1873, 1875, 1876, can affect the right of the wife, if she survive him, to one-half of 1880, 1888, 1900, 1902, 1904 and 1906. An amendment may the property of which he died seized. Whenever a husband dies be proposed by either branch of the legislature, and, if approved intestate, leaving a farm or a house and lot in a town or city which by two-thirds of the members elected to each house as well children, or children alone if there be no widow, may hold the same was the residence of the family at his death, his widow, widow and as by a majority of the electors voting on it at a general as a homestead to the extent of 160 acres if it be a farm, or one acre election, it is adopted. A constitutional convention to revise or if it be a town or city lot. A homestead of this size is exempt from amend the constitution may be called in the same manner. given by consent of both husband and wife, or of obligations for levy for the debts of the intestate except in case of an incumbrance Universal manhood suffrage is the rule, but women may vote in purchase money, or of liens for making improvements, and the school and municipal elections, Kansas being the first state to homestead of a family cannot be alienated without the joint consent grant women municipal suffrage as well as the right to hold of husband and wiſe. The homestead status ceases, however, municipal offices (1887). General elections to state, county and whenever the widow marries again or when all the children arrive at the age of majority. An eight-hour labour law was passed in township offices are biennial, in even-numbered years, and take 1891 and was upheld by the state supreme court. In 1909 a law was place on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. passed for state regulation of fire insurance rates (except in the case The state executive officers are a governor, lieutenant-governor, of farmers' mutuals insuring farm property only) and forbidding secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general and super-law was passed requiring that any corporation acting as a common local discrimination of rates within the state. In the same year a intendent of public instruction, all elected for a term of two carrier in the state must receive the permission of the state board years. The governor appoints, with the approval of the Senate, of railway commissioners for the issue of stocks, bonds or other a board of public works and some other administrative boards, evidences of indebtedness. and he may veto any bill from the legislature, which cannot The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors except for thereafter become a law unless again approved by two-thirds of medical, scientific and mechanical purposes were prohibited by a constitutional amendment adopted in 1880. The Murray liquor the members elected to each house. law of 1881, providing for the enforcement of the amendment, was The legislature, consisting of a Senate and a House of Repre- declared constitutional by the state supreme court in 1883. At sentatives, meets in regular session at Topeka, the capital, on the many sessions of the legislature its enemies vainly attempted its second Tuesday of January in odd-numbered years. The Package Decision," of the United States Supreme Court, the repeal. It was more seriously threatened in 1890 by the “Original membership of the senate is limited to 40, and that of the house decision, namely, that the state law could not apply to liquor of representatives to 125. Senators are elected for four years introduced into Kansas from another state and sold from the and representatives for two years. In regular sessions not ex- original package, such inter-state commerce being within the exclư- sive jurisdiction of Congress. That body thereupon gave Kansas ceeding fifty days and in special sessions not exceeding thirty the power needed, and its action was upheld by the Federal Supreme days the members of both houses are paid three dollars a day Court. The enforcement of the law has varied, however, enormously besides an allowance for travelling expenses, but they receive no according to the locality. In 1906–1907 a fresh crusade to enforce compensation for the extra time of longer sessions. In 1908 a the law was begun by the attorney-general, who brought ouster direct primary law was passed applicable to all nominations Leavenworth for not enforcing the law and for replacing it with suits against the mayors of Wichita, Junction City, Pittsburg and except for presidential electors, school district officers and officers the “fine " system, which was merely an irregular licence. In 1907 in cities of less than 5000 inhabitants; like public elections the the attorney-general's office turned its attention to outside brewing primaries are made a public charge; nomination is by petition companies doing business in the state and secured injunctions against signed by a certain percentage (for state office, at least 1 %; for receivers of their property: The provision of the law permitting such breweries doing business in the state and the appointment of district office, at least 2%; for sub-district or county office, at the sale of whisky for medicinal, scientific or mechanical purposes least 3%) of the party vote; the direct nominating system was repealed by a law of 1909 prohibiting the sale, manufacture or applies to the candidates for the United States Senate, the barter of spirituous, malt, vinous or any other intoxicating liquors nominee chosen by the direct primaries of each party being the of the liquor interests to render it objectionable. within the state. The severity of this law was ascribed to efforts nominee of the party. The constitution forbids the contraction of a ståte debt exceeding $1,000,000. The actual debt on the 30th of June 1908 was $605,000, The judicial power is vested in one supreme court, thirty-eight which was a permanent school fund. Taxation is on the general- district courts, one probate court for each county, and two or more property system. The entire system has been-as in other states justices of the peace for each township. All justices are elected: where it prevails-extremely irregular and arbitrary as regards local those of the supreme court, seven in number, for six years, two or assessments, and very imperfect; and the figures of total valuation in three every two years; those of the district courts for four years; and 1880 $160,570,761, in 1890 $347.717,218, in 1906 $408,329,749, and those of the probate courts and the justices of the peace for two in 1908, when it was supposed to be the actual valuation of all taxable years. The more important affairs of each county are managed by property, $2,453,691,859), though significant of taxation methods, á board of commissioners, who are elected by districts for four years, are not significant of the general condition or progress of the but each county elects also a clerk, a treasurer, a probate judge, a register of deeds, a sheriff, a coroner, an attorney, a clerk of the Education. Of higher educational institutions, the state supports district court, and a surveyor, and the district court for the county the university of Kansas at Lawrence (1866), an agricultural college appoints a county auditor. The township officers, all elected for at Manhattan (1863; aided by the United States government); a two years, are a trustee, a clerk, a treasurer, two or more justices of normal school at Emporia (1865), a western branch of the same at the peace, two constables and one road overseer, for each road Hays (1902); a manual training normal school (1903) at Pittsburg, district. Cities are governed under a general law, but by this law western university (Quindaro) for negroes and the Topeka indus- they are divided into three classes according to size, and the govern- trial and educational institute (1896, reorganized on the plan of ment is different for each class. Those having a population of more Tuskegee institute in 1900) also for negroes. The university of than 15,000 constitute the first class, those having a population of Kansas was organized in 1864 and opened in 1866. Its engineering more than 2000 but not more than 15,000 constitute the second class, department was established in 1870, its normal department in 1876 and those having a population not exceeding 2000 constitute the (abolished 1885), its department of music in 1877, its department of third class. Municipal elections are far removed from those of the law in 1878, and the department of pharmacy in 1885; in 1891 the state, being held in odd-numbered years in April. In cities of the preparatory department was abolished and the university was rė, first class the state law requires the election of a mayor, city clerk, organized with“ schools” in place of the former “ departments. city treasurer, police judge and councilmen; in those of the second In 1899, a school of_medicine was established, in connexion with class it requires the election of a mayor, police judge, city treasurer, which the Eleanor Taylor Bell memorial hospital was erected in councilmen, board of education, justices of the peace and constables; 1905. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 211, an enrol- and in those of the third class it requires the election of a mayor, ment of 2063 (1361 men and 702 women); the university library police judge and councilmen. Several other offices provided for contained 60,000 volumes and 37,000 pamphlets. An efficient com- in each class are filled by the appointment of the mayor. pulsory education law was passed in 1903. Kansas ranks very high The principal grounds for a divorce in Kansas are adultery, among the states in its small percentage of illiteracy (inability to extreme cruelty, habitual drunkenness, abandonment for one year, write) -in 1900 only 2.9% of persons at least ten years of age; the gross neglect of duty, and imprisonment in the penitentiary as a figures for native whites foreign whites and negroes being respectively felon subsequent to marriage, but the applicant for a divorce must 1-3, 8.5, 22:3. In addition to the state schools, various flourishing have resided in the state the entire year preceding the presentment private or denominational institutions are maintained. The largest XV IIt state. 8 La 658 KANSAS 6 ܙܙ of these are che Kansas Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal, they had all to lose if they should carry their blacks into Kansas 1886) at Salina and Baker University (Methodist Episcopal, 1858) at and should nevertheless fail to make it a slave-state. Thus the Baldwin. Among the many smaller colleges are Washburn College (Congregational, 1869) at Topeka, the Southwest Kansas College South had to establish slavery by other than actual slaveholders; (Methodist Episcopal, opened 1886) at Winfield, the College of Em unless Missouri should act for her to establish it. But Missouri poria (Presbyterian, 1883) at Emporia, Bethany College (Lutheran, did not move her slaves; while her vicinity encouraged border 1881) at Lindsborg, Fairmount College (non-sectarian, 1895) at Wichs partisans to seek such establishment even without residence-, ita, St Mary's College(Roman Catholic, 1869) at St Mary's, and Ottawa University (Baptist, 1865) at Ottawa. At Topeka is the College of by intimidation, election frauds and outrage. This determined the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 1861) for women. at once the nature of the Kansas struggle and its outcome; There are also various small professional schools and private normal and after the South had played and lost in Kansas, “ the war schools. An industrial school for Indian children is maintained by for the Union caught up and nationalized the verdict of the the United States near Lawrence (Haskell Institute, 1884). Among the state charitable and reformatory institutions are state hospitals Territorial broil.” for the insane at Topeka and Osawatomie and a hospital for epileptics In the summer of 1854 Missouri “squatters " began to post at Parsons; industrial reform schools for girls at Beloit, for boys at claims to border lands and warn away intending anti-slavery Topeka, and for criminals under twenty-five at Hutchinson; a settlers. The immigration of these from the North was fostered penitentiary at Lansing; a soldiers' orphans' home at Atchison and a soldiers' home at Dodge City; and schools for feeble-minded youth in every way, notably through the New England Emigrant Aid at Winfield, for the deaf at Olathe, and for the blind at Kansas Company (see LAWRENCE, A. A.), whose example was widely imi. City. These institutions are under the supervision of a state board tated. Little organized effort was made in the South to settle the of control. The state contributes also to many institutions on a Territory; Lawrence (Wakarusa) and Topeka, free-state centres, private basis. Most of the counties maintain poor farms and administer outdoor relief, and some care for insane patients at the and Leavenworth, Lecompton and Atchison, pro-slavery towns, cost of the state. were among those settled in 1854. At the first election (Nov. 1854), held for a delegate to Con. History.—The territory now included in Kansas was first gress, some 1700 armed Missourians invaded Kansas and stuffed visited by Europeans in 1541, when Francisco de Coronado led his the ballot boxes; and this intimidation and fraud was practised Spaniards from New Mexico across the buffalo plains in search on a much larger scale in the election of a Territorial legislature of the wealth of “ Quivira,” a region located by Bandelier and in March 1855. The resultant legislature (at Pawnee, later at other authorities in Kansas north-east of the Great Bend of the Shawnee Mission) adopted the laws of Missouri almost en bloc, Arkansas. Thereafter, save for a brief French occupation, 1719- made it a felony to utter a word against slavery, made extreme 1725, and possibly slight explorations equally inconsequential, pro-slavery views a qualification for office, declared death the Kansas remained in undisturbed possession of the Indians until in penalty for aiding a slave to escape, and in general repudiated 1803 it passed to the United States (all save the part west of 100° liberty for its opponents. The radical free-state men thereupon long. and south of the Arkansas river) as part of the Louisiana began the importation of rifles. All criticism of this is incon- Purchase. The explorations for the United States of Z. M. Pike sequent;" fighting gear was notoriously the only effective asset (1807) and S. H. Long (1819) tended to confirm old ideas of sandy of Missourians in Kansas, every Southern band in Kansas was wastes west of the Mississippi. But with the establishment of militarily organized and armed, and the free-state men armed prairie commerce to Santa Fé. (New Mexico), the waves of only under necessity. Furthermore, a free-state “government emigration to the Mormon land and to California, the growth of was set up, the “bogus” legislature at Shawnee being “repu- traffic to Salt Lake, and the explorations for a transcontinental diated.” Perfecting their organization in a series of popular railway, Kansas became well known, and was taken out of that conventions, they adopted (Dec. 1855) the Topeka Constitution mythical “ Great American Desert,” in which, thanks especially —which declared the exclusion of negroes from Kansas-elected to Pike and to Washington Irving, it had been supposed to lie. state officials, and sent a contestant delegate to Congress. The trade with Santa Fé began about 1804, although regular The Topeka " government was simply a craftily impressive caravans were begun only about 1825. This trade is one of the organization, a standing protest. It met now and then, and most picturesque chapters in border history, and picturesque in directed sentiment, being twice dispersed by United States retrospect, too, is the army of emigrants crossing the continent troops; but it passed no laws, and did nothing that conflicted in “prairie schooners ” to California or Utah, of whom almost with the Territorial government countenanced by Congress. all went through Kansas. On the other hand, the laws of the “bogus " legislature were But this movement of hunters, trappers, traders, Mormons, generally ignored by the free-state partisans, except in cases miners and homeseekers left nothing to show of settlement in (e.g. the service of a writ) where that was impossible without Kansas, for which, therefore, the succession of Territorial govern- apparent actual rebellion against the authority of the legisla- ments organized for the northern portion of the Louisiana ture, and therefore of Congress. Purchase had no real significance. Before 1854 Kansas was an Meanwhile the “ border war began. During the (almost Indian land, although on its Indian reservations (created in its bloodless) “ Wakarusa War” Lawrence was threatened by an east part for eastern tribes removed thither after 1830) some few armed force from Missouri, but was saved by the intervention whites resided: missionaries, blacksmiths, agents, farmers of Governor Shannon. Up to this time the initiative and the supposed to teach the Indians agriculture, and land “squatters,” bulk of outrages lay assuredly heavily on the pro-slavery side; -possibly 800 in all. Fort Leavenworth was established in hereafter they became increasingly common and more evenly 1827, Fort Scott in 1842, Fort Riley in 1853. There were divided. In May 1856 another Missouri force entered Lawrence Methodist (1829), Baptist, Quaker, Catholic and Presbyterian without resistance, destroyed its printing offices, wrecked build- missions active by 1837. Importunities to Congress to institute ings and pillaged generally. This was the day before the assault a Territorial government began in 1852. This was realized by on Charles Sumner (9.0.) in the Senate of the United States. the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. These two outrages fired Northern passion and determination. By that Act Kansas (which from 1854 to 1861 included a large In Kansas they were a stimulus to the most radical elements. part of Colorado) became, for almost a decade, the storm centre of Immediately after the sack of Lawrence, John Brown and a small national political passion, and her history of prime significance band murdered and mutilated five pro-slavery men, on Potta- in the unfolding prologue of the Civil War. Despite the Mis-watomie Creek; a horrible deed, showing a new spirit on the free- souri Compromise, which had prohibited slavery in the Louisiana state side, and of ghastly consequence--for it contributed power- Purchase N. of 36° 30' N. lat. (except in Missouri), slaves were fully to widen further the licence of highway robbery, pillage and living at the missions and elsewhere, among Indians and whites, arson, the ruin of homes, the driving off of settlers, marauding in 1854. The “popular sovereignty” principle of the Kansas- expeditions, attacks on towns, outrages in short of every kind, Nebraska Bill involved a sectional struggle for the new Territory. that made the following months a welter of lawlessness and Time showed that the winning of Kansas was a question of the crime, until Governor Geary—by putting himself above all lightest-footed immigrant. Slaveholders were not footloose; 1 partisanship, repudiating Missouri, and using Federal troops " " KANSAS 659 put an end to them late in 1856. (In the isolated south-eastern | free-state) legislature. This body promptly ordered a vote on counties they continued through 1856–1858, mainly to the the third alternative, “ Against the Constitution.” advantage of the “jay-hawkers ” of free-state Kansas and to The free-state men ignored the alternatives set by the Lecomp- the terror of Missouri.) ton Convention; but they participated nevertheless in the pro- The struggle now passed into another phase, in which questions visional election for officers under the Lecompton government, of state predominate. But something may be remarked in capturing all offices, and then, the same day, voted overwhelm- passing of the leaders in the period of turbulence. John Brown ingly against the constitution (Jan. 4, 1858). 4 wished to deal a blow against slavery, but did nothing to aid any Nevertheless, Buchanan, against the urgent counsel of Gover- conservative political organization to that end. James H. nor Denver, urged on Congress (Feb. 2) the admission of Lane was another radical, and always favoured force. He was Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution. He was opposed by a political adventurer, an enthusiastic, energetic, ambitious, ill- Senator Stephen A. Douglas, the leader of the Northern Demo- balanced man, shrewd and magnetic. He assuredly did much cracy. The Senate upheld the President; the House of Repre. for the free-state cause; meek politics were not alone sufficient sentatives voted down his policy; and finally both houses accepted in those years in Kansas. The leader of the conservative free- the English Bill, by which Kansas was virtually offered some soilers was Charles Robinson (1818–1894). He was born in millions of acres of public lands if she should accept the Lecomp- Massachusetts, studied medicine at the Berkshire Medical ton Constitution. On the 21st of August 1858, by a vote of School, and had had political experience in California, whither 11,300 to 1788, Kansas resisted this temptation. The plan of the he had gone in 1849, and where in 1850–1852 he was a member of Administration thus effectually miscarried, and its final result the legislature and a successful anti-slavery leader. In 1854 he was a profound split in the Democratic party. had come to Kansas as an agent of the Emigrant Aid Company. The free-state men framed an excellent anti-slavery consti- He was the author of the Topeka government idea, or at least tution at Leavenworth in March-April 1858, but the origins was its moving spirit, serving throughout as the “ governor of the convention were illegal and their work was still-born. under it; though averse to force, he would use it if necessary, On the 29th of July 1859 still another constitution was therefore and was first in command in the “ Wakarusa War.” His par- framed at Wyandotte, and on the 4th of October it was ratified tisans say that he saved Kansas, and regard Lane as a fomenter by the people. Meanwhile the Topeka “ government ” dis- of trouble who accomplished nothing. Andrew H. Reeder appeared, and also, with its single purpose equally served, the (1807-1864), who showed himself a pro-slavery sympathizer free-state party, most of it (once largely Democratic) passing as first Territorial governor, was removed from office for favour- | into the Republican party, now first organized in the Territory. ing the free-state party; he became a leader in the free-state On the 29th of January 1861 Kansas was admitted to the Union cause. Every governor who followed him was forced by the under the Wyandotte Constitution. The United States Census logic of events and truth tacitly to acknowledge that right lay of 1860 gave her a population of 107,204 inhabitants. The with the free-state party. Reeder and Shannon fled the Terri- struggle in Kansas, the first physical national struggle over tory in fear of assassination by the pro-slavery party, with which slavery, was of paramount importance in the breaking up of the at first they had had most sympathy. Among the pro-slavery Whig party, the firm establishment of an uncompromisingly leaders David Rice Atchison (1807-1886), United States Senator anti-slavery party, the sectionalization of the Democracy, and in 1843–1855, accompanied both expeditions against Lawrence; the general preparation of the country for the Civil War. but he urged moderation, as always, at the end of what was a Drought and famine came in 1860, and then upon the impover- legitimate result of his radical agitation. ished state came the strain of the Civil War. Nevertheless Kansas In June 1857 delegates were elected to a constitutional con- furnished proportionally a very large quota of men to the Union vention. The election Act did not provide for any popular vote armies. Military operations within her own borders were largely upon the constitution they should form, and was passed over confined to a guerrilla warfare, carrying on the bitter neighbour- Governor John W. Geary's veto. A census, miserably deficient hood strife between Kansas and Missouri. The Confederate (largely owing to free-state abstention and obstruction), was officers began by repressing predatory plundering from Missouri; the basis of apportionment of delegates. The free-state party but after James H. Lane, with an undisciplined brigade, had demanded a popular vote on the constitution. On the justice of crossed the border, sacking, burning and killing in his progress, this Governor Robert J. Walker and President Buchanan were at Missouri“ bushrangers ” retaliated in kind. Freebooters trained first unequivocally agreed, and the governor promised fairplay. in Territorial licence had a free hand on both sides. Kansas bands Nevertheless only pro-slavery men voted, and the convention were long the more successful. But William C. Quantrell, after was thus pro-slavery. The document it framed is known as the sacking various small Kansas towns along the Missouri river Lecompton Constitution. Before the convention met, the free- (1862–63), in August 1863 took Lawrence (q.v.) and put it state party, abandoning its policy of political inaction, captured mercilessly to fire and sword--the most ghastly episode in border the Territorial legislature. On the constitutional convention history. In the autumn of 1864 the Confederate eneral rested, then, all hope of saving Kansas for slavery; and that Sterling Price, aiming to enter Kansas from Missouri but de- would be impossible if they should submit their handiwork to feated by General Pleasanton's cavalry, retreated southward, zig- the people. The convention declared slave property to be zagging on both sides of the Missouri-Kansas line. This ended “ before and higher than any constitutional sanction” and for- for Kansas the border raids and the war. Lane was probably bade amendments affecting it; but it provided for a popular the first United States officer to enlist negroes as soldiers. Many vote on the alternatives, the “constitution with slavery” or of them (and Indians too) fought bravely for the state. Indian the “constitution with no slavery.” If the latter should be raids and wars troubled the state from 1864 to 1878. The tribes adopted, slavery should cease except " that the right to pro- domiciled in Kansas were rapidly moved to Indian Territory perty in slaves in the Territory should not be interfered with. after 1868. The free-state men regarded this as including the right to property in offspring of slaves, and therefore as pure fraud. 1 The English Bill was not a bribe to the degree that it has usually Governor Walker stood firmly against this iniquitous scheme; been considered to be, inasmuch as it “ reduced the grant of land he saw that slavery was, otherwise, doomed, but he thought demanded by the Lecompton Ordinance from 23,500,000 acres to Kansas could be saved to the Democratic party though lost to 3.500,000 acres, and offered only the normal cession to new states.' But this grant of 3,500,000 acres was conditioned on the acceptance slavery. But President Buchanan, under Southern influence, of the Lecompton Constitution, and Congress made no promise of repudiated his former assurances. There is reason to believe any grant if that Constitution were not adopted. The bill was that the whole scheme was originated at Washington, and though introduced by William Hayden English (1822-1896), a Democratic Buchanan was not privy to it before the event, yet he adopted representative in Congress in 1853–1861 (see Frank H. Hodder, of Bill for the it. He abandoned Walker, who left Kansas; and he dismissed in Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Acting-Governor Frederick P. Stanton for convoking the (now | Year 1906, i. 201-210). 60 660 KANSAS CITY a 3 After the Civil War the Republicans held uninterrupted reports of the various state officers (Treasurer, annual, then biennial supremacy in national elections, and almost as complete control since 1877-1878; Board of Trustees of State Charities and Corrections, in the state government, until 1892. From about 1870 onward, annual, 'then biennial reports since 1901-1902; Bureau of Labor biennial, 1877-1878. seq.; State Board of Health, founded 1885, however, elements of reform and of discontent were embodied Statistics, founded 1885, annual reports; Irrigation Commission, in a succession of radical parties of protest. Prohibition arose organized 1895, annual reports, &c.). On taxation see Report and thus, was accepted by the Republicans, and passed into the con- Bill of the State Tax Commission, created 1901 (Topeka, 1901): On stitution. Woman suffrage became a vital political issue. Much 1883; compiled mainly by J. C. Hebbard); D. W. Wilder's Annals of the history of the state, see A. T. Andreas, History of Kansas (Chicago, legislation has been passed to control the railways. General Kansas (Topeka, 1875 and later), indispensable for reference; control of the media of commerce, economic co-operation, tax L. W: Spring's Kansas (Boston, 1885, in the American Common- reform, banking reforms, legislation against monopolies, disposal wealth Series); Charles Robinson, The Kansas Conflict (New York, of state lands, legislation in aid of the farmer and labourer, have 1892); Eli Thayer, The Kansas Crusade (New York, 1889); the of ih Kansas State Historical Society (Topeka, 1891 been issues of one party or another. The movement of the seq.), full of the most valuable material; W. E. Connelley, Kansas Patrons of Industry (1874), growing into the Grange, Farmers' Territorial Governors (Topeka, 1900); W. E. Miller, The Peopling of Alliance, and finally into the People's (Populist) party (see Kansas (Columbus, O., 1906), a doctoral dissertation of Columbia FARMERS' MOVEMENT), was perhaps of greatest importance. In University; and for the controversy touching John Brown, G. W: Brown's The Truth at Last, Reminiscences of Old John Brown (Rock- conjunction with the Democrats the Populists controlled the ford, Ill., 1880), and W. E. Connelley, An Appeal to the Record state government in 1892–1894 and 1896-1898. These two Refuting : Things Written for . Charles Robinson and G. w. parties decidedly outnumbered the Republicans at the polls from Brown (Topeka, 1903). W. C. Webb's Republican Election Methods in Kansas, General Election of 1892, and Legislative Investigations 1890-1898, but they could win only by fusion. In 1892–1893, (Topeka, 1893) may also be mentioned. when the Populists elected the governor and the Senate, and the Republicans (as the courts eventually determined) the House KANSAS CITY, a city and the county-seat of Wyandotte of Representatives, political passion was so high as to threaten county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri River, at armed conflicts in the capital. The Australian ballot was the mouth of the Kansas, altitude about 800 ft. It is separated introduced in 1893. In the decade following 1880, struggles in from its greater neighbour, Kansas City, Missouri, only by the the western counties for the location of county seats (the bitter- state line, and is the largest city in the state. Pop. (1890), est local political fights known in western states) repeatedly led 38,315; (1900), 51,418, of whom 6,377 were foreign-born and to bloodshed and the interference of state militia. 6509 were negroes; (1910 census) 82,331. It is served by the TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS" Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island Andrew H. Reeder & Pacific, and the Chicago Great Western railways, and by July 7, 1854-Aug. 16, '55 Wilson Shannon Sept. 7, 1855-Aug. 18, ²56 electric lines connecting with Leavenworth and with Kansas John W. Geary Sept. 9, 1856-Mar. 12, 57 City, Missouri. There are several bridges across the Kansas Robert J. Walker May 27, 1857-Nov. 16, '57 river. The city covers the low, level bottom-land at the junction James W. Denver May 12, 1858-Oct. 10, '58 Samuel Medary Dec. 18, 1858-Dec. 17, '60 of the two rivers, and spreads over the surrounding highlands to the W., the principal residential district. Its plan is regular. Acting Governors ? Aggregate The first effective steps toward a city park and boulevard system Daniel Woodson 5 times (164 days) Apr. 17, 1855-Apr. 16, '57 were taken in 1907, when a board of park commissioners, consist- Frederick P. Stanton 2 ( 78 Apr. 16, 1857-Dec. 21, 57 | ing of three members, was appointed by the mayor. The city James W. Denver ( 23 Dec. 21, 1857-May 12, 58 has been divided into the South Park District and the North Hugh S. Walsh 4(5?), (177 July 1858-June 16, 'O George M. Beebe (131 Sept. 11, 1860-Feb. 9, '61 Park District, and at the close of 1908 there were 10 m. of boulevards and parks aggregating 160 acres. A massive steel and. STATE GOVERNORS Charles Robinson concrete toll viaduct, about 1} m. in length, extends from the Republican 1861-1863 Thomas Carney 1863-1865 bluffs of Kansas City, Kan., across the Kansas valley to the bluffs, Samuel J. Crawford 1865-1869 of Kansas City, Mo., and is used by pedestrians, vehicles and N. Green (to fill vacancy) 1869 (3 months) street cars. There is a fine public library building given by James M. Harvey 1869-1873 Andrew Carnegie. The charities of the city are co-ordinated Thomas A. Osborn 1873-1877 George T. Anthony 1877–1879 through the associated charities. Among charitable state-aided John P. St John 1879-1883 institutions are the St Margaret's hospital (Roman Catholic), George W. Glick Democrat 1883-1885 Bethany hospital (Methodist), a children's home (1893), and, John A. Martin Republican 1885-1889 for negroes, the Douglass hospital training school for nurses Lyman U. Humphrey 1889-1893 Lorenzo D. Lewelling Populist 1893-1895 (1898)—the last the largest private charity of the state. The Edmund N. Morrill Republican 1895-1897 medical department of the Kansas state university, the other John W. Leedy Democrat-Populist 1897–1899 departments of which are in Lawrence, is in Kansas City; and W. E. Stanley Republican 1899-1903 among the other educational institutions of the city are the Willis J. Bailey 1903-1905 Edward W. Hoch Western university and industrial school (a co-educational school 1905-1909 Walter R. Stubbs 1909- for negroes), the Kansas City Baptist theological seminary AUThorities. ---Consult for physiographic descriptions general (1902), and the Kansas City university (Methodist Protestant, works on the United States, exploration, surveys, &c., also paper by 1896), which had 454 students in 1908-1909 and comprises Mather George I. Adams in American Geographical Society, Bulletin 34 college (for liberal arts), Wilson high school (preparatory), a (1902), pp. 89-104., Onclimate see U.S. Department of Agriculture, school of elocution and oratory (in Kansas City, Mo.), a Normal Kansas Climate and Crop Service (monthly, since 1887). On soil and agriculture, see Biennial Reports (Topeka, 1877. seq.) of the State School, Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College (in Kansas Board of Agriculture; Experiment Station Bulletin of the Kansas City, Mo.), and a school of theology. The city is the seat of the Agricultural College (Manhattan); and statistics in the United States Kansas (State) school for the blind. Kansas City is one of the Statistical Abstract (annual, Washington), and Federal Çensus largest cities in the country without a drinking saloon. Indus- reports. On manufactures see Federal Census reports; Kansas Bureau of Labor and Industry, Annual Report (1885 seq.); Kansas trially the city is important for its stockyards and its meat-packing Inspector of Coal Mines, Annual Report (1887 seq.). On administra interests. With the exception of Chicago, it is the largest live- tion consult the State of Kansas Blue Book (Topeka, iodical), and stock market in the United States. product-value of the Terms of actual service in Kansas, not period of commissions. city's factories in 1905 was $96,473,050; 93.5% consisting of The appointment was for four years. Reeder was removed, all the the product of the wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing others resigned. 2 Secretaries of the Territory who served as governors in the has an advantage over Chicago, St Louis, and other large pack- houses. Especially in the South-west markets Kansas City interims of gubernatorial terms or when the governor was absent from the Territory. In the case of H. S. Walsh several dates cannot ing centres (except St Joseph), not only in freights, but in its be fixed with exactness. situation among the “corn and beef” states; it shares also the 1 . 1 2 9 . . a » KANSAS CITY 661 extraordinary railway facilities of Kansas City, Missouri. There Independence Avenue Methodist, and the Second Christian are various important manufactures, such as soap and candles, Science churches are the finest church buildings. The board subsidiary to the packing industry; and the city has large flour of trade building, the building of the Star newspaper, and several mills, railway and machine shops, and foundries. A large large office buildings (including the Scarritt, Long, and New cotton-mill, producing coarse fabrics, was opened in 1907. York Life Insurance buildings) are worthy of mention. Natural gas derived from the Kansas fields became available for Kansas City has over 2000 acres in public parks; but Swope lighting and heating, and crude oil for fuel, in 1906. Park, containing 1354 acres, lies south of the city limits. The Kansas City was founded in 1886 by the consolidation of "old" others are distributed with a design to give each section a recrea- Kansas City, Armourdale and Wyandotte (in which Armstrong tion ground within easy walking distance, and all (including and Riverview were then included). Of these municipalities Swope) are connected by parkways, boulevards and street-car Wyandotte, the oldest, was originally settled by the Wyandotte lines. The Paseo Parkway, 250 ft. wide, extends from N. to S. Indians in 1843; it was platted and settled by whites in 1857; through the centre of the city for a distance of 2} m., and adjoin. and was incorporated as a town in 1858, and as a city in 1859. At ing it near its middle is the Parade, or principal playground. Wyandotte were made the first moves for the Territorial organi- The city has eight cemeteries, the largest of which are Union, zation of Kansas and Nebraska. During the Kansas struggle Elmwood, Mt Washington, St Mary's and Forest Hill. The Wyandotte was a pro-slavery town, while Quindaro (1856), charitable institutions and professional schools included in 1908 a few miles up the Missouri, was a free-state settlement and about thirty hospitals, several children's homes and homes for Wyandotte's commercial rival until after the Civil War. The the aged, an industrial home, the Kansas City school of law, convention that framed the constitution, the Wyandotte Con- the University medical college, and the Scarritt training school. stitution, under which Kansas was admitted to the Union, The city has an excellent public school system. A Methodist met here in July 1859. "Old" Kansas City was surveyed in Episcopal institutional church, admirably equipped, was opened 1869 and was incorporated as a city in 1872 Armourdale was in 1906. The city has a juvenile court, and maintains free laid out in 1880 and incorporated in 1882. The packing employment bureau. interest was first established in 1867; the first large packing Kansas City is primarily a commercial centre, and its trade in plant was that of Armour & Co., which was removed to what is livestock, grain and agricultural implements is especially large. now Kansas City in 1871. Kansas City adopted government by The annual pure-bred livestock show is of national importance. commission in 1909. The city's factory product increased from $23,588,653 in 1900 KANSAS CITY, a city and port of entry of Jackson county, to $35,573,049 in 1905, or 50.8 %. Natural gas and crude Missouri, U.S.A., the second in size and importance in the state, petroleum from Kansas fields became of industrial importance situated at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers, about 1906. Natural gas is used to light the residence streets adjoining Kansas City, Kansas, and 235 m. W. by N. of St and to heat many of the residences. Louis. Pop. (1890), 132,716; (1900), 163,752, of whom 18,410 Kansas City is one of the few cities in the United States em- were foreign born (German, 4816; Irish, 3507; Swedish, 1869; powered to frame its own charter. The first was adopted in English, 1863; English-Canadian, 1369; Italian, 1034), and 1875 and the second in 1889. In 1905 a new charter, drawn on 17,567 were negroes; (1910 census) 248,381. Kansas City, the the lines of the model “municipal program "advocated by the gateway to the South-west, is one of the leading railway centres National Municipal League, was submitted to popular vote, but of the United States. It is served by the Union Pacific, the was defeated by the infuence of the saloons and other special Missouri Pacific, the 'Frisco System, the Chicago, Burlington & interests. The charter of 1908 is a revision of this proposed Quincy, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago Great charter of 1905 with the objectionable features eliminated; it Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & was adopted by a large majority vote. Under the provisions Alton, the Wabash, the Kansas City Southern, the Chicago, of the charter of 1908 the people elect a mayor, city treasurer, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Leaven- city comptroller, and judges of the municipal court, each for a worth, Kansas & Western, the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient, term of two years. The legislative body is the common council the St Louis, Kansas City & Colorado, the Quincy, Omaha & composed of two houses, each having as many members as there Kansas City, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, and are wards in the city-14 in 1908. The members of the lower by steamboat lines to numerous river ports. house are elected, one by each ward, in the spring of each even The present retail, office, and wholesale sections were once high numbered year. The upper house members are elected by the city bluffs and deep ravines, but through and across these well graded at large and serve four years. A board of public works, board streets were constructed. South and west of this highland, of park commissioners, board of fire and water commissioners, along the Kansas river, is a low, level tract occupied chiefly by a board of civil service, a city counsellor, a city auditor, a city railway yards, stock yards, wholesale houses and manufacturing assessor, a purchasing agent, and subordinate officers, are ap- establishments; north and east of the highland is a flat section, pointed by the mayor, without confirmation by the common the Missouri River bottoms, occupied largely by manufactories, council. A non-partisan board composed of citizens who must railway yards, grain elevators and homes of employés. Much not be physicians has general control of the city's hospitals and high and dry" made ” land has been reclaimed from the river health department. A new hospital at a cost of half a million flood-plain. Two great railway bridges across the Missouri, dollars was completed in 1908. The charter provides for a many smaller bridges across the Kansas, and a great inter- referendum vote on franchises, which may be ordered by the state toll viaduct extending from bluff to bluff across the valley council or by petition of the people, the signatures of 20% of the of the latter river, lie within the metropolitan area of the two registered voters being sufficient to force such election. Public cities. The streets of the Missouri city are generally wide work may be prevented by remonstrance of interested property and excellently paved. The city-hall (1890–1893), the court- owners except in certain instances, when the city, by vote of the house (1886-1892), and the Federal Building (1892–1900) are people, may overrule all remonstrances. A civic league attempts the most imposing of the public buildings. A convention to give a non-partisan estimate of all municipal candidates. hall, 314 ft. long and 198 ft. wide, with a seating capacity of The juvenile court, the arts and tenement commissions, the about 15,000, is covered by a steel-frame roof without a column municipal employment bureau, and a park board are provided for its support; the exterior of the walls is cut stone and brick. for by the charter. All the members of the city board of The building was erected within three months, to replace one election commissioners and a majority of the police board are destroyed by fire, for the National Democratic Convention appointed by the governor of the state; and the police control which met here on the 4th of July 1900. The Public Library the grant of liquor licences. The city is supplied with water with walls of white limestone and Texas granite, contained (1908) drawn from the Missouri river above the mouth of the Kansas 95,000 volumes. The Congregational, the Calvary Baptist, the or Kaw (which is used as a sewer by Kansas City, Kan.); Second Presbyterian, the Independence Avenue Christian, the l the main pumping station and settling basins being at 662 KANSK-KANT Quindaro, several miles up the river in Kansas; whence the water of Kan-suh are cloth, horse hides, a kind of curd like butter which is carried beneath the Kansas, through a tunnel, to a high-pres- is known by the Mongols under the name of wula, musk, plums, sure distributing station in the west bottoms. The waterworks onions, dates, sweet melons and medicines. (See China.) (direct pressure system) were acquired by the city in 1895. All KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804), German philosopher, was other public services are in private hands. The street-railway born at Königsberg on the 22nd of April 1724. His grandfather service is based on a universal 5-cent transfer throughout the was an emigrant from Scotland, and the name Cant is not un. metropolitan area. Some of the first overhead electric trolleys common in the north of Scotland, whence the family is said to used in the United States were used here in 1885. have come. His father was a saddler in Königsberg, then a The first permanent settlement within the present limits of stronghold of Pietism, to the strong influence of which Kant was Kansas City, which took its name from Kansas river,' was subjected in his early years. In his tenth year he was entered established by French fur traders about 1821. Westport, a at the Collegium Fredericianum with the definite view of studying little inland town-platted 1833, a city 1857, merged in theology. His inclination at this time was towards classics, and Kansas City in 1899—now a fashionable residence district he was recognized, with his school-fellow, David Ruhnken, as of Kansas City-was a rival of Independence in the Santa Fé among the most promising classical scholars of the college. His trade which she gained almost in loto in 1844 when the great taste for the greater Latin authors, particularly Lucretius, was Missouri flood (the greatest the river has known) destroyed never lost, and he acquired at school an unusual facility in Latin the river landing utilized by Independence. Meanwhile, what composition. With Greek authors he does not appear to have is now Kansas City, and was then Westport Landing, being on been equally familiar. During his university course, which the river where a swift current wore a rocky shore, steadily began in 1740, Kant was principally attracted towards mathe- increased in importance and overshadowed Westport. But in matics and physics. The lectures on classics do not seem to have 1838 lots were surveyed and the name changed to the Town of satisfied him, and, though he attended courses on theology, and Kansas. It was officially organized in part in 1847, formally even preached on one or two occasions, he appears finally to have incorporated as a town in 1850, chartered under its present name given up the intention of entering the Church. The last years in 1853, rechartered in 1875, in 1889 and in 1908. Before 1850 of his university studies were much disturbed by poverty. His it was practically the exclusive eastern terminus on the river for father died in 1746, and for nine years he was compelled to the Santa Fé trade, and a great outfitting point for Californian earn his own living as a private tutor. Although he disliked emigrants. The history of this border trade is full of picturesque the life and was not specially qualified for il-as he used to say colour. During the Civil War both Independence and Westport regarding the excellent precepts of his Pädagogik, he was never were the scene of battles, Kansas City escaped, but her trade able to apply them-yet he added to his other accomplishments went to Leavenworth, where it had the protection of an army a grace and polish which he displayed ever afterwards to a post and a quiet frontier. After the war the railways came, degree somewhat unusual in a philosopher by profession. taking away the traffic to Santa Fé, and other cities farther up In 1755 Kant became tutor in the family of Count Kayserling. the Missouri river took over the trade to its upper valley. In By the kindness of a friend named Richter, he was enabled to 1866 Kansas City was entered by the first railway from St Louis; resume his university career, and in the autumn of that year he 1867 saw the beginning of the packing industry; in 1869 a railway graduated as doctor and qualified as privatdocent. For fifteen bridge across the Missouri assured it predominance over Leaven years he continued to labour in this position, his fame as writer worth and St Joseph; and since that time-save for a depression and lecturer steadily increasing. Though twice he failed to shortly after 1890, following a real-estate boom-the material obtain a professorship at Königsberg, he steadily refused ap- progress of the city has been remarkable; the population in pointments elsewhere. The only academic preſerment received creased from 4418 in 1860 to 32,260 in 1870, 55,785 in 1880, and by him during the lengthy probation was the post of under- 132,716 in 1890. librarian (1766). His lectures, at first mainly upon physics, See T. S. Case (ed.), History of Kansas City, Missouri (Syracuse, gradually expanded until nearly all descriptions of philosophy 1888); William Griffith, History of Kansas City (Kansas City, 1900); were included under them. for industrial history, the Greater Kansas City Yearbook (1907 seq ); In 1770 he obtained the chair of logic and metaphysics at for all features of municipal interest, the Kansas Çily Annual Königsberg, and delivered as his inaugural address the disserta- (Kansas City, 1907 seq.), prepared for the Business Men's League. tion De mundi sensibilis el intelligibilis forma el principiis. KANSK, a town of eastern Siberia, in the government of Eleven years later appeared the Kritik of Pure Reason, the work Yeniseisk, 151 m. by rail E. of Krasnoyarsk, on the Kan River, towards which he had been steadily advancing, and of which all a tributary of the Yenisei, and on the Siberian highway. Pop: his later writings are developments. In 1783 he published the (1897), 7504. It is the chief town of a district in which gold Prolegomena, intended as an introduction to the Kritik, which is found, but lies on low ground subject to inundation by the had been found to stand in need of some explanatory comment. river. A second edition of the Krilik, with some modifications, appeared KAN-SUH, a north-western province of China, bounded N. by in 1787, after which it remained unaltered. Mongolia, E. by Shen-si, S. by Szech’uen, W. by Tibet and N.W. In spite of its frequent obscurity, its novel términology, and by Turkestan. The boundary on the N. remains undefined, but its declared opposition to prevailing systems, the Kantian philo- the province may be said to occupy the territory lying between sophy made rapid progress in Germany. In the course of ten 32° 30' and 40° N., and 108° and 98° 20' E., and to contain about or twelve years from the publication of the Kritik of Pure Reason, 260,009sq.m. The population is estimated at 9,800,000. Western it was expounded in all the leading universities, and it even Kan-suh is mountainous, and largely a wilderness of sand and penetrated into the schools of the Church of Rome. Such men snow, but east of the Hwang-ho the country is cultivated. The as J. Schulz in Königsberg, J. G. Kiesewetter in Berlin, Jakob principal river is the Hwang-ho, and in the mountains to the in Halle, Born and A. L. Heydenreich in Leipzig, K. L. Reinhold south of Lan-chow Fu rises the Wei-ho, which traverses Shen-si and E. Schmid in Jena, Buhle in Göttingen, Tennemann in and flows into the Hwang-ho at Tung-kwan. The chief products Marburg, and Snell in Giessen,' with many others, made it the 1" Kansas "-in archaic variants of spelling and pronunciation, basis of their philosophical teaching, while theologians like Kansaw,'' and still called, locally and colloquially, the “ Kaw." 2 Before Kansas City, first Old Franklin (opposite Boonville), then doctrine and morality. Young men flocked to Königsberg as to Tieftrunk, Stäudlin, and Ammon eagerly applied it to Christian Ft. Osage, Liberty, Sibley, Lexington, Independence and Westport had successively been abandoned as terminals, as the transfer. a shrine of philosophy. The Prussian Government even under- point from boat to prairie caravan was moved steadily up the took the expense of their support. Kant was hailed by some Missouri. Whisky, groceries, prints and notions were staples sent as a second Messiah. He was consulted as an oracle on all to Santa Fé; wool, buffalo robes and dried buffalo meat, Mexican questions of casuistry—as, for example, on the lawfulness of silver coin, gold and silver dust and ore came in return. the trade employed 3000 wagons and 7000 men, and amounted to inoculation for the small-pox. This universal homage for a long millions of dollars in value. time left Kant unaffected; it was only in his later years that he KANT 663 a spoke of his system as the limit of philosophy, and resented all | quick and delicate; and, though of weak constitution, he escaped further progress. He still pursued his quiet round of lecturing by strict regimen all serious illness. and authorship, and contributed from time to time papers to His life was arranged with mechạnical regularity; and, as he the literary journals. Of these, among the most remarkable was never married, he kept the habits of his studious youth to old his review of Herder's Philosophy of History, which greatly age. His man-servant, who awoke him summer and winter at exasperated that author, and led to a violent act of retaliation five o'clock, testified that he had not once failed in thirty years some years after in his Melakrilik of Pure Reason. Schiller at to respond to the call. After rising he studied for two hours, this period in vain sought to engage Kant upon his Horen. He then lectured other two, and spent the rest of the forenoon, till remained true to the Berlin Journal, in which most of his one, at his desk. He then dined at a restaurant, which he fre- criticisms appeared. quently changed, to avoid the influx of strangers, who crowded In 1792 Kant, in the full height of his reputation, was involved to see and hear him. This was his only regular meal; and he in a collision with the Government on the question of his religious often prolonged the conversation till late in the afternoon. He doctrines. Naturally his philosophy had excited the declared then walked out for at least an hour in all weathers, and spent opposition of all adherents of historical Christianity, since its the evening in lighter reading, except an hour or two devoted plain tendency was towards a moral rationalism, and it could not to the preparation of his next day's lectures, after which he be reconciled to the literal doctrines of the. Lutheran Church. retired between nine and ten to rest. In his earlier years he often It would have been much better to permit his exposition of the spent his evenings in general society, where his knowledge and philosophy of religion to enjoy the same literary rights as his conversational talents made him the life of every party. He was earlier works, since Kant could not be interdicted without first especially intimate with the families of two English merchants silencing a multitude of theologians who were at least equally of the name of Green and Motherby, where he found many separated from positive Christianity. The Government, how- opportunities of meeting ship-captains, and other travelled ever, judged otherwise; and after the first part of his book, On persons, and thus gratifying his passion for physical geography. Religion within iħe Limits of Reason alone, had appeared in the This social circle included also the celebrated J. G. Hamann, the Berlin Journal, the publication of the remainder, which treats friend of Herder and Jacobi, who was thus a mediator between in a more rationalizing style of the peculiarities of Christianity, Kant and these philosophical adversaries. was forbidden. Kant, thus shut out from Berlin, availed himself Kant's reading was of the most extensive and miscellaneous of his local privilege, and, with the sanction of the theological kind. He cared comparatively little for the history of specula- faculty of his own university, published the full work in Königs- tion, but his acquaintance with books of science, general history, berg. The Government, probably influenced as much by hatred travels and belles lettres was boundless. He was well versed in and fear of the French Revolution, of which Kant was supposed English literature, chiefly of the age of Queen Anne, and had read to be a partisan, as by love of orthodoxy, resented the act; and English philosophy from Locke to Hume, and the Scottish school. a secret cabinet order was received by him intimating the dis- He was at home in Voltaire and Rousseau, but had little or no pleasure of the king, Frederick William II., and exacting a pledge acquaintance with the French sensational philosophy. He was not to lecture or write at all on religious subjects in future. With familiar with all German literature up to the date of his Kritik, this mandate Kant, after a struggle, complied, and kept his but ceased to follow it in its great development by Goethe and engagement till 1797, when the death of the king, according to Schiller. It was his habit to obtain books in sheets from his his construction of his promise, set him free. This incident, how- publishers Kanter and Nicolovius; and he read over for many ever, produced a very unfavourable effect on his spirits. He years all the new works in their catalogue, in order to keep abreast withdrew in 1794 from society; next year he´gave up all his classes of universal knowledge. He was fond of newspapers and works but one public lecture on logic or metaphysics; and in 1797, before on politics; and this was the only kind of reading that could the removal of the interdict on his theological teaching, he ceased interrupt his studies in philosophy. altogether his public labours, after an academic course of forty- As a lecturer, Kant avoided altogether that rigid style in which two years. He previously, in the same year, finished his treatises his books were written. He sat behind a low desk, with a few on the Mela physics of Ethics, which, with his Anthropology, com- Jottings on slips of paper, or textbooks marked on the margin, pleted in 1798, were the last considerable works that he revised before him, and delivered an extemporaneous address, opening with his own hand. His Lectures on Logic, on Physical Geography, up the subject by partial glimpses, and with many anecdotes or on Paedagogics, were edited during his lifetime by his friends and familiar illustrations, till a complete idea of it was presented. pupils. By way of asserting his right to resume theological His voice was extremely weak, but sometimes rose into eloquence, disquisition, he also issued in 1798 his Strife of the Faculties, in and always commanded perfect silence. Though kind to his which all the strongest points of his work on religion were urged students, he refused to remit their fees, as this, he thought, would afresh, and the correspondence that had passed between himself discourage independence. It was another principle that his and his censors was given to the world. chief exertions should be bestowed on the intermediate class of From the date of his retirement from the chair Kant declined talent, as the geniuses would help themselves, and the dunces in strength, and gave tokens of intellectual decay. His memory were beyond remedy. began to fail, and a large work at which he wrought night and Simple, honourable, truthful, kind-hearted and high-minded day, on the connexion between physics and metaphysics, was as Kant was in all moral respects, he was somewhat deficient in found to be only a repetition of his already published doctrines. the region of sentiment. He had little enthusiasm for the beauties After 1802, finding himself attacked with a weakness in the limbs of nature, and indeed never sailed out into the Baltic, or travelled attended with frequent fits of falling, he mitigated the Spartan more than 40 miles from Königsberg. Music he disregarded, and severity of his life, and consented to receive medical advice. A all poetry that was more than sententious prose. His ethics have constant restlessness oppressed him; his sight gave way; his been reproached with some justice as setting up too low an ideal conversation became an extraordinary mixture of metaphors, for the female sex. Though faithful in a high degree to the duties and it was only at intervals that gleams of his former power of friendship, he could not bear to visit his friends in sickness, broke out, especially when some old chord of association was and after their death he repressed all allusion to their memory. struck in natural science or physical geography. A few days His engrossing intellectual labours no doubt tended somewhat before his decease, with a great effort he thanked his medical to harden his character; and in his zeal for rectitude of purpose attendant for his visits in the words, “I have not yet lost my he forgot the part which affection and sentiment must ever play, feeling for humanity.” On the 12th of February 1804 he died, in the human constitution. having almost completed his eightieth year. His stature was On the 12th of February 1904, the hundredth anniversary small, and his appearance feeble. He was little more than five of Kant's death, a Kantian society (Kantgesellschafl) was formed feet high; his breast was almost concave, and, like Schleier- at Halle under the leadership of Professor H. Vaihinger to macher, he was deformed in the right shoulder. His senses were promote Kantian studies. In 1909 it had an annual membership 664 KANT con- a 1) of 191; it supports the periodical Kantstudien (founded 1896; Consideration of these works is sufficient to show that Kant's see BIBLIOGRAPHY, ad init.). mastery of the science of his time was complete and thorough, and that his philosophy is to be dealt with as having throughout a THE WRITINGS OF KANT reference to general scientific conceptions. For more detailed treatment of his importance in science, reference may be made to No other thinker of modern times has been throughout his work Zöllner's essay on “Kant and his Merits on Natural Science" so penetrated with the fundamental conceptions of physical science; tained in the work on the Nature of Comets (pp. 426-484); to Dietrich, no other has been able to hold with such firmness the balance Kant and Newlon; Schultze, Kant and Darwin; Reuschle's careful between empirical and speculative ideas... Beyond all question much analysis of the scientific works in the Deutsche Vierteljahrs-Schrift of the influence which the critical philosophy, has exercised and (1868); W. Hastie's introduction to Kant's Cosmogony (1900), which continues to exercise must be ascribed to this characteristic feature summarizes criticism to that date; and articles in Kant-Studien in the training of its great author. (1896 foll.). The early writings of Kant are almost without exception on The notice of the philosophical writings of Kant need not be more questions of physical science. It was only by degrees that philo-than bibliographical, as in the account of his philosophy it will be sophical problems began to engage his attention, and that the main necessary to consider at some length the successive stages in the portion of his literary activity was turned towards them. The development of his thought. Arranged chronologically these works following are the most important of the works which bear directly are as follows:-- on physical science. 1755. Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae novae 1. Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte (1747); dilucidatio. an essay dealing with the famous dispute between the Cartesians 1756, Metaphysicae cum geometria junctae usus in philosophia and Leibnitzians regarding the expression for the amount of a force. naturali, cujus specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam. According to the Cartesians, this quantity was directly proportional 1762. Die falsche Spilzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren, to velocity; according to their opponents, it varied with the square The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures " (trans. T. K. of the velocity. The dispute has now lost its interest, for physicists Abbott, Kant's Introduction lo Logic and his Essay on the Mistaken have learned to distinguish accurately the two quantities which are Subtilty of the Figures, 1885). vaguely included under the expression amount of force, and conse- 1763. Versuch den Begriff der negativen Grössen in die Weltweisheit quently have been able to show in what each party was correct and einzuführen,.". Attempt to introduce the Notion of Negative Quan- in what it was in error. Kant's essay, with some fallacious explana- tities into Philosophy.". tions and divisions, criticizes acutely the arguments of the Leib- 1763. Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des nitzians, and concludes with an attempt to show that both modes Daseins Golles, “ The only possible Foundation for a Demonstration of expression are correct when correctly limited and interpreted. of the Existence of God." 2. Whether the Earth in its Revolution has experienced some Change 1764. Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen since the Earliest Times (1754;, ed. and trans., W. Hastie, 1900, (Riga, 1771; Königsberg, 1776). Kant's Cosmogony; cf. Lord Kelvin in The Age of the Earth, 1897, 1764. Untersuchung über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der nalür. p. 7). In this brief essay Kant throws out a notion which has since lichen Theologie und Moral, “ Essay on the Evidence (Clear ness) of been carried out, in ignorance of Kant's priority, by Delaunay(1865) the Fundamental Propositions of Natural Theology and Ethics.' and Adams. He points out that the action of the moon in raising 1766. Träume eines Geistersehers, erläutert durch Träume der the waters of the earth must have a secondary effect in the slight Meiaphysik, “ Dreams of a Ghost-seer (or Clairvoyant), explained retardation of the earth's motion, and refers to a similar cause the by the Dreams of Metaphysic" (Eng. trans. E. F. Goerwitz, with fact that the moon turns always the same face to the earth. introd. by F. Sewall, 1900). 3. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels, published 1768. Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im anonymously in 1755 °(4th ed. 1808; republished H. Ebert, 1890). Raum,“ Foundation for the Distinction of Positions in Space." In this remarkable work Kant, proceeding from the Newtonian The above may all be regarded as belonging to the precritical conception of the solar system, extends his consideration to the period of Kant's development. The following introduce the notions entire sidereal system, points out how the whole may be mechanically and principles characteristic of the critical philosophy: regarded, and throws out the important speculation which has since 1770. De mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis forma et principiis. received the title of the nebular hypothesis. In some details, such 1781. Kritik der reinen Vernunfl, “ Kritik of Pure Reason e.g. as the regarding of the motion of the entire solar system as (revised ed. 1787; ed. Vaihinger, 1881 foll. and B. Erdmann, 1900; portion of the general cosmical mechanism, he had predecessors, Eng. trans., F. Max Müller, 1896, 2nd ed. 1907, and J. M. D. among others Thomas Wright of Durham, but the work as a whole Meiklejohn, 1854). contains a wonderfully acute anticipation of much that was after- 1783. Prolegomena 21. einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik die als wards carried out by Herschel and Laplace. The hypothesis of the Wissenschaft wird auftreten können, Prolegomena to all Future original nebular condition of the system, with the consequent Metaphysic which may present itself as Science” (ed. B. Erdmann, explanation of the great phenomena of planetary formations and 1878; Eng. trans. J. P. Mahaffy and J. H. Bernard, 2nd ed. 1889; movements of the satellites and rings, is unquestionably to be Belfort Bax, 1883 and Paul Carus, 1902; and cf. M. Apel, Kommentar assigned to manty, asnabbis question sce discussion in W. Hastie's Kant's Cosmogonyabove.) zu Kants Prolegomena, 1908). 1784. Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte im weltbürgerlicher 4. Meditationum quarundam de igne succincta delineatio (1755): Absicht," Notion of a Universal History in a Cosmopolitan Sense.' an inaugural dissertation, containing little beyond the notion that With this may be coupled the review of Herder in 1785. bodies operate on one another through the medium of a uniformly 1785. Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, Foundations of diffused, elastic and subtle matter (ether) which is the underlying the Metaphysic of Ethics" (see T. K. Abbott, Fundamental Principles substance of heat and light. Both heat and light are regarded as of the Mela physic of Ethics, 3rd ed. 1907). vibrations of this diffused ether. 1786. Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft, “Meta- 5. On the Causes of Earthquakes (1755); Descriplion of the Earth physical Elements of Natural Science". (ed. A. Höfler, 1900; trans. quake of 1755 (1756); Consideration of some Recently Experienced Belfort Bax, Prolegomena and Metaphysical Foundations, 1883). Earthquakes (1756). 1788. Ueber den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien in der 6. Explanatory Remarks on the Theory of the Winds (1756), In Philosophie, “On the Employment of Teleological 'Principles in. this brief tract, Kant, apparently in entire ignorance of the explana- Philosophy.". tion given in 1735 by Hadley, points out how the varying velocity of 1788. Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, Kritik of Practical rotation of the successive zones of the earth's surface furnishes a key Reason". (trans. T. K. Abbott, ed. 1898). to the phenomena of periodic winds. His theory is in almost entire 1790. Kritik der Urtheilskraft, “ Kritik of Judgment " (trans. agreement with that now received. See the parallel statements with notes J. H. Bernard, 1892). from Kant's tract and Dove's essay on the influence of the rotation 1790. Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen of the earth on the flow of its atmosphere (1835), given in Zöllner's Vernunft durch eine ältere enibehrlich gemacht werden soll, “On a work, Ueber die Natur der Cometen, pp. 477-482. Discovery by which all the recent Critique of Pure Reason is super- 7. On the Different Races of Men (1775); Determinalion of the seded by a more ancient” (i.e by Leibnitz's philosophy). Notion of a Human Race (1785); Conjectural Beginning of Human 1791. Ueber die wirklichen Fortschritte der Metaphysik seit Leibnilz History (1786): three tracts containing some points of interest as und Wolff, “On the Real Advances of Metaphysics since Leibnitz regards the empirical grounds for Kant's doctrine of teleology, and Wolf"; and Veber das Misslingen aller philosophischen Versuche Reference will be made to them in the notice of the Kritik of in der Theodicee. Judgment. 1793. Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, 8. On the Volcanoes in the Moon (1785); On the Influence of the Moon Religion within the Bounds of Reason only” (Eng. trans. J. W. on the Weather (1794). The second of these contains a remarkable Semple, 1838). discussion of the relation between the centre of the moon's figure and 1794. Ueber Philosophie überhaupt, “On Philosophy generally," its centre of gravity. From the difference between these Kant is and Das Ende aller Dinge. led to conjecture that the climatic conditions of the side of the moon 1795. Zum ewigen Frieden (Eng. trans., M. Campbell Smith, 1903); turned from us must be altogether unlike those of the face presented 1797. Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre (trans. to us. His views have been restated by Hansen. Hastie), and Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Tugendlehre. 9. Lectures on Physical Geography (1822): published from notes of 1798. Der Streit der Facultäten, * Contest of the Faculties." Kant's lectures, with the approval of the author. 1798. Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht. 1 1 10 60 KANT 665 The Kantian Philosophy. in the attempt to carry it out systematically, and thus to note with Historians are accustomed to divide the general current of precision the special problems presented to Kant at the outset of his philosophic reflections. speculation into epochs or periods marked by the dominance of some single philosophic conception with its systematic evolution. Perhaps side, as it appears in Locke. Starting with the assumption of Consider, first, the application of the method on its psychological in no case is the character of an epoch more clearly apparent than in that of the critical philosophy. The great work of Kant absolutely mind, Locke proceeds to explain its genesis and nature by reference conscious experience as the content or filling-in of the individual closed the lines of speculation along which the philosophical literature to the real universe of things and its mechanical operation upon the of the 18th century had proceeded, and substituted for them a new and more comprehensive method of' regarding the essential problems mind. The result of the interaction of mind, i.e. the individual of thought, a method which has prescribed the course of philosophic mind, and the system of things, is conscious experience, consisting of ideas, which may be variously compounded, divided, compared, speculation in the present age. The critical system has thus a two- fold aspect. It takes up into itself what had characterized the entity, Mind, is sụpposed to be endowed. or dealt with by the subjective faculties or powers with which the Matter of fact and matter previous efforts of modern thought, shows the imperfect nature of of knowledge are thus at a stroke dissevered. The very notion of the fundamental notions therein employed, and offers a new solution relation between mind and things leads at once to the counter notion of the problems to which these notions had been applied. It opens of the absolute restriction of mind to its own subjective nature. up a new series of questions upon which subsequent philosophic That Locke was unable to reconcile these opposed notions is not reflection has been directed, and gives to them the form, under surprising; that the difficulties and obscurities of the Essay arise which it is possible that they should be fruitfully regarded. A work from the impossibility of reconciling them is evident on the slightest of this kind is essentially epoch-making. necessary that there should be constant reference, on the one hand, In Berkeley we find the resolute determination to accept only the In any complete account of the Kantian system it is therefore consideration of the main positions of that work. Of these difficulties the philosophies of Berkeley and Hume are systematic treatments. to the peculiar character of the preceding 18th-century philosophy: one notion, that of mind as restricted to its own conscious experience, and, on the other hand, to the problems left for renewed treatment and to attempt by this means to explain the nature of the external to more modern thought. Fortunately the development of the Kantian system itself furnishes such treatment as is necessary of reality to which obscure reference is made. Any success in the the former reference. For the critical philosophy was a work of attempt is due only to the fact that Berkeley introduces alongside of his individualist notion a totally new conception, that of mind slow growth. In the early writings of Kant we are able to trace with great definiteness the successive stages through which he passed ence, but as capable of reflection upon the whole of experience and itself as not in the same way one of the matters of conscious experi. from the notions of the preceding philosophy to the new and com. prehensive method which gives its special character to the critical only in Hume that we have definitely and completely the evolution of reference to the supreme mind as the ground of all reality. It is work. Scarcely any great mind, it has been said with justice, ever of the individualist notion as groundwork of a theory of knowledge; matured so slowly. In the early essays we find the principles of the current philosophies, those of Leibnitz and English empiricism, fundamental difficulty of that notion clearly apparent. It is not a and it is in his writings, therefore, that we may expect to find the. applied in various directions to those probleins which serve as tests of their truth and completeness; we note the appearance of the dissolution of all fixity of cognition, which is the inevitable result little remarkable that we should find in Hume, not only the sceptical difficulties or contradictions which manifest the one-sidedness or imperfection of the principle applied; and we can trace the gradual the very root of the difficulty. The systematic application of the of the individualist method, but also the clearest consciousness of growth of the new conceptions which were destined, in the completed doctrine that conscious experience consists only of isolated objects system, to take the place of the earlier method. . To understand the Kantian work it is indispensable to trace the history of its growth between truths reached by analysis and truths which involve real of knowledge, impressions or ideas, leads Hume to distinguish in the mind of its author. of the two preceding stages of modern philosophy, only the connexion of the objects of knowledge. The first he is willing to practically the course of Kant's speculation. With the Cartesian propositions as coming under this head (see HUME); with respect to second. that of Locke and Leibnitz, seems to have influenced accept without further inquiry, though it is an error to suppose, as Kant seems to have supposed, that he regarded mathematical movement as a whole he shows little acquaintance and no sympathy, the second, he finds himself, and confesses that he finds himself, and his own philosophic conception is never brought into relation hopelessly at fault. No real connexions between isolated objects with the systematic treatment of metaphysical problems charac- teristic of the Cartesian method. The fundamental question for sarily implies the existence of any other. In short, if the difficulty of experience are perceived by us. No single matter of fact neces- philosophic reflection presented itself to him in the form which it be put in its ultimate form, no existence thought as a distinct had assumed in the hands of Locke and his successors in England, individual can transcend itself, or imply relation to any other of Leibnitz and the Leibnitzian school in Germany. The transition from the Cartesian movement to this second stage of modern thought many distinct things, there is no possibility of connecting them other existence. If the parts of conscious experience are regarded as so had doubtless been natural and indeed necessary. Nevertheless the than contingently, if at all. If the individual mind bé really full bearings of the philosophic question were somewhat obscured by thought as individual, it is impossible to explain how it should have the comparatively limited fashion in which it was then regarded knowledge or consciousness at all. The tendency towards what may be technically called subjectivism are two principles which I cannot render consistent, nor is it in my In short,” says Hume," there a tendency which differentiates the modern from the ancient method of speculation, is expressed in Locke and Leibnitz in a definite and power to renounce either of them, viz. that all our distinct perceptions are distinct existences, and that the mind never perceives any real peculiar fashion. However widely the two systems differ in details, connexion among distinct existences. Did our perceptions either they are at one in a certain fundamental conception which dominates inhere in something simple or individual, or did the mind perceive the whole course of their philosophic construction. They are through some real connexion among them, there would be no difficulty in out individualist, i.e. they accept as given fact the existence of the the case" (App. to Treatise of Human Nature). concrete, thinking subject, and endeavour to show how this subject, as an individual conscious being, is related to the wider universe of Thus, on the one hand, the individualist conception, when carried which he forms part. In dealing with such a problem, there are out to its full extent, leads to the total negation of all real cognition. evidently two lines along which investigation may proceed. It may If the real system of things, to which conscious experience has be asked how the individual mind comes to know himself and the reference, be regarded as standing in casual relation to this experience system of things with which he is connected, how the varied contents there is no conceivable ground for the extension to reality of the of his experience are to be accounted for, and what certainty notions which somehow are involved in thought. The same result attaches to his subjective consciousness of things. Regarded from is apparent, on the other hand, when we consider the theory of the individualist point of view, this line of inquiry becomes purely knowledge implied in the Leibnitzian individualism. The meta- psychological, and the answer may be presented, as it was presented physical conception of the monads, each of which is the universe by Locke, in the fashion of a natural history of the growth of con- in nuce, presents insuperable difficulties when the connexion or scious experience in the mind of the subject. Or, it may be further interdependence of the monads is in question, and these difficulties asked, how is the individual really connected with the system of obtrude themselves when the attempt is made to work out a con- things apparently disclosed to him in conscious experience? what is the mundus intelligibilis, is contained impliciter in each monad, sistent doctrine of cognition. For the whole mass of cognisable fact, the precise significance of the existence which he ascribes both to himself and to the objects of experience ? what is the nature of the and the several modes of apprehension can only be regarded as so relation between himself as one part of the system, and the system many stages in the developing consciousness of the monad. Sense as a whole? This second inquiry is specifically metaphysical in and understanding, real connexion of facts and analysis of notions, bearing, and the kind of answer furnished to it by Leibnitz on the are not, therefore, distinct in kind, but differ only in degree. The one hand, by Berkeley on the other, is in fact prescribed or deter- same fundamental axioms, the logical principles of identity and mined beforehand by the fundamental conception of the indivi- sufficient reason, are applicable in explanation of all given proposi- dualist method with which both begin their investigations. So soon tions. It is true that Leibnitz himself did not work out any com- as we make clear to ourselves the essential nature of this method, plete doctrine of knowledge, but in the hands of his successors the we are able to discern the specific difficulties or perplexities arising theory took definite shape in the principle that the whole work of cognition is in essence analytical." The process of analysis might 1 See further IDEALISM; METAPHYSICS; LOGIC, &c., where Kant's be complete or incomplete. For finite intelligences there was an relation to subsequent thought is discussed. inevitable incompleteness so far as knowledge of matters of fact was 666 KANT concerned. In respect to them, the final result was found in a series found the reason for the superior certainty and clearness of mathe- of irreducible notions or categories, the prima possibilia, the analysis matics as opposed to philosophy. Mathematics, Kant thinks, and elucidation of which was specifically the business of philosophy proceeds synthetically, for in it the notions are constructed. Meta. or metaphysics. physics, on the other hand, is analytical in method; in it the notions It will be observed that, in the Leibnitzian as in the empirical are given, and by analysis they are cleared up. It is to be observed individualism, the fundamental notion is still that of the abstract that the description of mathematics as synthetic is not an anticipa. separation of the thinking subject from the materials of conscious tion of the critical doctrine on the same subject. Kant does not, experience. From this separation arise all the difficulties in the in this place, raise the question as to the reason for assuming that effort to develop the notion systematically, and in tracing the his- the arbitrary syntheses of mathematical construction have any tory of Kant's philosophical progress we are able to discern the reference to reality. The deeper significance of synthesis has not gradual perception on his part that here was to be found the ultimate yet become apparent, cause of the perplexities which became apparent in considering the In the Only Possible Ground of Proof for the Existence of God, the subordinate doctrines of the system. The successive essays which argument, though largely Leibnitzian, advances one step farther have already been enumerated as composing Kant's precritical work towards the ultimate inquiry. For there Kant states as precisely are not to be regarded as so many imperfect sketches of the doctrines as in the critique of speculative theology his fundamental doctrine of the Kritik, nor are we to look in them for anticipations of the that real existence is not a predicate to be added in thought to the critical view. They are essentially tentative, and exhibit with conception of a possible subject. So far as subjective thought is con- unusual clearness the manner in which the difficulties of a received cerned, possibility, not real existence, is contained in any judgment. theory force on a wider and more comprehensive view. There can be The year 1765 was marked by the publication of Leibnitz's post. no doubt that some of the special features of the Kritik are to be humous Nouveaux Essais, in which his theory of knowledge is more found in these precritical essays, e.g. the doctrine of the Aesthetik fully stated than in any of his previous tracts. In all probability is certainly foreshadowed in the Dissertation of 1770; the Kritik, Kant gave some attention to this work, though no special reference however, is no patchwork, and what appears in the Dissertalion to it occurs in his writings, and it may have assisted to give addi. takes an altogether new form when it is wrought into the more tional precision to his doctrine. In the curious essay, Dreams of a comprehensive conception of the later treatise. Clairvoyant, published 1766, he emphasizes his previously reached The particular problem which gave the occasion to the first of conclusion that connexions of real fact are mediated in our thought the precritical writings is, in an imperfect or particular fashion, the by ultimate notions, but adds that the significance and warrant for fundamental question to which the Kritik is an answer. What is such notions can be furnished only by experience. He is inclined, the nature of the distinction between knowledge gained by analysis therefore, to regard as the function of metaphysics the complete of notions and knowledge of matters of fact? Kant seems never to statement of these ultimate, indemonstrable notions, and therefore have been satisfied with the Wolffian identification of logical axioms the determination of the limits to knowledge by their means. Even and of the principle of sufficient reason. The tract on the False at this point, where he approximates more closely to Hume than to Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures, in which the view of thought any other thinker, the difficulty raised by Hume does not seem or reason as analytic is clearly expressed, closes with the significant to occur to him. He still appears to think that experience does division of judgments into those which rest upon the logical axioms warrant the employment of such notions, and when there is taken of identity and contradiction and those for which no logical ground into account his correspondence with Lambert during the next few can be shown. Such immediate or indemonstrable judgments, it is years, one would be inclined to say that the Architektonik of the said, abound in our experience. They are, in fact, as Kant presently latter represents most completely Kant's idea of philosophy. perceived, the foundations for all judgments regarding real existence. On another side Kant had been shaking himself free from the It was impossible that the question regarding their nature and principles of the Leibnitzian philosophy. According to Leibnitz, legitimacy and their distinction from analytic judgments should not space, the order of coexisting things, resulted from the relations of present itself to him. The three tracts belonging to the years 1763-monads to one another. But Kant began to see that such a con- 1764 bring forward in the sharpest fashion the essential opposition ception did not accord with the manner in which we determine between the two classes of judgments. In the Essay on Negative directions or positions in space. In the curious little essay, On the Quantities, the fundamental thought is the total distinction in kind Ground of distinguishing Particular Divisions in Space, he pointed between logical opposition (the contradictoriness of notions, which out that the idea of space as a whole is not deducible from the Kant always viewed as formed, definite products of thought) and experience of particular spaces, or particular relations of objects in real opposition. For the one adequate explanation is found in the space, that we only cognize relations in space by reference to space logical axiom of analytical thinking; for the other no such explanation as a whole, and finally that definite positions involve reference to is to be had. Logical ground and real ground are totally distinct. space as a given whole. I can understand perfectly well," says Kant, how a consequence The whole development of Kant's thought up to this point is follows from its reason according to the law of identity, since it is intelligible when regarded from the Leibnitzian point of view, with discoverable by mere analysis of the notion contained in it. which he started. There appears no reason to conclude that Hume But how something follows from another thing and not according to at this time exercised any direct influence. One may go still the law of identity, this I should gladly have made clear to me. further, and add that even in the Dissertation of 1770, generally How shall I comprehend that, since something is, something else regarded as more than foreshadowing the Kritik, the really critical should be?" Real things, in short, are distinct existences, and, as question is not involved. A brief notice of the contents of this distinct, not necessarily or logically connected in thought. "I have," tract will suffice to show how far removed Kant yet was from the he proceeds, “reflected on the nature of our knowledge in relation methods and principles of the critical or transcendental philosophy. to our judgment of reason and consequent, and I intend to expound Sense and understanding, according to the Dissertation, are the two fully the result of my reflections. It follows from them that the sources of knowledge. The objects of the one are things of sense relation of a real ground to that which is thereby posited or denied or phenomena; the objects of the other are noumena. These are cannot be expressed by a judgment but only by means of a notion, absolutely distinct, and are not to be regarded as differing only in which by analysis may certainly be reduced to yet simpler notions degree. In phenomena we distinguish matter, which is given by of real grounds, but yet in such a way that the final resort of all our sense, and form, which is the law of the order of sensations. Such cognition in this regard must be found in simple and irreducible form is twofold-the order of space and time. Sensations formed notions of real grounds, the relation of which to their consequents by space and time compose the world of appearance, and this when cannot be made clear. treated by the understanding, according to logical rules, is experi- The striking similarity between Kant's expressions in this Essay ence. But the logical use of the understanding is not its only use. and the remarks with which Hume introduces his analysis of the Much more important is the real use, by which are produced the notion of cause has led to the supposition that at this period of pure notions whereby we think things as they are. These pure his philosophical career Kant was definitely under the influence notions are the laws of the operation of the intellect; they are of the earlier empirical thinker. Consideration of the whole passage leges intellectus. is quite sufficient to show the groundlessness of this supposition. Apart, then, from the expanded treatment of space and time as The difficulty with which Kant is presented was one arising inevi: subjective forms, we find in the Dissertation little more than the tably from reflection upon the Leibnitzian theory of knowledge, and very precise and definite formulation of the slowly growing opposi. the solution does not in any way go beyond that theory. It is a tion to the Leibnitzian doctrines. That the pure intellectual solution, in fact, which must have been impossible had the purport notions should be defended as springing from the nature of intellect of Hume's empirical doctrine been present to Kant's mind." He is is not out of harmony with the statement of the Träume eines here at the point at which he remained for many years, accepting Geistersehers, for there the pure notions were allowed to exist, but without any criticism, certain fundamental notions as required for were not held to have validity for actual things except on grounds real cognition. His ideal of metaphysic is still that of complete of experience. Here they are supposed to exist, dissevered from analysis of given notions. No glimmering of the further question, experience, and are allowed validity as determinations of things in Whence come these notions and with what right do we apply them themselves. in cognition? is yet apparent. Any direct influence from Hume The stage which Kant had now reached in his philosophical must be referred to a later period in his career. development was one of great significance. The doctrine of know- The prize essay On the Principles of Natural Theology and Morals ledge expressed in the Dissertation was the final form which the brings forward the same fundamental opposition-though in a Wolffian rationalism could assume for him, and, though many of special form. Here, for the first time, appears definitely the dis- the elements of the Kritik are contained therein, it was not really tinction between synthesis and analysis, and in the distinction is in advance of the Wolffian theory. The doctrine of space and time " KANT 667 as forms of sense-perception, the reference of both space and time absolutely new conception of experience was necessary, if the fact and the pure intellectual notions to the laws of the activity of mind of cognition was to be explained at all, and the various modes in itself, the distinction between sense and understanding as one of which Kant expresses the business of his critical philosophy were kind, not of degree, with the correlative distinction between pheno, merely different fashions of stating the one ultimate problem, differ- mena and noumena, --all of these reappear, though changed and ing according to the particular aspect of knowledge which he modified, in the Kritik. But, despite this resemblance, it seems clear happened to have in view. To inquire how synthetic a priori that, so far as the Dissertation is concerned, the way had only been judgments are possible, or how far cognition extends, or what prepared for the true critical inquiry, and that the real import of worth attaches to metaphysical propositions, is simply to ask, in Hume's sceptical problem had not yet dawned upon Kant. From a specific form, what elements are necessarily involved in experience the manner, however, in which the doctrine of knowledge had been of which the subject is conscious. How is it possible for the indivi. stated in the Dissertation, the further inquiry had been rendered dual thinking subject to connect together the parts of his experience inevitable. It had become quite impossible for Kant to remain in the mode we call cognition? longer satisfied with the ambiguous position assigned to a funda- The problem of the critical philosophy is, therefore, the complete mental element of his doctrine of knowledge, the so-called pure analysis of experience from the point of view of the conditions under. intellectual notions. Those notions, according to the Dissertation, which such experience is possible for the conscious subject. The had no function save in relation to things-in-themselves, i.e. to central ideas are thus self-consciousness, as the supreme condition objects which are not directly or immediately brought into relation under which experience is subjectively possible, and the manifold to our faculty of cognition. They did not serve as the connecting details of experience as a varied and complex whole. The solution links of formed experience; on the contrary, they were supposed of the problem demanded the utmost care in keeping the due to be absolutely dissevered from all experience which was possible balance between these ideas; and it can hardly be said that Kant for intelligence like ours. In his previous essays, Kant, while like- was perfectly successful. He is frequently untrue to the more wise maintaining that such pure, irreducible notions existed, had comprehensive conception which dominates his work as a whole. asserted in general terms that they applied to experience, and that The influence of his previous philosophical training, nay, even the their applicability or justification rested on experience itself, but unconscious influence of terminology, frequently induces in his had not raised the question as to the ground of such justification. statements a certain laxity and want of clearness. He selects Now, from another side, the supreme difficulty was presented-how definitely for his starting point neither the idea of self-consciousness could such notions have application to any objects whatsoever? nor the details of experience, but in his actual procedure passes from For some time the correlative difficulty, how objects of sense. one to the other, rarely, if ever, taking into full consideration the perception were possible, does not seem to have suggested itself weighty question of their relation to one another. Above all, he is to Kant. In the Dissertation sense-perception had been taken as continuously under the influence of the individualist notion which receptivity of representations of objects, and experience as the he had done so much to explode. The conception of conscious product of the treatment of such representations by the lagical or experience, which is the net result of the Kritik, is indefinitely pro- analytical processes of understanding. Some traces of this confused founder and richer than that which had ruled the 18th century fashion of regarding sense-perceptions are left even in the Kritik, philosophizing, but for Kant such experience still appears as some- specially perhaps in the Aesthetik, and they give rise to much of how the arbitrary product of the relation between the individual the ambiguity which unfortunately attaches to the more developed conscious subject and the realm of real facts. When he is actually theory of cognition. So soon, however, as the critical question was analysing the conditions of knowledge, the influence of the indivi- put, On what rests the reference of representations in us to the object dualist conception is not prominent; the conditions are stated as or thing? in other words, How do we come to have knowledge of quite general, as conditions of knowledge. But so soon as the deeper, objects at all? it became apparent that the problem was one of metaphysical problems present themselves, the shadow of the old perfect generality, and applied, not only to cognition through the doctrine reappears. Knowledge is regarded as a mechanical product, pure notions, but to sense-perceptions likewise. It is in the state- part furnished by the subject, part given to the subject, and is thus ment of this general problem that we find the new and characteristic viewed as mechanically divisible into a priori and a posteriori, into feature of Kant's work. pure and empirical, necessary and contingent. The individual as There is thus no reason to doubt the substantial accuracy of Kant's an agent, conscious of universal moral law, is yet regarded as in a reference to the particular occasion or cause of the critical inquiry.. measure opposed to experience, and the Kantian ethical code remains Up to the stage indicated by the Dissertation he had been attempting, purely, formal. The ultimate relation between intelligence and in various ways, to unite two radically divergent modes of explaining natural fact, expressed in the notion of end, is thought as problem- cognition--that which would account for the content of experience atic or contingent. The difficulties or obscurities of the Kantian by reference to affection from things without us, and that which system, of which the above are merely the more prominent, may all viewed the intellect itself as somehow furnished with the means of be traced to the one source, the false or at least inadequate idea of pure, rational cognition. He now discovered that Hume's sceptical the individual. The more thorough explanation of the relation analysis of the notion of cause was really the treatment of one between experience as critically conceived and the individual subject typical or crucial instance of the much more general problem. If was the problem left by Kant for his successors. experience, says Hume, consists solely of states of mind somehow In any detailed exposition of the critical system it would be given to us, each of which exists as an effect, and therefore as dis requisite in the first place to state with some fullness the precise tinct from others, with what right do we make the creamon aneuon; place to follow with some closeness the successive stages of the nature of the problems immediately before Kant, and in the second tion that parts of experience are necessarily connected ? possible answer, drawn from the premises laid down, must be that system as presented in the three main works, the Kritik of Pure there is no warrant for such an assumption. Necessity for thought, Reason, the Kritik of Practical Reason and the Kritik of Judgment, as Kant had been willing to admit and as Hume also held, involves with the more important of the minor works, the Metaphysic of or implies something more than is given in experience--for that Nature and the Metaphysic of Ethics. It would be necessary, also, which is given is contingent-and rests upon an a priori or pure in any such expanded treatment, to bring out clearly the Kantian notion. But a priori notions, did they exist, could have no claim classification of the philosophical sciences, and to indicate the to regulate experience. Hume, therefore, for his part, rejected relation between the critical or transcendental investigation of the entirely the notion of cause as being fictitious and delusive, and several faculties and the more developed sciences to which that professed to account for the habit of regarding experience as neces- investigation serves as introduction. As any detailed statement of sarily connected by reference to arbitrarily formed custom of the critical system, however compressed, would be beyond the limits thinking. Experience, as given, contingent material, had a certain of the present article, it is proposed here to select only the more uniformity, and recurring uniformities generated in us the habit of salient doctrines, and to point out in connexion with them what regarding things as necessarily connected. That such a resort to advance had been effected by Kant, and what remained for sub- experience for explanation could lead to no valid conclusion has sequent efforts at complete solution of the problems raised by him. been already noted as evident to Hume himself. Much that is of interest and value must necessarily be omitted in The dogmatic or individualist conception of experience had thus any sketch of so elaborate a system, and for all points of special proved itself inadequate to the solution of Hume's difficulty regarding interpretation reference must needs be made to the many elaborate the notion of cause, –a difficulty which Kant, erroneously, had dissertations on or about the Kantian philosophy.. thought to be the only case contemplated by his predecessor. The The doctrine from which Kant starts in his critical or transcen- perception of its inadequacy, in this respect, and the consequent dental investigation of knowledge is that to which the slow develop- generalization of Hume's problem, are the essential features of the ment of his thought had led him. The essence of cognition or new critical method. For Kant was now prepared to formulate knowledge was a synthetic act, an act of combining in thought his general inquiry in a definite fashion. His long-continued the detached clements of experience. Now synthesis was explicable reflection on the Wolffian doctrine of knowledge had made clear to neither by reference to pure thought, the logical or elaborative him that synthetic connexion, the essence of real cognition, was faculty, which in Kant's view remained analytic in function, nor not contained in the products of thinking as a formal activity of by reference to the effects of external real things upon our faculties mind operating on material otherwise supplied. On the other hand, of cognition. For, on the one hand, analysis or logical treatment Hume's analysis enabled him to see that synthetic connexion was applied only to objects of knowledge as already given in synthetic not contained in experience regarded as given material. Thus forms, and, on the other hand, real things could yield only isolated neither the formal nor the material aspect of conscious experience, effects and not the combination of these effects in the forms of when regarded from the individualist point of view, supplied any cognitive experience. If experience is to be matter of knowledge foundation for real knowledge, whether a priori or empirical. An for the conscious subject, it must be regarded as the conjoint product The only 668 KANT of given material and synthetic combination. Form and matter Begriffe, notions, and assigns to them certain characteristics of may indeed be regarded separably and dealt with in isolation for notions. But it is readily seen, and in the Logik Kant shows him. purposes of critical inquiry, but in experience they are necessarily self fully aware of the fact, that these pure connective links of and inseparably united. The problem of the Kritik thus becomes experience, general aspects of objects of intelligible experience, do for Kant the complete statement of the elements necessarily involved not resemble concepts formed by the so-called logical or elaborative in synthesis, and of the subjective processes by which these elements processes from representations of completed objects. Nothing but are realized in our individual consciousness. He is not asking, with harm can follow from any attempt to identify two products which Locke, whence the details of experience arise; he is not attempting differ so entirely. So, again, the Aesthetik is rendered extremely a natural history of the growth of experience in the individual mind; obscure and difficult by the prevalence of the view, already noted but he is endeavouring to state exhaustively what conditions are as obtaining in the Dissertalion, that sense is a faculty receiving necessarily involved in any fact of knowledge, i.e. in any synthetic representations of objects. Kant was anxious to avoid the error of combination of parts of experience by the conscious subject. Leibnitz, who had taken sense and understanding to differ in degree So far as the elements necessarily involved in conscious experience only, not in kind; but in avoiding the one error he fell into another .are concerned, these may be enumerated briefly thus:--given data of of no less importance. sense, inner or outer; the forms of perception, i.e. space and time; The consideration of the several elements which in combination the forms of thought, i.e. the categories; the ultimate condition of make up the fact of cognition, or perception, as it may be called, knowledge, the identity of the pure ego or self. The ego or self is contains little or nothing bearing on the origin and nature of the the central unity in reference to which alone is any part of experience given data of sense, inner or outer. The manifold of sense, which cognizable. But the consciousness of self is the foundation of plays so important a part in the critical theory of knowledge, is left knowledge only when related to given material. The ego has not in an obscure and perplexed position. So much is clear, however, in itself the element of difference, and the essence of knowledge that according to Kant sense is not to be regarded as receptive of the consciousness of unity in difference. For knowledge, therefore, it representations of objects. The data of sense are mere stimuli, not is necessary that difference should be given to the ego. The modes partial or confused representations. The sense-manifold is not to under which it is possible for such given difference to become portion be conceived as having, per se, any of the qualities of objects as of the conscious experience of the ego, the modes under which the actually cognized; its parts are not cognizable per se, nor can it isolated data can be synthetically combined so as to form a cogni- with propriety, be said to be received successively or simultaneously. zable rests the possibility of any a priori or creational knowledge. the form of cognition, and upon this form When we apply predicates to the sense-manifold regarded in isola- tion, we make that which is only a factor in the experience of objects The notion of the ego as a purely, logical unity, containing in into a separate, independent object, and use our predicates trans- itself no element of difference, and having only analytical identity, is cendently. Kant is not always in his language faithful to his view of fundamental in the critical system, and lies at the root of all its the sense-manifold, but the theory as a whole, together with his own difficulties and perplexities. To say that the ego as an individual express definitions, is unmistakable. On the origin of the data of does not produce the world of experience is by no means the same as sense, Kant's remarks are few and little satisfactory. He very to say that the ego is pure unity without element of difference. In commonly enıploys the term affection of the faculty of sense as the one case we are treating the ego as one of the objects of experience expressing the mode of origin, but offers no further explanation of and denying of it productive efficacy; in the second case we are a term which has significance only when interpreted after a somewhat dealing with the unity of the ego as a condition of knowledge, of mechanical fashion. Unquestionably certain of his remarks indicate any experience whatsoever. In this second sense, it is wholly wrong the view that the origin is to be sought in things-in-themselves, but to assert that the ego is pure identity, pure unity: The unity and against hasty misinterpretations of such remarks there are certain identity of the ego, so regarded, are taken in abstraction, i.e. as cautions to be borne in mind. The relation between phenomena dissevered from the more complex whole of which they are necessary and noumena in the Kantian system does not in the least resemble elements. When the ego is taken as a condition of knowledge, its that which plays so important a part in modern psychology unity is not more important than the difference necessarily correlated between the subjective results of sense affection and the character with it. That the ego as a thing should not produce difference is of the objective conditions of such affection. Kant has pointedly quite beside the mark. The consequences of the abstract separation declared that it would be a gross absurdity to suppose that in his which Kant so draws between the ego and the world of experience view separate, distinct things-in-themselves existed corresponding are apparent throughout his whole system. Assuming at the outset to the several objects of perception. And, finally, it is not at all an opposition between the two, self and matter of knowledge, he difficult to understand why Kant should say that the affection of is driven by the exigencies of the problem of reconciliation to insert sense originated in the action of things-in-themselves, when we term after term as means of bringing them together, but never consider what was the thing-in-itself to which he was referring, succeeds in attaining a junction which is more than mechanical. TO The thing-in-itself to which the empirical order and relations of the end, the ego remains, partly the pure logical ego, partly the sense-experience are referred is the divine order, which is not matter concrete individual spirit, and no explanation is afforded of the of knowledge, but involved in our practical or moral beliefs. Critics relation between them. It is for this reason that the system of who limit their view to the Kritik of Pure Reason, and there, in all forms of perception and categories appears so contingent and happrobability, to the first or constructive portion of the work, must hazard. No attempt is made to show how or why the difference necessarily fail to interpret the doctrines of the Kantian system, supplied for the pure logical ego should present itself necessarily which do not become clear or definite till the system has been under these forms. They are regarded rather as portions of the developed. Reason was, for Kant, an organic whole; the speculative subjective mechanism of the individual consciousness. The mind and moral aspects are never severed; and the solution of problems or self appears as though it were endowed with a complex machinery which appear at first sight to belong solely to the region of speculative. by which alone it could act upon the material supplied to it. Such thought may be found ultimately to depend upon certain charac- a crude conception is far, indeed, from doing justice to Kant's view, teristics of our nature as practical. but it undoubtedly represents the underlying assumption of many of Data of sense-affection do not contain in themselves synthetic his cardinal doctrines...The philosophy of Fichte is historically combination. The first conditions of such combination are found interesting as that in which the deficiencies of Kant's fundamental | by Kant in the universal forms under which alone sense-phenomena position were first discerned and the attempt made to remedy them. manifest themselves in experience. These universal forms of pero, Unfortunately for the consistency of the Kritik, Kant does not ception, space and time, are necessary, a priori, and in character- attempt to work out systematically the elements involved in istic features resembling, intuitions, not notions. They occupy, knowledge before considering the subjective processes by which therefore, a peculiar position, and one section of the Kritik, the knowledge is realized in consciousness. He mixes up the two Aesthelik, is entirely devoted to the consideration of them. It is inquiries, and in the general division of his work depends rather important to observe that it is only through the a priori character upon the results of previous psychology than upon the lines pre- of these perceptive forms that rational science of nature is at all scribed by his own new conception of experience. He treats the possible. Kant is here able to resume, with fresh insight, his pre; elements of cognition separately, in connexion with the several sub- vious discussions regarding the synthetic character of mathematical jective processes involved in knowledge, viz. sense and under propositions. In his early essays he had rightly drawn the distinc- standing. Great ambiguity is the natural result of this procedure. tion between mathematical demonstration and philosophic proof, For it was not possible for Kant to avoid the misleading connotation referring the certainty of the first to the fact that the constructions of the terms employed by him. In strictness, sense, understanding, were synthetic in character and entirely determined by the action imagination and reason ought to have had their functions defined of constructive imagination. It had not then occurred to him to in close relation to the elements of knowledge with which they are ask, With what right do we assume that the conclusions arrived at severally connected, and as these elements have no existence as from arbitrary constructions in mathematical matter have applica- separate facts, but only as factors in the complex organic whole, it bility to objects of experience? Might not mathematics be a purely might have been possible to avoid the error of supposing that each | imaginary science? To this question he is now enabled to return an subjective process furnished a distinct, separately cognizable portion answer. Space and time, the two essential conditions of sense- of a mechanical whole. But the use of separate terms, such as perception, are not data given by things, but universal forms of sense and understanding, almost unavoidably led to phraseology intellect into which all data of sense must be received. Hence, only interpretable as signifying that each furnished a specific kind whatever is true of space and time regarded by imagination as of knowledge, and all Kant's previous training contributed to objects, i.e. quantitative constructions, must be true of the objects strengthen this erroneous view. Especially noteworthy is this in making up our sense-experience. The same forms and the same the case of the categories. Kant insists upon treating these as constructive activity of imagination are involved in mathematical a KANT 669 synthesis and in the constitution of objects of sense experience. The / as the organic combination of the particular of sense with the foundation for pure or rational mathematics, there being included individual unity of the ego through the universal forms of the under this the pure science of movement, is thus laid in the critical categories. Reference of representations to the unity of the object, doctrine of space and time. synthetic unity of apperception, and subsumption of data of sense The Aesthetik isolates sense-perception, and considers its forms as under the categories, are thus three sides or aspects of the one though it were an independent, complete faculty. A certain con- fundamental fact. fusion, arising from this, is noticeable in the Analytik when the In this deduction of the categories, as Kant calls it, there appears necessity for justifying the position of the categories is under dis- for the first time an endeavour to connect together into one organic cussion, but the real difficulty in which Kant was involved by his whole the several elements entering into experience. It is evident, doctrine of space and time has its roots even deeper than the however, that much was wanting before this essential task could be erroneous isolation of sensibility. He has not in any way de regarded as complete. Kant has certainly brought together self- duced " space and time, but, proceeding from the ordinary current consciousness, the system of the categories and data of sense. He view of sense-experience, has found these remaining as residuum has shown that the conditions of self-consciousness are the conditions after analysis. The relation in which they stand to the categories of possible experience. But he has not shown, nor did he attempt or pure notions is ambiguous; and, when Kant has to consider the to show, how it was that the conditions of self-consciousness are fashion in which category.and data of sense are to be brought the very categories arrived at by consideration of the system of together, he merely places side by side as a priori elements the pure logical judgments. He does endeavour to show, but with small connective notions and the pure forms of perception, and finds it, success, how the junction of category and data of sense is brought apparently, only a matter of contingent convenience that they about, for according to his scheme these stood, to a certain extent should harmonize with one another and so render cognition possible. at least, apart from and independent of one another. The failure To this point also Fichte was the first to call attention. to effect an organic combination of the several elements was the Affection of sense, even when received into the pure forms of natural consequence of the false start which had been made. perception, is not matter of knowledge. For cognition there is The mode in which Kant endeavours to show how the several requisite synthetic, combination, and the intellectual function portions of cognition are subjectively realized brings into the clearest through which such combination takes place. The forms of in- light the inconsistencies and imperfections of his doctrine. Sense tellectual function Kant proceeds to.enumerate with the aid of the had been assumed as furnishing the particular of knowledge, under- commonly received, logical doctrines. For this reference to logic standing as furnishing the universal; and it had been expressly he has been severely blamed, but the precise nature of the debt due declared that the particular was cognizable only in and through the to the commonly accepted logical classification is very, generally universal. Still, each was conceived as somehow in itself complete misconceived. . Synthetic combination, Kant points out, is formally and finished. Sense and understanding had distinct functions, and expressed in a judgment, which is the act of uniting representations. there was wanting some common term, some intermediary which At the foundation of the judgments which express the types of should bring them into conjunction. Data of sense as purely synthetic combination, through which knowledge is possible, lie particular could have nothing in common with the categories as the pure general notions, the abstract aspect of the conditions under purely universal. But data of sense had at least one universal which objects are cognizable in experience. General logic has also aspect,--their aspect as the particular of the general forms, space to deal with the union of representations, though its unity is analytic and time. Categories were in themselves abstract and valueless, merely, not synthetic. But the same intellectual function which serviceable only when restricted to possible objects of experience. serves to give unity in the analytic judgments of formal logic serves There was thus a common ground on which category and intuition to give unity to the synthetic combinations of real perception. It were united in one, and an intermediate process whereby the univer- appeared evident, then, to Kant that in the forms of judgment, as sal of the category might be so far individualized as to comprehend they are stated in the common logic, there must be found the the particular of sense. This intermediate process--which is really analogues of the types of judgment which are involved in transcen- the junction of understanding and sense-Kant calls productive dental logic, or in the theory of real cognition. His view of the imagination, and it is only through productive imagination that ordinary logic was wide and comprehensive, though in his restriction knowledge or experience is actually realized in our subjective of the science to pure form one can trace the influence of his earlier consciousness. The specific forms of productive imagination are training, and it is no small part of the value of the critical philosophy called schemata, and upon the nature of the schema Kant gives much that it has revived the study of logic and prepared the way for a that has proved of extreme value for subsequent thought. more thorough. consideration of logical doctrines. The position Productive imagination is thus the concrete element of knowledge, assigned to logic by Kant is not, in all probability, one which can and its general modes are the abstract expression of the a priori be defended; indeed, it is hard to see how Kant himself, in consis. laws of all possible experience. The categories are restricted in tency with the critical doctrine of knowledge, could have retained their applicability to the schema, i.e. to the pure forms of conjunction many of the older logical theorems, but the precision with which of the manifold in time, and in the modes of combination of schemata the position was stated, and the sharpness with which logic was and categories we have the foundation for the rational sciences of marked off from cognate philosophic disciplines, prepared the way mathematics and physics. Perception or real cognition is thus for the more thoughtful treatment of the whole question. conceived as a complex fact, involving data of sense and pure Formal logic thus yields to Kant the list of the general notions, perceptive forms, determined by the category and realized through pure intellectual predicates, or categories, through which alone productive imagination in the schema. The system of principles experience is possible for a conscious subject. It has already been which may be deduced from the consideration of the mode in which noted how serious was the error involved in the description of understanding and sense are united by productive imagination is these as notions, without further attempt to clear up their precise the positive result of the critical theory of knowledge, and some of significance. Kant, indeed, was mainly influenced by his strong its features are remarkable enough to deserve attention. According opposition to the Leibnitzian rationalism, and therefore assigns the to his usual plan, Kant arranges these principles in conformity with categories to understanding, the logical faculty, without considera- the table of the categories, dividing the four classes, however, into tion of the question, --which might have been suggested by the two main groups, the mathematical and the dynamical. The previous statements of the Dissertation, what relation these cate- mathematical principles are the abstract expression of the necessary gories held to the empirical notions formed by comparison, abstrac- mode in which data of sense are determined by the category in the tion and generalization when directed upon representations of form of intuitions or representations of objects; the dynamical are objects. But when the categories are described as notions, i.e. the abstract expression of the modes in which the existence of formed products of thought, there rises of necessity the problem objects of intuition is determined. The mathematical principles are which had presented itself to Kant at every stage of his pre-critical constitutive, i.e. express determinations of the objects themselves; thinking, with what right can we assume that these notions apply the dynamical are regulative, i.e. express the conditions under which to objects of experience? The answer which he proceeds to give objects can form parts of real experience. Under the mathematical altogether explodes the definition of the categories as formed pro- principles come the general rules which furnish the ground for the ducts of thought, and enables us to see more clearly the nature of application of quantitative reasoning to real facts of experience. For the new conception of experience which lies in the background of as data of sense are only possible objects when received in the forms all the critical work. of space and time, and as space and time are only cognized when | The unity of the ego, which has been already noted as an element determined in definite fashion by the understanding through the entering into the synthesis of cognition, is a unity of a quite distinct schema of number (quantity) or degree (quality), all intuitions are and peculiar kind. That the ego to which different parts of experi. extensive quantities and contain a real element, that of sense, which ence are presented must be the same ego, if there is to be cognition has degree. Under the dynamical principles, the general modes in at all, is analytically evident; but the peculiarity is that the ego which the existence of objects are determined fåll the analogies must be conscious of its own unity and identity, and this unity of of experience, or general rules according to which the existence of self-consciousness is only possible in relation to difference not objects in relation to one another can be determined, and the contained in the ego but given to it.. The unity of apperception, postulates of experience, the general rules according, to which the then, as Kant calls it, is only possible in relation to synthetic unity existence of objects for us or our own subjective existence can be of experience itself, and the forms of this synthetic unity, the cate- determined. The analogies of experience rest upon the order of gories, are, therefore, on the one hand, necessary as forms in which perceptions in time, i.e. their permanence, succession or coexistence, self-consciousness is realized, and, on the other hand, restricted in and the principles are respectively those of substance, causality and their application and validity to the data of given sense, or the reciprocity. It is to be observed that Kant in the expression of particular element of experience. Thus experience presents itself I these analogies reaches the final solution of the difficulty which had 670 KANT so long pressed upon him, the difficulty as to the relation of the pure involve a transcendent use of the categories of experience. It' connective notions to experience. These notions are not directly profits not to apply such categories to the soul, for no intuition applicable to experience, nor do we find in experience anything corresponding to them is or can be given. The idea of the soul corresponding to the pure intellectual notions of substance, cause must be regarded as transcendent. So too when we endeavour. and reciprocity. But experience is for us the combination of data with the help of the categories of quantity, quality, relation and of sense in the forms of productive imagination, forms determined modality, to determine the nature and relation of parts of the world, by the pure intellectual notions, and accordingly experience is we find that reason is landed in a peculiar difficulty. Any solution possible for us only as in modes corresponding to the notions. The that can be given is too narrow for the demands of reason and too permanent in time is substance in any possible experience, and no wide for the restrictions of understanding. The transcendent experience is possible save through the determination of all changes employment of the categories leads to antinomy, or equally balanced as in relation to a permanent in time. Determined sequence is the statements of apparently contradictory results. Due attention to causal relation in any possible experience, and no experience is the relation between understanding and reason enables us to solve possible save through the determination of perceived changes as in the antinomies and to discover their precise origin and significance. relation to a determined order in time. So with coexistence and Finally, the endeavour to find in the conception of God, as the reciprocity. supreme reality, the explanation of experience, is seen to lead to The postulates of experience are general expressions of the signifi- no valid conclusion. There is not any intuition given whereby we cance of existence in the experience of a conscious subject. The might show the reality of our idea of a Supreme Being. So far as element of reality in such experience must always be given by knowledge is concerned, God remains a transcendental ideal. intuition, and, so far as determination of existence is assumed, The criticism of the transcendental ideas, which is also the external intuition is a necessary condition of inner intuition. The examination of the claims of metaphysic to rank as a 'science, yields existence of external things is as certain as the existence of the con. a definite and intelligible result. These ideas, the expression of the crete subject, and the subject cannot cognise himself as existing various modes in which unity of reason may be sought, have no save in relation to the world of facts of external perception. Inner objects corresponding to them in the sphere of cognition. They and outer reality are strictly correlative elements in the experience have not, therefore, like the categories, any constitutive value, and all of the conscious subject. attempts at metaphysical construction with the notions or categories Throughout the positive portion of his theory of cognition, Kant of science must be resigned as of necessity hopeless. But the ideas has been beset by the doctrine that the categories, as finished, com- are not, on that account, destitute of all value. They are supremely plete notions, have an import or significance transcending the bounds significant, as indicating the very essence of the function of reason. of possible experience. Morever, the manner in which space and The limits of scientific cognition become intelligible, only when the time had been treated made it possible for him to regard these as sphere of understanding is subjected to critical reflexion and com. contingent forms, necessary for intelligences like ours, but not to be pared with the possible sphere of reason, that is, the sphere of viewed as absolutely necessary: . The real meaning of these pecu- rationally complete cognition. The ideas, therefore, in relation to liarities is hardly ever expressed by him, though it is clear that the knowledge strictly so called, have regulative value, for they furnish solution of the matter is to be found in the inadequacy of the positive the general precepts for extension and completion of knowledge, theory to meet the demands of reason for completed explanation. and, at the same time, since they spring from reason itself, they But the conclusion to which he was led was one of the greatest have a real value in relation to reason as the very inmost nature importance for the after development of his system. Cognition is of intelligence. Self-consciousness cannot be regarded as merely necessarily limited. The categories are restricted in their applica- a mechanically determined result. Free reflection upon the whole tion to elements of possible experience to that which is presented system of knowledge is sufficient to indicate that the sphere of in intuition, and all intuition is for the ego contingent. But to assert intuition, with its rational principles, does not exhaust conscious that cognition is limited and its matter contingent is to form the idea experience. There still remains, over and above the realm of nature, of an intelligence for whom cognition would not be limited and for the realm of free, self-conscious spirit; and, within this sphere, it whom the data of intuition would not be given, contingent facts, but may be anticipated that the ideas will acquire a significance richer necessarily produced along with the pure categories. This idea of and deeper than the merely regulative import which they possess an intuitive understanding is the definite expression for the complete in reference to cognition. explanation which reason demands, and it involves the conception Where, then, are we to look for this realm of free self-conscious. of a realm of objects for such an understanding, a realm of objects ness?. Not in the sphere of cognition, where objects are mechani- which, in opposition to the phenomena of our relative and limited cally determined, but in that of will or of reason as practical. That experience, may be called noumena or things-in-themselves. The reason is practical or prescribes ends for itself is sufficiently manifest noumenon, therefore, is in one way the object of a non-sensuous from the mere fact of the existence of the conception of morality or intuition, but more correctly is the expression of the limited and duty, a conception which can have no corresponding object within partial character of our knowledge. The idea of a noumenon is thus the sphere of intuition, and which is theoretically, or in accordance a limiting notion. with the categories of understanding, incognizable. The presence Assuredly, the difficult section of the Kritik, on the ground of the of this conception is the datum upon which may be founded a special distinction between phenomena and noumena, would not have led investigation of the conditions of reason as practical, a Kritik of to so much misconception as it has done, had Kant then brought pure practical reason, and the analysis of it yields the statement of forward what lies at the root of the distinction, his doctrine of reason the formal prescripts of morality. and its functions.. Understanding, as has been seen, is the faculty The realization of duty is impossible for any being which is not of cognition strictly so called; and within its realm, that of space, thought as free, i.e. capable of self-determination. Freedom, it is time and matter, positive knowledge is attainable. But the ultimate true, is theoretically not an object of cognition, but its impossibility conception of understanding, that of the world of objects, quantita- is not thereby demonstrated. The theoretical proof rather serves tively determined, and standing in relation of mutual reciprocity as useful aid towards the more exact determination of the nature to one another, is not a final ground of explanation. We are still able and province of self-determination, and of its relation to the whole and necessitated to reflect upon the whole world of phenomena as concrete nature of humanity. For in man self-determination and th cognized, and driven to inquire after its significance. In our mechanical determination by empirical motives coexist, and only in reflection we necessarily treat the objects, not as phenomena, as so far as he belongs and is conscious of belonging both to the sphere matters of positive, scientific knowledge, but as things-in-themselves, of sense and to the sphere of reason does moral obligation become as noumena. The distinction between phenomena and noumena possible for him. The supreme end prescribed by reason in its is, therefore, nothing but the expression of the distinction between practical aspect, namely, the complete subordination of the empirical understanding and reason, a distinction which, according to Kant, side of nature to the prescripts of morality, demands, as conditions is merely subjective. of its possible realization, the permanence of ethical progress in the The specific function of reason is the effort after completed ex. moral agent, the certainty of freedom in self-determination, and the planation of the experience presented in cognition. But in such necessary harmonizing of the spheres of sense and reason through effort there are no notions to be employed other than the categories, the intelligent author or ground of both. These conditions, the and these, as has already been seen, have validity only in reference postulates of practical reason, are the concrete expressions of the to objects of possible experience. We may expect, then, to find three transcendental ideas, and in them we have the full significance the transcendent employment of the categories leading into various of the ideas for reason. Immortality of the soul, positive freedom difficulties and inconsistencies. The criticism of reason in its specific of will, and the existence of an intelligent ground of things are aspect throws fresh light on the limits to human knowledge and the speculative ideas practically warranted, though theoretically neither significance of experience. demonstrable nor comprehensible. Experience has presented itself as the complex result of relation Thus reason as self-determining supplies notions of freedom; between the ego or subject and the world of phenomena. Reason reason as determined supplies categories of understanding. Union may therefore attempt a completed explanation either of the ego or between the two spheres, which seen at first sight disparate, is of the world of phenomena or of the total relation between them. found in the necessary postulate that reason shall be realized, for its The three inquiries correspond to the subjects of the three ancient realization is only possible in the sphere of sense. But such a union, metaphysical sciences, rational psychology, rational cosmology, when regarded in abstracto, rests upon, or involves, a notion of quite rational theology. It is readily seen, in regard to the first of them, a new order, that of the adaptation of nature to reason, or, as it that all attempts to determine the nature of the ego as a simple, may be expressed, that of end in nature. Understanding, and perdurable, immaterial substance rest upon a confusion between reason thus coalesce in the faculty of judgment, which mediates the ego as pure logical unity and the ego as object of intuition, and between, or brings together, the universal and particular elements KANT 671 in conscious experience. Judgment is here merely reflective; that EDITIONS.—Complete editions of Kant's works are as follows: is to say, the particular element is given, so determined as to be (1) G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1838–1839, 10 vols.); (2) K. Rosenkranz possible material of knowledge, while the universal, not necessary and F. W. Schubert (Leipzig, 1838–1840, 12 vols., the 12th con. for cognition, is supplied by reason itself. The empirical details of taining a history of the Kantian school); (3) G. Hartenstein, "in nature, which are not determined by the categories of understanding, chronological order." (Leipzig, 1867-1869, 8 vols.); (4) Kirchmann are judged as being arranged or ordered by intelligence, for in noin the " Philosophische Bibliothek," Berlin, 1868-1873, 8 vols. and other fashion could nature, in its particular, contingent aspect, be supplement); (5) under the auspices of the Königlich Preussische thought as forming a complete, consistent, intelligible whole. Akademie der Wissenschaften a new collected edition was begun The investigation of the conditions under which adaptation of in 1900, (vol. ii., 1906) in charge of a number of editors. It was nature to intelligence is conceivable and possible makes up the planned in four sections: Works, Letters, MSS. Remains and subject of the third great Kritik, the Kritik of Judgment, a work Vorlesungen. There are also useful editions of the three Kritiks by presenting unusual difficulties to the interpreter of the Kantian Kehrbach, and critical editions of the Prolegomena and Kritik der system. The general principle of the adaptation of nature to our reinen Vernunft by B. Erdmann (see also his Beiträge zur Geschichte faculties of cognition has two specific applications, with the second und Revision des Textes von Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1900). of which it is more closely connected than with the first. In the A useful selection (in English) is that of John Watson, The Philosophy first place, the adaptation may be merely subjective, when the of Kant (Glasgow, 1888). empirical condition for the exercise of judgment is furnished by the TRANSLATIONS.-There are translations in all the principal feeling of pleasure of pain; such adaptation is aesthetic. In the languages. The chief English translators are J. P. Mahaffy, W. second place, the adaptation may be objective or logical, when Hastie, T. K. Abbott, J. H. Bernard and Belfort Bax, Their empirical facts are given of such a kind that their possibility can versions have been mentioned in the section on “Works" above. be conceived only through the notion of the end realized in them; BIOGRAPHICAL.-Schubert in the Tith vol. of Rosenkranz's such adaptation is teleological, and the empirical facts in question edition; Borowski, Darstellung des Lebens und Charakters Kants are organisms. (Körigsberg, 1804); Wasianski, Kant in seinen letzten Lebensjahren Aesthetics, or the scientific consideration of the judgments resting (Königsberg, 1804); Stuckenberg, The Life of Immanuel Kant (1882); on the feelings of pleasure and pain arising from the harmony or Rudolf Reicke, Kants Briefwechsel (1900). See also several of the want of harmony between the particular of experience and the laws critical works below. On Kant's portraits see D. Minden, Veber of understanding, is the special subject of the Kritik of Judgment, Portraits und Abbildungen Imm. Kants (1868) and cf. frontispieces but the doctrine of teleology there unfolded is the more important of Kantstudien (as above). for the complete view of the critical system. For the analysis of CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors).-R. Adamson, the teleological judgment and of the consequences flowing from it Philosophy of Kant (1879; Germ. trans., 1880); Felix Adler, A leads to the final statement of the nature of experience as conceived Critique of Kant's Ethics (1908); S. Aicher, Kants Begriff der Erkennt- by Kant. The phenomena of organic production furnish data for a nis verglichen mit dem des Aristoteles (1907); M. Apel, Immanuel special kind of judgment, which, however, involves or rests upon Kant: Ein Bild seines Lebens und Denkens (1904); Arnoldt, Kritische a quite general principle, that of the contingency of the particular Exkurse im Gebiete der Kantforschung (1894); C. Bache, “ Kants element in nature and its subjectively necessary adaptation to our Prinzip der Autonomie im Verhältnis zur Idee des Reichs der Zwecke faculty of cognition. The notion of contingency arises, according (Kantstudien, 1909); B. Bauch, Luther und Kant (1904); Paul to Kant, from the fact that understanding and sense are distinct, Boehm, Die vorkritischen Schriften Kants. (1906); E. Caird, that understanding does not determine the particular of sense, and, Critical Philosophy of Kant (2 vols., 1889); Chalybäus, Historische consequently, that the principle of the adaptation of the particular Entwickelung, der spekulativen Philosophie von Kánt bis Hegel (5th to our understanding is merely supplied by reason on account of the ed., 1860); H. S., Chamberlain, Immanuel Kant (1909); Cousin, peculiarity or limited character of understanding: End in nature, Leçons sur la philosophie de Kant (4th ed., 1864); B. Erdmann, therefore, is a subjective or problematic conception, implying the Immanuel Kani, Kants Kritizismus in der i und 2 Auflage der.“ Krilık limits of understanding, and consequently resting upon the idea of der reinen Vernunft”(1877);0. Ewald, Kants kritischer Idealismus als an understanding constituted unlike ours--of an intuitive under-Grundlage von Erkenntnistheorie und Ethik (1908) and Kants Methodo- standing in which particular and universal should be given together. logie in ihren Grundzügen, (1906); Kuno Fischer, Immanuel Kant The idea of such an understanding is, for cognition, transcendent, (4th ed., 1898–1899), Die beiden Kantischen Schulen in Jena (1862), for no corresponding fact of intuition is furnished, but it is realized and Commentary on Kant's Kritik of Pure Reason (1878); F. Förster, with practical certainty in relation to reason as practical. For we Der Entwicklungsgang der Kantischen Ethik bis zur Kritik der reinen are, from practical grounds, compelled with at least practical Vernunft (1893); A. Fouillée, Le Moralisme de Kant et l'amoralisme necessity to ascribe a certain aim or end to this supreme understand contemporaine (1905); C. R. E. von Hartmann, Kants Erkenntnis. ing. The moral law, or reason as practical, prescribes the realiza. theorie und Metaphysik in den vier Perioden ihrer Entwickelung (1894): tion of the highest good, and such realization implies a higher order A. Hegler, Die Psychologie in Kants Ethik (1891); G. D. Hicks, Die than that of nature. We must, therefore, regard the supreme Begriffe Phänomenon und Noumenon in ihrem Verhältniss zu einander cause as a moral cause, and nature as so ordered that realization of bei Kant (1897); G. Jacoby, Herders und Kants Aesthetik (1907); the moral end is in it possible. The final conception of the Kantian W. Kabitz, Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichteschen philosophy is, therefore, that of ethical teleology. As Kant expresses Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophie (1902); M. Kelly, it in a remarkable passage of the Kritik, The systematic unity of Kant's Philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer (1909); W. Koppel- ends in this world of intelligences, which, although as mere nature mann, I. Kani und die Grundlagen der christlichen Religion (1890); it is to be called only the world of sense, can yet as a system of M. Kronenberg, Kant: Sein Leben und seine Lehre (1897; 3rd ed., freedom be called an intelligible, è.e. moral world (regnum gratiae), 1905); E. Kühnemann, Kants und Schillers Begründung der Aesthetik leads inevitably to the teleological unity of all things which consti- (1895) and Die Kantischen Studien Schillers und die Komposition des tute this great whole according to universal natural laws, just as Wallenstein (1889); H. Levy, Kants Lehre vom Schematismus der the unity of the former is according to universal and necessary moral reinen Verstandesbegriffe (1901); Arthur 0. Lovejoy, Kant and the laws, and unites the practical with the speculative reason. The English Platonists (1908); J. P. Mahaffy, Kant's Critical Philosophy world must be represented as having originated from an idea, if it for English Readers (1872-1874); W. Mengel, Kants Begründung der is to harmonize with that use of reason without which we should Religion (1900); A. Messer, Kanis Ethik (1904); H Meyer-Benſey, hold ourselves unworthy of reason-viz. the moral use, which Herder und Kant (1904); Morris, Kant's Critique of Pure Reason rests entirely on the idea of the supreme good. Hence all natural (Chicago, 1882); C. Oesterreich, Kant und die Metaphysik (1906); research tends towards the form of a system of ends, and in its F. Paulsen, Kant: Sein Leben und seine Lehre (1898; 4th ed., 1904; highest development would be a physico-theology. But this, since Eng. 1902); Harold H. Prichard, Kant's Theory of Knowledge it arises from the moral order as a unity grounded in the very (1909); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, The Developmeni from. Kant essence of freedom and not accidentally instituted by external io Hegel (1882); and, on Kant's philosophy of religion, in The commands, establishes the teleology of nature on grounds which Philosophic Radicals (1907); F. Rademaker, Kants Lehren vom innern a priori must be inseparably connected with the inner possibility of Sinn in der Kritik der reinen Vernunft, (1908); R. Reininger, Kants things. The teleology of nature is thus made to rest on a transcen- Lehre vom inneren Sinn und seine Theorie der Erfahrung (1900); dental theology, which takes the ideal of supreme ontological per. c. B. Renouvier, Critique de la doctrine de Kant (1906); H. Romundt, fection as a principle of systematic unity, a principle which connects Kants philosophische Religionslehre eine Frucht der gesammten Vernunft. all things according to universal and necessary natural laws, since kritik (1902); T. Ruyssen, Kant (1900); E. Saenger, Kants Lehrevom they all have their origin in the absolute necessity of a single primal Glauben (1903): 0. Schapp, Kants Lehre vom Genie und die Entstehung being " (p. 538). der " Kritik der Urteilskraft" (1901), Carl Schmidt, Beiträge zur BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Editions and works of reference are exceedingly Entwickelung der Kant'schen Ethik (1900); A. Schweitzer. Die Since 1896 an indispensable guide is the periodical Religions philosophie Kants (1899); H. Sidgwick, Lectures on the review Kantstudien (Hamburg and Berlin, thrice yearly), edited by Philosophy of Kant (1905); J. H. Stirling, Text Book to Kani (1881); Hans Vaihinger and Bruno Bauch, which contains admirable G. Simmel, Kant und Goethe (1906), L. Staehlin, Kant, Loize und original articles and notices of all important books on Kant and Ritschl (1889); 0. Thon, Die Grundprinzipien der Kantischen Moral. Kantianism. It has reproduced a number of striking portraits of philosophie (1895); T. Valentiner, Kant und die platonische Philoso: Kant. For books up to 1887 see Erich Adickes in Philosophical phie (1904); C. Vorländer, Kant, Schiller: Goethe (1907); G. C. Review (Boston, 1892 foll.): for 1890–1894 R. Reicke's Kant Uphues. Kant und sein Vorgänger (1906); W. Wallace, Kant (1905); Bibliographie (1895). See also in general the latest edition of M. Wartenberg, Kants Theorie der Kausalitat (1899); John Watson, Ueberweg's Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie. Philosophy of Kant Explained (1908), Kant and his English Critics numerous. 672 KANURI-KARACHI + 6 (1881); A. Weir, A Student's Introduction 10 Crilical Philosophy | water. The liquid containing the clay in mechanical suspension (1906); G.A. Wyneken, Hegel's Kritik Kants (1898); W. Windelband, is run into channels called Kúno Fischer und sein Kant (1897). drags " where the coarser im- On Kant's theory of education, see E. F. Büchner, The Educational purities subside, and whence it passes to another set of channels Theory of Immanuel Kant (trans., ed., intro., 1904); trans. of Ueber known as “micas,” where the finer materials settle down. Pädagogik by Annette Churton (1899); J. Geluk, Kant (1883). Thus purified, the clay-water is led into a series of pits or tanks, (R. AD.; X.) in which the finely divided clay is slowly deposited; and, after KANURI, or BERIBERI, an African tribe of mixed origin, the acquiring sufficient consistency, it is transferred to the drying- dominant race of Bornu. They are large-boned and coarse house, or “ dry,” heated by flues, where the moisture is expelled, featured, but contain nevertheless a distinct strain of Fula and the kaolin obtained as a soft white earthy substance. The blood. Beriberi (or Berberi) is the name given them by the clay has extensive application in the arts, being used not only Hausa (see ORNU). in ceramic manufacture but in paper-making, blcaching and KAOLIN, a pure white clay, know also as china-clay, since it various chemical industries. is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of china, or porce- Under the species “ kaolinite" may be included several lain. The word kaolin, formerly written by some authors minerals which have received distinctive names, such as the caulin, is said to be a corruption of the Chinese Kau-ling, meaning Saxon mineral called from its pearly lustre nacrite, a name “High Ridge,” the name of a hill east of King-te-chen, whence originally given by A. Brongniart to a nacreous mica; pholerite the earliest samples of the clay sent to Europe were obtained found chiefly in cracks of ironstone and named by J. Guillemin by the Père d'Entrecolles, a French Jesuit missionary in China from the Greek polis, a scale; and lithomarge, the old in the early part of the 18th century. His specimens, examined German Stcinmark, a compact clay-like body of white, yellow in Paris by R. A. Réaumur, showed that true porcelain, the or red colour. Dr C. Hintze has pointed out that the word composition of which had not previously been known in Europe, pholerite should properly be written pholidite (polis, polidos). contained two essential ingredients, which came to be known Closely related to kaolinite is the mineral called halloysite, a —though it now appears incorrectly—as kaolin and petuntse, name given to it by P. Berthier after his uncle Omalius corresponding respectively to our china-clay and china-stone. d'Halloy, the Belgian geologist. (F. W.R.*) The kaolin confers plasticity on the paste and secures retention KAPUNDA, a municipal town of Light county, South Aus- of form for the ware when exposed to the heat of the kiln, whilst tralia, 48 m. by rail N.N.E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1805. the petuntse gives the translucency so characteristic of porcelain. It is the centre of a large wheat-growing district. The celebrated Some of the earliest discoveries of kaolin in Europe were at copper mines discovered in 1843 were closed in 1879. There are Aue, near Schneeberg in Saxony, and at St Yrieix, near Limoges quarries near the town, in which is found fine marble of every in France. In England it was discovered in Cornwall about colour from dark blue to white. This marble was largely used the year 1750 by William Cookworthy, of Plymouth; and in in the Houses of Parliament at Adelaide. 1768 he took out his patent for making porcelain from moorstone KAPURTHALA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. or growan (china-stone) and growan clay (kaolin), the latter Area, 652 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 314,341, showing an increase of imparting “whiteness and infusibility” to the china. These 5% in the decade; estimated gross revenue, £178,000; tribute, raw materials were found first at Tregonning Hill, near Breage, £8700. The Kapurthala family is descended from Jassa Singh, and afterwards at St Stephen's in Brannel, near St Austell, a contemporary of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah, who by his and their discovery led to the manufacture of hard paste, or true intelligence and bravery made himself the leading Sikh of his porcelain, at Plymouth and subsequently at Bristol. day. At one time it held possessions on both sides of the Sutlej, Kaolin is a hydrous aluminium silicate, having the formula and also in the Bari Doab. The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered HAl2Si,09, or Al Siz07.2H20, but in common clay this silicate tracts in the Bari Doab were forfeited owing to the hostility is largely mixed with impurities. Certain clays contain pearly of the chief in the first Sikh war; but the latter were afterwards white hexagonal scales, usually microscopic, referable to the restored in recognition of the loyalty of Raja Randhir Singh monoclinic system, and having the chemical composition of during the mutiny of 1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh kaolin. This crystalline substance was termed kaolinite by which did good service. He also received a grant of land in S. W. Johnson and J. M. Blake in 1867, and it is now regarded Oudh, 700 sq. m. in extent, yielding a gross rental of £89,000. as the basis of pure clay. The kaolinite of Amlwch in Anglesey In Oudh, however, he exercises no sovereign powers, occupying has been studied by Allan Dick. The origin of kaolin may be only the status of a large landholder, with the title of Raja-i- traced to the alteration of certain aluminous silicates like feldspar, Rajagan. Raja Sir Jagatjit Singh, K.C.S.I., was born in 1872, scapolite, beryl and topaz; but all large deposits of china-clay succeeded his father in 1877, and attained his majority in 1890. are due to the decomposition of feldspar, generally in granite, but During the Tirah expedition of 1897-98 the Kapurthala imperial sometimes in gneiss, pitchstone, &c. The turbidity of many service infantry took a prominent part. The territory is crossed feldspars is the result of partial “ kaolinization," or alteration by the railway from Jullundur to Amritsar. The state has a to kaolin. The china-clay rocks of Cornwall and Devon are large export trade in wheat, sugar, tobacco and cotton. The granites in which the orthoclase has become kaolinized. These hand-painted cloths and metal-work of Phagwara are well rocks are sometimes known as carclazite, a name proposed by known. The town of Kapurthala is 11 miles from Jullundur; J. H. Collins from a typical locality, the Carclaze mine, near pop. (1901), 18,519. St Austell. It has often been supposed that the alteration of KARACHI, or KURRACHEE, a seaport and district of British the granite has been effected mainly by meteoric agencies, India, in the Sind province of Bombay. The city is situated at the carbonic acid having decomposed the alkaline silicate of the the extreme western end of the Indus delta, 500 m. by sea from feldspar, whilst the aluminous silicate assumes a hydrated con- Bombay and 820 m. by rail from Lahore, being the maritime dition and forms kaolin. In many cases, however, it seems terminus of the North-Western railway, and the main gateway likely that the change has been effected by subterranean agencies, for the trade of the Punjab and part of central Asia. It is also probably by heated vapours carrying fluorine and boron, since the capital of the province of Sind. Pop. (1881), 73,500; minerals containing these elements, like tourmaline, often occur (1891), 105,199; (1901), 115,407. Before 1725 no town appears in association with the china-clay. According to F. H. Butler to have existed here; but about that time some little trade began the kaolinization of the west of England granite may have been to centre upon the convenient harbour, and the silting up of effected by a solution of carbonic acid at a high temperature, Shahbandar, the ancient port of Sind, shortly afterwards drove acting from below. much of its former trade and population to the rising village. The china-stone, or petuntse, is a granitic rock which still Under the Kalhora princes, the khan of Kalat obtained a grant retains much of the unaltered feldspar, on which its fusibility of the town, but in 1795 it was captured by the Talpur Mirs, who depends. In order to prepare kaolin for the market, the china- built the fort at Manora, at the entrance to the harbour. They clay rock is broken up, and the clay washed out by means of I also made considerable efforts to increasc the trade of the port KARAGEORGE 673 9) a 0 ! and at the time of the British acquisition of the province the town “ Tsrni Dyordye" and by the Turks“ Karageorge," both mean- and suburbs contained a population of 14,000. This was in 1843, ing “Black George," the Turkish name becoming soon the from which time the importance of the place practically dates. generally adopted one. He was born in 1766 (according to some The harbour of Karachi has an extreme length and breadth in 1768), the son of an extremely poor Servian peasant, Petroniye of about 5 m. It is protected by the promontory of Manora Petrovich. When quite a young man, he entered the service Head; and the entrance is partially closed by rocks and by the of a renowned Turkish brigand, Fazli-Bey by name, and peninsula (formerly an island) of Kiamari . On Manora Head, accompanied his master on his adventurous expeditions. When which is fortified, are the buildings of the port establishment, a twenty he married and started a small farm. But having killed cantonment, &c. Kiamari is the landing-place for passengers a Turk, he left Servia for Syrmia, in Croatia-Slavonia, where and goods, and has three piers and railway connexions. The the monks of the monastery Krushedol engaged him as one harbour improvements were begun in 1854 with the building of of their forest guards. He remained in the service of the monks the Napier Mole or causeway connecting Kiamari with the main- nearly two years, then enlisted into an Austrian regiment, and land. The entrance has a minimum depth of 25 ft.; and a large as sergeant took part in the Austrian war against Turkey number of improvements and extensions have been carried out (1988–91). He deserted his regiment, returned to Servia, and by the harbour board, which was created in 1880, and transformed settled in the village of Topola, living sometimes as a peaceful in 1886 into the port trust.. farmer and sometimes again as the leader of a small band of The great extension of the canal colonies in the Punjab, “hayduks”-men who attacked, robbed and in most cases entirely devoted to the cultivation of wheat, has immensely killed the travelling Turks in revenge for the oppression of their increased the export trade of Karachi. It now ranks as the country. third port of India, being surpassed only by Calcutta and The circumstances in which the Servians rose against the Bombay. The principal articles of export, besides wheat, are janissaries of the pashalik of Belgrade are related in the oilseeds, cotton, wool, hides and bones. The annual value of article on SERVIA. The leaders of the insurgents' bands and exports, including specie, amounts to about nine millions other men of influence met about the middle of February 1804 sterling. There are iron works and manufactures of - cotton at the village of Orashatz, and there elected Karageorge as the cloth, silk scarves and carpets. The fisheries and oyster beds supreme leader (Vrhovni Vozd) of the nation. Under his are important. command the Servians speedily cleared their country not only Among the principal public buildings are government house, of the janissaries disloyal to the Sultan, but of all other Turks, the Frere municipal hall, and the Napier barracks. The military who withdrew from the open country to the fortified places. cantonments, stretching north-east of the city, form the head Karageorge and his armed Servians demanded from the Sultan quarters of a brigade in the 4th division of the southern army. the privileges of self-government. The Porte, confronted by An excellent water supply is provided by an underground the chances of a war with Russia, decided in the autumn of aqueduct 18 m. in length. The chief educational institutions 1806 to grant to the Servians a fairly large measure of autonomy. are the Dayaram Jethmal Arts College, with a law class; five Unfortunately Karageorge was comparatively poor in political high schools, of which two are for Europeans and one for gifts and diplomatic tact. While the hattisherif granting the Mahommedans; a convent school for girls; and an engineer- rights demanded by the Servians was on the way to Servia, ing class. The average rainfall for the year is about 5 in. Karageorge attacked the Turks in Belgrade and Shabats, The rainy months are July and August, but one or two heavy captured the towns first and then also the citadels, and allowed showers usually fall about Christmas. The end of May, begin- the Turkish population of Belgrade to be massacred. At the ning of June, and first fortnight in October are hot. November, same time the Russian headquarters in Bucharest informed December, January, February and March are delightfully cool Karageorge that Russia was at war with Turkey and that the and dry; the remaining months are damp with a constant cool Tsar counted on the co-operation of the Servians. Karageorge sea breeze. and his Servians then definitely rejected all the concessions The DISTRICT OF KARACHI has an area of 11,970 sq. m. Pop. which the Porte had granted them, and joined Russia, hoping (1901), 607,439, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. It thereby to secure the complete independence of Servia. The consists of an immense tract of land stretching from the mouth co-operation of the Servians with the Russians'was of no great of the Indus to the Baluch boundary. It differs in general importance, and probably disappointing to both parties. But appearance from the rest of Sind, having a rugged, mountainous as the principal theatre of war was far away from Servia on the region along its western border. The country gradually slopes lower Danube, Karageorge was able to give more attention to away to the south-east, till in the extreme south the Indus delta the internal organization of Servia. The national assembly presents a broad expanse of low, flat and unpicturesque alluvium. proclaimed Karageorge the hereditary chief and gospodar of Besides the Indus and its mouths, the only river in the district the Servians (Dec. 26, 1808), he on his part promising under is the Hab, forming the boundary between Sind and Baluchistan. oath to govern the country “through and the national The Manchhar lake in Sehwan sub-division forms the only con- council ” (senate). siderable sheet of water in Sind. The hot springs at Pir Mangho Karageorge's hasty and uncompromising temper and imperious are 6 m. N. of Karachi town. The principal crops are rice, habits, as well as his want of political tact, soon made him many millets, oil-seeds and wheat. In addition to Karachi, there are enemies amongst the more prominent Servians (voyvodes and seaports at Sirgonda and Keti Bandar, which conduct a con- senators). His difficulties were considerably increased by the siderable coasting trade. Tatta was the old capital of Sind. intrigues of the Russian political agent to Servia, Rodophinikin. Kotri is an important railway station on the Indus. The main A crisis came during the summer months of the year 1813. The line of the North-Western railway runs through the district. treaty of peace, concluded by the Russians somewhat hurriedly From Kotri downwards the line has been doubled to Karachi, in Bucharest in 1812, did not secure efficiently the safety of the and at Kotri a bridge has been constructed across the Indus Servians. The Turks demanded from Karageorge, as a pre- opposite Hyderabad, to connect with the Rajputana railway liminary condition for peace, that the Servians should lay down system. their arms, and Karageorge refused to comply. Thereupon the See A. F. Baillie, Kurrachee: Past, Present and Future (1890). entire Turkish army which fought against the Russians on the Danube, being disengaged, invaded Servia. After a few KARAGEORGE (in Servian, Karadyordye) (c. 1766-1817), the inefficient attempts to stem the invasion, Karageorge gave up leader of the Servians during their first revolution against the the struggle, and with most of the voyvodes and chiefs of the Turks (1804-13), and founder of the Servian dynasty Kara- nation left the country, and crossed to Hungary as a refugee georgevich. His Christian name was George (Dyordye), but (Sept. 20, 1813). From Hungary he went to Russia and settled being not only of dark complexion but of gloomy, taciturn and in Khotin (Bessarabia), enjoying a pension from the Tsar's easily excitable temper, he was nicknamed by the Servians l government. But in the summer of 1817 he suddenly and 674 KARA-HISSAR-KARAJICH secretly left Russia and reappeared quite alone in Servia in Armenians). In later Byzantine times it was an important the neighbourhood of Semendria (Smederevo) on the Danube. frontier station, and did not pass into Ottoman hands till The motives and the object of his return are not clear. Some twelve years after the capture of Constantinople. The town, believe that he was sent by the Hetaerists to raise up Servia to altitude 4860 ft., is built round the foot of a lofty rock, upon a new war with Turkey and thereby facilitate the rising of the which stand the ruins of the Byzantine castle, Maurocastron, Greek people. It is generally assumed, however, that, having the Kara Hissar Daula of early Moslem chroniclers. It is heard that Servia, under the guidance of Milosh Obrenovich, connected with its port, Kerasund, and with Sivas, Erzingan had obtained a certain measure of self-government, he desired and Erzerum, by carriage roads. to put himself again at the head of the nation. This impression KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES (1782-1827), leader in the War seems to have been that of Milosh himself, who at once reported of Greek Independence, was born at Agrapha in 1782. During to the Pasha of Belgrade the arrival of Karageorge. The pasha the earlier stages of the war he served in the Morea, and had a demanded that Karageorge, alive or dead, should be delivered to somewhat discreditable share in the intrigues which divided the him immediately, and made Milosh personally responsible for Greek leaders. But he showed a sense of the necessity for the execution of that order. Karageorge's removal could not providing the country with a government, and was a steady unfortunately be separated from the personal interest of Milosh; supporter of Capo d'Istria. His most honourable services were already acknowledged as chief of the nation, Milosh did not like performed in the middle and later stages of the war. He helped to be displaced by his old chief, who in a critical moment had to raise the first siege of Missolonghi in 1823, and did his best to left the country. Karageorge was killed (July 27, O.S., 1817) save the town in the second siege in 1826. In that year he while he was asleep, and his head was sent to the pasha for trans- commanded the patriot forces in Rumelia, and though he failed mission to Constantinople. It is impossible to exonerate Milosh to co-operate effectually with other chiefs, or with the foreign Obrenovich from responsibility for the murder, which became sympathizers fighting for the Greeks, he gained some successes the starting-point for a series of tragedies in the modern history against the Turks which were very welcome amid the disasters of Servia. of the time. He took a share in the unsuccessful attempts to Karageorge was one of the most remarkable Servians of the raise the siege of Athens in 1827, and made an effort to prevent 19th century. No other man could have led the bands of the disastrous massacre of the Turkish garrison of fort S undisciplined and badly-armed Servian peasants to such decisive Spiridion. He was shot in action on the 4th of May 1827. victories against the Turks. Although he never assumed the Finlay speaks of him as a capable partisan leader who had great title of prince, he practically was the first chief and master influence over his men, and describes him as of “middle size, (gospodar) of the people of Servia. He succeeded, however, not thin, dark-complexioned, with a bright expressive animal eye because he was liked but because he was feared. His gloomy which indicated gipsy blood." silence, his easily aroused anger, his habit of punishing without See G. Finlay, History of the Greek Revolution (London, 1861). hesitation the slightest transgressions by death, spread terror KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH (1787–1864), the father of among the people. He is believed to have killed his own father modern Servian literature, was born on the 6th of November in a fit of anger when the old man refused to follow him in his 1787 in the Servian village of Trshich, on the border between flight to Hungary at the beginning of his career. In another Bosnia and Servia. Having learnt to read and write in the old fit of rage at the report that his brother Marinko had assaulted monastery Tronosha (near his native village), he was engaged a girl, he ordered his men to seize his brother and to hang him as writer and reader of letters to the commander of the insurgents there and then in his presence, and he forbade his mother to go of his district at the beginning of the first Servian rising against into mourning for him. Even by his admirers he is admitted to the Turks in 1804. Mostly in the position of a scribe to different have killed by his own hand no fewer than 125 men who pro- voyvodes, sometimes as school-teacher, he served his country voked his anger. But in battles he is acknowledged to have during the first revolution (1804-1813), at the collapse of which been always admirable, displaying marvellous energy and valour, he left Servia, but instead of following Karageorge and other and giving proofs of a real military genius. The Servians con voyvodes to Russia he went to Vienna. There he was introduced sider him one of their greatest men. In grateful remembrance to the great Slavonic scholar Yerney Kopitar, who, having heard of his services to the national cause they elected his younger son, him recite some Servian national ballads, encouraged him to Alexander, in 1842, to be the reigning prince of Servia, and collect the poems and popular songs, write a grammar of the again in 1903 they chose his grandson, Peter Karageorgevich Servian language, and, if possible, a dictionary. This programme (son of Alexander) to be the king of Servia. of literary work was adhered to by Karajich, who all his life See Servia; also Ranke, Die serbische Revolution; Stoyan Nova. acknowledged gratefully what he owed to his learned teacher. kovich, Vaskzhs srpske drzhave (Belgrade, 1904); M. G. Milityevich, In the second half of the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th Karadyordye (Belgrade, 1904). (C. Mi.) century all Servian literary efforts were written in a language KARA-HISSAR (“Black Castle "). (1) AFIUM KARA- which was not the Servian vernacular, but an artificial language, Hissar (q.0.). (2) IChje, or Ischa KARA-Hissar (anc. Doci- of which the foundation was the Old Slavonic in use in the mium), a small village about 14 m. N.E. of No. 1. Docimium churches, but somewhat Russianized, and mixed with Servian words forced into Russian forms. That language, called by its was a Macedonian colony established on an older site. It was writers a self-governing municipality, striking its own coins, and stood “the Slavonic-Servian,” was neither Slavonic nor on the Apamea-Synnada-Pessinus road, by which the cele- Servian. It was written in Old Cyrillic letters, many of which brated marble called Synnadic, Docimian and Phrygian was had no meaning in the Servian language, while there were several conveyed to the coast. The quarries are 2} m. from the village, letters in the Old Slavonic alphabet. The Servian philosopher sounds in that language which had no corresponding signs or and the marble was carried thence direct to Synnada (Chifut Kassaba). Some of the marble has the rich purple veins in Dositey Obradovich (who at the end of the 18th century spent which poets saw the blood of Atys. some time in London teaching Greek) was the first Servian author to proclaim the principle that the books for the Servian See W. M. Ramsay, Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor (London, 1890); people ought to be written in the language of the people. But Murray, Hbk. to Asia Minor (1893). the great majority of his contemporaries were of opinion that | KARA-HISSAR SHARKI (i.e. eastern Kara-Hissar"), the language of Servian literature ought to be evolved out of also called Shabin Kara-Hissar from the alum mines in its vicin- | the dead Old Slavonic of the church books. The church natur- ity, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Sivas ally decidedly supported this view. Karajich was the great vilayet of Asia Minor. Pop. about 12,000, two-thirds Mussul reformer who changed all this. Encouraged by Kopitar, he It is the Roman Colonia, which gradually superseded published in 1814 (2nd ed., 1815) in Vienna his first book, Mala Pompey's foundation, Nicopolis, whose ruins lie at Purkh, Prostonarodna Slaveno-Serbska Pyesmaritsa (" A small collection about 12 m. W. (hence Kara-Hissar is called Nikopoli by the l of Slavonic-Servian songs of the common people "), containing a man. KARA-KALPAKS-KARA-KUM 675 hundred lyric songs, sung by the peasant women of Servia, and KARAKORUM (Turkish, “ black stone débris "), the name of six poems about heroes, or as the Servians call them Yunachke two cities in Mongolia. One of these, according to G. Potanin, pesme, which are generally recited by the blind bards or by was the capital of the Uighur kingdom in the 8th century, and the peasants. From that time Karajich's literary activity moved other was in the 13th century a capital of the steppe monarchy on two parallel lines: to give scientific justification and founda- of Mongolia. The same name seems also to have been applied to tion to the adoption of the vernacular Servian as the literary the Khangai range at the headwaters of the Orkhon. (1) The language; and, by collecting and publishing national songs, Uighur KARAKORUM, also named Mubalik (“bad town"), was folk-lore, proverbs, &c., to show the richness of the Servian situated on the left bank of the Orkhon, in the Talal-khain-dala people's poetical and intellectual gifts, and the wealth and steppe, to the south-east of Ughei-nor. It was deserted after beauty of the Servian language. By his reform of the Servian the fall of the Uighur kingdom, and in the roth century Abaki, alphabet and orthography, his Servian grammar and his the founder of the Khitan kingdom, planted on its ruins à Servian dictionary, he established the fact that the Servian stone bearing a description of his victories. (2) The Mongolian language contains thirty distinct sounds, for six of which the KARAKORUM was founded at the birth of the Mongolian monarchy Old Slavonic alphabet had no special letters. He introduced established by Jenghiz Khan. A palace for the khan was built new letters for those special sounds, at the same time throwing in it by Chinese architects in 1234, and its walls were erected in out of the Old Slavonic alphabet eighteen letters for which 1235. Plano Carpini visited it in 1246, Rubruquis in 1253, and the Servian language had no use. This reform was stren- Marco Polo in 1275. Later, the fourth Mongolian king, Kublai, uously opposed by the church and many conservative authors, left Karakorum, in order to reside at Kai-pin-fu, near Peking. who went so far as to induce the Servian government to When the khan Arik-bog declared himself and Karakorum inde- prohibit the printing of books in new letters, a prohibition pendent of Kublai-Khan, the latter besieged Karakorum, took removed in 1859. Karajich's alphabet facilitated his reform of it by famine, and probably laid it waste so thoroughly that the orthography, his principle being: write as you speak, and read as town was afterwards forgotten. it is written! Hardly any other language in the civilized world The exact sites of the two Mongolian capitals were only estab- has such a simple, logical, scientific spelling system and ortho- lished in 1889-1891. Sir H. Yule (The Book of Marco Polo, 1871) graphy as the Servian has in Karajich's system. His first gram- was the first to distinguish two cities of this name. The Russian matical essay was published in Vienna in 1814, Pismenitsa traveller Paderin in 1871 visited the Uighur capital (see TURKS), Serbskoga yezika po govoru prostoga naroda (" The grammar of named now by the Mongols Kara Balghasun (“ black city”) or the Servian language as spoken by the common people "). Khara-kherem (“black wall "), of which only the wall and a An improved edition appeared in Vienna in 1818, together with tower are in existence, while the streets and ruins outside the his great work Srpski Ryechnik (Lexicon Serbico-Germanico- wall are seen at a distance of im. Paderin's belief that this Latinum). This dictionary-containing 26,270 words-was was the old Mongol capital has been shown to be incorrect. As to full of important contributions to folk-lore, as Karajich never the Mongolian Karakorum, it is identified by several authorities missed an opportunity to add to the meaning of the word the with a site on which towards the close of the 16th century the description of the national customs or popular beliefs connected Buddhist monastery of Erdeni Tsu was built. This monastery with it. A new edition of his dictionary, containing 46,270 lies about 25 m. south by east of the Uighur capital. North words, was published at Vienna in 1852. Meanwhile he gave and north-east of the monastery are ruins of ancient buildings. himself earnestly to the work of collecting the “creations of the Professor D. Pozdnéev, who visited Erdeni Tsu for a second time mind of the Servian common people.” He travelled through in 1892, stated that the earthen wall surrounding the monastery Servian countries (Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, might well be part of the wall of the old city. The proper posi- Dalmatia, Syrmia, Croatia), and the result was shown in a tion of the two Karakorums was determined by the expedition largely augmented edition of his Srpske Narodne Pyesme, of of N. Yadrintsev in 1889, and the two expeditions of the Helsing- which the first three volumes appeared at Leipzig in 1823 and fors Ugro-Finnish society (1890) and the Russian academy of 1824, the fourth volume appearing at Vienna in 1833. Popular science, under Dr W. Radlov (1891), which were sent out to Stories and Enigmas was published in 1821, and Servian National study Yadrintsev's discovery. Proverbs in 1836. From 1826 to 1834 he was the editor of an See Works (Trudy) of the Orkhon Expedition (St Petersburg, 1892); annual, called Danitsa (The Morning Star), which he filled with Yule's Marco Polo, edition revised by Henri Cordier (of Paris), vol. i. important contributions concerning the ethnography and modern ch. xlvi. (London, 1903)Cordier confines the use of Karakorum history of the Servian people. In 1828 he published a historical to the Mongol capital; Pozdnéev, Mongolia and the Mongols , vol . i. (St Petersburg, 1896); C. W. Campbell, “ Journeys in Mongolia,' monograph, Milosh Obrenovich, Prince of Servia; in 1837, in Geog. Journ. vol. xx. (1903), with map. Campbell's report was German, Montenegro and Montenegrins; in 1867, The Servian printed as a parliamentary paper (China No. 1, 1904). Governing Council of Slate. He supplied Leopold Ranke with KARA-KUL, the name of two lakes (“ Great ” and “ Little ”). the materials for his History of the Servian Revolution. He also of Russian Turkestan, in the province of Ferghana, and on translated the New Testament into Servian, for the British and the Pamir plateau. Great Kara-kul, 12 m. long and 10 m. Foreign Bible Society (Vienna, 1847). Karajich died in Vienna wide (formerly much larger), is under 39° N., to the south of the on the 6th of February 1864; and his remains were transferred Trans-Alai range, and lies at an altitude of 13,200 ft.; it is sur- to Belgrade in 1897 with great solemnity and at the expense of rounded by high mountains, and is reached from the north over the government of Servia. (C. Mi.) the Kyzyl-art pass (14,015 ft.). A peninsula projecting from KARA-KALPAKS (“ Black Caps "), a Mongolo-Tatar people, the south shore and an island off the north shore divide it into originally dominant along the east coast of the Aral Sea, where two basins, a smaller eastern one which is shallow, 42 to 63 ft., they still number some thousands. They thus form geographi- and a larger western one, which has depths of 726 to 756 ft. cally the transition between the northern Kirghiz and the It has no drainage outlet. Little Kara-kul lies in the north- southern Turkomans. Once a powerful nation, they are east Pamir, or Sarikol, north-west of the Mustagh-ata peak scattered for the most part in Astrakhan, Perm, Orenburg, in (25,850 ft.), at an altitude of 12,700 ft. It varies in depth from the Caucasian province of Kuban, and in Tobolsk, Siberia, 79 ft. in the south to 50 to 70 ft. in the middle, and 1000 ft. or numbering in all about 50,000. These emigrants have crossed more in the north. It is a moraine lake; and a stream of the much with the alien populations among whom they have settled; same name flows through it, but is named Ghez in its farther but the pure type on the Aral Sea are a tall powerful people, course towards Kashgar in East Turkestan. with broad flat faces, large eyes, short noses and heavy chins. KARA-KUM (“Black Sands"), a flat desert in Russian Central Their women are the most beautiful in Turkestan. The name Asia. It extends to nearly 110,000 sq. m., and is bounded on of “ Black Caps” is given them in allusion to their high sheep- the N.W. by the Ust-urt plateau, between the Sea of Aral and skin hats. They are a peaceful agricultural folk, who have the Caspian Sea, on the N.E. by the Amu-darya, on the S. by suffered much from their fierce nomad neighbours. the Turkoman oases, and on the W. it nearly reaches the Caspian 676 KARAMAN-KARAMZIN Sea. Only part of this surface is covered with sand. There | times, it has stood for the whole province of Konia. Before the are broad expanses (takyrs) of clay soil upon which water accu- present provincial division was made (1864), Karamania was mulates in the spring; in the summer these are muddy, but later the eyalet of which Konia was the capital, and it did not extend quite dry, and merely a few Solanaceae and bushes grow on to the sea, the whole littoral from Adalia eastward being under them. There is also shor, similar to the above but encrusted with the pasha of Adana. Nevertheless, in Levantine popular usage salt and gypsum, and relieved only by Solanaceae along their at the present day, “ Karamania” signifies the coast from borders. The remainder is occupied with sand, which, accord-Adalia to Messina. (D. G. H.) ing to V. Mainov, assumes five different forms. (1) Barkhans, KARAMNASA, a river of northern India, tributary to the chiefly in the east, which are mounds of loose sand, 15 to 35 ft. Ganges on its right bank, forming the boundary between Bengal high, hoof-shaped, having their gently sloping convex sides and the United Provinces. The name means destroyer of turned towards the prevailing winds, and a concave side, 30° to religious merit,” which is explained by more than one legend. 40° steep, on the opposite slope. They are disposed in groups To this day all high-caste Hindus have to be carried over without or chains, and the winds drive them at an average rate of 20 ft. being defiled by the touch of its waters. annually towards the south and south-east. Some grass (Stipa KARA MUSTAFA (d. 1683), Turkish vizier, surnamed “Mer- pennata) and bushes of saksaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) and zifunli,” was a son of Uruj Bey, a notable Sipahi of Merzifun other steppe bushes (e.g. Calligonium, Halimodendron and Alra- (Marsovan), and brother-in-law to Ahmed Kuprili, whom he phaxis) grow on them. (2) Mounds of sand, of about the same succeeded as grand vizier in 1676, after having for some years size, but irregular in shape and of a slightly firmer consistence, held the office of Kaimmakam or locum tenens. His greed and mostly bearing the same bushes, and also Artemisia and Tamarix; ostentation were equalled by his incapacity, and he behaved they are chiefly met with in the east and south. (3) A sandy with characteristic insolence to the foreign ambassadors, from desert, slightly undulating, and covered in spring with grass and whom he extorted large bribes. After conducting a campaign flowers (e.g. tulips, Rheum, various Umbelliferae), which are soon in Poland which terminated unfortunately, he gave a ready burned by the sun; they cover very large spaces in the south-response to the appeal for aid made by the Hungarians under east. (4) Sands disposed in waves from 50 to 70 ft., and occa- Imre Thököly (q.v.) when they rose against Austria, his hope sionally up to 100 ft. high, at a distance of from 200 to 400 ft. being to form out of the Habsburg dominions a Mussulman em- from each other; they cover the central portion, and their vege- pire of the West, of which he should be the sultan. The plan tation is practically the same as in the preceding division. (5) was foiled in part by his own lack of military skill, but chiefly Dunes on the shores of the Caspian, composed of moving sands, through the heroic resistance of Vienna and its timely relief by 35 to 80 ft. high and devoid of vegetation. John Sobieski, king of Poland. Kara Mustafa paid for his A typical feature of the Kara-kum is the number of “old defeat with his life; he was beheaded at Belgrade in 1683 and river beds,” which may have been either channels of tributaries his head was brought to the sultan on a silver dish. of the Amu and other rivers or depressions which contained Another KARA MUSTAFA PASHA (d. 1643), who figures in elongated salt lakes. Water is only found in wells, 10 to 20 m. Turkish history, was by birth a Hungarian, who was enrolled apart--sometimes as much as 100 m.-which are dug in the in the Janissaries, rose to be Kapudan Pasha under Murad IV., takyrs and give saline water, occasionally unfit to drink, and in and after the capture of Bagdad was made grand vizier. He pools of rain-water retained in the lower parts of the takyrs. was severe, but just and impartial, and strove to effect necessary The population of the Kara-kum, consisting of nomad Kirghiz reforms by reducing the numbers of the Janissaries, improving and Turkomans, is very small. The region in the north of the the coinage, and checking the state expenditure. But the dis- province of Syr-darya, between Lake Aral and Lake Chalkar- content of the Janissaries led to his dismissal and death in 1643. teniz, is also called Kara-kum. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1765-1826), Rus- ! KARAMAN (anc. Laranda, a name still used by the Christian sian historian, critic, novelist and poet, was born at the village of inhabitants), a town in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated Mikhailovka, in the government of Orenburg, and not at Sim- in the plain north of Mount Taurus. Pop. 8000. It has few birsk as many of his English and German biographers incorrectly industries and little trade, but the medieval walls, well preserved state, on the ist of December (old style) 1765. His father was an castle and mosques are interesting, and the old Seljuk médresse, officer in the Russian army, of Tatar extraction. He was sent or college, is a beautiful building. Karaman is connected with to Moscow to study under Professor Schaden, whence he after- Konia by railway, having a station on the first section of the wards removed to St Petersburg, where he made the acquaint- Bagdad railway. Little is known of its ancient history except ance of Dmitriev, a Russian poet of some merit, and occupied that it was destroyed by Perdiccas about 322 B.C., and after himself with translating essays by foreign writers into his native wards became a seat of Isaurian pirates. It was occupied language. After residing some time at St Petersburg, he went by Frederick Barbarossa in 1190; in 1466 it was captured by to Simbirsk, where he lived in retirement till induced to revisit Mahommed II., and in 1486 by Bayezid II. Moscow. There, finding himself in the midst of the society of KARAMANIA, formerly an independent inland province in learned men, he again betook himself to literary work. In 1789 the south of Asia Minor, named after Karaman, the son of an he resolved to travel, and visited Germany, France, Switzerland Armenian convert to Islam, who married a daughter of Ala and England. On his return he published his Letters of a Russian ed-Din Kaikobad, the Seljuk sultan of Rum, and was granted Traveller, which met with great success. These letters were first Laranda in fief, and made governor of Selefke, 1223-1245. The printed in the Moscow Journal, which he edited, but were after- name Karaman is, however, Turkoman and that of a powerful wards collected and issued in six volumes (1797-1801). In the tribe, settled apparently near Laranda. The Armenian convert same periodical Karamzin also published translations of some of must have been adopted into this. On the collapse of the Seljuk the tales of Marmontel, and some.original stories, among which empire, Karaman's grandson, Mahmud, 1279-1319, founded a may be mentioned Poor Liza and Natalia the Boyar's Daughter. state, which included Pamphylia, Lycaonia and large parts of In 1794 and 1795 Karamzin abandoned his literary journal, and Cilicia, Cappadocia and Phrygia. Its capital, Laranda, super- published a miscellany in two volumes, entitled Aglaia, in which seded Konia. This state was frequently at war with the kings appeared, among other things, “ The Island of Bornholm " and of Lesser Armenia, the Lusignan princes of Cyprus and the “Ilia Mourometz,”a story based upon the adventures of the well- knights of Rhodes. It was also engaged in a long struggle for known hero of many a Russian legend. In 1797–1799 he issued supremacy with the Osmanli Turks, which only ended in 1472, another miscellany or poetical almanac, The Aonides, in con- when it was definitely annexed by Mahommed II. The Os- junction with Derzhávin and Dmitriev. In 1798 he compiled manlis divided Karamania into Kharij north, and Ichili south, of The Pantheon, a collection of pieces from the works of the most the Taurus, and restored Konia to its metropolitan position. The celebrated authors ancient and modern, translated into Russian. name Karamania is now often given by geographers to Ichili Many of his lighter productions were subsequently printed by only; but so far as it has had any exact significance in modern him in a volume entitled My Trifles. In 1802 and 1803 Karamzin " KARA SEA-KAREN 677 edited the journal the European Messenger. It was not The caves of Akkaya close by give evidence of early occupation until after the publication of this work that he realized where of the spot. When in 1736 Khan Feta Ghirai was driven by his strength lay, and commenced his History of the Russian the Russians from Bakhchi-sarai he settled at Karasu-Bazar, Empire. In order to accomplish the task, he secluded himself but next year the town was captured, plundered and burned by for two years; and, on the cause of his retirement becoming the Russians. known to the emperor Alexander, Karamzin was invited to KARATEGHIN, a country of Central Asia, subject to Bokhara, Tver, where he read to the emperor the first eight volumes and consisting of a highland district bounded on the N. ty of his history. In 1816 he removed to St Petersburg, where he Samarkand and Ferghana (Khokand), on the E. by Ferghana, on spent the happiest days of his life, enjoying the favour of the S. by Darvaz, and on the W. by Hissar and other Bokharian Alexander, and submitting to him the sheets of his great work, provinces. The plateau is traversed by the Surkhabor Vakhsh, a which the emperor read over rith him in the gardens of the rig -hand butary of the Amu-darya (Oxus). On the N.border palace of Tzarskoë Selo. He did not, however, live to carry run the Hissar and Zarafshan mountains, and on the S. border his work further than the eleventh volume, terminating it at the Peter I. (Periokhtan) range (24,900 ft.). The area is 8000 the accession of Michael Romanov in 1613. He died on the sq. m. and the population about 60,000-five-sixths Tajiks, the 22nd of May (old style) 1826, in the Taurida palace. A rest Kara-kirghiz. With the neighbouring lands Karateghin has monument was erected to his memory at Simbirsk in 1845. no communication except during summer, that is, from May to As an historian Karamzin has deservedly a very high reputation. September. The winter climate is extremely severe;snow begins Till the appearance of his work little had been done in this direction to fall in October and it is May before it disappears. During the in Russia. The preceding attempt of Tatistchev was merely a rough sketch, inelegant in style, and without the true spirit of criticism. warmer months, however, the mountain sides are richly clothed Karamzin was most industrious in accumulating materials, and the with the foliage of maple, mountain ash, apple, pear and walnut notes to his volumes are mines of curious information. The style trees; the orchards furnish, not only apples and pears, but of his history is elegant and flowing, modelled rather upon the peaches, cherries, mulberries and apricots; and the farmers grow easy sentences of the French prose writers than the long periodical sufficient corn to export. Both cattle and horses are of a small paragraphs of the old Slavonic school. Perhaps Karamzin may justly be censured for the false gloss and romantic air thrown over and hardy breed. Rough woollen cloth and mohair are woven by the early Russian annals, concealing the coarseness and cruelty of the natives, who also make excellent fire-arms and other weapons. the native manners; in this respect he reminds us of Sir Walter Gold is found in various places and there are salt-pits in the moun- Scott, whose writings were at this time creating a great sensation tains. The chief town, Harm or Garm, is a place of some 2000 throughout Europe, and probably had their influence upon him. Karamzin appears openly as the panegyrist of the autocracy; indeed, inhabitants, situated on a hill on the right bank of the Surkhab. his work has been styled the “ Epic of Despotism." He does not The native princes, who claimed to be descended from Alex- hesitate to avow his admiration of Ivan the Terrible, and considers ander the Great, were till 1868 practically independent, though him and his grandfather Ivan III. as the builders up of Russian greatness, a glory which in his earlier writings, perhaps at that time their allegiance was claimed in an ineffective way by Khokand, more under the influence of Western ideas, he had assigned to Peter but eventually Bokhara took advantage of their intestine feuds the Great. In the battle-pieces (e.g. the description of the field of to secure their real submission in 1877. Koulikovo, the taking of Kazan, &c.) we find considerable powers of description; and the characters of many of the chief personages Rajputana agency. Area, 1242 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 156,786; KARAULI, or KEROWLEE, a native state of India, in the in the Russian annals are drawn in firm and bold lines. As critic Karamzin was of great service to his country; in fact he may be estimated revenue about £330,000. Almost the entire territory regarded as the founder of the review and essay (in the Western is composed of hills and broken ground, but there are no lofty style) among the Russians. peaks, the highest having an elevation of less than 1400 ft. above KARA SEA, a portion of the Arctic Ocean demarcated, and sea-level. The Chambal river flows along the south-east boundary except on the north-west completely enclosed, by Novaya Zemlya, of the state. _Iron ore and building stone comprise the mineral Vaygach Island and the Siberian coast. It is approached resources. The prevailing agricultural products are millets, from the west by three straits-Matochkin, between the two which form the staple food of the people. The only manufactures islands of Novaya Zemlya, and Kara and Yugor to the north consist of a little weaving, dyeing, wood-turning and stone- and south of Vaygach Island respectively. On the south-cutting. The principal imports are piece goods, salt, sugar, east Kara Bay penetrates deeply into the mainland, and to the cotton, buffaloes and bullocks; the exports rice and goats. The west of this the short Kara river enters the sea. The sea is all feudal aristocracy of the state consists of Jadu Rajputs connected shallow, the deepest parts lying off Vaygach Island and the with the ruling house. They pay a tribute in lieu of constant northern part of Novaya Zemlya. It had long the reputation military service, but in case of emergency or on occasions of state of being almost constantly ice-bound, but after the Norwegian display they are bound to attend on the chief with their retainers. captain Johannesen had demonstrated its accessibility in 1869, The maharaja is the head of the clan, which claims descent from and Nordenskiöld had crossed it to the mouth of the Yenisei in Krishna. Maharaja Bhanwar Pal Deo, who was born in 1862 1875, it was considered by many to offer a possible trade route and succeeded in 1866, was appointed G.C.I.E. in 1897, on the between European Russia and the north of Siberia. But the occasion of Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee. open season is in any case very short, and the western straits The town of KARAULI had a population in 1901 of 23,482. It are sometimes icebound during the entire year. dates from 1348, and is well situated in a position naturally KARASU-BAZAR, a town of Russia, in the Crimea and govern- defended by ravincs on the north and east, while it is further ment of Taurida, in 45° 3' N. and 34° 26' E., 25 m. E.N.E. of protected by a great wall. The palace of the maharaja is a Simferopol. Pop. (1897), 12,961, consisting of · Tatars, Arme- handsome block of buildings dating mainly from the middle nians, Greeks, Qaraite Jews, and about 200 so-called Krym- of the 18th century. chaki, i.e. Jews who have adopted the Tatar language and KAREN, one of the chief hill races of Burma. The Karens dress, and who live chiefly by making morocco leather goods, inhabit the central Pegu Yoma range, forming the watershed knives, embroidery and so forth. The site is low, but the town between the Sittang and Irrawaddy rivers, the Paunglaung is surrounded by hills, which afford protection from the north range between the Sittang and the Salween, and the eastern wind. The dirty streets full of petty traders, the gloomy bazaar slopes of the Arakan Yoma mountains to the west of the Irra- with its multitude of tiny shops, the market squares, the blind waddy delta. They are supposed to be the descendants of alleys, the little gates in the dead courtyard walls, all give the Chinese tribes driven southwards by the pressure of the Shan place the stamp of a Tatar or Turkish town. Placed on the races, before they were again made to retire into the hills by the high road between Simferopol and Kerch, and in the midst of a expansion of the Môn power. Their own traditions ascribe their country rich in corn land, vineyards and gardens, Karasu-Bazar original home to the west of the sandy desert of Gobi stretching used to be a chief seat of commercial activity in the Crimea; but between China and Tibet. According to the census of 1901 they it is gradually declining in importance, though still a considerable numbered in all 727,235 persons within British India, divided centre for the export of fruit. into the Sgaw, 86,434, the Pwo, 174,070, and the Bghai, 4936, 678 KAREN-NI-KARLI while 457,355 are returned as “unspecified.” The Sgaw and is a large river, with an average breadth of 100 yds., but is Pwo are collectively known as the “ White Karens," and chiefly unnavigable owing to its rocky bed. Even timber cannot be inbabit British territory. They take their name from the colour floated down it without the assistance of elephants. The Salween of their clothes. The Bghai, or“ Red Karens,” who are supposed throughout Karen-ni is navigated by large native craft. Its by some to be an entirely distinct race, chiefly inbabit the tributary, the Me Pai; on the eastern bank, is navigable as far as independent hill state of Karen-ni (q.v.). The Karen is of a Mehawnghsawn in Siamese territory. The Balu stream flows squarer build than the Burman, his skin is fairer, and he has more out of the Inle lake, and is navigable from that point to close on of the Mongolian obliguity of the eyes. In character also the Lawpita, where it sinks into the ground in a marsh or succession people differ from the Burmese. They are singularly devoid of of funnel holes. Its breadth averages 50 yds., and its depth is humour, they are stolid and cautious, and lack altogether the 15 ft. in some places. light gaiety and fascination of the Burmese. They are noted for. The chief tribes are' the Red Karens (24,043), Bres (3500), and truthfulness and chastity, but are dirty and addicted to drink. Padaungs (1867). Total revenue, Rs. 37,000. An agent of the The White Karens furnish perhaps the most notable instance British government, with a guard of military police, is posted at of conversion to Christianity of any native race in the British the village of Loikaw. Little of the history of the Red Karens empire. Prepared by prophecies current among them, and by is known; but it appears to be generally admitted that Bawlake curious traditions of a biblical flavour, in addition to their an- was originally the chief state of the whole country, east and west, tagonism to the dominant Burmese, they embraced with fervour but eastern Karen-ni under Papaw-gyi early became the most the new creed brought to them by the missionaries, so that out powerful. Slaving raids far into the Shan states brought on of the 147,525 Christians in Burma according to the census of invasions from Burma, which, however, were not very successful. 1901 upwards of a hundred thousand were Karens. The Red Eastern Karen-ni was never reduced until Sawlapaw, having Karens differ considerably from the White Karens. They are defied the British government, was overcome and deposed by the wildest and most lawless of theso-called Karen tribes. Every General Collett in the beginning of 1889. Sawlawi was then male belonging to the clan used to have the rising sun tattooed appointed myoza, and received a sanad, or patent of appoint- in bright vermilion on his back. The men are small and wizened, ment, on the same terms as the chiefs of the Shan states. The but athletic, and have broad reddish-brown faces. Their dress independence of the Western Karen-ni states had been consists of a short pair of breeches, usually of a reddish colour, guaranteed by the British government in a treaty with King with black and white stripes interwoven perpendicularly or like Mindon in 1875. They were, however, formally recognized as a tartan, and a handkerchief is tied round the head. The Karen feudatories in 1892 and were presented with sanads on the 23rd language is tonal, and belongs to the Siamese-Chinese branch of of January of that year. Gantarawadi pays a regular tribute of the Indo-Chinese family. Rs. 5000 yearly, whereas these chieflets pay an annual kadaw, .See D. M. Smeaton, The Loyal Karens of Burma (1887); J. Nisbet, or nuzzur, of about Rs. 100. They are forbidden to carry out Burma under British Rule (1901); M. and B. Ferrars, Burma (1900); a sentence of death passed on a criminal without the sanction of and O'Connor Scott, The Silken East (1904). (J. G. Sc.) the superintendent of the southern Shan states, but otherwise KAREN-NI, the country of the Red Karens, a collection of retain nearly all their customary law. small states, formerly independent, but now feudatory to Burma. Tin, or what is called tin, is worked in Bawlake. It appears, It is situated approximately between 18° 50' and 19° 55' N. and however, to be very impure. It is worked intermittently by White between 97° 10' and 97° 50' E. The tract is bounded on the N. Karens on the upper waters of the Hkemapyu stream. Rubies, by the Shan states of Möng Pai, Hsatung and Mawkmai; on the spinels and other stones are found in the upper Tu valley and in the E. by Siam; on the S. by the Papun district of Lower Burma; trade in teak is the chieľ or only source of wealth in Karen-ni. west of Nammekon state, but they are of inferior quality. The and on the W. a stretch of mountainous country, inhabited by The largest and most important forests are those on the left bank the Bre and various other small tribes, formerly in a state of of the Salween. Others lie on both banks of the Nam Pawn, and independence, divides it from the districts of Toungoo and in western Karen-ni on the Nam Tu. The yearly out-turn is Yamethin. It is divided in a general way into eastern and estimated at over 20,000 logs, and forest officers have estimated that an annual out-turn of 9000 logs might be kept up without western Karen-ni; the former consisting of one state, Gantara- injury to the forests. Some quantity of cutch is exported, as also wadi, with an approximate area of 2500 sq. m.; the latter of stick-lac, which the Red Karens graft so as to foster the production. the four small states of Kyebogyi, area about 350 sq. m.; Baw-Other valuable forest produce exists, but is not exported. Rice, lake, 200 sq. m.; Nammekon, 50 sq. m.; and Naungpale, about areca-nuts, and betel-vine leaf are the chief agricultural products. The Red Karen women weave their own and their husbands' 30 sq. m. The small states of western Karen-ni were formerly clothing. A characteristic manufacture is the pa-si or Karen metal all subject to Bawlake, but the subordination has now ceased. drum, which is made at Ngwedaung. These drums are from 24 to Karen-ni consists of two widely differing tracts of country, which 3 ft. across the boss, with sides of about the same depth. The sound roughly mark now, and formerly actually did mark, the division is out of proportion to the metal used, and is inferior to that of the into east and west. Gantarawadi has, however, encroached Karen-ni is steadily decreasing. The birth-rate of the people iş Shan and Burmese gongs. It is thought that the population of westwards beyond the boundaries which nature would assign to considered to exceed the death-rate by very little, and the Red it. The first of these two divisions is the southern portion of the Karen habit of life is most unwholesome. Numbers have enlisted valley of the Hpilu, or Balu stream, an open, fairly level plain, in the Burma police, but there are various opinions as to their (J. G. Sc.) well watered and in some parts swampy. The second division is a series of chains of hills, intersected by deep valleys, through KARIKAL, a French settlement in India, situated on the which run the two main rivers, the Salween and the Pawn, and south-east coast, within the limits of Tanjore district, with an their feeder streams. Many of the latter are dried up in the hot area of 53 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 56,595. The site season and only flow freely during the rains. The whole country was promised to the French by the Tanjore raja in 1738, in being hilly, the most conspicuous ridge is that lying between the return for services rendered, but was only obtained by them by Pawn and the Salween, which has an average altitude of 5000 ft. force in 1739. It was captured by the British in 1760, restored It is crossed by several tracks, passable for pack-animals, the in 1765, again taken in 1768, and finally restored in 1817. The most in use being the road between Sawion, the capital of Gantara- town is neatly built on one of the mouths of the Cauvery, and wadi and Man Maü. "The principal peak east of the Salween is carries on a brisk trade with Ceylon, exporting rice and importing on the Loi Lan ridge, 7109 ft. above mean sea-level. Parts of chiefly European articles and timber. A chef de l'administration, this ridge form the boundary between eastern Karen-ni and subordinate to the government at Pondicherry, is in charge of Mawkmai on the west and Siam on the east. It falls away the settlement, and there is a tribunal of first instance. rapidly to the south, and at Pang Salang is crossed at a height KARLI, a village of British India, in the Poona district of the of 2200 ft. by the road from Hsataw to Mehawnghsawn. West of Bombay presidency, famous for its rock caves. Pop. (1901), the Balu valley the continuation of the eastern rim of the Myelat 903. The great cave of Karli is said by Fergusson to be without plateau rises in Loi Nangpa to about 5000 ft. The Nam Pawn l exception the largest and finest chaitya cave in India; it was KARLOWITZ-KARMA 679 excavated at a time when the style was in its greatest purity, the chief public buildings, notably the technical high school, and is splendidly preserved. The great chaitya hall is 126 ft. the arsenal and the post office. Among other notable buildings iong, 45 ft. 7 in. wide, and about 4ó ft. high. A row of ornamental are the town hall; the theatre; the hall of representatives; the columns rises on either side to the ribbed teak roof, and at the mint; the joint museum of the grand-ducal and national collec- far end of the nave is a massive dagoba. Dating from the begin- tions (natural history, archaeology, ethnology, art and a library ning of the Christian era or earlier, this cave has a wooden roof, of over 150,000 volumes); the palace of the heir-apparent, a late which repeats the pattern of the walls, and which Fergusson Renaissance building of 1891-1896; the imperial bank (1893); the considers to be part of the original design. Since wood rapidly national industrial hall, with an exhibition of machinery; the new deteriorates in India owing to the climate and the ravages of law courts; and the hall of fine arts, which shelters a good picture white ants, the state of preservation of this roof is remarkable. gallery. The city has six Evangelical and four Roman Catholic KARLOWITZ, or CARLOWITZ (Hungarian, Karlóeza; Croatian, Churches. The most noteworthy of these are the Evangelical Karlovci), a city of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Syrmia; town church, the burial-place of the margraves of Baden; the on the right bank of the Danube, and on the railway from Peter- Christuskirche, and the Bernharduskirche. Karlsruhe possesses wardein, 6 m. N.W. to Belgrade. Pop. (1900), 5643. Kar- further the Zähringen museum of curiosities, which is in the left lowitz is the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan, and has several wing of the Schloss; an architectural school (1891); industrial art churches and schools, and a hospital. . The fruit-farms and school and museum; cadet school (1892); botanical and electro- vineyards of the Fruška Gora, a range of hills to the south, yield technical institutes; and horticultural and agricultural schools. excellent plum brandy and red wine. An obelisk at Slankamen, Of its recent public monuments may be mentioned one to Joseph 13 m. E. by S., commemorates the defeat of the Turks by Louis Victor von Scheffel (1826–1886); a, bronze equestrian statue of of Baden, in 1691. The treaty of Karlowitz, between Austria, the emperor William I. (1896); and a memorial of the 1870–71 Turkey, Poland and Venice, was concluded in 1699; in 1848-war. Karlsruhe is the headquarters of the XIV. German army 1849. the city was the headquarters of Servian opposition to corps. Since 1870 the industry of the city has grown rapidly, Hungary. It was included, until 1881, in the Military Frontier. as well as the city itself. There are large railway workshops; KARLSKRONA (CARLSCRONA) a seaport of Sweden, on the and the principal branches of industry are the making of loco- Baltic coast, chief town of the district (län) of Blekinge, and head- motives, carriages, tools and machinery, jewelry, furniture, quarters of the Swedish navy. Pop. (1900), 23,955. It is gloves, cement, carpets, perfumery, tobacco and beer. There pleasantly situated upon islands and the mainland, 290 m. S.Ş.w. is an important arms factory. Maxau, on the Rhine, serves as of Stockholm by rail. The harbour is capacious and secure, the river port of Karlsruhe and is connected with it by a canal with a sufficient depth of water for the largest vessels. It has finished in 1901. three entrances; the principal, and the only one practicable for See Fecht, Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe large vessels, is to the south of the town, and is defended by two (Karlsruhe, 1887); F. von Weech, Karlsruhe, Geschichte der Stadt strong forts, at Drottningskär on the island of Aspö, and on the und ihrer Verwaltung (Karlsruhe, 1893–1902); Naeher, Die Umgebung islet of Kungsholm. The dry docks, of great extent, are cut out der Residenz Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe, 1888); and the annual Chronik der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe. of the solid granite. There is slip-accommodation for large vessels. Karlskrona is the seat of the Royal Naval Society, and KARLSTAD (CARLSTAD), a town of Sweden, the capital of the has a navy-arsenal and hospital, and naval and other schools. district (län) of Vermland, on the island of Tingvalla under the Charles XI., the founder of the town as naval headquarters northern shore of Lake Vener, 205 m. W. of Stockholm by the (1680), is commemorated by a bronze statue (1897). There are Christiania railway. Pop. (1900), 11,869. The fine Klar River factories for naval equipments, galvanized metal goods, felt hats, here enters the lake, descending from the mountains of the fron. canvas, leather and rice, and breweries and granite quarries. tier. To the north-west lies the Fryksdal or valley of the Nors Exports are granite and timber; imports, coal, flour, provisions, River, containing three beautiful lakes and fancifully named the hides and machinery. “Swedish Switzerland." In this and other parts of the district KARLSRUHE, or CARLSRUHE, a city of Germany, capital of are numerous iron-works. Karlstad. was founded in 1584. It the grand-duchy of Baden, 33 m. S.W. of Heidelberg, on the is the seat of a bishop and has a cathedral. Trade is carried on railway Frankfort-on-Main-Basel, and 39 m. N. W. of Stuttgart. by way of the lake and the Göta canal. There are mechanical Pop., (1895), 84,030; (1905), 111,200. It stands on an elevated works, match factories and stockinet factories, and a mineral plain, 5 m. E. of the Rhine and on the fringe of the Hardtwald spring rich in iron, the water of which is bottled for export. forest. Karlsruhe takes its name from Karl Wilhelm, margrave Under the constitution of united Sweden and Norway, in the of Baden, who, owing to disputes with the citizens of Durlach, event of the necessity of electing a Regent and the disagreement erected here in 1715 a hunting seat, around which the town has of the parliaments of the two countries, Karlstad was been built. The city is surrounded by beautiful parks and indicated as the meeting-place of a delegacy for the purpose. gardens. The palace (Schloss), built in 1751-1776 on the site Here, on the 31st of August 1905 the conference met to decide of the previous erection of 1715, is a plain building in the old upon the severance of the union between Sweden and Norway, French style, composed of a centre and two wings, presenting the delegates concluding their work on the 23rd of September. nothing remarkable except the octagon tower (Bleiturm), from KARLSTADT or CARLSTADT (Hungarian, Károlyváros; Croa- the summit of which a splendid view of the city and surrounding tian, Karlovac), a royal free city, municipality and garrison town country is obtained, and the marble saloon, in which the meridian in the county of Agram, Croatia-Slavonia; standing on hilly of Cassini was fixed or drawn. In front of the palace is the ground beside the river Kulpa, which here receives the Korana Great Circle, a semicircular line of buildings, containing the and the Dobra. Pop. (1900), 7396. Karlstadt is on the railway government offices. From the palace the principal streets, from Agram to Fiume. It consists of the fortress, now obsolete, fourteen in number, radiate in the form of an expanded fan, in a the inner town and the suburbs. Besides the Roman Catholic S.E., S. and S.W. direction, and are again intersected by parallel and Orthodox churches, its chief buildings are the Franciscan streets. This fan-like plan of the older city has, however, been monastery, law-courts and several large schools, including one abandoned in the more modern extensions. Karlsruhe has for military cadets. Karlstadt has a considerable transit trade several fine public squares, the principal of which are the in grain, wine, spirits and honey, and manufactures the liqueur Schlossplatz, with Schwanthaler's statue of the grand duke called rosoglio. Karl Friedrich in the centre, and market square (Markt- KARMA, sometimes written KARMAN, a Sanskrit noun (from platz), with a fountain and a statue of Louis, grand duke of the root kri, to do), meaning deed or action. In addition to this Baden. In the centre of the Rondelplatz is an obelisk in honour simple meaning it has also, both in the philosophical and the of the grand duke Karl Wilhelm. The finest street is the Kaiser- colloquial speech of India a technical meaning, denoting" a strasse, running from east to west and having a length of a mile person's deeds as determining his future lot.” This is not and a half and a uniform breadth of 72 ft. In it are several of I merely in the vague sense that on the whole good will be rewarded a 680 KÁRMÁN_KARNAK a and evil punished, but that every single act must work out to built by Amenophis III., and almost as ruinous as the last, but the uttermost its inevitable consequences, and receive its retribu- on a much larger scale. At the back is the sacred lake in the tion, however many ages the process may require. Every part shape of a horse-shoe. The axis of the temple runs approxi- of the material universe-man, woman, insect, tree, stone, or mately northward, and is continued by a great avenue of rams whatever it be—is the dwelling of an eternal spirit that is working to the southern pylons of the central enclosure. This last is of out its destiny, and while receiving reward and punishment for vast dimensions, forming approximately a square of 1500 ft., and the past is laying up reward and punishment for the future. it contains the greatest of all known temples, the Karnak temple This view of existence as an endless and concomitant sowing and of Ammon (see ARCHITECTURE, sect.“ Egyptian," with plan). reaping is accepted by learned and unlearned alike as accounting Inside and outside each of these enclosures there were a number for those inequalities in human life which might otherwise lead of subsidiary temples and shrines, mostly erected by individual men to doubt the justice of God. Every act of every person has kings to special deities. The triad of Thebes was formed by not only a moral value producing merit or demerit, but also an Ammon, his wife Mūt and their son Khons. The large temple inherent power which works out its fitting reward or punishment. of Khons is in the enclosure of the Ammon temple, and the temple To the Hindu this does not make heaven and hell unnecessary. of Mūt, as already stated, connected with the latter by the These two exist in many forms more or less grotesque, and after avenue of rams. The Mont temple, on the other hand, is isolated death the soul passes to one of them and there receives its due; from the others and turned away from them; it is smaller than but that existence too is marked by desire and action, and is that of Khons. Mont, however, may perhaps be considered a therefore productive of merit or demerit, and as the soul is thus special god of Thebes; he certainly was a great god from very still entangled in the meshes of karma it must again assume an ancient times in the immediate neighbourhood, his seats being earthly garb and continue the strife. Salvation is to the Hindu about 4 m. N.E. at Medamot, the ancient Madu, and about 10 m. simply deliverance from the power of karma, and each of the S.W. on the west bank at Hermonthis. philosophic systems has its own method of obtaining it.· The It is probable that a temple of Ammon existed at Karnak last book of the Laws of Manu deals with karma phalam," the under the Old Kingdom, if not in the prehistoric age; but it fruit of karma,” and gives many curious details of the way in was unimportant, and no trace of it has been discovered. Slight which sin is punished and merit rewarded. The origin of the remains of a considerable temple of the Middle Kingdom survive doctrine cannot be traced with certainty, but there is little doubt behind the shrine of the great temple, and numbers of fine that it is post-vedic, and that it was readily accepted by Buddha statues of the twelfth and later dynasties have been found; two in the 6tk century B.C. As he did not believe in the existence of of these were placed against the later seventh pylon, while a soul he had to modify the doctrine (see BUDDHISM). large number were buried in a great pit, in the area behind that KÁRMÁN, JÓZSEF (1769-1795), Hungarian author, was pylon, which has yielded an enormous number of valuable and born at Losoncz on the 14th of March 1769, the son of a Cal- interesting monuments reaching to the age of the Ptolemies. vinist pastor. He was educated at Losoncz and Pest, whence he The axis of the early temple lay from E. to W., and was followed migrated to Vienna. There he made the acquaintance of the by the main line of the later growth; but at the beginning of the beautiful and eccentric Countess Markovics, who was for a time eighteenth dynasty, Amenophis I. built a temple south of the his mistress, but she was not, as has often been supposed, the west front of the cld one, and at right angles to it, and thus heroine of his famous novel Fanni Hagyománai (Fanny's testa- started a new axis which was later developed in the series of ment). Subsequently he settled in Pest as a lawyer. His sensi- pylons VII.-X., and the avenue to the temple of Mūt. The bility, social charm, liberal ideas (he was one of the earliest of VIIIth pylon in particular was built by Hatshepsut, probably the Magyar freemasons) and personal beauty, opened the doors as an approach to this temple of Amenophis, but eventually of the best houses to him. He was generally known as the Tethmosis III. cleared the latter away entirely. Thebes was Pest Alcibiades, and was especially at home in the salons of the then the royal residence, and Ammon of Karnak was the great Protestant magnates. In 1792, together with Count Ráday, he god of the state. Tethmosis I. built a court round the temple founded the first theatrical society at Buda. He maintained that of the Middle Kingdom, entered through a pylon (No. V.), and Pest, not Pressburg, should be the literary centre of Hungary, later added the pylon No. IV. with obelisks in front of it. Hat. and in 1794 founded the first Hungarian quarterly, Urania, shepsut placed two splendid obelisks between the Pylons IV. but it met with little support and ceased to exist in 1795, after and V., and built a shrine in the court of Tethmosis I., in front three volumes had appeared. Kármán, who had long been of the old temple. Tethmosis III., greatest of the Pharaohs, suffering from an incurable disease, died in the same year. remodelled the buildings about the obelisks of his unloved sister The most important contribution to Urania was his sentimental with the deliberate intention of hiding them from view, and novel, Fanni Hagyománai, much in the style of La nouvelle largely reconstructed the surroundings of the court. At a later Héloïse and Werther, the most exquisite product of Hungarian date, after his wars were over, he altered Hatshepsut's sanctuary, prose in the 18th century and one of the finest psychological engraving on the walls about it a record of his campaigns; to romances in the literature. Kármán also wrote two satires and this time also is to be attributed the erection of a great festival fragments of an historical novel, while his literary programme is hall at the back of the temple. The small innermost pylon set forth in his dissertation Anemzet csinosodása. (No. VI.) is likewise the work of Tethmosis III. Amenophis Kármán's collected works were published in Abafi's Nemzeti III., though so great a builder at Thebes, seems to have contented Könyvtár (Pest, 1878), &c., preceded by a life of Kármán. See himself with erecting a great pylon (No. III.) at the west end. F. Baráth, Joseph Kármán (Hung., Vas. Ujs, 1874); Zsolt Beöthy, The closely crowded succession of broad pylons here suggests article on Kármán in Képes Irodalomtörtonet (Budapest, 1894). a want of space for westward expansion, and this is perhaps (R. N. B.) explained by a trace of a quay found by Legrain in 1905 near the KARNAK, a village in Upper Egypt (pop. 1907, 12,585), southern line of pylons; a branch of the Nile or a large canal which has given its name to the northern half. of the ruins of may have limited the growth. As has been stated, Tethmosis Thebes on the east bank of the Nile, the southern being known III. continued on the southern axis; he destroyed the temple of as Luxor (q.v.). The Karnak ruins comprise three great enclo-Amenophis I. and erected a larger pylon (No. VII.) to the north sures built of crude brick. The northernmost and smallest of of Hatshepsut's No. VIII. To these Haremheb added two these contained a temple of the god Mont, built by Amenophis great pylons and the long avenue of ram-figures, changing the III., and restored by Rameses II. and the Ptolemies. Except axis slightly so as to lead direct to the temple of Mūt built by a well-preserved gateway dating from the reign of Ptolemy Euer- Amenophis III. All of these southern pylons are well spaced. getes I., little more than the plan of the foundations is traceable. In the angle between these pylons and the main temple was Its axis, the line of which is continued beyond the enclosure wall the great rectangular sacred lake. By this time the temple of by an avenue of sphinxes, pointed down-stream (N.E.). The Karnak had attained to little more than half of its ultimate southern enclosure contained a temple of the goddess Mūt, also I length from east to west. KARNAL-KÁROLYI 681 With the XIXth Dynasty there is a notable change perhaps | pylon erected by Euergetes I. It was built by Rameses III. due to the filling of the hypothetical canal. No more was added and his successors of the XXth Dynasty, with Hribor of on the southern line of building, but westward Rameses I. Dynasty XXI. Excavations in the opposite S.E. corner have erected pylon No. II. at an ample distance from that of revealed flint weapons and other sepulchral remains of the Amenophis III., and Seti I. and Rameses II. utilized the space earliest periods, proving that the history of Thebes goes back between for their immense Hall of Columns, one of the most to a remote antiquity. celebrated achievements of Egyptian architecture. The mate- See Baedeker's Handbook for Egypt; also Description de l'Égypte., rials of which the pylon is composed bear witness to a temple Atlas, Antiquités(tome iii.); A. Mariette, Karnak, Étude topographique having stood near by of the heretic and unacknowledged kings et archéologique; L. Borchardt, Zur Baugeschichte des Ammonlempels of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Haremheb's pylon No. IX. was like- von Karnak; G. Legrain in Recueil des travaux rélatifs à l'arch. Egypt., vol. xxvii. &c.; and reports in Annales du service des antiquités de wise constructed out of the ruins of a temple dedicated by l'Égyple. (F. LL. G.) Amenophis IV. (Akhenaten) to the sun-god Harmakhis. Rameses III. built a fine temple, still well preserved, to Ammon KARNAL, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi at right angles to the axis westward of pylon No. II.; Sheshonk I. division of the Punjab. The town is 7 m. from the right bank (Dynasty XXII.) commenced a great colonnaded court in front of the Jumna, with a railway station 76 m. N. of Delhi. Pop. of the pylon, enclosing part of this temple and a smaller triple (1901), 23,559. There are manufactures of cotton cloth and shrine þuilt by Seti II. In the centre of the court Tirhaka boots, besides considerable local trade and an annual horse (Tirhaka, Dynasty XXV.) set up huge columns 64 ft. high, fair. rivalling those of the central aisle in the Hall of Columns, for The DISTRICT OF KARNAL stretches along the right bank of some building now destroyed. A vast unfinished pylon at the the Jumna, north of Delhi. It is entirely an alluvial plain, west end (No. I.), 370 ft. wide and 142) ft. high, is of later date but is crossed by the low uplift of the watershed between the than the court , and is usually attributed to the Ptolemaic age. Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. Area, 3153 sq. m.; pop. It will be observed that the successive pylons diminish in size (1901), 883,225, showing an increase of nearly 3% in the decade. from the outside inwards. Portions of the solid crude-brick The principal crops are millets, wheat, pulse, rice, cotton and scaffolding are still seen banked against this pylon. About 100 sugar-cane. There are several factories for ginning and pressing metres west of it is a stone quay, on the platform of which stood cotton. The district is traversed by the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka a pair of obelisks of Seti II.; numerous graffiti recording the railway, and also by the Western Jumna canal. It suffered from height of the Nile from the XXIst to the XXVIth Dynasties fạmine in 1896–1897, and again to some extent in 1899-1900. are engraved on the quay. No district of India can boast of a more ancient history than Besides the kings named above, numbers of others contributed Karnal, as almost every town or stream is connected with the in greater or less measure to the building or decoration of the legends of the Mahabharata. The town of Karnal itself is said colossal temple. Alexander the Great restored a chamber in the to owe its foundation to Raja Karna, the mythical champion of festival hall of Tethmosis III., and Ptolemy Soter built the central the Kauravas in the great war which forms the theme of the shrine of granite in the name of Philip Arrhidaeus. The walls national epic. Panipat, in the south of the district, is said to throughout, as usually in Egyptian temples, are covered with have been one of the pledges demanded from Duryodhana by scenes and inscriptions, many of these, such as those which record Yudisthira as the price of peace in that famous conflict. In the annals of Tethmosis III., the campaign of Seti I. in Syria, the historical times the plains of Panipat have three times proved exploit of Rameses II. at the battle of Kadesh and his treaty with the theatre of battles which decided the fate of per India. It the Hittites, and the dedication of Sheshonk's victories to Ammon, was here that Ibrahim Lodi and his vast host were defeated in are of great historical importance. Several large stelae with 1526 by the veteran army of Baber; in 1556 Akbar reasserted the interesting inscriptions have been found in the ruins, and statues claims of his family on the same battlefield against the Hindu of many ages of workmanship. In December 1903 M. Legrain, general of the hoụse of Adil Shah, which had driven the heirs who has been engaged for several years in clearing the temple of Baber from the throne for a brief interval; and at Panipat area systematically, first tapped an immense deposit of colossal too, on the 7th of January 1761, the Mahratta confederation statues, stelae and other votive objects large and small in the was defeated by Ahmad Shah Durani. During the troublous space between pylon No. VII. and the great hypostyle hall. period which then ensued the Sikhs managed to introduce them- After three seasons' work, much of it in deep water, 750 large selves, and in 1767 one of their chieftains, Desu Singh, appro- monuments have been extracted, while the small figures, &c. priated the fort of Kaithal, which had been built during the in bronze and other materials amount to nearly 20,000. The reign of Akbar. His descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, were value of the find, both from the artistic and historical stand- reckoned amongst the most important Cis-Sutlej princes. points, is immense. The purpose of the deposit is still in Different portions of this district have lapsed from time to time doubt; many of the objects are of the finest materials and into the hands of the British. finest workmanship, and in perfect preservation: even precious KÁROLYI, ALOYS, COUNT (1825-1889), Austro-Hungarian metals are not absent. Multitudes of objects in wood, ivory, diplomatist, was born in Vienna on the 8th of August 1825. The &c., have decayed beyond recovery. That all were waste pieces greatness of the Hungarian family of Károlyi dates from the seems incredible. They are found lying in the utmost confusion; time of Alexander Károlyi (1668-1743), one of the generals of in date they range from the XIIth Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Francis Rákóczy II., who in 1711 negotiated the peace of period. Szatmár between the insurgent Hungarians and the new king, The inundation annually reaches the floor of the temple, and the emperor Charles VI., was made a count of the Empire in the saltpetre produced from the organic matter about the ruins, 1712, and subsequently became a field marshal in the imperial annually melting and crystallizing, has disintegrated the soft army. Aloys Károlyi entered the Austrian diplomatic service, sandstone in the lower courses of the walls and the lower drums and was attached successively to embassies at various European and bases of the columns. There is moreover no solid foundation capitals. In 1858 he was sent to St Petersburg on a special in any part of the temple. Slight falls of masonry have taken mission to seek the support of Russia against Napoleon (II. place from time to time, and the accumulation of rubbish was He was ambassador at Berlin in 1866 at the time of the rupture the only thing that prevented a great disaster. Repairs, often between Prussia and Austria, and after the Seven Weeks' War on a large scale, have therefore gone on side by side with the was charged with the negotiation of the preliminaries of peace clearance, especially since the fall of many columns in the great at Nikolsburg. He was again sent to Berlin in 1871, acted hall in 1899. All the columns which fell in that year were re- as second plenipotentiary at the Berlin congress of 1878, and erected by 1908. was sent in the same year to London, where he represented The temple of Khons, in the S.W. corner of the great enclosure, Austria for ten years. He died on the end of December 1889 is approached by an avenue of rams, and entered through a fine l at Tótmegyer. 682 KAROSS-KARS KAROSS, a cloak made of sheepskin, or the bide of other tains and the Cold Bokkeveld, eastward by the Great Fish animals, with the hair left on. It is properly confined to the River. West to east it extends fully 350 m. in a straight line, coat of skin without sleeves worn by the Hottentots and Bush- varying in breadth from more than 80 to less than 40 m. Whilst men of South Africa. These karosses are now often replaced the Little Karroo is divided by a chain of hills which run across by a blanket. Their chiefs wore karosses of the skin of the wild it from east to west, and varies in altitude from 1000 to 2000 ft., cat, leopard or caracal. The word is also loosely applied to the the Great Karroo has more the aspect of a vast plain and has cloaks of leopard-skin worn by the chiefs and principal men of a level of from 2000 to 3000 ft. The total area of the Karroo the Kaffir tribes. Kaross is probably either a genuine Hottentot plateaus is stated to be over 100,000 sq. m. The plains are word, or else an adaptation of the Dutch kuras (Portuguese dotted with low ranges of kopjes. The chief characteristics of couraça), a cuirass. In a vocabulary dated 1673 karos is the Karroo are the absence of running water during a great part described as a corrupt Dutch word.' of the year and the consequent parched aspect of the country. KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE (1808–1890), French | There is little vegetation save stunted shrubs, such as the critic and novelist, was born in Paris, on the 24th of November mimosa (which generally, marks the river beds), wild pome- 1808, and after being educated at the Collège Bourbon, became a granate, and wax heaths, known collectively as Karroo bush.. teacher there. In 1832 he published a novel, Sous les lilleuls, After the early rains the bush bursts into gorgeous purple and characterized by an attractive originality and a delightful yellow blossoms and vivid greens, affording striking evidence of freshness of personal sentiment. A second novel, Une heure trop the fertility of the soil. Such parts of the Karroo as are tard, followed next year, and was succeeded by many other under perennial irrigation are among the most productive lands popular works. His Vendredi soir (1835) and Le Chemin le plus in South Africa. Even the parched bush provides sufficient court (1836) continued the vein of autobiographical romance nourishment for millions of sheep and goats. There are also with which he had made his first success. Géneviève (1838) is numerous ostrich farms, in particular in the districts of one of his best stories, and his Voyage autour de mon jardin Oudtshoorn and Ladismith in the Little Karroo, where lucerne (1845) was deservedly popular. Others were Feu Bressier grows with extraordinary luxuriance. The Karroo is admirably (1848), and Fort en thème (1853), which had some influence in adapted to sufferers from pulmonary complaints. The dryness stimulating educational reform. In 1839 Alphonse Karr, who of the air tempers the heat of summer, which reaches in January was essentially a brilliant journalist, became editor of Le Figaro, a mean maximum of 87° F., whilst July, the coldest month, to which he had been a constant contributor; and he also started has a mean minimum of 36° F. A marked feature of the climate a monthly journal, Les Guêpes, of a keenly satirical tone, a is the great daily range (nearly 30°) in temperature; the Karroo publication which brought him the reputation of a somewhat towns are also subject to violent dust storms. Game, formerly bitter wit. His epigrams were frequently quoted; e.g. “plus plentiful, has been, with the exception of buck, almost exter. ça change, plụs c'est la même chose,” and, on the proposal to minated. In a looser sense the term Karroo is also used of the abolish capital punishment, “ je veux bien que messieurs les vast northern plains of the Cape which are part of the inner assassins commencent.” In 1848 he founded Le Journal. In table-land of the continent. (See CAPE COLONY.) 1855 he went to live at Nice, where he indulged his predilections KARS, a province of Russian Transcaucasia, having the for floriculture, and gave his name to more than one new variety. governments of Kutais and Tiflis on the N., those of Tiflis and Indeed he practically founded the trade in cut flowers on the Erivan on the E., and Asiatic Turkey on the S. and W. Its Riviera. He was also devoted to fishing, and in Les Soirées de area amounts to 7410 sq. m. It is a mountainous, or rather a Sainte-Adresse (1853) and Au bord de la mer (1860) he made use highland, country, being in reality a plateau, with ranges of of his experiences. His reminiscences, Livre de bord, were mountains running across it. The northern border is formed published in 1879-1880. He died at St Raphaël (Var), on the by the Arzyan range, a branch of the Ajari Mts., which attains 29th of September 1890. altitudes of over 9000 ft. In the south the Kara-dagh reach KARRER, FELIX (1825-1903), Austrian geologist, was born 10,270 ft. in Mount Ala-dagh, and the Agry-dagh 10,720 ft. in Venice on the uth of March 1825. He was educated in in Mount Ashakh; and in the middle Allah-akhbar rises to Vienna, and served for a time in the war department, but he 10,215 ft. The passes which connect valley with valley often lie retired from the public service at the age of thirty-two, and at considerable altitudes, the average of those in the S.E. being devoted himself to science. He made especial studies of the 9000 ft. Chaldir-gol (altitude 6520 ft.) and one or two other Tertiary formations and fossils of the Vienna Basin, and investi- smaller lakes lie towards the N.E.; the Chaldir-gol is overhung gated the geological relations of the thermal and other springs on the S.W. by the Kysyr-dagh (10,470 ft.). The east side of in that region. He became an authority on the foraminifera, the province is throughout demarcated by the Arpa-chai, which on which subject he published numerous papers. He wrote receives from the right the Kars river, and as it leaves the also a little book entitled Der Boden der Hauptstädte Europas province at its S.E. corner joins the Aras. The Kura rises within (1881). He died in Vienna on the 19th of April 1903. the province not far from the Kysyr-dagh an flows across it KARROO, two extensive plateaus in the Cape province, westwards, then eastwards and north-eastwards, quitting it in South Africa, known respectively as the Great and Little Karroo. the north-east. The winters are very severe. The towns of Karroo is a corruption of Karusa, a Hottentot word meaning Kaghyshman (4620 ft.) and Sarykamish (7800 ft.) have a dry, barren, and its use as a place-name indicates the character winter temperature like that of Finland, and at the latter place, of the plateaus so designated. They form the two intermediate with an annual mean (35° F.) equal to that of Hammerfest in steps" between the coast-lands and the inner plateau which the extreme north of Norway, the thermometer goes down in constitutes the largest part of South Africa. The Little (also winter to 40° below zero and rises in summer to 99º. The annual called Southern) Karroo is the table-land nearest the southern mean temperature at Kars is 40:5° and at Ardahan, farther coast-line of the Cape, and is bounded north by the Zwaarteberg, north, 37° The Alpine meadows (yailas) reach up to 1000 ft. which separates it from the Great Karroo. From west to east and afford excellent pasturage in spring and summer. the Little Karroo has a length of some 200 m., whilst its average province is almost everywhere heavily forested. Firs and width is 30 m. West of the Zwaarteberg the Little Karroo birches flourish as high as 7000 ft., and the vine up to above merges into the Great Karroo. Eastward it is limited by the 3000 ft. Cereals ripen well, and barley and maize grow up to hills which almost reach the sea in the direction of St Francis considerable altitudes. Large numbers of cattle and sheep are and Algoa Bays. The Great Karroo is of much larger extent. bred. Extensive deposits of salt occur at Kaghyshman and Bounded south, as stated, by the Zwaarteberg, further east by Olty. The population was 167,610 in 1883 and 292,863 in 1897. the Zuurberg (of the coast chain), its northern limit is the The estimated population in 1906 was 349,100. It is mixed. mountain range which, under various names, such as Nieuwveld In remote antiquity the province was inhabited by Armenians, and Sneeuwberg, forms the wall of the inner plateau. To the ruins of whose capital, Ani, attest the ancient prosperity of the south-west and west it is bounded by the Hex River Moun- the country. To the Armenians succeeded the Turks, while » The KARS KARUN 683 Kurds invaded the Alpine pasturages above the valley of the | and along the Dalmatian shore. It has been shown by E. Suess Aras; and after them Kabardians, Circassians, Ossetes and (Antlitz der Erde, vol. i. pt. 2, ch. iii.) that the N. Adriatic is a Kara-papaks successively found a refuge in this highland region. sunken dish that has descended along these fractures and folds, After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, when this region was which are not uncommonly the scene of earthquakes, showing transferred to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, some 82,750 that these movements are still in progress. The crust is very Turks emigrated to Asia Minor, their places being taken by nearly much broken in consequence and the water sinks readily through 22,000 Armenians, Greeks and Russians. At the census of the broken limestone rocks, which owing to their nature are also 1897 the population consisted principally of Armenians (73,400), very absorbent. The result is that the scenery is barren and Kurds (43,000), Greeks (32,600), Kara-papaks (30,000), Russians, desolate, and as this structure always, wherever found, gives Turks and Persians. The capital is Kars. The province is rise to similar features, a landscape of this character is called a divided into four districts, the chief towns of which are Kars Karst landscape. The water running in underground channels (q.v.), Ardahan (pop. 800 in 1897), Kaghyshman (3435) and dissolves and denudes away the underlying rock, producing Olty. (J. T. Be.) great caves as at Adelsberg, and breaking the surface with KARS, a fortificd town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the sinks, potholes and unroofed chasms. The barren nature of a province of Kars, formerly at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish purely limestone country is seen in the treeless regions of some vilayet of Erzerum. It is situated in 40° 37' N. and 43° 6' E., parts of Derbyshire, while the underground streams and sinks 185 m. by rail S.W. of Tiflis, on a dark basalt spur of the Soghanli- of parts of Yorkshire, and the unroofed gorge formed by the dagh, above the deep ravine of the Kars-chai, a sub-tributary Cheddar cliffs, give some indication of the action that in the of the Aras. Pop. (1878), 8672; (1897), 20,891. There are high fractured mountains of the Karst produces a depressing three considerable suburbs-Orta-kapi to the S., Bairam Pasha landscape which has some of the features of the “bad lands” of to the E., and Timur Pasha on the western side of the river. America, though due to a different cause. At the N.W. corner of the town, overhanging the river, is the KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD (1782-1853), ancient citadel, in earlier times a strong military post, but German mineralogist, was born at Bützow in Mecklenburg; on completely commanded by the surrounding eminences. The the 26th of November 1782. He was author of several compre- place is, however, still defended by a fort and batteries. There hensive works, including Handbuch der Eisenhüllenkunde (2 vols., is a toth century cathedral, Kars being the see of a bishop of 1816;3rd ed., 1841); System der Metallurgiegeschichtlich, statistisch, the Orthodox Greek Church. Coarse woollens, carpets and felt theoretisch und technisch (5 vols. with atlas, 1831-1832); Lehrbuch are manufactured. der Salinenkunde (2 vols., 1846-1847). He was well known as During the 9th and oth centuries the seat of an independent editor of the Archiv für Bergbau und Hüttenwesen (20 vols., 1818– Armenian principality, Kars was captured and destroyed by the 1831); and (with H. von Dechen) of the Archiv für Mineralogie, Seljuk Turks in the 11th century, by the Mongols in the 13th, and Geognosie, Bergbau und Hültenkunde (26 vols., 1829–1854). He by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1387. The citadel, it would appear, died at Berlin on the 22nd of August 1853. His son, Dr Hermann was built by Sultan Murad III. during the war with Persia, at Karsten (1809–1877), was professor of mathematics and physics the close of the 16th century. It was strong enough to within the university of Rostock. stand a siege by Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1731, and in 1807 it KARTIKEYA, in Hindu mythology, the god of war. Of his successfully resisted the Russians. After a brave defence it sur- birth there are various legends. One relates that he had no rendered on the 23rd of June 1828 to the Russian general Count mother but was produced by Siva alone, and was suckled by six I. F. Paskevich, 11,000 men becoming prisoners of war. During nymphs of the Ganges, being miraculously endowed with six the Crimean War the Turkish garrison, guided by General faces that he might simultaneously obtain nourishment from Williams (Sir W. Fenwick Williams of Kars) and other foreign each. Another story is that six babes, miraculously conceived, officers, kept the Russians at bay during a protracted siege; were born of the six nymphs, and that Parvati, the wife of Siva, but, after the garrison had been devastated by cholera, and in her great affection for them, embraced the infants so closely food had utterly failed, nothing was left but to capitulate that they became one, but preserved six faces, twelve arms, feet, (Nov. 1855). The fortress was again stormed by the Russians eyes, &c. Kartikeya became the victor of giants and the leader in the war of 1877–78, and on its conclusion was transferred to of the armies of the gods. He is represented as riding a peacock. Russia. In southern India he is known as Subramanya. See Kmety, The Defence of Kars (1856), translated from the KARUN, an important river of Persia. Its head-waters are German; H. A. Lake, Kars and our Captivity in Russia (London, in the mountain cluster known since at least the 14th century 1856); and Narrative of the Defence of Kars (London, 1857: as Zardeh Kuh (13,000 ft.) and situated in the Bakhtiari country Dr Sandwith, Narrative of the Siege of Kars (London, 1856); C. B, Norman, Armenia and the Campaign of 1877 (London, 1878); | about 115 m. W. of Isfahan. In its upper course until it reaches Greene, Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey (1879)." Shushter it is called Ab i Kurang (also Kurand and Kuran), KARSHI, a town of Bokhara, in Central Asia, situated 96 m. and in the Bundahish, an old cosmographical work in Pahlavi, S.E. of the city of Bokhara, in a plain at the junction of two it is named Kharāē." From the junction of the two principal main confluents of the Kashka-darya. It is a large and strag- sources in the Zardeh Kuh at an altitude of about 8000 ft., ihe gling place, with a citadel, and the population amounts to Ab i Kurang is a powerful stream, full, deep and flowing with 25,000. There are three colleges, and the Biki mosque is a fine great velocity for most of its upper course between precipices building inlaid with blue and white tiles. Along the river varying in height from 1000 to 3000 ft. The steepness and stretches a fine promenade sheltered by poplars. Poppies and height of its banks make it in general useless for irrigation tobacco are largely grown, the tobacco being deemed the best purposes. From its principal sources to Shushter the distance in Central Asia. There is a considerable trade in grain; but the as the crow flies is only about 75 m., but the course of the river commercial prosperity of Karshi is mainly due to its being a is so tortuous that it travels 250 m. before it reaches that meeting-point for the roads from Samarkand, Bokhara, Hissar, city. Besides being fed on its journey through the Bakhtiari Balkh and Maimana, and serves as the market where the country by many mountain-side strcams, fresh-water and salt, Turkomans and Uzbegs dispose of their carpets, knives and fire- it receives various tributaries, the most important being the arms. Its coppersmiths turn out excellent work. Karshi was Ab i Bazuft from the right and the Ab i Barz from the left. At a favourite residence of Timur (Tamerlane). Shushter it divides into two branches, one the “ Gerger,” an KARST, in physical geography, the region east of the northern artificial channel cut in olden times and flowing east of the part of the Adriatic. It is composed of high and dry limestone 1 The real principal source of the river has been correctly located ridges. The country is excessively faulted by a long series of at ten miles above the reputed principal source, but the name Kurang parallel fractures that border the N.E. Adriatic and continue has been erroneously explained as standing for Kuh i rang and has been given to the mountain with the real principal source. Kuh inland that series of steps which descend beneath the sea and i rang has been wrongly explained as meaning the “variegated produce the series of long parallel islands off the coast of Triest I mountain. 684 KARWAR-KASAL 9 city, the other the “Shutait "flowing west. These two branches, | form a single nucleus in syngamic processes (see REPRODUCTION); which are navigable to within a few miles below Shushter, unite (2) the process of pairing in Infusoria (q.v.), in which two migra- after a run of about 50 m. at Band i Kir, 24 m. S. of Shushter, tory nuclei are interchanged and fuse with two stationary and there also take up the Ab i Diz (river of Dizful). From nuclei, while the cytoplasmic bodies of the two mates are in Band i Kir to a point two miles above Muhamrah the river is intimate temporary union. called Karun (Rio Carom of the Portuguese writers of the 16th KASAI, or CASSAI, a river of Africa, the chief southern and 17th centuries) and is navigable all the way with the affluent of the Congo. It enters the main stream in 3° 10' S., exception of about two miles at Ahvaz, where a series of cliffs 16° 16' E. after a course of over 800 m. from its source in the and rocky shelves cross the river and cause rapids. Between highlands which form the south-western edge of the Congo Ahvaz and Band i Kir (46 m. by river, 24 m. by road) the river basin-separating the Congo and Zambezi systems. The Kasai has an average depth of about 20 ft., but below Ahvaz down to and its many tributaries cover a very large part of the Congo a few miles above Muhamrah it is in places very shallow, and basin. The Kasai rises in about 12° S., 19° E. and flows first in vessels with a draught exceeding 3 ft. are liable to ground. a north-easterly direction. About 10° 35' S., 22° 15' E. it makes About 12 m. above Muhamrah and branching off to the left a rectangular bend northward and then takes a north-westerly is a choked-up river bed called the “blind Karun,” by which direction. Five rivers-the Luembo, Chiumbo, Luijimo or the Karun found its way to the sea in former days. Ten miles Luashimo, Chikapa and Lovua or Lowo-rise west of the farther a part of the river branches off to the left and due S. by Kasai and run in parallel courses for a considerable distance, a channel called Bahmashir (from Bahman-Ardashir, the name falling successively into the parent stream (between 7° and 6° S.) of the district in the early middle ages) which is navigable to as it bends westward in its northern course. The Luembo and the sea for vessels of little draught. The principal river, here Chiumbo join and enter the Kasai as one river. A number of about a quarter of a mile broad and 20 to 30 ft. deep, now flows rapids occur in these streams. A few miles below the confluence west, and after passing Muhamrah enters into the Shatt el Arab of the Lowo, the last of the five rivers named to join the Kasai, about 20 m. below Basra. This part of the river, from the the main stream is interrupted by the Wissmann Falls which, Bahmashir to the Shatt, is a little over three miles in length and, though not very high, bar further navigation from the north. as its name, Hafar (“ dug”) implies, an artificial channel. It Below this point the river receives several right-hand (eastern) was dug C. A.D. 980 by Azud ed-Dowleh to facilitate communica- tributaries. These also have their source in the Zambezi-Congo tion by water between Basra and Ahvaz, as related by the Arab watershed, rising just north of 12° S., flowing north in parallel geographer Mukaddasi A.D. 986. The total length of the river lines, and in their lower course bending west to join the Kasai. is 460 to 470 m. while the distance from the sources to its The chief of these affluents are the Lulua and the Sankuru, the junction with the Shatt el Arab is only 160 m. as the crow flies. Lulua running between the Kasai and the Sankuru. The The Karun up to Ahvaz was opened to international navigation Sankuru makes a bold curve westward on reaching 4° S., on the 30th of October 1888, and Messrs Lynch of London following that parallel of latitude a considerable distance. Its established a fortnightly steamer service on it immediately waters are of a bright yellow colour. After the junction of the after. two rivers (in 4° 17' S., 20° 15' E.), the united stream of the Kasai To increase the water supply of Isfahan Shah Tahmasp I. flows N.W. to the Congo. From the south it is joined by the (1524-1576) and some of his successors, notably Shah Abbas I. Loange and the Kwango. The Kwango is a large river rising (1587-1629), undertook some works for diverting the Kurang a little north of 12° S., and west of the source of the Kasai. into valley which drains into the Zayendeh-rud, the river of Without any marked bends it flows north-is joined from the Isfahan, hy tunnelling, or cutting through a narrow rocky ridge east by the Juma, Wamba and other streams—and has a course separating the two river systems. The result of many years' of 600 m. before joining the Kasai in 3º S., 18' E. The lower work, a cleft 300 yds. long, 15 broad and 18 deep, cut into the reaches of the Kwango are navigable; the upper course is rock, probably amounting to no more than one-twentieth of the interrupted by rapids. On the north (in 3° 8' S., 17° E.) the necessary work, can be seen at the junction of the two principal lower Kasai is joined by the Lukenye or Ikatta. This river, sources of the Kurang. the most northerly affluent of the Kasai, rises between 24° and Kurdistan (London, 1891); Lord Curzon, Persia and the Persian Lomami (another Congo affluent) flows northward. On the upper Karun see Mrs Bishop, Journeys in Persia and 25° E., and about 3° S. in swampy land through which the Question (London, 1892) Lieut, Colonel H, A, Sawyer, so The Lukenye has an east to west direction flowing across a level The Bakhtiari Mountains and Upper Elam,” Geog. Journal (Dec, 1894). (A. H.-S.) country once occupied by a lake, of which Lake Leopold II. KARWAR, or CARWAR, a seaport of British India, adminis- (q.v.), connected with the lower course of the Lukenye, is the trative headquarters of North Kanara district in the Bombay scanty remnant. Below the lake the Lukenye is known as the presidency; 295 m. S. of Bombay city. Pop. (1901), 16,847. As Mfini. Near its mouth the Kasai, in its lower course generally early as 1660 the East India Company had a factory here, with a broad stream strewn with islands, is narrowed to about half a a trade in muslin and pepper; but it suffered frequently from mile on passing through a gap in the inner line of the West African Dutch, Portuguese and native attacks, and in 1752 the English highlands, by the cutting of which the old lake of the Kasai basin agent was withdrawn. Old Karwar fell into ruins, but a new must have been drained. The Kasai enters the Congo with a town grew up after the transfer of North Kanara to the Bombay minimum depth of 25 feet and a breadth of about 700 yards, presidency. It is the only safe harbour all the year round at a height of 942 ft. above the sea. The confluence is known between Bombay and Cochin. In the bay is a cluster of islets as the Kwa mouth, Kwa being an alternative name for the called the Oyster Rocks, on the largest of which is a lighthouse. lower Kasai. The volume of water entering the Congo averages Two smaller islands in the bay afford good shelter to native 321,000 cub. ft. per second: far the largest amount discharged by craft during the strong north-west winds that prevail from any of the Congo affluents. In floodtime the current flows at the February to April. The commercial importance of Karwar has rate of 5 or 6 m. an hour. The Kasai and its tributaries are declined since the opening of the railway to Marmagao in navigable for over 1500 m. by steamer. Portuguese territory. The Kwango affluent of the Kasai was the first of the large KARWI, a town of British India, in the Banda district of the affluents of the Congo known to Europeans. It was reached by United Provinces, on a branch of the Indian Midland railway; the Portuguese from their settlements on the west coast in the 16th century. pop. (1901), 7743. Before the Mutiny it was the residence of travellers in the 18th century are believed to have reached the upper Of its lower course they were ignorant, Portuguese a Mahratta noble, who lived in great state, and whose accumu- Kasai, but the first accurate knowledge of the river basin was lations constituted the treasure afterwards famous as “the obtained by David Livingstone, who reached the upper Kasai from Kirwee and Banda Prize Money." the east and explored in part the upper Kwango (1854-1855). KARYOGAMY. (Gr. kápvov, nut or kernel, thus “ nucleus," .L, Cameron and Paul Pogge crossed the upper Kasai in the early seventies." The Kwa mouth was seen by H. M. Stanley in his and yapos, marriage), in biology: (1) the fusion of nuclei tol journey down the Congo in 1877, and he rightly regarded it as the 60 KASBEK_KASHGAR 685 a outlet of the Kwango, though not surmising it was also the outlet other cities of Central Asia, it has changed hands repeatedly, and of the Kasai. In 1882 Stanley ascended the river to the Kwango- Kasai confluence and thence proceeding up the Mini discovered was from 1864-1887 the seat of government of the Amir Yakub Lake Leopold II. In 1884 George Grenfell journeyed up the river Beg, surnamed the Atalik Ghazi, who established and for a beyond the Kwango confluence. The systematic exploration of brief period ruled with remarkable success a Mahommedan state the main stream and its chief tributaries was, however, mainly the comprising the chief cities of the Tarim basin from Turfan work of Hermann von Wissmann, Ludwig. Wolf, Paul Pogge and round along the skirt of the mountains to Khoran. But the other Germans during 1880-1887. (See Wissmann's books, especi- ally Im Innern Afrikas, Leipzig, 1888.) On his third journey, 1886, kingdom collapsed with his death and the Chinese retook the Wissmann was accompanied by Grenfell. Major von Mechow, an country in 1877 and have held it since. Austrian, explored the middle Kwango in 1880, and its lower course Kuhna Shahr is a small fortified city on high ground over- was subsequently surveyed by Grenfell and Holman Bentley, a looking the river Tuman. Its walls are lofty and supported by Baptist missionary. In 1899–1900 a Belgian cxpedition under Captain Ç. Lemaire traced the Congo-Zambezi watershed, obtaining buttress bastions with loopholed turrets at intervals; the valuable information concerning the upper courses of the southern fortifications, however, are but of hard clay and are much out Kasai tributaries. The upper Kasai basin and its peoples were of repair. The city contains about 2500 houses. Beyond the further investigated by a Hungarian traveller, E. Torday, in 1908- bridge, a little way off, are the ruins of ancient Kashgar, 1909. (See Torday's paper in Geog. Jour., 1910; also CONGO and the which once covered a large extent of country on both sides of the authorities there cited.) KASBEK (Georgian; Mkin-vari; Ossetian, ** Urs-khokh), Tuman, and the walls of which even now are 12 feet wide at the one of the chief summits of the Caucasus, situated in 42° 42' N. top and twice that in height. This city-Aski Shahr (Old Town) and 44° 30' E., 7 m. as the crow flies from a station of the same as it is now calied—was destroyed in 1914 by Mirza Ababakar name on the high road to Tiflis. Its altitude is 16,545 ft. It (Abubekr) on the approach of Sultan Said Khan's army. About rises on the range which runs north of the main range (main two miles to the north beyond the river is the shrine of Hazrat water-parting), and which is pierced by the gorges of the Ardon Afak, the saint king of the country, who died and was buried here and the Terek. It represents an extinct volcano, built up of in 1693... It is a handsome mausoleum faced with blue and white trachyte and sheathed with lava, and has the shape of a double glazed tiles, standing under the shade of some magnificent silver cone, whose lies at an altitude of 5800 ft. Owing to the poplars. About it Yakub Beg erected a commodious college, steepness of its slopes, its eight glaciers cover an aggregate surface mosque and monastery, the whole being surrounded by rich of not more than 8 sq. m., though one of them, Maliev, is 36 m. orchards, fruit gardens and vineyards. The Yangi Shahr of long; The best-known glacier is the Dyevdorak, or Devdorak, Kashgar is, as its name implies, modern, having been built in which creeps down the north-eastern slope into a gorge of the 1838. It is of oblong shape running north and south, and is same name, reaching a level of 7530 ft. At its eastern foot runs entered by a single gateway. The walls are lofty and massive the Georgian military road through the pass of Darial (7805 ft.). and topped by turrets, while on each side is a projecting bastion. The summit was first climbed in 1868 by D. W. Freshfield, The whole is surrounded by a deep and wide ditch, which can be A. W. Moore, and C. Tucker, with a Swiss guide. Several filled from the river, at the risk, however, of bringing down the successful ascents have been made since, the most valuable in whole structure, for the walls are of mud, and stand upon a scientific results being that of Pastukhov (1889) and that of porous sandy soil. In the time of the Chinese, before Yakub G. Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller in 1890. Kasbek has a Beg's sway, Yangi Shahr held a garrison of six thousand men, great literature, and has left a deep mark in Russian poetry. and was the residence of the amban or governor. Yakub erected See D. W. Freshfield in Proc. Geog. Soc. (November 1888) and The his orda or palace on the site of the amban's residence, and two Exploration of the Caucasus (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1902); Hatisian's hundred ladies of his harem occupied a commodious enclosure Kazbek Glaciers" in Izvestia Russ. Geog: Soc. (xxiv., 1888); hard by. The population of Kashgar has been recently estimated Pastukhov in Izvestia of the Caucasus Branch of Russ. Geog. Soc. at 60,000 in the Kuhna Shahr and only 2000 in the Yangi (x. 1, 1891, with large-scale map). Shahr. KASHAN, a small province of Persia, situated between With the overthrow of the Chinese rule in 1865 the manu- Isfahan and Kum. It is divided into the two districts germsir, the facturing industries of Kashgar declined. Silk culture and warm," and sardsir, the "cold,” the former with the city of carpet manufacture have flourished for ages at Khotan, and the Kashan in the plains, the latter in the hills. It has a population products always find a ready sale at Kashgar. Other manu- of 75,000 to 80,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about £18,000. factures consist of a strong coarse cotton cloth called kham (which KASHAN (Cashan) is the provincial capital, in 34° 0' N. and forms the dress of the common people, and for winter wear is 51° 27' E., at an elevation of 3190 ft., 150 m. from Teheran; padded with cotton and quilted), boots and shoes, saddlery, felts, pop. 35,000, including a few hundred Jews occupied as silk- furs and sheepskins made up into cloaks, and various articles of winders, and a few Zoroastrians engaged in trade. Great domestic use. A curious street sight in Kashgar is presented by quantities of silk stuffs, from raw material imported from Gilan, the hawkers of meat pies, pastry and sweetmeats, which they and copper utensils are manufactured at Kashan and sent. to all trundle about on hand-barrows just as their counterparts do in parts of Persia. Kashan also exports rose-water made in villages Europe; while the knife-grinder's cart, and the vegetable seller in the hilly districts about 20 m. from the city, and is the with his tray or basket on his head, recall exactly similar itinerant only place in Persia where cobalt can be obtained, from the traders further west. mine at Kamsar, 19 m. to the south. At the foot of the hills The earliest authentic mention of Kashgår is during the second 4 m. W. of the city are the beautiful gardens of Fin, the period of ascendancy of the Han dynasty, when the Chinese con- scene of the official murder, on the 9th of January 1852, of of states in the farim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan quered the Hiungnu, Yutien (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group Mirza Taki Khan, Amir Nizam, the grand vizier, one of the mountains. This happened in 76 B.C. Kashgar does not appear ablest ministers that Persia has had in modern times. to have been known in the West at this time but Ptolemy speaks of KASHGAR, an important city of Chinese Turkestan, in Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a Kasia Regio, possibly ex- 39° 24' 26" N. lat., 760 6' 47" E. long., 4043 ft. above sea-level.hibiting the name whence Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to It consists of two towns, Kuhna Shahr or“ old city,” and Yangi The country was converted to Buddhism and probably ruled by the district) are formed. Ņext ensues a long epoch of obscurity. Shahr or new city," about five miles apart, and separated from Indo-Scythian or Kushan kings. Hsuan Tswang passed through one another by the Kyzyl Su, a tributary of the Tarim river. It Kashgar (which he calls Ka-sha) on his return journey from India is called Su-lēh by the Chinese, which perhaps represents an to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, original Solek or Sorak. This name seems to be older than ously the Nestorian Christians were establishing bishopsics at Herat, was working its way to a new growth in China, and contemporane- Kashgar, which is said to mean " variegated houses.” Situated Mery and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to at the junction of routes from the valley of the Oxus, from Kashgar, and finally to China itself. In the 8th century came the Khokand and Samarkand, Almati, Aksu, and Khotan, the last lending assistance to the reigning queen of Bokhara, to enable her Arab invasion from the west, and we find Kashgar and Turkestan two leading from China and India, Kashgar has been noted from to repel the enemy. But although the Mahommedan religion from very early times as a political and commercial centre. Like all the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its “ 686 KASHI-KASHMIR 66 weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north | it is quite possible that the name kashi is immediately derived and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the ioth century that Islam was established at from Kashan, a town in Persia noted for its faïence. This ancient Kashgar, under the Uighur kingdom (see Turks). The Uighurs pottery site, in turn, probably receives its name from the old- appear to have been the descendants of the people called Tölas and time industry; as a city of the plain " it would obviously to have been one of the many Turkish tribes who migrated westwards have no claim to the fart her-eastern suffix shan, meaning a from China. Boghra Khan, the most celebrated prince of this line, mountain. Sir George Birdwood wisely considers that “The was converted to Mahommedanism late in the roth century and the Uighur kingdom lasted until 1120 but was distracted by complicated art of glazing eathenware has, in Persia, descended in an dynastic struggles. The Uighurs employed an alphabet based upon almost unbroken tradition from the period of the greatness of the Syriac and borrowed from the Nestorian missionaries. They Chaldaea and Assyria ... the name kas, by which it is known in spoke a dialect of Turkish preserved in the Kudatku Bilik, a moral treatise composed in 1065: Their kingdom was destroyed by an Arabic and Hebrew, carries us back to the manufacture of glass invasion of the Kara-Kitais, another Turkish tribe pressing west- and enamels for which great Sidon was already famous 1500 wards from the Chinese frontier, who in their turn were swept away years before Christ . . . the designs used in the decoration of Sind in 1219 by Jenghiz Khan. His invasion gave a decided check to the and Punjab glazed pottery also go to prove how much these progress of the Mahommedan creed, but on his death, and during Indian wares have been influenced by Persian examples and the the rule of the Jagatai Khans, who became converts to that faith, it began to reassert its ascendancy. Marco Polo visited the city, Persian tradition of the much earlier art of Nineveh and Baby- which he calls Cascar, about 1275 and left some notes on it. lon” (The Industrial Arts of India, 1880). The two native names In 1389-1390 Timur ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening for glass, kanch and shisha, common to Persia and India, are, country. Kashgar passed through a troublous time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Aba- seemingly, modifications of kashi. The Indian tradition of bakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built the new fort with Chinese potters settling in bygone days at Lahore and Hala massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman. The dynasty respectively, still lingers in the Punjab and Sind provinces, of the Jagatai Khans collapsed in 1972 by the dismemberment of the country between rival representatives; and soon after two power; Howbeit in Lahore the name Chíní is sometimes wrongly applied and evidently travelled eastward from Persia with the Moguls. ful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak and Kara Taghluk), arose, whose dissensions and warfares, with the inter- to kashi work; and the so-called Chíní-ka-Rauza mausoleum at vention of the Kalmucks of Dzungaria, fill up the history till 1759, Agra is an instance of this misuse. It now seems an established when a Chinese army from Ili (Kulja) invaded the country, and, fact that a colony of Chinese ceramic experts migrated to after perpetrating wholesale massacres, finally consolidated their Isfahan during the 16th century (probably in the reign, and authority by settling therein Chinese emigrants, together with a Manchu garrison. The Chinese had thoughts of pushing their con. at the invitation, of Shah Abbas I.), and there helped to revive quests towards western Turkestan and Samarkand, the chiefs of the jaded pottery industry of that district. which sent to ask assistance of the Afghan king Ahmed Shah. This monarch despatched an embassy to Peking to demand the restitution Kashi work consisted of two kinds: (a) Enamel-faced tiles and of the Mahommedan states of Central Asia, but the embassy was not bricks of strongly fired red earthenware, or terra-cotta; (b) Enamel. well received, and Ahmed Shah was too much engaged with the Sikhs faced tiles and tesserae of lightly fired “lime-mortar," or sandstone. to attempt to enforce his demands by arms. The Chinese continued Tile-mosaic work is described by some authorities as the true kashi. to hold Kashgar, with sundry interruptions from Mahommedan From examination of figured tile-mosaic patterns, it would appear revolts--one of the most serious occurring in 1827, when the territory that, in some instances, the shaped tesserae had been cut out of was invaded and the city taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, enamelled slabs or tiles after firing; in other examples to have been however, the Chinese general of Ili, recovered possession of Kashgar Mosaic panels in the fort at Lahore are described by J. L. Kipling cut into shape before receiving their facing of coloured enamel. and the other revolted cities in 1828. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir, was more as showing a gul dasta, or foliated pattern of a branching tree, each successful, and resulted in the concession of several important trade leaf of which is a separate piece of pottery." Conventional repre- privileges to the Mahommedans of the district of Alty Shahr (the sentations of foliage, flowers and fruit, intricate geometrical figures, six cities "), as it was then named. Until 1846 the country enjoyed interlacing, arabesques, and decorative calligraphy-inscriptions in peace under the just and liberal rule of Zahir-ud-din, the Chinese Arabic and Persian-constitute the ordinary kashi designs. The governor, but in that year a fresh Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led colours chiefly used were cobalt blue, copper blue (turquoise colour), to his making himself master of the city, with circumstances of lead-antimoniate yellow (mustard colour), manganese purple, iron unbridled licence and oppression. His reign was, however, brief, brown and tin white. A colour-scheme, popular with Mogul and for at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, contemporary Persian kashigars, was the design, in cobalt blue and he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last copper blue, reserved on a ground of deep mustard yellow. Before of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration with the applying the enamel colours, the rough face of the tile, or the tesserae, previous one, and took place under Wali-Khan,a degraded debauchee, received a thin coating of slip of variable composition. It is prob. and the murderer of the lamented traveller Adolf Schlagintweit. ably owing to some defect in this part of the process, or to imperfect The great Tungani (Dungani) revolt, or insurrection of the Chinese firing, that the enamelled tile surfaces on many old buildings, Mahommedans, which broke out in 1862 in Kansuh, spread rapidly particularly on the south side, have weathered and naked away. to Dzungária and through the line of towns in the Tarim basin. 'The In India the finest examples of kashi work are in the Punjab and Tungani troops in Yarkand rose, and(10th of August 1863) massacred Sind provinces. At Lahore, amongst many beautiful structures, some seven thousand Chinese, while the inhabitants of Kashgar, the most notable are the mosque of Wazir Khan (A.D. 1634) and the rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik gateways of three famous pleasure gardens, the Shalamar Bagh Beg, a Kirghiz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir (A.D. 1637), the Gulabi gh (A.D. 1640), and the Charburji (c. A.D. of Jahanghir, and Yakub Beg, his general, these being despatched 1665). At Tatta the Jami Masjid, built by Shah Jahan (c. A.D. 1645), at Sadik's request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they is a splendid illustration; whilst in that" vast cemetery of six square could to aid his Mahommedan friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon on the adjacent Malki plateau, are numerous Mahommedan repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched tombs (A.D. 1570-1640) with extraordinary kashi ornamentation. against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan Delhi, Multan, Jullundur, Shahdara, Lahore cantonment, Agra and and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Hyderabad (Sind), all possess excellent monuments of the best period Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but viz. those erected during the reigns of Akbar and Jahangir (A.D. Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself 1596-1628). master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and In Persia, at Isfahan, Kashan, Meshed and Kerman are a few eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving buildings and ruins showing the old kashi work; the palace of Chehel himself totally unfitted for the post of ruler. Kashgar and the other Sitùn in Isfahan, built during the reign of Shah Abbas I. (c. A.D. cities of the Tarim basin remained under Yakub Beg's rule until 1600), is a magnificent specimen of this art. 1877, when the Chinese regained possession of their ancient dominion. Occasional revivals of the manufacture have taken place both in (C. E. D. B.; C. EL.) India and Persia. Mahommed Sharif, a potter of Jullundur in the Punjab, reproduced the Mogul enamelled tile-work in 1885, and there KASHI, or Kasi, formerly the Persian word for all glazed is a manuscript record of a certain Ustad Ali Mahommed, of Isfahan, who revived the Persian processes in 1887, (W. B.*; C. S. C.) and enamelled pottery irrespectively; now the accepted term for certain kinds of enamelled tile-work, including brick-work and KASHMIR, or CASHMERE, a native state of India, including tile- mosaic work, manufactured in Persia and parts of Mahom- much of the Himalayan mountain system to the north of the medan India, chiefly during the 16th and 17th centuries." Punjab. It has been fabled in song for its beauty (e.g. in Moore's Undoubtedly originating in the Semitic word for glass, kas, Lalla Rookh), and is the chief health resort for Europeans in Kashi, the Hindu name for the sacred city of Benares, has no India, while politically it is important as guarding one of the ceramic significance. approaches to India on the north-west frontier. miles" 1 1 ! 1 The proper KASHMIR 687 name of the state is Jammu and Kashmir, and it comprises in of Greek historians and geographers-flows north-westward through all an estimated area of 80,900 sq. m., with a population (1901) the middle of the valley. After a slow and winding course it expands of 2,905,578, showing an increase of 14:21% in the decade. about 25 m. below Srinagar, over a slight depression in the plain, and It forms the Wular lake and marsh, which is about 121 m. by 5 m. in is bounded on the north by some petty hills chiefships and by extent, and surrounded by the lofty mountains which tower over the Karakoram mountains; on the east by Tibet; and on the the north and north-east of the valley. Leaving the lake on the south and west by the Punjab and North-West Frontier south-west side, near the town of Sopur, the river pursues its sluggish course south-westward, about 18 m. to the gorge at Baramulla. provinces. The state is in direct political subordination to the From this point the stream is more rapid through the narrow valley Government of India, which is represented by a resident. Its which conducts it westward 75 m. to Muzaffarabad, where it turns territories comprise the provinces of Jammu (including the sharply south, joined by the Kishenganga. At Islamabad, about jagir of Punch), Kashmir, Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit; the 40. m. above Srinagar, the river is 5400 ft. above sea-level, and at Shin states of Yaghistan, of which the most important are Srinagar 5235 ft. It has thus a fall of about 4 ft. per mile in this part of its course. For the next 24 m. to the Wular lake, and thence to Chilas, Darel and Tangir, are nominally subordinate to it, and Baramulla, its fall is only about 2} ft. in the mile. On the 80 m. of the the two former pay a tribute of gold dust. The following are river in the flat valley between Islamabad and Baramulla, there is the statistics for the main divisions of the state: much boat traffic; but none below Baramulla. till the river comes out into the plains. Area in sq. m. Pop. in 1901. On the north-east side of this low narrow plain of the Jhelum is Jammu 5,223 1,521,307 a broad hilly tract between which and the higher boundary range Kashmir 7,922 1,157,394 runs the Kishenganga River. Near the east end of this interior hilly Frontier Districts 443 226,877 tract, and connected with the higher range, is one summit 17,839 ft. The remainder of the state consists of uninhabited mountains, Around this peak and between the ridges which run from it are many and its only really important possessions are the districts of ful valley of the Sind River, and on another into the valley of the small glaciers. These heights look down on one side into the beauti. Jammu and Kashmir. Lidar, which join the Jhelum. Among the hills north of Srinagar Physical Conformation.—The greater portion of the country rises one conspicuous mountain mass, 16,903 ft. in height, from which is mountainous, and with the exception of a strip of plain on the on its north side descend tributaries of the Kishenganga, and on the south-west, which is continuous with the great level of the and their numerous affluents the whole valley of Kashmir is watered south the Wangat River, which flows into the Sind. By these rivers Punjab, may be conveniently divided into the following regions: abundantly. (1) The outer hills and the central mountains of Jammu district. Around the foot of many spurs of the hills which run down on the (2) The valley of Kashmir. Kashmir plain are pieces of low table-land, called karéwa. These (3) The far side of the great central range, including Ladakh, 300 ft. above the alluvial plain. Those which are near each other terraces vary in height at different parts of the valley from 100 to Baltistan and Gilgit. are mostly aboạt the same level, and separated by deep ravines. The hills in the outer region of Jammu, adjoining the Punjab The level plain in the middle of the Kashmir valley consists of fine plains, begin with a height of 100 to 200 ft., followed by a tract clay and sand, with water-worn pebbles. The karewas consist of horizontal beds of clay and sand, the lacustrine nature of which is of rugged country, including various ridges running nearly shown by the shells which they contain. parallel, with long narrow valleys between. The average Two passes lead northward from the Kashmir valley, the Burzil height of these ridges is from 3000 to 4000 ft. The central (13,500 ſt.). and the Kamri (14,050). The Burzil is the main pass mountains are commonly 8000 to 10,000 ft.,, covered with only between the middle of July and the middle of September. The between Srinagar and Gilgit via Astor. It is usually practicable pasture or else with forest. Then follow the more lofty mountain road from Srinagar to Lehin Ladakh follows the Sind valley to the ranges, including the region of perpetual snow. A great chain Zoji-la-pass (11,300 ft.) Only a short piece of the road, where snow of snowy mountains branching off south-east and north-west accumulates, prevents this pass being used all the year. At the divides the drainage of the Chenab and the Jhelum rivers from south-east end of the valley are three passes, the Margan (11,500 ft.), the Hoksar (13.315) and the Marbal (11,500), leading to the valleys that of the higher branches of the Indus. It is within spurs of the Chenab and the Ravi. South of Islamabad, on the direct from this chain that the valley of Kashmir is enclosed amid route to Jammu and Sialkot, is the Banihal pass (9236 ft.). Further hills which rise from 14,000 to 15,000 ft., while the valley itself west on the Panjal range is the Pir Panjal or Panchal pass (11,400 ft.), forms a cup-like basin at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. All with a second pass, the Rattan Pir (8200 ft.), across a second ridge about 15 m. south-west of it. Between the two passes is the beauti- beyond that great range is a wide tract of mountainous country, fully situated fort of Baramgali. This place is in the domain of the bordering the north-western part of Tibet and embracing raja of Punch, cousin and tributary of the maharaja of Kashmir. Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit. At Rajaori, south of these passes, the road divides: one line leads to Bhimber and Gujrat, the other to Jammu and Sialkot by Aknur. The length of the Kashmir valley, including the inner slopes of South-west of Baramulla is the Haji Pir pass (8500 ft.), which its surrounding hills, is about 120 m. from north-west to south-east indicates the road to Punch. From Punch one road leads down to with a maximum width of about 75 m. The low and comparatively the plains at the town of Jhelum, another eastward through the level floor of the basin is 84 m. long and 20 to 24 m. broad. The hills forming the northern half-circuit of the Kashmir valley pass of the Jhelum, which is the easy route from the valley west- hills to the Rattan Pir pass and Rajaori. Lastly, there is the river and running beyond, include many lofty, mountain masses and Kashmir, is Nanga Parbat, the fourth highest mountain in the world, station of Murree to Rawalpindi. peaks, the most conspicuous of which, a little outside the confines of ward, having two ways down to the plains, one by Muzaffarabad and the Hazara valley to Hasan Abdal, the other by the British hill 26,656 ft.above the sea, with an extensive area of glacier on its eastern face. The great ridge which is thrown off to the south-west by affected them, is from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the mountain ranges. Geology.—Thegeneral strike of the beds, and of the folds which have Nanga Parbat rises, at a distance of 12 m., toanother summit 20,740 ft. in height, from which run south-west, and south-east the ridges Along the south-western border lies the zone of Tertiary beds which which are the northern watershed boundary of Kashmir. The forms the Sub-Himalayas. Next to this is a great belt of Palaeozoic former range, after running 70 m. south-west, between the valleys rocks, through which rise the granite, gneiss and schist of the of the Kishenganga and the Kunhar or Nain-sukh, turns southward, Zanskar and Dhauladhar ranges and of the Pir Panjal. In the midst closely pressing the river Jhelum, after it has received the Kishen. of the Palaeozoic area lie the alluvium and Pleistocene deposits of ganga, with a break a few miles farther south which admits the the Srinagar valley, and the Mesozoic and Carboniferous basin of the Kunhar. This range presents several prominent summits, the highest ypper part of the Șind valley: Beyond the great Palaeozoic belt two 16,487and 15,544 ſt. above the sea. The range which runs is a zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds which commences at Kargi! south-east from the junction peakabove mentioned divides the valley and extends south-eastward past the Kashmir boundary to Spiti and of the Kishenganga from that of the Astor and other tributaries of beyond. Finally, in Baltistan and the Ladakh range there is a broad the Indus. The highest point on this range, where it skirts Kash- zone composed chiefly of gneiss and schist of ancient date. mir, is 17,202 ſt. above the sea. For more than 50 m. from Nanga The oldest fossils found belong either to the Ordovician or Silurian Parbat there are no glaciers on this range; thence eastward they systems. But it is not until the Carboniferous is reached that fossils increase; one, near the Zoji-la pass, is only 10,850 ft. above the sea. become at all abundant (so far as is yet known). The Mesozoic The mountains at the east end of the valley, running nearly north deposits belong chiefly to the Trias and Jura, but Cretaceous beds and south, drain inwards to the Jhelum, and on the other side to the have been found near the head of the Tsarap valley. The Tertiary Wardwan, a tributary of the Chenab. The highest part of this system includes representatives of all the principal divisions recog- eastern boundary is 14,700 ft. There no are glaciers. The highest nized in other parts of the Himalayas. point on the Panjal range, which forms the south and south-west Climate.---The valley of Kashmir, sheltered from the south-west boundary, is 15,523 ft. above the sea. monsoon by the Panjal range, has not the periodical rains of India. The river Jhelum (q.v.) or Behat (Sanskrit (Vitasta)--the Hydaspes | Its rainfall is irregular, greatest in the spring months. Occasional 688 KASHMIR storms in the monsoon pass over the crests of the Panja! and give i valley submerged. In 1841 a serious flood caused great damage to heavy rain on the elevated plateaus on the Kashmir side. And life and property; there was another in 1893, when six out of the again clouds pass over the valley and are arrested by the higher hills seven bridges in Srinagar were washed away, 25,426 acres under on the north-east side. Snow falls on the surrounding hills at inter- crops were submerged and 2225 houses were wrecked; another flood vals from October to March. In the valley the first snow generally occurred in July 1903, when the bund between the Dal Lake and the falls about the end of December; but never to any great amount. canal gave way, and the lake rose io ft. in half an hour, Between The hottest months are July, August and the greater part of Septem- two and three thousand houses in and around Srinagar collapsed, ber, during which the noon shade temperature varies from 85° to 90° while over 40 miles of the tonga road were submerged. Since the 15th and occasionally 95° at Srinagar, probably the hottest place in the century eleven great earthquakes have occurred, all of long duration valley, The coldest months are January and February, when for and accompanied by great loss of life. During the 19th century several weeks the average minimum temperature is about 15° below there were four severe earthquakes, the last two occurring in 1864 freezing. As a health resort the province, excluding Srinagar, which and 1885, when some 3500 people were killed. Native historians is insanitary and relaxing, has no rival anywhere in the neighbour- record nineteen great famines, the last two occurring in 1831 and hood of India. Its climate is admirably adapted to the European 1877. In 1878 it was reported that only two-fifths of the total constitution, and in consequence of the varied range of temperature population of the valley survived. During the 19th century also and the facility of moving about the visitor is enabled with ease to there were ten epidemics of cholera, all more or less disastrous, while select places at elevations most congenial to him. Formerly only the worst (in 1892) was probably the last. During that year 5781 200 passes a year were issued by the government, but now no restric- persons died in Srinagar and 5931 in the villages. The centre of tion is placed on visitors, and their number increases annually. | infection is generally supposed to be the squalid capital of Srinagar, European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India, and some efforts to improve its sanitation have been made of recent resort there freely. The railway to Rawalpindi, and a driving road years. thence to Srinagar make the valley, easy of access. When the Crops.-The staple crop of the valley is rice, which forms the chief temperature in Srinagar rises at the beginning of June, there is a food of the people. Indian corn comes next; wheat, barley and general exodus to Gulmarg, which has become a fashionable hill- oats are also grown. Every kind of English vegetable thrives well, station. This great influx of visitors has resulted in a corresponding especially, asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarlet diminution of game. Special gamepreservation rules have been intro- runners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are met duced, and nullahs are let out for stated periods with a restriction with all over the valley, wild but bearing fruit, and the cultivated on the number of head to be shot. The wild animals of the country orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, cherries, &c., equal to the best include ibex, markhor, oorial, the Kashmir stag, and black and brown European produce. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar bears. Many sportsmen now cross into Ladakh and the Pamirs. or plane, maple, birch and walnut. There are state departments of People.The great majority of the inhabitants of Kashmir viticulture, hops, horticulture and sericulture. A complete list of the flora and fauna of the valley will be found in Sir Walter Lawrence's are professedly Mahommedans, but their conversion to the faith book on Kashmir. of Islam is comparatively recent and they are still strongly in- Industries.--The chief industry of Srinagar was formerly the fluenced by their ancient superstitions. At the census of 1901 weaving of the celebrated Kashmir shawl, which dates back to the out of a total population in the whole state of 2,905,578, in Europe in the reign of Napoleon, when they fetched from £10 to days of the emperor Baber. These shawls first became fashionable there were 2,154,695 Mahommedans, 689,073 Hindus, 35,047 £100; but the industry received a blow at the time of the Franco- Buddhists and 25,828 Sikhs. The Hindus are mostly found in German War, and the famine of 1877 scattered the weavers. The Jammu, and the Buddhists are confined to Ladakh. In Kashmir place of the Kashmir shawl has to some extent been taken by the proper the few Hindus (60,682) are almost all Brahmans, known weaving. Srinagar is also celebrated for its silver-work, papier Kashmir carpet, but the most thriving industry now is that of silk- as Pundits. Superstition has made the Kashmiri timid; tyranny mâché and wood-carving. The minerals and metals of the Jammu has made him a liar; while physical disasters have made him district are promising, and a company has been formed to work them. selfish and pessimistic. Up to recent times the cultivator lived Coal of fair quality has been found, but the difficulties of transport under a system of begar, which entitled an official to take either interfere with its working. labour or commoditie free of payment from the villages. History. The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, Having no security of property, the people had no incentive called Rajatarangini, was pronounced by Professor H H. to effort, and with no security for life they lost the independence Wilson to be the only Sanskrit composition yet discovered to of free men. But the land settlement of 1889 swept all these which the title of history can with any propriety be applied. abuses away. Restrictive monopolies, under which bricks, It first became known to the Mahommedans when, on Akbar's lime, paper and certain other manufactures were closed to invasion of Kashmir in 1588, à copy was presented to the private enterprise, were abolished. The results of the settle- emperor. A translation into Persian was made by his order, ment are thus enumerated by Sir Walter Lawrence: “Little by and a summary of its contents, from this Persian translation, little, confidence has sprung up. Land which had no value in is given by Abu'l Fazl in the A’īn-i-Akbari . The Rajataran- 1889 is now eagerly sought after by all classes. Cultivation has gini, the first of a series of four Sanskrit histories, was written extended and improved. Houses have been rebuilt and repaired, about the middle of the 12th century by P. Kalhana. His fields fenced in, orchards planted, vegetable gardens well stocked work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings now lost. and new mills constructed. Women no longer are seen toiling Commencing with traditional history of very early times, it in the fields, for their husbands are now at home to do the comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, 1006; the second work, and the long journeys to Gilgit are a thing of the past. work, by Jonaraja, takes up the history in continuation of When the harvest is ripe the peasant reaps it at his own good Kalhana's, and, entering the Mahommedan period, gives an time, and not a soldier ever enters the villages." In consequence account of the reigns down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. of this improvement in their conditions of life and of the influx of P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of Fah Shah, wealth into the country brought by visitors, the Kashmiri grows 1486. And the fourth work, called Rājāvalipataka, by Prajnia every year in material prosperity and independence of character. Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the incorporation The Kashmir women have a reputation for beauty which is not of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588. altogether deserved, but the children are always pretty. In the Rājätarangini it is stated that the valley of Kashmir The language spoken in Kashmir is akin to that of the Punjab, was formerly a lake, and that it was drained by the great rishi though marked by many peculiarities. It possesses an ancient or sage, Kasyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting literature, which is written in a special character (see KASHMIRI). the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir Natural Calamities. The effect of physical calamities partly inci. had been drained, he brought in the Brahmans to occupy it. dental to the climate of Kashmir, upon the character of its in- This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical habitants has been referred to. The list includes fires, floods, earth condition of the country we may see some ground for the story quakes, famines and cholera. The ravages of fire are chiefly felt in which has taken this form. The name of Kasyapa is by history Srinagar, where the wood houses and their thatched roofs fall an easy prey to the flames. The national habit of carrying a.kangar, and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the or small brazier, underneath the clothes for the purpose of warming chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called the body, is a fruitful cause of fires. Srinagar is said to have been Kasyapa-pur-a name which has been plausibly identified burnt down eighteen times. Many disastrous floods are recorded, with the Kaománupos of Hecataeus (Steph. Byz., s.r.) and the greatest being the terrible inundation which followed the slipping of the Khadanyar mountain below Baramula in A.D. 879. The Kaotátupos of Herodotus (iii. 102, iv. 44). Kashmir is the channel of the Jhelum river was blocked and a large part of the country meant also by Ptolemy's Kaotupia. The ancient KASHMIRI 689 påme Kasyapa-pur was applied to the kingdom of Kashmir | appointed, the second of whom, Shekh Imam-ud-din, was in when it comprehended great part of the Punjab and extended charge when the battles of the first Sikh war 1846 brought about beyond the Indus. In the 7th century Kashmir is said by the new relations betwecn the British Government and the Sikhs. Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang to have included Kabul and Gulab Singh, a Dogra Rajput, had from a humble position the Punjab, and the hill region of Gandhara, the country of been raised to high office by Ranjit Singh, who conferred on him the Gandarae of classical geography. the small principality of Jammu. On the final defeat of the At an early date the Sanskrit name of the country became Sikhs at Sobraon (February 1846), Gulab Singh was called to Kasmir. The earliest inhabitants, according to the Rajalaran- take a leading part in arranging conditions of peace. The treaty giri, were the people called Naga, a word which signifies“ snake." of Lahore (March 9, 1846) sets forth that, the British Govern- The history shows the prevalence in early times of tree and ment' having demanded, in addition to a certain assignment of serpent worship, of which some sculptured stones found in territory, a payment of a crore and a half of rupees (12. millions Kashmir still retain the memorials. The town of Islamabad sterling), and the Sikh government being unable to pay the whole, is called also by its ancient name Anant-nag (“eternal snake”). the maharaja (Dhulip Singh) cedes, as equivalent for one crore, The source of the Jhelum is at Vir-nag (the powerful snake), the hill country belonging to the Punjab between the Beas &c. The other races mentioned as inhabiting this country and and the Indus, including Kashmir and Hazara. The governor- the neighbouring hills are Gandhari, Khasa and Daradae. The general, Sir Henry Hardinge, considered it expedient to make over Khasa people are supposed to have given the name Kasmir. Kashmir to the Jammu chief, securing his friendship while the In the Mahabharata the Kasmira and Daradae arc named together British government was administering the Punjab on behalf of among the Kshattriya races of northern India. The question the young maharaja. Gulab Singh was well prepared to make whether, in the immigration of the Aryans into India, Kashmir up the payment in default of which Kashmir was ceded to was taken on the way, or entered afterwards by that people after the British; and so, in consideration of his services in restoring they had reached the Punjab from the north-west, appears to peace, his independent sovereignty of the country made over to require an answer in favour of the latter view (see vol. ii. of him was recognized, and he was admitted to a separate treaty. Dr J. Muir's Sanskrit Texts). The Aryan races of Kashmir and Gulab Singh had already, after several extensions of territory surrounding hills, which have at the present time separate east and west of Jammu, conquered Ladakh (a Buddhist country, geographical distribution, are given by Mr Drew as Kashmiri and till then subject to Lhasa), and had then annexed Skardo, (mostly Mahommedan), in the Kashmir basin and a few scattered which was under independent Mahommedan rulers. He had places outside; Dard (mostly Mahommedan) in Gilgit and hills thus by degrees half encircled Kashmir, and by this last addition north of Kashmir; Dogra (Hindu) in Jamma; Dogra (Mahom- his possessions attained nearly their present form and extent. medan, called Chibāli) in Punch and hill country west of Kash- Gulab Singh died in 1857, and was succeeded by his son, Ranbir mir; Pahāri or mountaineers (Hindu) in Kishlwar, east of Singh, who died in 1885. The next ruler, Maharaja Partab Singh, Kashmir, and hills about the valley of the Chenab. G.C.S.I. (b. 1850), immediately on his accession inaugurated In the time of Asoka, about 245 B.C., one of the Indian the settlement reforms already described. His rule was re- Buddhist missions was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara. After markable for the reassertion of the Kashmir sovereignty over his death Brahmanism revived. Then in the time of the three Gilgit (q.v.). Kashmir imperial service troops participated in · Kushan princes, Huvishĩa, Jushka and Kanishka, who ruled the Black Mountain expedition of 1891, the Hunza Nagar over Kashmir about the beginning of the Christian era, Buddhism operations of 1891, and the Tirah campaign of 1897–1898. The was to a great extent restored, though for several centuries the total revenue of the state is about £666,000. two religions existed together in Kashmir, Hinduism pre- Rajatarangini (1900); W.R. Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir (1895); See Drew, Jammu and Kashmir (1875); M. A. Stein, Kalhana's dominating. Yet Kashmir, when Buddhism was gradually Colonel A. Durand, The Making of a Frontier (1899); R. Lydekker, losing its hold, continued to send Buddhist teachers to other "The Geology of the Kashmir and Chamba Territories," Records of lands, In this Hindu-Buddhist period, and chiefly between the Geological Survey of India, vol. xxii. (1883); J. Duke, Kashmir the 5th and 10th centuries of the Christian era, were erected Handbook (1903). (T. H. H.*) the Hindu temples in Kashmir. In the 6th and 7th centuries KASHMIRI (properly Kāśmiri), the name of the vernacular Kashmir was visited by some of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims language spoken in the valley of Kashmir (properly Kaśmir) and to India. The country is called Shie-mi in the narrative of To | in the hills adjoining. In the Indian census of 1901 the number Yeng and Sung Yun (578). One of the Chinese travellers of of speakers was returned at 1,007,957. By origin it is the most the next century was for a time an elephant-tamer to the king southern member of the Dard group of the Piśāca languages (see of Kashmir. Hsuan Tsang spent two years (631-633) in Kash- INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). The other members of the group are mir (Kia-chi-mi-lo). He entered by Baramula and left by the Shinā, spoken to its north in the country round Gilgit, and Pir Panjal pass. He describes the hill-girt valley, and the Kōhistānī, spoken in the hill country on both sides of the river abundance of flowers and fruits, and he mentions the tradition Indus before it debouches on to the plains of India. The Piśāca about the lake. He found in Kashmir many Buddhists as well languages also include Khāwār, the vernacular of Chitral, and the as Hindus. In the following century the kings of Kashmir appear Kāfir group of speeches, of which the most important is the to have paid homage and tribute to China, though this is not Bashgali of Kafiristan. Of all these forms of speech Kashmiri alluded to in the Kashmir chronicle. Hindu kings continued to is the only one which possesses a literature, or indeed an alphabet. reign till about 1294, when Udiana Deva was put to death by his It is also the only one which has been dealt with in the census of Mahommedan vizier, Amir Shah, who ascended the throne under India, and it is therefore impossible to give even approximate the name of Shams-ud-din. figures for the numbers of speakers of the others. The whole Of the Mahommedan rulers mentioned in the Sanskrit chroni- family occupies the three-sided tract of country between the cles, one, who reigned about the close of the 14th century, has Hindu-Kush and the north-western frontier of British India. made his name prominent by his active opposition to the Hindu As explained in INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES, the Piśāca lan- religion, and his destruction of temples. This was Sikandar, guages are Aryan, but are neither Iranian nor Indo-Aryan. They known as But-shikan, or the “ idol-breaker.” It was in his time represent the speech of an independent Aryan migration over the that India was invaded by Timur, to whom Sikandar made sub- Hindu-Kush directly into their present inhospitable seats, where mission and paid tribute. The country fell into the hands of they have developed a phonetic system of their own, while they the Moguls in 1588. In the time of Alamgir it passed to Ahmad have retained unchanged forms of extreme antiquity which Shah Durani, on his third invasion of India (1756); and from have long passed out of current use both in Persia and in India. that time it remained in the hands of Afghans till it was wrested | Their speakers appear to have left the main Aryan body after the from them by Ranjit Singh, the Sikh monarch of the Punjab, great fission which resulted in the Indo-Aryan migration, but in 1819. Eight Hindu and Sikh governors under Ranjit Singh before all the typical peculiarities of Iranian speech had fully and his successors were followed by two Mahommedans similarly I developed. They are thus representatives of a stage of XV 12 2a 690 KASHMIRI If we linguistic progress later than that of Sanskrit, and earlier than tunately, no fixed system of spelling. The Nagari alphabet is also com. that which we find recorded in the Iranian Avesta. ing into use in printed books, no Sáradā types being yet in existence. The immigrants into Kashmir must have been Shins, speaking bet (see SANSKRIT), we must first note a considerable extension C. Phonetics. Comparing the Kashmiri with the Sanskrit alpha- a language closely allied to the ancestor of the modern Shina. of the vowel system. Not only does Kuh. possess the vowels a, a, They appear to have dispossessed and absorbed an older non- ;, i, u, ü, -, e, ai, o, au, and the anunāsika or nasal symbol, Sut it Aryan people, whom local tradition now classes as Nāgas, or has also a fată (like the a in “ hat ") a flat ě (like the e in met "), Snake-gods, and, at an early period, to have come themselves it also has a series of what natives call " mātrā-vowels," which are a short ò (like the o in “ hot ") and a broad å (like the a in "all "). under the influence of Indo-Aryan immigrants from the south, represented in the Roman character by small letters above the line, who entered the valley along the course of the river Jhelam. The viz. Of these, « is simply a very short indeterminate language has therefore lost most of its original Pisāca character, it may sometimes be the only vowel in a word, as in tseh, thou. sound something like that of the Hebrew shºwā mobile, except that and is now a mixed one. Sanskrit has been actively studied for The • is a hardly audible i, while" and " are quite inaudible at the many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its end of a syllable. When or is followed by a consonant in the same grammar, are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that, syllable 'generally and always becomes a full i or u respectively and for convenience' sake, it is now frequently classed (see INDO- is so pronounced. On the other hand, in similar circumstances, ARYAN LANGUAGES) as belonging to the north-western group of German ü. w remains unchanged in writing, but is pronounced like a short It should be observed that this always represents an Indo-Aryan languages, instead of as belonging to the Piśāca older i, and is still considered to be a palatal, not, like “, a labial family as its origin demands. It cannot be said that either vowel. Although these mātrā-vowels are so slightly heard, they classification is wrong. exercise a great influence on the sound of a preceding syllable. We Kashmiri has few dialects. In the valley there are slight add e to the end of this word we get " mare," in which the sound of may compare the sound of a in the English word mar.' changes of idiom from place to place, but the only important the a is altogether changed, although the e is not itself pronounced variety is Kisht wārī, spoken in the hills south-west of Kashmir. in its proper place. The back-action of these mātrā-vowels is Smaller dialects, such as Pogul and Rāmbani of the hills south of striking feature of the Kashmiri language, the structure of which is technically known as umlaut or epenthesis," and is the most the Banihāl pass, may also be mentioned. The language itself unintelligible without a thorough knowledge of the system. In the is an old one. Pure Kashmiri words are preserved in the Sanskrit following pages when a vowel is epenthetically affected by a mātrā. Rājalarangiņi written by Kalhaņa in the 12th century A. D., and, vowel the fact will be denoted by a dot placed under it, thus kar“. judging from these specimens, the language does not appear to This is not the native system, according to which the change is indicated sometimes by a diacritical mark and sometimes by writing have changed materially since his time. a different letter. The changes of pronunciation effected by each General Character of the Language.—Kashmiri is a language of mātrā-vowel are shown in the following table. If natives employ great philological interest. The two principal features which at a different letter to indicate the change the fact is mentioned. In once strike the student are the numerous epenthetic changes of other cases they content themselves with diacritical marks. When vowels and consonants and the employment of pronominal vowel remains unaltered: no entry is made, it should be understood that the sound of the suffixes. In both cases the phenomena are perfectly plain, cause and effect being alike presented to the eye in the somewhat com- Pronunciation when followed by plicated systems of declension and conjugation. The Indo- Aryan languages proper have long ago passed through this stage, a-mătră i-mātrā ū-mātrā u-mātrā and many of the phenomena now presented by them are due to its influence, although all record of it has disappeared. In this a ą (aday, be ai (kar', pr. ü (as in Ger- 10 (like first o in way a study of Kashmiri explains a number of difficulties found moist) (some kairi, made, man: karu, promote"; thing like a plural masc.) pr. kür,made, kazu, pr. kor, by the student of Indo-Aryan vernaculars,' short Ger- fem. sing.) made, masc. In the following account the reader is presumed to be in possession man ö) sing.) of the facts recorded in the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and ö (köñor, pr. löi (German 0;lö (mąu, pr. å mą“, pr. PRAKRIT, and the following contractions will be employed: Ksh. = köñar, make mör, pr. mör, killed, mår, written, Kashmiri ; Skr. = Sanskrit ; P. = Pisāca ; Sh. = Shinā. one-eyed) möiri, killed, fem. sing.) mõru, killed, A. Vocabulary. The vocabulary of Kashmiri is, as has been (like a long masc. plur.) masc. sing.) explained, mixed. At its basis it has a large number of words which German ồ) are also found in the neighbouring Shinā, and these are such as con- i yü (live, pr. yu (ljøe, pr. note the most familiar ideas and such as are in most frequent use. lyüv, plas-lyuv, written Thus, the personal pronouns, the earlier numerals, the words for tered, fem. lyuv", plas- “ father," mother, fire," "the sun,' are all closely connected sing. tered, masc. with corresponding Shină words. There is also a large Indian sing.) element, consisting partly of words derived from Sanskrit vocables i yū (nīlu, pr. introduced in ancient times, and partly of words borrowed in later nyül, written days from the vernaculars of the Punjab. Finally, there is a con- nyūlu, blue, siderable Persian (including Arabic) element due to the long Mus- masc. sing.) sulman domination of the Happy Valley; Many of these have been ui (gur', pr. considerably altered in accordance with Kashmiri phonetic rules, guir, horses) so that they sometimes appear in strange forms. Thus the Persian Ú üi (gur', pr. lagām, a bridle, has become lākam, and the Arabic bābat, concerning, güir, appears as bāpat. The population speaking Kashmiri is mainly Mussulman, there being, roughly speaking, nine Mahommedan ě į (lędºr, pr. yů (tselé, yu (tselu, pr. Kashmiris to less than one Hindu. This difference of religion has lidor, be yel- pr. tsyül, tsyul, writ- strongly influenced the vocabulary. The Mussulmans use Persian low) squeezed, tsyulu, and Arabic words with great freedom, while the Hindus, or “Pandits" fem. sing.) squeezed, as they are called, confine their borrowings almost entirely to words masc. sing.) derived from Sanskrit. As the literary class is mostly Hindu, it i (phộr. pr.15. (phộra, pr. yü (phoru, pr. follows that Kashmiri literature, taken as a whole, while affording written phir, written, phyür, writ- most interesting and profitable study, hardly represents the actual phir, turned, phīri, turned, ten phyūr", language spoken by the mass of the people. There are, however, a few masc: plur.) | fem. sing.) turned, masc. good Kashmiri works written by Mussulmans in their own dialect. sing.). B. Written Characters. Mussulmans and Christian missionaries em- u (hộkhøy, pr. fði (wộlha, pr. (wộtha, pr. o (wộth, pr. ploy an adaptation of the Persian character for their writings. · This hukhºr, make wõithi, arisen, wüth, arisen, woth, arisen, alphabet is quite unsuited for representing the very complex Kash- dry) masc. plur.) fem. sing.) masc. sing.) miri vowel system. Hindus employ the Săradā alphabet, of indian 8 üi (būézi, pr. û (bözü, pr. (bõzu, pr. origin and akin to the well-known Nāgari. Kashmiri vowel sounds būizi, written būz, written, büz, written can be recorded very successfully in this character, but there is, unfor. būzi, heard. Düzü, heard, bugu, heard, See G. A. Grierson, “On Pronominal Suffixes in the Kāçmiri masc, plur.) fem. sing.) masc. sing.) Languages," and "On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the The letters u and i, even when not u-mātrā or i-mātrā, often change Modern Indo-Aryan Languages,” in Journal of the Asiatic Society of a preceding long ā to &, which is usually written 7, and a respectively. Bengal, vol. Ixiv. (1895), pt. i. pp. 336 and 352. Thus rāwukh, they have lost, is pronounced råwukh, and, in the Preceding Vowel. ido : y . COW- herds) ten and KASHMIRI 691 native character, is written rowukh. Similarly mális becomes malis The declension 46 is confined to certain nouns in t, th, d, n, h and l, (mölis). The diphthong ai is pronounced ö when it commences a in which the final consonant is liable to change owing to a following word; thus, aith, eight, is pronounced oth. When i and u commence u-mătră. a word they are pronounced yi and wu respectively. With one Other cases are formed (as in true Indo-Aryan languages) by the important exception, common to all Piśāca languages, Kashmiri addition of postpositions, some of which-are added to the accusative, employs every consonant found in the Sanskrit alphabet. The while others are added to the ablative case. To the former are added exception is the series of aspirated consonants, gh, jh, dh, dh and bh, manz, in; kit“, to or for; sūtin, with, and others. To the ablative are which are wanting in Ksh, the corresponding unaspirated consonants added sūtin, when it signifies by means of "'; putshy, for; pěſha, being substituted for them. Thus, Skr: ghòļakas, but Ksh, guru, a from, and others. For the genitive, masculine nouns in the singular, horse; Skr. bhavati, Ksh. bovi, he will be. There is a tendency to signifying animate beings, take sand", and if they signify things use dental letters where Hindi employs cerebrals, as in Hindi uth, without life, take ku. All masculine plural nouns and all feminine Ksh. wợth, arise. Cerebral letters are, however, owing to Sanskrit nouns whether singular or plural take hạndu. Sandu and handu are influence, on the whole better preserved in Ksh. than in the other added to the accusative, which drops a final s, while ku is added to Piśāca languages. The cerebral ş has almost disappeared, s being the ablative. Thus, isūra sand", of the thief; mõli sand, of the father; employed instead. The only common word in which it is found is șõną kw (usually written sõnuk“), of gold (son, abl. sing. sõna); Isuran the numeral şah, six, which is merely a learned spelling for sah, due hạnd", of thieves; karěn handu, of bracelets (second declension); to the influence of the Skr. șaț. From the palatals c, ch, j, a new mājë hạndu, of the mother; mājěn hạndu, of the mothers. Masculine series of consonants has been formed, viz. ts, tsh (aspirate of is-i.e. proper names, however, take ny in the singular, as in Rādhākrșnąnu ts th, not it.sh), and 2 (as in English, not dz). Thus, Skr. coras, of Rādhākrishna. These genitive terminations, and also the dative Ksh. isūr, a thief; Skr. chalayati, Ksh. tshali, he will deceive; Skr. termination kilu, are adjectives, and agree with the governing jalam, Ksh. zal, water. The sibilant ś, and occasionally s, are noun in gender, number and case. Thus, isūra sandu něcıya, frequently represented by h. Thus, Skr. daśa, Ksh. dah, ten; Skr. the son of the thief; tsūra sandi něcivé, by the son of the thief ; tsūra śiras, Ksh. hir, a head. We may compare with this the Persian sanzia kõr", the daughter of the thief; kulįka lang, a bough of the word Hind, India (compare the Greek ''Iv86s, an Indian), derived tree; kulic landi, a twig of the tree. Sạndhas fem. sing. sanzú, from the Skr. Sindhus, the river Indus. When such an h is followed masc. plur. sandi, fem: plur. sanza. Similarly hạndu. Ku has ſem. by a palatal letter the ś returns; thus, from the base his-, like this, sing: cº, masc. plur. ki, fem. plur. cē; nu, fem. sing. ñ, masc. plur. we have the nominative masculine hih", but the feminine hišu, and ni, fem. plur. ně. Similarly for the dative we have the following the abstract noun hiśyar, because u and y are palatal letters. forms: mõlis kir pañu, water (masc.) for the father; mölis kitse gav, The palatal letters i, e, ū-mātrā and y often change a preceding a cow for the father; mậlis kit rav, blankets (masc. plur.) for the consonant. The modifications will be seen from the following father; mõlis kitsa põthě, books (fem. plur.) for the father. All these examples: rāt-, night; nom. plur. rātsü; woth, arise; wõtshú, she postpositions of the genitive and kịt of the dative are declined arose: lad, build; lazı, she was built: ran, cook; ražū, she was cooked; regularly as substantives, the masculine ones belonging to the paļi, a tablet; Ag. sing. paci: kāth-, a stalk; nom. plur. kāchë: bad., second declension and the feminine ones to the third. Note that great; nom. plur. fem. bajě: batukų, a duck; fem. batºc“: hộkh“, dry; the feminine plural of sạndu is sanza, not sanzš, as we might expect; iem. hợchü; srợg“, cheap; sròjyar, cheapness: walu, a ring; fem. wajø, so also feminine nouns in tse, tsh“, zu and sű. a small ring; lös, be weary; lộs or lộtsa, she was weary. These changes Adjectives ending in (second declension) form the feminine in , are each subject to certain rules. Cerebral letters (t, th, d) change with the usual changes of the preceding consonant. Thus tąt“, hot, only before i, è or y, and not before ū-mātrā. The others, on the fem. tatsu (pronounced tüts). Other adjectives do not change for contrary, do not change i, but do change before ě, y or ū-mātrā. gender. All adjectives agree with the qualified noun in gender, No word can end in an unaspirated surd consonant. If such a conso- number and case, the postposition, if any, being added to the latter nant falls at the end of a word it is aspirated. Thus, ak, one, becomes word of the two. Take, for example. chạt“, white, and gur", a horse. akh (but acc. akis);kaf, a ram, becomes kaſh; and hat, a hundred, hath. From these we have chąı« gur“, a white horse; acc. sing. chatis guris; D. Declension. If the above phonetic rules are borne in mind, nom. plur, chęti guri; and chatyau guryau sūtin, by means of white declension in Kashmiri is a fairly simple process. If attention is horses not paid to them, the whole system at once becomes a field of in- The first two personal pronouns are běh. I; mě, me, by me; as, extricable confusion. In the following pages it will be assumed that we; asě, us, by us; and isoh, thou; tsě, thee, by thee; tohi, ye: lõhě the reader is familiar with them. you, by you.' Possessive pronouns are employed instead of the Nouns substantive and adjective have two genders, a masculine genitive. Thus, myānu, my; sõnu, our; cyön“, thy; tuhạnds, your. and a feminine. Words referring to males are masculine, and to For the third person, we have sing. masc. suh, fem. sõh, neut. tih; females are feminine. Inanimate things are sometimes masculine acc. sing. (masc. or fem.) tamis or tas, neut. talh; agent sing masc. and sometimes feminine, Pronouns have three genders, arranged neut. lami, fem. tami. The plural is of common gender throughout. on a different principle. One gender refers to male living beings, Nom. fim; acc. timan; ag. timau. The possessive pronoun is lasandu, another to female living beings, and a third (or neuter) to all inani- of him, of her; tamyukn, of it; tihande, of them. The neuter gender miate things whether they are grammatically masculine or feminine. is used for all things without life. Nouns ending in are masculine, and most, but not all, of those Other pronouns are:- This: yih (com. gen.); acc. masc. fem. ending in , ", è or ñ are feminine. Of nouns ending in consonants, yimis, or nomis, neut, yith, noth; ag. masc. neut., yimi, nomi, fem. some are masculine, and some are feminine. No rule can be formu-yimi, nomi; nom. plur. yim, fem. yima, and so on. lated regarding these, except that all abstract nouns ending in ar That (within sight): masc. neut. huh, fem. höh; acc. masc. fem. (a very numerous class) are masculine. There are four declensions. humis or amis, neut. huth, and so on; nom. plur. masc hum. The first consists of masculine nouns ending in a consonant, in a, ě Who, masc. yus, fem. yössa, neut. yih; acc. masc. fem. yěmis, or (very few of these last two): The second consists of the impor- yės, neut. yelh; ag. masc. neut. yěm•, fem. yěmi; nom. plur. masc. tant class of masculine nouns in *; the third of feminine nouns in yim, and so on. s, or ñ (being the feminines corresponding to the masculine nouns Who? masc. kus, fem. kossa, neut. kyāh; acc. masc. fem. kamis, of the second declension); and the fourth of feminine nouns ending kas, neut. kath; ag. masc. neut. kami, fem. kami; nom. plur. masc. kam. in e, ě or a consonant. Self, pāna. Anyone, someone, kah, kůh, or kātshāh, neut. kētshäh. The noun possesses two numbers, a singular and a plural, and in Kashmiri makes very free use of pronominal suffixes, which are each number there are, besides the nominative, three organic cases, added to verbs to supply the place of personal terminations. These the accusative, the case of the agent (see below, under“ verbs "), and represent almost any case, and are as follows: the ablative. The accusative, when not definite, may also be the same in form as the nominative. The following are the forms which a noun takes in each declension, the words chosen as examples being: First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First declension, tsūr, a thief; second declension, mõlu, a father; third declension, mąjú, a mother; fourth declension, (a) māl, a garland, (6) rāt-, night. Sing. Nom. kh, h First Second Third Fourth Declension Acc. Dat. Declension. Declension. Declension. у b. Ag. th, y Plur.- Sing. : Nom. Nom. Isūr molu (pr.mål) mąjú(möj) mál rāth Other Acc. tsūras mõlis (mölis) mājë māli röts(röls) kh, k Ag: Isuran mõli (möil')māji māli röls« (röts) Abl. tsūra māli māji māli rätse (röls) Plur.: Before these the verbal terminations are often slightly changed Nom Isur mali (möili) mõjě māla rälse (röts) Acc. isūran mūlën mājén mälan rölsün (rötsün)) the vowel a is inserted as a junction vowel. for the sake of euphony, and, when necessary for the pronunciation, Ag. In this connexion we may mention another set of suffixes also and commonly added to verbs, with an adverbial force. Of these na Abl. tsūrau mälyau mājyau mālau rõtsav (rötsüv) negatives the verb, as in "chuh, he is; chuna, he is not: à asks a นี้ S ik, y none S m m m S a. n none wa none cases none wa 692 KĀSHMIRI means 1 2 chi-wa, you art art are 1 wast wast were were were question, as in chwā, is he? ti adds emphasis, as in chuti, he is indeed ; , happened a long time ago, and is used to foom the past tense of and tyä asks a question with emphasis, as in chutyā, is he indeed ? narration. As the third conjugation has no weak past participle, Two or three suffixes may be employed together, as in kar“, was the strong past participle is employed to make the immediate past, made, køru-m, was made by me, kayu-m-akh, thou wast made by and the pluperfect participle is employed to make the aorist past, me; karu-m-akh-ā, wast thou made by me? The two kh suffixes while the new pluperfect participle is formed to make the tense of become h when they are followed by a pronominal suffix commencing narration. Thus, from the root wuph, fly (third conjugation) we with a vowel, as in kar“-h-as (for kæru-kh-as), I was made by them. have wuphyõv, he flew just now, while karyov (first conjugation) E. Conjugation. As in the case of the modern Indo-Aryan "he was made at some indefinite time."; wuphyāv, he flew vernaculars, the conjugation of the verb is mainly participial. at some indefinite time, but karyāv, he was made a long time ago; Three only of the old tenses, the present, the future and the impera- finally, the new participle of the third conjugation, wuphiyāv, he tive have survived, the first having become a future, and the second flew a long time ago. a past conditional. These three we may call radical tenses. The The corresponding, tenses are formed by adding, pronominal rest, viz. the Kashmiri present, imperfect, past, aorist, perfect and suffixes to the weak, the strong, or the pluperfect participle. In the other past tenses are all participial. last two the final v and y, being no longer required by euphony, are The verb substantive, which is also used as an auxiliary verb, dropped. In the case of transitive verbs the participles are passive has two tenses, a present and a past. The former is made by adding by derivation and in signification, and hence the suffix indicating the pronominal suffixes of the nominative to a base chu(h), and the the subject must be in the agent case. Thus kąr" means " made. latter by adding the same to a base às". Thus:- For "I made", we must say " made by me," kąru-m; for “ thou madest,” kæru-th, made by thee, and so on. If the thing made is Singular Plural feminine the participle must be feminine, and similarly if it is plural it must be plural. Thus, kąru-m, I made him; karu-n, I made her; Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine kari-m, I made them (masculine); and karě-m, I'made them (ſemi- nine). Similarly from the other two participles we have karyo-m, chu-s, I am che-s, I am chih, we are chěh, we are I made him; karyĒya-m, I made her; karya-m, I made him (a long chu-kh, thou che-kh, thou che-wa, you are time ago). The past participles of intransitive verbs are not passive, and hence the suffix indicating the subject must be in the 3 chuh, he is chěh, she is chih, they are chěh, they are nominative form. Thus isąla, escaped second conjugation); Isalu-s, escaped-I, 1 (masculine) escaped; tsąjº.s, 1 (feminine) escaped, and so asu-s, I was asu-s, I was as, we were āsa, we were on. Similarly for the third conjugation, wuphyov, flew; wuphyö-s, 2 osu-kh, thou lõsu-kh, thou asi-wa, you āsa-wa, you I (masculine) flew; wuphyāya-s, I (feminine) Hew, &c. As explained above, these suffixes may be piled one on another. 3 as“, he was os“, she was qse, they āsa, they were As a further example we may give kar“, made; kąru-n, made by him, he made; karu-n-as, made by him I, he made me, or (as -s also means " for him”) he made for him; karu-n-as-ā, did he make me? As for the finite verb, the modern future (old present), and the past or, did he make for him? and so on. conditional (old future) do not change for gender, and do not employ Tenses corresponding to the English perfect and pluperfect are suffixes, but retain relics of the old personal terminations of the formed by conjugating the auxiliary verb, adding the appropriate tenses from which they are derived." They are thus conjugated, suffixes, with the compound past participle. Thus kąs*mại" chu- taking the verbal root kar, as the typical verb. n-as, made am-by-him-I, he has made me; tsąlu mar" chu-kh, escaped art thou, thou hast escaped; wuphyömat" chu-s, flown am-1, Future, I shall make, &c. Past Conditional, (if) I had made, &c. I have flown. Similarly for the pluperfect, kar mats ösu-n-as, made was-by-him-I, he had made me, and so on. Singular Plural Singular Plural Many verbs have irregular past participles. Thus mar, die, has müd"; di, give, has dir; khi, eat, has khya uv for its weak, and khěyov kara karav karaha karahův for its strong participle, while ni, take, has nyāv and niyov, respec- karakh kariv karahåkh tively. Others must be learnt from the regular grammars, kar'hiv 3 kari karan karihe The infinitive is formed by adding -un to the root; thus kar-un, to karahån make. It is declined like a somewhat irregular noun of the first declension, its accusative being karanas. There are three forms of For the imperative we have 2nd person singular, kar, plur. kariv; the noun of agency, of which typical examples are kar-awun", third person singular and plural karin. kar-an-wal", and kar-an-grākh, a maker. Many of the above forms will be intelligible from a consideration The passive is formed by conjugating the verb yi, come, with the of the closely allied Sanskrit, although they are not derived from ablative of the infinitive. Thus, karana yiwān chuh, it is coming by that language; but some (e.g. those of the second person singular) making, or into making, i.e. it is being made. A root is made can only be explained by the analogy of the Iranian and of the active or causal by adding -anow, āw, or - rāw. Thus, kar-anāw, Piśāca languages. cause to make; kumal, be tender, kumal-aw, make tender; kal, be The present participle is formed by adding ān to the root; thus, dumb, kal-ogāw, make dumb. Some verbs take one form and some karān, making. It does not change for gender. From this we get a another, and there are numerous irregularities, especially in the case present and an imperfect, formed by adding respectively the present of the last. and past tenses of the auxiliary verb. Thus, kāran chus, I (mascu- F. Indeclinables. Indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunc- line) am making, I make; karān chěs. I (feminine) am making, I tions and interjections) must be learnt from the dictionary: The make; kurān asus, I (masculine) was making; and so on. number of interjections is very large, and they are distinguished by There are several past participles, all of which are liable to change minute rules depending on the gender of the person addressed and for gender, and are utilized in conjugation. We have:- the exact amount of respect due to him. Singular Plural Literature.–Kashmiri possesses a somewhat extensive litera- ture, which has been very little studied. The missionary William Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Carey published in 1821 a version of the New Testament (in the Weak past participle kare Śāradā character), which was the first book published in the |kąr" kari karē Strong past participle karyov karyĒya karyzy karyềya language. In 1885 the Rev. J. Hinton Knowles published at Pluperfect participle karyūv karyĒya kareyey karyeya Bombay a collection of Kashmiri proverbs and sayings, and K. F. Compound past parti- Burkhard in 1895 published an edition of Mahmūd Gāmi's poem ciple kąr“mął kąr"mąts" karimări karěmatsa on Yusuf and Zulaikhā. This, with the exception of later trans- lations of the Scriptures in the Persian character and a few minor In the strong past participle and the pluperfect participle, the final v and y (like the final h of chuh quoted above) are not parts of works, is all the literature that has been printed or about which the original words, but are only added for the sake of euphony. anything has been written. Mahmūd Gāmi's poem is valuable as The true words are karyo, karyē, karyā and karyễyē. There are an example of the Kashmiri used by Mussulmans. . For Hindu three conjugations. The first includes all transitive verbs. These literature, we may quote a history of Krishna by Dinanātha. have both the weak and the strong past participles. The second The very popular Lallā-vākya, a poem on Saiva philosopy by conjugation consists of sixty-six common intransitive verbs, which also have both of these participles. The third conjugation consists a woman named Lalladēvī, is said to be the oldest work in the of the remaining intransitive verbs. These have only the strong language which has survived. Another esteemed work is the past participle. The weak past participle in the first two conjuga- | Siva Pariņaya of Krşņa Rājānaka, a living author. These and tions refers to something which has lately happened, and is used to form an immediate past tense. other books which have been studied by the present writer have The strong past participle is more indefinite, and is employed to form a tense corresponding to the little independent value, being imitations of Sanskrit literature. Greek aorist. The pluperfect participle refers to something which | Nothing is known about the dates of most of the authors. 1 2 KASHUBES-KASSALA 693 AUTHORITIES:--The scientific study of Kashmiri is of very recent a broad glacis. The most remarkable building, considered the dato. The only printed lexicographical work is a short vocabulary grandest masterpiece of architecture in Hungary, is the Gothic by W J. Elmslie (London, 1872). K. F. Burkhard brought out a grammar of the Mussulman dialect in the Proceedings of the Royal cathedral of St Elizabeth. Begun about 1270 by Stephen V., it Bavorian Academy of Science for 1887-1889, of which a translation was continued (1342-1382) by Queen Elizabeth, wife of Charles I., by G. A. Grierson appeared in the Indian Antiquary of 1895 and the and her son Louis I., and finished about 1468, in the reign of following years (reprinted as a separate publication, Bombay, 1897). T. R. Wade's Grammar (London, 1888) is the merest sketch, and the Matthias I. (Corvinus). The interior was transformed in the only attempt at a complete work of the kind in English is G. A. 18th century to the Renaissance style, and the whole church Grierson's Èssays on Käçmiri Grammar (London and Calcutta, 1899). thoroughly restored in 1877–1896. The church of St Michael A valuable native grammar in Sanskrit, the Kaśmiraśabdämrtá of and the Franciscan or garrison church date from the 13th cen- Isvara Kaula, has been edited by the same writer (Calcutta, 1888). tury. The royal law academy, founded in 1659, and sanctioned For an examination of the origin of Kashmiri gra natical forms and the Piśāca question generally, see.G. A. Grierson's " On Certain by golden bull of King Leopold I. in 1660, has an extensive Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars" in the Zeitschrift library; there are also a museum, a Roman Catholic upper für Vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Indogerman- gymnasium and seminary for priests, and other schools and ischen Sprachen for 1903 and The Piśāca Languages of North-Western benevolent institutions. Kassa is the see of a Roman Catholic India (London, 1906). The only important text which has been published is Burkhard's bishopric. It is the chief political and commercial town of Upper edition, with a partial translation, of Mahmud Gāmi's “ Yusuf and Hungary, and the principal entrepôt for the commerce between Zulaikha " in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesell- Hungary and Galicia. Its most important manufactures are schaft for 1895 and 1899. The text of the Siva Pariņaya, edited by tobacco, machinery, iron, furniture, textiles and milling. About G. A. Grierson, is in course of publication by the Asiatic Society of Bengal. (G. A. GR.) 3 m. N.W. of the town are the baths of Banko, with alkaline and ferruginous springs, and about 12 m. N.E. lies Ránk-Herlein, with KASHUBES (sing. Kaszub, plur. Kaszebe), a Slavonic people an intermittent chalybeate spring. About 20 m. W. of Kassa lies numbering about 200,000, and living on the borders of West the famous Premonstratensian abbey of Jászó, founded in the Prussia and Pomerania, along the Baltic coast between Danzig 12th century. The abbey contains a rich library and valuable and Lake Garden, and inland as far as Konitz. They have no archives. In the neighbourhood is a fine stalactite grotto, literature and no history, as they consist of peasants and fisher- which often served as a place of refuge to the inhabitants in war men, the educated classes being mostly Germans or Poles. Their time. language has been held to be but a dialect of Polish, but it seems Kassa was created a town and granted special privileges by better to separate it, as in some points it is quite independent, Béla IV. in 1235, and was raised to the rank of a royal free town in some it offers a resemblance to the language of the Polabs (9.v.). by Stephen V. in 1270. In 1290 it was surrounded with walls. This is most seen in the western dialect of the so-called Slovinci The subsequent history presents a long record of revolts, sieges (of whom there are about 250 left) and Kabatki, whereas the and disastrous conflagrations. In 1430 the plague carried off a eastern Kashube is more like Polish, which is encroaching upon great number of the inhabitants. In 1458 the right of minting and assimilating it. Lorentz calls the western dialect a language, money according to the pattern and value of the Buda coinage and distinguishes 38 vowels. The chief points of Kashube as was granted to the municipality by King Matthias I. The against Polish are that all its vowels can be nasal instead of a bishopric was established in 1804. In the revolutionary war of and e only, that it has preserved quantity and a free accent, has 1848-49 the Hungarians were twice defeated before the walls of developed several special vowels, e. g.ö, æ, ü, and has preserved Kassa by the Austrians under General Schlick, and the town was the original order, e.g. gard as against grod. The consonants held successively by the Austrians, Hungarians and Russians. are very like Polish. (See also Slavs.) KASSALA, a town and mudiria of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. AUTHORITIES.-F. Lorentz, Slovinzische Grammatik (St Petersburg, The town, a military station of some importance, lies on the river 1903) and “Die gegenseitigen Verhältnisse der sogen. Lechischen Gash (Mareb) in 15° 28' N., 36° 24' E., 260 m. E.S.E. of Khartum Sprachen," in Arch. f. Slav. Phil. xxiv. (1902): J. Baudouin de and 240 m. W. of Massawa, the nearest seaport. Pop. about Courtenay, Kurzes Resumé der Kaschubischen Frage," ibid. xxvi. (1904); G. Bronisch, Kaschubische Dialektstudien Leipzig, of the Abyssinian highlands 15 m.W. of the frontier of the Italian 20,000. It is built on a plain, 1700 ft. above the sea, at the foot 1896-1898); S. Ramult, Stownik języka pomorskiego czyli kaszubskiego, i.e.“ Dictionary of the Seacoast (Pomeranian) or Kashube Language" colony of Eritrea. Two dome-shaped mountains about 2600 ft. (Cracow, 1893). (E. H. M.) high, jebels Mokram and Kassala, rise abruptly from the plain KASIMOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazan, the numerous gardens Kassala contains give to the place a some 3 m. to the east and south-east. These mountains and on the Oka river, in 54° 56' N. and 41° 3' E, 75 m. E.N.E. of picturesque appearance. The chief buildings are of brick, but Ryazan. Pop. (1897), 13,545, of whom about 1000 were Tatars. most of the natives dwell in grass tukls. A short distance from It is famed for its tanneries and leather goods, sheepskins and the town is Khatmia, containing a tomb mosque with a high post-horse bells. Founded in 1952, it was formerly known as Meshcherski Gorodets. In the 15th century it became the capital Morgani are the chiefs of a religious brotherhood widely spread tower, the headq ters of the Morgani family. The sheikhs El of a Tatar khanate, subject to Moscow, and so remained until and of considerable influence in the eastern Sudan. The Morgani 1667. The town possesses a cathedral and a mosque supposed family are of Afghan descent. Long settled in Jidda, the head to have been built by Kasim, founder of the Tatar principality of the family removed to the Sudan about 1800 and founded the Near the mosque stands a mausoleum built by Shab-Ali in Lying on the direct road from Astrakhan to Moscow and Nizhniy-. Morgani sect. Kassala was founded by the Egyptians in 1840 Novgorod, Kasimov is a place of some trade, and has a large territory near the Abyssinian frontier. In a few as a fortified post from which to control their newly conquered years it grew annual fair in July. The waiters in the best hotels of St Peters- into a place of some importance. In November 1883 it was be- burg are mostly Kasimov Tatars. sieged by the dervishes. The garrison held out till the 30th of July See Veliaminov-Zernov, The Kasimov Tsars (St Petersburg, 1885 when owing to lack of food they capitulated. Kassala was 1863-1866). captured from the dervishes by an Italian force under Colonel KASSA (Germ. Kaschau; Lat. Cassovia), the capital of the Baratieri on the 17th of July 1894 and by the Italians was handed county of Abauj-Torna, in Hungary, 170 m. N.E. of Budapest by over on Christmas day 1897 to Egypt. · The bulk of the inhabit- rail. Pop. (1900), 35,856. Kassa is one of the oldest and hand- ants are Hallenga“ Arabs." somest towns of Hungary, and is pleasantly situated on the right Kassala mudiria contains some of the most fertile land in the bank of the Hernád. It is surrounded on three sides by hills Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It corresponds roughly with the dis- covered with forests and vineyards, and opens to the S.E. to-trict formerly known as Taka. It is a region of light rainfall, and wards a pretty valley watered by the Hernád and the Tarcza. cultivation depends chiefly on the Gash flood. The river is how- Kassa consists of the inner town, which was the former old town ever absolutely dry from October to June. White durra of surrounded with walls, and of three suburbs separated from it by excellent quality is raised. . 694 KASSASSIN-KATANGA KASSASSIN, a village of Lower Egypt 22 m. by rail W. of and better known for the defence maintained by Bryennius Ismailia on the Suez Canal. At this place, on the 28th of August against Alexis I. in 1084. A Byzantine wall with round towers and again on the 9th of September 1882 the British force opera- runs across the peninsula. ting against Arabi Pasha was attacked by the Egyptians—both KASUR, a town of British India, in the Lahore district of the attacks being repulsed (see Egypt: Mililary Operations). Punjab, situated on the north bank of the old bed of the river. KASSITES, an Elamite tribe who played an important part Beas, 34 m. S.E. of Lahore. Pop. (1901), 22,022. A Rajput in the history of Babylonia. They still inhabited the north-colony seems to have occupied the present site before the earliest western mountains of Elam, immediately south of Holwan, when Mahommedan invasion; but Kasur does not appear in history Sennacherib attacked them in 702 B.C. They are the Kossaeans until late in the Mussulman period, when it was settled by a of Ptolemy, who divides Susiana between them and the Ely- Pathan colony from beyond the Indus. It has an export trade maeans; according to Strabo (xi. 13, 3,6) they were the neighbours in grain and cotton, and manufactures of cotton and leather of the Medes. Th. Nöldeke (Gölt. G. G., 1874, pp. 173 seq.) has goods. shown that they are the Kissians of the older Greek authors who KATAGUM, the sub-province of the double province of Kano are identified with the Susians by Aeschylus (Choeph. 424, Pers. in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It lies approxi- 17, 120) and Herodotus (v. 49, 52). We already hear of them as mately between 1rº and 13° N. and 8° 20' and 10° 40' E. It is attacking Babylonia in the 9th year of Samsu-iluna the son of bounded N. by the French Sudan, E. by Bornu, S. by Bauchi, Khammurabi, and about 1780 B.C. they overran Babylonia and and W. by Kano. Katagum consists of several small but ancient founded a dynasty there which lasted for 576 years and nine Mahommedan emirates-Katagum, Messau, Gummel, Hadeija, months. In the course of centuries, however, they were absorbed Machena, with a fringe of Bedde pagans on its eastern frontier into the Babylonian population; the kings adopted Semitic names towards Bornu, and other pagans on the south towards Bauchi. and married into the royal family of Assyria. Like the other | The Waube flows from Kano through the province via Hadeija languages of the non-Semitic tribes of Elam that of the Kassites and by Damjiri in Bornu to Lake Chad, affording a route for the was agglutinative; a vocabulary of it has been handed down in a transport of goods brought by the Zungeru-Zaria-Kano railway cuneiform tablet, as well as a list of Kassite. names with their to the headquarters of Katagum and western Bornu. Katagum Semitic equivalents. It has no connexion with Indo-European, is a fertile province inhabited by an industrious people whose as has erroneously been supposed. Some of the Kassite deities manufactures rival those of Kano. were introduced into the Babylonian pantheon, and the Kassite In ancient times the province of Katagum formed the debate- tribe of Khabirá seems to have settled in the Babylonian plain. able country between Bornu and the Hausa states. Though Mahommedan it resisted the Fula invasion. Its northern See Fr. Delitzsch, Die Sprache der Kossäer (1884). (A. H. S.) emirates were for a long time subject to Bornu, and its customs KASTAMUNI, or KASTAMBŪL. (1) A vilayet of Asia Minor are nearly assimilated to those of Bornu. The province was taken which includes Paphlagonia and parts of Pontus and Galatia. under administrative control by the British in October 1903. In It is divided into four sanjaks-Kastamuni, Boli, Changra and 1904 the capitals of Gummel, Hadeija, Messau and Jemaari, Sinope-is rich in mineral wealth, and has many mineral springs were brought into touch with the administration and native and and extensive forests, the timber being used for charcoal and provincial courts established. At the beginning of 1905 Katagum building and the bark for tanning. The products are chiefly was incorporated as a sub-province with the province of Kano, cereals, fruits, opium, cotton, tobacco, wool, ordinary goat-hair and the administrative organization of a double province was and mohair, in which there is a large trade. There are coal-mines extended over the whole. Hadeija, which is a very wealthy at and near Eregli (anc. Heracleia) which yield steam coal nearly town and holds an important position both as a source of supplies as good in quality as the English, but they are badly worked. and a centre of trade, received a garrison of mounted infantry Its population comprises about 993,000 Moslems and 27,000 and became the capital of the sub-province. Christians. (2) The capital of the vilayet, the ancient Castamon, Hadeija was an old Habe town and its name, an evident cor- altitude 2500 ft., situated in the narrow valley of the Geuk Irmak ruption of Khadija, the name of the celebrated wife and first (Amnias), and connected by a carriage road, 54 m., with its port convert of Mahomet, is a strong presumption of the incorrectness Ineboli on the Black Sea. The town is noted for its copper of the Fula claim to have introduced Islam to its inhabitants. utensils, but the famous copper mines about 36 m. N., worked The ruling dynasty of Hadeija was, however, overthrown by Fula from ancient times to the 19th century, are now abandoned. usurpation towards the end of the 18th century, and the Fula There are over 30 mosques in the town, a dervish monastery, and ruler received a flag and a blessing from Dan Fodio at the begin- numerous theological colleges (medresses), and the Moslem inhabi- ning of his sacred war in the opening years of the 19th century. tants have a reputation for bigotry. The climate though subject Nevertheless the habit of independence being strong in the town to extremes of heat and cold is healthy; in winter the roads are of Hadeija the little emirate held its own against Sokoto, Bornu often closed by snow. The population of 16,000 includes about and all comers. Though included nominally within the province 2500 Christians., Castamon became an important city in later at Katagum it was the boast of Hadeija that it had never been Byzantine times. It lay on the northern trunk-road to the conquered. It had made nominal submission to the British in Euphrates and was built round a strong fortress whose ruins 1903 on the successful conclusion of the Kano-Sokoto campaign, crown the rocky hill west of the town. It was taken by the and in 1905, as has been stated, was chosen as the capital of the Danishmand Amirs of Sivas early in the 12th century, and passed sub-province. The emir's attitude became, however, in the to the Turks in 1393. (J. G. C. A.) spring of 1906 openly antagonistic to the British and a military KASTORIA (Turkish Kesrie), a city of Macedonia, European expedition was sent against him. The emir with his disaffected Turkey, in the vilayet of Monastir, 45 m. S. by W. of Monastir chiefs made a plucky stand but after five hours' street fighting (Bitolia). Pop. (1905), about 10,000, one-third of whom are the town was reduced. The emir and three of his sons were killed, Greeks, one-third Slavs, and the remainder Albanians or Turks and a new emir, the rightful heir to the throne, who had shown Kastoria occupies part of a peninsula on the western shore of himself in favour of a peaceful policy, was appointed. The Lake Kastoria, which here receives from the north its affluent the offices of the war chiefs in Hadeija were abolished and 150 yards Zhelova. The lake is formed in a deep hollow surrounded by of the town wall were broken down. limestone mountains, and is drained on the south by the Bis- Slave dealing is at an end in Katagum. The military station tritza, a large river which flows S.E. nearly to the Greek frontier, at Hadeija forms a link in the chain of British forts which extends then sharply turns N.E., and finally enters the Gulf of Salonica. along the northern frontier of the protectorate. (See NIGERIA.) The lake has an area of 20 sq. m., and is 28 50 ft. above sea level. (F. L. L.) Kastoria is the seat of an Orthodox archbishop. It is usually KATANGA, a district of Belgian Congo, forming the south- identified with the ancient Celetrum, captured by the Romans eastern part of the colony. Area, approximately, 180,000 sq. m.; under Sulpicius, during the first Macedonian campaign, 200 B.C., estimated population 1,000,000. The natives are members of a KATER-KATHIAWAR 695 the Luba-Lunda group of Bantus. It is a highly mineralized | but the average is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The Katha branch region, being specially rich in copper ore. Gold, iron and tin of the railway crosses it at Petsut, a village 12 miles west of are also mined. Katanga is bounded S. and S.E. by Northern Katha town. The Mangin range runs through Wuntho (highest Rhodesia, and British capital is largely interested in the develop- peak, Maingthôn, 5450 ft.). ment of its resources, the administration of the territory being Gold, copper, iron and lead are found in considerable quantities entrusted to a committee on which British members have seats in the district. The Kyaukpazat gold-mines, worked by an Direct railway communication with Cape Town and Beira was English company, gave good returns, but the quartz reef proved established in 1909. There is also a rail and river service via to be a mere pocket and is now worked out. The iron, copper the Congo to the west coast. (See Congo FREE STATE.) and lead are not now worked. Jade and soapstone also exist, KATER, HENRY (1777-1835), English physicist of German and salt is produced from brine wells. There are three forest descent, was born at Bristol on the 16th of April 1777. At first reserves in Katha, with a total area of 1119 sq. m. The popula- he purposed to study law; but this he abandoned on his father's tion in 1901 was 176,223, an increase of 32% in the decade. death in 1794, and entered the army, obtaining a commission The number of Shans is about half that of Burmese, and of Kadus in the 12th regiment of foot, then stationed in India, where he half that of Shans. The Shans are mostly in the Wuntho sub- rendered valuable assistance in the great trigonometrical survey. division. Rice is the chief crop in the plains, tea, cotton, Failing health obliged him to return to England; and in 1808, sesamum and hill rice in the hills. The valley of the Mèza, being then a lieutenant, he entered on a distinguished student which is very malarious, was used as a convict settlement under career in the senior department of the Royal Military College at Burmese rule. The district was first occupied by British troops Sandhurst. Shortly after he was promoted to the rank of in 1886, but it was not finally quieted till 1890, when the Wuntho captain. În 1814 he retired on half-pay, and devoted the sawbwa was deposed and his state incorporated in Katha district. remainder of his life to scientific research. He died at London Katha is the headquarters of the district. The principal on the 26th of April 1835. means of communication are the Irrawaddy Flotilla steamers, His first important contribution to scientific knowledge was which run between Mandalay and Bhamo, and the railway which the comparison of the merits of the Cassegrainian and Gregorian communicates with Sagaing to the south and Myitkyina to the telescopes, from which (Phil. Trans., 1813 and 1814) he deduced north. A ferry-steamer plies between Katha and Bhamo. that the illuminating power of the former exceeded that of the KATHIAWAR, or KATTYWAR, a peninsula of India, within latter in the proportion of 5:2. This inferiority of the Gregorian the Gujarat division of Bombay, giving its name to a political he explained as being probably due to the mutual interference agency, Total area, about 23,400 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,645,805. of the rays as they crossed at the principal focus before reflection These figures include a portion of the British district of Ahme- at the second mirror. His most valuable work was the determina- dabad, a portion of the state of Baroda, and the small Portuguese tion of the length of the second's pendulum, first at London and settlement of Diu. The peninsula is bounded N. by the Kunn subsequently at various stations throughout the country (Phil. of Cutch, E. by Ahmedabad district and the Gulf of Cambay, and Trans., 1818, 1819). In these researches he skilfully took S. and W. by the Arabian Sea. The extreme length is 220 m.; advantage of the well-known property of reciprocity between the the greatest breadth about 165 m. Generally speaking, the centres of suspension and oscillation of an oscillating body, so surface is undulating, with low ranges running in various direc- as to determine experimentally the precise position of the centre tions." With the exception of the Tangha and Mandav hills, of oscillation; the distance between these centres was then the in the west of Jhalawar, and some unimportant hills in Hallar, length of the ideal simple pendulum having the same time of the northern portion of the country is flat; but in the south, from oscillation. As the inventor of the floating collimator, Kater near Gogo, the Gir range runs nearly parallel with the coast, and rendered a great service to practical astronomy (Phil. Trans.,) at a distance of about 20 m. from it, along the north of Babriawar 1825, 1828). He also published memoirs (Phil. Trans., 1821, and Sorath, to the neighbourhood of Girnar. Opposite.this latter 1831) on British standards of length and mass; and in 1832 he mountain is the solitary Osam hill, and then still farther west published an account of his labours in verifying the Russian is the Barada group, between Hallar and Barada, running about standards of length. For his services to Russia in this respect 20.m. north and south from Gumli to Ranawao. The Girnar he received in 1814 the decoration of the order of St. Anne; and group of mountains is an important granitic mass, the highest the same year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. peak of which rises to 3500 ft. The principal river is the Bhadar, His attention was also turned to the subject of compass needles, which rises in the Mandav hills, and flowing S.W. falls into the his Bakerian lecture “On the Best Kind of Steel and Form for a sea at Navi-Bandar; it is everywhere marked by highly culti- Compass Needle” (Phil. Trans., 1821) containing the results of many vated lands adjoining its course of about 115 m. Other rivers are experiments. The treatise on " Mechanics" in Lardner's Cyclopaedia the Aji, Machhu and Satrunji-the last remarkable for romantic was partly written by him; and his interest in more purely astro- nomical questions was evidenced by two communications to the scenery: Four of the old races, the Jaitwas, Churasamas, Astronomical Society's Memoirs for 1831-1833—the one on an obser- Solunkis and Walas still exist as proprietors of the soil whó vation of Saturn's outer ring, the other on a method of determining exercised sovereignty in the country prior to the immigration longitude by means of lunar eclipses. of the Jhalas, Jadejas, Purmars, Kathis, Gohels, Jats, Mahom- KATHA, a district in the northern division of Upper Burma, medans and Mahrattas, between whom the country is now chiefly with an area of 6994 sq. m., 3730 of which consists of the former portioned out. Kathiawar has many notable antiquities, com- separate state of Wuntho. It is bounded N. by the Upper prising a rock inscription of Asoka, Buddhist caves, and fine Jain Chindwin, Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, E. by the Kaukkwe temples on the sacred hill of Girnar and at Palitana. River as far as the Irrawaddy, thence east of the Irrawaddy by The political agency of Kathiawar has an area of 20,882 sq. m. the Shan State of Möng Mit Momeik), and by the Shweli River, In 190r the population was 2,329,196, showing a decrease of S. by the Ruby Mines district and Shwebo, and W. by the Upper 15% in the decade due to the results of famine. The estimated Chindwin district. Three ranges of hills run through the district, gross revenue of the several states is £1,278,000; total tribute known as the Minwun, Gangaw and Mangin ranges. They (payable to the British, the gaekwar of Baroda and the nawab separate the three main rivers- the Irrawaddy, the Mèza and the of Junagarh), £70,000. There are altogether 193 states of varying Mu. The Minwun range runs from north to south, and forms size and importance, of which 14 exercise independent jurisdic- for a considerable part of its length the dividing line between the tion, while the rest are more or less under British administration. Katha district proper and what formerly was the Wuntho state. The eight states of the first class are Junagaw, Nawanagar, Its average altitude is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The Gangaw Bhaunagar, Porbandar, Dhrangadra, Morvi, Gondal and Jafara- range runs from the north of the district for a considerable bad. The headquarters of the political agent are at Rajkot, in portion of its length close to and down the right bank of the the centre of the peninsula, where also is the Rajkumar college, Irrawaddy as far as Tigyaing, where the Myatheindan pagoda for the education of the sons of the chiefs. There is a similar gives its name to the last point. Its highest point is 4400 ft., school for girasias, or chiefs of lower rank, at Gondal. An 696 KATKOV-KATSENA <6 excellent system of metre-gauge railways has been provided at KATRINE, LOCH, a freshwater lake of Scotland, lying almost the cost of the leading states. Maritime trade is also very active, entirely in Perthshire. The boundary between the counties of the chief ports being Porbandar, Mangrol and Verawal. In Perth and Stirling runs from Glengyle, at the head of the lake; 1903-1904 the total sea-borne exports were valued at £1,300,000, down the centre to a point opposite Stronachlachar from which and the imports at £1,120,000. The progressive prosperity of it strikes to the south-western shore towards Loch Arklet. The Kathiawar received a shock from the famine of 1899-1900, loch, which has a south-easterly trend, is about 8 m. long, and which was felt everywhere with extreme severity. its greatest breadth is i m. It lies 364 ft. above the sea- KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH (1818–1887), Russian level. It occupies an area of 4 square miles and has a drainage journalist, was born in Moscow in 1818. On finishing his course basin of 373 square miles. The average depth is 142 ſt., at the university he devoted himself to literature and philosophy, the greatest depth being 495 ft. The average annual rainfall is and showed so little individuality that during the reign of 78 inches. The mean temperature at the surface is 56.4° F., and Nicholas I. he never once came into disagreeable contact with the at the bottom 41° F. The scenery has been immortalized in Sir authorities. With the Liberal reaction and strong reform move- Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. The surrounding hills are of ment which characterized the earlier years of Alexander II.'s reign considerable altitude, the most remarkable being the head of (1855-1881) he thoroughly sympathized, and for some time he Ben A'an (1750 ft.) and the grassy craigs and broken contour warmly advocated the introduction of liberal institutions of the of Ben Venue (2393 ft.). It is fed by the Gyle and numerous British type, but when he perceived that the agitation was assum- burns, and drained by the Achray to Loch Achray and thence ing a Socialistic and Nihilist tinge, and that in some quarters of by the Black Avon to Loch Vennacher. Since 1859 it has the Liberal camp indulgence was being shown to Polish national formed the chief source of the water-supply of Glasgow, the aspirations, he gradually modified his attitude until he came to aqueduct leaving the lake about if m. S.E. of Stronachlachar. be regarded by the Liberals as a renegade. At the beginning of By powers obtained in 1885 the level of the lake was increased 1863 he assumed the management and editorship of the Moscow by 5 ft. by a system of sluices regulating the outflow of the Gazelle, and he retained that position till his death in 1887. Achray. One result of this damming up has been to submerge During these twenty-four years he exercised considerable influ- the Silver Strand and to curtail the dimensions of Ellen's Isle. ence on public opinion and even on the Government, by repre- The principal points on the shores are Glengyle, formerly a fast- senting with great ability the moderately Conservative spirit ness of the Macgregors, the Trossachs, the Goblins' Cave on Ben of Moscow in opposition to the occasionally ultra-Liberal and Venue, and Stronachlachar (Gaelic, “the mason's nose "), from always cosmopolitan spirit of St Petersburg. With the Slavo- which there is a ferry to Coilachra on the opposite side. A road phils he agreed in advocating the extension of Russian influence has been constructed from the Trossachs for nearly six miles in south-eastern Europe, but he carefully kept aloof from them along the northern shore. During summer steamers ply be- and condemned their archaeological and ecclesiastical senti-tween the Trossachs and Stronachlachar and there is a daily mentality. Though generally temperate in his views, he was service of coaches from thc Trossachs to Callander (about 10 m.) extremely incisive and often violent in his modes of expressing and to Aberfoyle (9 m.), and between Stronachlachar, to Inver- them, so that he made many enemies and sometimes incurred snaid on Loch Lomond (about 41 m.). The road to Inversnaid the displeasure of the press-censure and the ministers, against runs through the Macgregors' country referred to in Scott's which he was more than once protected by Alexander III. in Rob Roy. consideration of his able advocacy of national interests. He is KATSENA, an ancient state of the western Sudan, now in- remembered chiefly as an energetic opponent of Polish national cluded in the province of Kano in the British protectorate of aspirations, of extreme Liberalism, of the system of public Northern Nigeria. Katsena was amongst the oldest of the Hausa instruction based on natural science, and of German political states. There exist manuscripts which carry back its history influence. In this last capacity he helped to prepare the way for about 1000 years and tradition ascribes the origin of the for the Franco-Russian alliance. Hausa population, which is known also by the name of Habe or KATMANDU (less correctly KHATMANDU), the capital of the Habeche, to the union of Bajibda of Bagdad with a prehistoric state of Nepal, India, situated on the bank of the Vishnumati queen of Daura. The conquest of the Habe of Katsena by the river at its confluence with the Baghmati, in 27° 36' N., 85° 24' E. Fula about the beginning of the 19th century made little differ- The town, which is said to have been founded about 723, contains ence to the country. The more cultivated Habe were already à population estimated at 70,000, occupying 5630 houses made Mahommedan and the new rulers adopted the existing customs of brick, and usually from two to four storeys high. Many of and system of government. These were in many respects highly the houses have large projecting wooden windows or balconies, developed and included elaborate systems of taxation and richly carved. The maharaja's palace, a huge, rambling, un- justice. gainly building, stands in the centre of the town, which also The capital of the administrative district is a town of the same contain numerous temples. One of these, a wooden building name, in 13° N., 7° 41'E., being 160 m. E. by S. of the city of in the centre of the town, gives it its name (kat wood). Sokoto, and 84 m. N.W. of Kano. The walls of Katsena have The streets are extremely narrow, and the whole town very a circuit of between 13 and 14 miles, but only a small part of the dirty. A British resident is stationed about a mile north of the enclosed space is inhabited. In the 17th and 18th centuries it appears to have been the largest town in the Hausa countries, KATO, TAKA-AKIRA (1859- .), Japanese statesman, was and its inhabitants at that time numbered some 100,000. The born at Nagoya, and commenced life as an employee in the great date of the foundation of the present town must be comparatively firm of Mitsu Bishi. In 1887 he became private secretary to modern, for it is believed to have been moved from its ancient Count Okuma, minister of state for foreign affairs. Subse- site and at the time of Leo Africanus (c. 1513) there was no place quently he served as director of a bureau in the finance depart-of any considerable size in the province of Katsena. Before that ment, and from 1894 to 1899 he represented his country at the period Katsena boasted of being the chief seat of learning court of St James. He received the portfolio of foreign affairs throughout the Hausa states and this reputation was main- in the fourth Ito cabinet (1900-1901), which remained in office tained to the time of the Fula conquest. In the beginning of the only a few months. Appointed again to the same position in the 19th century the town fell into the hands of the Fula, but only Saionji cabinet (1906), he resigned after a brief interval, being after a protracted and heroic defence. In March 1903 Sir F. opposed to the nationalization of the private railways, which Lugard visited Katsena on his way from Sokoto and the emir and measure the cabinet approved. He then remained without chiefs accepted British suzerainty without fighting. The Katsena office until 1908, when he again accepted the post of ambassador district has since formed an administrative district in the double in London. He was decorated with the grand cross of St Michael province of Kano and Katagum. The emir was unfaithful to and St George, and earned the reputation of being one of the his oath of allegiance to the British crown, and was deposed in strongest men among the junior statesmen. 1904. His successor was installed and took the oath of allegiance town. KATSURA-KAUFFMANN, ANGELICA 697 9) for 1902. in December of the same year. Katsena is a rich and populous KATYDID, the name given to certain North American insects, district. belonging to the family Locustidae, and related to the green or See the Travels of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890, chs. tree grasshoppers of England. As in other members of the xxiii. and xxiv.). Consult also the Annual Reports on Northern family, the chirrup, alleged to resemble the words “ Katydid," Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office, London, particularly the Report is produced by the friction of a file on the underside of the left forewing over a ridge on the upperside of the right. Several KATSENA is also the name of a town in the district of Katsena- species, belonging mostly to the genera Microcentonus and Allah, in the province of Muri, Northern Nigeria. This district Cyxto phallus, are known. is watered by a river of the same name which takes its rise in the KAUFBEUREN, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the mountains of the German colony of Cameroon, and flows into the Wertach, 55 m. S.W. of Munich by rail. Pop. (1905), 8955. Benue at a point above Abinsi. Kaufbeuren is still surrounded by its medieval walls and presents KATSURA, TARO, MARQUESS (1847– ), Japanese soldier a picturesque appearance. It has a handsome town hall with and statesman, was born in 1847 in Choshu. He commenced fine paintings, an old tower (the Hexenturm, or witches' tower), his career by fighting under the Imperial banner in the civil war a museum and various educational institutions. The most of the Restoration, and he displayed such talent that he was interesting of the ecclesiastical buildings is the chapel of St twice sent at public expense to Germany (in 1870 and 1884) to Blasius, which was restored in 1896. The chief industries are study strategy and tactics. In 1886 he was appointed vice-cotton spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, printing, machine minister of war, and in 1891 the command of division devolved building and lithography, and there is an active trade in wine, on him. He led the left wing of the Japanese army in the beer and cheese. Kaufbeuren is said to have been founded in campaign of 1894-95 against China, and made a memorable march 842, and is first mentioned in chronicles of the year 1126. It in the depth of winter from the north-east shore of the Yellow appears to have become a free imperial city about 1288, retain- Sea to Haicheng, finally occupying Niuchwang, and effecting a ing the dignity until 1803, when it passed to Bavaria.' It was junction with the second army corps which moved up the formerly a resort of pilgrims, and Roman coins have been found Liaotung peninsula. For these services 'he received the title in the vicinity. of viscount. He held the portfolio of war from 1898 to 1901, See F. Stieve, Die Reichsstadt Kaufbeuren und die bayrische Restaura- when he became premier and retained office for four and a half tionspolilik (Munich, 1870); and Schröder, Geschichte der Stadt und years, a record in Japan. In 1902 his cabinet concluded the Katholischen Pfarrei Kaufbeuren (Augsburg, 1903). first entente with England, which event procured for Katsura the rank of count. He also directed state affairs throughout the war KAUFFMANN, (MARIA ANNA) ANGELICA (1741-1807), the with Russia, and concluded the otfensive and defensive treaty once popular artist and Royal Academician, was born at Coire in of 1905 with Great Britain, receiving from King Edward the the Grisons, on the 30th of October 1741. Her father, John grand cross of the order of St Michael and St George, and being Josef Kauffmann, was a poor man and mediocre painter, but raised by the mikado to the rank of marquess. He resigned the apparently very successful in teaching his precocious daughter. premiership in 1905 to Marquess Saionji, but was again invited She rapidly acquired several languages, read incessantly, and to form a cabinet in 1908. Marquess Katsura might be con- showed marked talents as a musician. Her greatest progress, sidered the chief exponent of conservative views in Japan. however, was in painting; and in her twelfth year she had become Adhering strictly to the doctrine that ministries were respon- a notability, with bishops and nobles for her sitters. In 1754 sible to the emperor alone and not at all to the diet, he stood her father took her to Milan. Läter visits to Italy of long dura- wholly aloof from political parties, only his remarkable gift of tion appear to have succeeded this excursion; in 1763 she visited tact and conciliation enabling him to govern on such principles. Rome, returning to it again in 1764. From Rome she passed to KATTERFELTO (or KATERFELTO), GUSTAVUS (d. 1799), Bologna and Venice, being everywhere fêted and caressed, as quack doctor and conjurer, was born in Prussia. About 1782 much for her talents as for her personal charms. Writing from he came to London, where his advertisements in the newspapers, Rome in August 1764 to his friend Franke, Winckelmann refers headed “ Wonders! Wonders! Wonders!” enabled him to to her exceptional popularity. She was then painting his picture, trade most profitably upon the credulity of the public during the a half-length, of which she also made an etching. She spoke widespread influenza epidemic of that year. His public enter- Italian as well as German, he says; and she also expressed her- tainment, which, besides conjuring, included electrical and self with facility in French and English-one result of the last- chemical experiments and demonstrations with the microscope, named accomplishment being that she painted all the English extracted a flattering testimonial from the royal family, who visitors to the Eternal City. “She may be styled beautiful,” witnessed it in 1784. The poet William Cowper refers to he adds," and in singing may vie with our best virtuosi.” While Katterfelto in The Task; he became notorious for a long tour at Venice, she was induced by Lady Wentworth, the wife of the he undertook, exciting marvel by his conjuring performances. English ambassador to accompany her to London, where she KATTOWITZ, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, on appeared in 1766.. One of her first works was a portrait of the Rawa, near the Russian frontier, 5 m. S.E. from Beuthen by Garrick, exhibited in the year of her arrival at “Mr Moreing's rail. Pop. (1875), 11,352; (1905), 35,772. There are large iron- great room in Maiden Lane.” The rank of Lady Wentworth works, foundries and machine shops in the town, and near it opened society to her, and she was everywhere well received, the zinc and anthracite mines. The growth of Kattowitz, like that royal family especially showing her great favour. of other places in the same district, has been very rapid, owing Her firmest friend, however, was Sir Joshua Reynolds. In his to the development of the mineral resources of the neighbour pocket-book her name as “ Miss Angelica Miss Angel ” hood. In 1815 it was a mere village, and became a town in 1867. appears frequently, and in 1766 he painted her, a compliment It has monuments to the emperors William I. and Frederick III. which she returned by her “Portrait of Sir Joshua Reynolds," See G. Hoffmann, Geschichte der Stadt Kattowitz (Kattowitz, 1895). to be found in the variation of Guercino's “ Et in Arcadia ego aetat. 46. Another instance of her intimacy with Reynolds is KATWA, or Curwa, a town of British India, in Burdwan produced by her at this date, a subject which Reynolds repeated district, Bengal, situated at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and a few years later in his portrait of Mrs Bouverie and Mrs Crewe. Ajai rivers. Pop. (1901), 7220. It was the residence of many When, about November 1767, she was entrapped into a clandes- wealthy merchants, but its commercial importance has declined tine marriage with an adventurer who passed for a Swedish count as it is without railway communication and the difficulties of the Count de Horn) Reynolds befriended her, and it was doubt- the river navigation have increased. It was formerly regarded less owing to his good offices that her name is found among the as the key to Murshidabad. The old fort, of which scarcely a signatories to the famous petition to the king for the establish- vestige remains, is noted as the scene of the defeat of the ment of the Royal Academy. In its first catalogue of 1769 she Mahrattas by Ali Vardi Khan. appears with “R.A.” after her name (an honour which she shared { " (6 or 698 KAUFMANN, C. P.-KAULBACH with another lady and compatriot, Mary Moser); and she con- KAUKAUNA, a city of Outagamie county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., tributed the “Ikterview of Hector and Andromache,” and three on the Fox river 7 m. N.E. of Appleton and about 100 m. N. of other classical compositions. From this time until 1782 she was Milwaukee. Pop. (1900), 5115, of whom 1044 were foreign- an annual exhibitor, sending sometimes as many as seven born (1905) 4991; (1910) 4717. Kaukauna is served by the pictures, generally classic or allegorical subjects. One of the Chicago & North-Western railway (which has car-shops here), most notable of her performances was the “ Leonardo expiring by inter-urban electric railway lines connecting with other cities in the Arms of Francis the First,” which belongs to the year in the Fox river, valley, and by river steamboats. It has a 1778. In 1773 she was appointed by the Academy with others Carnegie library, a hospital and manufactories of pulp, paper, to decorate St Paul's, and it was she who, with Biagio Rebecca, lumber and woodenware. Dams on the Fox River furnish a painted the Academy's old lecture room at Somerset House. It good water-power. The city owns its water-works. A small is probable that her popularity declined a little in consequence of settlement of Indian traders was made herc as early as 1820; in her unfortunate marriage; but in 1781, after her first husband's 1830 a Presbyterian mission was established, but the growth of death (she had been long separated from him), she married the place was slow, and the city was not chartered until 1885. Antonio Zucchi (1728-1795), a Venetian artist then resident in KAULBACH, WILHELM VON (1805-1874), German painter, England. Shortly afterwards she retired to Rome, where she was born in Westphalia on the 15th of October 1805. His father, lived for twenty-five years with much of her old prestige. In who was poor, combined painting with the goldsmith's trade, 1782 she lost her father; and in 1795—the year in which she but means were found to place Wilhelm, a youth of seventeen, painted the picture of Lady Hamilton-her husband. She in the art academy of Düsseldorf, then becoming renowned under continued at intervals to contribute to the Academy, her last the directorship of Peter von Cornelius. Young Kaulbach con- exhibit being in 1797. After this she produced little, and in tended against hardships, even hunger. But his courage never November 1807 she died, being honoured by a splendid funeral failed; and, uniting genius with industry, he was cre long fore- under the direction of Canova. The entire Academy of St Luke, most among the young national party which sought to revive with numerous ecclesiastics and virtuosi, followed her to her the arts of Germany. The ambitious work by which Louis I. tomb in S. Andrea delle Fralte, and, as at the burial of Raphael, sought to transform Munich into a German Athens aſſorded the two of her best pictures were carried in procession. young painter an appropriate sphere. Cornelius had been com-. The works of Angelica Kauffmann have not retained their reputa- missioned to execute the enormous frescoes in the Glyptothek, tiɔn. She had a certain gift of grace, and considerable skill in and his custom was in the winters, with the aid of Kaulbach and composition. But her drawing is weak and faulty; her figures lack others, to complete the cartoons at Düsseldorf, and in the sum- variety and expression; and her men are masculine women. Her mers, accompanied by his best scholars, to carry out the designs colouring, however, is fairly enough defined by Waagen's term “ cheerful." Rooms decorated by her brush are still to be seen in in calour on the museum walls in Munich. But in 1824 Cornelius various quarters. At Hampton Court is a portrait of the duchess became director of the Bavarian academy. Kaulbach, not yet of Brunswick; in the National Portrait Gallery, a portrait of herself. twenty, followed, took up his permanent residence in Munich, There are other pictures by her at Paris, at Dresden, in the Hermitage laboured hard on the public works, executed independent com- at St Petersburg, and in the Alte Pinakothek at Munich. The Munich example is another portrait of herself; and there is a third missions, and in 1849, when Cornelius left for Berlin, succeeded in the Uffizi at Florence. A few of her works in private collections to the directorship of the academy, an office which he held till have been exhibited among the “Old Masters "at Burlington House. his death on the 7th of April 1874. His son Hermann (1846– But she is perhaps best known by the numerous engravings from her 1909) also became a distinguished painter. designs by 'Schiavonetti, Bartolozzi and others. Those by Bartolozzi especially still find considerable favour with collectors. Her life Kaulbach matured, after the example of the masters of the was written in 1810 by Giovanni de Rossi. It has also been used Middle Ages, the practice of mural or monumental decoration; as the basis of a romance by Léon de Wailly, 1838; and it prompted he once more conjoined painting with architecture, and displayed the charming novel contributed by Mrs Richmond Ritchie to the Cornhill Magazine in 1875 under the title of “ Miss Angel. a creative fertility and readiness of resource scarcely found since (A. D.) the era of Raphael and Michelangelo. Early in the series of his multitudinous works came the famous Narrenhaus, the appalling KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1818–1882), memories of a certain madhouse near Düsseldorf; the composi- Russian general, was born at Maidani on the 3rd of March 1818. tion all the more deserves mention for points of contact with He entered the engineer branch in 1838, served in the campaigns Hogarth. Somewhat to the same category belong the illustra- in the Caucasus, rose to be colonel, and commanded the sapperstions to Reineke Fuchs. These, together with occasional figures and miners at the siege of Kars in 1855. On the capitulation of or passages in complex pictorial dramas, show how dominant Kars he was deputed to settle the terms with General Sir W. and irrepressible were the artist's sense of satire and enjoyment Fenwick Williams. In 1861 he became director-general of of fun; character in its breadth and sharpness is depicted with engincers at the War Office, assisting General Milutin in the keenest relish, and at times the sardonic smile bursts into the reorganization of the army. Promoted lieut.-general in 1864, loudest laugh. Thus occasionally the grotesque degenerates he was nominated aide-de-camp-general and governor of the into the vulgar, the grand into the ridiculous, as in the satire on military conscription of Vilna. In 1867 he became governor “the Pigtail Age” in a fresco outside the New Pinakothek. Yet of Turkestan, and held the post until his death, making himself these exceptional extravagances came not of weakness but from a name in the expansion of the empire in central Asia. He excess of power. Kaulbach tried hard to become Grecian and accomplished a successful campaign in 1868 against Bokhara, Italian; but he never reached Phidias or Raphael; in short the capturing Samarkand and gradually subjugating the whole blood of Dürer, Holbein and Martin Schongauer ran strong in country. In 1873 he attacked Khiva, took the capital, and his veins. The art products in Munich during the middle of the forced the khan to become a vassal of Russia. Then followed 19th century were of a quantity to preclude first-rate quality, in 1875 the campaign against Khokand, in which Kaufmann and Kaulbach contracted a fatal facility in covering wall and defeated the khan, Nasr-ed-din. Khokand north of the Syr- canvas by the acre. He painted in the Hofgarten, the Odeon, daria was annexed to Russia, and the independence of the rest the Palace and on the external walls of the New Pinakothek. of the country became merely nominal. This rapid absorption His perspicuous and showy manner also gained him abundant of the khanates brought Russia into close proximity to Afghani- occupation as a book illustrator: in the pages of the poets his stan, and the reception of Kaufmann's emissaries by the Amir fancy revelled; he was glad to take inspiration from Wieland, was a main cause of the British war with Afghanistan in 1878. Goethe, even Klopstock; among his engraved designs are the Although Kaufmann was unable to induce his government to Shakespeare gallery, the Goethe gallery and a folio edition of support all his ambitious schemes of further conquest, he sent the Gospels. With regard to these examples of “the Munich Skobeleff in 1880 and 1881 against the Akhal Tekkés, and was school,” it was asserted that Kaulbach had been unfortunate arranging to add Merv to his annexations when he died suddenly alike in having found Cornelius for a master and King Louis for at Tashkend on the 15th of May 1882. a patron, that he attempted“ subjects far beyond him, believing KAUNITZ-RIETBURG 699 16 6 that his admiration for them was the same as inspiration "; 1 family had served the Habsburgs with some distinction, and and supplied the lack of real imagination by “a compound of Kaunitz had no difficulty in obtaining employment. In 1735 intellect and fancy." he was a Reichshofrath. When the Emperor Charles VI. died Nevertheless in such compositions as the Destruction of in 1740, he is said to have hesitated before deciding to support Jerusalem and the Battle of the Huns Kaulbach shows creative Maria Theresa. If so, his hesitation did not last long, and left imagination. As a dramatic poet he tells the story, depicts no trace on his loyalty. From 1742 to 1744 he was minister at character, seizes on action and situation, and thus as it were Turin, and in the latter year was sent as minister with the Arch- takes the spectator by storm. The manner may be occasionally duke Charles of Lorraine, the governor of Belgium. He was noisy and ranting, but the effect after its kind is tremendous. therefore an eye-witness of the campaigns in which Marshal Saxe The cartoon, which, as usual in modern German art, is superior overran Belgium. At this time he was extremely discouraged, to the ultimate picture, was executed in the artist's prime at the and sought for his recall. But he had earned the approval of age of thirty. At this period, as here seen, the knowledge was Maria Theresa, who sent him as representative of Austria to the little short of absolute; subtle is the sense of beauty; playful, peace congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. His tenacity and delicate, firm the touch; the whole treatment artistic. dexterity established his reputation as a diplomatist. He con- Ten or more years were devoted to what the Germans term a firmed his hold on the regard and confidence of the empress by cyclus ”—a series of pictures depicting the Tower of Babel, the line he took after the conclusion of the peace. In 1749 Maria the Age of Homer, the Destruction of Jerusalem, the Battle of Theresa appealed to all her counsellors for advice as to the policy the Huns, the Crusades and the Reformation. These major Austria ought to pursue in view of the changed conditions pro- tableaux, severally 30 ft. long, and each comprising over one duced by the rise of Prussia. The great majority of them, hundred figures above life-size, are surrounded by minor com- including her husband Francis I., were of opinion that the old positions making more than twenty in all. The idea is to alliance with the sea Powers, England and Holland, should be congregate around the world's historic dramas the prime agents maintained. Kaunitz, either because he was really persuaded of civilization; thus here are assembled allegoric figures of Archi- that the old policy must be given up, or because he saw that the tecture and other arts, of Science and other kingdoms of know- dominating idea in the mind of Maria Theresa was the recovery ledge, together with lawgivers from the time of Moses, not for- of Silesia, gave it as his opinion that Frederick was now the getting Frederick the Great. The chosen situation for this most wicked and dangerous enemy of Austria,” that it was imposing didactic and theatric display is the Treppenhaus or hopeless to expect the support of Protestant nations against grand staircase in the new museum, Berlin; the surface is a him, and that the only way of recovering Silesia was by an granulated, absorbent wall, specially prepared; the technical alliance with Russia and France. The empress eagerly accepted method is that known as “ water-glass,” or “liquid flint,” the views which were already her own, and entrusted the adviser infusion of silica securing permanence. The same medium was with the execution of his own plans. An ambassador to France adopted in the later wall-pictures in the Houses of Parliament, from 1750 to 1752, and after 1753 as “house, court and state Westminster. chancellor,” Kaunitz laboured successfully to bring about the The painter's last period brings no new departure; his ultimate alliance which led to the Seven Years' War. It was considered works stand conspicuous by exaggerations of early character- a great feat of diplomacy, and established Kaunitz as the recog- istics. The series of designs illustrative of Goethe, which had nized master of the art. His triumph was won in spite of per- an immense success, were melodramatic and pandered to popular sonal defects and absurdities which would have ruined most taste. The vast canvas, more than 30 ft. long, the Sea Fight men. Kaunitz had manias rarely found in company with at Salamis, painted for the Maximilianeum, Munich, evinces absolute sanity. He would not hear of death, nor approach a wonted imagination and facility in composition; the handling sick man. He refused to visit his dying master Joseph II. for also retains its largeness and vigour; but in this astounding scenic two whole years. He would not breathe fresh air. On the uproar moderation and the simplicity of nature are thrown to warmest summer day he kept a handkerchief over his mouth the winds, and the whole atmosphere is hot and ſeverish. when out of doors, and his only exercise was riding under glass, Kaulbach's was a beauty-loving art. He is not supreme as a which he did every morning for exactly the same number of colourist; he belongs in fact to a school that holds colour in sub- minutes. He relaxed from his work in the company of a small ordination; but he laid, in common with the great masters, the sure dependent society of sycophants and buffoons. He was con- foundation of his art in form and composition. Indeed, the science of composition has seldom if ever been so clearly understood or worked sumed by a solemn, garrulous and pedantic vanity. When in out with equal complexity and exactitude; the constituent lines, the 1770 he met Frederick the Great at Mährisch-Neustadt, he came relation of the parts to the whole, are brought into absolute agree with a summary of political principles, which he called a cate- ment; in modern Germany painting and music have trodden parallel chism, in his pocket, and assured the king that he must be allowed paths, and Kaulbach is musical in the melody and harmony of his to speak without interruption. When Frederick, whose interest compositions. His narrative too is lucid, and moves as a stately march or royal triumph; the sequence of the figures is unbroken; the it was to humour him, promised to listen quietly, Kaunitz rolled arrangement of the groups accords with even literary form; the his mind out for two hours, and went away with the firm con- picture falls into incident, episode, dialogue, action, plot, as a drama. viction that he had at last enlightened the inferior intellect of The style is eclectic; in the Age of Homer the types and the treat- the king of Prussia as to what politics really were. Within a ment are derived from Greek marbles and vases; then in the Tower of Babel the severity of the antique gives place to the suavity of the very short time Frederick had completely deceived and out- Italian renaissance; while in the Crusades the composition is let loose manoeuvred him. With all his pomposity and conceit, Kaunitz ingo modern romanticism, and so the manner descends into the midst was astute, he was laborious and orderly; when his advice was of the 19th century. And yet this scholastically compounded art is so nicely adjusted and smoothly blended that it casts off all incon not taken he would carry out the wishes of his masters, while no gruity and becomes homogeneous as the issue of one mind. But a defeat ever damped his pertinacity. fickle public craved for change; and so the great master in later years To tell his history from 1750 till his retirement in 1792 would waned in favour, and had to witness, not without inquietude, the be to tell part of the internal history of Austria, and all the inter- rise of an opposing party of naturalism and realism. (J. B. A.). national politics of eastern and central Europe. His governing KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON, PRINCE VON (1711- principle was to forward the interests of " the august house of 1794), Austrian chancellor and diplomatist, was born at Vienna Austria,” a phrase sometimes repeated at every few lines of his on the end of February 1711. His father, Max Ulrich,was the despatches. In internal affairs he in 1758 recommended, and third count of Kaunitz, and married an heiress, Maria Ernestine helped to promote, a simplification of the confused and sub- Franziska von Rietburg. The family was ancient, and was divided Austrian administration. But his main concern was believed to have been of Slavonic origin in Moravia. Wenzel always with diplomacy and foreign policy. Here he strove with Anton, being a second son, was designed for the church, but on untiring energy, andano small measure of success, to extend the the death of his elder brother he was trained for the law and for Austrian dominions. After the Seven Years' War he endea. diplomacy, at Vienna, Leipzig and Leiden, and by travel. His I voured to avoid great risks, and sought to secure his ends by 700 KAUP_KAVADH At alliances, exchanges and claims professing to have a legal basis, has a muddy or café-au-lait appearance, or is of a greenish hue if and justified at enormous length by arguments both pedantic made from leaves, is now ready for consumption. The taste of and hypocritical. The French Revolution had begun to alter the liquid is at first sweet, and then pungent and acrid. The all the relations of the Powers before his retirement. He never usual dose corresponds to about two mouthfuls of the root. understood its full meaning. Yet the circular despatch which Intoxication (but this apparently only applies to those not he addressed to the ambassadors of the emperor on the 17th of inured to the use of the liquor) follows in about twenty minutes. July 1794 contains the first outlines of Metternich's policy of The drunkenness produced by kava is of a melancholy, silent and legitimacy," and the first proposal for the combined action of drowsy character. Excessive drinking is said to lead to skin the powers, based on the full recognition of one another's rights, and other diseases, but per contra many medicinal virtues are to defend themselves against subversive principles. Kaunitz ascribed to the preparation. There appears to be little doubt died at his house, the Garten Palast, near Vienna, on the 27th. that the active principle in this beverage is a poison of an alka- of June 1794. He married on the 6th of May 1736, Maria loidal nature. It seems likely that this substance is not present Ernestine von Starhemberg, who died on the 6th of September as such (i.e. as a free alkaloid) in the plant, but that it exists in 1754. Four sons were born of the marriage. the form of a glucoside, and that by the process of chewing this See Hormayr, Oesterreichischer Plutarch (Vienna, 1823), for a glucoside is split up by one of the ferments in the saliva into the biographical sketch based on personal knowledge. Also see Brunner, free alkaloid and sugar. Joseph II.: Correspondance avec Cobenzl et Kaunitz (Mayence, 1871); See Pharm. Journ. iii. 474; iv. 85; ix. 219; vii. 149; Comples A. Beer, Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz (Vienna, 1873). Rendus, l. 436, 598; lii. 206; Journ. de Pharm. (1860) 20; (1862) 218; KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB (1803-1873), German naturalist, Seeman, Flora Vitiensis, 260; Beachy, Voyage of the “ Blossom," ii. 120. was born at Darmstadt on the roth of April 1803. After study- ing at Göttingen and Heidelberg he spent two years at Leiden, KAVADH (KABADES, KAUADES), a Persian name which occurs where his attention was specially devoted to the amphibians first in the mythical history of the old Iranian kingdom as Kai and fishes. He then returned to Darmstadt as an assistant in Kobadh (Kaikobad). It was borne by two kings of the Sassanid the grand ducal museum, of which in 1840 he became inspector. dynasty. In 1829 he published Skizge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der (1) KAVADH I., son of Pērõz, crowned by the nobles in 488 europäischen Thierwelt, in which he regarded the animal world in place of his uncle Balash, who was deposed and blinded. as developed from lower to higher forms, from the amphibians this time the empire was utterly disorganized by the invasion of through the birds to the beasts of prey; but subsequently he the Ephthalites or White Huns from the east. After one of repudiated this work as a youthful indiscretion, and on the their victories against Pērõz, Kavadh had been a hostage among publication of Darwin's Origin of Species he declared himself them during two years, pending the páyment of a heavy ran- against its doctrines. The extensive fossil deposits in the neigh- som. In 484 Pērõz had been defeated and slain with his whole bourhood of Darmstadt gave him ample opportunities for army. Balash was not able to restore the royal authority. palacontological inquiries, and he gained considerable reputation The hopes of the magnates and high priests that Kavadh would by his Beiträge zur näheren Kenntniss der urweltlichen Säugethicre suit their purpose were soon disappointed. Kavadh gave his (1855-1862). He also wrote Classification der Säugcthiere und support to the communistic sect founded By Mazdak, son of Vögel (1844), and, with H. G. Brown (1800-1862) of Heidelberg, Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should divide their wives Die Gavial-artigen Reste aus dem Lias (1842-1844). He died at and their wealth with the poor. His intention evidently was, Darmstadt on the 4th of July 1873. by adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, to break the influ- KAURI PINE, in botany, Agathis australis, a conifer native ence of the magnates. But in 496 he was deposed and incar- of New Zealand where it is abundant in forests in the North cerated in the." Castle of Oblivion (Lethe) "in Susiana, and his Island between the North Cape and 38° south latitude. The brother Jamasp (Zamaspes) was raised to the throne. Kavadh, forests are rapidly disappearing owing to use as timber and to however, escaped and found refuge with the Ephthalites, whose destruction by fires. It is a tall resiniferous tree, usually ranging king gaye him his daughter in marriage and aided him to return from 80 to 100 ft. in height, with a trunk 4 to 10 ft. in diameter, to Persia. In 499 he becarne king again and punished his oppo- but reaching 150 ft., with a diameter of 15 to 22 ft.; it has a straight nents. He had to pay à tribute to the Ephthalites and applied columnar trunk and a rounded bushy head. The thick resini- for subsidies to Rome, which had before supported the Persians. ferous bark falls off in large flat flakes. The leaves, which per- But now the emperor Anastasius refused subsidies, expecting sist for several years, are very thick and leathery; on young trees that the two rival powers of the East would exhaust one another they are lance-shaped 2 to 4 in. long and I to į in. broad, becom- in war. At the same time he intervened in the affairs of the ing on mature trees linear-oblong or obovate-oblong and to ii Persian part of Armenia. So Kavadh joined the Ephthalites in. long. The ripe cones are almost spherical, erect, and 2 to 3 and began war against the Romans. In 502 he took Theodosio- in. in diameter; the broad, flat, rather thin cone-scales fall from polis in Armenia, in 503 Amida (Diarbekr) on the Tigris. In 505 the axis when ripe. Each scale bears a single compressed seed an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus with a membranous wing. The timber is remarkable for its led to an armistice, during which the Romans paid subsidies to strength, durability and the ease with which it is worked. The the Persians for the maintenance of the fortifications on the resin, kauri-gum, is an amber-like deposit dug in large quantities Caucasus. When Justin I. (518-527) came to the throne the from the sites of previous forests, in lumps generally vary-conflict began anew. The Persian vassal, Mondhir of Hira, ing in size from that of a hen's egg to that of a man's head. laid waste Mesopotamia and slaughtered the monks and The colour is of a rich brown or amber yellow, or it may be nuns. In 531 Belisarius was beaten at Callinicum. Shortly almost colourless and translucent. It is of value for varnish- afterwards Kavadh died, at the age of eighty-two, in September making. 531. During his last years his favourite son Chosroes had had KAVA (Cava or Ava), an intoxicating, but non-alcoholic great influence over him and had been proclaimed successor. beverage, produced principally in the islands of the South He also induced Kavadh to break with the Mazdakites, whose Pacific, from the roots or leaves of a variety of the pepper plant doctrine had spread widely and caused great social confusion (Piper methysticum). The method of preparation is somewhat throughout Persia. In 529 they were refuted in a theological peculiar. The roots or leaves are first chewed by young girls or discussion held before the throne of the king by the orthodox boys, care being taken that only those possessing sound teeth Magians, and were slaughtered and persecuted everywhere; and excellent general health shall take part in this operation. Mazdak himself was hanged. Kavadh evidently was, as Pro- The chewed material is then placed in a bowl, and water or copius (Pers. i. 6) calls him, an unusually clear-sighted and ener- coco-nut milk is poured over it, the whole is well stirred, and getic ruler. Although he could not free himself from the yoke subsequently the woody matter is removed by an ingenious but of the Ephthalites, he succeeded in restoring order in the interior simple mechanical manipulation. The resulting liquid, which I and fought with success against the Romans. He built some " KAVALA-KAVIRONDO 701 C6 are » towns which were named after him, and began to regulate the of her stories are almost always laid in France, and she handles taxation. her French themes with fidelity and skill. Her style is simple (2) KAVADH II. SHEROE (Siroes), son of Chosroes II., was raised and pleasing rather than striking; and her characters are to the throne in opposition to his father in February 628, after interesting without being strongly individualized. Her most the great victories of the emperor Heraclius. He put his father popular novels were perhaps Adèle (1857), Queen Mab (1863), and eighteen brothers to death, began negotiations with Hera- and John Dorrien (1875). On the outbreak of the Franco- clius, but died after a reign of a few months. (Ed. M.) German War Julia Kavanagh removed with her mother from KAVALA, or CAVALLA, a walled town and seaport of European Paris to Rouen. She died at Nice on the 28th of October 1877. Turkey in the vilayet of Salonica, on the Bay of Kavala, an inlet KAVASS, or CAVAss (adapted from the Turkish qawwas, a of the Aegean Sea. Pop. (1905), about 5000. Kavala is built bow-maker; Arabic qaws, a bow), a Turkish name for an armed on a promontory stretching south into the bay, and opposite the police-officer; also for a courier such as it is usual to engage when island of Thasos. There is a harbour on each side of the pro- travelling in Turkey. montory. The resident population is increased in summer by an KAVIRONDO, a people of British East Africa, who dwell in influx of peasantry, of whom during the season 5000 to 6000 are the valley of the Nzoia River, on the western slopes of Mount employed in curing tobacco and preparing it for export. The Elgon, and along the north-east coast of Victoria Nyanza. finest Turkish tobacco is grown in the district, and shipped to Kavirondo is the general name of two distinct groups of tribes, all parts of Europe and America, to the annual value of about one Bantu and the other Nilotic. Both groups are immigrants, £1,250,000. Mehemet Ali was born here in 1769, and founded a the Bantu from the south, the Nilotic from the north. The. Turkish school which still exists.. His birthplace, an unpreten- Bantu appear to have been the first comers. The Nilotic tribes, tious little house in one of the tortuous older streets, can be dis- probably an offshoot of the Acholi (q.v.), appear to have crossed tinguished by the tablet which the municipal authorities have the lake to reach their present home, the country around affixed to its front wall. Numerous Roman remains have been Kavirondo Gulf. Of the two groups the Bantu now occupy a found in the neighbourhood, of which the chief is the large more northerly position than their neighbours, and aqueduct on two tiers of arches which still serves to supply the practically the most northerly representatives of that race town and dilapidated citadel with water from Mount Pangeus.. (Hobley). Their further. progress north was stopped by the * Kavala has been identified with Neapolis, at which St Paul landed southward movement of the Nilotic tribes, while the Nilotic on his way from Samothrace to Philippi (Acts xvi. 11). Neapolis Kavirondo in their turn had their wanderings arrested by an was the port of Philippi, as Kavala now is of Seres; in the bay | irruption of Elgumi people from the east. The Elgumi are on which it stands the feet of Brutus and Cassius was stationed themselves probably of Nilotic origin. Both groups of Kavi- during the battle of Philippi. Some authorities identify Neapolis rondo are physically fine, the Nilotic stock appearing more with Datum (Aárov), mentioned by Herodotus as famous for its virile than the Bantu.. The Bantu Kavirondo are divided into gold mines. three principal types—the Awa-Rimi, the Awa-Ware and the KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH (1831–1889), Irish Awa-Kisii. By the Nilotic Kavirondo their Bantu neighbours politician, son of Thomas Kavanagh, M.P., who traced his are known as Ja-Mwa. The generic name for the Nilotic tribes descent to the ancient kings of Leinster, was born in Co. Carlow, is Ja-Luo. The Bantu Kavirondo call them Awa-Nyoro. The Ireland, on the 25th of March 1831. He had only the rudiments two groups have many characteristics in common. A charac- of arms and legs, but in spite of these physical defects had a teristic feature of the people is their nakedness. Among the remarkable career. He learnt to rịde in the most fearless way, Nilotic Kavirondo married men who are fathers wear a small štrapped to a special saddle, and managing the horse with the piece of goat-skin, which though practically useless as a covering stumps of his arms; and also fished, shot, drew and wrote, must be worn according to tribal etiquette. Even among men various mechanical contrivances being devised to supplement who have adopted European clothing this goat-skin must still his limited physical capacities. He travelled extensively in be worn underneath. Contact with whites has led to the Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia and India between 1846 and 1853, adoption of European clothing by numbers of the men, but the and after succeeding to the family estates in the latter year, he women, more conservative, prefer nudity or the scanty covering married in 1855 his cousin, Miss Frances Mary Leathley. Assisted which they wore before the advent of Europeans. Among the by his wife, he was a most philanthropic landlord, and was an Bantu Kavirondo married women wear a short fringe of black active county magistrate and chairman of the board of guardians. string in front and a tassel of banana fibre suspended from a A Conservative and a Protestant, he sat in Parliament for Co. girdle behind, this tassel having at a distance the appearance Wexford from 1866 to 1868, and for Co. Carlow from 1868 to of a tail. Hence the report of early travellers as to a tailed race 1880. He was opposed to the disestablishment of the Irish in Africa. The Nilotic Kavirondo women wear the tail, but Church, but supported the Land Act of 1870, and sat on the dispense with the fringe in front. For “ dandy” they wear a Bessborough Commission. In 1886 he was made a member of goat-skin slung over the shoulders. Some of the Bantu tribes the Privy Council in Ireland. He died of pneumonia on the practise circumcision, the Nilotic tribes do not. Patterns are 25th of December 1889, in London. It is supposed that his tattooed on chest and stomach for ornament. Men, even extraordinary career suggested the idea of " Lucas Malet's " husbands, are forbidden to touch the women's tails, which must novel, The History of Sir Richard Calmady. be worn even should any other clothing be wrapped round the KAVANAGH, JULIA (1824-1877), British novelist, was born body. The Kavirondo are noted for their independent and at Thurles in Tipperary, Ireland, in 1824. She was the daughter pugnacious nature, their honesty and their sexual morality, of Morgan Peter Kavanagh (d. 1874), author of various worthless traits particularly marked among the Bantu tribes. philological works and some poems. Julia spent several years more women than men, and thus the Kavirondo are naturally of her early life with her parents in Normandy, laying there the inclined towards polygamy. Among the Bantu tribes a man has foundation of a mastery of the French language and insight into the refusal of all the younger sisters of his wife as they attain French modes of thought, which was perfected by her later puberty. Practically no woman lives unmarried all her life, frequent and long residences in France. Miss Kavanagh's for if no suitor seeks her, she singles out a man and offers herself terary career began with her arrival in London about 1844, and to him at a “reduced price," an offer usually accepted, as the her uneventful life affords few incidents to the biographer. Her are excellent agricultural labourers. The Nilotic first book was Three Paths (1847), a story for the young; but her Kavirondo incline to exogamy, endeavouring always to marry first work to attract notice was Madeleine, a Tale of Auvergne outside their clan. Girls are betrothed at six or seven, and the (1848). Other books followed: A Summer and Winter in the husband-elect continually makes small presents io his father- Two Sicilies (1858); French Women of Letters (1862); English in-law-elect till the bride reaches womanhood. It is regarded Women of Letlers (1862); Woman in France during the 18th as shameful if the girl be not found a virgin on her wedding day. Century (1850); and Women of Christianity (1852). The scenes ! She is sent back to her parents, whº have to return the marriage, " There are women 702 KAW-KAY 14 price, and pay a fine. The wife's adultery was formerly , flat blades without blood-courses, and broad-bladed swords. Some punished with death, and the capital penalty was also inflicted use slings, and most carry shields. Bows and arrows are also used; firearms are however displacing other weapons. Kavirondo warfare on young men and girls guilty of unchastity. Among the Bantu was mainly defensive and intertribal, this last a form of vendetta. Kavirondo the usual minimum price for a wife is forty hoes, When a man had killed his enemy in battle he shaved his head on twenty goats and one cow, paid in instalments. The Nilotic his return and he was rubbed .with medicine" (generally goat's This custom Kavirondo pay twenty sheep and two to six cows; the husband- dung), to defend him from the spirit of the dead man. elect can claim his bride when he has made half payment. If the Awa-Wanga abandoned when they obtained firearms. The young warriors were made to stab the bodies of their slain enemies. a woman dies without bearing children, the amount of her pur- Kavirondo industries are salt-making, effected by burning reeds and chase is returnable by her father, unless the widower consents water-plants and passing water through the ashes; the smelting of to replace her by another sister. The women are prolific and iron ore (confined to the Bantu tribes); pottery and basket-work. The Kavirondo have many tribes, divided, Sir H. H. Johnston the birth of twins is common. This is considered a lucky event, suspects, totemically. Their religion appears to be a vague ancestor. and is celebrated by feasting and dances. Among the Bantu worship, but the northern tribes have two gods, Awaſwa and Ishis- Kavirondo the mother of twins must remain in her hut for seven hemi, the spirits of good and evil. To the former cattle and goats days. Among the Nilotic Kavirondo the parents and the are sacrificed. The Kavirondo have great faith in divination from infants must stay in the hut for a whole month. If a Bantu Kavirondo ominous of good or evil. They have few myths or the entrails of a sheep. Nearly everybody and everything is to the mother has lost two children in succession the next child born traditions; the ant-bear is the chief figure in their beast-legends. is taken out at dawn and placed on the road, where it is left till They believe in witchcraft and practise trial by ordeal. As a race a neighbour, usually a woman friend who has gone that way on the Kavirondo are on the increase. This is due to their fecundity and morality. Those who live in the low-lying lands suffer from a purpose, picks it up. She takes it to its mother who gives a mild malaria, while abroad they are subject to dysentery and pneu. goat in return. A somewhat similar custom prevails among the monia. Epidemics of small-pox have occurred. Native medicine Nilotic tribes. Names are not male and female, and a daughter is of the simplest. They dress wounds with butter and leaves, and often bears her father's name. for inflammation of the lungs or pleurisy pierce a hole in the chest. Certain The Kavirondo bury their dead. Among one of the Bantu tribes, of, the incisor teeth are pulled out. There are no medicine-men--the women are the doctors. If a man retains these he will, the Awa-Kisesa, a chief is buried in the floor of his own hut in a sitting position, but at such a depth that the head protrudes. Over also have incisor teeth extracted, otherwise misfortune would befall it is thought, be killed in warſare. Among certain tribes the women the head an earthenware pot is placed, and his principal wives have their husbands. For the same reason the wife scars the skin of her to remain in the hut till the flesh is eaten by ants or decomposes, forehead or stomach. A Kavirondo husband, before starting on a when the skull is removed and buried close to the but. Later the perilous journey, cuts scars on his wife's body to ensure him good skeleton is unearthed, and reburied with much ceremony in the luck. Of dances the Kavirondo have four-the birth dance, the sacred burial place of the tribe. Married women of the Bantu tribes death dance, that at initiation and one of a propitiatory kind in are buried in their hut lying on their right side with legs doubled up, the hut being then deserted. Among the Nilotic tribes the produced by a large lyre-shaped instrument. They use also various seasons of drought. Their music is plaintive and sometimes pretty, grave is dug beneath the verandah of the hut. Men of the Bantu drums. tribes are buried in an open space in the midst of their huts; in the The Ja-Luo women use for ear ornaments small beads attached Nilotic tribes, if the first wife of the deceased be alive he is buried in her hut, if not, beneath the verandah of the hut in which he died. to pieces of brass. Like the aggry beads of West Africa these beads A child is buried near the door of its mother's hụt. A sign of mourn ancient, in colour generally blue, occasionally yellow or green, and are not of local manufacture nor of recent introduction. They are ing is a cord of banana fibre worn round the neck and waist. A chief chooses, sometimes years before his death, one of his sons to succeed they are supposed to come down with the rain. They are identical are picked up in certain districts after heavy rain. By the natives him, often giving a brass bracelet as insignia. A man's property is in shape and colour with ancient Egyptian beads and cther beads divided equa among his children. obtained from ancient cities in Baluchistan. The Kavirondo are essentially an agricultural people: both men See C. W. Hobley, Eastern Uganda, an Ethnological Survey and women work in the fields with large iron hoes. In addition to (Anthrop. Inst., Occasional Papers, No. 1, London, 1902); Sir H. H. sorghum, Eleusine and maize, tobacco and hemp are both cultivated and smoked. Both sexes smoke, but the use of hemp is restricted Johnston, Uganda Protectorale (1902); J. F. Cunningham, Uganda and its Peoples (1905).; Paul Kollmann, The Victoria Nyanza (1899). to men and unmarried women, as it is thought to injure child-bearing (T. A. J.) women. Hemp is smoked in a hubble-bubble. The Kavirondo cultivate sesamum and make an oil from its seeds which they burn KAW, or KANSA, a tribe of North American Indians of in little clay lamps. These lamps are of the ancient saucer type, the pattern being, in Hobley's opinion, introduced into the country Siouan stock. They were originally an offshoot of the Osages. by the coast people. While some tribes live in isolated huts, those Their early home was in Missouri, whence they were driven to in the north have strongly walled villages. The walls are of mud Kansas by the Dakotas. They were moved from one reservation and formerly, among the Nilotic tribes, occasionally of stone. Since to another, till in 1873 they were settled in Indian Territory; the advent of the British the security of the country has induced the Kavirondo to let the walls fall into disrepair. Their huts are circular they have since steadily decreased, and now number some 200. with conical thatched roof, and fairly broad verandah all round. A KAWARDHA, a feudatory state of India, within the Central portion of the hut is partitioned off as a sleeping-place for goats, and Provinces; area, 798 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 57,474, showing a the fowls sleep indoors in a large basket. Skins form the only bed decrease of 37 % in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, steads. In each hut are two fireplaces, about which a rigid etiquette £7000. Half the state consists of hill and forest. The residence prevails. Strangers or distant relatives are not allowed to pass beyond the first, which is near the door, and is used for cooking. of the chief, who is a Raj Gond, is at Kawardha (pop. 4772), At the second, which is nearly in the middle of the hut, sit the hut which is also the headquarters of the Kabirpanthi sect (see owner, his wives, children, brothers and sisters. Around this fire- KABIR). place the family sleep. Cooking, pots, water pots and earthenware grain jars are the only other furniture. The food is served in small KAY, JOHN (1742-1826), Scottish caricaturist, was born near baskets. Every full grown man has a hut to himself, and one for Dalkeith, where his father was a mason. At thirteen he was each wife. The huts of the Masaba Kavirondo of west Elgon have apprenticed to a barber, whom he served for six years. He the apex of the roof surmounted by a carved pole which Sir H. H. then went to Edinburgh, where in 1771 he obtained the freedom Johnston says is obviously, a phallus. Among the Bantu Kavirondo à father does not eat with his sons, nor do brothers eat together. of the city by joining the corporation of barber-surgeons. In Among the Nilotic tribes father and sons eat together, usually in a 1785, induced by the favour which greeted certain attempts of separate hut with open sides. Women eat apart and only after the his to etch in aquafortis, he took down his barber's pole and men have finished. The Kavirondo keep cattle, sheep, goats, fowls opened a small print shop in Parliament Square. There he and a few dogs.. Women do not eat sheep, fowls or eggs, and are not allowed to drink milk except when mixed with other things. The continued to flourish, painting miniatures, and publishing at flesh of the wild cat and leopard is esteemed by most of the tribes. short intervals his sketches and caricatures of local celebrities From Eleusine a beer is made. The Kavirondo are plucky hunters, and oddities, who abounded at that period in Edinburgh society. capturing the hippopotamus with ropes and traps, and attacking He died on the 21st of February 1826. with spears the largest elephants. Fish, of which they are very fond, are caught by line and rod or in traps. Bee-keeping is common, and Kay's portraits were collected by Hugh Paton and published where trees are scarce the hives are placed on the roof of the hut. under the title A series of original portraits and caricature etchings Among the Bantu Kavirondo goats and sheep are suffocated, the by the late John Kay, with biographical sketches and illustrative snout being held until the animal dies. Though a peaceful people the anecdotes (Edin., 2 vols. 4to, 1838; 8vo ed., 4 vols., 1842; new 4to Kavirondo fight well. Their weapons are spears with rather long I ed., with additional plates, 2 vols., 1877), forming a unique record KAY-KAZAN 703 a . of the social life and popular habits of Edinburgh at its most interest | South Africa, thé Polar regions, and notably the Devonian ing epoch. fossils of Germany, Bohemia and other parts of Europe. KAY, JOSÉPH (1821–1878), English economist, was born at Among his separate works are Lehrbuch der Geologie (2 vols., ii.), Salford, Lancashire, on the 27th of February 1821. Educated Geologische Formationskunde 1891 (2nd ed., 1902), and i. Allgemeine privately and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to Geologie (1893), vol. ii. (the volume first issued) was translated and the bar at the Inner Temple in 1848. He was appointed judge edited by Pa Lake, 1893, under the title Textbook of Comparative of the Salford Hundred court of record in 1862 and in 1869 was Geology. Another work is Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fauna der Siegenschen Grauwacke (1892). made a queen's counsel. He is best known for a series of works on the social condition of the poor in France, Switzerland, KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS, BART. Holland, Germany and Austria, the materials for which he (1804-1877), English politician and educationalist, was born at gathered on a four years' tour as travelling bachelor of his Rochdale, Lancashire, on the 20th of July 1804, the son of university. They were The Education of the Poor in England Robert Kay. At first engaged in a Rochdale bank, in 1824 he and Europe (London, 1846); The Social Condition of the People became a medical student at Edinburgh University. Settling in England and Europe (London, 1850, 2 vols.); The Condition in Manchester about 1827, he worked for the Ancoats and and Education of Poor Children in English and in German Towns Ardwick Dispensary, and the experience which he thus gained (Manchester, 1853). He was also the author of The Law relating of the conditions of the poor in the Lancashire factory districts, to Shipmasters and Seamen (London, 1875) and Free Trade in together with his interest in economic science, led to his appoint- Land (1879, with a memoir). He died at Dorking, Surrey, on ment in 1835 as poor law commissioner in Norfolk and Suffolk the 9th of October 1878. and later in the London districts. In 1839 he was appointed KAYAK, or ÇAYAK, an Eskimo word for a fishing boat, in first secretary of the committee formed by the Privy Council common use from Greenland to Alaska. It has been erroneously to administer the Government grant for the public education derived from the Arabic caique, supposed to have been applied in Great Britain. He is remembered as having founded at to the native boats by early explorers. The boat is made by Battersea, London, in conjunction with E. Carleton Tufnell, the covering a light wooden framework with sealskin. A hole is first training college for school teachers (1839-1840); and the pierced in the centre of the top of the boat, and the kayaker (also system of national school education of the present day, with its dressed in sealskin) laces himself up securely when seated to public inspection, trained teachers and its support by state as prevent the entrance of water. The kayak is propelled like a well as local funds, is largely due to his initiative. In 1842 he canoe by a double-bladed paddle. The name kayak is properly married Lady Janet Shuttleworth, assuming by royal licence his only applied to the boat used by an Eskimo man--that used by bride's name and arms. A breakdown in his health led him to a woman is called an umiak. resign his post on the committee in 1849, but subsequent KAYASTH, the writer caste of Northern India, especially recovery enabled him to take an active part in the working of numerous and influential in Bengal. In 1901 their total the central relief committee instituted under Lord Derby, number in all India was more than two millions. Their claim during the Lancashire cotton famine of 1861-1865. He was to be Kshattriyas who have taken to clerical work is not admitted created a baronet in 1849. Until the end of his life he interested by the Brahmans. Under Mahommedan rule they learnt himself in the movements of the Liberal party in Lancashire, Persian, and filled many important offices. They are now and the progress of education. He died in London on the 26th eager students of English, and have supplied not only several of May 1877. His Physiology, Pathology and Treatment of judges to the high court but also the first Hindu to be a member Asphyxia became a standard textbook, and he also wrote of the governor-general's council. In Bombay their place is numerous papers on public education. taken by the Prabhus, and in Assam by the Kalitas (Kolitas); His son, Sir Ughtred James Kay-Shuttleworth (b. 1844), in Southern India there is no distinct clerical caste. became a well-known Liberal politician, sitting in parliament !: KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1814–1876), English military for Hastings from 1869 to 1880 and for the Clitheroe division of historian, was the son of Charles Kaye, a solicitor, and was Lancashire from 1885 till 1902, when he was created Baron educated at Eton and the Royal Military College, Addiscombe. Shuttleworth. He was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster From 1832 to 1841 he was an officer in the Bengal Artillery, in 1886, and secretary to the Admiralty in 1892–1895. afterwards spending some years in literary pursuits both in KAZALA, or KAZALINSK, a fort and town in the Russian India and in England. In 1856 he entered the civil service of province of Syr-darya in West Turkestan, at the point where the East India Company, and when the government of India the Kazala River falls into the Syr-darya, about 50 m. from its was transferred to the British crown succeeded John Stuart mouth in Lake Aral, in 45° 45' N. and 62° 7' E.," at the junc- Mill as secretary of the political and secret department of the tion,” to quote Schuyler, "of all the trade routes in Central India office, In 1871 he was made a K.C.S.I. He died in Asia, as the road from Orenburg meets here with the Khiva, London on the 24th of July 1876. Kaye's numerous writings Bokhara and Tashkent roads." Besides carrying on an active include History of the Sepoy War in India (London, 1864–1876), trade with the Kirghiz of the surrounding country, it is of which was revised and continued by Colonel G. B. Malleson and growing importance in the general current of commerce. Pop. published in six volumes in 1888–1889; History of the War in (1897), 7600. The floods in the river make it an island in Afghanistan (London, 1851), republished in 1858 and 1874; spring; in summer it is parched by the sun and hot winds, and Administration of the East India Company (London, 1853); The hardly a tree can be got to grow. The streets are wide, but the Life and Correspondence of Charles, Lord Metcalfe (London, 1854); houses, as well as the fairly strong fort, are built of mud bricks. The Life and Correspondence of Henry St George Tucker (London, KAZAÑ, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by the 1854); Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm (London, governments of Vyatka, Ufa, Samara, Simbirsk, Nizhniy- 1856); Christianity in India (London, 1859); Lives of Indian Novgorod and Kostroma. Area 24,601 sq. m. It belongs to Oficers (London, 1867); and two novels, Peregrine Pultney and the basins of the Volga and its tributary the Kama, and by these Long engagements. ' He also édited several works dealing with streams the government is divided into three regions; the first, Indian affairs; wrote Essays of an Optimist (London, 1870); and to the right of the main river, is traversed by deep ravines was a frequent contributor to periodicals. sloping to the north-east, towards the Volga, and by two ranges KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL (1845- ), of hills, one of which (300 to 500 ft.) skirts the river; the second German geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Königsberg, region, between the left bank of the Volga and the left bank of on the 26th of March 1845. He was educated at Berlin where he the Kama, is an open steppe; and the third, between the left took his degree of Ph.D. in 1870. In 1882 he became professor bank of the Volga and the right bank of the Kama, resembles in of geology in the university at Marburg. He investigated its eastern part the first region, and in its western part is covered fossils of various ages and from all parts of the world, but more with forest, Marls, limestones and sandstones, of Permian or especially from the Palaeozoic formations, including those of l Triassic age, are the principal rocks; the Jurassic formation " 704 KAZAN-KAZINCZY appears in a small part of the Tetyúshi district in the south; and | Terrible. The central parts of the city consist principally of Tertiary rocks stretch along the left bank of the Volga. Mineral small one-storeyed houses, surrounded by gardens, and are springs (iron, sulphur and petroleum) exist in several places. inhabited chiefly by Russians, while some 20,000 Tatars dwell The Volga iš navigable throughout its course of 200 m. through in the suburbs. Kazañ is, further, the intellectual centre of Kazan, as well as the Kama (120 m.); and the Vyatka, Kazanka, the Russian Mahommedans, who have here their more important Rutka, Tsivyl, Greater Kokshaga, Ilet, Vetluga and Mesha, are schools and their printing-presses. Between the city and the not without value as waterways. About four hundred small Volga is the Admiralty suburb, where Peter the Great had his lakes are enumerated within the government; the upper and Caspian fleet built for his campaigns against Persia. The more lower Kaban supply the city of Kazañ with water. important manufactures are leather goods, soap, wax candles, The climate is severe, the annual mean temperature being sacred images, cloth, cottons, spirits and bells. A considerable 37.8° F. The rainfall amounts to 16 in. Agriculture is the trade is carried on with eastern Russia, and with Turkestan and chief occupation, and 82% of the population are peasants. Out Persia. Previous to the 13th century, the present government of 7,672,600 acres of arable land, 4,516,500 are under crops- of Kazan formed part of the territory of the Bulgarians, the ruins chiefly rye and oats, with some wheat, barley, buckwheat, of whose ancient capital, Bolgari or Bolgary, lie 60 m. S. of Kazañ. lentils, ilax, hemp and potatoes. But there generally results The city of Kazañ itself stood, down to the 13th century, 30 m. great scarcity, and even famine, in bad years. Live stock are to the N.E., where traces of it can still be seen. In 1438 Ulugh numerous. Forests cover 35% of the total area. Bee-keeping Mahommed (or Ulu Makhmet), khan of the Golden Horde of is an important industry. Factories employ about 10,000 the Mongols, founded, on the ruins of the Bulgarian state, the persons and include flour-mills, distilleries, factories for soap, kingdom of Kazan, which in its turn was destroyed by Ivan the candles and tallow, and tanneries. A great variety of petty Terrible of Russia in 1552 and its territory annexed to Russia. trades, especially those connected with wood, are carried on in In 1774 the city was laid waste by the rebel Pugachev. It has the villages, partly for export. The fairs are well attended. suffered repeatedly from fires, especially in 1815 and 1825. The There is considerable shipping on the Volga, Kama, Vyatka and Kazan Tatars, from having lived so long amongst Russians and their tributaries. Kazañ is divided into twelve districts. The Finnish tribes, have lost a good many of the characteristic chief town is Kazan (q.v.). The district capitals, with their features of their Tatar (Mongol) ancestry, and bear now the populations in 1897 are: Cheboksary (4568), Chistopol (20,161), stamp of a distinct ethnographic type. They are found also in Kozmodemyansk (5212), Laishev (5439), Mamadyzh (4213), the neighbouring governments of Vyatka, Ufa, Orenburg, Spask (2779), Sviyazhsk (2363), Tetyushi (4754), Tsarevokok- Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhniy-Novgorod. shaisk (1654), Tsivylsk (2337) and Yadrin (2467). Population They are intelligent and enterprising, and are engaged princi- (1879), 1,872,437; (1897), 2,190,185, of whom 1,113,555 were pally in trade. women, and 176,396 lived in towns. The estimated population See Pineghin's Kazañ Old and New (in Russian); Velyaminov- in 1906 was 2,504,400. It consists principally of Russians Zernov's Kasimov Tsars (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-1866); Zarinsky's and Tatars, with a variety of Finno-Turkish tribes: Chuvashes, Sketches of Old Kazañ (Kazan, 1877); Trofimov's Siege of Kazañ in Cheremisses, Mordvinians, Votyaks, Mescheryaks, and some population (Kazan, 1864 and 1869); and Shpilevski, on the antiqui- 1552 (Kazan, 1890); Firsov's books on the history of the native Jews and Poles. The Russians belong to the Orthodox Greek ties of the town and government, in Izvestic i Zapiski of the Kazan Church or are Nonconformists; the Tatars are Mussulmans; and University (1877). Á þibliography of the Oriental books published the Finno-Turkish tribes are either pagans or belong officially to in the city is printed in Bulletins of the St Petersburg Academy the Orthodox Greek Church, the respective proportions being (1867), Compare also L. Leger's “ Kazañ et les tartares," in Bibl. Univ. de Genève (1874). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) (in 1897): Orthodox Greek, 69.4% of the whole; Noncon- formists, 1%; Mussulmans, 28.8%. (P.A. K.; J. T. Be.) KĀZERŪN, a district and town of the province of Fars in | KAZAÑ (called by the Cheremisses Ozon), a town of eastern Persia. The district is situated between Shiraz and Bushire. Russia, capital of the government of the same name, situated in its centre is the Kāzerün Valley with a direction N.W. to in 55° 48' N. and 49° 26'' E., on the river Kazanka, 3 m. from the S.E., a fertile plain 30 m. long and 7 to 8 m. broad, bounded S.E. Volga, which however reaches the city when it overflows its by the Parishān Lake (8 m. long, 3 m. broad) N.W. by the banks every spring. Kazañ lies 650 m. E. from Moscow by rail Boshavir River, with the ruins of the old city of Beh-Shahpur and 253 E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the Volga. Pop. (1883), (Beshāver, Boshāvir, also, short, Shäpūr) and Sassanian bas- 140,726; (1900), 143,707, all Russians except for some 20,000 reliefs on its banks. There also, in a cave, is a statue of Shapur. Tatars. The most striking feature of the city is the kreml or The remainder of the district is mostly hilly country intersected citadel, founded in 1437, which crowns a low hill on the N.W. by numerous streams, plains and hills being covered with Within its wall, capped with five towers, it contains several zizyphus, wild almond and oak. The district is divided into churches, amongst them the cathedral of the Annunciation, two divisions: town and villages, the latter being called Kuh i founded in 1562 by Gury, the first archbishop of Kazan, Kazañ Marreh and again subdivided into (1) Pusht i Kuh; (2) Yarrūk; being an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church. (3) Shakān. It has forty-six villages and a population of about Other buildings in the kreml are a magnificent monastery, built 15,000, it produces rice of excellent quality, cotton, tobacco and in 1556; an arsenal; the modern castle in which the governor opium, but very little corn, and bread made of the flour of acorns resides; and the red brick Suyumbeka tower, 246 ft. high, which is a staple of food in many villages. Wild almonds are exported. is an object of great veneration to the Tatars as the reputed Kāzerūn, the chief place of the district, is an unwalled town burial-place of one of their saints. A little E. of the kreml is situated in the midst of the central plain, in 29° 37' N., 51° 43' E. the Bogoroditski convent, built in 1579 for the reception of the at an elevation of 2800 ft., 70 m. from Shiraz, and 96 m. from Black Virgin of Kazan, a miracle-working image transferred to Bushire. It has a population of about 8000, and is divided Moscow in 1612, and in St Petersburg since 1710. Kazañ is the into four quarters separated by open spaces. Adjoining it on intellectual capital of eastern Russia, and an important seat of the W. is the famous Nazar garden, with noble avenues of orange Oriental scholarship. Its university, founded in 1804, is attended trees planted by a former governor, Hajji Ali Kuli Khan, in by nearly 1000 students. Attached to it are an excellent 1767. A couple of miles N. of the city behind a low range of library of 220,000 vols., an astronomical observatory, a botanical hills are the imposing ruins of a marble building said to stand garden and various museums. The ecclesiastical academy,' over the grave of Sheik Amin ed din Mahommed b. Zia ed founded in 1846, contains the old library of the Solovetsk din Mas'ûd, who died A.H. 740 (A.D. 1339). S.E. of the city (Solovki) monastery, which is of importance for the history of on a hugh mound are ruins of buildings with underground Russian religious sects. The city is adorned with bronze chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i Gabr, “ castle of the statues of Tsar Alexander II., set up facing the kreml in 1895, fire-worshippers.” and of the poet G. R. Derzhavin (1743-1816); also with a KAZINCZY, FERENCZ (1759-1831), Hungarian author, the monument commemorating the capture of Kazañ by Ivan the most indefatigable agent in the regeneration of the Magyar KAZVIN-KEAN, EDMUND 705 " language and literature at the end of the 18th and beginning of fish and silk are brought to it from Gilan for distribution in the 19th century, was born on the 27th of October 1759, at Persia and export to Turkey. Er-Semlyén, in the county of Bihar, Hungary. He studied law KEAN, EDMUND (1787–1833), was born in London on the at Kassa and Eperies, and in Pest, where he also obtained a 17th of March' 1787. His father was probably Edmund Kean, thorough knowledge of French and German literature, and made an architect's clerk; and his mother was an actress, Ann Carey, the acquaintance of Gideon Ráday, who allowed him the use of grand-daughter of Henry Carey. When in his fourth year his library. In 1784 Kazinczy became subnotary for the county Kean made his first appearance on the stage as Cupid in Noverre's of Abaúj; and in 1786 he was nominated inspector of schools at ballet of Cymon. As a child his vivacity and cleverness, and Kassa. There he began to devote himself to the restoration of his ready affection for those who treated him with kindness, the Magyar language and literature by translations from classical made him a universal favourite, but the harsh circumstances foreign works, and by the augmentation of the native vocabulary of his lot, and the want of proper restraint, while they developed from ancient Magyar sources. In 1788, with the assistance of strong self-reliance, fostered wayward tendencies. About 1794 Baróti Szabó and John Bacsányi, he started at Kassa the first a few benevolent persons provided the means of sending him to Magyar literary magazine, Magyar Muzeum; the Orpheus, which school, where he mastered his tasks with remarkable ease and succeeded it in 1790, was his own creation. Although, upon rapidity; but finding the restraint intolerable, he shipped as a the accession of Leopold II., Kazinczy, as a non-Catholic, was cabin boy at Portsmouth. Discovering that he had only escaped obliged to resign his post at Kassa, his literary activity in no to a more rigorous bondage, he counterfeited both deafness and way decreased. He not only assisted Gideon Ráday in the lameness with a histrionic mastery which deceived even the establishment and direction of the first Magyar dramatic society, physicians at Madeira. On his return to England he sought the but enriched the repertoire with several translations from foreign protection of his uncle Moses Kean, mimic, ventriloquist and authors. His Hamlet, which first appeared at Kassa in 1790, is general entertainer, who, besides continuing his pantomimic a rendering from the German version of Schröder. Implicated studies, introduced him to the study of Shakespeare. At the in the democratic conspiracy of the abbot Martinovics, Kazinczy same time Miss Tidswell, an actress who had been specially kind was arrested on the 14th of December 1794, and condemned to to him from infancy, taught him the principles of acting. On death; but the sentence was commuted to imprisonment. He the death of his uncle he was taken charge of by Miss Tidswell, was released in 1801, and shortly afterwards married Sophia and under her direction he began the systematic study of the Török, daughter of his former patron, and retired to his small principal Shakespearian characters, displaying the peculiar estate at Széphalom or “ Fairhill,” near Sátor-Ujhely, in the originality of his genius by interpretations entirely different county of Zemplén. In 1828 he took an active part in the from those of Kemble. His talents and interesting countenance conferences held for the establishment of the Hungarian academy induced a Mrs Clarke to adopt him, but the slight of a visitor so in the historical section of which he became the first correspond wounded his pride that he suddenly left her house and went back ing member. He died of Asiatic cholera, at Széphalom, on the to his old surroundings. In his fourteenth year he obtained an 22nd of August 1831. engagement to play leading characters for twenty nights in York Theatre, appearing as Hamlet, Hastings and Cato. Shortly Kazinczy, although possessing great beauty of style, cannot be regarded as a powerful and original thinker; his fame is chiefly due afterwards, while he was in the strolling troupe belonging to to the felicity of his translations from the masterpieces of Lessing, Richardson's show, the rumour of his abilities reached George Goethe, Wieland, Klopstock, Ossian, La Rochefoucauld, Marmontel, III., who commanded him to recite at Windsor. He subse- Molière, Metastasio, Shakespeare, Sterne, Cicero, Sallust, Anacreon, quently joined Saunders's circus, where in the performance of an and many others. He also edited the works of Baróczy (Pest, 1812, 8 vols.), and of the poet Zrinyi (1817, 2 vols.), and the poems of equestrian feat he fell and broke his legs—the accident leaving Dayka (1813, 3 vols.) and of John Kis, (1815, 3 vols.). A collective traces of swelling in his insteps throughout his life. About edition of his works (Szép Literatura), consisting for the most part of this time he picked up music from Charles Incledon, dancing translations, was published at Pest, 1814-1816, in 9 vols. His origi- from D'Egville, and fencing from Angelo. In 1807 he played nal productions (Eredeti Mukái), largely made up of letters, were leading parts in the Belfast theatre with Mrs Siddons, who began edited by Joseph Bajza and Francis Toldy at Pest, 1836–1845, in 5 vols. Editions of his poems appeared in 1858 and in 1863. by calling him“ a horrid little man " and on further experience of his ability said that he " played very, very well,” but that KAZVIN, a province and town of Persia. The province is “there was too little of him to make a great actor.” An engage situated N.W. of Teheran and S. of Gilan. On the W. it is ment in 1808 to play leading characters in Beverley's provincial bounded by Khamseh. It pays a yearly revenue of about troupe was brought to an abrupt close by his marriage £22,000, and contains many rich villages which produce much (July 17) with Miss Mary Chambers of Waterford, the leading grain and fruit, great quantities of the latter being dried and actress. For several years his prospects were very gloomy, but exported. in 1814 the committee of Drury Lane theatre, the fortunes of Kazvin, the capital of the province, is situated at an elevation which were then so low that bankruptcy seemed inevitable, of 4165 ft., in 36° 15' N. and 50° E., and 92 m. by road from resolved to give him a chance among the “ experiments” they Teheran. The city is said to have been founded in the 4th were making to win a return of popularity. When the expecta- century by the Sassanian king Shapur II (309–379). It has been tion of his first appearance in London was close upon him he was repeatedly damaged by earthquakes. Many of its streets and so feverish that he exclaimed “If I succeed I shall go mad.” most of the magnificent buildings seen there by Chardin in 1674 His opening at Drury Lane on the 26th of January 1814 as Shy- and other travellers during the 17th century are in ruins. The lock roused the audience to almost uncontrollable enthusiasm. most remarkable remains are the palace of the Safawid shahs and Successive appearances in Richard III., Hamlet, Othello, Mac- the mosque with its large blue dome. In the 16th century Shah beth and Lear served to demonstrate his complete mastery of Tahmasp I. (1524-1576) made Kazvin his capital, and it re- the whole range of tragic emotion. His triumph was so great mained so till Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) transferred the seat that he himself said on one occasion, “I could not feel the stage of government to Isfahán. The town still bears the title Dar es under me.” On the 29th of November 1820 Kean appeared Salteneh, “the seat of government." Kazvin has many baths for the first time in New York as Richard III. The success of his and cisterns fed by underground canals. The system of irriga- visit to America was unequivocal, although he fell into a vexa- tion formerly carried on by these canals rendered the plain of tious dispute with the press. On the 4th of June 1821 he Kazvin one of the most fertile regions in Persia; now most of the returned to England. canals are choked up. The city has a population of about 1 This date is apparently settled by a letter from Kean in 1829, 50,000 and a thriving transit trade, particularly since 1899 when to Dr Gibson (see Rothesay Express for the 28th of June 1893, the carriage road between Resht and Teheran with Kazvin as a where the letter is printed and vouched for), inviting him to dinner half-way stage was opened under the auspices of the Russian on the 17th of March to celebrate Kean's birthday; various other dates have been given in books of reference, the 4th of November “ Enzeli-Teheran Road Company." Great quantities of rice, having been formerly accepted by this Encyclopaedia. < 706 KEANE Probably his irregular habits were prejudicial to the refinement | round him off and he will be a perfect tragedian." Macready, of his taste, and latterly they tended to exaggerate his special who was much impressed by Kean's Richard III. and met the defects and mannerisms. The adverse decision in the divorce actor at supper, speaks of his. “ unassuming. manner ... para case of Cox v. Kean on the 17th of January 1825 caused his wife taking in some degree of shyness "and of the “ touching grace to leave him, and aroused against him such bitter feeling, shown of his singing. Kean's delivery of the three words “ I answer by the almost riotous conduct of the audiences before which he NO!” in the part of Sir Edward Mortimer in The Iron Chest, appeared about this time, as nearly to compel him to retire per- cast Macready into an abyss of despair at rivalling him in this manently into private life. A second visit to America in 1825 rôle. So full of dramatic interest is the life of Edmund Kean was largely a repetition of the persecution which, in the name of that it formed the subject for a play by the elder Dumas, entitled morality, he had suffered in England. Some cities showed him Kean on désordre et génie, in which Frederick-Lemaître achieved a spirit of charity; many audiences submitted him to the grossest one of his greatest triumphs. insults and endangered his life by the violence of their disapproval. See Francis Phippen, Authentic Memoirs of Edmund Kean (1814); In Quebec he was much impressed with the kindness of some B. W. Procter (Barry Cornwall), The Life of Edmund Kean (1835); Huron Indians who attended his performances, and he was made Fi W. Hawkins, The Life of Edmund Kean (1869): J. Fitzgerald chief of the tribe, receiving the name Alanienouidet. Kean's last Molloy, The Life and Adventures of Edmund Kean" (1888); Edward appearance in New York was on the 5th of December 1826 in Stirling, Old Drury Lane (1887). Richard III., the rôle in which he was first seen in America. He His son, CHARLES JOHN KEAN (1811-1868), was born at Water. returned to England and was ultimately received with all the old ford, Ireland, on the 18th of January 1811. After preparatory favour, but the contest had made him so dependent on the use of education at Worplesdon and at Greenford, near Harrow, he was stimulants that the gradual deterioration of his gifts was inevit- sent to Eton College, where he remained three years. In 1827 able. Still, even in their decay his great powers triumphed during he was offered a cadetship in the East India Company's service, the moments of his inspiration over the absolute wreck of his which he was prepared to accept if his father would settle an physical faculties, and compelled admiration after his gait had income of £400 on his mother. The elder Kean refused to do degenerated into a weak hobble, and the lightning brilliancy of his this, and his son determined to become an actor. He made his eyes had become dull and bloodshot, and the tones of his match- first appearance at Drury Lane on the ist of October 1827 as less voice marred by rough and grating hoarseness. His appear- | Norval in Home's Douglas, but his continued failure to achieve ance in Paris was a failure owing to a fit of drunkenness. His popularity led him to leave London in the spring of 1828 for the last appearance on the stage was at Covent Garden, on the 25th provinces. At Glasgow, on the ist of October in this year, of March 1833 when he played Othello to the lago of his son father and son acted together in Arnold Payne's Brutus, the Charles. At the words “Villain, be sure,” in scene 3 of act iii., elder Kean in the title-part and his son as Titus. After a visit he suddenly broke down, and crying in a faltering voice O to America in 1830, where he was received with much favour, he God, I am dying. Speak to them, Charles,” fell insensible into appeared in 1833 at Covent Garden as Sir Edmund Mortimer in his son's arms. He died at Richmond on the 15th of May Colman's The Iron Chest, but his success was not pronounced 1833 enough to encourage him to remain in London, especially as he It was in the impersonation of the great creations of Shake- had already won a high position in the provinces. In January speare's genius that the varied beauty and grandeur of the acting 1838, however, he returned to Drury Lane, and played Hamlet of Kean were displayed in their highest form, although probably with a success which gave him a place among the principal his most powerful character was Sir Giles Overreach in Massinger's tragedians of his time. He was married to the actress Ellen A New Way to Pay Old Debts, the effect of his first impersonation Tree (1805–1880) on the 29th of January 1842, and paid a of which was such that the pit rose en masse, and even the actors second visit to America with her from 1845 to 1847. Returning and actresses themselves were overcome by the terrific dramatic to England, he entered on a successful engagement at the Illusion. His only personal disadvantage as an actor was his Haymarket, and in 1850, with Robert Keeley, became lessee small stature. His countenance was strikingly interesting and of the Princess Theatre. The most noteworthy feature of his unusually mobile; he had a matchless command of facial expres-management was a series of gorgeous Shakespearian revivals. sion; his fine eyes scintillated with the slightest shades of emo- Charles Kean was not a great tragic actor. He did all that tion and thought; his voice, though weak and harsh in the upper could be done by the persevering cultivation of his powers, register, possessed in its lower range tones of penetrating and and in many ways manifested the possession of high intelligence resistless power, and a thrilling sweetness like the witchery of the and refined taste, but his defects of person and voice made it finest music; above all, in the grander moments of his passion, impossible for him to give a representation at all adequate of his intellect and soul seemed to rise beyond material barriers the varying and subtle emotions of pure tragedy. But in and to glorify physical deiects with their own greatness. Kean melodramatic parts such as the king in Boucicault's adaptation specially excelled as the exponent of passion. In Othello, Iago, of Casimir Delavigne's Louis XI., and Louis and Fabian dei Shylock and Richard III., characters utterly different from each Franchi in Boucicault's adaptation of Dumas's The Corsican other, but in which the predominant element is some form of Brothers, his success was complete. From his “tour round the passion, his identification with the personality, as he had con- world ” Kean returned in 1866 in broken health, and died in ceived it, was as nearly as possible perfect, and each isolated London on the 22nd of January 1868. phase and aspect of the plot was elaborated with the minutest See The Life and Theatrical Times of Charles Kean, by John attention to details, and yet with an absolute subordination of William Cole (1859). these to the distinct individuality he was endeavouring to portray. KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH (1839– ), American Roman Coleridge said, “ Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare Catholic archbishop, was born in Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal, by flashes of lightning." If the range of character in which Ireland, on the 12th of September 1839. His family settled in Kcan attained supreme excellence was narrow, no one except America when he was seven years old. He was educated at Garrick has been so successful in so many great impersonations. Saint Charles's College, Ellicott City, Maryland, and at Saint Unlike Garrick, he had no true talent for comedy, but in the ex- Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, and in 1866 was ordained a priest pression of biting and saturnine wit, of grim and ghostly gaiety, and made curate of St Patrick's, Washington, D.C. On the he was unsurpassed. His eccentricities at the height of his fame. 25th of August 1878 he was consecrated Bishop of Richmond, Sometimes he would ride recklessly on his horse to succeed James Gibbons, and he had established the Con. Shylock throughout the night. He was presented with a tame fraternity of the Holy Ghost in that diocese, and founded schools lion with which he might be found playing in his drawing-room. and churches for negroes before his appointment as rector of the The prizefighters Mendoza and Richmond the Black were among Catholic University, Washington, D.C., in 1886, and his appoint- his visitors. Grattan was his devoted friend. In his earlier days ment in 1888 to the sèe of Ajasso. He did much to upbuild Talma said of him,“ He is a magnificent uncut gem; polish and the Catholic University, but his democratic and liberal policy ( were numerous. KEARNEY-KEATE 707 a made him enemies at Rome, whence there came in 1896 a request | the American Civil War he lived in Paris, but early in 1861 he for his resignation of the rectorate, and where he spent the years hastened home to join the Federal army. At first as a brigade 1897-1900 as canon of St John Lateran, assistant bishop at the commander and later as a divisional commander of infantry in pontifical throne, and counsellor to the Propaganda. In 1900 he the Army of the Potomac, he infused into his men his own cavalry was consecrated archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa.' He took' a' spirit of dash and bravery. At Williamsburg, Seven Pines, prominent part in the Catholic Young Men's National Union and and Second Bull Run, he displayed his usual romantic courage, in the Total Abstinence Union of North America; and was in but at Chantilly (Sept. 1, 1862), after repulsing an attack of general charge of the Catholic delegation to the World's Parlia- the enemy, he rode out in the dark too far to the front, and mis- ment of Religions held at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. taking the Confederates for his own men was shot dead. His He lectured widely on temperance, education and American body was sent to the Federal lines with a message from General institutions, and in 1890 was Dudleian lecturer at Harvard Lee, and was buried in Trinity Churchyard, New York. His University. -commission as major-general of volunteers was dated July 4u A selection from his writings and addresses was edited by Maurice 1862, but he never received it. Francis Egan under the title Onward and Upward: A Year Book (Baltimore, 1902). See J. W. de Peyster, Personal and Military History of Philip KEARNEY, a city and the county-seat of Buffalo county, Kearny (New York, 1869). Nebraska, U.S.A., about 130 m. W. of Lincoln. Pop. (1890), between the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, adjoining Harrison, KEARNY, a town of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., 8074; (1900), 5634 (650 foreign-born); (1910), 6202. It is on the main overland line of the Union Pacific, and on a branch of and connected with Newark by bridges over the Passaic. Pop. the Burlington & Missouri River railroad. The city is situated (1900), 10,896, of whom 3597 were foreign-born; (1910 census), in the broad, flat bottom-lands a short distance N. of the Platte 18,659. The New York & Greenwood Lake division of the Erie River. Lake Kearney, in the city, has an area of 40 acres. The railroad has a station at Arlington, the principal village (in the surrounding region is rich farming land, devoted especially to N.W; part), which contains attractive residences of Newark, the growing of alfalfa and Indian corn. At Kearney are a Jersčy City and New York City business men. The town covers State Industrial School for boys, a State Normal School, the an area of about 7 sq. m., including a large tract of marsh-land. Kearney Military Academy, and a Carnegie library. Good In Kearny are railway repair shops of the Pennsylvania system, water-power is provided by a canal from the Platte River and a large abattoir; and there are numerous manufactures. about 17 m. above Kearney, and the city's manufactures include The value of the town's factory products increased from foundry and machine-shop products, flour and bricks. Kearney $1,607,002 in 1900 to $4,427,904 in 1905, or 175.5%. Among Junction, as Kearney was called from 1872 to 1875, was settled its institutions are the State Soldiers' Home, removed here a year before the two railways actually formed their junction from Newark in 1880, a Carnegie library, two Italian homes for here or the city was platted. Kearney became a town in 1873, orphaps, and a Catholic Industrial School for boys. a city of the second class and the county seat in 1874, and a city The neck of land between the Passaic and the Hackensack of the first class in 1901. It is to be distinguished from an older rivers, for 7 m. N. from where they unite, was purchased from and once famous prairie city, popularly known as“ Dobey Town” the proprietors of East Jersey and from the Indians by Captain (i.e. Adobe), founded in the early 'fifties on the edge of the reser- William Sandford in 1668 and through Nathaniel Kingsland, vation of old Fort Kearney (removed in 1848 from Nebraska sergeant-major of Barbadoes, received the name New Bar- City), in Kearney county, on the S. shore of the Platte about badoes.” After the town under this name had been extended 6 m. S.E. of the present Kearney; here in 1861 the post office of considerably to the northward, the town of Lodi was formed out Kearney City was established. In the days of the prairie freight of the S. portion in 1825, the town of Harrison was founded out ing caravans Dobey Town was one of the most important towns of the S. portion of Lodi in 1840, and in 1867 a portion of Harrison between Independence, Missouri, and the Pacific coast, and it had was set apart as a township and named in honour of General a rough, wild, picturesque history; but it lost its immense Philip Kearny, a former resident. Kearny was incorporated as freighting interests after the Union Pacific had been extended a town in 1895. through it in 1866. The site of Dobey Town, together with the KEARY, ANNIE (1825-1879), English novelist, was born near Fort, was abandoned in 1871. Fort Kearney and the city too Wctherby, Yorkshire, on the 3rd of March 1825, the daughter were named in honour of General Stephen W. Kearny, and the of an Irish clergyman. She was the author of several children's name was at first correctly spelt without a second "e". books and novels, of which the best known is Castle Daly, an KEARNY, PHILIP (1815-1862), Arnerican soldier, was born Irish story. She also wrote an Early Egyptian History (1861) in New York on the 2nd of June 1815, and was originally in- and The Nation Around (1870). She died at Eastbourne on the tended for the legal profession. He graduated at Columbia Uni- 3rd of March 1879. versity (1833), but his bent was decidedly towards soldiering, KEATE, JOHN (1773-1852), English schoolmaster, was born and in 1837 he obtained a commission in the cavalry regiment of at Wells, Somersetshire, in 1773, the son of Prebendary William which his uncle, (General) Stephen Watts Kearny (1794-1848), Keate. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cam- was colonel and Lieutenant Jefferson Davis adjutant. Two years bridge, where he had a brilliant career as a scholar; taking holy later he was sent to France to study the methods of cavalry orders, he became, about 1797, an assistant master at Eton training in vogue there. Before his return to the United States College. In 1809 he was elected headmaster. The discipline in 1840 he had served, on leave, in Algeria. He had of the school was then in a most unsatisfactory condition, and inherited a large fortune, but he remained in the service, and his Dr Keate (who took the degree of D.D. in 1810) took stern wide experience of cavalry work caused him to be employed on measures to improve it. His partiality for the birch became a the headquarters staff of the army. After six more years' service by-word, but he succeeded in restoring order and strengthening Kearny left the army, but almost immediately afterwards he the weakened authority of the masters. Beneath an outwardly rejoined, bringing with him a company of cavalry, which he had rough manner the little man concealed a really kind heart, and raised and equipped chiefly at his own expense, to take part in when he retired in 1834, the boys, who admired his courage, the Mexican war. In December 1846 he was promoted captain. presented him with a handsome testimonial. A couple of years In leading a brilliant cavalry charge at Churubusco he lost his before he had publicly flogged eighty boys on one day. Keate left arm, but he remained at the front, and won the brevet of was made a canon of Windsor in 1820. He died on the 5th major for his gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco. In 1851 of March 1852 at Hartley Westpall, Hampshire, of which parish he again resigned, to travel round the world. He saw further he had been rector since 1824. active service with his old comrades of the French cavalry in the Italian war of 1859, and received the cross of the Legion of Eloniana; Harwood, Alumni Etonienses; Annual Register (1852); See Maxwell Lyte, History of Eton College (3rd ed., 1899); Collins, Honour for his conduct at Solferino. Up to the outbreak of Gentleman's Magazine (1852). 66 708 KEATS KEATS, JOHN (1795-1821), English poet, was born on the side. But if it must be said that he lived long enough only to 29th or 31st of October 1795 at the sign of the Swan and Hoop, give promise of being a man, it must also be said that he lived 24 The Pavement, Moorfields, London. He published his first long enough to give assurance of being a poet who was not born volume of verse in 1817, his second in the following year, his to come short of the first rank. Not even a hint of such a prob- third in 1820, and died of consumption at Rome on the 23rd of ability could have been gathered from his first or even from his February 1821 in the fourth month of his twenty-sixth year. second appearance; after the publication of his third volume it (For the biographical facts see the later section of this article.) was no longer a matter of possible debate among judges of In Keats's first book there was little foretaste of anything tolerable competence that this improbability had become a greatly or even genuinely good; but between the marshy and certainty. Two or three phrases cancelled, two or three lines sandy flats of sterile or futile verse there were undoubtedly erased, would have left us in Lamia one of the most faultless as some few purple patches of floral promise. The style was fre- surely as one of the most glorious jewels in the crown of English quently detestable-a mixture of shạm Spenserian and mock poetry. Isabella, feeble and awkward in narrative to a degree Wordsworthian, alternately florid and arid. His second book, almost incredible in a student of Dryden and a pupil of Leigh Endymion, rises in its best passages to the highest level of Barn- Hunt, is overcharged with episodical effects of splendid and field and of Lodge, the two previous poets with whom, had he pathetic expression beyond the reach of either. The Eve of published nothing more, he might most properly have been St Agnes, aiming at no doubtful success, succeeds in evading classed; and this, among minor minstrels, is no unenviable place. all casual difficulty in the line of narrative; with no shadow of His third book raised him at once to a foremost rank in the high- pretence to such interest as may be derived from stress of inci. est class of English poets. Shelley, up to twenty, had written dent or depth of sentiment, it stands out among all other famous little or nothing that would have done credit to a boy of ten; and poems as a perfect and unsurpassable study in pure colour and of Keats also it may be said that the merit of his work at twenty- clear melody-a study in which the figure of Madeline brings five was hardly by comparison more wonderful than its demerit back upon the mind's eye, if only as moonlight recalls a sense of at twenty-two. His first book fell as flat as it deserved to fall; sunshine, the nuptial picture of Marlowe's Hero and the sleeping the reception of his second, though less considerate than on the presence of Shakespeare's Imogen. Beside this poem should whole it deserved, was not more contemptuous than that of always be placed the less famous but not less precious Eve of St immeasurably better books published about the same time Mork, a fragment unexcelled for the simple perfection of its by Coleridge, Landor and Shelley. A critic of exceptional perfect simplicity, exquisite alike in suggestion and in accom- carefulness and candour might have noted in the first book so plishment. The triumph of Hyperion is as nearly complete as singular an example of a stork among the cranes as the famous the failure of Endymion; yet Keats never gave such proof of a and notable sonnet on Chapman's Homer; a just judge would marly devotion and rational sense of duty to his art as in his have indicated, a partial advocate might have exaggerated, the resolution to leave this great poem unfinished; not, as we may value of such golden grain amid a garish harvest of tares as the gather from his correspondence on the subject, for the pitiful hymn to Pan and the translation into verse of Titian's Baccha- reason assigned by his publishers, that of discouragement at the nal which glorify the weedy wilderness of Endymion. But the reception given to his former work, but on the solid and reason. hardest thing said of that poem by the Quarterly reviewer was able ground that a Miltonic study had something in its very unconsciously echoed by the future author of Adonais—that scheme and nature too artificial, too studious of a foreign influ- it was all but absolutely impossible to read through; and the ence, to be carried on and carried out at such length as was implied obscener insolence of the “ Blackguard's Magazine,” as Landor by his original design. Fortified and purified as it had been on afterwards very justly labelled it, is explicable though certainly a first revision, when much introductory allegory and much not excusable if we glance back at such a passage as that where tentative effusion of sonorous and superfluous verse had been Endymion exchanges fulsome and liquorish endearments with rigorously clipped down or pruned away, it could not long have the “known unknown from whom his being sips such darling (1) retained spirit enough to support or inform the shadowy body of essence.” Such nauseous and pitiful phrases as these, and cer- a subject so little charged with tangible significance. The faculty tain passages in his correspondence, make us understand the of assimilation as distinguished from imitation, than which there source of the most offensive imputations or insinuations levelled can be no surer or stronger sign of strong and sure original against the writer's manhood; and, while admitting that neither genius, is not more evident in the most Miltonic passages of the his love-letters, nor the last piteous outcries of his wailing and revised Hyperion than in the more Shakespearian passages of the shrieking agony, would ever have been made public by merciful unrevised tragedy which no radical correction could have leftother or respectful editors, we must also admit that, if they ought than radically incorrigible. It is no conventional exaggeration, no never to have been published, it is no less certain that they hyperbolical phrase of flattery with more sound than sense in it, ought never to have been written; that a manful kind of man or to say that in this chaotic and puerile play of Olho the Great there even a manly sort of boy, in his love-making or in his suffering, are such verses as Shakespeare might not without pride have will not howl and snivel after such a lamentable fashion. One signed at the age when he wrote and even at the age when he thing hitherto inexplicable a very slight and rapid glance at his rewrote the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. The dramatic frag- amatory correspondence will amply suffice to explain: how it ment of King Stephen shows far more power of hand and gives came to pass that the woman so passionately beloved by so great far more promise of success than does that of Shelley's Charles a poet should have thought it the hopeless attempt of a mistaken the First. Yet we cannot say with any confidence that even this kindness to revive the memory of a man for whom the best that far from extravagant promise would certainly or probably have could be wished was complete and compassionate oblivion. been kept; it is certain only that Keats in these attempts did at For the side of the man's nature presented to her inspection, this least succeed in showing a possibility of future excellence as a probably was all that charity or reason could haye desired. But tragic or at least a romantic dramatist. In every other line of that there was a finer side to the man, even if considered apart high and serious poetry his triumph was actual and consummate; from the poet, his correspondence with his friends and their here only was it no more than potential or incomplete. As a general evidence to his character give more sufficient proof than ballad of the more lyrical order, La Belle dame sans merci is not perhaps we might have derived from the general impression left less absolutely excellent, less triumphantly perfect in force and on us by his works; though indeed the preface to Endymion clearness of impression, that as a narrative poem is Lamia. In itself, however illogical in its obviously implied suggestion that his lines on Robin Hood, and in one or two other less noticeable the poem published was undeniably unworthy of publication, studies of the kind, he has shown thorough and easy mastery of gave proof or hint at least that after all its author was something the beautiful metre inherited by Fletcher from Barnfield and of a man. And the eighteenth of his letters to Miss Brawne by Milton from Fletcher. The simple force of spirit and style stands out in bright and brave contrast with such as seem in- which distinguishes the genuine ballad manner from all spurious compatible with the traditions of his character on its manlier I attempts at an artificial simplicity was once more at least 1 KEATS 709 achieved in his verses on the crowning creation of Scott's cf October. Thomas Keats was employed in the Swan and humaner and manlier genius-Meg Merrilies. No little injustice Hoop livery stables, Finsbury Pavement, London. He had has been done to Keats by such devotees as fix their mind's eye married his master's daughter, and managed the business on only on the more salient and distinctive notes of a genius which the retirement of his father-in-law. In April 1804 Thomas in fact was very much more various and tentative, less limited Keats was killed by a fall from his horse, and within a year of and peculiar, than would be inferred from an exclusive study of this event Mrs Keats married William Rawlings, a stable- his more specially characteristic work. But within the limits keeper. The marriage proved an unhappy one, and in 1806 Mrs of that work must we look of course for the genuine credentials Rawlings, with her children John, George, Thomas and Frances of his fame; and highest among them we must rate his un- Mary (afterwards Mrs Llanos, d. 1889), went to live at Edmonton equalled and unrivalled odes. Of these perhaps the two nearest with her mother, who had inherited a considerable competence to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and from her husband. There is evidence that Keats's parents were accomplishment of the very, utmost beauty possible to human by no means of the commonplace type that might be hastily words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn; the inferred from these associations. They had desired to send their most radiant, fervent and musical is that to a Nightingale; the sons to Harrow, but John Keats and his two brothers were even- most pictorial and perhaps the tenderest in its ardour of passion- tually sent to a school kept by John Clarke at Enfield, where ate fancy is that to Psyche; the subtlest in sweetness of thought he became intimate with his master's son, Charles Cowden and feeling is that on Melancholy. Greater lyrical poetry the Clarke. His vivacity of temperament showed itself at school in world may have seen than any that is in these; lovelier it a love of fighting, but in the last year of his school life he surely has never seen, nor ever can it possibly see. From the developed a great appetite for reading of all sorts. In 1810 he divine fragment of an unfinished ode to Maia we can but guess left school to be apprenticed to Mr Thomas Hammond, a surgeon that if completed it would have been worthy of a place beside in Edmonton. He was still within easy reach of his old school, the highest. His remaining lyrics have many beauties about where he frequently borrowed books, especially the works of them, but none perhaps can be called thoroughly beautiful. He Spenser and the Elizabethans. With Hammond he quarrelle I has certainly left us one perfect sonnet of the first rank and as before the termination of his apprenticeship, and in 1814 the certainly he has left us but one. connexion was broken by mutual consent. His mother had died Keats has been promoted by modern criticism to a place beside in 1810, and in 1814 Mrs Jennings. The children were left in the Shakespeare. The faultless force and the profound subtlety of care of two guardians, one of whom, Richard Abbey, seems to his deep and cunning instinct for the absolute expression of have made himself solely responsible. John Keats went to absolute natural beauty can hardly be questioned or overlooked; London to study at Guy's and St Thomas's hospitals, living at and this is doubtless the one main distinctive gift or power first alone at 8 Dean Street, Borough, and later with two fellow which denotes him as a poet among all his equals, and gives him students in St Thomas's Street. It does not appear that he a right to rank for ever beside Coleridge and Shelley. As a man, neglected his medical studies, but his chief interest was turned to the two admirers who did best service to his memory were Lord poetry. In March 1816 he came a dresser at Guy's, but about Houghton and Matthew Arnold. These alone, among all of the same time his poetic gifts were stimulated by an acquaintance their day who have written of him without the disadvantage or formed with Leigh Hunt. His friendship with Benjamin advantage of a personal acquaintance, have clearly seen and Haydon, the painter, dates from later in the same year. Hunt shown us the manhood of the man. That ridiculous and degrad-introduced him to Shelley, who showed the younger poet a ing legend which imposed so strangely on the generous tender- constant kindness. In 1816 Keats moved to the Poultry to be ness of Shelley, while evoking the very natural and allowable with his brothers George and Tom, the former of whom was then laughter of Byron, fell to dust at once for ever on the appearance employed in his guardian's counting-house, but much of the of Lord Houghton's biography, which gave perfect proof to all poet's time was spent at Leigh Hunt's cottage at Hampstead. time that “men have died and worms have eaten them" but in the winter of 1816-1817 he definitely abandoned medicine, and not for fear of critics or through suffering inflicted by reviews. in the spring appeared Poems by John Keats dedicated to Leigh Somewhat too sensually sensitive Keats may have been in either Hunt, and published by Charles and James Ollier. On the 14th capacity, but the nature of the man was as far as was the quality of April he left London to find quiet for work.. He spent some of the poet above the pitiful level of a creature whose soul could time at Shanklin, Isle of Wight, then at Margate and Canterbury, let itself be snuffed out by an article "; and, in fact, owing where he was joined by his brother Tom. In the summer the doubtless to the accident of a death which followed so fast on three brothers took lodgings in Well Walk, Hampstead, where his early appearance and his dubious reception as a poet, the Keats formed a fast friendship with Charles Wentworth Dilke and insolence and injustice of his reviewers in general have been com- Charles Armitage Brown. In September of the same year (1817) paratively and even considerably exaggerated. Except from he paid a visit to his friend, Benjamin Bailey, at Oxford, and in the chief fountain-head of professional ribaldry then open in the November he finished Endymion at Burford Bridge, near Dorking. world of literary journalism, no reek of personal insult arose to His youngest brother had developed consumption, and in March offend his nostrils; and the tactics of such unwashed malignants John went to Teignmouth to nurse him in place of his brother were inevitably suicidal; the references to his brief experiment George, who had decided to sail for America with his newly of apprenticeship to a surgeon which are quoted from Blackwood, married wife, Georgiana Wylie. In May (1818) Keats returned in the shorter as well as in the longer memoir by Lord Houghton, to London, and soon after appeared Endymion: A Poetic could leave no bad odour behind them save what might hang Romance (1818), bearing on the title-page as motto “The stretched about men's yet briefer recollection of his assailant's unmemor- metre of an antique song." Late in June Keats and his friend able existence. The false Keats, therefore, whom Shelley pitied Armitage Brown started on a walking tour in Scotland, vividly and Byron despised would have been, had he ever existed, a described in the poet's letters. The fatigue and hardship thing beneath compassion or contempt. That such a man could involved proved too great a strain for Keats, who was forbidden have had such a genius is almost evidently impossible; and yet by an Inverness doctor to continue his tour. He returned to more evident is the proof which remains on everlasting record London by boat, arriving on the 18th of August. The autumn that none was ever further from the chance of decline to such was spent in constant attendance on his brother Tom, who died degradation than the real and actual man who made that name at the beginning of December. There is no doubt that he immortal. (A. C. S.) resented the attacks on him in Blackwood's Magazine (August Subjoined are the chief particulars of Keats's life. 1818), and the Quarterly Review (April 1818, published only in He was the eldest son of Thomas Keats and his wife Frances September), but his chief preoccupations were elsewhere. After Jennings, and was baptized at St Botolph's, Bishopsgate, on his brother's death he went to live with his friend Brown. He the 18th of December 1795. The entry of his baptism is supple- had already made the acquaintance of Fanny Brawne, a girl of mented by a marginal note stating that he was born on the 31st I seventeen, who lived with her mother close by. For her Keats 710 KEBLE 7 : quickly developed a consuming passion. He was in indifferent | English essay and also for the Latin essay. But he was more health, and, owing partly to Mr Abbey's mismanagement, in remarkable for the rare beauty of his character than even for difficulties for money. Nevertheless his best work belongs to this academic distinctions. Sir John Taylor Coleridge, his fellow period. In July 1819 he went to Shanklin, living with James Rice. scholar at Corpus and his life-long friend, says of him, after their They were soon joined by Brown. The next two months Keats friendship of five and fifty years had closed, “ It was the singular spent with Brown at Winchester, enjoying an interval of calm- happiness of his nature, remarkable even in his undergraduate ness due to his absence from Fanny Brawne. At Winchester days, that love for him was always sanctified by reverence- he completed Lamia and Otho the Great, which he had begun in reverence that did not make the love less tender, and love that conjunction with Brown, and began his historical tragedy of did but add intensity to the reverence.' Oriel College was, at King Stephen. Before Christmas he had returned to London the time when Keble became a fellow, the centre of all the finest and his bondage to Fanny. In January 1820 his brother George ability in Oxford. Copleston, Davison, Whately, were aniong paid a short visit to London, but received no confidence from the fellows who elected Keble; Arnold, Pusey, Newman, were him. The fatal nature of Keats's illness showed itself on the 3rd soon after added to the society. In 1815 Keble was ordained of February, but in March he recovered sufficiently to be present deacon, and priest in 1816. His real bent and choice were at the private view of Haydon's picture of “ Christ's Entry into towards a pastoral cure in a country parish; but he remained in Jerusalem.” In May he removed to a lodging in Wesleyan Oxford, acting first as a public examiner in the schools, then as a Place, Kentish Town, to be near Leigh Hunt who eventually took tutor in Oriel, till 1823. In summer he sometimes took clerical him into his house. In July appeared his third and last book, work, sometimes made tours on foot through various English Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes and other Poems (1820). counties, during which he was composing poems, which alter- Keats left the Hunts abruptly in August in consequence of a wards took their place in the Christian Year. He had a rare delay in receiving one of Fanny Brawne's letters which had been power of attracting to himself the finest spirits, à power which broken open by a servant. He went to Wentworth Place, where lay not so much in his ability or his genius as in his character, so he was taken in by the Brawnes. The suggestion that he should simple, so humble, so pure, so unworldly, yet wanting not that spend the winter in Italy was followed up by an invitation from severity which can stand by principle and maintain what he holds Shelley to Pisa. This, however, he refused. But on the 18th of to be the truth. In 1823 he returned to Fairſord, there to assist his September 1820 he set out for Naples in company with Joseph father, and with his brother to serve one or two small and poorly Severn, the artist, who had long been his friend. The travellers endowed curacies in the neighbourhood of Coln. He had made settled in the Piazza de Spagna, Rome. Keats was devotedly a quiet but deep impression on all who came within his influence tended by Dr (afterwards Sir) James Clarke and Severn, in Oxford, and during his five years of college tutorship had won and died on the 23rd of February 1821. He was buried on the affection of his pupils. But it was to pastoral work, and not the 27th in the old Protestant cemetery, near the pyramid of to academic duty, that he thenceforth devoted himself, associ- Cestius. ating with it, and scarcely placing on a lower level, the affection- BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Keats's friends provided the material for the ate discharge of his duties as a son and brother. Filial piety authoritative biography of the poet by Richard Monckton Milnes influenced in a quite unusual degrce his feelings and his action all (afterwards Lord Houghton) entitled Life, Letters and Literary life through. It was in 1827, a few years after he settled at Remains of John Keats (1848; revised ed., 1867). Works of John Keats were issued with a memoir by R. M. Milnes in Fairford, that he published the Christian Year. The poems 1854, 1863, 1865, 1866, 1867, and in the Aldine edition, 1876. The which make up that book had been the silent gathering of years. standard cdition of Keats is The Poetical Works and other Writings Keble had purposed in his own mind to keep them beside him, of John Keats now first brought together, including Poems and numerous correcting and improving them, as long as he lived, and to leave Letters not before published, edited with notes and appendices by Harry them to be published only“ when he was fairly out of the way." Buxton Forman (4 vols., 1883; re-issue with corrections and addi. tions, 1889). Of the many other editions of Keats's poems may be This resolution was at length overcome by the importunities of mentioned that in the Muses' Library, The Poems of John Keats his friends, and above all by the strong desire of his father to see (1896), edited by G. Thorn Drury with an introduction by Robert his son's poems in print before he died. Accordingly they were Bridges, and another by E. de Sélincourt, 1905... The Letters of John printed in two small volumes in Oxford, and given to the world Keats to Fanny Brawne (1889) were edited with introduction and notes by H. Buxton Forman, and the Letters of John Keats to his in June 1827, but with no name on the title-page. The book Family and Friends (1891) by Sidney Colvin, who is also the author continued to be published anonymously, but the name of the of the monograph, Keats (1887), in the English Men of Letters Scries. author soon transpired. See also The Papers of a Critic. Selected from the Writings of the late Charles Wentworth Dilke (1875), and for further bibliographical had issued from the press, and it has been largely reprinted since. Between 1827 and 1872 one hundred and fifty-eight editions information and particulars of MS. sources the “Editor's Preface," &c. to a reprint edited by H. Buxton Forman (Glasgow, 1900). The author, so far from taking pride in his widespread reputation, A facsimile of Keats's autograph MS. of Hyperion," purchased by seemed all his life long to wish to disconnect his name with the the British Museum in 1904, was published E. de Sélincourt book, and “as if he would rather it had been the work of some (Oxford, 1905). (M. BR.) one else than himself.” This feeling arose from no false modesty. KEBLE, JOHN (1792–1866), English poet and divine, the It was because he knew that in these poems he had painted his author of the Christian Year, was born on St Mark's Day own heart, the best part of it; and he doubted whether it was (April 25), 1792, at Fairford, Gloucestershire. He was the second right thus to exhibit himself, and by the revelation of only his child of the Rev. John Keble and his wife Sarah Maule. De- better self, to win the good opinion of the world. scended from a family which had attained some legal eminence Towards the close of 1831 Keble was elected to fill the chair in the time of the Commonwealth, John Keble, the father of the of the poetry professorship in Oxford, as successor to his friend poet, was vicar of Coln St Aldwyn, but lived at Fairford, about and admirer, Dean Milman. This chair he occupied for ten 3 m. distant from his cure. He was a clergyman of the old eventful years. He delivered a series of lectures, clothed in High Church school, whose adherents, untouched by the influ- excellent idiomatic Latin (as was the rule), in which he expounded ence of the Wesleys, had moulded their piety on the doctrines a theory of poetry which was original and suggestive. He looked on the non-jurors and the old Anglican divines. Himself a good on poetry as a vent for overcharged feeling, or a full imagina- scholar, he did not send his son to any school, but educated him tion, or some imaginative regret, which had not found their and his brother at home so well that both obtained scholarships natural outlet in life and action. This suggested to him a dis- at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. John was elected scholar of tinction between what he called primary and secondary poets- Corpus in his fifteenth, and fellow of Oriel in his nineteenth year, the first employing poetry to relieve their own hearts, the second, April 1811. In Easter term 1810 he had obtained double first poetic artists, composing poetry from some other and less im- class honours, a distinction which had been obtained only once pulsive motive. Of the former kind were Homer, Lucretius, before, by Sir Robert Peel. After his election to the Oriel Burns, Scott; .of the latter were Euripides, Dryden, Milton. fellowship Keble gained the University prizes, both for the | This view was set forth in an article contributed to the British KECSKEMÉT_KEDGEREE 711 Critic in 1838 on the life of Scott, and was more fully developed | In the late autumn of the latter year, Keble left Hursley for in two volumes of Praelectiones Academicae. the sake of his wife's health, and sought the milder climate of His regular visits to Oxford kept him in intercourse with his Bournemouth. There he had an attack of paralysis, from which old friends in Oriel common room, and made him familiar with he died on the 29th of March 1866. He was buried in his own the currents of feeling which swayed the university, Catholic churchyard at Hursley; and in little more than a month his emancipation and the Reform Bill had deeply stirred, not only wife was laid by her husband's side. the political spirit of Oxford, but also the church feeling which had long been stagnant. Cardinal Newman writes, “ On Sunday Lyra Innocentium (1846), and a volume of poems was published post: Keble also published A Metrical Version of the Psalter (1839). July 14, 1833, Mr Keble preached the assize sermon in the humously. But it is by the Christian Year that he won the car of University pulpit. It was published under the title of National the religious world. It was a happy thought that dictated the plan A poslasy. I have ever considered and kept the day as the start of the book, to furnish a meditative religious lyric for each Sunday of of the religious movement of 1833." The occasion of this the year, and for each saint's day and festival of the English Church. The subject of each poem is generally suggested by some part of the sermon was the suppression, by Earl Grey's Reform ministry, of lessons or the gospel or the epistle for the day. One thing which ten Irish bishoprics. Against the spirit which would treat gives these poems their strangely unique power is the sentiment to the church as the mere creature of the state Keble had long which they appcal, and the saintly character of the poet who makes chafed inwardly, and now he made his outward protest, asserting the appeal, illumining more or less every poem: The intimacy with the Bible which is maniſest in the pages of the claim of the church to a heavenly origin and a divine preroga- the Christian Year; and the unobtrusive felicity with which Biblical tive. About the same time, and partly stimulated by Keble's sentiments and language are introduced have done much to endear sermon, some leading spirits in Oxford and elsewhere began a these poems to all Bible readers. “ The exactness of the descrip- concerted and systematic course of action to revive High Church and verified on the spot," by Dean Stanley. He points to features tions of Palestine, which Keble had never visited, have been noted, principles and the ancient patristic theology, and by these means of the lake of Gennesareth, which were first touched in the Chris. both to defend the church against the assaults of its enemies, lian Year; and he observes that throughout the book “ the Biblical and also to raise to a higher tone the standard of Christian life scenery is treated graphically as real scenery, and the Biblical history in England. This design embodied itself in the Tractarian and poetry as rcal history and poetry.” As to its style, the Christian Year is calm and grave in tone, and movement, a name it received from the famous Tracts for the subdued in colour, as beseems its subjects and sentiments. The Times, which were the vehicle for promulgating the new doctrines. contemporary poets whom Keble most admired were Scott, Words- If Keble is to be reckoned, as Newman would have it, as the worth and Southey; and of their influence traces are visible in his diction. Yet he has a style of language and a cadence of his own, primary author of the movement, it was from Pusey that it which steal into the heart with strangely soothing power. Some of received one of its best known names, and in Newman that it the poems are faultless, after their kind, flowing from the first stage soon found its genuine leader. To the tracts Keble made only to the last, lucid in thought, vivid in diction, harmonious in their four contributions: No. 4, containing an argument, in the pensive, melody. In others there are imperfections in rhythm, manner of Bishop Butler, to show that adherence to apostolical thought, which mar the reader's enjoyment. Yet even the most conventionalities of language, obscurities or over-subtleties of succession is the safest course; No. 13, which explains the prin- defective poems commonly have, at least, a single verse, expressing ciple on which the Sunday lessons in the church service are some profound thought or tender shade of feeling, for which the selected; No.40, on marriage with one who is unbaptized; No. 89, sympathetic reader willingly pardons artistic imperfections in the on the mysticism attributed to the early fathers of the church. Keble's life was written by his lifc-long friend Mr Justice J. T. Besides these contributions from his own pen, he did much for Coleridge. The following is a complete list of his writings:- the series by suggesting subjects, by reviewing tracts written by 1. Works published in Keble's lifetime: Christian Year (1827); others, and by lending to their circulation the weight of his Psalter (1839); Praelectiones Academicae (1844); Lyra Innocentium personal influence. (1846); Sermons Academical (1848); Argument against Repeal of In 1835 Keble's father died at the age of ninety, and soon after Life of Bishop Wilson (1863); Sermons Occasional and Parochial Marriage Law, and Sequel (1857); Eucharistical Adoration (1857); this his son married Miss Clarke, left Fairford, and settled at (1867). 2. Posthumous publications: Village Sermons on the Hursley vicarage in Hampshire, a living to which he had been Baplismal Service (1868); Miscellaneous Poems (1869); Lellers of presented by his friend and attached pupil , Sir William Heath- Spiritual Counsel (1870); Sermons for the Christian Vear, &c. ( vols., 1875-1880); Occasional Papers and Reviews (1877); Studia Sacra cote, and which continued to be Keble's home and cure for the (1877); Outlines of Instruction or Meditation (1880). remainder of his life. KECSKEMÉT, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest- the publication of Newman's tract No. 90. All the Protestantism Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 65 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. of England was in arms against the author of the obnoxious (1900), 56,786. Kecskemét is a poorly built and straggling town, tract. Keble came forward at the time, desirous to share the situated in the extensive Kecskemét plain. It contains monas- responsibility and the blame, if there was any; for he had seen teries belonging to the Piarist and Franciscan orders, a Catholic the tract before it was published, and approved it. The same (founded in 1714), a Calvinistic and a Lutheran school. The year in which burst this ecclesiastical storm saw the close of manufacture of soap and leather are the principal industries. Keble's tenure of the professorship of poetry, and thenceforward Besides the raising of cereals, fruit is extensively cultivated in he was seen but rarely in Oxford. No other public event ever the surrounding district; its apples and apricots are largely affected Keble so deeply as the secession of Newman to the Church exported, large quantities of wine are produced, and cattle- of Rome in 1845. It was to him both a public and a private rearing constitutes another great source of revenue. Kecskemét sorrow, which nothing could repair. But he did not lose heart; was the birthplace of the Hungarian dramatist József Katona at once he threw himself into the double duty, which now (1792–1830), author of the historical drama, Bánk-Bán devolved on himself and Pusey, of counselling the many who (1815). had hitherto followed the movement, and who, now in their per- KEDDAH (from Hindu Khedna, to chase), the term used plexity, might be tempted to follow their leader's example, and in India for the enclosure constructed to entrap elephants. at the same time of maintaining the rights of the church against In Ceylon the word employed in the same meaning is corral. what he held to be the encroachments of the state, as seen in KEDGEREE (Hindostani, khichri), an Indian dish, composed such acts as the Gorham judgment, and the decision on Essays of boiled rice and various highly-flavoured ingredients. Kedgeree and Reviews. In all the ecclesiastical contests of the twenty is of two kinds, white and yellow. The white is made with years which followed 1845, Keble took a part, not loud or obtru- grain, onions, ghee (clarified butter), cloves, pepper and salt. sive, but firm and resolute, in maintaining those High Anglican Yellow kedgeree includes eggs, and is coloured by turmeric. principles with which his life had been identified. These absorb- Kedgeree is a favourite and universal dish in India, among the ing duties, added to his parochial work, left little time for poorer classes it is frequently made of rice and pulse only, or literature. But in 1846 he published the Lyra Innocentium; rice and beans. In European cookery kedgeree is a similar dish and in 1863 he completed a life of Bishop Wilson. usually made with fish. rcst. ander het in de were brought to an abrupte perination by 712 KEEL-KEENE, C. S. " KEEL, the bottom timber or combination of plates of a ship | reefs. Dr Guppy was fortunate in reaching North Keeling Island, or boat, extending longitudinally from bow to stern, and sup- where a landing is only possible during the calmest weather. porting the framework (see SHIP-BUILDING). The origin of the The island he found to be about a mile long, with a shallow word has been obscured by confusion of two words, the Old enclosed lagoon, less than 3 ft. deep at ordinary low water, with Norwegian kjole (cf. Swedish köl) and a Dutch and German kiel. a single opening on its east or weather side. A dense vegetation The first had the meaning of the English " keel,” the other of of iron-wood (Cordia) and other trees and shrubs, together with ship, boat. The modern usage in Dutch and German has a forest of coco-nut palms, covers its surface. It is tenanted by approximated to the English. The word kiel is represented in myriads of sea-fowl, frigate-birds, boobies, and terns (Gygis old English by céol, a word applied to the long war galleys of candida), which find here an excellent nesting-place, for the the Vikings, in which sense“ keel” or “ keele" is still used by island is uninhabited, and is visited only once or twice a year. archaeologists. On the Tyne “ keel ” is the name given to a The excrement from this large colony has changed the carbonate flat-bottomed vessel used to carry coals to the colliers. There of lime in the soil and the coral nodules on the surface into is another word “keel,” meaning to cool, familiar in Shakespeare phosphates, to the extent in some cases of 60-70%, thus forming (Love's Labour Lost, v. ii. 930), “while greasy Joan doth keel a valuable deposit, beneficial to the vegetation of the island the pot,” i.e. prevents a pot from boiling over by pouring in itself and promising commercial value. The lagoon is slowly cold water, &c., stirring or skimming. This is from the Old filling up and becoming cultivable land, but the rate of recovery English célan, to cool, a common Teutonic word, cf. German from the sea has been specially marked since the eruption of kiihlcn. Krakatoa, the pumice from which was washed on to it in KEELEY, MARY ANNE (1806-1899), English actress, was born enormous quantity, so that the lagoon advanced its shores at Ipswich on the 22nd of November 1805 or 1806. Her maiden from 20 to 30 yards. Forbes's and Guppy's investigations go name was Goward, her father being a brazier and tinman. After to show that, contrary to Darwin's belief, there is no evidence some experience in the provinces, she first appeared on the stage of upheaval or of subsidence in either of the Keeling groups. in London on the 2nd of July 1825, in the opera Rosina. It was The atoll has an exceedingly healthy climate, and might well not long before she gave up “singing parts” in favour of the be used as a sanatorium for phthisical patients, the temperature drama proper, where her powers of chara acting could have never reaching extremes. The highest annual reading of the scope. In June 1829 she married Robert Keeley (1793-1869), thermometer hardly ever exceeds 89° F. or falls beneath 70°. an admirable comedian, with whom she had often appeared. The mean temperature for the year is 78.5° F., and as the rainfall Between 1832 and 1842 they acted at Covent Garden, at the rarely exceeds 40 in. the atmosphere never becomes unpleasantly Adelphi with Buckstone, at the Olympic with Charles Mathews, moist. The south-east trade blows almost ceaselessly for ten andat Drury Lane with Macready. In 1836 they visited America. months of the year. Terrific storms sometimes break over the In 1838 she made her first great success as Nydia, the blind girl, island; and it has been more than once visited by earthquakes. in a dramatized version of Bulwer Lytton's The Last Days of A profitable trade is done in coco-nuts, but there are few other Pompeii, and followed this with an equally striking impersona- exports. The imports are almost entirely foodstuffs and other tion of Smike in Nicholas Nickleby. In 1839 came her decisive necessaries for the inhabitants, who form a patriarchal colony triumph with her picturesque and spirited acting as the hero of a under a private proprietor. play founded upon Harrison Ainsworth's Jack Sheppard. So The islands were discovered in 1609 by Captain William Keeling dangerous was considered the popularity of the play, with its on his voyage from Batavia to the Cape. In 1823 Alexander glorification of the prison-breaking felon, that the lord chamber- Hare, an English adventurer, settled on the southernmost island lain ultimately forbade the performance of any piece upon the with a number of slaves. Some two or three years after, a subject. It is perhaps mainly as Jack Sheppard that Mrs Keeley Scotchman, J. Ross, who had commanded a brig during the lived in the memory of playgoers, despite her long subsequent English occupation of Java, settled with his family (who continued career in plays more worthy of her remarkable gifts. Under in the ownership) on Direction Island, and his little colony Macready's management she played Nerissa in The Merchant was soon strengthened by Hare's runaway slaves. The Dutch of Venice, and Audrey in As You Like It. She managed the Government had in an informal way claimed the possession of the. Lyceum with her husband from 1844 to 1847; acted with Webster islands since 1829; but they refused to allow Ross to hoist the and Kean at the Haymarket; returned for five years to the Dutch flag, and accordingly the group was taken under British Adelphi; and made her last regular public appearance at the protection in 1856. In 1878 it was attached to the government Lyceum in 1859. A public reception was given her at this of Ceylon, and in 1882 placed under the authority of the governor theatre on her goth birthday. She died on the 12th of March of the Straits Settlements. The ownership and superintendency 1899. continued in the Ross family, of whom George Clunies Ross See Walter Goodman, The Keeleys on the Stage and off (London, died in 1910, and was succeeded by his son Sydney. 1895). See C. Darwin, Journal of the Voyage of the" Beagle," and Geolo- KEELING ISLANDS (often called Cocos and Cocos-KEELING gical Observations on Coral Reefs; also Henry O. Forbes, A Naturalist's ISLANDS), a group of coral islands in the Indian Ocean, between Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago (London, 1884); H. B. Guppy, 12° 4' and 12° 13' S., and 96° 49'-57' E., but including a smaller “The Cocos-Keeling Islands,"Scottish Geographical Magazine (vol.v., 1889). island in 11° 50' N. and 96° 50' E. The group furnished Charles Darwin with the typical example of an atoll or lagoon island. KEEL-MOULDING, in architecture, a round on which there is There are altogether twenty-three small islands, 91 m. being the a small fillet, somewhat like the keel of a ship. It is common in greatest width of the whole atoll. The lagoon is very shallow the Early English and Decorated styles. and the passages between many of the islands are fordable on KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL (1823-1891), English black-and- foot. An opening on the northern side of the reef permits the white artist, the son of Samuel Browne Keene, a solicitor, was entrance of vessels into the northern part of the lagoon, which born at Hornsey on the 10th of August 1823. Educated at the forms a good harbour known as Port Refuge or Port Albion. The Ipswich Grammar School until his sixteenth year, he early showed coco-nut (as the name Cocos Islands indicates) is the character artistic leanings. Two years after the death of his father he was istic product and is cultivated on all the islands. The flora is articled to a London solicitor, but, the occupation proving uncon. scanty in species. One of the commonest living creatures is a genial, he was removed to the office of an architect, Mr Pilking- monstrous crab which lives on the coco-nuts; and in some places ton. His spare time was now spent in drawing historical and also there are great colonies of the pomegranate crab. The group nautical subjects in water-colour. For these triſles his mother, was visited by Dr H. O. Forbes in 1878, and later, at the expense to whose energy and common sense he was greatly indebted, soon of Sir John Murray, by Dr Guppy, Mr Ridley and Dr Andrews. found a purchaser, through whom he was brought to the notice The object of their visits was the investigation of the fauna and of the Whympers, the wood-engravers. This led to his being tiora of the atoll, more especially of the formation of the coral I bound to them as apprentice for five years. His earliest known KEENE, L.--KEEP 713 6 (6 'design is the frontispiece, signed “ Chas. Keene,” to The Adven- means the best, have been published. Writing in L'Arliste for May tures of Dick Boldhero in Search of his Uncle, &c. (Darton & Co., 1891, of a few which he had seen, Bracquemond says: “ By the freedom, the largeness of their drawing and execution, these plates 1842). His term of apprenticeship over, he hired as studio an must be classed amongst modern etchings of the first rank.' A few attic in the block of buildings standing, up to 1900, between the impressions are in the British Museum, þut in the main they were Strand and Holywell Street, and was soon hard at work for the given away to friends and lie hidden in the albums of the collector. AUTHORITIES.-G. S. Layard, Life and Letters of Charles Keene of Illustrated London News. At this time he was a member of the “Punch "; The Work of Charles Keene, with an introduction and “Artists' Society "in Clipstone Street, afterwards removed to the notes by Joseph Pennell, and a bibliography by W. H. Chesson; Langham studios. In December 1851 he made his first appear- M. H. Spielmann, The History of “ Punch"; M. Charpentier, La Vie ance in Punch and, after nine years of steady work, was called Moderne, No. 14 (1880); M. H. Spielmann, Magazine of Art (March to a seat at the famous table. It was during this period of pro- Scribner's (April 1892); Joseph Pennell , Century (Oct. 1897); George 1891); M. Bracquemond, L'Artiste (May 1891); G. S. Layard, bation that he first gave evidence of those transcendent qualities du Maurier, Harper's (March 1898). (G. S. L.), which make his work at once the joy and despair of his brother KEENE, LAURA (c. 1820-1873),* Anglo-American actress craftsmen. On the starting of Once a Week, in 1859, Keene's and manager, whose real name was Mary Moss, was born in services were requisitioned, his most notable series in this England. In 1851, in London, she was playing Pauline in The periodical being the illustrations to Charles Reade's A Good Lady of Lyons. She made her first appearance in New York Fight (afterwards rechristened The Cloister and the Hearth) and to on the 20th of September 1852, on her way to Australia. She George Meredith's Evan Harrington. There is a quality of conven- returned in 1855 and till 1863 managed Laura Keene's theatre, tionality in the earlier of these which completely disappears in in which was produced, in 1858, Our American Cousin. It was the later. In 1858 Keene, who was endowed with a fine voice her company that was playing at Ford's theatre, Washington, and was an enthusiastic admirer of old-fashioned music, joined on the night of Lincoln's assassination. Miss Keene was a the “ Jermyn Band,” afterwards better known as the “Moray successful melodramatic actress, and an admirable manager. Minstrels.” He was also for many years a member of Leslie's She died at Montclair, New Jersey, on the 4th of November Choir, the Sacred Harmonic Society, the Catch, Glee and Canon 1873. Club, and the Bach Choir. He was also an industrious performer See John Creahan's Life of Laura Keene (1897). on the bagpipes, of which instrument he brought together a con- KEENE, a city and the county-seat of Cheshire county, New siderable collection of specimens. About 1863 the Arts Club in Hanover Square was started, with Keene as one of the original Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Ashuelot river, about 45 m. S.W. of members. In 1864 John Leech died, and Keene's work in Punch Concord, N.H., and about 92 m. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop. thenceforward found wider opportunities. It was about this time (1900), 9165, of whom 1255 were foreign-born; (1910 census), that the greatest of all modern artişts of his class, Menzel,discovered Maine railroad and by the Fitchburg railroad (leased by the 10,068.' " Area, 36.5 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Keene's existence, and became a subscriber. to Punch solely for the sake of enjoying week by week the work of his brother crafts- Boston & Maine). The site is level, but is surrounded by man. In 1872 Keene, who, though fully possessed of the humor-ranges of lofty hills-Monadnock Mountain is about 10 m. S.E. ous sense, was not within measurable distance of Leech as a jester; parks, with a total area of about 219 acres; and in Central Most of the streets are pleasantly shaded. There are three and whose drawings were consequently not sufficiently“ funny to appeal to the laughter-loving public, was fortunate enough Martin Milmore and erected in 1871. The principal buildings Square stands a soldiers' and sailors' monument designed by to make the acquaintance of Mr Joseph Crawhall, who had been in the habit for many years of jotting down any humorous The Public Library had in 1908 about 16,300 volumes . There are the city hall, the county buildings and the city hospital. incidents he might hear of or observe, illustrating them at leisure for his own amusement. These were placed unreservedly at manufactures of boots and shoes, woollen goods, furniture are repair shops of the Boston & Maine railroad here, and Keene's disposal , and to their inspiration we owe at least 250 of (especially chairs), pottery, &c. The value of the factory his most successful drawings in the last twenty years of his con product in 1905 was $2,690,967. The site of Keene was one of nexion with Punch. A list of more than 200 of these subjects is given at the end of The Life and Letters of Charles Keene of made it untenable and it was abandoned from 1746 until 1750. the Massachusetts grants made in 1733, but Canadian Indians “ Punch." In 1879 Keene removed to 239 King's Road, Chelsea, In 1753 it was incorporated and was named Keene, in honour which he occupied until his last illness, walking daily to and from of Sir Benjamin Keene (1697-1757), the English diplomatist, his house, 112 Hammersmith Road. In 1881 a volume of his Punch drawings was published by Messrs Bradbury & Agnew, Madrid, and as responsible for the commerical treaty between who as agent for the South Sea Company and Minister in with the title Our People. In 1883 Keene, who had hitherto been England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the time- a strong man, developed symptoms of dyspepsia and rheumatism. it was chartered as a city in 1874. By 1889 these had increased to an alarming degree, and the last KEEP, ROBERT PORTER (1844-1904), American scholar, two years of his life were passed in acute suffering borne with the was born in Farmington, Connecticut, on the 26th of April 1844. greatest courage. He died unmarried, after a singularly un- eventful life, on the 4th of January 1891, and his body lies in He graduated at Yale in 1865, was instructor there for two Hammersmith cemetery. years, was United States consul at the Piraeus in Greece in 1869–1871, taught Greek in Williston Seminary, Easthampton, Keene, who never had any regular art training, was essentially Massachusetts, in 1876–1885, and was principal of Norwich Free an artists artist. He holds the foremost place amongst English Academy, Norwich, Conn., from 1885 to 1903, the school craftsmen in black and white, though his work has never been appre- ciated at its real value by the general public. No doubt the main owing its prosperity to him hardly less than to its founders. In reason for this lack of public recognition was his unconventionality: 1903 he took charge of Miss Porter's school for girls at Farming- He drew his models exactly as he saw them, not as he knew the world ton, Conn., founded in 1844 and long controlled by his aunt, wanted to see them. He found enough beauty and romance in all that was around him, and, in his Punch work, enough subtle humour Şarah Porter. He died in Farmington on the 3rd of June in nature seized at her most humorous moments to satisfy him. He | 1904. never required his models to grin through a horse collar, as Gillray KEEP (corresponding to the French donjon), in architecture did, or to put on their company manners, as was du Maurier's wont. the inmost and strongest part of a medieval castle, answering But Keene was not only a brilliant worker in pen and ink. As an to th etcher he has also to be reckoned with, notwithstanding the fact that citadel of modern times. The arrangement is said to his plates numbered not more than fifty at the outside. Impres- have originated with Gundulf, bishop of Rochester (d. 1108), sions of them are exceedingly rare, and hardly half a dozen of the architect of the White. Tower. The Norman keep is generally plates are now known to be in existence. He himself regarded them a very massive square tower. There is generally a well in a only as experiments in a difficult but fascinating medium. But medieval keep, ingeniously concealed in the thickness of a wall in the opinion of the expert they suffice to place him among the best etchers of the 19th century. Apart from the etched frontispieces or in a pillar. The most celebrated keeps of Norman times in to some of the Punch pocket-books, only three, and these by no England are the White Tower in London, those at Rochester 714 KEEWATIN-KEI ISLANDS Arundel and Newcastle, Castle Hedingham, &c. When the remain, but are empty, being used as part of the barracks. Thu keep was circular, as at Conisborough and Windsor, it was town is however supplied by water from the same spring which called a “shell-keep" (see Castle). The verb “to keep,” filled the cisterns. The Christian cemetery is on the site of a from which the noun with its particular meaning here treated basilica. There are ruins of another Christian basilica, excavated was formed, appears in O.E. as cépan, of which the deriva- by the French, the apse being intact and the narthex serving as a tion is unknown, no words related to it are found in cognate church. Many stones with Roman inscriptions are built into languages. The earliest meaning (c. 1000) appears to have the walls of Arab houses. The modern town is much smaller been to lay hold of, to seize, from which its common uses of than the Roman colony. Pop. about 6000, including about to guard, observe, retain possession of, have developed. 100 Europeans (chiefly Maltese). KEEWATIN, a district of Canada, bounded E. by Committee The Roman colony of Sicca Veneria appears from the character Bay, Fox Channel, and Hudson and James bays, S. and S.W. by of its worship of Venus (Val. Max. ii. 6, § 15) to have been a Phoenician the Albany and English rivers, Manitoba, Lake Winnipeg, and settlement. It was afterwards a Numidian stronghold, and under Nelson river, W. by the 100th meridian, and N. by Simpson and the Caesars became a fashionable residential city and one of the Rae straits and gulf and peninsula of Boothia; thus including gist Arnobius the Elder lived here. chief centres of Christianity in North Africa. The Christian apolo- an area of 445,000 sq. m. Its surface is in general barren and See H. Barth, Die Küstenländer des Mittelmeeres (1849); Corpus rocky, studded with innumerable lakes with intervening eleva- Inscript. Lat., vol. viii. ; Sombrun in Bull. de la soc. de géog. de Bordeaux tions, forest-clad below 60° N., but usually bare or covered (1878). Also Cardinal Newman's Callista: a Skeich of the Third reconstruction " of the manner of life of the with moss or lichens, forming the so-called “ barren lands" of Century, (1856), for a early Christians and their oppressors. the north. With the exception of a strip of Silurian and Devonian rocks, 40 to 80 m. wide, extending from the vicinity of KEHL, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the right bank the Severn river to the Churchill, and several isolated areas of of the Rhine, opposite Strassburg, with which it is connected Cambrian and Huronian, the district is occupied by Laurentian by a railway bridge and a bridge of boats. Pop. 4000. It has rocks. The principal river is the Nelson, which, with its great a considerable river trade in timber, tobacco and coal, which has tributary, the Saskatchewan, is 1450 m. long; other tributaries been developed by the formation a harbour with two basins. are the Berens, English, Winnipeg, Red and Assiniboine. The The chief importance of Kehl is its connexion with the military Hayes, Severn and Winisk also flow from the south-west into defence of Strassburg, to the strategic area of which it belongs. It Hudson Bay, and the Ekwan, Attawapiskat and Albany, 500 m. is encircled by the strong forts Bose, Blumenthal and Kirchbach long, into James Bay. The Churchill, 925 m., Thlewliaza, of that system. In 1678 Kehl was taken from the imperialists by Maguse, and Ferguson rivers discharge into Hudson Bay on the the French, and in 1683 a new fortress, built by Vauban, was west side; the Kazan, 500 m., and Dubawnt, 660 m., into begun. In 1697 it was restored to the Empire and was given to Chesterfield Inlet; and Back's river, rising near Aylmer Lake, Baden, but in 1703 and again in 1733 it was taken by the French, flows north-eastwards 560 m. to the Arctic Ocean. The principal who did not however retain it for very long. In 1793 the French lakes are St Joseph and Seul on the southern boundary; north- again took the town, which was retaken by the Austrians and ern part of Lake Winnipeg, 710 ft. above the sea, Island; was restored to Baden in 1803. In 1808 the French, again in South Indian; Etawney, Nueltin; Yathkyed, at an altitude possession, restored the fortifications, but these were dismantled of 300 ft.; Maguse, Kaminuriak; Baker, 30 ft.; Aberdeen, in 1815, when Kehl was again restored to Baden. In August 130 ft.; and Garry. The principal islands are Southampton, 1870, during the Franco-German War, the French shelled the area 17,800 sq. m., Marble Island, the usual wintering place defenceless town. for whaling vessels; and Bell and Coats Islands, in Hudson KEIGHLEY (locally KEITHLEY), a municipal borough in Bay; and Akimiski, in James Bay. the Keighley parliamentary division of the West Riding of A few small communities at the posts of the Hudson Bay Yorkshire, England, 17 m. W.N.W. of Leeds, on branches of Company constitute practically the whole of the white popula- the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901), 41,564. tion. In 1897 there were 852 Indians in the Churchill and Nelson It is beautifully situated in a deep valley near the junction of rivers district, but no figures are available for the district as a the Worth with the Aire. A canal between Liverpool and Hull whole. The principal posts in Keewatin are Norway House, affords it water communication with both west and east coasts. near the outlet of Lake Winnipeg; Oxford House, on the lake The principal buildings are the parish church of St Andrew of the same name; York Factory, at the mouth of Hayes river; (dating from the time of Henry I., modernized in 1710, rebuilt and Forts Severn and Churchill, at the mouths of the Severn with the exception of the tower in 1805, and again rebuilt in and Churchill rivers respectively. In 1905 the district of 1878), and the handsome Gothic mechanics' institute and Keewatin was included in the North-West Territories and the technical school (1870). A grammar school was founded in whole placed under an administrator or acting governor. The 1713, the operations of which have been extended so as to derivation of the name is from the Cree-the “north wind." embrace a trade school (1871) for boys, and a grammar school KEF, more correctly El-Kef (thc Rock), a town of Tunisia, for girls. The principal industries are manufactures of woollen 125 m. by rail S.S.W. of the capital, and 75 m. S.E. of Bona goods, spinning, sewing and washing machines, and tools. The in Algeria. It occupies the site of the Roman colony of Sicca town was incorporated in 1882, and the corporation consists Veneria, and is built on the steep slope of a rock în a moun- of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. tainous region through which flows the Mellegue, an affluent of KEI ÍSLANDS (Ke, Key, Kii, &c.; native, Ewal), a group the Mejerda. Situated at the intersection of main routes from in the Dutch East Indies, in the residency of Amboyna, between the west and south, Kef occupies a position of strategic import-5° and 6° 5' S. and 131° 50' and 133° 15' E., and consisting of Though distant some 22 m. from the Algerian frontier four parts: Nuhu-Iut or Great Kei, Roa or Little Kei, the it was practically a border post, and its walls and citadel were Tayanda, and the Kur group. Great Kei differs physically in kept in a state of defence by the Tunisians. The town with its every respect from the other groups. It is of Tertiary forma- half-dozen mosques and tortuous, dirty streets, is still partly tion (Miocene), and has a chain of volcanic elevations along the walled. The southern part of the wall has however been axis, reaching a height of 2600 ft. Its area is 290 sq. m., the destroyed by the French, and the remainder is being left to total land area of the group being 572 sq. m. All the other decay. Beyond the part of the wall destroyed is the French | islands are of post-Tertiary formation and of level surface. The quarter. The kasbah, or citadel, occupies a rocky eminence group has submarine connexion, under relatively shallow sea, on the west side of the town. It was built, or rebuilt, by the with the Timorlaut group to the south-west and the chain of Turks, the material being Roman. It has been restored by islands extending north-west towards Ceram; deep water the French, who maintain a garrison here. separates it on the east from the Aru Islands and on the west The Roman remains include fragments of a large temple from the inner islands of the Banda Sea. Among the products dedicated to Hercules, and of the baths. The ancient cisterns are coco-nuts, sago, fish, trepang, timber, copra, maize, yams ( ance. a KEIM-KEITH 715 9) and tobacco. The population is about 23,000, of whom 14,900 | Cross in 1346. At the close of the 14th century Sir William are pagans, and 8300 Mahommedans. Keith, by exchange of lands with Lord Lindsay, obtained the The inhabitants are of three types. There is the true Kei crag of Dunnottar in Kincardineshire, where he built the castle Islander, a Polynesian by his height and black or brown wavy of Dunnottar, which became the stronghold of his descendants. hair, with a complexion between the Papuan black and the He died about 1407. In 1430 a later Sir William Keith was Malay yellow. There is the pure Papuan, who has been largely created Lord Keith, and a few years afterwards earl marishal, merged in the Kei type. Thirdly, there are the immigrant and these titles remained in the family till 1716. William, Malays. These (distinguished by the use of a special language fourth earl marishal (d. 1581), was one of the guardians of Mary and by the profession of Mohammedanism) are descendants of queen of Scots during her minority, and was a member of her natives of the Banda islands who fled eastward before the privy council on her return to Scotland. While refraining 'encroachments of the Dutch. The pagans have rude statues of from extreme partisanship, he was an adherent of the Refor. deities and places of sacrifice indicated by flat-topped cairns. The mation; he retired into private life at Dunnottar Castle about Kei Islanders are skilful in carving and celebrated boat-builders. 1567, thereby gaining the sobriquet “ William of the Tower." See C. M. Kan, “ Onze geographische kennis der Keij-Eilanden," He was reputed to be the wealthiest man in Scotland. His in Tijdschrift. Aardrijkskundig Genootschap (1887); Martin, Die eldest daughter Anne married the regent Murray. His grand- Kei-inseln u. ihr Verhältniss zur Australisch-Asiatischen Grenzlinie;' son George, 5th earl marishal (c. 1553–1623), was one of the most ibid. part vii. (1890); W. R. van Hoëvell, “ De Kei-Eilanden,” in Tijdschr. Batavian. Gen. (1889); “Verslagen van de wetenschappelijke cultured men of his time. He was educated at King's College, opnemingen en onderzoekingen op de Keij-Eilanden " (1889–1890), Aberdeen, where he became a proficient classical scholar, after- by Planten and Wertheim (1893), with map and ethnographical atlas wards studying divinity under Theodore Beza-at Geneva. He of the south-western and south-eastern islands by Pleyte; Langen, was a firm Protestant, and took an active part in the affairs of Die Key- oder Kii-Inseln (Vienna, 1902).. the kirk. His high character and abilities procured him the KEIM, KARL THEODOR (1825-1878), German Protestant appointment of special ambassador to Denmark to arrange the theologian, was born at Stuttgart on the 17th of December 1825. marriage of James VI. with the Princess Anne. He was sub- His father, Johann Christian Keim, was headmaster of a gym. sequently employed on a number of important commissions; nasium. Here Karl Theodor received his early education, and but he preferred literature to public affairs, and about 1620 he then proceeded to the Stuttgart Obergymnasium. In 1843 he retired to Dunnottar, where he died in 1623. He is chiefly went to the university of Tübingen, where he studied philosophy remembered as the founder in 1593 of the Marischal College in under J. F. Reiff, a follower of Hegel, and Oriental languages the university of Aberdeen, which he richly endowed. From an under Heinrich Ewald and Heinrich Meier. F. C. Baur, the uncle he inherited the title of Lord Altrie about 1590. William, leader of the new Tübingen school, was lecturing on the New 7th earl marishal (c. 1617–1661), took a prominent part in the Testament and on the history of the church and of dogma, and Civil War, being at first a leader of the covenanting party in by him in particular Keim was greatly impressed. The special north-east Scotland, and the most powerful opponent of the bent of Keim's mind is seen in his prize essay, Verhältniss der marquess of Huntly. He co-operated with Montrose in Aber- Christen in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten bis Konstantin zum deenshire and neighbouring counties against the Gordons. With römischen Reiche (1847). His first published work was Die Montrose he signed the Bond of Cumbernauld in August 1640, Reformation der Reichstadt Ulm (1851). In 1850 he visited the but took no active steps against the popular party till 1648, university of Bonn, where he attended some of the lectures of when he joined the duke of Hamilton in his invasion of England, Friedrich Bleek, Richard Rothe, C. M. Arndt and Isaak Dorner. escaping from the rout at Preston. In 1650 Charles II. was He taught at Tübingen from June 1851 until 1856, when, having entertained by the marishal at Dunnottar; and in 1651 the become a pastor, he was made deacon at Esslingen, Württemberg. Scottish regalia were left for safe keeping in his castle. Taken In 1859 he was appointed archdeacon; but a few months later prisoner in the same year, he was committed to the Tower and he was called to the university of Zürich as professor of theology was excluded from Cromwell's Act of Grace. He was made a (1859–1873), where he produced his important works. Before privy councillor at the Restoration and died in 1661. Sir John this he had written on church history (e.g. Schwäbische Refor- Keith (d. 1714), brother of the 7th earl marishal, was, at the mationsgeschichte bis zum Augsburger Reichstag, 1855). His Restoration, given the hereditary office of knight marishal of inaugural address at Zürich on the human development of Jesus, Scotland, and in 1677 was created earl of Kintore, and Lord Die menschliche Entwicklung Jesu Christi (1861), and his Die Keith of Inverurie and Keith-Hall, a reward for his share in geschichtliche Würde Jesu (1864) were preparatory to his chief preserving the regalia of Scotland, which were secretly conveyed work, Die Geschichte Jesu von Nazara in ihrer Verkellung mit dem from Dunnottar to another hiding-place, when the castle was Gesamtleben seines Volkes (3 vols., 1867-1872; Eng. trans., Jesus, Besieged by Cromwell's troops, and which Sir John, perilously of Nazareth, and the National Life of Israel, 6 vols.), 1873-1882. to himself, swore he had carried abroad and delivered to In 1873 Keim was appointed professor of theology at Giessen. Charles II., thus preventing further search. From him are This post he resigned, through ill-health, shortly before his descended the earls of Kintore. death on the 17th of November 1878. He belonged to the GEORGE, 10th earl marishal (c. 1693-1778), served under Marl- mediation school of theology. borough, and like his brother Francis, Marshal Keith (q.v.), was a Chief works, besides the above: Reformationsoläller der "Reichs: zealous Jacobite, taking part in the rising of 1715, after which stadt Esslingen (1860); Ambrosius Blarer, der Schwabische Reformator he escaped to the continent. In the following year he was (1860); Der Übertritt Konstantins d. Gr zum Christenthum (1862); his sermons, Freundesworte zur Gemeinde (2 vols., 1861–1862); and attainted, his estates and titles being forfeited to the Crown. He Celsus' wahres Wort (1873). In 1881 H. Ziegler published one of lived for many years in Spain, where he concerned himself with Keim's earliest works, Rom und das Christenthum, with a biographical Jacobite intrigues, but he took no part in the rebellion of 1745, sketch. See also Ziegler's article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie . proceeding about that year to Prussia, where he became, like KEITH, the name of an old Scottish family which derived his brother, intimate with Frederick the Great. Frederick 'its name from the barony of Keith in East Lothian, said to have employed him in several diplomatic posts, and he is said to have been granted by Malcolm II., king of Scotland, to a member conveyed valuable information to the earl of Chatham, as a of the house for services against the Danes. The office of reward for which he received a pardon from George II., and great marishal of Scotland, afterwards hereditary in the Keith returned to Scotland in 1759. His heir on whom, but for family, may have been conferred at the same time; for it was the attainder of 1716, his titles would have devolved, was confirmed, together with possession of the lands of Keith, to apparently his cousin Alexander Keith of Ravelston, to whom Sir Robert Keith by a charter of King Robert Bruce, and the attainted earl had sold the castle and lands of Dunnottar appears to have been held as annexed to the land by the tenure in 1766. From Alexander Keith was descended, through the 'of grand serjeanty. Sir Robert Keith commanded the Scottish female line, Sir Patrick Keith Murray of Ochtertyre, who sold horse at Bannockburn, and was killed at the battle of Neville's I the estates of Dunnottar and Ravelston. After the attainder 716 KEITH, F. E. J.-KEITH, VISCOUNT : part iv. of 1716 the right of the Keiths of Ravelston to be recognized as at the siege of Prague; later in this same campaign he defended the representatives of the earls marishal was disputed by Robert Leipzig against a greatly superior force, was present at Rossbach, Keith (1681–1757), bishop of Fife, a member of another collateral and, while the king was fighting the campaign of Leuthen, con- branch of the family. The bishop was a writer of some repute, ducted a foray into Bohemia. In 1758 he took a prominent his chief work, The History of the Affairs of the Church and State part in the unsuccessful Moravian campaign, after which he of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1734), being of considerable value for withdrew from the army to recruit his broken health. He the reigns of James V., James VI., and Mary Queen of Scots. He returned in time for the autumn campaign in the Lausitz, and also pubļished a Catalogue of the Bishops of Scotland (Edinburgh, was killed on the 14th of October 1758 at the battle of Hoch- 1755), and other less important historical and theological kirch. His body was honourably buried on the field by Marshal works. Daun and General Lacy, the son of his old commander in Russia, ROBERT KEITH (d. 1774), descended from a younger son of the and was shortly afterwards transferred by Frederick to the 2nd earl marishal, was British minister in Vienna in 1748, and garrison church of Berlin. Many memorials were erected to subsequently held other important diplomatic appointments, him by the king, Prince Henry, and others. Keith died un- being known to his numerous friends, among whom were the married, but had several children by his mistress, Eva Mertens, leading men of letters of his time, as “ Ambassador Keith.” a Swedish prisoner captured by him in the war of 1741-43. His son, Sir Robert Murray Keith (1730-1795), was on Lord In 1889 the ist Silesian infantry regiment No. 22 of the George Sackville's staff at the battle of Minden. He became German army received his name. colonel of a regiment (the 87th foot) known as Keith's High- See K. A. Varnhagen von Ense, Biographische Denkmale, part 7 landers, who won distinction in the continental wars, but were (1844); Fragment of a Memoir of Field-Marshal James Keith, written disbanded in 1763; he was then employed in the diplomatic Club, 1843); T. Carlyle, Frederick the Great, passim; V. Paczynaski- by himself (1714-1734; edited by Thomas Constable for the Spalding service, in which he achieved considerable success by his Tenczyn, Leben des G. F. M.Jakob Keith (Berlin, 1889); Peter Buchan, honesty, courage, and knowledge of languages. In 1781 he Account of the Family of Keith (Edinburgh, 1878); Anon., Memoir became lieutenant-general; in 1789 he was made a privy of Marshal Keith (Peterhead, 1869); Pauli, Leven grosser Helden, councillor. From the Keith family through the female line 'was de- KEITH, GEORGE (c. 1639-1716), British divine, was born at scended George Keith Elphinstone, Baron Keith of Stonehaven, Aberdeen about 1639 and was educated for the Presbyterian Marishal and afterwards Viscount Keith (q.v.), whose titles ministry at Marischal College in his native city. In 1662 he became extinct at the death of his daughter Margaret, Baroness became a Quaker and worked with Robert Barclay (q.v.). After Keith, in 1867. being imprisoned for preaching in 1676 he went to Holland and Bain (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1881–1888); Peter Buchan, An Account of the Penn. Two further terms of imprisonment in England induced Şee Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland, edited by Germany on an evangelistic tour with George Fox and William Ancient and Noble Family of Keith (Edinburgh, 1828); Memoirs and him (1684) to emigrate to America, where he was surveyor-general Correspondence of Sir Robert Murray Keith, edited by Mrs. Gillespie Smyth (London, 1849); John Spalding, Memorialls of the Trubles in | in East New Jersey and then a schoolmaster at Philadelphia. He Scoiland, 1624-1645 (2 vols., Spalding Club Publ. 21, 23, Aberdeen, travelled in New England defending Quakerism against the 1850-1851); Sir Robert Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland (Edinburgh, attacks of Increase and Cotton Mather, but after a time fell out 1813); G.E.C., Complete Peerage, vol.iv. (London, 1892). (R. J. M.) with his own folk on the subject of the atonement, accused them KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES (1696–1758), Scottish of deistic views, and started a community of his own called soldier and Prussian field marshal, was the second son of William, “ Christian Quakers “ Keithians.” He endeavoured to 9th earl marishal of Scotland, and was born on the 11th of June advance his views in London, but the Yearly Meeting of 1694 1696 at the castle of Inverugie near Peterhead. Through his disowned him, and he established a society at Turner's Hall in careful education under Robert Keith, bishop of Fife, and sub- Philpot Lane, where he so far departed from Quaker usage as to sequently at Edinburgh University in preparation for the legal administer the two sacraments. In 1700 he conformed to the profession, he acquired that taste for literature which afterwards Anglican Church, and from 1702 to 1704 was an agent of the secured him the esteem of the most distinguished savants of Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in America. He died Europe; but at an early period his preference for a soldier's career on the 27th of March 1716 at Edburton in Sussex, of which parish was decided. The rebellion of 1715, in which he displayed he was rector. Among, his writings were The Deism of William qualities that gave some augury of his future eminence, com- Penn and his Brethren (1699); The Standard of the. Quakers pelled him to seek safety on the Continent. After spending two examined; or, an Answer to the Apology of Robert Barclay (1702); years in Paris, chiefly at the university, he in 1719 took part in A Journal of Travels (1706). Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, the ill-starred expedition of the Pretender to the Highlands of a fellow-Aberdonian, speaks of him as “the most learned man Scotland. He then passed some time at Paris and Madrid in that ever was in that sect, and well versed in the Oriental tongues, obscurity and poverty, but eventually obtained a colonelcy in philosophy and mathematics.” the Spanish army, and, it is said, took part ir the siege of Gibraltar KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE, VISCOUNT (1746– (1726–27). Finding his Protestantism a barrier to promotion, 1823), British admiral, fifth son of the 10th Lord Elphinstone, he obtained from the king of Spain a recommendation to Peter was born in Elphinstone Tower, near Stirling, on the 7th of II. of Russia, from whom he received (1728) the command of a January 1746. Two of his brothers went to sea, and he followed regiment of the guards. He displayed in numerous campaigns their example by entering the navy in 1761, in the “ Gosport,” the calm, intelligent and watchful valour which was his chief | then commanded by Captain Jervis, afterwards Earl St Vincent. characteristic, obtaining the rank of general of infantry and the In 1767 he made a voyage to the East Indies in the Company's reputation of being one of the ablest officers in the Russian service, and put £2000 lent him by an uncle to such good purpose service as well as a capable and liberal civil administrator. in a private trading venture that he laid the foundation of a Judging, however, that his rewards were not commensurate handsome fortune. He became lieutenant in 1770, commander with his merits, he in 1747 offered his services to Frederick II. in 1772, and post captain in 1775. During the war in America of Prussia, who at once gave him the rank of field marshal, in 1749 he was employed against the privateers, and with a naval brigade made him governor of Berlin, and soon came to cherish towards at the occupation of Charleston, S.C. In January 1781, when him, as towards his brother, the roth earl marishal, a strong in command of the “Warwick” (50), he captured a Dutch 50- personal regard. In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke out. gun ship which had beaten off an English vessel of equal strength Keith was employed in high command from the first, and added a few days before. After peace was signed he remained on shore to his Russian reputation on every occasion by resolution and for ten years, serving in Parliament as member first for Dum- promptitude of action, not less than by care and skill. In 1756 bartonshire, and then for Stirlingshire. When war broke out he commanded the troops covering the investment of Pirna, again in 1793 he was appointed to the “Robust” (74), in which and distinguished himself at Lobositz. In 1757 he commanded l he took part in the occupation of Toulon by lord Hood. He 9) or KEITH-KEKULÉ 717 particularly distinguished himself by beating a body of the on the east bank of the Isla, and Fife-Keith on the west bank. French ashore at the head of a naval brigade of English and Though Old Keith has a charter dating from William the Lion Spaniards. He was entrusted with the duty of embarking the it fell into gradual decay; New Keith, founded in the 18th century fugitives when the town was evacuated. In 1794 he was pro- by the second earl of Seafield, being better situated for the growth moted rear-admiral, and in 1795 he was sent to occupy the Dutch of a town. Fife-Keith has sprung up since 1816. The principal colonies at the Cape of Good Hope and in India. He had a public buildings include the Turner memorial hospital, the Long- large share in the capture of the Cape in 1795, and in August 1796 more hall, and the Institute. In the Roman Catholic church captured a whole Dutch squadron in Saldanha Bay. In the there is a painting of the “ Incredulity of St Thomas,” presented interval he had gone on to India, where his health suffered, and by Charles X. of France. The industries include manufactures of the capture at Saldanha was effected on his way home. When tweeds, blankets, agricultural implements, and boots and shoes; the Mutiny at the Norė broke out in 1797 he was appointed to there are also distilleries, breweries, flour mills, and lime and the command, and was soon able to restore order. He was manure works. But the main importance of Keith lies in the equally successful at Plymouth, where the squadron was also fact that it is the centre of the agricultural trade of the shire. in a state of effervescence. At the close of 1798 he was sent as The “Summer Eve Fair " held in September is the largest cattle second in command to St Vincent. It was for a long time a and horse fair in the north of Scotland; the town is also the head- thankless post, for St Vincent was at once half incapacitated quarters of the dressed-meat trade in the north. by ill-health and very arbitrary, while Nelson, who considered KEJ, or KECH, the chief place in a district of the province of that Keith's appointment was a personal slight to himself, was Makran in Baluchistan, which has given its name to Kej-Makran, peevish and insubordinate. The escape of a French squadron as distinguished from Persian Makran. There is no town, but which entered the Mediterranean from Brest in May 1799 was a number of small villages dominated by a fort built upon a rock, mainly due to jarrings among the British naval commanders. on the eastern bank of the Kej River. This fort, like many others Keith followed the enemy to Brest on their retreat, but was similarly placed throughout the country, is supposed to be im- unable to bring them to action. He returned to the Mediter- pregnable, but is of no strength except against the matchlocks ranean in November as commander-in-chief. He co-operated of the surroundi tribes. Kej (or Kiz) was an important trade with the Austrians in the siege of Genoa, which surrendered on centre in the days of Arab supremacy in Sind, and the rulers of the 4th of June 1800. · It was however immediately afterwards Kalat at various times marched armies into the province with a lost in consequence of the battle of Marengo, and the French view to maintaining their authority. At the beginning of the made their re-entry so rapidly that the admiral had considerable 19th century it had the reputation of a commercial centre, trading difficulty in getting his ships out of the harbour. The close of through Panjgur with Kandahar, with Karachi via Bela, and 1801. and the beginning of the following year were spent in with Muscat and the Persian Gulf by the seaport of Gwadar, transporting the army sent to recover Egypt from the French. distant about 80 m. The present Khan of Kalat exercises but As the naval force of the enemy was completely driven into port, a feeble sway over this portion of his dominion, although he the British admiral had no opportunity of an action at sea, but appoints a governor to the province. The principal tribe residing his management of the convoy carrying the troops, and of the around Kej is that of the Gichki, who claim to be of Rajput origin, landing at Aboukir, was greatly admired. He was made a baron and to have settled in Makran during the 17th century, having of the United Kingdom-an Irish barony having been conferred been driven out of Rajputana. The climate during summer is on him in 1797. On the renewal of the war in 1803 he was too hot for Europeans. During winter, however, it is temperate. appointed commander-in-chief in the North Sea, which post he The principal exports consist of dates, which are considered of the held till 1807. In February 1812 he was appointed commander- finest quality. A local revolt against Kalat rendered an expedi. in-chief in the Channel, and in 1814 he was raised to a viscounty. tion against Kej necessary in 1898. Colonel Mayne reduced the During his last two commands he was engaged first in over fortress and restored order in the surrounding districts. looking the measures taken to meet a threatened invasion, and KEKULÉ, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1829-1896), German then in directing the movements of the numerous small squadrons chemist, was born at Darmstadt on the 7th of September 1829. and private ships employed on the coasts of Spain and Portugal, While studying architecture at Giessen he came under the in- and in protecting trade. He was at Plymouth when Napoleon fluence of Liebig and was induced to take up chemistry. From surrendered and was brought to England in the “ Bellerophon" Giessen he went to Paris, and then, after a short sojourn in by Captain Maitland (1777–1839). The decisions of the British Switzerland, he visited England. Both in Paris and in England government were expressed through him to the fallen Emperor. he enjoyed personal intercourse with the leading chemists of the Lord Keith refused to be led into disputes, and confined himself period. On his return to Germany he started a small chemical to declaring steadily that he had his orders to obey. He was laboratory at Heidelberg, where, with a very slender equipment, not much impressed by the appearance of his illustrious charge, he carried out several important researches. In 1858 he was and thought that the airs of Napoleon and his suite were ridicu- appointed professor of chemistry at Ghent, and in 1865 was called lous. Lord Keith died on the roth of March 1823 at Tullyallan, to Bonn to fill a similar position, which he held till his death in his property in Scotland, and was buried in the parish church. that town on the 13th of June 1896. Kekulé's main importance A portrait of him by Owen is in the Painted. Hall in Greenwich. lies in the far-reaching contributions which he made to chemical He was twice married: in 1787 to Jane Mercer, daughter of theory, especially in regard to the constitution of the carbon com- Colonel William Mercer of Aldie; and in 1808 to Hester Maria pounds. The doctrine of atomicity had already been enunciated Thrale, who is spoken of as “ Queenie" in Boswell's Life of by E. Frankland, when in 1858 Kekulé published a paper in which, Johnson and Mme. D'Arblay's Diary. He had a daughter by after giving reasons for regarding carbon as a tetravalent element, each marriage, but no son. Thus the viscounty became extinct he set forth the essential features of his famous doctrine of the on his death, but the English and Irish baronies descended to linking of atoms. He explained that in substances containing his elder daughter Margaret (1788–1867), who married the Comte several carbon atoms it must be assumed that some of the affinities de Flahault de la Billarderie, only to become extinct on her death. of each carbon atom are bound by the affinities of the atoms of There is a panegyrical Life of Lord Keith by Alex. Allardyce other elements contained in the substance, and some by an equal (Edinburgh, 1882); and biographical notices will be found in John number of the affinities of the other carbon atoms. The simplest Marshall's Royal Naval Biography, i. 43 (1823-1835), and the Naval case is when two carbon atoms are combined so that one affinity Chronicle, x. i. (D. H.) of the one is tied to one affinity of the other; two, therefore, of the KEITH, a police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the Isla, affinities of the two atoms are occupied in keeping the two atoms 531 m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland rail together, and only the remaining six are available for atoms of way. Pop. (1901), 4753. A branch of the Highland railway also other elements. The next simplest case consists in the mutual gives access to Elgin, and there is a line to Buckie and Portessie on interchange of two affinity units, and so on. This conception led the Moray Firth. The burgh includes Old Keith and New Keith | Kekulé to his "closed-chain" or "ring"theory of the constitution 1 718 KELLER, A.-KELLERMANN of benzene which has been called the “most brilliant piece of he takes rank with the best German poets of this class in the prediction to be found in the whole range of organic chemistry," second half of the 19th century. and this in turn led in particular to the elucidation of the consti- Keller's Gesammelte Werke were published in to vols. (1889-1890), tution of the “ aromatic compounds," and in general to new to which was added another volume, Nachgelassene Schriften und methods of chemical synthesis and decomposition, and to a Dichtungen, containing the fragment of a tragedy (1893). In English deeper insight into the composition of numberless organic appeared, G. Keller: A Selection of his Tales Iranslated with a Memoir bodies and their mutual relations. Professor F. R. Japp, in b. Kate Freiligrath-Kroeker (1891). For a further estimate of the Kekulé memorial lecture he delivered before the London nach seinem Leben und Dichten (1892); F. Baldensperger, G. Keller; Keller's life and works cf. O. Brahm (1883); E. Brenning, G. Keller Chemical Society on the 15th of December 1897, declared that sa vie et ses oeuvres (1893); A. Frey, Erinnerungen an Gottfried Keller three-fourths of modern organic chemistry is directly or indirectly (1893); J. Baechtold, Kellers Leben. Seine Briefe und Tagebücher the product of Kekulé's benzene theory, and that without its (Berlin, 1894–1897); A. Köster, G. Keller (1900; 2nd ed., 1907); and guidance and inspiration the industries of the coal-tar colours | Maler (1895). for his work as a painter, H. E. von Berlepsch, Gottfried Keller als and artificial therapeutic agents in their present form and extension would have been inconceivable. KELLER, HELEN ADAMS (1880-7), American blind deaf. Many of Kekulé's papers appeared in the Annalen der Chemie, mute, was born at Tuscumbia, Alabama, in 1880. When barely of which he was editor, and he also published an important work, two years old she was deprived of sight, smell and hearing, by an Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie, of which the first three volumes are attack of scarlet fever. At the request of her parents, who were dated 1861, 1866 and 1882, while of the fourth only one small section acquainted with the success attained in the case of Laura Bridg. was issued in 1887. man (q.v.), one of the graduates of the Perkins Institution at KELLER, ALBERT (1845-7.), German painter, was born at Boston, Miss Anne M. Sullivan, who was familiar with the teach- Gais, in Switzerland; he studied at the Munich Academy under ings of Dr S. G. Howe (q.v.), was sent to instruct her at home. Lenbach and Ramberg, and must be counted among the leading Unfortunately an exact record of the steps in her education was colourists of the modern German school. Travels in Italy, not kept; but from 1888 onwards, at the Perkins Institution, France, England and Holland, and a prolonged sojourn in Paris, Boston, and under Miss Sarah Fuller at the Horace Mann school helped to develop his style, which is marked by a sense of elegance in New York, and at the Wright Humason school, she not only and refinement all too rare in German art. His scenes of society learnt to read, write, and talk, but became proficient, to an ex- life, such as the famous “Dinner" (1890), are painted with ceptional degree, in the ordinary educational curriculum. In thoroughly Parisian esprit, and his portraits are marked by the 1900 she entered Radcliffe College, and successfully passed the same elegant distinction. He is particularly successful in the examinations in mathematics, &c. for her degree of A. B. in 1904. rendering of rustling silk and satin dresses and draperies. His Miss Sullivan, whose ability as a teacher must be considered historical and imaginative works are as modern in spirit and as almost as marvellous as the talent of her pupil, was throughout unacademical as his portraits. At the Munich Pinakothek is her devoted companion. The case of Helen Keller is the most his painting “Jairi Töchterlein” (1886), whilst the Königsberg extraordinary ever known in the education of blind deaf-mutes Museum contains his “Roman Bath,” and the Liebieg collection (see DEAF AND DUMB ad fin.), her acquirements including several in Reichenberg the “ Audience with Louis XV.," the first picture languages and her general culture being exceptionally wide. She that drew attention to his talent. Among other important works wrote The Story of My Life (1902), and volumes on Optimism he painted " Faustina in the Temple of Juno at Praeneste," (1903), and The World I Live in (1908), which both in literary “The Witches' Sleep" (1888) “ The Judgment of Paris," ,"" The style and in outlook on life are a striking revelation of the results Happy Sister, Temptation" (1892), “ Autumn" (1893), “ An of modern methods of educating those who have been so handi- Adventure "(1896), and“ The Crucifixion.” capped by natural disabilities. KELLER, GOTTFRIED (1819-1890), German poet and nove- KELLERMANN, FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE DE (1735-1820), list, was born at Zürich on the 19th of July 1819. His father, a duke of Valmy and marshal of France, came of a Saxon family, master joiner, dying while Gottfried was young, his early educa- long settled in Strassburg and ennobled, and was born there on tion was neglected; he, however, was in 1835 apprenticed to a the 28th of May 1735. He entered the French army as a volun- landscape painter, and subsequently spent two years (1840-1842) teer, and served in the Seven Years' War and in Louis XV.'s in Munich learning to paint. Interest in politics drew him into Polish expedition of 1771, on returning from which he was made literature, and his talents were first disclosed in a volume of short a lieutenant-colonel. He became brigadier in 1784, and in the poems, Gedichte (1846). This obtained him recognition from the following year maréchal-de-camp. In 1789 Kellermann enthusi- government of his native canton, and he was in 1848 enabled to astically embraced the cause of the Revolution, and in 1791 take a short course of philosophical study at the university of became general of the army in Alsace. In April 1792 he was Heidelberg. From 1850 to 1855 he lived in Berlin, where he wrote made a lieutenant-general, and in August of the same year there his most important novel, Der grüne Heinrich (1851-1853; revised came to him the opportunity of his lifetime. He rose to the edition 1879-1880), remarkable for its delicate autographic por- occasion, and his victory of Valmy (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY traiture and the beautiful episodes interwoven with the action. Wars) over the Prussians, in Goethe's words,“ opened a new This was followed by Die Leute von Seldwyla (1856), studies of era in the history of the world.” Transferred to the army on the Swiss provincial tife, including in Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe Moselle, Kellermann was accused by General Custine of neglect- one of the most powerful short stories in the German language, ing to support his operations on the Rhine; but he was acquitted and in Die drei gerechten Kammmacher, almost as great a master- at the bar of the Convention in Paris, and placed at the head of piece of humorous writing. Returning to his native city with a the army of the Alps and of Italy, in which position he showed considerable reputation, he received in 1861 the appointment of himself a careful commander and excellent administrator. secretary to the canton. For a time his creative faculty seemed Shortly afterwards he received instructions to reduce Lyons, paralysed by his public duties, but in 1872 appeared Sieben then in revolt against the Convention, but shortly after the sur- Legenden, and in 1874 a second series of Die Leute von Seldwyla, render he was imprisoned in Paris for thirteen months. Once in both of which books be displayed no abatement of power and more honourably acquitted, he was reinstated in his command, originality. He retired from the public service in 1876 and and did good service in maintaining the south-eastern border employed his leisure in the production of Züricher Novellen against the Austrians until his army was merged into that of (1878), Das Sinngedicht, a collection of short stories (1881), and General Bonaparte in Italy. He was then sixty-two years of a novel, Martin Salander (Berlin, 1886). He died on the 15th of age, still physically equal to his work, but the young generals July 1890 at Hottingen. Keller's place among German novelists who had come to the front in these two years represented the is very high. Few have united such fancy and imagination to new spirit and the new art of war, and Kellermann's active such uncompromising realism, or such tragic earnestness to such career came to an end. But the hero of Valmy was never for- abounding humour. As a lyric poet, his genius is no less original; I gotten. When Napoleon came to power Kellermann was named " KELLGREN-KELLS 719 - successively senator (1800), honorary marshal of France (1803), he was appointed one of its first members. He died at Stock- and duke of Valmy (1808). He was frequently employed in the holm on the 20th of April 1705. His strong satiric tendency led administration of the army, the control of the line of communi- him into numerous controversies, the chief that with the critic cations, and the command of reserve troops, and his long and Thomas Thorild, against whom he directed his satire Nyt försök wide experience made him one of Napoleon's most valuable till orimmad vers, where he sneers at the" raving of Shakespeare assistants. In 1814 he voted for the deposition of the emperor and the convulsions of Goethe,” His lack of humour detracts and became a peer under the royal government. After the from the interest of his polemical writings. His poetical works “ Hundred Days” he sat in the Chamber of Peers and voted are partly lyrical, partly dramatic; of the plays the versification with the Liberals. He died at Paris on the 23rd of September belongs to him, the plots being due to Gustavus III. The songs 1820. interspersed in the four operas which they produced in common, See J. G. P. de Salye, Fragments historiques sur M. le maréchal de viz., Gustaf Vasa, Gustaf Adolf och Ebba Brahe, Aeneas i Kartago, Kellermann (Paris, 1807), and De Botidoux, Esquisse de la carrière and Drottning Kristina, are wholly the work of Kellgren.' From militaire de F. C. Kellermann, duc de Valmy (Paris, 1817). about the year 1788 a higher and graver feeling pervades Kell- His son, François ETIENNE DE KELLERMANN, duke of Valmy gren's verses, partly owing to the influence of the works of Lessing (1770-1835), French cavalry general, was born at Metz and served and Goethe, but probably more directly due to his controversy for a short time in his father's regiment of Hussars previous to with Thorild. Of his minor poems written before that date the entering the diplomatic service in 1791. In 1793 he again joined most important are the charming spring-song Vinterns välde the army, serving chiefly under his father's command in the Alps, lyktar, and the satrical Mina löjen and Man eger ej snille för det and rising in 1796 to the rank of chef de brigadé. In the latter man är galen. The best productions of what is called his later part of Bonaparte's celebrated Italian campaign of 1796-97 the period are the satire Ljusets fiender, the comic poem Dumboms younger Kellermann attracted the future emperor's notice by his lefverne, the warmly patriotic Kantat d. 1. jan. 1989, the ode Till brilliaàt conduct at the forcing of the Tagliamento. He was Kristina, the fragment Sigwart och Hilma, and the beautiful song made general of brigade at once, and continued in Italy after the Nya skapelsen, both in thought and form the finest of his works. peace of Campo Formio, being employed successively in the Among his lyrics are the choicest fruits of the Gustavian age of armies of Rome and Naples under Macdonald and Championnet. Swedish letters. His earlier efforts, indeed, express the superficial In the campaign of 1800 he commanded a cavalry brigade under doubt and pert frivolousness characteristic of his time; but in the First Consul, and at Marengo (q.v.) he initiated and carried the works of his riper years he is no mere poet of pleasure," as out one of the most famous cavalry charges of history, which, with Thorild contemptuously styled him, but a worthy exponent of Desaix's infantry attack, regained the lost battle and decided the earnest moral feeling and wise human sympathies in felicitous issue of the war. He was promoted general of division at once, and melodius verse. but as early as the evening of the battle he resented what he His Samlade skrifter (3 vols., 1796; a later edition, 1884–1885) were thought to be an attempt to belittle his exploit. A heated con- revised by himself. His correspondence with Rosenstein and with troversy followed as to the influence of Kellermann's charge on Clewberg was edited by H. Schück (1886–1887 and 1894). See Wiesel- the course of the battle, and in this controversy he displayed och skalder (1841-1855); C. W. Böttiger in Transactions of the Swedish gren, Sveriges sköna litteratur (1833-1849); Atterbom, Svenska siare neither tact nor forbearance. However, his merits were too Academy, xlv. 107 seq., (1870); and Gustaf Ljunggren's Kellgren, great for his career to be ruined either by his conduct in the dispute Leopold, och Thorild, and his Svenska vitterhetens höjder (1873-1877). or by the frequent scandals, and even by the frauds, of his private KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE (1842-...), American singer, life. Unlike his father's, his title to fa not rest on one was born at Sumterville, South Carolina, in July 1842, and was fortunate opportunity. Though not the most famous, he was educated in New York for the musical profession, singing first perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon's cavalry leaders, and dis- in opera there in 1861. Her fine soprano voice and artistic tinguished himself at Austerlitz (q.v.), in Portugal under Junot gifts soon made her famous. She appeared as prima donna in (on this occasion as a skilful diplomatist), at the brilliant cavalry Italian opera in London, and at concerts, in 1867 and 1868; and combat of Tormes (Nov. 28, 1809), and on many other from that time till 1887 was one of the leading public singers. occasions in the Peninsular War. His rapacity was more than She appeared at intervals in London, but was principally engaged ever notorious in Spain, yet Napoleon met his unconvincing in America. In 1874 she organized an opera company which was excuses with the words, General, whenever your nanie is widely known in the United States, and her enterprise and energy brought before me, I think of nothing but Marengo." He was in directing it were remarkable. In 1887 she married Carl on sick leave during the Russian expedition of 1812, but in 1813 Strakosch, and retired from the profession. and 1814 his skill and leading were as conspicuous as ever. Не! KELLS, a market town of county Meath, Ireland, on the Black- retained his rank under the first Restoration, but joined Napoleon water, 91 m. N.W. of Navan on a branch of the Great Northern during the Hundred Days, and commanded a cavalry corps in railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2428. The prosperity the Waterloo campaign. At Quatre Bras he personally led his of the town depends chiefly upon its antiquarian remains. The squadrons in the famous cavalry charge, and almost lost his life most notable is St Columbkille's house, orginally an oratory, in the mêlée, and at Waterloo he was again wounded. He was but afterwards converted into a church, the chancel of which disgraced at the second Restoration, and, on succeeding to his was in existence in 1752. The present church is modern, with father's title and seat in the Chamber of Peers in 1820, at once the exception of the bell-tower, rebuilt in 1578. Near the church took up and maintained till the fall of Charles X. in 1830 an there is a fine though imperfect specimen of the ancient round attitude of determined opposition to the Bourbons. ¿ He died on tower, 99 ft. in height; and there are several ancient crosses, the the 2nd of Jurie 1835. finest being that now erected in the market-place. Kells was His son FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE EDMOND DE KELLERMANN, originally a royal residence, whence its ancient name Ceanannus, duke of Valmy- (1802–1868), was a distinguished statesman, meaning the dun or circular northern fort, in which the king political historian, and diplomatist under the July Monarchy. resided, and the intermediate name Kenlis, meaning head fort. KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK (1751-1795), Swedish poet and Here Conn of the Hundred Fights resided in the 2nd century; critic, was born at Floby in West Gothland, on the ist of Decem- and here was a palace of Dermot, king of Ireland, in 544-565. The ber 1751. He studied at the university of Abo, and had already other places in Ireland named Kells are probably derived from some reputation as a poet when in 1774 he there became a Cealla, signifying church. In the 6th century Kells, it is said, “ docent "in aesthetics. Three years later he removed to Stock- was granted to St Columbkille. Of the monastery which he is holm, where in conjunction with Assessor Carl Lenngren he reported to have founded there are no remains, and the town began in 1778 the publication of the journal Stockholmsposten, of owes its chief ecclesiastical importance to the bishopric founded which he was sole editor from 1788 onwards. Kellgren was about 807, and united to Meath in the 13th century. The librarian to Gustavus III. from 1780, and from 1785 his private ecclesiastical establishment was noted as a seat of learning, and a secretary. On the institution of the Swedish Academy in 1786 1 monument of this rēmains in the Book of Kells an illuminated di 6 720 KELLY, E.-KELP 66 " ; copy of the Gospels in Latin, containing also local records, dating | dictated chiefly by personal prejudice. In 1767 he produced a from the 8th century, and preserved in the library of Trinity second part, less scurrilous in tone, dealing with the Covent College, Dublin. The illumination is executed with extraordinary Garden actors. His first comedy, False Delicacy, written in delicacy, and the work is asserted to be the finestsextant example prose, was produced by Garrick at Drury Lane on the 23rd of of early Christian art of this kind. Neighbouring antiquities January 1768, with the intention of rivalling Oliver Goldsmith's are the church of Dulane, with a fine doorway, and the dun or Good-Natured Man. It is a moral and sentimental comedy, fortification of Dimor, the principal erection of a series of defences described by Garrick in the prologue as a sermon preached in acts. on the hills about 6 m. W. of Kells. Among several seats in the Although Samuel Johnson described it as totally void of char- vicinity is that of the Marquess of Headfort. Kells returned two acter,” it was very popular and had a great sale. In French and members to the Irish parliament before the Union, Portuguese versions it drew crowded houses in Paris and Lisbon. KELLY, EDWARD (1854–1880), Australian bushranger, was Kelly was a journalist in the pay of Lord and therefore born at Wallan Wallan, Victoria. His father was a transported hated by the party of John Wilkes, especially as being the editor Belfast convict, and his mother's family included several thieves. of the Public Ledger. His Thespis had also made him many As boys he and his brothers were constantly in trouble for horse - enemies; and Mrs Clive refused to act in his pieces. The pro- stealing, and “ Ned "served three years' imprisonment for this duction of his second comedy, A Word to the Wise (Drury Lane, offence. In April 1878, an attempt was made to arrest his brother 3rd of March 1770), occasioned a riot in the theatre, repeated at Daniel on a similar charge. The whole Kelly family resisted this the second performance, and the piece had to be abandoned. His and Ned wounded one of the constables. Mrs Kelly and some of other plays are: Clementina (Covent Garden, 23rd of February the others were captured, but Ned and Daniel escaped to the hills, 1771), a blank verse tragedy, given out to be the work of a “young where they were joined by two other desperadoes, Byrne and American Clergyman" in order to escape the opposition of the Hart. For two years, despite a reward of £8000 offered jointly Wilkites; The School for Wives (Drury Lane, 11th of December by the governments of Victoria and New South Wales for their 1773), a prose comedy given out as the work of Major (afterwards arrest, the gang under the leadership of Kelly terrorized the Sir William) Addington; a two-act piece, The Romance of an Hour country on the borderland of Victoria and New South Wales, (Covent Garden, and of December 1774), borrowed from Mar- “ holding up towns and plundering banks. Their intimate montel's tale L'Amitié à l'épreuve; and an unsuccessful comedy, knowledge of the district, full of convenient hiding-places, and The Man of Reason (Covent Garden, gth of February 1776). their elaborate system of well-paid spies, ensured the direct He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1774, and pecuniary interest of many persons and contributed to their determined to give up literature. He failed in his new profession long immunity from capture. They never ill-treated a woman, and died in poverty on the 3rd of February 1777. nor preyed upon the poor, thus surrounding themselves with an See The Works of Hugh Kelly, to which is prefixed the Life of the attractive atmosphere of romance. In June 1880, however, Author (1778); Genest, History of the Stage (v. 163; 263269, 308, 399; they were at last tracked to a wooden shanty at Glenrowan, 457517): Pamphlets in reply to Thespis are: Anti-Thespis. near Benalla, which the police surrounded, riddled with bullets, Rescue or Thespian Scourge ..." (1767), by John Brown-Smith. ; (1767), by Louis Stamma; and "The and finally set on fire. Kelly himself, who was outside, could, he claimed, easily have escaped had he not refused to desert his KELLY, MICHAEL (1762-1826), British actor, singer and companions, all of whom were killed. He was severely wounded, composer, was the son of a Dublin wine-merchant and dancing- captured and taken to Beechworth, where he was tried, con- master. He had a musical education at home and in Italy, and victed and hanged in October 1880. The total cost of the for four years from 1783 was engaged to sing at the Court Theatre capture of the Kelly gang was reckoned at £115,000. at Vienna, where he became a friend of Mozart. In 1786 he sang See F. A. Hare, The Last of the Bushrangers (London, 1892). in the first performance of the Nozze di Figaro. Appearing in KELLY, SIR FITZROY (1796–1880), English judge, was born London, at Drury Lane in 1787, he had a great success, and in London in October 1796, the son of a captain in the Royal thenceforth was the principal English tenor at that theatre. In Navy. In 1824 he was called to the bar, where he gained a 1793 he became acting-manager of the King's Theatre, and he reputation as a skilled pleader. In 1834 he was made a king's was in great request at concerts. He wrote a number of songs counsel. A strong Tory, he was returned as member of parlia- (including“The Woodpecker”), and the music for many dramatic ment for Ipswich in 1835, but was unseated on petition. In 1837 pieces, now fallen into oblivion. In 1826 he published his enter- however he again became member for that town. In 1843 he sat taining Reminiscences, in writing which he was helped by Theodore for Cambridge, and in 1852 was elected member for Harwich, Hook. He combined his professional work with conducting but, a vacancy suddenly occurring in East Suffolk, he preferred a music-shop and a wine-shop, but with disastrous financial to contest that seat and was elected. He was solicitor-general in results. He died at Margate on the 9th of October 1826. 1845 (when he was knighted), and again in 1852. In 1858-1859 KELP (in M.E. culp or culpe, of unknown origin; the Fr. he was attorney-general in Lord Derby's second administration. equivalent is varech), the ash produced by the incineration of In 1866 he was raised to the bench as chief baron of the exchequer various kinds of sea-weed (Algae) obtainable in great abundance and made a member of the Privy Council. He died at Brighton on the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland, and the coast of on the 18th of September 1880. Brittany. It is prepared from the deep-sea tangle (Laminaria digitata), sugar wrack (L. saccharina), knobbed wrack (Fucus See E. Foss, Lives of the Judges (1870). nodosus), black wrack (F. serratus), and bladder wrack (F. vesicu- KELLY, HUGH (1739-1777), Irish dramatist and poet, son of losus). The Laminarias yield what is termed“ drift-weed kelp,” a Dublin publican, was born in 1739 at Killarney. He was obtainable only when cast up on the coasts by storms or other apprenticed to a staymaker, and in 1760 went to London. Here causes. The species of Fucus growing within the tidal range he worked at his trade for some time, and then became an are cut from the rocks at low water, and are therefore known as attorney's clerk. He contributed to yarious newspapers, and “cut-weeds." The weeds are first dried in the sun and are then wrote pamphlets for the booksellers. In 1767 he published collected into shallow pits and burned till they form a fused Memoirs of a Magdalen, or the History of Louisa Mildmay (2 vols.), mass, which while still hot is sprinkled with water to break it up a novel which obtained considerable success. In 1766 he published into convenient pieces. A ton of kelp is obtained from 20 to 22 anonymously Thespis; or, A Critical Examination into the Merits tons of wet sea-weed. The average composition may vary as of All the Principal Performers belonging to Drury Lane Theatre, follows: potassium sulphate, 10 to 12%; potassium chloride, a poem in the heroic couplet containing violent attacks on the 20 to 25%; sodium carbonate, 5%; other sodium and mag- principal contemporary actors and actresses. The poem opens nesium salts, 15 to 20%; and insoluble ash from 40 to 50%. with a panegyric on David Garrick, however, and bestows The relative richness in iodine of different samples varies foolish praise on friends of the writer. This satire was partly largely, good drift kelp yielding as much as 10 to 15 lb per ton inspired by Churchill's Rosciad, but its criticism is obviously of 22} cwts., whilst cut-weed kelp will not give more than 3 to KELSO_KELVIN 721 trees. 4 lb. The use of kelp in soap and glass manufacture has been from which the shire took its name. No trace exists of the town, rendered obsolete by the modern process of obtaining carbonate and of the castle all that is left are a few ruins shaded by ancient ash The castle was built by the Northumbrians, who called it of soda cheaply from common salt (see IODINE). · Marchidum, or Marchmound, its present name apparently meaning KELSO, a police burgh and market town of Roxburghshire, Rawic's burgh, after some forgotten chief. After the consolidation Scotland, on the left bank of the Tweed, 52 m. (43 m. by road) of the kingdom of Scotland it became a favoured royal residence, S.E. of Edinburgh and 101 m. N.E. of Jedburgh by the North reached its palmiest days under David I., and formed a member of and a town gradually sprang up beneath its protection, which British railway. Pop. (1901), 4008. The name has been derived the Court of Four Burghs with Edinburgh, Stirling and Berwick. from the Old Welsh calch, or Anglo-Saxon cealc, " chalk”, and it possessed a church, court of justice, mint, mills, and, what was the Scots how, “hollow," a derivation more evident in the remarkable for the 12th century, grammar school. Alexander II. earlier forms Calkon and Calchon, and illustrated in Chalkheugh, was married and Alexander III. was born in the castle. During the the name of a locality in the town. The ruined abbey, dedicated the castle captured. After the defeat of Wallace at Falkirk the long period of Border warfare, the town was repeatedly burned and to the Virgin and St John the Evangelist, was founded in 1128 castle fell into the hands of the English, from whom it was delivered by David I. for monks from Tiron in Picardy, whom he trans-in 1314 by Sir James Douglas. Ceded to Edward III. in 1333, it ferred hither from Selkirk, where they had been installed fifteen was regained in 1342 by Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie, only to be lost again four years later. The castle was finally retaken and years before. The abbey, the building of which was completed razed to the ground in 1460. It was at the siege that the king, towards the middle of the 13th century, became one of the James II., was killed by the explosion of a huge gun called "the richest and most powerful establishments in Scotland, claiming Lion. On the fall of the castle the town languished and was finally precedence over the other monasteries and disputing for a time abandoned in favour of the rising burgl of Kelso. The town, whose the supremacy with St Andrews. It suffered damage in numerous Fair, which is held on the 5th of every August on the vacant site, and patron-saint was St James, is still commemorated by St James's English forays, was pillaged by the 4th earl of Shrewsbury in is the most popular of Border festivals. 1522, and was reduced to ruins in 1545 by the earl of Hertford Sandyknowe or Smailholm Tower, 6 m. W. of Kelso, dating from (afterwards the Protector Somerset). In 1602 the abbey lands the 15th century, is considered the best example of a Border Peel and the most perfect relic of a feudal structure in the South of passed into the hands of Sir Robert Ker of Cessford, ist earl of Scotland. Two m. N. by E. of Kelso is the pretty village of Ednam Roxburghe. The ruins were disfigured by an attempt to render (Edenham, “The Village on the Eden "), the birthplace of the poet part of them available for public worship, and one vault was long James Thomson, to whose memory an obelisk, 52 ft. high, was utilized as the town gaol. All excrescences, however, were erected on Ferney Hill in 1820. cleared away at the beginning of the 19th century, by the efforts KELVIN, WILLIAM THOMSON, - BARON . (1824-1907), of the Duke of Roxburghe. The late Norman and Early Pointed British physicist, the second son of James Thomson, LL.D., cruciform church has an unusual ground-plan, the west end of the professor of mathematics in the university of Glasgow, was born cross forming the nave and being shorter than the chancel. The at Belfast, Ireland, on the 26th of June 1824, his father being then nave and transepts extend only 23 ft. from the central tower. teacher of mathematics in the Royal Academical Institution. The remainis include most of the tower, nearly the whole of the In 1832 James Thomson accepted the chair of mathematics at walls of the south transept, less than half of the west front with a Glasgow, and migrated thither with his two sons, James and fragment of the richly moulded and deeply-set doorway, the William, who in 1834 matriculated in that university, William north and west sides of the north transept, and a remnant of the being then little more than ten years of age, and having acquired chancel. The chancel alone had aisles, while its main circular all his early education through his father's instruction. In 1841 arches were surmounted by two tiers of triforium galleries. The William Thomson entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, and in 1845 predominant feature is the great central tower, which, as seen took his degree as second wrangler, to which honour he added from a distance, suggests the keep of a Norman castle. It rested that of the first Smith's. Prize. The senior wrangler in his year on four Early Pointed arches, each 45 ft. high (of which the south was Stephen Parkinson, a man of a very different type of mind, and west yet exist) supported by piers of clustered columns. yet one who was a prominent figure in Cambridge for many years. Over the Norman porch in the north transept is a small chamber In the same year Thomson was elected fellow of Peterhouse. At with an interlaced arcade surmounted by a network gable. that time there were few facilities for the study of experimental The Tweed is crossed at Kelso by a bridge of five arches conscience in Great Britain. At the Royal Institution Faraday structed in 1803 by John Rennie. The public buildings include held a unique position, and was feeling his way almost alone. In a court house, the town hall, corn exchange, high school and Cambridge science had progressed little since the days of Newton. grammar school (occupying the site of the school which Sir Thomson therefore had recourse to Paris, and for a year worked Walter Scott attended in 1783). The public park lies in the east in the laboratory of Regnault, who was then engaged in his of the town, and the race-course to the north of it. The leading classical researches on the thermal properties of steam. In industries are the making of fishing tackle, agricultural machinery 1846, when only twenty-two years of age, he accepted the chair and implements, and chemical manures, besides coach-building, of natural philosophy in the university of Glasgow, which he cabinet-making and upholstery, corn and saw mills, iron found-filled for fifty-three years, attaining universal recognition as one ing, &c. James and John Ballantyne, friends of Scott, set up a of the greatest physicists of his time. The Glasgow chair was press about the end of the 18th century, from which there issued, a source of inspiration to scientific men for more than half a in 1802, the first two volumes of the Minstrelsy of the Scottish century, and many of the most advanced researches of other Border; but when the brothers transferred their business to physicists grew out of the suggestions which Thomson scattered Edinburgh printing languished. The Kelso Mail, founded by as sparks from his anvil. One of his earliest papers dealt with James Ballantyne in 1797, is now the oldest of the Border ņews- the age of the earth, and brought him into collision with the papers. The town is an important agricultural centre, there geologists of the Uniformitarian school, who were claiming being weekly corn and fortnightly cattle markets, and, every thousands of millions of years for the formation of the stratified September, a great sale of Border rams. portions of the earth's crust. Thomson's. calculations on the Kelso became a burgh of barony in 1634 and five years later conduction of heat showed that at some time between twenty received the Covenanters, under Sir Alexander Leslie, on their way millions and four hundred millions, probably about one hundred to the encampment on Duns Law. On the 24th of October 1715 the millions, of years ago, the physical conditions of the earth must Old Pretender was proclaimed James VIII. in the market square, have been entirely different from those which now'obtain. This but in 1745 Prince Charles Edward found no active adherents in the led to a long controversy, in which the physical principles town. About 1 m. W. of Kelso is Floors or Fleurs Castlę, the principa! held their ground. In 1847 Thomson first met James Prescott seat of the duke of Roxburghe. The mansion as originally designed Joule at the Oxford meeting of the British Association. A by Sir John Vanbrugh in 1718 was severely plain, but in 1849 fortnight later they again met in Switzerland, and together William Henry Playfair converted it into a magnificent structure in the Tudor style. measured the rise of the temperature of the water in a mountain On the peninsula formed by the junction of the Teviot and the torrent due to its fall. Joule's views of the nature of heat Tweed stood the formidable castle and Aourishing town of Roxburgh, I strongly influenced Thomson's mind, with the result that in 1848 XV 12+ 722 KELVIN Thomson proposed his absolute scale of temperature, which is the second appeared. In the meanwhile the compass went independent of the properties of any particular thermometric through a process of complete reconstruction in his hands, substance, and in 1851 he presented to the Royal Society of a process which enabled both the permanent and the temporary Edinburgh a paper on the dynamical theory of heat, which magnetism of the ship to be readily compensated, while the reconciled the work of N. L. Sadi Carnot with the conclusions weight of the 10-in. card was reduced to one-seventeenth of that of Count Rumford, Sir H. Davy, J. R. Mayer and Joule, and of the standard card previously in use, although the time of swing placed the dynamical theory of heat and the fundamental was increased. Second only to the compass in its value to the principle of the conservation of energy in a position to command sailor is Thomson's sounding apparatus, whereby soundings can universal acceptance. It was in this paper that the principle of be taken in 100 fathoms by a ship steaming at 16 knots; and by the dissipation of energy, briefly summarized in the second law the employment of piano-wire of a breaking strength of 140 tons of thermodynamics, was first stated. per square inch and an iron sinker weighing only 34 lb, with a self- Although his contributions to thermodynamics may properly registering pressure gauge, soundings can be rapidly taken in be regarded as his most important scientific work, it is in the field deep ocean. Thomson's tide gauge, tidal harmonic analyser and of electricity, especially in its application to submarine telegraphy, tide predicter are famous, and among his work in the interest of that Lord Kelvin is best known to the world at large. From navigation must be mentioned his tables for the simplification 1854 he is most prominent among telegraphists. The stranded of Sumner's method for determining the position of a ship form of conductor was due to his suggestion; but it was in the at sea. letters which he addressed in November and December of that It is impossible within brief limits to convey more than a year to Sir G. G. Stokes, and which were published in the Pro-general idea of the work of a philosopher who published more than ceedings of the Royal Society for 1855, that he discussed the mathe-three hundred original papers bearing upon nearly every branch matical theory of signalling through submarine cables, and of physical science; who one day was working out the mathe- enunciated the conclusion that in long cables the retardation due matics of a vortex theory of matter on hydrodynamical principles to capacity must render the speed of signalling inversely propor- or discovering the limitations of the capabilities of the vortex tional to the square of the cable's length. Some held that if this atom, on another was applying the theory of elasticity to tides were true ocean telegraphy would be impossible, and sought in in the solid earth, or was calculating the size of water molecules, consequence to disprove Thomson's conclusion. Thomson, on and later was designing an electricity meter, a dynamo or a the other hand, set to work to overcome the difficulty by improve- domestic water-tap. It is only by reference to his published ment in the manufacture of cables, and first of all in the pro- papers that any approximate conception can be formed of his duction of copper of high conductivity and the construction of life's work; but the student who had read all these knew com- apparatus which would readily respond to the slightest variation paratively little of Lord Kelvin if he had not talked with him face of the current in the cable. The mirror galvanometer and the to face. Extreme modesty, almost amounting to diffidence, was siphon recorder, which was patented in 1867, were the outcome combined with the utmost kindliness in Lord Kelvin's bearing of these researches; but the scientific value of the mirror galvano- to the most elementary student; and nothing seemed to give him meter is independent of its use in telegraphy, and the siphon so much pleasure as an opportunity to acknowledge the efforts recorder is the direct precursor of one form of galvanometer of the humblest scientific worker. The progress of physical dis- (d'Arsonval's) now commonly used in electrical laboratories. Acovery during the last half of the 19th century was perhaps as mind like that of Thomson could not be content to deal with any much due to the kindly encouragement which he gave to his physical quantity, however successfully from a practical point students and to others who came in contact with him as to his of view, without subjecting it to measurement. Thomson's own researches and inventions; and it would be difficult to speak work in connexion with telegraphy led to the production in rapid of his influence as a teacher in stronger terms than this. succession of instruments adapted to the requirements of the One of his former pupils, Professor J. D. Cormack, wrote of him: time for the measurement of every electrical quantity, and when “ It is perhaps at the lecture table that Lord Kelvin displays electric lighting came to the front a new set of instruments was most of his characteristics. ... His master mind, soaring high, produced to meet the needs of the electrical engineer. Some sees one vast connected whole, and, alive with enthusiasm, with account of Thomson's electrometer is given in the article on that smiling face and sparkling eye, he shows the panorama to his subject, while every modern work of importance on electric pupils, pointing out the similarities and differences of its parts, lighting describes the instruments which he has specially de- the boundaries of our knowledge, and the regions of doubt signed for central station work; and it may be said that there is and speculation. To follow him in his flights is real mental no quantity which the electrical engineer is ordinarily called upon exhilaration." to measure for which Lord Kelvin did not construct the suitable In 1852 Thomson married Margaret, daughter of Walter Crum instrument. Currents from the ten-thousandth of an ampere to of Thornliebank, who died in 1870; and in 1874 he married Frances ten thousand amperes, electrical pressures from a minute fraction Anna, daughter of Charles R. Blandy of Madeira. In 1866, of a volt to 100,000 volts, come within the range of his instru- perhaps chiefly in acknowledgment of his services to trans- ments, while the private consumer of electric energy is provided Atlantic telegraphy, Thomson received the honour of knighthood, with a meter recording Board of Trade units. and in 1892 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron: When W. Weber in 1851 proposed the extension of C. F. Gauss's Kelvin of Largs. The Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order system of absolute units to electromagnetism, Thomson took up was conferred on him in 1896, the year of the jubilee of his pro- the question, and, applying the principles of energy, calculated fessoriate. In 1890 he became president of the Royal Society, the absolute electromotive force of a Daniell cell, and determined and he received the Order of Merit on its institution in 1902. the absolute measure of the resistance of a wire from the heat | A list of the degrees and other honours which he received during produced in it by a known current. In 1861 it was Thomson who the fifty-three years he held his Glasgow chair would occupy as induced the British Association to appoint its first famous com- much space as this article; but any biographical sketch would be mittee for the determination of electrical standards, and it was conspicuously incomplete if it failed to notice the celebration in he who suggested much of the work carried out by J. Clerk 1896 of the jubilee of his professorship. Never before had such Maxwell, Balfour Stewart and Fleeming Jenkin as members a gathering of rank and science assembled as that which filled of that committee. The oscillatory character of the discharge the halls in the university of Glasgow on the 15th, 16th and 17th of the Leyden jar, the foundation of the work of H. R. Hertz of June in that year. The city authorities joined with the and of wireless telegraphy were investigated by him in university in honouring their most distinguished citizen. About 1853. 2500 guests were received in the university buildings, the library It was in 1873 that he undertook to write a series of articles for of which was devoted to an exhibition of the instruments invented Good Words on the mariner's compass. He wrote the first, but by Lord Kelvin, together with his certificates, diplomas and so many questions arose in his mind that it was five years before I medals. The Eastern, the Anglo-American and the Commercial KEMBLE 723 " " Cable companies united to celebrate the event, and from the reputation among living actors second only to hers. Brother and university library a message was sent through Newfoundland, sister had first appeared together at Drury Lane on the 22nd of New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New Orleans, November 1783, as Beverley and Mrs Beverley in Moore's Florida and Washington, and was received by Lord Kelvin seven The Gamester, and as King John and Constance in Shakespeare's and a half minutes after it had been despatched, having travelled tragedy. In the following year they played Montgomerie and about 20,000 miles and twice crossed the Atlantic during the Matilda in Cumberland's The Carmelite, and in 1785 Adorni interval. It was at the banquet in connexion with the jubilee and Camiola in Kemble's adaptation of Massinger's A Maid celebration that the Lord Provost of Glasgow thus summarized of Honour, and Othello and Desdemona. Between 1785 and Lord Kelvin's character: “ His industry is unwearied; and he 1787 Kemble appeared in a variety of rôles, his Mentevole in seems to take rest by turning from one difficulty to another Jephson's Julia producing an overwhelming impression. On the difficulties that would appal most men and be taken as enjoy 8th of December 1787 he married Priscilla Hopkins Brereton ment by no one else. .. This life of unwearied industry, of (1756—1845), the widow of an actor and herself an actress. universal honour, has left Lord Kelvin with a lovable nature that Kemble's appointment as manager of Drury Lane in 1788 gave charms all with whom he comes in contact. him full opportunity to dress the characters less according to Three years after this celebration Lord Kelvin resigned his tradition than in harmony with his own conception of what was chair at Glasgow, though by formally matriculating as a student suitable. He was also able to experiment with whatever parts he maintained his connexion with the university, of which in 1904 might strike his fancy, and of this privilege he took advantage he was elected chancellor. But his retirement did not mean with greater courage than discretion. His activity was prodi. cessation of active work or any slackening of interest in the gious, the list of his parts including a large number of Shake- scientific thought of the day. Much of his time was given to spearian characters and also a great many in plays now forgotten. writing and revising the lectures on the wave theory of light which In his own version of Coriolanus, which was revived during his he had delivered at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, in first season, the character of the "noble Roman was so exactly 1884, but which were not finally published till 1904. He con- suited to his powers that he not only played it with a perfection tinued to take part in the proceedings of various learned societies; that has never been approached, but, it is said, unconsciously and only a few months before his death, at the Leicester meeting allowed its influence to colour his private manner and modes of of the British Association, he attested the keenness with which speech. His tall and imposing person, noble countenance, and he followed the current developments of scientific speculation solemn and grave demeanour were uniquely adapted for the by delivering a long and searching address on the electronic Roman characters in Shakespeare's plays; and, when in addition theory of matter. He died on the 17th of December 1907 at his he had to depict the gradual growth and development of one residence, Netherhall, near Largs, Scotland; there was no heir absorbing passion, his representation gathered a momentum to his title, which became extinct. and majestic force that were irresistible. His defect was in In addition to the Baltimore lectures, he published with Professor flexibility, variety, rapidity; the characteristic of his style was P. G. Tait a standard but unfinished Treatise on Natural Philosophy method, regularity, precision, elaboration even of the minutest (1867). A number of his scientific papers were collected in his details, founded on a thorough psychological study of the special Reprint of Papers on Electricity and Magnetism (1872), and in his personality he had to represent. His elocutionary art, his fine Mathematical and Physical Papers (1882, 1883 and 1890), and three volumes of his Popular Lectures and Addresses appeared in 18897-1894; tion, but physically he was incapable of giving expression to sense of rhythm and emphasis, enabled him to excel in declama: He was also the author of the articles on “ Heat” and “Elasticity in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. impetuous vehemence and searching pathos. In Coriolanus and See Andrew Gray, Lord Kelvin (1908); S. P. Thompson, Life | Cato he was beyond praise, and possibly he may have been of Lord Kelvin (1910), which contains a full bibliography of his superior to both Garrick and Kean in Macbeth, although it must writings. (W. G.; H. M. R.) be remembered that in it part of his inspiration must have been KEMBLE, the name of a family of English actors, of whom caught from Mrs Siddons. In all the other great Shakespearian the most famous were Mrs Siddons (q..) and her brother John characters he was, according to the best critics, inferior to them, Philip Kemble, the eldest of the twelve children of ROGER least so in Lear, Hamlet and Wolsey, and most so in Shylock and KEMBLE (1721-1802), a strolling player and manager, who in Richard III. On account of the eccentricities of Sheridan, the 1753 married an actress, Sarah Wood. proprietor of Drury Lane, Kemble withdrew from the manage- JOHN PHILIP KEMBLE (1757-1823), the second child, was ment, and, although he resumed his duties at the beginning of the born at Prescot, Lancashire, on the ist of February 1757. His season 1800-1801, he at the close of 1802 finally resigned con- mother was a Roman Catholic, and he was educated at Sedgeley nexion with it. In 1803 he became manager of Covent Garden, Park Catholic seminary, near Wolverhampton, and the English in which he had acquired a sixth share for £23,000. The theatre college at Douai, with the view of becoming a priest. But at was burned down on the 20th of September 1808, and the the conclusion of the four years' course he discovered that he raising of the prices after the opening of the new theatre, in 1809, had no vocation for the priesthood, and returning to England he led to riots, which practically suspended the performances for joined the theatrical company of. Crump & Chamberlain, his three months. Kemble had been nearly ruined by the fire, and first appearance being as Theodosius in Lee's tragedy of that was only saved by a generous loan, afterwards converted into a name at Wolverhampton on the 8th of January 1776. In 1778 gift, of £10,000 from the duke of Northumberland. Kemble he joined the York company of Tate Wilkinson, appearing at took his final leave of the stage in the part of Coriolanus on the Wakefield as Captain Plume in Farquhar's The Recruiting 23rd of June 1817. His retirement was probably hastened by Oficer; in Hull for the first time as Macbeth on the 30th of the rising popularity of Edmund Kean. The remaining years October, and in York as Orestes in Ambrose Philips's Distressed of his life were spent chiefly abroad, and he died at Lausanne on Mother. In 1781 he obtained a "star" engagement at Dublin, the 26th of February 1823. making his first appearance there on the end of November as Hamlet. He also achieved great success as Raymond in The See Boaden, Life of John Philip Kemble (1825); Fitzgerald, The Kembles (1871): Count of Narbonne, a play taken from Horace Walpole's Castle of Olranto. Gradually he won for himself a high reputation as STEPHEN KEMBLE (1758-1822), the second son of Roger, was a careful and finished actor, and this, combined with the greater rather an indifferent actor, ever eclipsed by his wife and fellow fame of his sister, led to an engagement at Drury Lane, where he player, Elizabeth Satchell Kemble (c. 1763-1841), and a man made his first appearance on the 30th of September 1783-as of such portly proportions that he played Falstaff without Hamlet. In this rôle he awakened interest and discussion padding. He managed theatres in Edinburgh and elsewhere. among the critics rather than the enthusiastic approval of the CHARLES KEMBLE (1775-1854), a younger brother of John public. But as Macbeth on the 31st of March 1785 he shared Philip and Stephen, was born at Brecon, South Wales, on the in the enthusiasm aroused by Mrs Siddons, and established a l 25th of November 1775. He, too, was educated at Douai. 724 KEMBLE, J. M.-KEMÉNY a (6 After returning to England in 1792, he obtained a situation in and retired after a brief but brilliant career. She wrote A Week the post-office, but this he soon resigned for the stage, making in a French Country House (1867), a bright and humorous story, his first recorded appearance at Sheffield as Orlando in. As You and of a literary quality not shared by other tales that followed. Like Il in that year. During the early period of his career as Her son, Algernon Charles Sartoris, married General U.S. Grant's an actor he made his way slowly to public favour. For a con- daughter. siderable time he played with his brother and sister, chiefly in Among more recent members of the Kemble family, mention secondary parts, and this with a grace and finish which received may also be made of Charles Kemble's grandson, HENRY KEMBLE scant justice from the critics. His first London appearance was (1848-1907), a sterling, and popular London actor. on the 21st of April 1794, as Malcolm to his brother's Macbeth. KEMBLE, JOHN MITCHELL (1807-1857), English scholar Ultimately he won independent fame, especially in such char- and historian, eldest son of Charles Kemble the actor, was born acters as Archer in George Farquhar's Beaux' Stralagem, Dorin- in 1807. He received his education partly from Dr Richardson, court in Mrs Cowley's Belle's Stratagem, Charles Surface and author of the Dictionary of the English Language, and partly at Ranger in Dr Benjamin Hoadley's Suspicious Husband. His the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, where he obtained Laertes and Macduff were hardly less interesting than his brother's in 1826 an exhibition to Trinity College, Cambridge. At the Hamlet and Macbeth. In comedy he was ably supported by his university his historical essays gained him high reputation. The wife, Marie Therèse De Camp (1774-1838), whom he married on bent of his studies was turned more especially towards the Anglo- the 2nd of July 1806. His visit, with his daughter Fanny, to Saxon period through the influence of the brothers Grimm, under America during 1832 and 1834, aroused much enthusiasm. The whom he studied at Göttingen (1831). His thorough knowledge later period of his career was clouded by money embarrassments of the Teutonic languages and his critical faculty. were shown in connexion with his joint proprietorship in Covent Garden in his Beowulf (1833-1837), Über die Stammtafel der Westsachsen theatre. He formally retired from the stage in December 1836, (1836), Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici (1839-1848), and in but his final appearance was on the ioth of April 1840. For many contributions to reviews; while his History of the Saxons some time he held the office of examiner of plays. In 1844- in England (1849; new ed. 1876), though it must now be read 1845 he gave readings from Shakespeare at Willis's Rooms. with caution, was the first attempt at a thorough examination He died on the 12th of November 1854. Macready regarded of the original sources of the early period of English history. He his Cassio as incomparable, and summed him up as a first-rate was editor of the British and Foreign Review from 1835 to 1844; actor of second-rate parts.” and from 1840 to his death was examiner of plays. 'In 1857 he See Gentleman's Magazine, January 1855; Records of a Girlhood, published State Papers and Correspondence illustrative of the by Frances Anne Kemble. Social and Political State of Europe from the Revolution to the ELIZABETH WHITLOCK (1761-1836), who was a daughter of Accession of the House of Hanover. He died at Dublin on the Roger Kemble, made her first appearance on the stage in 1783 26th of March 1857. His Horae Ferales, or Studies in the Archae- at Drury Lane as Portia. In 1785 she married Charles E. ology of Northern Nations, was completed by Dr R. G. Latham, Whitlock, went with him to America and played with much and published in 1864. He married the daughter of Professor success there. She had the honour of appearing before President Amadeus Wendt of Göttingen in 1836; and had two daughters Washington. She seems to have retired about 1807, and she and a son; the elder daughter was the wife of Sir Charles Santley, died on the 27th of February 1836. Her reputation as a tragic the singer. actress might have been greater had she not been Mrs Siddons's KEMÉNY, ZSIGMOND, BARON (1816-1875), Hungarian author, sister. came of a noble but reduced family. In 1837 he studied juris- FRANCES ANNE KEMBLE (Fanny Kemble) (1809-1893), the prudence at Marosvásárhely, but soon devoted himself entirely actress and author, was Charles Kemble's elder daughter; she to journalism and literature. His first unfinished work, On the was born in London on the 27th of November 1809, and educated Causes of the Disaster of Mohacs (1840), attracted much attention. chiefly in France. She first appeared on the stage on the 25th In the same year he studied natural history and anatomy at of October 1829 as Juliet at Covent Garden. Her attractive Vienna University. In 1841, along with Lajos Kovács, he edited personality at once made her a great favourite, her popularity the Transylvanian newspaper Erdélyi Hiradó. He also took an enabling her father to recoup his losses as a manager. She played active part in provincial politics and warmly supported the all the principal women's parts, notably Portia, Beatrice and principles of Count Stephen Széchenyi. In 1846 he moved to Lady Teazle, but Julia in Sheridan Knowles's The Hunchback, Pest, where his pamphlet, Korleskedés és ellenszerei (Partisanship especially written for her, was perhaps her greatest success. In and its Antidote), had already made him famous. Here he 1832 she went with her father. to America, and in 1834 she consorted with the most eminent of the moderate reformers, and married there a Southern planter, Pierce Butler. They were for a time was on the staff of the Pesti Hirlap. The same year divorced in 1849. In 1847 she returned to the stage, from which he brought out his first great novel, Pál Gyulay. He was elected she had retired on her marriage, and later, following her father's a member of the revolutionary diet of 1848 and accompanied example, appeared with much success as a Shakespearian reader. it through all its vicissitudes. After a brief exile he accepted. In 1877 she returned to England, where she lived-using her the amnesty and returned to Hungary. Careless of his unpopu- maiden name--till her death in London on the 15th of January larity, he took up his pen to defend the cause of justice and 1893. During this period Fanny Kemble was a prominent and moderation, and in his two pamphlets, Forradalom után (After popular figure in the social life of London. Besides her plays, the Revolution) and Még egysz ó a forradalom után (One word Francis the First, unsuccessfully produced in 1832, The Star of more after the Revolution), he defended the point of view which Seville (1837), a volume of Poems (1844), and a book of Italian was 'realized by Deák in 1867. He subsequently edited the Pesti travel, A Year of Consolation (1847), she published a volume of Napló, which became virtually Deák's political organ. Kemény her Journal in 1835, and in 1863 another (dealing with life on also published several political essays (e.g. The Two Wessclényis, the Georgia plantation), and also a volume of Plays, including and Stephen Szechenyi) which are among the best of their kind translations from Dumas and Schiller. These were followed by in any literature. His novels published during these years, such Records of a Girlhood (1878), Records of Laler Life (1882), Noles as Férj és nö (Husband and Wife), Szivörvényei (The Heart's on some of Shakespeare's Plays (1882), Far Away and Long Ago Secrets), &c., also won for him a foremost rank among con- (1889), and Further Records (1891). Her various volumes of temporary novelists. During the 'sixties Kemény took an activ reminiscences contain much valuable material for the social and part in the political labours of Deák, whose right hand he con- dramatic history of the period. tinued to be, and popularized the Composition of 1867 which ADELAIDE KEMBLE (1814–1879), Charles Kemble's 'second he had done so much to bring about. He was elected to the diet daughter, was an opera singer of great promise, whose first of 1867 for one of the divisions of Pest, but took no part in the London appearance was made in Norma on the 2nd of November debates. The last years of his life were passed in complete 1841. In 1843 she married Edward John Sartoris, a rich Italian. I seclusion in Transylvania. To the works of Kemény already . KEMP-KEMPT 725 66 mentioned should be added the fine historical novel Rajongok For contemporary authorities see under HENRY VI. See also (The Fanatics) (Pest, 1858–1859), and Collected Speeches Li Raine's Historians of the Church of York, vol. ii.: W. Dugdale's Monasticon, iii. 254. vi. 1430-1432; and W. F. Hook's Lives of Arch- (Hung.) (Pest, 1889). bishops of Canterbury, v. 188–267. (C. L. K.) See L. Nogrady, Baron Sigismund Kemény's Life and Writings (Hung.) (Budapest, 1902); G. Beksics, Sigismund Kemény, the Revolu- KEMPEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine Province, 40 m: lion and the Composition (Hung.) (Budapest, 1888). (R. N. B.) N. of Cologne by the railway to Zevenaar. Pop. (1900), 6319. KEMP, WILLIAM (A. 1600), English actor and dancer. He It has a monument to Thomas à Kempis, who was born there. probably began his career as a member of the earl of Leicester's The industries are considerable, and include silk-weaving, glass- company, but his name first appears after the death of Leicester making and the manufacture of electrical plant. Kempen in a list of players authorized by an order of the privy council belonged in the middle ages to the archbishopric of Cologne and in 1593 to play 7 m. out of London. Ferdinand Stanley, received civic rights in 1294. It is memorable as the scene of a Lord Strange, was the patron of the company of which Kemp victory gained, on the 17th of January 1642, by the French and was the leading member until 1598, and in 1594 was summoned Hessians over the Imperialists. with Burbage and Shakespeare to act before the queen at Green- See Terwelp, Die Stadt Kempen (Kempen, 1894), and Niessen, wich. He was the successor, both in parts and reputation, of Heimalkunde des Kreises Kempen (Crefeld, 1895). Richard Tarllon. But it was as a dancer of jigs that he won his KEMPENFELT, RICHARD (1718-1782), British rear-admiral, greatest popularity, one or two actors dancing and singing with was born at Westminster in 1718. His father, a Swede, is said him, and the words doubtless often being improvised. Examples to have been in the service of James II., and subsequently to of the music may be seen in the MS. collection of John Dowland have entered the British army. Richard Kempenfelt went into now in the Cambridge University library. At the same time the navy, and saw his first service in the West Indies, taking part Kemp was given parts like Dogberry, and Peter in Romeo and in the capture of Portobello. In 1746 he returned to England, Julict; indeed his name appears by accident in place of those of and from that date to 1780, when he was made rear-admiral, saw the characters in early copies. Kemp seems to have exhibited active service in the East Indies with Sir George Pocock and in his dancing on the Continent, but in 1602 he was a member of the various quarters of the world. In 1781 he gained, with a vastly earl of Worcester's players, and Philip Henslowe's diary shows inferior force, a brilliant victory, fifty leagues south-west of several payments made to him in that year. Ushant, over the French fleet under De Guichen, capturing KEMPE, JOHN (C. 1380–1454), English cardinal, archbishop twenty prizes. In 1782 he hoisted his flag on the Royal of Canterbury, and chancellor, was son of Thomas Kempe, a George,” which formed part of the fleet under Lord Howe. In gentleman of Ollantigh, in the parish of Wye near Ashford, Kent. August this fleet was ordered to refit at top speed at Portsmouth, He was born about 1380 and educated at Merton College, Oxford. and proceed to the relief of Gibraltar. A leak having been located He practised as an ecclesiastical lawyer, was an assessor at the below the waterline of the “Royal George,” the vessel was trial of Oldcastle, and in 1415 was made dean of the Court of careened to allow of the defect being repaired. According to the Arches. Then he passed into the royal service, and being em- version of the disaster favoured by the Admiralty, she was over- ployed in the administration of Normandy was eventually made turned by a breeze. But the general opinion of the navy was chancellor of the duchy. Early in 1419 he was elected bishop that the shifting of her weights was more than the old and rotten of Rochester, and was consecrated at Rouen on the 3rd of timbers of the “Royal George " could stand. A large piece of December. In February 1421 he was translated to Chichester, her bottom fell out, and she went down at once. It is estimated and in November following to London. During the minority that not fewer than 800 persons went down with her, for besides of Henry VI. Kempe had a prominent position in the English the crew there were a large number of tradesmen, women and council as a supporter of Henry Beaufort, whom he succeeded children on board. Kempenfelt, who was in his cabin, perished as chancellor in March 1426. In this same year he was promoted with the rest. Cowper's poem, the “ Loss of the Royal George,” to the archbishopric of York. Kempe held office as chancellor commemorates this disaster. Kempenfelt effected radical altera- for six years; his main task in government was to keep Humphrey tions and improvements in the signalling system then existing of Gloucester in check. His resignation on the 28th of February in the British navy. A painting of the loss of the Royal 1432 was a concession to Gloucester. He still enjoyed Beau-George” is in the Royal United Service Institution, London. fort's favour, and retaining his place in the council was employed See Charnock's Biog. Nav., vi. 246, and Ralfe's Naval Biographies, on important missions, especially at the congress of Arras in i. 215. 1435, and the conference at Calais in 1438. In December 1439 KEMPT, SIR JAMES (1764-1854), British soldier, was gazetted he was created cardinal, and during the next few years took less to the noist Foot in India in 1783, but on its disbandment two share in politics. He supported Suffolk over the king's marriage years later was placed on half-pay. It is said that he took a with Margaret of Anjou; but afterwards there arose some differ- clerkship in Greenwood's, the army agents (afterwards Cox&Co.). ence between them, due in part to a dispute about the nomination He attracted the notice of the Duke of York, through whom of the cardinal's nephew, Thomas Kempe, to the bishopric of he obtained a captaincy (very soon followed by a majority) in London. At the time of Suffolk's fall in January 1450 Kempe the newly raised 113th Foot. But it was not long before his once more became chancellor. His appointment may have been regiment experienced the fate of the old 101st; this time how- due to the fact that he was not committed entirely to either party. ever Kempt was retained on full pay in the recruiting service. In spite of his age and infirmity he showed some vigour in dealing In 1799 he accompanied Sir Ralph Abercromby to Holland, and with Cade's rebellion, and by his official experience and skill did later to Egypt as an aide-de-camp. After Abercromby's death what he could for four years to sustain the king's authority. He Kempt remained on his successor's staff until the end of the was rewarded by his translation to Canterbury in July 1452, campaign in Egypt. In April 1803 he joined the staff of Sir when Pope Nicholas added as a special honour the title of David Dundas, but next month returned to regimental duty, and cardinal-bishop of Santa Rufina. As Richard of York gained a little later received a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 81st Foot. influence, Kempe became unpopular; men called him “the With his new regiment he went, under Craig, to the Mediter- cursed cardinal," and his fall seemed imminent when he died ranean theatre of operations, and at Maida the light brigade suddenly on the 22nd of March 1454. He was buried at Canter- led by him bore the heaviest share of the battle. Employed bury, in the choir. Kempe was a politician first, and hardly at from 1807 to 1811 on the staff in North America, Brevet-Colonel all a bishop; and he was accused with some justice of neglecting Kempt at the end of 1811 joined Wellington's army in Spain his dioceses, especially at York. Still he was a capable official, with the local rank of major-general, which was, on the ist of and a faithful servant to Henry VI., who called him“ one of the January 1812, made substantive. As one of Picton's brigadiers, wisest lords of the land " (Paston Letters, i. 315). He founded | Kempt took part in the great assault on Badajoz and was severely i a college at his native place at Wye, which was suppressed at the wounded. On rejoining for duty, he was posted to the command Reformation. of a brigade of the Light Division (43rd, 52nd and 95th Rifles), 726 KEMPTEN-KEN, THOMAS > < 1) ) which he led at Vera, the Nivelle (where he was again wounded), | first given. In 1674 Ken paid a visit to Rome in company with Bayonne, Orthez and Toulouse. Early in 1815 he was made young Izaak Walton, and this journey seems mainly to have K.C.B., and in July for his services at Waterloo, G.C.B. At resulted in confirming his regard for the Anglican communion. that battle he commanded the 28th, 32nd and 79th as a In 1679 he was appointed by Charles II. chaplain to the Princess brigadier under his old chief, Picton, and on Picton's death Mary, wife of William of Orange. While with the court at the succeeded to the command of his division. From 1828 to 1830 | Hague, he incurred the displeasure of William by insisting that he was Governor-General of Canada, and at a critical time dis- a promise of marriage, made to an English lady of high birth by played firmness and moderation. He was afterwards Master- a relative of the prince, should be kept; and he therefore gladly General of the Ordnance. At the time of his death in 1854 he returned to England in 1680, when he was immediately appointed had been for some years a full General. one of the king's chaplains. He was once more residing at KEMPTEN, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Iller, Winchester in 1683 when Charles came to the city with his doubt. 81 m. S.W. of Munich by rail. Pop. (1905), 20,663. The town fully composed court, and his residence was chosen as the home is well built, bas many spacious squares and attractive public of Nell Gwynne; but Ken stoutly objected to this arrangement, grounds, and contains a castle, a handsome town-hall, a gym- and succeeded in making the favourite find quarters elsewhere. nasium, &c. The old palace of the abbots of Kempten, dating In August of this same year he accompanied Lord Dartmouth from the end of the 17th century, is now partly used as barracks, to Tangier as chaplain to the fleet, and Pepys, who was one of and near to it is the fine abbey church. The industries include the company, has left on record some quaint and kindly remini- wool-spinning and weaving and the manufacture of paper, beer, scences of him and of his services on board. The fleet returned machines, hosiery and matches. As the commercial centre of in April 1684, and a few months after, upon a vacancy occurring the Algäu, Kempten carries on active trade in timber and dairy in the see of Bath and Wells, Ken, now Dr Ken, was appointed produce. Numerous remains have been discovered on the bishop. It is said that, upon the occurrence of the vacancy, Lindenberg, a hill in the vicinity. Charles, mindful of the spirit he had shown at Winchester, Kempten, identified with the Roman Cambodunum, consisted exclaimed,“ Where is the good little man that refused his lodging in early times of two towns, the old and the new. The continual to poor Nell? ” and determined that no other should be bishop. hostility that existed between these was intensified by the wel. The consecration took place at Lambeth on the 25th of January come given by the old town, a free imperial city since 1289, to1685; and one of Ken's first duties was to attend the death-bed the Reformed doctrines, the new town keeping to the older of Charles, where his wise and faithful ministrations won the faith. The Benedictine abbey of Kempten, said to have been admiration of everybody except Bishop Burnet. In this year founded in 773 by Hildegarde, the wife of Charlemagne, was an he published his Exposilion on the Church Catechism, perhaps important house. In 1360 its abbot was promoted to the dignity better known by its sub-title, The Practice of Divine Love. In of a prince of the Empire by the emperor Charles IV.; the town 1688, when James reissued his “Declaration of Indulgence," and abbey passed to Bavaria in 1803. · Here the Austrians Ken was one of the “seven bishops” who refused to publish it. defeated the French on the 17th of September 1796. He was probably influenced by two considerations: first, by See Förderreuther, Die Stadt Kempten und ihre Umgebung his profound aversion from Roman Catholicism, to which he felt (Kempten, 1901); Haggenmüller, Geschichte der Stadt und der he would be giving some episcopal recognition by compliance; gefürsteten Grafschaft Kempten, vol. i. (Kempten, 1840); and but, second and more especially, by the feeling that James was Meirhofer, Geschichiliche Darstellung der dinkwürdigsten Schicksale compromising the spiritual freedom of the church. Along with der Stadt Kempten (Kempten, 1856). his six brethren, Ken was committed to the Tower on the 8th of KEN, THOMAS (1637-1711), the most eminent of the English June 1688, on a charge of high misdemeanour; the trial, which non-juring bishops, and one of the fathers of modern English took place on the 29th and 30th of the month, and which resulted hymnology, was born at Little Berkhampstead, Herts, in 1637. | in a verdict of acquittal, is matter of history. With the revolu- He was the son of Thomas Ken of Furnival's Inn, who belonged tion which speedily followed this impolitic trial, new troubles to an ancient stock,-that of the Kens of Ken Place, in Somerset- encountered Ken; for, having sworn allegiance to James, he shire; his mother was a daughter of the now forgotten poet, John thought himself thereby precluded from taking the oath to Chalkhill, who is called by Walton an“ acquaintant and friend William of Orange. Accordingly, he took his place among the of Edmund Spenser.” Ken's step-sister, Anne, was married to non-jurors, and, as he stood firm to his refusal, he was, in August Izaak Walton in 1646, a connexion which brought Ken from his 1691, superseded in his bishopric by Dr Kidder, dean of Peter- boyhood under the refining influence of this gentle and devout borough. From this time he lived mostly in retirement, finding In 1652 Ken entered Winchester College, and in 1656 a congenial home with Lord Weymouth, his friend from college became a student of Hart Hall, Oxford. He gained a fellowship days, at Longleat in Wiltshire; and though pressed to resume at New College in 1657, and proceeded B.A. in 1661 and M.A. in his diocese in 1703, upon the death of Bishop Kidder, he declined, 1664. He was for some time tutor of his college; but the most partly on the ground of growing weakness, but partly no doubt characteristic reminiscence of his university life is the mention from his love for the quiet life of devotion which he was able to made by Anthony Wood that in the musical gatherings of the lead at Longleat. His death took place there on the 19th of time" Thomas Ken of New College, a junior, would be sometimes | March 1711. among them, and sing his part.” Ordained in 1662, he succes- Although Ken wrote much poetry, besides his hymns, he cannot sively held the livings of Little Easton in Essex, Brighstone be called a great poet; but he had that fine combination of spiritual (sometimes called Brixton) in the Isle of Wight, and East Wood- insight and feeling with poetic taste which marks all great hymn. hay in Hampshire; in 1672 he resigned the last of these, and writers. As a hymn-writer he has had few equals in England; it can scarcely be said that even Keble, though possessed of much returned to Winchester, being by this time a prebendary of the rarer poetic gifts, surpassed him in his own sphere (see Hymns). cathedral, and chaplain to the bishop, as well as a fellow of In his own day he took high rank as a pulpit orator, and even royalty Winchester College. He remained there for several years, acting had to beg for a seat amongst his audiences; but his sermons are now as curate in one of the lowest districts, preparing his Manual forgotten. He lives in history, apart from his three hymns, mainly of Prayers for the use of the Scholars of Winchester College (first weak only in a certain narrowness of view which is a frequent at as a man of unstained purity and invincible fidelity to conscience, published in 1674), and composing hymns. It was at this time tribute of the intense character which he possessed. As an ecclesiastic that he wrote, primarily for the same body as his prayers, his he was a High Churchman of the old school. morning, evening and midnight hymns, the first two of which, volumes by W. Hawkins, his relative and executor, in 1721; his prose Ken's poetical works were published in collected form in four beginning “ Awake, my soul, and with the sun” and “ Glory to Thee, my God, this night,” are now household words wherever 1 The fact, however, that in 1712-only a year after Ken's death- the English tongue is spoken. The latter is often made to begin his publisher: Brome, published the hymn with the opening words with the line “ All praise to Thee, my God, this night,” but in “ All praise," has been deemed by such a high authority as the ist earl of Selborne sufficient evidence that the alteration had Ken's the earlier editions over which Ken had control, the line is as authority. man. 9) KEN-KENDAL 727 a works were issued in 1838 in one volume, under the editorship. of 'exile. After George's death in 1727 she lived at Kendal House, J. T. Round. A brief memoir was prefixed by Hawkins to a selection Isleworth, Middlesex, until her death on the roth of May 1743. from Ken's works which he published in 1713; and a life, in two volumes, by the Rev. W. L. Bowles, appeared in 1830. But the The duchess was by no means a beautiful woman, and her thin standard biographies of Ken are those of J. Lavicount Anderdon figure caused the populace to refer to her as the "maypole." (The Life of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells, by a Layman, By the king she had two daughters: Petronilla Melusina 1851; 2nd ed., 1854) and of Dean Plumptre (2 vols., 1888: revised, c. 1693-1778), who was created countess of Walsingham in 1722, 1890). See also the Rev. W. Hunt's article in the Dici. Nat. Biog. and who married the great earl of Chesterfield; and Margaret KEN, a river of Northern India, tributary to the Jumna on Gertrude, countess of Lippe (1703-1773). its right bank, flowing through Bundelkhand. An important KENDAL, WILLIAM HUNTER (1843– ), English actor, reservoir in its upper basin, which impounds about 180 million whose family name was Grimston, was born in London on the cubic feet of water, irrigates about 374,000 acres in a region 16th of December 1843, the son of a painter. He made his first specially liable to drought. stage appearance at Glasgow in 1862 as Louis XIV., in A Life's KENA, or KENEH (sometimes written Qina), a town of Upper Revenge, billed as “ Mr Kendall.” After some experience at Egypt on a canal about a mile E, of the Nile and 380 m. S.S.E. Birmingham and elsewhere, he joined the Haymarket company of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907), 20,069. Kena, the capital of a in London in 1866, acting everything from burlesque to Romeo. province of the same name, was called by the Greeks Caene or In 1869 he married Margaret (Madge) Shafto Robertson (b. 1849), Caenepolis (probably the Nén Tólks of Herodotus; see AKHmim) sister of the dramatist, T. W. Robertson. As " Mr and Mrs in distinction from Coptos (q.v.), 15 m. S., to whose trade it Kendal ” their professional careers then became inseparable. eventually succeeded. It is a remarkable fact that its modern Mrs Kendal's first stage appearance was as Marie, “a child,” name should be derived from a purely Greek word, like Iskenderia in The Orphan of the Frozen Sea in 1854 in London. She soon from Alexandria, and Nekrāsh from Naucratis; in the absence showed such talent both as actress and singer that she secured of any known Egyptian name it seems to point to Kena having numerous engagements, and by 1865 was playing Ophelia and originated in a foreign settlement in connexion with the Red Sea Desdemona. She was Mary Meredith in Our American Cousin trade. It is a Nourishing town, specially noted for the manufac- with Sothern, and Pauline to his Claud Melnotte. But her real ture of the porous water jars and bottles used throughout Egypt. triumphs were at the Haymarket in Shakespearian revivals The clay for making them is obtained from a valley north of and the old English comedies. While Mr Kendal played Kena. The pottery is sent down the Nile in specially constructed Orlando, Charles Surface, Jack Absolute and Young Marlowe, boats. Kena is also known for the excellence of the dates sold his wife made the combination perfect with her Rosalind, Lady in its bazaars ånd for the large colony of dancing girls who live Teazle, Lydia Languish and Kate Hardcastle; and she created there. It carries on a trade in grain and dates with Arabia, via Galatea in Gilbert's Pygmalion and Galatea (1871). Short Kosseir on the Red Sea, 100 m. E. in a direct line. This incon- seasons followed at the Court theatre and at the Prince of siderable traffic is all that is left of the extensive commerce Wales's, at the latter of which they joined the Bancrofts in formerly maintained-chiefly via Berenice and Coptos-between Diplomacy and other plays. Then in 1879 began a long associa- Upper Egypt and India and Arabia. The road to Kosseir is tion with Mr (afterwards Sir John) Hare as joint-managers of one of great antiquity. It leads through the valley of Hamma- the St James's theatre, some of their notable successes being in māt, celebrated for its ancient breccia quarries and deserted The Squire, Impulse, The Ironmaster and A Scrap of Paper. In gold mines. During the British operations in Egypt in 1801 1888, however, the Hare and Kendal régime came to an end. Sir David Baird and his force marched along this road to Kena, From that time Mr and Mrs Kendal chiefly toured in the pro- taking sixteen days on the journey from Kosseir. vinces and in America, with an occasional season at rare intervals KENDAL, DUKEDOM OF. The English title of duke of in London. Kendal was first bestowed in May 1667 upon Charles (d. 1667), KENDAL, a market town and municipal borough in the the infant son of the duke of York, afterwards James II. Kendal parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, 251 m. Several persons have been created earl of Kendal, among them N.N.W. from London on the Windermere branch of the London being John, duke of Bedford, son of Henry IV.; John Beaufort, & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 14,183. The town, the duke of Somerset (d. 1444); and Queen Anne's husband, George, full name of which is Kirkby-Kendal or Kirkby-in-Kendal, is prince of Denmark. the largest in the county. It is picturesquely placed on the river In 1719 Ehrengarde Melusina (1667-1743), mistress of the Kent, and is irregularly built. The white-walled houses with English king George I., was created duchess of Kendal. This their blue-slated roofs, and the numerous trees, give it an attrac- lady was the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, count of Schulen- tive appearance. To the S.W. rises an abrupt limestone emi- burg (d. 1691), and was born at Emden on the 25th of December nence, Scout Scar, which commands an extensive view towards 1667. Her father held important positions under the elector Windermere and the southern mountains of the Lake District. of Brandenburg; her brother Matthias John (1661-1747) won The church of the Holy Trinity, the oldest part of which dates great fame as a soldier in Germany and was afterwards com- from about 1200, is a Gothic building with five aisles and a square mander-in-chief of the army of the republic of Venice. Having tower. In it is the helmet of Major Robert Philipson, who rode entered the household of Sophia, electress of Hanover, Melusina into the church during service in search of one of Cromwell's attracted the notice of her son, the future king, whose mistress officers, Colonel Briggs, to do vengeance on him. This major she became about 1690. When George crossed over to England was notorious as “Robin the Devil," and his story is told in in 1714, the “Schulenburgin," as Sophia called her, followed him Scott's Rokeby. Among the public buildings are the town hall, and soon supplanted her principal rival, Charlotte Sophia, classic in style; the market house, and literary and scientific Baroness von Kilmannsegge (c. 1673-1725), afterwards countess institution, with a museum containing a fossil collection from the of Darlington, as his first favourite. In 1716 she was created limestone of the locality. Educational establishments include a duchess of Munster; then duchess of Kendal; and in 1723 the free grammar school, in modern buildings, founded in 1525 and emperor Charles VI. made her a princess of the Empire. The well endowed; a blue-coat school, science and art school, and duchess was very avaricious and obtained large sums of money green-coat Sunday school (1813). Onan eminence east of the town by selling public offices and titles; she also sold patent rights, are the ruins of Kendal le, attributed to the first barons of one of these being the privilege of supplying Ireland with a new Kendal. It was the birthplace of Catherine Parr, Henry VIII.'s copper coinage. This she sold to a Wolverhampton iron mer- last queen. On the Castlebrow Hill, an artificial mound prob- chant named William Wood (1671-1730), who flooded the country ably of pre-Norman origin, an obelisk was raised in 1788 in with coins known as “ Wood's halfpence,” thus giving occasion memory of the revolution of 1688. The woollen manufactures for the publication of Swift's famous Drapier's Letters. In poli- of Kendal have been noted since 1331, when Edward III. is said tical matters she had much influence with the king, and she to have granted letters of protection to John Kemp, a Flemish received £10,000 for procuring the recall of Bolingbroke from weaver who settled in the town; ani, although the coarse cloth 728 KENDALL-KĒNG TŪNG known to Shakespeare as “Kendal green” is no longer made, its He then started an agitation throughout cãe country ló ventilate place is more than supplied by active manufactures of tweeds, his grievances, and in 1875 was elected to parliament for Stoke; railway rugs, horse clothing, knitted woollen caps and jackets, but no meniber would introduce him when he took his seat. worsted and woollen yarns, and similar goods. Other manu- Dr Kenealy, as he was always called, gradually ceased to factures of Kendal are machine-made boots and shoes, cards for attract attention, and on the 16th of April 1880 he died in wool and cotton, agricultural and other machinery, paper, and, London. He published a great quantity of verse, and also of in the neighbourhood, gunpowder. There is a large weekly somewhat mystical theology. His second daughter, Dr Arabella market for grain, and annual horse and cattle fairs. The Kenealy, besides practising as a physician, wrote some clever town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. novels. Area, 2622 acres. KËNG TỪNG, the most extensive of the Shan States in the The outline of a Roman fort is traceable at Watercrook near province of Burma. It is in the southern Shan States' charge Kendal. The barony and castle of Kendal or Kirkby-in-Kendal, and lies almost entirely east of the Salween river. The area of held by Turold before the Conquest, were granted by William I. the state is rather over 12,000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the to Ivo de Taillebois, but the barony was divided into three parts states of Mang Lön, Möng Lem and Kēng Hùng (Hsip Hšawng in the reign of Richard II., one part with the castle passing to Pannā), the two latter under Chinese control; E. by the Mekong Sir William Parr, knight, ancestor of Catherine Parr. After river, on the farther side of which is French Lao territory; S. by the death of her brother William Parr, marquess of Northampton, the Siamese Shan States, and W.in a general way by the Salwcen his share of the barony called Marquis Fee reverted to Queen river, though it overlaps it in some places. The state is known Elizabeth. The castle, being evidently deserted, was in ruins in to the Chinese as Mêng Kêng, and was frequently called by the 1586. Kendal was plundered by the Scots in 1210, and was Burmese “the 32 cities of the Gôn ” (Hkön). Kêng Tùng has visited by the rebels in 1715 and again in 1745 when the Pre-expanded very considerably since the establishment of British tender was proclaimed king there. Burgesses in Kendal are men- control, by the inclusion of the districts of Hsen Yawt, Hsen tioned in 1345, and the borough with “court housez” and the Mawng, Möng Hsat, Möng Pu, and the cis-Mekong portions of fee-farm of free tenants is included in a confirmation charter to Kēng Cheng, which in Burmese times were separate charges. Sir William Parr in 1472. Richard III. in 1484 granted the The “classical " name of the state is Khemarata or Khemarata inhabitants of the barony freedom from toll, passage and pont- Tungkapuri. About 63% of the area lics in the basin of the age, and the town was incorporated in 1576 by Queen Elizabeth Mekong river and 37% in the Salween drainage area. The under the title of an alderman and 12 burgesses, but Charles I. in watershed is a high and generally continuous range. Some of 1635 appointed a mayor, 12 aldermen and 20 capital burgesses. its peaks rise to over 7000 ft., and the elevation is nowhere much Under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the corporation was below 5000 ft. Parallel to this successive hill ranges run north again altered. From 1832 to 1885 Kendal sent one member to and south. Mountainous country so greatly predominates parliament, but since the last date its representation has been that the scattered valleys are but as islands in a sea of rugged merged in that of the southern division of the county. A weekly hills. The chief rivers, tributaries of the Salween, are the Nam market on Saturday granted by Richard I. to Roger Fitz Rein- Hka, the Hwe Lông, Nam Pu, and the Nam Hsīm. The first fred was purchased by the corporation from the earl of Lonsdale and last are very considerable rivers. The Nam Hka rises in and Captain Bagot, lords of the maror, in 1885 and 1886. Of the Wa or Vü states, the Nam Hsim on the watershed range in the five fairs which are now held three are ancient, that now held | the centre of the state. Rocks and rapids make both unnavi. on the 29th of April being granted to Marmaduke de Tweng and gable, but much timber goes down the Nam Hsīm. The lower William de Ros in 1307, and those on the 8th and gth of November part of both rivers forms the boundary of Kêng Tùng state. to Christiana, widow of Ingelram de Gynes, in 1333. The chief tributaries of the Mekong are the Nam Nga, the Nam See Victoria County History, Westmorland; Cornelius Nicholson, Lwe, the Nam Yawng, Nam Lin, Nam Hôk and Nam Kök. Of The Annals of Kendal (1861). these the chief is the Nam Lwe, which is navigable in the interior KENDALL, HENRY CLARENCE (1841-1882), Australian of the state, but enters the Mekong by a gorge broken up by poet, son of a missionary, was born in New South Wales on the rocks. The Nam Lin and the Nam Kök are also considerable 18th of April 1841. He received only a slight education, and streams. The lower course of the latter passes by Chieng Rai in 1860 he entered a lawyer's office in Sydney. He had always in Siamese territory. The lower Nam Hôk or Më Huak forms had literary tastes, and sent some of his verses in 1862 to London the boundary with Șiam. to be published in the Athenaeum. Next year he obtained a The existence of minerals was reported by the sawbwa, or chief, clerkship in the Lands Department at Sydney, being afterwards to Francis. Garnier in 1867, but none is worked or located. Gold Teak forests exist in Möng Pu transferred to the Colonial Secretary's office; and he combined is washed in most of the streams. and Möng Hsat, and the sawbwa works them as government con- this work with the writing of poetry and with journalism. His tracts. One-third of the price realized from the sale of the logs at principal volumes of verse were Leaves from an Australian Moulmein iş retained as the government There are teak Forest (1869) and Songs from the Mountains (1880), his feeling forests also in the Mckong drainage area in the south of the state, but for nature, as embodied in Australian landscape and bush-life, there is only a local market for the timber. Rice, as elsewhere in the Shan States, is the chief crop. Next to it is sugar-cape, grown being very true and full of charm. In 1869 he resigned his post both as a field crop and in gardens. Earth-nuts and tobacco are the in the public service, and for some little while was in business only other field crops in the valleys. On the hills, besides rice, cotton, with his brothers. Sir Henry Parkes took an interest in him, poppy and tea are the chief crops. The tea is carelessly grown, badly and eventually appointed him to an inspectorship of forests. prepared, and only consumed locally: A great deal of garden pro- He died on the ist of August 1882. In 1886 a memorial edition is rich in cattle, and exports them to the country west of the Salween. duce is raised in the valleys, especially near the capital. The state of his poems was published at Melbourne. Cotton and opium are exported in large quantities, the former en- KENEALY, EDWARD VAUGHAN HYDE (1819-1880), tirely to China, a good deal of the latter to northern Siam, which also Irish barrister and author, was born at Cork on the 2nd of July King Hùng, and silk from the Siamese Shan States. Cotton and takes shoes and sandals. Tea is carried through westwards from 1819, the son of a local merchant. He was educated at Trinity silk weaving are dying out as industries. Large quantities of shoes College, Dublin; was called to the Irish bar in 1840 and to the and sandals are made of buffalo and bullock hide, with Chinese felt English bar in 1847; and obtained a fair practice in criminal uppers and soft iron hebnails. There is a good deal of pottery work. cases. In 1868 he became a Q.C. and a bencher of Gray's Inn. The chief work in iron is the manufacture of guns, which has been carried on for many years in certain villages of the Sam Tao district. It was not, however, till 1873, when he became leading counsel | The gun barrels and springs are rude but cffective, though not very for the Tichborne claimant, that he came into any great promi- durable. The revenue of the state is collected as the Burmese nence. His violent conduct of the case became a public scandal, thathameda, a rude system of income-tax. From 1890, when the state and after the verdict against his client he started a paper to made its submission, the annual tributary offerings made in Burmese plead his cause and to attack the judges. His behaviour was so offerings were converted into tribute. times were continued to the British government, but in 1894 these For the quinquennial period extreme that in 1874 he was disbenched and disbarred by his Inn. I 1903-1908 the state paid Rs. 30,000 (£2000) annually. KENILWORTH-KENMURE 729 2 The population of the state was enumerated for the first time in castle and grounds, and here in July 1575 he entertained Queen 1901, giving a total of 190,698. According to an estimate made by Elizabeth at “excessive cost,” as described in Scott's Kenil. •Mr G. c. Stirling, the political officer in charge of the state, in 1897– 1898, of the various tribes of Shans, the Hkün and Lü contribute worth. On the queen's first entry a small floating island about 36,000 each, the western Shans 32,000, the Lem and Lao Shans illuminated by a great variety of torches . made its appear- about 7000, and the Chinese Shans about 5000. Of the hill tribes, the ance upon the lake," upon which, clad in silks, were the Lady of Kaw or Aka are the most homogeneous with 22,000, but probably the Lake and two nymphs waiting on her, and for the several the Wa (or Vü), disguised under various tribal names, are at least equally numerous. Nominal Buddhists make up a total of 133,400, days of her stay “rare shews and sports were there exercised." and the remainder are classed as animists. Spirit-worship is, how". During the civil wars the castle was dismantled by the soldiers of ever, very conspicuously prevalent amongst all classes even of the Cromwell and was from that time abandoned to decay. The only Shans. The present sawbwa or chief received his patent from the British government on the 9th of February 1897. The early history mention of Kenilworth as a borough occurs in a charter of of Kêng Tùng is very obscure. but Burmese influence seems to have Henry I. to Geoffrey de Clinton and in the charters of Henry I. been maintained since the latter half, at any rate, of the 16th century. and Henry II. to the church of St Mary of Kenilworth confirming The Chinese made several attempts to subdue the state, and appear the grant of lands made by Geoffrey to this church, and mention- to have taken the capital in 1765-66, but were driven out by the ing that he kept the land in which his castle was situated and united Shan and Burmese troops. The same fate seems to have attended the first Siamese invasion of 1804. The second and third also land for making his borough, park and fishpond. The Siamese invasions, in 1852 and 1854, resulted in great disaster to the town possesses large tanneries. invaders, though the capital was invested for a time. KENITES, in the Bible a tribe or clan of the south of Kêng Tùng, the capital, is situated towards the southern end of a Palestine, closely associated with the Amalekites, whose hostility valley about 12 m. long and with an average breadth of 7 m. The town is surrounded by a brick wall and moat about 5 m. round. towards Israel, however, it did not share. On this account Saul Only the central and northern portions are much built over. Pop. spared them when bidden by Yahweh to destroy Amalek; (1901), 5695. It is the most considerable town in the British Shan David, too, whilst living in Judah, appears to have been on States. In the dry season crowds attend the market held according friendly terms with them (1 Sam. xv. 6; xxx. 29). Moses himself to Shan custom every five days, and numerous caravans come from China. The military post formerly was 7 m. west of the town, at married into a Kenite family (Judges i. 16), and the variant the foot of the watershed range. At first the headquarters of a tradition would seem to show that the Kenites were only a regiment was stationed there; this was reduced to a wing, and branch of the Midianites (see JETHRO, Midian). Jael, the recently to military police. The site was badly chosen and proved slayer of Sisera (see DEBORAH), was the wife of Heber the very unhealthy, and the headquarters both military and civil have been transferred to Loi Ngwe Lông, a ridge 6500 ft. above sea levei Kenite, who lived near Kadesh in Naphtali; and the appear- 12 m. south of the capital. The rainfall probably averages between ance of the clan in this locality may be explained from the 50 and 60 in. for the year. The temperature seems to rise to nearly nomadic habits of the tribe, or else as a result of the northward 100°F. during the hot weather, falling 30° or more during the night. movement in which at least one other clan or tribe took part (see In the cold weather à temperature of 40° or a few degrees more or less appears to be the lowest experienced. The plain in which the Dan). There is an obscure allusion to their destruction in an capital stands has an altitude of 3000 ft. (J. G. Sc.) appendage to the oracles of Balaam (Num. xxiv. 21 seq., see G. B. Gray, Intern. Crit. Comm. p. 376); and with this, the only KENILWORTH, a market town in the Rugby parliamentary unfavourable reference to them, may perhaps be associated the division of Warwickshire, England; pleasantly situated on a curse of Cain. Although some connexion with the name of tributary of the Avon, on a branch of the London & North-Cain is probable, it is difficult, however, to explain the curse Western railway, 99 m. N.W. from London. Pop. of urban (for one view, see LEVITES). More important is the prominent district (1901), 4544. The town is only of importance from its part played by the Kenite (or Midianite) father-in-law of Moses, antiquarian interest and the magnificent ruins of its old castle. whose help and counsel are related in Exod. xvii.; and if, as The walls originally enclosed an area of 7 acres. The principal seems probable, the Rechabites (9.0.) were likewise of Kenite portions of the building remaining are the gatehouse, now used origin (1 Chron. ii. 55), this obscure tribe had evidently an as a dwelling-house; Caesar's tower, the only portion built by important part in shaping the religion of Israel. Geoffrey de Clinton now extant, with massive walls 16 ft. thick; See on this question, Hebrew Religion, and Budde, Religion of the Merwyn's tower of Scott's Kenilworth; the great hall built Israel to the Exile, vol. i.; G. A. Barton, Semitic Origins, pp. 272 by John of Gaunt with windows of very beautiful design; and sqq.; L. B. Paton, Biblical World (1906, July and August). On the Leicester buildings, which are in a very ruinous condition. the migration of the Kenites into Palestine (cf. Num. X. 29 with Not far from the castle are the remains of an Augustinian Judges i. 16), see Caleb, Genesis, JERAHMEEL, JUDAH. (S. A. C.)" monastery founded in 1122, and afterwards made an abbey. KENMORE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 6 m. Adjoining the abbey is the parish church of St Nicholas, restored W. of Aberfeldy. Pop. of parish (1901), 1271. It is situated in 1865, a structure of mixed architecture, containing a fine at the foot of Loch Tay, near the point where the river Tay Norman doorway, which is supposed to have been the entrance leaves the lake. Taymouth Castle, the seat of the Marquess of the former abbey church. of Breadalbane, stands near the base of Drummond Hill in a Kenilworth (Chinewrde, Kenillewurda, Kinelingworthe, Koni- princely park through which flows the Tay. It is a stately four- lord, Killingworth) is said to have been a member of Stone-storeyed edifice with corner towers and a central pavilion, and leigh before the Norman Conquest and a possession of the Saxon was built in 1801 (the west wing being added in 1842) on the site kings, whose royal residence there was destroyed in the wars of the mansion erected in 1580 for Sir Colin Campbell of Glen- between Edward and Canute. The town was granted by orchy. The old house was called Balloch (Gaelic, bealach, “the Henry I. to Geoffrey de Clinton, a Norman who built the castle outlet of a lake"). Two miles S.W. of Kenmore are the Falls of round which the whole history of Kenilworth centres. He also the Acharn, 80 ft. high. When Wordsworth and his sister founded a monastery here about 1122. Geoffrey's grandson visited them in 1803 the grotto at the cascade was fitted up to released his right to King John, and the castle remained with represent a "hermit's mossy cell.” At the village of Fortingall, the crown until Henry III. granted it to Simon de Montfort, on the north side of Loch Tay, are the shell of a yew conjectured earl of Leicester, The famous “ Dictum de Kenilworth to be 3000 years old and the remains of a Roman camp. Glen- proclaimed here in 1266. After the battle of Evesham the rebel lyon House was the home of Campbell of Glenlyon, chief agent forces rallied at the castle, which, after a siege of six months, was in the massacre of Glencoe. At Garth, 21 m. N.E., are the surrendered by Henry de Hastings, the.governor, on account of ruins of an ancient castle, said to have been a stronghold of the scarceness of food and of the “pestilent disease ” which Alexander Stewart, the Wolf of Badenoch (1343–1405), in close raged there. The king then granted it to his son Edmund. proximity to the modern mansion built for Sir Donald Currie. Through John of Gaunt it came to Henry IV. and was granted KENMURE, WILLIAM GORDON, 6th viscount (d. 1716), by Elizabeth in 1562 to Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of Jacobite leader, son of Alexander, 5th viscount (d. 1698), was Leicester, but on his death in 1588 again merged in the posses- descended from the same family as Sir John Gordon of Loch- sions of the Crown. The ea.rl spent large sums on restoring the linvar (d. 1604), whose grandson, Sir John Gordon (d. 1634), was was 730 KENNEDY-KENNEDY, B. H. <6 created Viscount Kenmure in 1633. The family had generally | abbot wrote several works defending the doctrines of the Roman adhered to the Presbyterian cause, but Robert, the 4th viscount, Catholic Church, and in 1562 had a public discussion on these had been excepted fro: the amnesty granted to the Scottish questions with John Knox, whieh took place at Maybole and royalists in 1654, and the 5th viscount, who had succeeded his lasted for three days. He died on the 22nd of August 1564. kinsman Robert in 1663, after some vacillation, had joined the Gilbert Kennedy, 4th earl of Cassillis (c. 1541-1576), called court of the exiled Stuarts. The 6th viscount's adherence to the the “ king of Carrick,” became a protestant, but fought for Pretender in 1715 is said to have been due to his wife Mary Queen Mary at Langside in 1568. He is better known through Dalzell (d. 1776), sister of Robert, 6th earl of Carnwath. He his cruel treatment of Allan Stewart, the commendator abbot raised the royal standard of Scotland at Lochmaben on the 12th of Crossraguel, Stewart being badly burned by the earl's orders of October 1715, and was joined by about two hundred gentle at Dunure in 1570 in order to compel him to renounce his title men, with Carnwath, William Maxwell, sth earl of Nithsdale, to the abbey lands which had been seized by Cassillis. This and George Seton, 5th earl of Wintoun. This sinall force ane werry greedy man" died at Edinburgh in December received some additions before Kenmure reached Hawick, 1576. His son John (c. 1567-1615), who became the 5th earl, where he learnt the news of the English rising. He effected was lord high treasurer of Scotland in 1999 and his lifetime wit- a junction with Thomas Forster and James Radclyffe, 3rd carl nessed the culmination of a great ſeud between the senior and a of Derwent water, at Rothbury. Their united forces of some younger branch of the Kennedy family. He was succeeded as fourteen hundred men, after a series of rather aimless marches, oth earl by his nephew John (c. 1595-1668), called “ the grave halted at Kelso, where they were reinforced by a brigade under and solemn earl.” A strong presbyterian, John was one of the William Mackintosh. Threatened by an English army under leaders of the Scots in their resistance to Charles I. In 1643 he General George Carpenter, they eventually crossed the English went to the Westminster Assembly of Divines and several times border to join the Lancashire Jacobites, and the command was he was sent on missions to Charles I. and to Charles II.; for a time taken over by Forster, Kenmure was taken prisoner at Preston he was lord justice general and he was a member of Cromwell's on the 13th of November, and was sent to the Tower. In the House of Lords. His son, John, became the 7th earl, and one of following January he was tried with other Jacobite noblemen his daughters, Margaret, married Gilbert Burnet, afterwards before the House of Lords, when he pleaded guilty, and appealed bishop of Salisbury. His first wife, Jean (1607-1642), daughter to the king's mercy. Immediately before his execution on of Thomas Hamilton, ist earl of Haddington, has been regarded Tower Hill on the 24th of February he reiterated his belief in the as the heroine of the ballad “The Gypsie Laddie,” but this claims of the Pretender. His estates and titles were forfeited, identity is now completely disproved. John, the 7th earl," the but in 1824 an act of parliament repealed the forfeiture, and his heir,” says Burnet, " to his father's stiffness, but not to his other direct descendant, John Gordon (1750-1840), became Viscount virtues," supported the revolution of 1688 and died on the 23rd Kenmure. On the death of the succeeding peer, Adam, 8th of July 1701; his grandson John, the 8th earl, died without sons viscount, without issue in 1847, the title became dormant. in August 1759. KENNEDY, the name of a famous and powerful Scottish The titles and estates of the Kennedys were now claimed by family long settled in Ayrshire, derived probably from the name William Douglas, afterwards duke of Queensberry, a great-grand- Kenneth. Its chief seat is at Culzean, or Colzean, near Maybole son in the female line of the 7th earl and also by Sir Thomas in Ayrshire. Kennedy, Bart., of Culzean, a descendant of the 3rd earl, i.e. by A certain Duncan who became earl of Carrick early in the the heir general and the heir male. In January 1762 the House 13th century is possibly an ancestor of the Kennedys, but a of Lords decided in favour of the heir male, and Sir Thomas more certain ancestor is John Kennedy of Dunure, who obtained became the 9th earl of Cassillis. He died unmarried on the 30th Cassillis and other lands in Ayrshire about 1350. John's of November 1775, and his brother David, the 10th earl, also died descendant, Sir James Kennedy, married Mary, a daughter of unmarried on the 18th of December 1792, when the baronetcy, King Robert III. and their son, Sir Gilbert Kennedy, was became extinct. The earldom of Cassillis now passed to a cousin, created Lord Kennedy before 1458. Another son was James Archibald Kennedy, a captain in the royal navy, whose father, Kennedy (c. 1406-1465), bishop of St Andrews from 1441 until Archibald Kennedy (d. 1763), had migrated to America in 1722 his death in July 1465. The bishop founded and endowed Stand had become collector of customs in New York. His son, Salvator's college at St Andrews and built a large and famous the 11th earl, had estates in New Jersey and married an American ship called the “St Salvator." Andrew Lang (History of heiress; in 1765 he was said to own more houses in New York Scotland, vol. i.) says of him, “The chapel which he built for than any one else. He died in London on the 30th of December his college is still thronged by the scarlet gowns of his students; 1794, and was succeeded by his son Archibald (1770-1846), who his arms endure on the oaken doors; the beautiful silver mace was created Baron Ailsa in 1806 and marquess of Ailsa in 1831. of his gift, wrought in Paris, and representing all orders of His great-grandson Archibald (b. 1847) became 3rd marquess. spirits in the universe, is one of the few remaining relics of See the article in vol. ii, of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, ancient Scottish plate." Before the bishop had begun to assist cdited by Sir J. B. Paul (1905). This is written by Lord Ailsa's in ruling Scotland, a kinsman, Sir Hugh Kennedy, had helped son and heir, Archibald Kennedy, earl of Cassillis (b. 1872). Joan of Arc to drive the English from France. KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL (1804-1889), English scholar, One of Gilbert Kennedy's sons was the poet, Walter Kennedy was born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, on the 6th of (q.v.), and his grandson David, third Lord Kennedy (killed at November 1804, the eldest son of Rann Kennedy (1772-1851), Flodden, 1513), was created earl of Cassillis before 1510; David's who came of a branch of the Ayrshire family which had settled sister Janet Kennedy was one of the mistresses of James IV. in Staffordshire. Rann Kennedy was a scholar and man of The carl was succeeded by his son Gilbert, a prominent figure in letters, several of whose sons rose to distinction. B. H. the history of Scotland from 1513 until he was killed at Prestwick Kennedy was educated at Birmingham and Shrewsbury on the 22nd of December 1527. His son Gilbert, the 3rd earl schools, and St John's College, Cambridge. After a brilliant (c. 1517-1558), was educated by George Buchanan, and was a university career he was elected fellow and classical lecturer of prisoner in England after the rout of Solway Moss in 1542. St John's College in 1828. Two years later he became an assis- He was soon released and was lord high treasurer of Scotland | tant master at Harrow, whence he went to Shrewsbury as head- from 1554 to 1558, although he had been intriguing with the master in 1836. He retained this post until 1866, the thirty English and had offered to kill Cardinal Beaton in the interests years of his rule being marked by a long series of successes won of Henry VIII. He died somewhat mysteriously at Dieppe by his pupils, chiefly in classics. When he retired from Shrews- late in 1558 when returning from Paris, where he had attended bury a large sum was collected as a testimonial to him, and was the marriage of Mary Queen of Scots, and the dauphin of France. devoted partly to the new school buildings and partly to the He was the father of the “ king of Carrick" and the brother of founding of a Latin professorship at Cambridge. The first two Quiniin Kennedy (1520-1564), abbot of Crossraguel. The occupants of the chair were both Kennedy's old pupils, H. A. J. KENNEDY, T. F.-KENNETH 731 Munro and J. E. B. Mayor. In 1867 he was elected regius pro- at Glasgow University in 1475 and took his M.A. degree in 1478. fessor of Greek at Cambridge and canon of Ely. From 1870 to In 1481 he was one of four examiners in his university, and in 1880 he was a member of the committee for the revision of the 1492 he acted as depute for his nephew, the hereditary bailie of New Testament. He was an enthusiastic advocate for the Carrick. He is best known for his share in the Flyting with admission of women to a university education, and took a proni-Dunbar (q.v.). In this coarse combat of wits Dunbar taunts his nent part in the establishment of Newnham and Girton colleges. rival with his Highland speech (the poem is an expression of He was also a keen politician of liberal sympathies. He died Gaelic and“ Inglis," i.e. English, antagonism); and implies that near Torquay on the 6th of April 1889. Among a number of he had been involved in treason, and had disguised himself classical school-books published by him are two, a Public School as a beggar in Galloway. With the exception of this share in Latin Primer and Public School Latin Grammar, which were for the Flyling Kennedy's poems are chiefly religious in character. long in use in nearly all English schools. They include The Praise of Aige, Ane Agit Manis Invective His other chief works are: Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus (and against Mouth Thankless, Ane Ballat in Praise of Our Lady, The ed., 1885), Aristophanes, Birds (1874); Aeschylus, Agamemnon Passion of Christ and Pious Counsale. They are printed in the (2nd ed., 1882), with introduction, metrical translation and rare supplement to David Laing's edition of William Dunbar notes; a commentary on Virgil (3rd ed., 1881); and a translation (1834), and they have been re-edited by Dr J. Schipper in the of Plato, Theaetetus (1881). He contributed largely to the collec- proceedings of the Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften (Vienna). tion known as Sabrinae Corolla, and published a collection of See also the prolegomena in the Scottish Text Society's edition verse in Greek, Latin and English under the title of Between of Dunbar; and (for the life) Pitcairn's edition of the Historie of the Whiles (2nd ed., 1882), with many autobiographical details. Kennedies (1830). His brother, CHARLES RANN KENNEDY (1808–1867), was KENNEL, a small hut or shelter for a dog, also extended to a educated at Shrewsbury school and Trinity College, Cambridge, group of buildings for a pack of hounds (see Doc). The word is where he graduated as senior classic (1831). He then became apparently from a Norman-French kenil (this form does not a barrister. From 1849-1856 he was professor of law at occur, but is seen in the Norman kinet, a little dog), modern Queen's College, Birmingham. As adviser to Mrs Swinfen, French chenil, from popular Latin canile, place for a dog, canis, the plaintiff in the celebrated will case Swinfen v. Swinfen cf. ovile, sheep-cote. The word "kennel,” a gutter, a drain in (1856), he brought an action for remuneration for professional a street or road, is a corruption of the Middle English canel, services, but the verdict given in his favour at Warwick cannel, in modern English "channel,” from Latin canalis, assizes was set aside by the court of Common Pleas, on the canal. ground that a barrister could not sue for the recovery of his fees. KENNETH, the name of two kings of the Scots. The excellence of Kennedy's scholarship is abundantly proved KENNETH I., MacAlpin (d. c. 860), often described as the first by his translation of the orations of Demosthenes (1852-1863, in king of Scotland (kingdom of Scone), was the son of the Alpin, Bohn's Classical Library), and his blank verse translation of the called king of the Scots, who had been slain by the Picts in 832 works of Virgil (1861). He was also the author of New Rules or 834, whilst endeavouring to assert his claim to the Pictish for Pleading (2nd ed., 1841) and A Treatise on Annuities (1846). throne. On the death of his father, Kenneth is said to have He died in Birmingham on the 17th of December 1867. succeeded him in the kingdom of the Scots. The region of his Another brother, Rev. WILLIAM JAMES KENNEDY (1814–1891), rule is matter of conjecture, though Galloway seems the rnost was a prominent educationalist, and the father of Lord Justice probable suggestion, in which case he probably led a piratic host Sir William Rann Kennedy (b. 1846), himself a distinguished against the Picts. On the father's side was descended from the Cambridge scholar. Conall Gabhrain of the old Dalriadic Scottish kingdom, and the KENNEDY, THOMAS FRANCIS (1788–1879), Scottish politi- claims of father and son to the Pictish throne were probably cian, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and through female descent. Their chief support seems to have became advocate in 1811. Having been elected M.P. for the been found in Fife. In the seventh year of his reign Ayr burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life (839 or 841) he took advantage of the effects of a Danish to the promotion of Liberal reforms. In 1820 he married the invasion of the Pictish kingdom to attack the remaining only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted Picts, whom he finally subdued in 844 or 846. In 846 or 848 by Lord Cockburn, then Mr Henry Cockburn, and a volume of he transported the relics of St Columba to a church which he correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious had constructed at Scone. He is said also to have carried out and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on six invasions of Northumbria, in the course of which he burnt measures which they regarded as requisite for the political Dunbar and took Melrose. According to the Scalacronica of regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures Sir Thomas Gray he drove the Angles and Britons over the Tweed, to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the reduced the land as far as that river, and first called his kingdom power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting Scotland. In his reign there appears to have been a serious of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other invasion by Danish pirates, in which Cluny and Dunkeld were subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper burnt. He died in 860 or 862, after a reign of twenty-eight administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal pro- years, at Forteviot and was buried at Iona. The double dates cedure which then prevailed. In the construction of the Scottish are due to a contest of authorities. Twenty-eight years is the Reform Act Kennedy took a prominent part; indeed he and accepted length of his reign, and according to the chronicle of Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After Henry of Huntingdon it began in 832. The Pictish Chronicle, the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held various impor- however, gives Tuesday, the 13th of February as the day, and tant offices in the ministry, and most of the measures of reform this suits 862 only, in which case his reign would begin for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the in 834. law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to KENNETH II. (d. 995), son of Malcolm I., king of Alban, his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay- succeeded Cuilean, son of Indulph, who had been slain by the master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of Britons of Strathclyde in 971 in Lothian. Kenneth began his various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office reign by ravaging the British kingdom, but he lost a large part in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs, of his force on the river Cornag. Soon afterwards he attacked and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county Eadulf, earl of the northern half of Northumbria, and ravaged and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and the whole of his territory. He fortified the fords of the Forth as a determined haired of everything savouring of jobbery or a defence against the Britons and again invaded Northumbria, dishonesty. carrying off the earl's son. About this time he gave the city of KENNEDY, WALTER (c. 1460-c. 1508), Scottish poet, was Brechin to the church. In 977 he is said to have slain Amlaiph the third son of Gilbert, ist Lord Kennedy. He matriculated l or Olaf, son of Indulpl, king of Alban, perhaps a rival claimant 732 KENNETT-KENNICOTT 1 1 to the throne. According to the English chroniclers, Kenneth of light operas, and was the author of several popular songs, paid homage to King Edgar for the cession of Lothian, but these the best known.of which were “ Soft and Low" (1865) and statements are probably due to the controversy as to the posi- The Vagabond ” (1871). He also published a Memoir of tion of Scotland. The mormaers, or chiefs, of Kenneth were M.W. Balfe (1875), and translated the Correspondence of Balzac engaged throughout his reign in a contest with Sigurd the Nor- Hc included Thackeray and Dickens among his friends in a wegian, earl of Orkney, for the possession of Caithness and the literary coterie in which he enjoyed the reputation of a wit and northern district of Scotland as far south as the Spey. In this an accomplished writer of vers de société. He died in London on struggle the Scots attained no permanent success. In 995 the 25th of August 1881. Kenneth, whose strength like that of the other kings of his See Jchn Genest, Some Account of the English Slage, 1660-1830, branch of the house of Kenneth MacAlpin lay chiefly north of vols. vii. and viii. (10 vols., London, 1832); P. W. Clayden, Rogers the Tay, was slain treacherously by his own subjects, according and his Contemporaries (2 vols., London, 1889); Dict. National Biog to the later chroniclers at Fettercairn in the Mearns through an KENNGOTT, GUSTAV ADOLPH (1818-1897), German intrigue of Einvela, daughter of the earl of Angus. He was mineralogist, was born at Breslau on the 6th of January, 1818, buried at Iona. After being employed in the Hofmineralien Cabinet at Vienna, See Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, ed. W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, he became professor of mineralogy in the university of Zürich, 1867), and W. F. Škene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 1876). He was distinguished for his researches on mineralogy, crystallo- KENNETT, WHITE (1660-1728), English bishop and anti-graphy and petrology. He died at Lugano, on the 7th of quary, was born at Dover in August 1660. He was educated March 1897. at Westminster school and at St Edmund's Hall, Oxford, where, PUBLICATIONS.—Lehrbuch der reinen Krystallographie (1846); while an undergraduate, he published several translations of Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1852 and 1857; 5th ed., 1880); Übersicht Latin works, including Erasmus In Praise of Folly. In 1685 der Resultate mineralogischer Forschungen in den Jahren 1844-1865 he became vicar of Ambrosden, Oxfordshire. A few years after-(7 vols., 1852-1868); Die Minerale der Schweiz (1866); Elemente der wards he returned to Oxford as tutor and vice-principal of St Petrographie (1868). Edmund's Hall, where he gave considerable impetus to the study KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN (1718-1783), English divine and of antiquities. George Hickes gave him lessons in Old English. Hebrew scholar, was born at Totnes, Devonshire, on the 4th of In 1695 he published Parochial Antiquities. In 1700 he became April 1718. He succeeded his father as master of a charity rector of St Botolph's, Aldgate, London, and in 1701 archdeacon school, but by the liberality of friends he was enabled to go to of Huntingdon. For a eulogistic sermon on the first duke of Wadham College, Oxford, in 1744, where he distinguished him- Devonshire he was in 1707 recommended to the deanery of self in Hebrew and divinity: While an undergraduate he Peterborough. He afterwards joined the Low Church party, published two dissertations, On the Tree of Life in Paradise, with strenuously opposed the Sacheverel movement, and in the some Observations on the Fall of Man, and on the Oblations of Cain Bangorian controversy supported with great zeal and consider- and Abel (2nd ed., 1747), which procured him the honour of a able bitterness the side of Bishop Hoadly. His intimacy with bachelor's degree before the statutory time. In 1747 he was Charles Trimnell, bishop of Norwich, who was high in favour elected fellow of Exeter College, and in 1750 he took his degree with the king, secured for him in 1718 the bishopric of Peter- of M.A. In 1764 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, borough. He died at Westminster in December 1728. and in 1767 keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He was also Kennett published in 1698 an edition of Sir Henry Spelman's canon of Christ Church (1770) and rector of Culham (1753), in History of. Sacrilege, and he was the author of fifty-seven printed Oxfordshire, and was subsequently presented to the living of works, chiefly tracts and sermons. He wrote the third volume Menheniot, Cornwall, which he was unable to visit and resigned (Charles I.-Anne) of the composite Compleat History of England two years before his death. He died at Oxford, on the 18th of (1706), and a more detailed and valuable Register and Chronicle of the Restoration. He was much interested in the Society for the September 1783. Propagation of the Gospel. His chief work is the Velus Testamentum hebraicum cum variis The Life of Bishop White Kennett, by the Rev. William Newton lectionibus (2 vols. fol., Oxford, 1776-1780). Before this appeared (anonymous),, appeared in 1730. See also Nichols's Literary he had written two dissertations entitled The State of the Printed Anecdotes, and I. Disraeli's Calamities of Authors. Hebrew Text of the Old Testament considered, published respectively KENNEY, JAMES (1780–1849), English dramatist, was the ideas as to the in 1753 and 1759; which were designed to combat the then current absolute integrity" of the received Hebrew text. son of James Kenney, one of the founders of Boodles' Club in The first contains a comparison of 1 Chron. xi. with 2 Sam. v. and London. His first play, a farce called Raising the Wind (1803), xxiji. and observations on seventy MSS., with an extract of mistakes was a success owing to the popularity of the character of and various readings"; the second defends the claims of the Samari- tan Pentateuch, assails the correctness of the printed copies of the “ Jeremy Diddler.” Kenney produced more than forty dramas Chaldee paraphrase, gives an account of Hebrew MSS. of the Bible and operas between 1803 and 1845, and many of his pieces, in known to be extant, and catalogues one hundred MSS. preserved in which Mrs Siddons, Madame Vestris, Foote, Lewis, Liston and the British Museum and in the libraries of Cambridge. other leading players appeared from time to time, enjoyed a In 1760 he issued his proposals for collating all Hebrew MSS. of date considerable vogue. His most popular play was Sweethearts and prior to the invention of printing. Subscriptions to the amount of nearly £10,000 were obtained, and many learned men addressed Wives, produced at the Haymarket theatre in 1823, and several themselves to the work of collation, Bruns of Helmstadt making times afterwards revived; and among the most successful of his himself specially useful as regarded MSS. in Germany, Switzerland annual accounts of the other works were : Falsc Alarms (1807), a comic opera with music and Italy., Between 1760 and 1769 ten by Braham; Love, Law and Physic (1812); Spring and Autumn progress of the work were given; in its course 615 Hebrew MSS. and 52 printed editions of the Bible were either wholly, or partially (1827); The Illustrious Stranger, or Married and Buried (1827); collated, and use was also made (but often very perfunctorily) of Masaniello (1829); The Sicilian Vespers, a tragedy (1840). the quotations in the Talmud. The materials thus collected, when Kenney, who numbered Charles Lamb and Samuel Rogers among properly arranged and made ready for the press, extended to 30 vols. his friends, died in London on the 25th of July 1849. He married lol. The text finally followed in printing was that of Van der the widow of the dramatist Thomas Holcroft, by whom he had in collation-and the various readings were printed at the foot of Hooght-unpointed however, the points having been disregarded two sons and two daughters. the page. The Samaritan Pentateuch stands alongside the Hebrew His second son, CHARLES LAMB KENNEY (1823-1881), made in parallel columns.. The Dissertatio generalis, appended to the a name as a journalist, dramatist and miscellancous writer. ties collated, and also a review of the Hebrew text, divided into second volume, contains an account of the MSS. and other authori- Commencing life as a clerk in the General Post Office in London, periods, and beginning with the formation of the Hebrew canon after he joined the staff of The Times, to which paper he contributed the return of the Jews from the exile. Kennicott's great work was dramatic criticism. In 1856, having been called to the bar, he in one sense a failure. It yielded no materials of value for the became secretary to Ferdinand de Lesseps, and in 1857 he pub- points overlooked the one thing in which some result (grammatical emendation of the received text, and by disregarding the vowel lished The Gates of the East in support of the projected construc- if not critical) might have been derived from collation of Massoretic tion of the Suez Canal. Kenney wrote the words for a number | MSS. But the negative result of the publication and of the Variæ 64 KENNINGTON-KENSINGTON 733 lectiones of De Rossi, published some years later, was important. area known as West Kensington is within the borough of It showed that the Hebrew text can be emended only by the use of Fulham. the versions aided by conjecture. Kennicott's work was perpetuated by his widow, who founded The name appears in early forms as Chenesitun and Kenesitune. two university scholarships at Oxford for the study of Hebrew. Its origin is obscure, and has been variously connected with a The fund yields an income of £200 per annuin. Saxon royal residence (King's town), a family of the name of KENNINGTON, a district in the south of London, England, Chenesi, and the word caen, meaning wood, from the forest within the municipal borough of Lambeth. There was a royal which originally covered the district and was still traceable palące here until the reign of Henry VII. Kennington Common, in Tudor times. The most probable derivation, however, finds now represented by Kennington Park, was the site of a gallows in the name a connection with the Saxon tribe or family of until the end of the 18th century, and was the meeting-place Kensings. The history of the manor is traceable from the time appointed for the great Chartist demonstration of the roth of of Edward the Confessor, and after the Conquest it was held April 1848. Kennington Oval is the ground of the Surrey of the Bishop of Coutances by Aubrey de Vere. Soon after this County Cricket Club. (See LAMBETH.) it became the absolute property of the de Veres, who were KENORA (formerly Rat PORTAGE), a town and port of entry subsequently created Earls of Oxford. The place of the manorial in Ontario, Canada, and the chief town of Rainy River district, courts is preserved in the name of the modern district of Earl's situated at an altitude of 1087 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1891), Court. With a few short intervals the manor continued in the 1806; (1901) 5222. It is 133 m. by rail east of Winnipeg, on direct line until Tudor times. There were also three sub- the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the outlet of the Lake of manors, one given by the first Aubrey de Vere early in the the Woods. The Winnipeg river has at this point a fall of 16 ſt., 12th century to the Abbot of Abingdon, whence the present which, with the lake as a reservoir, furnishes an abundant and parish church is called St Mary Abbots; while in another, unfailing water-power. The industrial establishments comprise Knotting Barnes, the origin of the name Notting Hill is found. reduction works, saw-mills and flour-mills, one of the latter The brilliant period of history for which Kensington is famous being the largest in Canada. It is the distributing point for the may be dated from the settlement of the Court here by William gold mines of the district, and during the summer months III. The village, as it was then, had a reputation for healthiness steamboat communication is maintained on the lake. There is through its gravel soil and pure atmosphere. A mansion stand- important sturgeon fishing. ing on the western flank of the present Kensington Gardens had KENOSHA, a city and the county-seat of Kenosha county, been the seat of Heneage Finch, Lord Chancellor and afterwards Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, 35 m. S. Earl of Nottingham. It was known as Nottingham House, but of Milwaukee and 50 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 11,606, when bought from the second earl by William, who was desirous of whom 3333 were foreign-born; (1910), 21,371. It is of avoiding residence in London as he suffered from asthma, it served by the Chicago & North-Western railway, by inter- became known as Kensington Palace. The extensive additions urban electric lines connecting with Chicago and Milwaukee, and alterations made by Wren according to the taste of the and by freight and passenger steamship lines on Lake Michigan. King resulted in a severely plain edifice of brick; the orangery, It has a good harbour and a considerable lake commerce. The added in Queen Anne's time, is a better example of the same city is finely situated on high bluffs above the lake, and is widely architect's work. In the palace died Mary, William's consort, known for its healthiness. At Kenosha is the Gilbert. M. William himself, Anne and George II., whose wife Caroline did Simmons library, with 19,300 volumes in 1908. Just south much to beautify Kensington Gardens, and formed the beautiful of the city is Kemper Hall, a Protestant Episcopal school for lake called the Serpentine (1733). But a higher interest attaches girls, under the charge of the Sisters of St Mary, opened in to the palace as the birthplace of Queen Victoria in 1819; and 1870 as a memorial to Jackson Kemper (1789–1870), the first here her accession was announced to her. By her order, missionary bishop (1835-1859), and the first bishop of Wis- towards the close of her life, the palace became open to the consin (1854–1870) of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Among public. Kenosha's manufactures are brass and iron beds (the Simmons Modern influences, one of the most marked of which is the Manufacturing Co.), mattresses, typewriters, leather and brass widespread erection of vast blocks of residential flats, have swept goods, wagons, and automobiles—the “ Rambler” automobile away much that was reminiscent of the historical connexions being made at Kenosha by Thomas B. Jeffery and Co. There of the “old court suburb." Kensington Square, however, lying is an extensive sole-leather tannery. The total value of the south of High Street in the vicinity of St Mary Abbots church, factory product in 1905 was $12,362,600, the city ranking third still preserves some of its picturesque houses, nearly all of which in product value among the cities of the state. Kenosha, were formerly inhabited by those attached to the court; it originally known as Southport, was settled about 1832, organized numbered among its residents Addison, Talleyrand, John Stuart as the village of Southport in 1842, and chartered in 1850 as a Mill, and Green the historian. In Young Street, opening from city under its present name. the Square, Thackeray lived for many years. His house here, KENSETT, JOHN FREDERICK (1818–1872), American still standing, is most commonly associated with his work, though artist, was born in Cheshire, Connecticut, on the 22nd of March he subsequently moved to Onslow Square and to Palace Green. 1818. After studying engraving he went abroad, took up Another link with the past is found in Holland House, hidden painting, and exhibited at the Royal Academy, London, in in its beautiful park north of Kensington Road. It was built 1845. In 1849 he was elected to the National Academy of by Sir Walter Cope, lord of the manor, in 1607, and obtained its Design, New York, and in 1859 he was appointed a member of present name on coming into the possession of Henry Rich, earl the committee to superintend the decoration of the United of Holland, through his marriage with Cope's daughter. He States Capitol at Washington, D.C. After his death the con- extended and beautified the mansion. General Fairfax and tents of his studio realized at public auction over $150,000. General Lambert are mentioned as occupants after his death, and He painted landscapes more or less in the manner of the Hudson later the property was let, William Penn of Pennsylvania being River School. among those who leased it. Addison, marrying the widow of KENSINGTON, a western metropolitan borough of London, the 6th earl, lived here until his death in 1719. During the England, bounded N.E. by Paddington, and the city of West- tenancy of Henry Fox, third Lord Holland (1773-1840), the minster, S.E. by Chelsea, S.W. by Fulham, N.W. by Hammers- house gained a European reputation as a meeting-place of states- smith, and extending N. to the boundary of the county of men and men of letters. The formal gardens of Holland House London. Pop. (1901), 176,628. It includes the districts of are finely laid out, and the rooms of the house are both beautiful Kensal Green (partly) in the north, Notting Hill in the north in themselves and enriched with collections of pictures, china central portion, Earl's Court in the south-west, and Brompton and tapestries. Famous houses no longer standing were Camp- in the south-east. A considerable but indefinite area adjoining den House, in the district north-west of the parish church, Brompton is commonly called South Kensington; hut the formerly known as the Gravel Pits; and Gore House, on the site 734 KENT, EARLS OF of the present Albert Hall, the residence of William Wilberforce, 1360, and his widow married Edward the Black'Prince, by whom and later of the countess of Blessington. she was the mother of Richard II. The next earl was Holand's The parish church of St Mary Abbots, High Street, occupies eldest son Thomas (1350–1397), who was marshal of England an ancient site, but was built from the designs of Sir Gilbert from 1380 to 1385, and was in high favour with his half-brother, Scott in 1869. It is in Decorated style, and has one of the loftiest Richard II. The 3rd earl of Kent of the Holand family was his spires in England. In the north the borough includes the son Thomas (1374-1400). In September 1397, a few months cemetery of Kensal Green (with the exception of the Roman after becoming earl of Kent, Thomas was made duke of Surrey Catholic portion, which is in the borough of Hammersmith); it as a reward for assisting Richard II. against the lords appellant'; was opened in 1838, and great numbers of eminent persons are but he was degraded from his dukedom in 1399, and was buried here. The Roman Catholic church of Our Lady of beheaded in January of the following year for conspiring against Victories lies clo to Kensington Road, and in Brompton Road Henry IV. However, his brother Edmund (1384-1403) was is the Oratory of St Philip Neri, a fine building with richly allowed to succeed to the earldom, which became extinct on his decorated interior, noted for the beauty of its musical services, death in Brittany in September 1408. as is the Carmelite Church in Church Street. St Charles's Roman In the same century the title was revived in favour of William, Catholic College (for boys), near the north end of Ladbroke a younger son of Ralph Neville, ist earl of Westmorland, and Grove, was founded by Cardinal Manning in 1863; the buildings through his mother Joan Beaufort a grandson of John of Gaunt, are now used as a training centre for Catholic school mistresses. duke of Lancaster. William (c. 1405-1463), who held the barony Of secular institutions the principal are the museums in South of Fauconberg in right of his wife, Joan, gained fame during the Kensington. The Victoria and Albert, commonly called the wars in France and fought for the Yorkists during the Wars of South Kensington, Museum contains various exhibits divided the Roses. His prowess is said to have been chiefly responsible into sections, and includes the buildings of the Royal College of for the victory of Edward IV. at Towton in March 1461, and soon Science. Close by is the Natural History Museum, in a great after this event he was created earl of Kent and admiral of building by Alfred Waterhouse, opened as a branch of the England. He died in January 1463, and, as his only legitimate British Museum in 1880. Near this stood Cromwell House, issue were three daughters, the title of earl of Kent again became erroneously considered to have been the residence of Oliver extinct. Neville's natural son Thomas, “ the bastard of Faucon- Cromwell, the name of which survives in the adjacent Cromwell berg” (d. 1471), was a follower of Warwick, the “Kingmaker." Road. In Kensington Gardens, near the upper end of Exhibi- The long connexion of the family of Grey with this title began tion Road, which separates the two museums, was held the Great in 1465, when Edmund, Lord Grey of Ruthin, was created earl Exhibition of 1851, the hall of which is preserved as the Crystal of Kent. Edmund (c. 1420–1489) was the eldest son of Sir John Palace at Sydenham. The greater part of the gardens, however, Grey, while his mother, Constance, was a daughter of John with the Albert Memorial, erected by Queen Victoria in memory Holand, duke of Exeter. During the earlier part of the Wars of Albert, prince consort, the Albert Hall, opposite to it, one of of the Roses Grey fought for Henry VI.; but by deserting the the principal concert halls in London, and the Imperial Institute Lancastrians during the battle of Northampton in 1460 he gave to the south, are actually within the city of Westminster, though the victory to the Yorkists. He was treasurer of England and commonly connected with Kensington. The gardens (275 acres) held other high offices under Edward IV. and Richard III. His were laid out in the time of Queen Anne, and have always been son and successor, George, and earl of Kent (c. 1455-1503), aiso a popular and fashionable place of recreation. Extensive a soldier, married Anne Woodville, a sister of Edward IV.'s grounds at Earl's Court are open from time to time for various queen, Elizabeth, and was succeeded by his son Richard (1481- exhibitions. Further notable buildings in Kensington are the 1524). After Richard's death without issue, his half-brother and town-hall and free library in High Street, which is also much heir, Henry (c. 1495–1562), did not assume the title of earl of frequented for its excellent shops, and the Brompton Consump- Kent on account of his poverty; but in 1572 Henry's grandson tion Hospital, Fulham Road. In Holland Park Road is the Reginald (d. 1573), who had been member of parliament for house of Lord Leighton (d. 1896), given to the nation, and open, Weymouth, was recognized as earl; he was followed by his with its art collection, to the public. brother Henry (1541-1615), and then by another brother, Charles Kensington is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of London. (c. 1545-1623). Charles's son, Henry, the 8th earl (c. 1583- The parliamentary borough of Kensington has north and south 1639), married Elizabeth (1581-1651), daughter of Gilbert Talbot, divisions, each returning one member. The borough council 7th earl of Shrewsbury. This lady, who was an authoress, consists of a mayor, Io aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, took for her second husband the jurist John Selden. Henry 2291.I acres. died without children in November 1639, when the earldom of KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The first holder of the Kent, separated from the barony of Ruthin, passed to his cousin English earldom of Kent was probably Odo, bishop of Bayeux, Anthony (1557-1643), a clergyman, who was succeeded by his and the second a certain William de Ypres (d. 1162), both of son Henry (1594-1651), Lord Grey of Ruthin. Henry had been whom were deprived of the dignity. The regent Hubert de a member of parliament from 1640 to 16.43, and as a supporter Burgh obtained this honour in 1227, and in 1321 it was granted of the popular party was speaker of the House of Lords until its to Edmund Plantagenet, the youngest brother of Edward II. abolition. The with earl was his son Anthony (1645-1702), Edmund (1301-1330), who was born at Woodstock on the sth whose son Henry became 12th earl in August 1702, lord chamber- of August 1301, received many marks of favour from his brother lain of the royal household from 1704 to 1710, and in 1706 was the king, whom he steadily supported until the last act in created earl of Harold and marquess of Kent, becoming duke of Edward's life opened in 1326. He fought in Scotland and then Kent four years later. All his sons predeceased their father, and in France, and was a member of the council when Edward III. when the duke died in June 1740, his titles of earl, marquess and became king in 1327. Soon at variance with Queen Isabella and duke of Kent became extinct. her lover, Roger Mortimer, Edmund was involved in a conspiracy In 14/99 Edward Augustus, fourth son of George III., was to restore Edward II., who he was led to believe was still alive; created duke of Kent and Strathearn by his father. Born on he was arrested, and beheaded on the 19th of March 1330. the end of November 1767, Edward served in the British army Although he had been condemned as a traitor his elder son in North America and elsewhere, becoming a field marshal in Edmund (c. 1327-13 was recognized as earl of Kent, the title 1805. To quote Sir Spencer Walpole, Kent, a stern disciplin- passing on his death to his brother. John (c. 1330-1352). arian, was unpopular among his troops; and the storm which After John's childless death the earldom appears to have been was created by his well-intentioned effort at Gibraltar to check held by his sister Joan, “the fair maid of Kent," and in 1360 the licentiousness and drunkenness of the garrison compelled Joan's husband, Sir Thomas de Holand, or Holland, was sum-, him finally to retire from the governorship of this colony." moned to parliament as earl of Kent. Holand, who was a soldier Owing to pecuniary difficulties his later years were mainly passed of some repute, died in Normandy on the 28th of December | on the continent of Europe. He died at Sidmouth on the 23rd << KENT, J.-KENT 735 of January 1820. In 1818 the duke married Maria Louisa KENT, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain, the Victoria (1786-1861), widow of Emich Charles, prince of Lein- dimensions of which seem to have corresponded with those of ingen (d. 1814), and sister of Leopold I., king of the Belgians; the present county (see below). According to tradition it was and his only child was Queen Victoria (q.0.). the first part of the country occupied by the invaders, its founders, KENT, JAMES (1763-1847), American jurist, was born at Hengest and Horsa, having been employed by the British king Philippi in New York State on the 31st of July 1763. He Vortigern against the Picts and Scots. Their landing, according graduated at Yale College in 1781, and began to practise law at to English tradition, took place between 450-455, though in Poughkeepsie, in 1785 as an attorney, and in 1787 at the bar. the Welsh accounts the Saxons are said to have arrived in 428 In 1791 and 1792-93 Kent was a representative of Dutchess (cf. Hist.Britt.66). According to The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which county in the state Assembly. In 1793 he removed to New York, probably used some lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest reigned where Governor Jay, to whom the young lawyer's Federalist sym- 455-488, and was succeeded by his son Aesc (Oisc), who reigned pathies were a strong recommendation, appointed him a master till 512; but little value can be attached to these dates. Docu- in chancery for the city. He was professor of law in Columbia mentary history begins with Aethelberht, the great-grandson College in 1793–98 and again served in the Assemblyin 1796–97. In of Aesc, who reigned probably 560-616. He married Berhta, 1797 he became recorder of New York, in 1798 judge of the daughter of the Frankish king Haribert, or Charibert, ån event supreme court of the state, in 1804 chief justice, and in 1814 which no doubt was partly responsible for the success of the chancellor of New York. In 1822 he became a member of the mission of Augustine, who landed in 597. Aethelberht was at convention to revise the state constitution. Next year, Chan- this time supreme over all the English kings south of the Humber. cellor Kent resigned his office and was re-elected to his former On his death in 616 he was succeeded by his son Eadbald, who chair. Out of the lectures he now delivered grew the Com- renounced Christianity and married his stepmother, but was mentaries on American Law (4 vols., 1826–1830), which by their shortly afterwards converted by Laurentius, the successor of learning, range and lucidity of style won for him a high and Augustine.' Eadbald was succeeded in 640 by his son Ercon- permanent place in the estimation of both English and American berht, who enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout jurists. Kent rendered most essential service to American his kingdom, and was succeeded in 664 by his son Ecgbert, the jurisprudence while serving as chancellor. Chancery law had latter again by his brother Hlothhere in 673. The early part of been very unpopular during the colonial period, and had received Hlothhere's reign was disturbed by an invasion of Aethelred of little development, and no decisions had been published. His Mercia. He issued a code of laws, which is still extant, together judgments of this class (see Johnson's Chancery Reports, 7 vols., with his nephew Eadric, the son of Ecgbert, but in 685 a quarrel 1816–1824) cover a wide range of topics, and are so thoroughly broke out between them in which Eadric called in the South considered and developed as unquestionably to form the basis Saxons. Hlothhere died of his wounds, and was succeeded by of American equity jurisprudence. Kent was a man of great Eadric, who, however, reigned under two years. purity of character and of singular simplicity and guilelessness. The death of Eadric was followed by a disturbed period, in He died in New York on the 12th of December 1847. which Kent was under kings whom Bede calls." dubii vel externi.”' To Kent we owe several other works (including a Commentary on An unsuccessful attempt at conquest seems to have been made J. Duer's Discourse on the Life, Character and Public Services of James walla, is said to have been killed in 687. There is some evidence International Law) of less importance than the Commentaries. See by the West Saxons, one of whose princes, Mul, brother of Cead- Kent (1848); The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans, vol. il. (1852); W. Kent, Memoirs and Letters of Chancellor Kent for a successful invasion by the East Saxon king Sigehere during (Boston, 1898). the same year. A king named Oswine, who apparently belonged KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748), aglish “painter, architect, to the native dynasty, seem to have obtained part of the king. and the father of modern gardening,” as Horace Walpole in dom in 688. The other part came in 689 into the hands of his Anecdotes of Painting describes him, was born in Yorkshire Swelheard, probably a son of the East Saxon king Sebbe. in 1685. Apprenticed to a coach-painter, his ambition soon led Wihtred, a son of Ecgbert, succeeded Oswine about 690, and him to London, where he began life as a portrait and historical obtained possession of the whole kingdom before 694. From painter. He found patrons, who sent him in 1710 to study in him also we have a code of laws. At Wihtred's death in 725 the Italy; and at Rome he made other friends, among them Lord kingdom was divided between his sons Aethelberht, Eadberht Burlington, with whom he returned to England in 1719. Under and Alric, the last of whom appears to have died soon afterwards. that nobleman's roof Kent chiefly resided till his death on the Aethelberht reigned till 762; Eadberht, according to the Chronicle, 12th of April 1748-obtaining abundant commissions in all died in 748, but some doubtful charters speak of him as alive in departments of his art, as well as various court appointments 761-762. Eadberht was succeeded by his son Eardwulf, and he which brought him an income of £600 a year, Walpole says again by Eanmund, while Aethelberht was succeeded by a king that Kent was below mediocrity in painting. He had some little named Sigered. From 764-779 we find a king named Ecgbert, taste and skill in architecture, of which Holkham palace is who in the early part of his reign had a colleague named Hea- perhaps the most favourable example. The mediocre statue of berht. At this period Kentish history is very obscure. Another Shakespeare in Westminster Abbey sufficiently stamps his king named Aethelberht appears in 781, and a king Ealhmund powers as a sculptor. His merit in landscape gardening is greater. in 784, but there is some reason for suspecting that Offa annexed În Walpole's language, Kent" was painter enough to taste the Kent about this time. On his death (796) Eadberht Praen made charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough to dare and himself king, but in 798 he was defeated and captured by Coen- to dictate, and born with a genius to strike out a great system wulf, who made his own brother Cuthred king in his place. On from the twilight of imperfect essays.”. In short, he was the first Cuthred's death in 807 Coenwulf seems to have kept Kent in his in English gardening to vindicate the natural against the artificial. own possession. His successors Ceolwulf and Beornwulf like- Banishing all the clipped monstrosities of the topiary art in yéw, wise appear to have held Kent, but in 825 we hear of a king box or holly, releasing the streams from the conventional canal Baldred who was expelled by Ecgbert king of Wessex, Under and marble basin, and rejecting the mathematical symmetry the West Saxon dynasty Kent, together with Essex, Sussex and of ground plan then in vogue for gardens, Kent endeavoured to Surrey, was sometimes given as a dependent_kingdom to one imitate the variety of nature, with due regard to the principles of the royal family. During Ecgbert's reign it was entrusted to of light and shade and perspective. Sometimes he carried his his son Aethelwulf, on whose accession to the throne of Wessex, imitation too far, ás when he planted dead trees in Kensington in 839, it was given to Aethelstan, probably his son, who lived gardens to give a greater air of truth to the scene, though he at least till 851. From 855 to 860 it was governed by Aethel- himself was one of the first to detect the folly of such an extreme. berht son of Aethelwulf. During the last years of Alfred's reign Kent's plans were designed rather with a view to immediate it seems to have been entrusted by him to his son Edward. effect over a comparatively small area than with regard to any Throughout the 9th century we hear also of two earls, whose broader or subsequent results. spheres of authority may have corresponded to those of the two 736 KENT B kings whom we find in the 8th century. The last earls of Stour joins the Great Stour in these lowlands from a deep vale whom we have any record were the two brothers Sigehelm and among the Downs. Sigewulf, who fell at the Holm in 905 when the Kentish About two-thirds of the boundary line of Kent is formed by army was cut off by the Danes, on Edward the Elder's return tidal water. The estuary of the Thames may be said to stretch from his expedition into East Anglia. At a later period Kent from London Bridge to Sheerness in the Isle of Sheppey, which appears to have been held, together with Sussex, by a single is divided from the mainland by the narrow channel (bridged at earl. Queensbridge) of the Swale. Sheerness lies at the mouth of the The internal organization of the kingdom of Kent seems to have Medway, a narrow branch of which cuts off a tongue of land been somewhat peculiar. Besides the division into West Kent and termed the Isle of Grain lying opposite Sheerness. Along the East Kent, which probably corresponds with the kingdoms of the banks of the Thames the coast is generally low and marshy, 8th century, we find a number of lathes, apparently administrative embankments being in several places necessary to prevent districts under reeves, attached to royal villages. In East Kent inundation. At a few points, however, as at Gravesend, spurs there were four of these, namely, Canterbury, Eastry, Wye and Lymne, which can be traced back to the gth century or earlier. of the North Downs descend directly upon the shore. In the In the 11th century we hear of two lathes in West Kent, those of estuary of the Medway there are a number of low marshy islands, Sutton and Aylesford. but Sheppey presents to the sea a range of slight cliffs from 80 The social organization of the Kentish nation was wholly different to 90 ft. in height. The marshes extend along the Swale to from that of Mercia and Wessex. Instead of two “ noble " classes we find only one, called at first eorlcund, later as in Wessex, gesith- Whitstable, whence stretches a low line of clay and sandstone cund. Again below the ordinary freeman we find three varieties cliffs towards the Isle of Thanet, when they become lofty and of persons called laelas, probably freedmen, to whom we have nothing grand, extending round the Foreland southward to Pegwell Bay analogous in the other kingdoms. Moreover the wergeld of the The coast from Sheppey round to the South Foreland is skirted ceorl, or ordinary freeman, was two or three times as great as that of the same class in Wessex and Mercia, and the same difference of by numerous flats and sands, the most extensive of which are treatment is found in all the compensations and fines relating to the Goodwin Sands off Deal. From Pegwell Bay south to a them. It is not unlikely that the peculiarities of Kentish custoin point near Deal the coast is flat, and the drained marshes or levels observable in later times, especially with reference to the tenure of the lower Stour extend to the west; but thence the coast rises of land, are connected with these characteristics. An explanation is probably to be obtained from a statement the again into chalk cliffs, the eastward termination of the North settlers in Kent belonged to a different nationality from those who Downs, the famous white cliffs which form the nearest point of founded the other kingdoms, namely the Jutes (9.v.). England to continental Europe, overlooking the Strait of Dover. See Bede, Historiae ecclesiasticae, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, These cliffs continue round the South Foreland to Folkestone, 1896); Two of the Saxon Chronicles, edited by J. Earle and C. Plummer where they fall away, and are succeeded west of Sandgate by a (Oxford, 1892–1899); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum (London, 1885-1889); B. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon flat shingly shore. To the south of Hythe this shore borders Law (London, 1902); H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon the wide expanse of Romney Marsh, which, immediately west Institutions (Cambridge, 1905); and T. W. Shore, Origin Saxon Race (London, 1906). cierne . Bu the Anglo- of Hythe, is overlooked by a line of abrupt hills, but for the rest is divided on the north from the drainage system of the Stour KENT, a south-eastern county of England, bounded N. by the only by a slight uplift. The marsh, drained by many channels, Thames estuary, E. and S.E. by the English Channel, S.W. by seldom rises over a dozen feet above sea level. At its south- Sussex, and W. by Surrey. In the north-west the administrative castern extremity, and at the extreme south of the county, is county of London encroaches upon the ancient county of Kent, the shingly promontory of Dungeness. Within historic times the area of which is 1554.7 sq. m. The county is roughly tri- much of this marsh was covered by the sea, and the valley of the angular in form, London lying at the apex of the western angle, river Rother, which forms part of the boundary of Kent with the North Foreland at that of the eastern and Dungeness at that Sussex, entering the sea at Rye harbour, was represented by a of the southern. The county is divided centrally, from west to tidal estuary for a considerable distance inland. east, by the well-marked range of hills known as the North Geology.-The northern part of the county lies on the southern Downs, entering Kent from Surrey. In the west above Wester- rim of the London basin; here the beds are dipping northwards. ham these hills exceed 800 ft.; to the east the height is much The southern part of the county is occupied by a portion of the less, but even in Kent (for in Surrey they are higher) the North Wealden anticline. The London Clay occupies the tongue of land Downs form a more striking physical feature than their height and a district about 8 m. wide stretching southwards from Whit- between the estuaries of the Thames and Medway, as well as Sheppey would indicate. They are intersected, especially on the north, stable to Canterbury, and extending eastwards to the Isle of Thanet. by many deep valleys, well wooded. At three points such valleys It reappears at Pegwell Bay, and in the neighbourhood of London cut completely through the main line of the hills. In the west it rises above the plastic clay into the elevation of Shooter's Hill, the Darent, flowing north to the Thames below Dartford, pierces The thickness of the formation near London is about 400 ft., and at with a height of about 450 ft. and a number of smaller eminences. the hills north of Sevenoaks, but its waters are collected chiefly Sheppey it reaches 480 ft. At Sheppey it is rich in various kinds from a subsidiary ridge of the Downs running parallel to the main of fossil fish and shells. The plastic clay, which rests chiefly on line and south of it, and known as the Ragstone Ridge, from chalk, occupies the remainder of the estuary of the Thames, but at 600 to 800 ft. in height. The Medway, however, cuts through several places it is broken through by outcrops of chalk, which in some instances run northwards to the banks of the river. The the entire hill system, rising in the Forest Ridges of Sussex, Lower Tertiaries are represented by three different formations known flowing N.E. and E. past Tonbridge, collecting feeders from south as the Thanet beds, the Woolwich and Reading beds, and the Old- and east (the Teise, Beult and others) near Yalding, and then haven and Blackheath beds. The Thanet beds resting on chalk flowing N.E. and N. through the hills, past Maidstone, joining and consist (1) of a constant base bed of clayey greenish sand, seldom form a narrow outcrop rising into cliffs at Pegwell Bay and Reculver, the Thames at its mouth through a broad estuary. The rich more than 5 ft. in thickness; (2) of a thin and local bed composed of lowlands, between the Downs and the Forest Ridges to the south alternations of brown clay and loam; (3) of a bed of fine light buff (which themselves extend into Kent), watered by the upper sand, which in west Kent attains a thickness of more than 60 ft.; Medway and its feeders, are called the Vale of Kent, and fall confined to east Kent, the thickness of the formation being more than (4) of bluish grey sandy marl containing fossils, and almost entirely within the district well known under the name of the Weald. 60 ft.; and (5) of fine light grey sand of an equal thickness, also fossil. The easternmost penetration of the Downs is that effected by the iferous. The middle series of the Lower Tertiaries, known as the Wool- Stour (Great Stour) which rises on their southern face, flows S.E. wich and Reading beds, rests either on the Thanet beds or on chalk, to Ashford, where it receives the East Stour, then turns N.E. and consists chiefly of irregular alternations of clay, and sand of very various colours, the former often containing estuarine and oyster past Wye and Canterbury, to meander through the lowlands shells and the latter Aint pebbles. The thickness of the formation representing the former channel which isolated the Isle of Thanet varies from 15 to 80 ft., but most commonly it is from 25 to 40 ft. from the mainland. The channel was called the Wantsume, and The highest and most local series of the Lower Tertiaries is the its extent may be gathered from the position of the village of Oldhaven and Blackheath beds lying between the London Clay and Fordwich near Canterbury, which had formerly a tidal harbour, coloured quartzose sand, the thickness being from 20 to 30 ft, and. the Woolwich beds. They consist chiefly of Aint pebbles or of light- and is a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich. The Little I are best seen at Oldhaven and Blackheath. To the south the London 5 KENT 737 basin is suecceded by the North Downs, an elevated ridge of country technical education committee of the county council. The South- consisting of an outcrop of chalk which extends from Westerham to çastern Agricultural College at Wye is under the control of the Folkestone with an irregular breadth generally of 3 to 6 miles, but county councils of Kent and Surrey. expanding to nearly 12 miles at Dartford and Gravesend and also to Other Industries.-There were formerly extensive ironworks in the north of Folkestone. After dipping below the London Clay at the Weald. Another industry now practically extinct was the Canterbury, it sends out an outcrop which forms the greater part manufacture of woollen cloth. The neighbourhood of Lamberhurst of Thanet. Below the chalk is a thin crop of Upper Greensand and Cranbrook was the special seat of these trades. Among the between Otſord and Westerham. To the south of the Downs there principal modern industries are paper-making, carried on on the is a narrow valley formed by the Gault, à fossiliferous blue clay. banks of the Darent, Medway, Cray and neighbouring streams; This is succeeded by an outcrop of the Lower Greensand-including engineering, chemical and other works along the Thames; manu- the Folkestone, Sandgate and Hythe beds with the thin Atherfield factures of bricks, tiles, pottery and cement, especially by the lower Clay at the base—which extends across the country from west to east Medway and the Swale. A variety of industries is connected with with a breadth of from 2 to 7 m., and rises into the picturesque the Government establishments at Chatham and Sheerness. Ship- elevations of the Ragstone hills. The remains of Iguanodon occur building is prosecuted here and at Gravesend, Dover and other ports. in the Hythe beds. The valley, which extends from the borders of Gunpowder is manufactured near Erith and Faversham and else- Sussex to Hythe, is occupied chicfly by the Weald clays, which con- where. tain a considerable number of marine and freshwater fossils. Along Deep-sea fishing is largely prosecuted all round the coast. Shrimps, the borders of Sussex there is a narrow strip of country consisting soles and flounders are taken in great numbers in the estuaries of of picturesque sandy hills, formed by the Hastings beds, whose the Thames and Medway, along the north coast and off Ramsgate, highest elevation is nearly 400 ft. and the south-west corner of the The history of the Kentish oyster fisheries goes back to the time of county is occupied by Romney Marsh, which within a comparatively the Roman occupation, when the fame of the oyster beds off Rutupiae recent period has been recovered from the sea. Valley gravels (Richborough) extended even to Rome. The principal beds are border the Thames, and Pleistocene mammalia have been found near Whitstable, Faversham, Milton, Queenborough and Rochester, in fissures in the Hythe beds at Ightham, where ancient stone imple some being worked by ancient companies or gilds of fishermen. ments are common. Remains of crag deposits lie in pipes in the After the cessation in 1882 of works in connexion with the Channel chalk near Lenham. Coal-measures, as will be seen, have been found tunnel, to connect England and France, coal-boring was attempted near Dover. in the disused shaft, west of the Shakespeare Cliff railway tunnel near The London Clay is much used for bricks, coarse pottery and Dover. In 1890 coal was struck at a depth of 1190 ft., and further Roman cement. Lime is obtained from the Chalk and Greensand seams were discovered later. The company which took up the formations. Ironstone is found in the Wadhurst Clay, a subdivision mining was unsuccessful, and boring ceased in 1901, but the work of the Hastings beds, clays and calcareous ironstone in the Ashdown was resumed by the Consolidated Kent Collieries Corporation, and sand, but the industry has long been discontinued. The last Weal. an extension of borings revealed in 1905 the probability of a success- den furnace was put out in 1828. ful development of the mining industry in Kent. Climate and Agriculture.—The unhealthiness of certain portions Communications.-Railway communications are practically mono- of the county caused by the marshes is practically removed by drain-polized by the South Eastern & Chatham Company, a monopoly ing. In the north-eastern districts the climate is somewhat uncer- which has not infrequently been the cause of complaint on the part tain, and damage is often done to early fruit-blossoms and vegetation of farmers, traders and others. This system includes some of the by cold easterly winds and late frosts. In the large portion of the principal channels of communication with the continent, through county sheltered by the Downs the climate is milder and more the ports of Dover, Folkestone and Queenborough. The county equable, and vegetation is somewhat earlier. The average tempera- contains four of the Cinque Ports, namely, Dover, Hythe, New Rom- ture for January is 379° F. at Canterbury, and 39:8° at Dover; ncy and Sandwich. Seaside resorts are numerous and populous- for July 63*3° and 616° respectively, and the mean annual 50° and on the north coast are Minster (Sheppey), Whitstable and Herne 50*2 respectively. Rainfall is light, the mean annual being 27°72 in. Bay; there is a ring of watering-places round the Isle of Thanet- at Dover, and 23•31 at Margate, compared with 23'16 at Green Birchington, Westgate, Margate, Broadstairs, Ramsgate; while wich. The soil is varied in character, but on the whole rich and to the south are Sandwich, Deal, Walmer, St Margaret's-at-Cliffe, under high cultivation. The methods of culture and the kinds Dover, Folkestone, Sandgate and Hythe. Tunbridge Wells is a of crop produced are perhaps more widely diversified than those of favourite inland watering-place. The influence of London in con- any other county in England. Upon the London Clay the land is verting villages into outer residential suburbs is to be observed at generally heavy and stiff, but very fruitful when properly manured many points, whether seaside, along the Thames or inland. The and cultivated. The marsh lands along the banks of the Thames, county is practically without inland water communications, exclud- Medway, Stour and Swale consist chiefly of rich chalk alluvium. ing the Thames. The Royal military canal which runs along the In the Ísle of Thanet a light mould predominates, which has been inland border of Romney Marsh, and connects the Rother with much enriched by fish manure. The valley of the Medway, espe- Hythe, was constructed in 1807 as part of a scheme of defence in cially the district round Maidstone, is the most fertile part of the connexion with the martello towers or small ſorts along the coast. county, the soil being a deep loam with a subsoil of brick-earth. On the ragstone the soil is occasionally thin and much mixed with Population and Administration.-The area of the ancient small portions of sand and stone; but in some situations the ragstone has a thick covering of clay loam, which is most suitable for the county is 995,014 acres, with a population in 1901 of 1,348,841. production of hops and fruits. In the district of the Weald marl In 1801 the population was 308,667. Excluding the portion prevails, with a substratum of clay. The soil of Romney Marsh which falls within the administrative county of London the area is a clay alluvium. No part of England surpasses the more fertile portions of this is 974,950 acres, with a population in 1891 of 807,269 and in county in the peculiar richness of its rural scenery. About three- 1901 of 935,855. The area of the administrative county is quarters of the total area is under cultivation. Oats and wheat are 976,881 acres. The county contains 5 lathes, a partition pecu- grown in almost equal quantities, barley being of rather less import. liar to the county. The municipal boroughs are Bromley (pop. ance. A considerable acreage is under beans, and in Thanet mustard, 27,354), Canterbury, a city and county borough (24,889), spinach, canary seed and a variety of other seeds are raised. the county is specially noted for the cultivation of fruit and hops. Chatham (37,057), Deal (10,581), Dover (41,794), Faversham Market gardens are very numerous in the neighbourhood of London. (11,290), Folkestone (30,650), Gillingham (42,530), Gravesend The principal orchard districts are the valleys of the Darent and (27,196), Hythe (5557), Lydd (2675), Maidstone (33,516), Medway, and the tertiary soilsoverlyingthechalk, between Rochester Margate (23,118), New Romney (1328), Queenborough (1544), and Canterbury. The county is specially famed for cherries and fil- berts, but apples, pears, plums, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries Ramsgate (27,733), Rochester, a city (30,590), Sandwich (3170), and currants are also largely cultivated. In some cases apples, cherries, Tenterden (3243), Tunbridge Wells (33,373). The urban dis- filberts and hops are grown in alternate rows. The principal hop tricts are Ashford (12,808), Beckenham (26,331), Bexley (12,918), districts are the country between Canterbury and Faversham, the Broadstairs and St Peter's (6466), Cheriton (7091), Chislehurst valley of the Medway in mid Kent, and the district of the Weald. (7429), Dartford (18,644), Erith (25,296), Foots Cray (5817), Much of the Weald, which originally was occupied by a forest, is still densely wooded, and woods are specially extensive in the valley Herne Bay (6726), Milton (7086), Northfleet (12,906), Penge of the Medway: Fine oaks and beeches are numerous, and yew (22,465), Sandgate (2294), Sevenoaks (8106), Sheerness (18,179), trees of great size and age are seen in some Kentish churchyards, Sittingbourne (8943), Southborough (6977), Tonbridge (12,736), as at Stansted, while the fine oak at Headcorn is also famous. A large extent of woodland consists of ash and chestnut plantations, Walmer (5614), Whitstable (7086), Wrotham (3571). Other maintained for the growth of hop poles. Cattle are grazed in con- small towns are Rainham (3693) near Chatham, Aylesford (2678), siderable numbers on the marsh lands, and dairy farms are numerous East Malling (2391) and West Malling (2312) in the Maidstone in the neighbourhood of London. For the rearing of sheep Kent is district; Edenbridge (2546) and Westerham (2005) on the one of the chief counties in England. A breed peculiar to the dis- trict, known as Kents, is grazed on Romney Marsh, but Southdowns western border of the county; Cranbrook (3949), Goudhurst are the principal breed raised on the uplands. Bee-keeping is (2725) and Hawkhurst (3136) in the south-west. Among extensively practised. Dairy schools are maintained by the villages which have grown into residential towns through their 738 KENT proximity to London, beyond those included among the boroughs | Kent, in 6oo. In 1291 the archdeaconry of Canterbury was co- and urban districts, there should be mentioned Orpington (4259). extensive with that diocese and included the deaneries of West- The county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held bere, Bridge, Sandwich, Dover, Elham, Lympne, Charing, at Maidstone. It has two courts of quarter sessions, and is Sutton, Sittingbourne, Ospringe and Canterbury; the arch- divided into 17 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs having deaconry of Rochester, also co-extensive with its diocese, in- separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions cluded the deaneries of Rochester, Dartford, Malling and Shore- are Canterbury, Deal, Dover, Faversham, Folkestone, Gravesend, ham. In 1845 the deaneries of Charing, Sittingbourne and Hythe, Maidstone, Margate, Rochester, Sandwich and Tenterden; Sutton were comprised in the new archdeaconry of Maidstone, while those of Lydd, New Romney, Ramsgate and Tunbridge which in 1846 received in addition the deaneries of Dartford, Wells have separate commissions of the peace. The liberty of Malling and Shoreham from the archdeaconry of Rochester. In Romney Marsh has petty and general sessions. The justices 1853 the dcaneries of Malling and Charing were subdivided into of the Cinque Ports exercise certain jurisdiction, the non-corpor- North and South Malling and East and West Charing. Lympne ate members of the Cinque Ports of Dover and Sandwich having was subdivided into North and South Lympne in 1857 and Dart- separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions. | ford into East and West Dartford in 1864. Gravesend and The central criminal court has jurisdiction over certain parishes Cobham deaneries were created in 1862 and Greenwich and adjacent to London. All those civil parishes within the county Woolwich in 1868, all in the archdeaconry of Rochester. In of Kent of which any part is within twelve miles of, or of which 1873 East and West Bridge deaneries were created in the arch- no part is more than fifteen miles from, Charing Cross are within deaconry of Canterbury, and Croydon in the archdeaconry of the metropolitan police district. The total number of civil Maidstone. In 1889 Tunbridge deanery was created in the parishes is 427. Kent is mainly in the diocese of Canterbury, archdeaconry of Maidstone. In 1906 the deancries of East and but has parts in those of Rochester, Southwark and Chichester. West Dartford, North and South Malling, Greenwich and Wool- It contains 476 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in wich were abolished, and Shoreham and Tunbridge were trans- part. The county (extra-metropolitan) is divided into 8 parlia- ferred from Maidstone to Rochester archdeaconry. mentary divisions, namely, North-western or Dartford, Western Between the Conquest and the 14th century the earldom of or Sevenoaks, South-western or Tunbridge, Mid or Medway, Kent was held successively by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William North-eastern or Faversham, Southern or Ashford, Eastern or St of Ypres and Hubert de Burgh (sheriff of the county in the reign Augustine's and the Isle of Thanet, each returning one member; of Henry III.), none of whom, however, transmitted the honour, while the boroughs of Canterbury, Chatham, Dover, Gravesend, which was bestowed by Edward I. on his youngest son Edmund Hythe, Maidstone and Rochester each return one member. of Woodstock, and subsequently passed to the families of Holland History. -For the ancient kingdom of Kent see the preceding and Neville (see KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF). In the Domes- article. The shire organization of Kent dates from the time of day Survey only five lay tenants-in-chief are mentioned, all the Aethelstan, the name as well as the boundary being that of the chief estates being held by the church, and the fact that the ancient kingdom, though at first probably with the addition of Kentish gentry are less ancient than in some remoter shires is the suffix “shire," the form “ Kentshire ” occurring in a record further explained by the constant implantation of new stocks of the folkmoot at this date. The inland shire-boundary has from London. Greenwich is illustrious as the birthplace of varied with the altered course of the Rother. In 1888 the Henry VIII., Mary and Elizabeth. Sir Philip Sidney was born county was diminished the formation of the county of at Penshurst, being descended from William de Sidney, chamber- London. lain to Henry II. Bocton Malherbc was the seat of the Wottons, At the time of the Domesday Survey Kent comprised sixty from whom descended Nicholas Wotton, privy councillor to hundreds, and there was a further division into six lests, probably Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and Elizabeth. The family representing the shires of the ancient kingdom, of which two, of Leiborne of Leiborne Castle, of whom Sir Roger Leiborne took Sutton and Aylesford, correspond with the present-day lathes. an active part in the barons' wars, became extinct in the 14th The remaining four, Borowast Lest, Estre Lest, Limowast Lest century. Sir Francis Walsingham was born at Chislehurst, and Wiwart Lest, existed at least as early as the 9th century, and where his family had long flourished; Hever Castle was the seat were apparently named from their administrative centres, of the Boleyns and the scene of the courtship of Anne Boleyn Burgwara (the burg being Canterbury), Eastre, Lymne and Wye, by Henry VIII. Allington Castle was the birthplace of Sir all of which were meeting places of the Kentish Council. The Thomas Wyat. five modern lathes (Aylesford, St Augustine, Scray, Sheppey and Kent, from its proximity to London, has been intimately Sutton-at-Hone) all existed in the time of Edward I., with the concerned in every great historical movement which has agitated additional lathe of Hedeling, which was absorbed before the next the country, while its busy industrial population has steadily reign in that of St Augustine. The Nomina Villarum of the resisted any infringement of its rights and liberties. The chief reign of Edward II. mentions all the sixty-six modern hundreds, events connected with the county under the Norman kings were more than two-thirds of which were at that date in the hands of the capture of Rochester by William Rufus during the rebellion the church. of Odo of Bayeux; the capture of Dover and Leeds castles by Sheriffs of Kent are mentioned in the time of Æthelred II., Stephen; the murder of Thomas à Becket at Canterbury in and in Saxon times the shiremoot met three times a year on 1170; the submission of John to the pope's legate at Dover in Penenden Heath near Maidstone. After the Conquest the great 1213, and the capture of Rochester Castle by the king in the same ecclesiastical landholders claimed exemption from the jurisdic- year. Rochester Castle was in 1216 captured by the dauphin of tion of the shire, and in 1279 the abbot of Battle claimed to have France, to whom nearly all Kent submitted, and during the wars his own coroner in the hundred of Wye. In the 13th century of Henry III. with his barons was captured by Gilbert de Clare. twelve liberties in Kent claimed to have separate bailiffs. The In the peasants' rising of 1381 the rebels plundered the arch- assizes for the county were held in the reign of Henry III. at bishop's palace at Canterbury, and 100,000 Kentishmen gathered Canterbury and Rochester, and also at the Lowey of Tonbridge round Wat Tyler of Essex. In 1450 Kent took a leading part under a mandate from the Crown as a distinct liberty; after- in Jack Cade's rebellion; and in 1554 the insurrection of Sir wards at different intervals at East Greenwich, Dartford, Maid- Thomas Wyat began at Maidstone. On the outbreak of the stone, Milton-next-Gravesend and Sevenoaks; from the Restora- Great Rebellion feeling was much divided, but after capturing tion to the present day they have been held at Maidstone. The Dover Castle the parliament soon subdued the whole county. liberty of Romney Marsh has petty and quarter sessions under In 1648, however, a widespread insurrection was organized on its charters. behalf of Charles, and was suppressed by Fairfax. The county Kent is remarkable as the only English county which com- was among the first to welcome back Charles II. In 1667 the prises two entire bishoprics, Canterbury, the see for East Kent, Dutch fleet under De Ruyter advanced up the Medway, levelling having been founded in 597, and Rochester, the see for West I the fort at Sheerness and burning the ships at Chathain. In KENTIGERN 739 the Kentish petition of 1701 drawn up at Maidstone the county | Sandwich (1272) and Losenham near Tenterden (1241); and the protested against the peace policy of the Tory party. preceptory of Knights of St John of Jerusalem at West Peckham, near Tunbridge (1408). Among the earliest industries of Kent were the iron-mining Even apart from the cathedral churches of Canterbury and in the Weald, traceable at least to Roman times, and the salt Rochester, the county is unsurpassed in the number of churches it industry, which flourished along the coast in the roth century. possesses of the highest interest. For remains of a date before the The Domesday Survey, besides testifying to the agricultural Conquest the church of Lyminge is of first importance . Here, activity of the country, mentions over one hundred salt-works church founded by Æthelburga, wife of Edwin, king of Northumber- apart from the monastic remains, there may be seen portions of the and numerous valuable fisheries, vines at Chart Sutton and land, and rebuilt, with considerable use of Roman material, in Leeds, and cheese at Milton. The Hundred Rolls of the reign of 965 by St Dunstan. There is similar early work in the church of Paddlesworth, not far distant. Among numerous Norman examples Edward I. frequently refer to wool, and Flemish weavers settled the first in interest is the small church at Barfreston, one of the most in the Weald in the time of Edward III. Tiles were manu- perfect specimens of its kind in England, with a profusion of orna- factured at Wye in the 14th century. Valuable timber was ment, especially round the south doorway and east window. The afforded by the vast forest of the Weald, but the restrictions churches of St Margaret-at-Cliff, Patrixbourne and Darenth are imposed on the felling of wood for fuel did serious detriment to hardly less noteworthy, while the tower of New Romney church the iron-trade, and after the statute of 1558 forbidding the felling English examples none is finer than Hythe church, but the churches should also be mentioned. Among several remarkable Early of timber for iron-smelting within fourteen miles of the coast the of SS. Mary and Eanswith, Folkestone, Minster-in-Thanet, Chalk, industry steadily declined. The discovery of coal in the northern with its curious posch, Faversham and Westwell , with fine contem. counties dealt the final blow to its prosperity. Cherries are said porary glass, are also worthy of notice. Stone church, near Dart- to have been imported from Flanders and first planted in Kent Lord, a late example of this style, transitional to Decorated, is very fine; and among Decorated buildings Chartham church exhibits in by Henry VIII., and from this period the culture of fruits some of its windows the peculiar tracery known as Kentish Decorated. (especially apples and cherries) and of hops spread rapidly over Perpendicular churches, though numerous, are less remarkable, but the county. Thread-making at Maidstone and silk-weaving at the fine glass of this period in Nettlestead church may be noticed. Canterbury existed in the 16th century, and before 1590 one of the church of Cobham contains one of the richest collections of ancient brasses in England. the first paper-mills in England was set up at Dartford. The Kent is also rich in examples of ancient architecture other than statute of 1630 forbidding the exportation of wool, followed by ecclesiastical. The castles of Rochester and Dover are famous; the Plague of 1665, led to a serious trade depression, while the those of Canterbury and Chilham'are notable among others. Ancient mansions are very numerous; among these are the castellated former enactment resulted in the vast smuggling trade which Leeds Castle in the Maidstone district, Penshurst Place, Hever Castle spread along the coast, 40,000 packs of wool being smuggled to near Edenbridge, Saltwood and Westenhanger near Hythe, the Calais from Kent and Sussex in two years, Mote House at Ightham near Wrotham, Knole House near Seven- Minor examples of early domestic archi- In 1290 Kent returned two members to parliament for the oaks, and Cobham Hall. tecture abound throughout the county. county, and in 1295 Canterbury, Rochester and Tunbridge were AUTHORITIES.-—A full bibliography of the many earlier works on also represented; Tunbridge however made no returns after this the county and its towns is given in J. R. Smith's Bibliotheca Can- date. In 1552 Maidstone acquired representation, and in 1572 tiana (London, 1837). There may be mentioned here W. Lambarde, Queenborough. Under the act of 1832 the county returned four Peranıbulation of Kent (London, 1576, 1826); R. Kilburne, Topo- members in two divisions, Chatham was represented by one graphie or Survey of the County of Kent (London, 1659); J. and T. Philipot, Villare Cantianum (London, 1659, 1776); J. Harris, member and Greenwich by two, while Queenborough was dis- History of Kent (London, 1719); E. Hasted, History and Topo; franchised. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six graphical Survey of Kent (4 vols. folio, Canterbury, 1778-1799; 2nd members in three divisions and Gravesend returned one member. ed., 12 vols. 8vo, Canterbury, 1797-1801);-W. H. Ireland, History By the act of 1885 the county returned eight members in eight Kantiae (London, 1851); A. Hussey, Notes on the Churches of Kent of the County of Kent (London, 1828–1830); C. Sandys, Consuetudines divisions, and the representation of Canterbury, Maidstone and (London, 1852); L. B. Larking, The Domesday Book of Kent (1869); Rochester was reduced to one member each. By the London R. Furley, History of the Weald of Kent (Ashford, 1871-1874); W. A. Government Act of 1892 the borough of Greenwich was taken Scott Robertson, Kentish Archaeology (London, 1876-1884); Sir S. R. out of Kent and made one of the twenty-eight metropolitan 1877); J. Hutchinson, Men of Kent and Kentish Men (London Glynne, Notes on Churches of Keni, ed. W. H. Gladstone (London, boroughs of the county of London. 1892); Victoria County History,“ Kent." See also Archacologia Canti- Antiquities.--As was to be expected from its connexion with ana (translations of the Kent Archaeological Society, London, the early history of England, and from its beauty and fertility, from 1858). Kent possessed a larger than average number of monastic founda- KENTIGERN, ST, or MUNGO (" dear friend,” a name given to tions. The earliest were the priory of Christ's Church and the abbey him, according to Jocelyn, by St Servanus), a Briton of Strath- of St Peter and St Paul, now called St Augustine's, both at Canter. clyde, called by the Goidels In Glaschu," the Grey Hound," was, bury, founded by Augustine and the monks who accompanied him. to England. Other Saxon foundations were the nunneries at according to the legends preserved in the lives which remain, of Folkestone (630), Lyminge (633; nunnery and monastery), Reculver royal descent. His mother when with child was thrown down (669), Minster-in-Thanet (670), Minster-in-Sheppey (675), and the from a hill called Dunpelder (Traprain Law, Haddingtonshire priory of St Martin at Dover (696), all belonging to the Benedictine but survived the fall and escaped by sea to Culross on the farther order. Some of these were refounded, and the principal monastic remains now existing are those of the Benedictine priories at Roches side of the Firth of Forth, where Kentigern was born. It is ter (1089), Folkestone (1095), Dover (1140); the Benedictine nun possible that she may have been a nun, as a convent had been neries at Malling (time of William Rufus), Minster-in-Sheppey (1130), founded in earlier times. on Traprain Law. The life then Higham (founded by King Stephen), and Davington (1153); the describes the training of the boy by Servanus, but the date of Cistercian Abbey at Boxley (1146); the Cluniac abbey at Faversham (1147) and priory at Monks Horton (time of Henry II.), the precep- the latter renders this impossible. Returning to Strathclyde tory of Knights Templars at Swingfield (time of Henry Il.); the Kentigern lived for some time at Glasgow, near a cemetery Premonstratensian abbey of St Radigund's, near Dover (1191); ascribed to St Ninian, and was eventually made bishop of that the first house of Dominicans in England at Canterbury (1221); region by the king and clergy. This story is partially attested the first Carmelite house in England, at Aylesford (1240); and the priory of Augustinian nuns at Dartford (1355). Other houses of by Welsh documents, in which Kentigern appears as the bishop which there are slight remains are Lesnes abbey, near Erith, and of Garthmwl, apparently the ruler of the region about Glasgow. Bilsington priory near Ashford. established in 1178 and 1253 respec. Subsequently he was opposed by a pagan king called Morken, tively, and both belonging to the Augustinian canons; and the house whose relatives after his death succeeded in forcing the saint to of Franciscans at Canterbury (1225). But no remains exist of the retire from Strathclyde. He thereupon took refuge with St priories of Augustinian canons at Canterbury: (St. Gregory's 1084): David at Menevia (St David's), and eventually founded a monas, Leeds, near Maidstone (1119), Tunbridge (middle of i2th century), Combwell, near Cranbrook (time of Henry II.); the nunnery of Sttery at Llanelwy (St Asaph’s), for which purpose he received Sepulchre at Canterbury (about 1100) and Langdon abbey, near grants from Maelgwn, prince of Gwynedd. Alter the battle of Walmer (1192), both belonging to the Benedictines; the Trinitarian priory of Mottenden near Headcorn, the first house of Crutched Ardderyd in 573 in which King Rhydderch, leader of the Chris- Friars in England (1224), where miracle plays were presented in the tian party in Strathclyde, was victorious, Kentigern was recalled. church by the friars on Trinity Sunday; the Carmelite priories at He fixed his see first at Hoddam in Dumfriesshire, but afterwards 1 740 KENTON-KENTUCKY ware. returned to Glasgow. He is credited with missionary work in See Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain Galloway and north of the Firth of Forth, but most of the London, 1897); Lord Avebury's Prehistoric Times (1900); W. Pengelly, Address to the British Associalion (1883) and Life of him dedications to him which survive are north of the Mounth in the by his daughter (1897); Godwin Austen, Proc. Geo. Soc. London, 1.1. upper valley of the Dee. The meeting of Kentigern and Columba 286; Pengelly, "Literature of Kent's Cavern" in Trans. Devonshire probably took place soon after 584, when the latter began to Association (1868); William Boyd Dawkins, Cave-hunting and Early Man in Britain. preach in the neighbourhood of the Tay. AUTHORITIES.—Lives of St Kentigern; Fragment used by John KENTUCKY, a South Central State of the United States of of Fordun, and complete - Life" by Jocelyn of Furness in Forbes's America, situated between 36° 30' and 39° 6' N., and 82º and Historians of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1874), vol. v.; Four Ancient Books of Wales (Édinburgh, ed. W. F. Skene, 1868), ii. 457; Myvyrian 89° 38' W. It is bounded N., N.W., and N.E. by Illinois , Indiana Archaeology ndon, 1801), ii . 34; D. R. Thomas, History of Diocese and Ohio; E. by the Big Sandy river and its É. fork, the Tug, of St Asaph (London, 1874), p. 5: Index of Llyfr Coch Asaph, Archue- which separates it from West Virginia, and by Virginia; S.E. ologia Cambrensis, 3rd series, 1868, vol. xiv. p. 151; W. F. Skene, and S. by Virginia and Tennessee; and W. by the Mississippi Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 1877), ii. 179 ff.; John Rhys, Celtic river, which separates it from Missouri. It has an area of Britain (London, 1904), pp. 145, 146, 174, 199, 250. 40,598 sq. m.; of this, 417 sq. m., including the entire breadth of KENTON, a city and the county seat of Hardin county, the Ohio river, over which it has jurisdiction, are water surface. Ohio, U.S.A., on the Scioto river, 60 m. N.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1900), 6852, including 493 foreign-born and 271 negroes; Physiography.-From mountain heights along its eastern border the surface of Kentucky is a north-western slope across two much (1910), 7185. It is served by the Erie, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, dissected plateaus to a gracefully undulating lowland in the north Chicago & St Louis, and the Ohio Central railways. It is central part and a longer western slope across the same plateaus to built on the water-parting between Lake Erie and the Gulf of a lower and more level lowland at the western extremity. The Mexico, here about 1,000 ft. above sea level. There are shops Mountain Province in which parallel ridges of folded mountains, narrow mountain belt is part of the western edge of the Appalachian of the Ohio Central railway here, and manufactories of hard-the Cumberland and the Pine, have crests 2000-3000 ft. high, and The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. the Big Black Mountain rises to 4000 ft., The highest point in the Kenton was named in honour of Simon Kenton (1755-1836) a state is The Double on the Virginia state line, in the eastern part of famous scout and Indian fighter, who took part in the border Harlan county with an altitude of over 4100 ft. The entire eastern warfare, particularly in Kentucky and Ohio, during the War of held, is commonly known as the region of the mountains," but quarter of the state, coterminous with the Eastern Kentucky coal- American Independence and afterwards. It was platted and be with the exception of the narrow area just described it properly came the county seat in 1833, and was chartered as a city in 1885. belongs to the Alleghany Plateau Province. This plateau belt is KENT'S CAVERN, or KENT'S HOLE, the largest of English cxceedingly sugged with sharp ridges alternating with narrow bone caves, famous as affording evidence of the existence of valleys which have steep sides but are seldom more than 1500 ft. above the sea. The remainder of the state which lies east of the Man in Devon (England) contemporaneously with animals now Tennessee river is divided into the Highland Rim Plateau and a extinct or no longer indigenous. It is about a mile east of lowland basin, eroded in the Highland Rim Plateau and known as Torquay harbour and is of a sinuous nature, running deeply the Blue Grass Region; this region is separated from the Highland Rim into a hill of Devonian limestone. Although long known locally, Ohio, at the mouth of the Scioto river, to the mouth of the Salt Plateau by a semicircular escarpment extending from Portsmouth, it was not until 1825 that it was scientifically examined by Rev. river below Louisville; it is bounded north by the Ohio river. J. McEnery, who found worked flints in intimate association with The Highland Rim Plateau, lying to the south, east and west of the bones of extinct mammals. He recognized the fact that the escarpment, embraces fully one-half of the state, slopes from they proved the existence of man in Devonshire while those the north-west, and is generally much less rugged than the Alle- elevations of 1000-1200 ft. or more in the east to about 500 ft. in animals were alive, but the idea was too novel to be accepted ghany Plateau; a peculiar feature of the southern portion of it is the by his contemporaries. His discoveries were afterwards numerous circular depressions (sink holes) in the surface and the verified by Godwin Austen, and ultimately by the Committee cavernous region beneath. Kentucky is noted for its caves, the best- known of which are Mammoth Cave and Colossal Cavern (99.v.). of the British Association, whose explorations were carried on The caves are cut in the beds of limestone (lying immediately below under the guidance of Wm. Pengelly from 1865 to 1880. There the coal-bearing series) by streams that pass beneath the surface in are four distinct strata in the cave. : (1) The surface is com- the “ sink holes," and according to Professor N. S. Shaler there are posed of dark earth and contains medieval remains, Roman altogether “doubtless a hundred thousand miles of ways large pottery and articles which prove that it was in use during of the escarpment the Highland Rim Plateau drops 200 ft. or more enough to permit the easy passage of man." Down the steep slopes the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic Ages. (2) Below this is a to the famous Blue Grass Region, in which erosion has developed stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from 1 to 3 ft., and cover- on limestone a gracefully undulating surface. This Blue Grass ing (3) the red earth which contained bones of the hyaena, Region is like a beautiful park, without ragged cliffs , precipitous lion, mammoth, rhinoceros and other animals, in association with slopes, or fiat marshy, bottoms, but marked by rounded hills and dales. Especially within a radius of 20 m. around Lexington, the flint implements and an engraved antler, which proved man to country is clothed with an unusually luxuriant vegetation. During have been an inhabitant of the cavern during its deposition. spring, autumn, and winter in particular, the blue-grass (Poa com- Above this and below the stalagmite there is in one part of the pressa and Poa pratensis) spreads a mat, green, thick, fine and soft, cave a black band from 2 to 6 in. thick, formed of soil like No. 2, middle of June it blooms, and, owing to the hue of its seed vessels, over much of the country, and it is a good winter pasture; about the containing charcoal, numerous flint implements, and the bones gives the landscape a bluish hue. Another lowland area embraces and teeth of animals, the latter occasionally perforated as if that small part of the state in the extreme south-east which lies west used for ornament. (4) Filling the bottom of the cave was of the Tennessee river; this belongs to that part of the Coastal Plain a hard breccia, with the remains of bears and flint implements, Kentucky an average elevation of less than 500 ft. Most of the larger Region which extends north along the Mississippi river; it has in the latter in the main ruder than those found above; in some rivers of the state have their sources among the mountains or on the places it was no less than 12 ft. thick. The most remarkable Alleghany Plateau and flow more or less circuitously in a general animal remains found in Kent's Cavern are those of the Sabre-north-western direction into the Ohio. Although deep river channels toothed tiger, Machairodus latidens of Sir Richard Owen. While Plateau, and the state has an extensive mileage of navigable waters, are common, falls or impassable rapids are rare west of the Alleghany the value of McEnery's discoveries was in dispute the exploration The Licking, Kentucky, Green and Tradewater are the principal of the cave of Brixham near Torquay in 1858 proved that man rivers wholly within the state. The Cumberland, after flowing for a was coeval with the extinct mammalia, and in the following year considerable distance in the south-east and south central part of the additional proof was offered by the implements that were found state, passes into Tennessee at a point nearly south of Louisville, and in the extreme south-west the Cumberland and the Tennessee, with in Wookey Hole, Somerset. Similar remains have been met only a short distance between them, cross Kentucky and enter the with in the caves of Wales, and in England as far north as Mississippi at Smithland and Paducah respectively. The drainage Derbyshire (Cresswell), proving that over the whole of southern of the region under which the caverns lie is mostly underground. and middle England men, in precisely the same stage of rude of buffaloes, deer, elks, geese, ducks, turkeys and partridges, also Fauna and Pilora.-The first white settlers found great numbers civilization, hunted the rhinoceros, the mammoth and other many bears, panthers, lynx, wolves, foxes, beavers, otters, minks, extinct animals. musk-rats, rabbits, squirrels, raccoons, woodchucks, opossums and . Vienna Golcondag fampton o Salemo', 88° A 87° B 86° 89° с 88° Continuation Westwards Same Scale Dek&ROUND˜N Caseyville zabethtown Ohio R. .... Toly eston 0% Matto Sturgis Dixon WEBSTER'S Clay ord Lisman Shelbyville CRIT TENTO EN O Shady o Grove Flat Rock Marion Crayne LIVINGSTON Liberty Rushville Connersville Metamora White Brookville Greensburg CLEV CIN CHIC 85° 'D Frank n LOUIS RY, Water Joppa Great Miami Hamilton Lebanon Metropolis 39° 37 no sus I Mounds Charleston S SOUTHA Bardell -ST. LOUIS & Arlington c Grove Columbus Mayfieldo CKMAN | Pryorsburg New MA Madrid 2 ONE Sedalia Water Valley Kevi Bandaga ár u Center ALLA RO Wicklif Lovela Paducan AMC.CRACKEN -Florence Sta.To Melber Lowes Briensburg Star Lime MARSHALL Works. CARLISLEoKirbyton Hickory Benton Muburn-C RAY¸E √S÷ Clinton Farmington CALLOWAY Wing Dycusburg Smithland Grand Princetono Dulaney Dawsonspr CALDWELL Claxton Westport Eddyville Scottsburg Lawrenceburg Bromle Batavia 84° E 83° Wilmington & OHIJ SOUTH WESTERN Hillsboro F KENTUCKY Scale, 1:2,100,000 to English Miles County Seats 20 County Boundaries.. Railways... 30 40 1 alvert? ess City Pond Dertsville 37° Versailles Brmingham ilkan Wallonia Rockcastle Vernon Cadiz Hardin Golden Pond ey o almo e Canton Rearing Spring Madison ›re> Scottsburg @Murray Harris Grove Hain onitoro O Crossland KEYNAN Longitude West 89 of Greenwich Dover E S/SE Westport 88 Wabosh SOUTHERN OLDHAMO CoricreekRIMBLE Marble Hill Bedford ¿Turners Sta.; apbellsburg of Dre ork ulphure Springs Lock porr Gratz New.Castle Grange lechoH-EON RY Smithfield Gesto Goshenckney Emineu Pleasureville FARROL 38 Poseyville New Boonville SOUTHERN vansville 4.Verno Jeffersonville! New Albany Louisville Srecko Prospect o Anchorage Pewee Valley Felue Jeffersontown Corydon City St Creek Rockport Zion Hebbardsvill POhio Re LIN Henderson Smitho Lewisport Newburg Spottsville HENDER. SOON o Cáito MorganfieldCorydon Curds LAWavefly: FONE Robardo Grove Boxville Poole Dekoven Bordley eston 3 Sebrec reen R Sturgis WEBSTER. Sullivan Wheatcroft Blackfordy Shady Grov Dixon Lisman Providence HANCOCK Cloverport Basinspring.Gram on Owensboro Patesville BRIE OK IN RIDGE Big Spring Bardstown- Belmont Vanzant ther Cri 40 Glendrane Philpot Pellville on Hardinsburg Deanfield Harned Custer Elizabethtown oletnaville P. Mc. Qgady HAR D Cecilian Vine Grove, Colesbur Fordsville OMC.Daniel Eastview Ashbyburg O Calhoun Falls of Big Clitty Vanderburg laughterville». Olaton C Sonora Horse Nebo Hanson Sacramento gro Rosine NSSBremen, Madisonville. Beaver Dant Jo Mc. • Select Henry Cromwell Rockport lise Roundhill CALDWELL Dewsensprings ortonville Greenville White MUHLENBERCE Princeton lains: Woodbury. Huntsville Green laxtony Cisney o Otter1 Empire Crofton Kelly Sugargrove, Bowling Green Ohia Mooleyvill Concord Payneyile Union Star Cannelton Whenspurt Rock Have MEADE Lodiburg Webster Ekron Guston Clermont Dover A 37° *Pondo Delaware o Beechr Grove Barre Ferr OH, 6 Livermore 20** MC LEAN Hartford Brandhot Island of Centertown Earlington Central City Barnsley Mortons Bevict McNary St. Charles Cap 20 10Render Carrollton Cobbo Cerulean { Rough Clarkson O Defor RallardsvilleCropper: Monterey Sadie Trinit WESTERN Union Ohio Poplarflat Portsmouthe Vanceburg MASON Cottageville, Garrison Sardis Sunrise ROBERTOSON. May's Lick HARRISON Swallowfield Cynthiana SC 071 Shawhan StampingGround Christianburg FRANKLIN Simpsonscotts ville Sta Georget town Frankfort Clay Village Fisherville Shelbyville Highland Park Fingerville Greenberg a No-Farmdale wa www.Waddy South Park Crkko Harrison ville Alton Versailles eend Washington SPENCER MI. Eden Sta. Brandenburg Shepherdsville, Taylorsville Lawrence Minter Van Buren burg FORD 8 UX LIT TWakefield ANDERSON McBrayer on CRAYSONOM Millwood Leitchfield Spring Lick Grayso ་་ལ་* yville Eairfield Bloomfield Salviso Lebanon NELS Hunction Chaplin o Bardstown Early Chapli Mc. Afee WillishuggM ER CER Cornishville Pl Harrodsburg) MES WASHINGTON Spring held Gethsemane N Lyons Trappist New Haven Allertonvilleg New Mills o Tunteille döy Hodgenville R 1. Buffalo erstown L ARO Upton Magnolia Priceville • Tolesboro o Glen Springs Mt Carmel Mt:Olivet Helena Sta LEW Nepton Johnson • Petersville Flemingsburg AEwing Barterville FLE OM IN C Myers NICHOLAS: Sherburne Millersburg, Centerville Poplar Plains Grange City Limestone Carlisle Hillsboro Mooreltldodes Bethe BATH Clitionville. MỀMONT; Lexington Sterlin 10_Chilesburgh: Elkhorn o Athens Dodge COMERY Keen Hickman: CLARK Levee Nicholasville ESSAMINE Valley High Bridge: View Cẩmpo CoNelson MA-01S ON Richmondo co o Mackotile Burgio Marcellus o Buckeye Moberly o Kirksville Estill Perry de MarksburyCARRARD Silvery Texas Danvillejo Lancaster: Creek Kingston. Loretto.....Grave BZO Y LE Chicas: MarySwitch Louisvill NASA aint Berea Licki Bigh Leavell Peck Junction Citib Lebanon Rowland ON Milledgevie Stanford adfordsville Moreland Grap Orchard M A Newmark Saloma Spurlington Campbellsville Hustonville McKinney Gum Sulphur Mc.Kee o So Wildie LINCOLN Merrimac Middleburg Kingsville Brodhead Langford PACKSON Bengal TAYLORMaansville Yosemite o Bonnieville rewsbury ...H A1 R Stimmersville Munfordville Calmer CREE Testo Green R, Rochester MorgantownEDMONSON Mammoth Hardyville SABBU AT Diariond! *Sugnylane Springs isburg Dr rake W A Edwards Kirkmanville Homer Rocklield CHRISTIAN Sharongrove Gracey Hopkinsville W Wallonia Rockcastle Cadiz Julian TRUCC Canton Roaring Spring Howel 4 Brove Eply sic Casky Fairview LOCA Pembroke Herndon T OD D Elkton S.Union lees spring LOUIS Elkhorn PADMA IR Orlandoo Dudley Annville Mt Vernon Pnchill Welchburg ROCKCASTBE Eu Sank CASE Y Cave Horse 6.Monrou Pierce Burdic reensburg Gresham Care valley Absher ulyw Yos Knifley Liberty Dunnville Cave Cave Sulphu Well O Hiseville Columbia Gentrys Mill Russell Springs Sta Slick Rock Glasgow B-AR-R-E-N- Edmonton. O Summer Shade C Brownsville Proctors Cave Glasgow Junction City Smiths Grove Rocky Hill Sunnyside o Oakland Bristow Memphis Jukchon RREN Alvaron Alien s Rich Rond Auburn Woodburno Russellville Gainesville Stowers ALLEN! Gordonsville LOUIS Tramme SIMPSON PScottsville OMBAerial Franklin Hickory fla Petroleum o Knob Lick Gradyville Ozark METCALFE Glens Fork RUSSELL Nancy Esto Jamestown Beaumont Amanddville Creelsbor Marrowbone Baker Waterview Rockbridge CUMBERLAND: MONROE eslie o Flippin o Tompkinsville Fountain Run Akersville Gamaliel Matti SU Burkesville Rankin Livingston Hazelpatch Walnut grov.c Pulaski Science Hi Altamonto E. Bernstadt Bernstad! Pittsburg GrundyLondonto LEA SEK Somerse! umside Mill berl Alpine Greenwood Indian Steubenville Monticello Seventy WAY 1:0 Gapcreek CLINTON AL Albany Slic Landing "Six Peytonsburg Mwin Schochon renton Oakgrove Allensville Keysburg Byrdstow Clarksville Springfield E La Fayette o Roganay Cel N 87° B 86° C Longitude West 85 of Greenwich Benge Springs yoming rd Manchester UREL Marydij. Bush to Lily Woodbingo Ki Parkers Lake Rockholds Cranenest Gray Willon Flatrock WHITÉ È‚Ý Barrenlork Coolidge Stearns axton Censerő Jellicoo Pine Knot Winfield Newcomb S D X Barbourville Artemuse ays & Flat Lick Fqurini Prospert: BE Warren Gallipolis Portsmouth (Springville) etont. 39° R? eenup GREEN U Load R lanta Rive Hopewell Grayson P Ironton shland Catlettsbur Nea Hunnell Princess BOYD Rush Lockwood Denton Buchanan Olive HARTER Soldier. McGione Moreh Enterprise armers Webb villes Newfoundland Huntington Glenwood WEST Wayne, Fallsburg Louisa Fort Gay LAWRENU VIRGINIA Whitehouse Edenunez P.04 ELLIOTT Busseyville Blaine Redbush Rivero Mingo Charley Peady Relief o Flatgap... Paintsville Kwilliamspori Warfield Cannel Lick Cyrus JOHNSON MARTIN Pilgrim Citation Salyersville Lagerhill Point: Neolansko MACDEFIN vyton Campton ne Poor Tesler KNOT T Hindman Pinetopo *Hellier o Lester Mayking Viper Whitesburgo- Cutshin LEACH-E Eweniz ki Mounta Harlan Big Stranght Creek •Pineville wasio! Williamsburg Pleasant View Mountain Ash Legmonga Halsey FMM u m mberland Gap Sneedville Mandrake Poorfork Holansburg Black Mtn Jonesville " Roda Pikeville Levisa Fk. Millard Regina Praise Glamorgan Wise -Dante- Clinch E 83° RG Holston R Gate City F E Emery Walker 4 Burlington Warsa Vevay Chent Póliton CALLA Melbourne Florente Erlanger Cold Spring Grant BOONE Rising Sun-o % Union oz):O Axandria Rabbit Hash Independence California Big Bone Lick CAMPBEL Mentor Valton KENTON Carntown erona D Mossville Butler Critfender Boston Sherman" 'port pster Eigrov Georgetow Minerva coe Dry! Catawba Ridge PENDLE LON BRACKEN Williamstown Falmouth ingood Brooksville Germantown ville Milford Washington o ringdale MaySyille cord Owenton WEEN Kentoni wno Newro પ Columbus الم Benson Switzer Midway NASH Troy Vilmore Logana Hutchison M Paris BOTER BON N.Middletown Austerlitz Stepstone, Crook Willard O WA N Owingsvil FeestoneEl Olympia Achiles pencer Yale Sandy Hook Scranton Redwine 380 inchester Rothwell Nndian Liberty Erenchburg Fields MENIFEE Cla Stanton Wellington Ston Bowen Maytown, Coucgchilly POWELL Hazel Gree Slades Irvine Torrent icks Lakeville Millers CrWOLFE Hendricks ú impson Sublett ESTI Old Fincastle Prvse Landing Willowol Beatty Jackson Conway O Wind Cave Proct Sandgap Smith Br EATHI Prestonsburg FLOYD -Langley Thomas Villiamson 3 Laynesville Coalrun P₁ • Booneville Travellers Rest W.S LEE Y Lackey Crockettsvill Buckhorn nutburg o Burning Oneida TYR Hazard Hyden Wooton Bigcreek GESL 37 84° Manring Powell E KENTUCKY 741 skunks, and the streams were inhabited by trout, perch, buffalo-fish, $37,174,200; the average price per pound had increased from 5'9 cents sun-fish, mullet, eels, and suckers. Of the larger game there remain in 1899 to 106 cents in 1909. The two most important tobacco- only a few deer, bears and lynx in the mountain districts, and the growing districts are: the Black Patch, in the extreme south-west numbers of small game and fish have been greatly reduced. In its corner of the state, which with the adjacent counties in Tennessee primeval state Kentucky was generally well timbered, but most of grows a black heavy leaf bought almost entirely by the agents of the middle section has been cleared and here the blue grass is now foreign governments (especially Austria, Spain and Italy) and called the dominant feature of the flora. Extensive forest areas still remain regie tobacco; and the Blue Grass Region, as far east as Mays- both in the east and the west, In the east oak, maple, beech, ville, and the hill country south and east, whose product, the red chestnut, elm, tulip-tree (locally "yellow poplar "), walnut, pine and white Burley, is a fine-fibred light leaf, peculiarly absorbent of and cedar trees are the most numerous; in the west the forests are licorice and other adulterants used in the manufacture of sweet composed largely of cypress, ash, oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut, chewing tobacco, and hencea peculiarly valuable crop, which formerly beech, tulip-tree, gum and sycamore trees. Locust, pawpaw, averaged 22 cents a pound for all grades. The high price received by cucumber, þuck-eye, black mulberry and wild cherry trees also the hill growers of the Burley induced farmers in the Blue Grass abound, and the grape, raspberry and strawberry are native fruits. to plant Burley tobacco there, where the crop proved a great success, Climate.The climate is somewhat more mild and even than that of more than twice as much (sometimes 2000 1h) being grown to the the neighbouring states. The mean annual temperature, about 50°F. acre in the Blue Grass as in the hills and twice as large patches being on the mountains in the S. E., and 60° W. of the Tennessee, is about easily managed. In the hill country the share tenant could usually 55° F. for the entire state; the thermometer seldom registers as high plant and cultivate only four acres of tobacco, had to spend 120 days as 100° or as low as-10°. The mean annual precipitation ranges working the crop, and could use the same land for tobacco only once from about 38 in. in the north-east to 50 in. in the south, and is about in six years. So, although a price of 65 cents a pound covered 46 in. for the entire state; it is usually distributed evenly throughout expenses of the planter of Burley in the Blue Grass, who could use the year and very little is in the form of snow. The prevailing winds the same land for tobacco once in four years, this price did not repay blow from the west or south-west; rain-bearing winds blow mostly the hill planter. The additional production of the Blue Grass from the south; and the cold waves come from the north or north-west. Region sent the price of Burley tobacco down to this figure and below Soil. - The best soils are the alluvium in the bottom-lands along it. The planters in the Black Patch had met a combination of the some of the larger rivers and that of the Blue Grass Region, which buyers by forming a pool, the Planters' Protective Association, into is derived from a limestone rich in organic matter (containing phos which 40,000 growers were forced by "night-riding " and other phorus) and rapidly decomposing. The soil within a radius of forms of coercion and persuasion, and had thus secured an advance some 20 m. around Lexington is especially rich; outside of this area to II cents a pound from the “regie " buyers and had shown the the Blue Grass soil is less rich in phosphorus and contains a larger efficacy of pooling methods in securing better prices for the tobacco mixture of sand. The soils of the Highland Rim Plateau as well crop. Following their example, the planters of the Burley formed as of the lowland west of the Tennessee river vary greatly, but the the Burley Tobacco Society, a Burley pool, with headquarters at most common are a clay, containing more or less carbonate of lime, Winchester and associated with the American Society of Equity, and a sandy loam. On the escarpment around the Blue Grass which promoted in general the pooling of different crops throughout Region the soils are for the most part either cherty or stiff with the country. The tobacco planters secured legislation favourable to clay and of inferior quality. On the mountains and on the Alleghany the formation of crop pools. The Burley Tobacco Society attempted Plateau, also, much of the soil is very light and thin. to pool the entire crop and thus force the buyers of the American Agriculture. -Kentucky chiefly an agricultural state. Of the Tobacco Company of New Jersey (which usually bought more than 752,531 of its inhabitants who, in 1900, were engaged in somegainful three-fourths of the crop of Burley) to pay a much higher price for occupation, 408,185 or 54*2%, were agriculturists, and of its total it. In 1906 and in 1907 the crop was very large; the pool sold its land surface 21,979,422 acres, or 85'9%, were included in farms. lower grades of the 1906 crop at 16 cents a pound to the American The percentage of improved farm land increased from 35'2 in 1850 Tobacco Company and forced the independent buyers out of business; to 49'9 in 1880 and to 625 in 1900. The number of farms increased and the Burley Society decided in 1907 to grow no more tobacco from 74,777 in 1859 to 166,453 in 1880 and to 234,667 in 1900; and until the 1906 and 1907 crops were sold, making the price high enough their average size decreased from 2267 acres in 1850 to 129*1 acres to pay for this period of idleness. Members of the pool had used in 1889 and to 93o7 acres in 1900, these changes being largely due force to bring planters into the pool; and now some tobacco growers, to the breaking up of slave estates, the introduction of a considerable especially in the hills, planted new crops in the hope of immediate number of negro farmers, and the increased cultivation of tobacco return, and a new night-riding war was begun on them. Bands and market-garden produce. In the best stock-raising, country, of masked men rode about the country both in the Black Patch and e.g. in Fayette county, the opposite tendency prevailed during the in the Burley, burning tobacco houses of the independent planters, latter part of this period and old farms of a few hundred acres were scraping their newly-planted tobacco patches, demanding that combined to form some vast estates of from 2000 to 4000 acres. planters join their organization or leave the country, and whipping Of the 234,667 farms in 1900, 155,189 contained less than 100 acres, or shooting the recalcitrants. Governor Willson, immediately after 76,450 contained between 100 and 500 acres, and 558 contained more his inauguration, took measures to suppress disorder. In general than 1000 acres; 152,216 or 64-86%, were operated by owners or the Planters' Protective Association in the Black Patch was more part owners, of whom 5320 were negroes; 16,776 by cash tenants, successful in its pool than the Burley Tobacco Society in its, and of whom 789 were negroes; and 60,289 by share tenants, of whom there was more violence in the “regie " than in the Burley 49:34 were negroes. In 1900 the value of farm land and improve district. In November 1908 the lawlessness subsided in the Burley ments was $291,117,430; of buildings on farms, $90,887,460; of live after the agȚeement of the American Tobacco Company to purchase stock, $73,739,106. In the year 1899 the value of all farm products the remainder of the 1906 crop at a “round" price of 20 cents was $123,266,785 (of which $21,128,530 was the value of products and a part of the 1907 crop at an average price of 17 cents, thus fed to livestock), including the following items: crops, $74,783,365; making it profitable to raise a full crop in 1909. animal products, $44,303,940; and forest products, $4,179,840. Kentucky is the principal hemp-growing state of the Union; the The total acreage of all crops in 1899 was 6,582,696. Indian corn crop of 1899, which was grown on 14,107 acres and amounted to is the largest and most valuable crop. As late as 1849, when it 10,303,560 tb, valued at $468,454, was 87.7% of the hemp crop produced 58,672,591 bu., Kentucky was the second largest Indian of the whole country. But the competition of cheaper labour in corn producing state in the Union. In 1899 the crop had increased other countries reduced the profits on this plant and the product of to 73,974,220 bu. and the acreage was 3,319,257 (more than half the 1899 was a decrease from 78,818,000 lb in 1859. Hay and forage, acreage of all crops in the state), but the rank had fallen to ninth in the fourth in value of the state's crops in 1899, were grown on product and eleventh in acreage; in 1909 (according to the Yearbook 683,139 acres and amounted to 776,534 tons, valued at $6,100,647; of the United States Department of Agriculture) the crop was in 1909 the acreage of hay was 480,000 and the crop of 653,000 tons 103,472,000 bu. (ninth among the states of the United States), and was valued at $7,771,000. In 1899 the total value of fruit grown the acreage was 3,568,000 (twelfth among the states). Among the in Kentucky was $2,491,457 (making the state rank thirteenth among cereals wheat is the next largest crop; it increased from 2,142,822 bu. the states of the Union in the value of this product), of which in 1849 to 11,356,113 bu. in 1879, and to 14,264,500 bu. in 1899; in $1,943,645 was the value of orchard fruits and $435,462 that of small 1909 it was only 7,906,000 bu. The crop of each of the other cereals fruits. Among fruits, apples are produced in greatest abundance, is small and in each case was less in 1899 than in 1849. The culture 6,053,717 bu. in 1899, an amount exceeded in only nine states; in of tobacco, which is the second most valuable crop in the state, was 1889 the crop had been 10,679,389 bu. and was exceeded only by the begun in the north part about 1780 and in the west and south early crop of Ohio and by that of Michigan. Kentucky also grows con- in the 19th century, but it was late in that century before it was intro- siderable quantities of cherries, pears, plums and peaches, and, for its duced to any considerable extent in the Blue Grass Region, where size, ranks high in its crops of strawberries, blackberries and rasp- it was then in a measure substituted for the culture of hemp. By berries. Indian corn is grown in all parts of the state but most largely 1849 Kentucky ranked second only to Virginia in the production of in the western portion. Wheat is grown both in the Blue Grass tobacco, and in 1899 it was far ahead of any other state in both Region and farther west; and the best country for fruit is along the acreage and yield, there being in that year 384,805 acres, which was Ohio river between Cincinnati and Louisville and in the hilly land sur- 349% of the total acreage in the continental United States, yielding rounding the Blue Grass Region. In the eastern part of the state 314,288,050, ib. As compared with the state's Indian corn crop of that year, the acreage was only a little more than one-ninth, but the 1 North of the Black Patch is a district in which is grown a heavy-leaf value ($18,541,982) was about 63%. In 1909 the tobacco acreage tobacco, a large part of which is shipped to Great Britain; and farther in Kentucky was 420,000, the crop was 350, 700,000 lb, valued at north and east a dark tobacco is grown for the American market. 1) ) 742 KENTUCKY where crops are generally ligặt, Indian corn, oats and potatoes are and cigarettes, saddlery and harness, patent medicines and com. the principal products, but tobacco, flax and cotton are grown. The pounds, cotton goods, furniture, confectionery, carriage and wagon thoroughbred Kentucky horse has long had a world-wide reputation materials, wooden packing boxes, woollen goods, pottery and terra for speed; and the Blue Grass Region, especially Fayette, Bourbon cotta ware, structural iron-work, and turned and carved wood. and Woodford counties, is probably the finest horse-breeding region Louisville is the great manufacturing centre, the value of its products in America and has large breeding farms. In Fayette county, in amounting in 1905 to $83,204,125, 52.1% of the product of the entire 1900"; "the average value of colts between the ages of one and two state, and showing an increase of 25.9% over the value of the city's years was $377.78. In the Blue Grass Region many thorough factory products in 1900. Ashland is the principal centre of the bred shorthorn cattle and fine mules are raised. The numbers of iron industry. horses, mules, cattle and sheep, increased quite steadily from 1850 Minerals. -The mineral resources of Kentucky are important and to 1900, but the number of swine in 1880 and in 1900 was nearly valuable, though very little developed. The value of all manu- one-third less than in 1850. In 1900 the state had 497,245 horses, factures in 1900 was $154,166,365, and the value of manufactures 198,110 mules, 364,025 dairy cows, 755,714 other neat cattle, 1,300,832 based upon products of mines or quarries in the same year was sheep and 2,008,989 swine; in 1910 there were in Kentucky 407,000 $25,204,788; the total value of mineral products was $19,294,341 in horses, 207,000 mules, 394,000 milch cows, 665,000 other neat' cattle, 1907. Bituminous coal is the principal mineral, and in 1907 Kentucky 1,060,000 sheep and 989,000 swine. The principal sheep-raising ranked eighth among the coal-producing states of the l'nion; the counties in 1905 were Bourbon, Scott and Harrison, and the prin- output in 1907 amounted to 10,753,124 short tons, and in 1902 to cipal hog-raising counties were Graves, Hardin, Ohio, Union and 6,766,984 short tons as compared with 2,399,755 tons produced in Hickman. 1889. In 1902 the amount was about equally divided between the Forests and Timber.-More than one-half of the state (about eastern coalfield, which is for the most part in Greenup, Boyd, 22,200 sq. m.) was in 1900 still wooded. In 1900 of the total cut of Carter, Lawrence, Johnson, Lee, Breathitt, Rockcastle, Pulaski, 777.218 M. ft., B.M., 392,804 were white oak and 279,740 M. ft. were Laurel, Knox, Bell and Whitley counties, and has an area of about tulip-tree. Logging is the principal industry of several localities, 11,180 sq. m., and the western coalfield, which is in Henderson, especially in the east, and the lumber product of the state increased Union, Webster, Daviess, Hancock, McLean, Ohio, Hopkins, Butler, in value from $1,502,434 in 1850 to $4,064,361 in 1880, and to Muhlenberg and Christian counties, and has an area of 5800 sq. m. $13,774,911 in 1900. The factory product in 1900 was valued at In 1907 the output of the western district was 6,295,397 tons; that $13,338,533 and in 1905 at $14,539,000. In 1905, of a total of of the eastern, 4,457,727. The largest coal-producing counties in 586,371 M. ft., B.M., of sawed lumber, 295,776 M. ft. were oak and 1907 were Hopkins (2,064,154 short tons) and Muhlenberg (1,882,913 153,057 M. ft. were poplar.". short tons) in the western coalfield, and Bell (1,437,886 short tcns) and The planing mill industry is increasing rapidly, as it is found Whitley (762,923 short tons) in the south-western part of the eastern 'cheaper to erect mills near the forests; between 1900 and 1905 the coalfield. All Kentucky coal is either bituminous or semi-bituminous, capital of planing mills in the state increased 117'2 % and the value but of several varieties. Of cannel'coal Kentucky is the largest of products increased 1428 %. producer in the Union, its output for 1902 being 65,317 short tons, Manufactures.-Kentucky's manufactures are principally those and, according to state reports, for 1903, 72,856 tons (of which for which the products of her farms and forests furnish the raw 46,314.tons were from Morgan county), and for 1904, 68,400 tons material. The most distinctive of these is probably distilled liquors, (of which 52,492 tons were from Morgan county); according to the the state's whisky being famous. A colony of Roman Catholic Mineral Resources of the United States for 1907 (published by the immigrants from Maryland settled in 1787 along the Salt river about United States Geological Survey) the production of Kentucky in 50 m. S.S.E. of Louisville and with the surplus of their Indian corn 1907 of cannel coal (including 4650 tons of semi-cannel coal) 'was crop made whisky, a part of which they sold at settlements on the 77.733 tons, and exclusive of semi-cannel coal the output of Kentucky Ohio and the Mississippi. The industry was rapidly developed by was much larger than that of any other state. Some of the coal distillers, who immediately after the suppression of the Whisky mined in eastern Kentucky is an excellent steam producer, especially Insurrection, in 1794, removed from Pennsylvania and settled in the Jellico coal of Whitley, county, Kentucky, and of Campbell what is now Mason county and was then a part of Bourbon county-county, Tennessee. But with the exception of that mined in Hop- the product is still known as Bourbon ” whisky. During the first kins and Bell counties, very little is fit for making, coke; in 1880 half of the 19th century the industry became of considerable local the product was 4250 tons of cokė (value $12,250), in 1890, 12,343 importance in all parts of the state, but since the Civil War the heavy tons ($22,191); in 1900, 95,532 tons ($235,505); in 1902, 126,879 tons tax imposed has caused its concentration in large establishments. ($317,875), the maximum product up to 1906; and in 1907, 67,068 In 1900 nearly 40% and in 1905 more than one-third of the state's tons ($157,288). Coal was first mined in Kentucky in Laurel or product was distilled in Louisville. Good whisky is made in Mary- Pulaski county in 1827; between 1829 and 1835 the annual output land and in parts of Pennsylvania from rye, but all efforts in other was from 2000 to 6000 tons; in 1840 it was 23,527 tons and in 1860 states to produce from Indian corn a whisky equal to the Bourbon it was 285,760 tons. have failed, and it is probable that the quality of the Bourbon is Petroleum was discovered on Little Rennick's Creek, near Burkes- largely due to the character of the Kentucky lime water and the ville, in Cumberland county, in 1829, when a flowing oil well (the Kentucky yeast germs. The average annual product of the state American well,”, whose product was sold as “ American oil from 1880 to 1900 was about 20,000,000 gallons; in 1900 the product heal rheumatism, burns, &c.) was struck by, men boring for a “salt was valued at $9,786,527; in 1905 at $11,204,649. In 1900 and in well,” and after a second discovery in the 'sixties at the mouth of 1905 Kentucky ranked fourth among the states in the value of Crocus Creek a small but steady amount of oil was got each year. distilled liquors. Great pipe lines from Parkersburg, West Virginia, to Somerset, The total value of all manufactured products of the state increased Pulaski county, and with branches to the Ragland, Barbourville from $126,719,857 in 1890 to $154,166,365 in 1900, or 21.7%, and and Prestonburg fields, had in 1902 a mileage of 275 m. The from 1900 to 1905 the value of factory-made products alone increased principal fields are in the “southern tier," from Wayne to Allen from $126,508,660 to $159,753,968, or 26.3%. Measured by the county, including Barren county; farther east, Knox county, and value of the product, flour and grist mill products rose from third in Floyd and Knott counties; to the north-east the Ragland field in Bath rank in 1900 to first in rank in 1905, from $13,017,043 to $18,007.786, and Rowan counties on the Licking river. In 1902 the petroleum pro- or 38.3%; and chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff fell during duced in the state amounted to 248,950 barrels, valued at $172,837, the same period from first to third in rạnk, from $14.948,192 to a.gain in quantity of 81.4% over 1901. Kentucky is the S.W. $13,117,000, or 12:3%; in 1900 Kentucky was second, in 1905 third, extreme of the natural gas region of the west fank of the Appalachian among the states in the value of this product. Lumber and timber system; the greatest amount is found in Martin county in the east, and products held second rank both in 1900 ($13,338,533) and in 1905 Breckinridge county in the north-west. The value of the state's ($14,539,000).. Distilled liquors were fourth in rank in 1900 and natural gas output increased from $38,993 in 1891 to $99,000 in in 1905. Men's clothing rose from tenth in rank in 1900 to fifth in 1896, $286,243 in 1900, $365,611 in 1902, and $380,176 in 1907. rank in 1905, from $3,420,365 to $6,279,078, or 83.6%. Other im- Iron ore has been found in several counties, and an iron furnace portant manufactures, with their product values in 1900 and in 1905, was built in Bath county, in the N. E. part of the state, as early as are iron and steel ($5,004,572 in 1900; $6,167,542 in 1905); railway 1791, but since 1860 this mineral has received little attention. In cars ($4,249,029 in 1900; $5,739,077. in 1905); packed meats 1902 it was mined only in Bath, Lyon and Trigg counties, of which ($5,977,167 in 1900; $5,693,731 in 1905); foundry and machine shop the total product was 71,006 long tons, valued at only $86,169; in products ($4,434,610 in 1900; $4,699,559 in 1905); planing mill 1904 only 35,000 tons were mined, valued at the mines at $35,000. products, including sash, doors and blinds ($1,891,517 in 1900: In 1898 there began an increased activity in the mining of fiuor, $4,593,251 in 1905-an increase already remarked); carriages and spar, and Crittenden, Fayette and Livingston counties produced wagons ($2,849,713 in 1900; $4,059,438 in 1905); tanned and curried in 1902, 29,030 tons (valued at $143,410) of this mineral, in 1903 leather $3,7,57,016 in 1900; $3,952,277 in 1905); and malt liquors 30,835 tons (valued at $153,960) and in 1904 19,096 tons (valued ($3,186,627 in 1900; $3,673,678 in 1905). Other important manu- at $111,499), amounts (and values) exceeding those produced in factures (each with a product value in 1905 of more than one million any other state for these years; but in 1907 the quantity (21,058 dollars) were cotton-seed oil and cake (in 1900 Kentucky was fifth tons) was less than the output of Illinois. Lead and zinc are mined and in 1905 sixth among the states in the value of cotton-seed oil and in small quantities near Marion in Crittenden county and elsewhere cake), cooperage, agricultural implements, boots and shoes, cigars in connexion with mining for fluorspar; in 1907 the output was 75 tons of lead valued at $7950 and 358 tons of zinc valued at 1 In the census of 1905, statistics for other than factory-made $42,244. Jefferson, Jessamine, Warren, Grayson and Caldwell products, such as those of the hand trades, were not included. counties have valuable quarries of an excellent light-coloured to KENTUCKY 743 colitic limestone, resembling the Bedford limestone of Indiana, and were native born. The rugged east section of the state, a best known under the name of the finest variety, the “ Bowling Green stone " of Warren county; and sandstones good for structural part of Appalachian America, is inhabited by a people of marked purposes are found in both coal regions, and especially in Rowan characteristics, portrayed in the fiction of Miss Murfrce (“Charles county. In 1907 the total value of limestone quarried in the state Egbert Craddock ") and John Fox, Jr. They are nearly all of was $891,500, and of all stone, $1,002,450. Fire and pottery clay British-English and Scotch-Irish-descent, with a trace of and cement rock also abound within the state. The value of clay Huguenot. They have good native ability, but through lack products was $2,406,350 in 1905 (when Kentucky was tenth among the states) and was $2,611,364 in 1907 (when Kentucky was eleventh of communication with the outside world their progress has been among the states). The manufacture of cement was begun in 1829 retarded. Before the Civil War they were owners of land, but at Shippingport, a suburb of Louisville, whence the natural cement for the most part not owners of slavés, so that a social and of Kentucky and India na, produced within a radius of 15 m, from political barrier, as well as barriers of nature, separated them Louisville, is called "Louisville cement.' In 1905 the value of natural cement manufactured in the state (according to the United from the other inhabitants of the state. In their speech several States Geological Survey) was only $83,000. The manufacture of hundred words persist which elsewhere have been obsolete for Portland cement is of greater importance. three centuries or occur only in dialects in England. Their There are mineral springs, especially salt springs, in various parts life is still in many respects very primitive; their houses are of the state, particularly in the Blue Grass Region; these are now of generally built of logs, their clothes are often of homespun, Indian comparatively littleeconomic importance; no salt was reported among the state's manufactures for 1905, and in 1907 only 736,920 gallons corn and ham form a large part of their diet, and their means of mineral waters were bottled for sale. Historically and geologi- of transportation are the saddle-horse and sleds and wheeled cally, however, these springs are of considerable interest. According carts drawn by oxen or mules. In instincts and in character, to Professor N. S. Shaler, state geologist in 1873-1880, “When the rocks whence they flow were formed on the Silurian sea-'floors, a good also, the typical " mountaineers” are to a marked degree deal of the sea-water was imprisoned in the strata, between the grains primitive; they are, for the most part, very ignorant; they of sand or mud and in the cavities of the shells that make up a large are primitively hospitable and are warm-hearted to friends and part of these rocks. This confined sea-water is gradually being strangers, but are implacable in their enmities and are prone displaced by the downward sinking of the rain-water through the to vendettas and family feuds, which often result in the killing riſts of the strata, and thus finds its way to the surface: so that these springs offer to us a share of the ancient seas, in which perhaps in open fight or from ambush of meinbers of one faction by a hundred million of years ago the rocks of Kentucky were laid members of another; and their relative seclusion and isolation down." To these springs in prehistoric and historic times came annually great numbers of animals for salt, and in the marshes and for law, or to a belief that they must execute justice with their has brought them, especially in some districts, to a disregard swamps around some of them, especially Big Bone Lick (in Boone county, about 20 m. S.W. of Cincinnati) have been found many own hands. This appears particularly in their attitude toward bones of extinct mammals, such as the mastodon and the long- revenue officers sent to discover and close illicit stills for the legged bison. The early settlers and the Indians came to the distilling from Indian corn of so-called "moon-shine” whisky springs to shoot large game for food, and by boiling the waters the (consisting largely of pure alcohol). The taking of life and settlers obtained valuable supplies of salt. Several of the Kentucky springs have been somewhat frequented as summer resorts; among moon-shining,” however, have become less and less frequent these are the Blue Lick in Nicholas county (about 48 m. N.E. of among them, and Berea College, at Berea, the Lincoln Memorial Lexington), Harrodsburg, Crab Orchard in Lincoln county (about | University, and other schools in Kentucky and adjoining states 115 m. S.É. of Louisville), Rock Castle springs in Pulaski county have done much to educate them and bring them more in (about 23 m. E. of Somerset) and Paroquet Springs (near Shepherds- ville, Bullitt county), which was a well-known resort before the harmony with the outside community. Civil War, and near which, at Bullitt Lick, the first salt works in The population of Kentucky is largely rural. However, in the Kentucky are said to have been erected. decade between 1890 and 1900 the percentage of urban population Pearls are found in the state, especially in the Cumberland River, (i.e. population of places of 4000 inhabitants or more) to the total and it is supposed that there are diamonds in the kimberlite deposits population increased from 1745 to 1997, and the percentage of semi, in Elliott county. urban (i.e. population of incorporated places with a population of Transportation.-Kentucky in 1909 had 3,503.98 m. of railway. less than 4000) to the total increased from 8:86 to 9.86%; but Railway building was begun in the state in 1830, and in 1835 the 48'3% of the urban population of 1900 was in the city of Louisville. first train drawn by a steam locomotive ran from Lexington to In 1910 the following cities each had a population of more than Franklin, a distance of 27 m. Not until 1851 was the line completed 5000. Louisville (223,928), Covington (53,270), Lexington (35,099), to Louisville. Kentucky's trade during the greater part of the Newport (30,309), Paducah (22,760), Owensboro (16,011), Hender- 19th century was very largely with the South, and with the facilities son (11,452), Frankfort, the capital (10,465), Hopkinsville (9419), which river navigation afforded for this the development of a Bowling Green (9173), Ashland (8688), Middlesboro (7305), Win- railway system was retarded. Up to 1880 the railway mileage had chester (7956), Dayton (6979), Bellevue (6683), Maysville (6141), increased to only 1,530; but during the next ten years it increased Mayfield (5916), Paris (5859), Danville (5420), Richmond (5340). to 2,942, and railways were in considerable measure substituted for of historical interest are Harrodsburg (4.v.), the first perma- water craft. The principal lines are the Louisville & Nashville, nent settlement in the state, and Bardstown (pop. in 1900, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Illinois Central, and the Cincinnati 1711), the county-seat of Nelson county. Bardstown was settled Southern (Queen & Crescent route). Most of the lines run south or about 1775, largely by Roman Catholics from Maryland. It was the south-west from Cincinnati and Louisville, and the east border of the see of a Roman Catholic bishop from 1810 to 1841, and the seat state still has a small railway mileage and practically no wagon roads, of St Joseph's College (Roman Catholic), from 1824 to 1890; and most of the travel being on horseback. The wagon roads of the was for some time the home of John Fitch (1743–1798), the inventor, Blue Grass Region are excellent, because of the plentiful and cheap who built his first boat here. The Nazareth Literary and Benevolent supply of stone for road building. The assessment of railway Institution, at Nazareth (2 m. N. of Bardstown), was founded in property, and in some measure the regulation of railway rates, are 1829 and is a well-known Roman Catholic school for girls. Boones- entrusted to a state railway commission. borough, founded by Daniel Boone in 1775, in what is now Madison county, long ago ceased to exist, though a railway station named Population. The population of Kentucky in 18802 was Boone, on the Louisville & Nashville railroad, is near the site of the 1,648,690; in 1890, 1,858,635, an increase within the decade of old settlement. 12.7%; in 1900 it was 2,147,174; and in 1910 it had reached In 1906 there were 858,324 communicants of different religious 2,289,905. Of the total population of 1900, 284,865 were denominations in the state, including 311,583 Baptists, 165,908 coloured and 50,249 were foreign-born; of the coloured, 284,706 47,822 Presbyterians and 8091 Protestant Episcopalians. Roman Catholics, 156,007 Methodists, 136,110 Disciples of Christ, were negroes, 102 were Indians, and 57 were Chinese; of the foreign-born, 27,555 were natives of Germany, 9874 were natives adopted in 1891. A convention to revise the constitution or to Administration.-Kentucky is governed under a constitution of Ireland, and 3256 were natives of England. Of the foreign- draft a new one meets on the call of two successive legislatures, born, 21,427, or 42.6%, were inhabitants of the city of Louis. ratified by a majority of the popular vote, provided that majority ville, leaving a population outside of this city of which 98.4%be at least one-fourth of the total number of votes cast at the 1 For a full account of the "licks," see vol. i. pt. ii. of the Memoirs preceding general election. Ordinary amendments are proposed of the Kentucky Geological Survey (1876). * The population of the state at the previous censuses was: 73,677 to popular approval. With the usual exceptions of criminals, by a three-fifths majority in each house, and are also subject in 1790; 220,955 in 1800; 406,511 in 1810; 564,317 in 1820, 687,917 in 1830; 779,828 in 1840; 982,405 in 1850; 1,155,684 in 1860 and 3 There were three previous constitutions those of 1792, 1799 1,321,011 in 1870. and 1850. 744 KENTUCKY idiots and insane persons, all male citizens of the United States, stead law declares exempt from execution an unmortgaged dwelling- who are at least 21 years of age, and have lived in the house (with appurtenances) not to exceed $1000 in value, and cer- state one year, in the county six months, and in the voting $500) of ministers and lawyers, and provisions for one year for each tain property, such as tools of one's trade, libraries (to the value of precinct sixty days next preceding the election, are entitled to member of a family. Child labour is regulaced by an act passed by vote. The legislature provides by law for registration in cities the General Assembly in 1908; this act prohibits the employment of the first, second, third and fourth classes-the minimum of children less than 14 years of age in any gainful occupation during the session of school or in stores, factories, mines, offices, hotels or population for a city of the fourth class being 3000. Corpora- messenger service during vacations, and prohibits the employment tions are forbidden to contribute money for campaign purposes of children between 14 and 16 unless they have employment certifi- on penalty of forfeiting their charters, or, if not chartered in the cates issued by a superintendent of schools or some other properly state, their right to carry on business in the state. The executive authorized person, showing the child's ability to read and write is composed of a governor, a lieutenant-governor, a treasurer, an English, giving information as to the child's age (based upon a birth certificate if possible), and identifying the child by giving height auditor of public accounts, a register of the land office, a com- and weight and colour of eyes and hair. These certificates must missioner of agriculture, labour, and statistics, a secretary of be kept on file and lists of children employed must be posted by state, an attorney-general and a superintendent of public employers; labour inspectors receive monthly lists from local school instruction. All are chosen by popular vote for four years and boards of children receiving certificates; and children under 16 are not to work more than 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week, or between are ineligible for immediate re-election, and each must be at 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. least 30 years of age and must have been a resident citizen of the Charitable and Penal Institutions. The charitable and penal state for two years next preceding his election. If a vacancy institutions are managed by separate boards of trustees appointed occurs in the office of governor during the first two years a new by the governor. There are a deaf and dumb institution at Danville election is held; if it occurs during the last two years the institution for the education of feeble-minded children at Frankfort (1823), an institution for the blind at Louisville (1842), and an lieutenant-governor serves out the term. Lieutenant-governor (1860). The Eastern Lunatic Asylum at Lexington, established Beckham, elected in 1900 to fill out the unexpired term of in 1815 as a private institution, came under the control of the state Governor Goebel (assassinated in 1900), was re-elected in 1903, in 1824. The Central Lunatic Asylum at Anchorage, founded in the leading lawyers of the state holding that the constitutional 1869. as a house of refuge for young criminals, became an asylum in 1873. The Western Lunatic Asylum at Hopkinsville inhibition on successive terms did not apply in such a caşe. was founded in 1848. The main penitentiary at Frankfort was The governor is commander-in-chief of the militia when it is not completed in 1799 and a branch was established at Eddyville in called into the service of the Unlted States; he may remit fines and 1891. Under an act of 1898 two houses of reform for juvenile forfeitures, commute sentences, and grant reprieves and pardons, offenders, one for boys, the other for girls, were established near except in cases of impeachment; and he calls extraordinary sessions Lexington. of the legislature. His control of patronage, however, is not exten- Education. The early history of the schools of Kentucky shows sive and his veto power is very weak. He may veto any measure, that the rural school conditions have been very unsatisfactory. A including items in appropriation bills, but the legislature can repass system of five trustees, with a sixty-day term of school, was replaced such a measure by a simple majority of the total membership in by a three trustee system, first 'with a one-hundred-day term of each house. Among the various state administrative boards are school, and subsequently with a one-hundred-and-twenty-day term the board of equalization of five members, the board of health of of school annually. The state fund has not been supplemented nine members, a board of control of state institutions with four locally for the payment of teachers, who have consequently been members (bipartisan), and the railroad commission, the prison underpaid. The rural teachers, however, have been paid from the commission, the state election cornmission and the sinking fund state fund, so that the poorer districts receive aid from the richer commission of three members each. Legislative power is vested districts of the commonwealth. The rural schools are supervised in a General Assembly, which consists of a Senate and a House of by a superintendent in each county. Throughout the state white Representatives. Senators are elected for four years, one-half and negro children are taught in separate schools. The state makes retiring every two years; representatives are elected for two years. provision for revenue for school purposes as follows: (1) the interest The minimum age for a representative is 24 years, for a senator on the Bond of the Commonwealth for $1.327,000 oo; (2) dividends 30 years. There are thirty-eight senators and one hundred repre- on 798 shares of the capital stock of the Bank of Kentucky-repre- sentatives. The Senate sits as a court for the trial of impeachment senting a par value of $79,800.00; (3) the interest at 6% on the A majority of either house constitutes a quorum, but as Bond of the Commonwealth for $381,986.08, which is a perpetual regards ordinary bills, on the third reading, not only must they obligation in favour of the several counties; (4) the interest at 6% receive a majority of the quorum, but that majority must be at on $606,641.03, which was received from the United States; (5) the least two-fifths of the total membership of the house. For the enact. annual tax of 261 .cents on each $100 of value of all real and ment of appropriation bills and bills creating a debt a majority of personal estate and corporate franchises directed to be assessed the total membership in each house is required. All revenue for taxation; (6) a certain portion of fines, forfcitures and licences measures must originate in the House of Representatives, but the realized by the state; and (7) a portion of the dog taxes of each Senate may introduce amendments. There are many detailed county. The present school system of Kentucky may be summarized restrictions on local and special legislation. The constitution under three heads: the rural schools, the graded schools, and the provides for local option elections on the liquor question in counties, high schools (which are further classified as city and county high cities, towns and precincts; in 1907, out of 119 counties 87 had voted schools). The 1908 session of the General Assembly passed an act for prohibition. providing: that each county of the state be the unit for taxation; The judiciary consists of a court of appeals, circuit courts, quarterly that the county tax be mandatory; that there be a local subdistrict courts, county courts, justice of the peace courts, police courts tax; and that each county be divided into four, six or eight educa- and fiscal courts. The court of appeals is composed of from five to tional divisions, that one trustee be elected for each subdistrict, seven judges (seven in 1909), elected, one from each appellate that the trustees of the subdistricts form division Boards of Educa. district, for a term of eight years. The senior judge presides as tion, and that the chairmen of these various division boards form a chief justice and in case two or more have served the same length County Board of Education together with the county superintendent, of time one of them is chosen by lot. The governor may for any who is ex officio chairman. This system of taxation and supervision reasonable cause remove judges on the address of two-thirds of each is a great advance in the administration of public schools. Any house of the legislature. The counties are grouped into judicial subdistrict, town or city of the fifth or sixth class may provide for a circuits, those containing a population of more than 150,000 consti- graded school by voting for an ad valorem and poll tax which is tuting separate districts; each district has a judge and a common- limited as to amount. There were in 1909 135 districts which had wealth s attorney. The county, officials are the judge, clerk, attor complied with this act, and were known as Graded Common School ney, sheriff, jailor, coroner, surveyor and assessor, elected for four districts. By special charters the General Assembly has also years. Each county contains from three to eight justice of the established 25 special graded schools. Statutes provide that all peace districts. The financial board of the county is composed of children between the ages of 7, and 14 years living in such districts the county judge and the justices of the peace, or of the county must attend school annually for at least eight consecutive weeks, judge and three commissioners elected on a general ticket. In each city of the first, second and third class there must be, and of The municipalities are divided into six classes according to the fourth class there may be, maintained under control of a city population, a classification which permits considerable special Board of Education a system of public schools, in which all children local legislation in spite of the constitutional inhibition. Marriages between the ages of 6 and 20 residing in the city may be taught at between whites and persons of negro descent are prohibited by law, public expense. There were in 1909 62 city public high schools and a marriage of insane persons is legally void. Among causes for whose graduates are admitted to the State University without absolute divorce are adultery, desertion for one year, habitual examination. A truancy act (1908) provides that every child drunkenness for one year, cruelty, ungovernable temper, physical between the ages of 7 and 14 years living in a city of the first, second, incapacity at time of marriage, and the joining by either party of third or fourth class must attend school regularly for the full term any religious sect which regards marriage as unlawful. A home. I of said school. It was provided by statute that before June 1910, cases. KENTUCKY 745 there should have been established in each county of the state at present state from the Cumberland Gap, in search of a suitable least one County High School to which all common school graduates of the county should be admitted without charge. Separate insti- place for settlement but did not get beyond the mountain region. tutes for white and coloured teachers are conducted annually in each In the next year Christopher Gist, while on a similar mission for county. These institutes are held for a five or ten day session and the Ohio Company, explored the country westward from the attendance is required of every teacher. The state provides for the mouth of the Scioto river. In 1752 John Finley, an Indian issuance of three kinds of certificates. A state diploma issued by the trader, descended the Ohio river in a canoe to the site of Louis- State Board of Examiners is good for life. A state certificate issued by the State Board of Examiners is good for eight years with one renewal, ville. It was Finley's descriptions that attracted Daniel Boone, County certificates issued by the County Board of Examiners are of and soon after Boone's first visit, in 1767, travellers through three classes, valid for one, two and four years respectively, the Kentucky region became numerous. The first permanent According to a school census there was in 1908-1909 a school English settlement was established at Harrodsburg in 1774 by population of 739,352, of which 587,051 were reported from the rural districts. In the school year 1907-1908 the school population James Harrod, and in October of the same year the Ohio Indians, was 734,617, the actual enrolment in public schools was 441,377, the having been defeated by Virginia troops in the battle of Point average attendance was 260,843; there were approximately 3392 Pleasant (in what is now West Virginia), signed a treaty by which male and 5257 female white teachers and 1274 negro teachers; and they surrendered their claims south of the Ohio river. In March the total revenue for school purposes was $3,805,997, of which sum $2,437.942.56 came from the state treasury: 1775 Richard Henderson and some North Carolina land specula- What was formerly the State Agricultural and Mechanical College tors met about 1200 Cherokee Indians in council on the Watauga at Lexington became the State University by legislative enactment river and concluded a treaty with them for the purchase of all (1908); there is no tuition fee except in the School of Law. The the territory south of the Ohio river and between the Kentucky State University has a Department of Education. The state main- and Cumberland rivers. The purchase was named Transyl- tains for the whites two State Normal Schools, which were established in 1906–one, for the eastern district, at Richmond, and the other, vania, and within less than a month after the treaty was signed, for the western district, at Bowling Green. Under the law estab- Boone, under its auspices, founded a settlement at Boones- lishing State Normal Schools, each county is entitled to one or more borough which became the headquarters of the colony. The appointments of scholarships, one annually for every 500 white school children listed in the last school census. A Kentucky title was declared void by the Virginia government in 1778, but Normal and Industrial School (1886) for negroes is maintained at Henderson and his associates received 200,000 acres in com- Frankfort. Among the private and denominational colleges in pensation, and all sales made to actual settlers were confirmed. Kentucky are Central University (Presbyterian), at Danville; Tran. During the War of Independence the colonists were almost sylvania University, at Lexington; Georgetown College (Baptist) at Georgetown; Kentucky Wesleyan College (M.E. South), at Win- entirely neglected by Virginia and were compelled to defend them- chester; and Berea College( non-sectarian) at Berea. selves against the Indians who were often under British leader- Finance.-Kentucky, in common with other states in this part ship. Boonesborough was attacked in April and in July 1777 of the country, suffered from over-speculation in land and railways and in August 1778. Bryant's (or Bryan's) Station, near Lex- during 1830-1850. The funded debt of the state amounted to four and one-half millions of dollars in 1850, when the new constitu- ington, was besieged in August 1782 by about 600 Indians under tion limited the power of the legislature to contract further obliga- the notorious Simon Girty, who after raising the siege drew the tions or to decrease or misapply the sinking funds. From 1850 defenders, numbering fewer than 200, into an ambush and in the to 1880 there was a gradual reduction except during the years of battle of Blue Licks which ensued the Kentuckians lost about the war. The system of classifying the revenue into separate funds has frequently produced annual deficits, which are, as a rule only 67 killed and 7 prisoners. Kentucky county, practically coter- 7 nominal, since the total receipts exceed the total expenditures. In minous with the present state of Kentucky and embracing 1902 the net bonded debt, exclusive of about two millions of dollars all the territory claimed by Virginia south of the Ohio river and held for educational purposes, was $1,171,394, but this debt was west of Big Sandy Creek and the ridge of the Cumberland pałd in full in the years immediately following. The sinking fund Mountains, was one of three counties which was formed out of commission is composed of the governor, attorney-general, secretary Fincastle county in 1776. Four years later, this in turn was of state, auditor and treasurer. The first banking currency in Kentucky was issued in 1802 by a co-operative insurance company divided into three counties, Jefferson, Lincoln and Fayette, but established by Mississippi Valley traders. The Bank of Kentucky, the name Kentucky was revived in 1782 and was given to the established at Frankfort in 1806, had a monopoly for several years. In 1818–1819 the legislature chartered 46 banks, nearly all of which judicial district which was then organized for these three counties. went into liquidation during the panic of 1819. The Bank of the The War of Independence was followed by an extensive immigra- Commonwealth was chartered in 1820 as a state institution and the tion from Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina' of a popu- charter of the Bank of Kentucky was revoked in 1822, A court lation of which fully 95%, excluding negro slaves, were of decision denying the legal tender quality of the notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth gave rise to a bitter controversy which pure English, Scotch or Scotch-Irish descent. The manners, customs and institutions of Virginia were transplanted beyond hades considerable influence upon the politica skaistpey chartercatate This 1829. 1834 the legislature chartered the the mountains. There was the same political rivalry between Bank of Kentucky, the Bank of Louisville and the Northern Bank the slave-holding farmers of the Blue Grass Region and the of Kentucky. These institutions survived the panic of 1837 and soon came to be recognized as among the most prosperous and the poor whites” of the mountain districts that there was in most conservative banks west of the Ålleghanies. The state banking Virginia between the tide-water planters and the mountaineers. laws are stringent and most of the business is still controlled by Between these extremes were the small farmers of the" Barrens'' ? banks operating under state charters. in Kentucky and of the Piedmont Region in Virginia. The History.—The settlement and the development of that part of aristocratic influences in both states have always been on the the United States west of the Alleghany Mountains has probably Southern and Democratic side, but while they were strong enough been the most notable feature of American history since the close in Virginia to lead the state into secession they were unable to do of the Seven Years' War (1763). Kentucky was the first settle- so in Kentucky. ment in this movement, the first state west of the Alleghany Most of the early settlers of Kentucky made their way thither Mountains admitted into the Union. In 1763 the Kentucky either by the Ohio river (from Fort Pitt) or—the far larger number- country was claimed by the Cherokees as a part of their hunting by way of the Cumberland Gap and the Wilderness Road.". This grounds, by the Six Nations (Iroquois) as a part of their western latter route began at Inglis's Ferry, on the New river, in what is now West Virginia, and proceeded west by south to the Cumberland Gap. conquests, and by Virginia as a part of the territory granted to The “ Wilderness Road,” as marked by Daniel Boone in 1775, was a her by her charter of 1609, although it was actually inhabited mere trail, running from the Watauga settlement in east Tennessee only by a few Chickasaws near the Mississippi river and by a to the Cumberland Gap, and thence by way of what are now Crab small tribe of Shawnees in the north, opposite what is now Ports Orchard, Danville and Bardstown, to the Falls of the Ohio, and mouth, Ohio. The early settlers were often attacked by Indian made it a wagon road. Consult Thomas Speed, The Wilderness was passable only for men and horses until 1795, when the state raiders from what is now Tennessee or from the country north of Road (Louisville, Ky., 1886), and Archer B. Hulbert, Boone's the Ohio, but the work of colonization would have been far more Wilderness Road (Cleveland, O., 1903). 2 The " Barrens" difficult if those Indians had lived in the Kentucky region itself. were in the north part of the state west of the Dr Thomas Walker (1715-1794), as an agent and surveyor of Blue Grass Region, and were so called merely because the Indians had burned most of the forests here in order to provide better pasturage the Loyal Land Company, made an exploration in 1750 into the l for buffaloes and other game. 66 746 KENTUCKY At the close of the War of Independence the Kentuckians / alien and sedition laws unconstitutional and therefore“ void and complained because the mother state did not protect them of no force," principally on the ground that they provided for against their enemies and did not give them an adequate system an exercise of powers which were reserved to the state. The of local government. Nine conventions were held at Danville resolutions further declare that “this Commonwealth is deter- from 1784 to 1790 to demand separation from Virginia. The mined, as it doubts not its co-states are, tamely to submit to Virginia authorities expressed a willingness to grant the demand undelegated and therefore unlimited powers in no man or body provided Congress would admit the new district into the Union of men on earth," and that “these and successive acts of the as a state. The delay, together with the proposal of John Jay, same character, unless arrested on the threshold, may tend to the Secretary for Foreign Affairs and commissioner to negotiate drive these states into revolution and blood.” Copies of the a commercial treaty with the Spanish envoy, to surrender resolutions were sent to the governors of the various states, to navigation rights on the lower Mississippi for twenty-five years be laid before the different state legislatures, and replies were in order to remove the one obstacle to the negotiations, aroused received from Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New so much feeling that General James Wilkinson and a few other Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont and Virginia, leaders began to intrigue not only for a separation from Virginia, but all except that from Virginia were unfavourable. Neverthe- but also from the United States, and for the formation of a close less the Kentucky legislature on the 22nd of November 1799 alliance with the Spanish at New Orleans. Although most of reaffirmed in a new resolution the principles it had laid down in the settlers were too loyal to be led into any such plot they gen- the first series, asserting in this new resolution that the state erally agreed that it might have a good effect by bringing pressure “ does now unequivocally declare its attachment to the Union, to bear upon the Federal government. Congress passed a pre- and to that compact (the Constitution), agreeably to its obvious liminary act in February 1791, and the state was formally and real intention, and will be among the last to seek its dissolu- admitted into the Union on the ist of June 1792. In the Act oftion,” but that “the principle and construction contended for 1776 for dividing Fincastle county, Virginia, the ridge of the by sundry of the state legislatures, that the General Government Cumberland Mountains was named as a part of the east boundary is the exclusive judge of the extent of the powers delegated to of Kentucky; and now that this ridge had become a part of the it, stop nothing (short) of despotism-since the discretion of boundary between the states of Virginia and Kentucky they, in those who administer the government, and not the Constitution, 1799, appointed a joint commission to run the boundary line on would be the measure of their powers, "" that the several states this ridge. A dispute with Tennessee over the southern boundary who formed that instrument, being sovereign and independent, was settled in a similar manner in 1820. The constitution of have the unquestionable right to judge of the infraction," and 1792 provided for manhood suffrage and for the election of the “ that a nullification by those sovereigntics of all unauthorized acts governor and of senators by an electoral college. General Isaac done under color of that instrument is the rightful remedy." These Shelby was the first governor.' The people still continued to measures show that the state was Democratic-Republican in its have troubles with the Indians and with the Spanish at New politics and pro-French in its sympathies, and that it was in. Orleans. The Federal government was slow to act, but its action clined to follow the leadership of that state from which most of when taken was effective. The power of the Indians was over- its people had come. thrown by General Anthony Wayne's victory in the battle of The constitution of 1799 adopted the system of choosing the Fallen Timbers, fought the 20th of August 1794 near the rapids governor and senators by popular vote and deprived the supreme of the Maumee river a few miles above the site of Toledo, Ohio; court of its original jurisdiction in land cases. The Burr con- and the Mississippi question was settled temporarily by the spiracy (1804-1806) aroused some excitement in the state. Many treaty of 1795 and permanently by the purchase of Louisiana would have followed Burr in a filibustering attack upon the in 1803. În 1798-1799 the legislature passed the famous Spanish in the South-West, but scarcely any would have Kentucky Resolutions in protest against the alien and sedition approved of a separation of Kentucky from the Federal Union. No battles were fought in Kentucky during the War of 1812, For several years the Anti-Federalists or Republicans had but her troops constituted the greater part of the forces under contended that the administration at Washington had been General William Henry Harrison. They took part in the opera- exercising powers not warranted by the constitution, and when tions at Fort Wayne, Fort Meigs, the river Raisin and the Congress had passed the alien and sedition laws the leaders of Thames. that party seized upon the event as a proper occasion for a The Democratic-Republicans controlled the politics of the state spirited public protest which took shape principally in resolu- without any serious opposition until the conflict in 1820-1826, tions passed by the legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia. The arising from the demands for a more adequate system of currency original draft of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 was prepared and other measures for the relief of delinquent debtors divided by Vice-President Thomas Jefferson, although the fact that he the state into what were known as the relief and anti-relief was the author of them was kept from the public until he acknow- parties. After nearly all the forty-six banks chartered by the ledged it in 1821. They were introduced in the House of Repre- legislature in 1818 had been wrecked in the financial panic of sentatives by John Breckinridge on the 8th of November, were 1819, the legislature in 1820 passed a series of laws designed for passed by that body with some amendments but with only one the benefit of the debtor class, among them one making state dissenting vote on the roth, were unanimously concurred in by bank notes a legal tender for all debts. A decision of the Clark the Senate on the 13th, and were approved by Governor James county district court declaring this measure unconstitutional Garrard on the 16th. The first resolution was a statement of was affirmed by the court of appeals. The legislature in 1824 the ultra states'-rights view of the relation of the states to the repealed all of the laws creating the existing court of appeals and Federal government? and subsequent resolutions declare the then established a new one. This precipitated a bitter campaign 1 The southern boundary to the Tennessee river was surveyed in States and of amendments thereto, they constituted a general 1779-1780 by commissioners representing Virginia and North government for special purposes, delegated to that government Carolina, and was supposed to be run along the parallel of latitude certain definite powers, reserving each state to itself the residuary 36° 30', but by mistake was actually run north of that parallel. By a mass of right to their own self-government; and that whensoever treaty of 1819 the Indian title to the territory west of the Tennessee the general government assumes undelegated powers its acts are was extinguished, and commissioners then ran a lin along the unauthoritative, void, and of no force: That to this compact each parallel of 36° 30' from the Mississippi to the Tennessee. state acceded as a state, and is an integral party, its co-states commissioners representing Kentucky and Tennessee formally forming, as to itself, the other party: That the government created adopted the line of 1779-1780 and the line of 1819 as the boundary by this compact was not made the exclusive or final judge of the between the two states. extent of the powers delegated to itsell, since that would have made 2 This resolution read as follows: Resolved, that the several states its discretion, and not the Constitution, the measure of its powers; composing the United States of America are not united on the but that, as in all other cases of compact among parties having no principle of unlimited submission to their general government; but common judge, each party has an equal right to judge for itself as that by compact under the style of a Constitution for the United I well of infractions as of the mode and measure of redress. acts. In 1820 KENTUCKY 747 9 between the anti-relief or old court" party and the relief or Carlos Buell, in command of the Federal Army of the Ohio new court" party, in which the former was successful. The stationed there, and entering Kentucky in August 1862 pro- old court party followed the lead of Henry Clay and John Quincy ceeded slowly toward Louisville, hoping to win the state to the Adams in national politics, and became National Republicans Confederate cause and gain recruits for the Confederacy in the and later Whigs. The new court party followed Andrew Jackson state. His main army was preceded by a division of about 15,000 and Martin Van Buren and became Democrats. The electoral men under General Edmund Kirby Smith, who on the 30th of vote of the state was cast for Jackson in 1828 and for Clay in August defeated a Federal force under General Wm. Nelson near 1832. During the next thirty years Clay's conservative influ- Richmond and threatened Cincinnati. Bragg met with little ence dominated the politics of the state. Kentucky voted the opposition on his march, but Buell, also marching from eastern Whig ticket in every presidential election from 1832 until the Tennessee, reached Louisville first (Sept. 24), turned on Bragg, party made its last campaign in 1852. When the Whigs were and forced him to withdraw. On his retreat, Bragg attempted destroyed by the slavery issue some of them immediately be to set up a Confederate government at Frankfort, and Richard came Democrats, but the majority became Americans, or Know- J. Hawes, who had been chosen as G. W. Johnson's successor, was Nothings. They elected the governor in 1855 and almost actually“ inaugurated," but naturally this state" government succeeded in carrying the state for their presidential ticket in immediately collapsed. On the 8th of October Buell and Bragg 1856. In 1860 the people of Kentucky were drawn toward the fought an engagement at Perryville which, though tactically South by their interest in slavery and by their social relations, and indecisive, was a strategic victory for Buell; and thereafter toward the North by business ties and by a national sentiment Bragg withdrew entirely from the state into Tennessee. This which was fostered by the Clay traditions. They naturally was the last serious attempt on a large scale by the Confederates assumed the leadership in the Constitutional Union movement to win Kentucky; but in February 1863 one of General John H. of 1860, casting the vote of the state for Bell and Everett. Morgan's brigades made a raid on Mount Sterling and captured After the election of President Lincoln they also led in the move- it; in March General Pegram made a raid into Pulaski county; ment to secure the adoption of the Crittenden Compromise or in March 1864 General N. B. Forrest assaulted Fort Anderson some other peaceful solution of the difficulties between the North at Paducah but failed to capture it; and in June General Morgan and the South. made an unsuccessful attempt to take Lexington. A large majority of the state legislature, however, were Demo- Although the majority of the people sympathized with the crats, and in his message to this body, in January 1861, Governor Union, the emancipation of the slaves without compensation Magoffin, also a Democrat, proposed that a convention be called even to loyal owners, the arming of negro troops, the arbitrary to determine “ the future of Federal and inter-state relations imprisonment of citizens and the interference of Federal military of Kentucky;" later too, in reply to the president's call for officials in purely civil affairs aroused so much feeling that the volunteers, he declared, “Kentucky will furnish no troops for state became strongly Democratic, and has remained so almost the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States.” uniformly since the war. Owing to the panic of 1893, distrust Under these conditions the Unionists asked only for the main of the free silver movement and the expenditure of large cam- tenance of neutrality, and a resolution to this effect was carried paign funds, the Republicans were successful in the guber- by a bare majority—48 to 47. Some of the secessionists took national election of 1895 and the presidential election of 1896. this as a defeat and left the state immediately to join the Con. The election of 1899 was disputed. William S. Taylor, Republi- federate ranks. In the next month there was an election of can, was inaugurated governor on the 12th of December, but congressmen, and an anti-secession candidate was chosen in nine the legislative committee on contests decided in favour of the out of ten districts. An election in August of one-half the Senate Democrats. Governor-elect Goebel was shot by an assassin on and all of the House of Representatives resulted in a Unionist the 30th of January 1900, was sworn into office on his death- majority in the new legislature of 103 to 35, and in September, bed, and died on the 3rd of February. Taylor fled the state to after Confederate troops had begun to invade the state, Ken- escape trial on the charge of murder. Lieutenant-Governor tucky formally declared its allegiance to the Union. From Beckham filled out the unexpired term and was re-elected in September 1861 to the fall of Fort Donelson in February 1862 1903. In 1907 the Republicans again elected their candidate that part of Kentucky which is south and west of the Green River for governor. was occupied by the Confederate army under General A. S. John- ston, and at Russellville in that district a so-called “ sovereignty GOVERNORS OF KENTUCKY convention " assembled on the 18th of November. This body, Isaac Shelby Democratic-Republican 1792-1796 composed mostly of Kentucky men who had joined the Con James Garrard 1796–1804 Christopher Greenup 1804-1808 federate army, passed an ordinance of secession, elected state Charles Scott 1808-1812 officers, and sent commissioners to the Confederate Congress, Isaac Shelby 1812-1816 which body voted on the 9th of December to admit Kentucky George Madison* 1816 into the Confederacy. Throughout the war Kentucky was repre- Gabriel Slaughter (acting) 1816-1820 John Adair 1820-1824 sented in the Confederate Congress-representatives and senators Joseph Desha 1824-1828 being elected by Confederate soldiers from the state. The Thomas Metcalfe National 1828–1832 officers of this provisional government,” headed by G. W. John Breathitt* Democrat 1832-1834 1834-1836 Johnson, who had been elected “ governor,” left the state when James T. Morehead (acting) Whig 1836 General A. S. Johnston withdrew; Johnson himself was killed James Clark* Charles A. Wickliffe (acting) 1836-1840 at Shiloh, but an attempt was subsequently made by General Robert P. Letcher 1840-1844 Bragg to install this government at Frankfort. General Felix William Owsley 1844-1848 K. Zollicoffer (1812–1862) had entered the south-east part of John ļ. Crittendent 1848-1850 Democrat John L. Helmt the state through Cumberland Gap in September, and later with Lazarus W. Powell. 1850-1851 1851-1855 à Confederate force of about 7000 men attempted the invasion Charles S. Morehead American 1855-1859 of central Kentucky, but in October 1861 he met with a slight Beriah Magoffin Democrat 1859-1862 repulse at Wild Cat Mountain, near London, Laurel county, James F. Robinson 1862-1863 Thomas E. Bramlette 1863-1867 and on the 19th of January 1862, in an engagement near Mill John L. Helm* 1867 Springs, Wayne county, with about an equal force under John W. Stevensont 1867-1871 General George H. Thomas, he was killed and his force was Preston H. Leslief 1871-1875 utterly routed. In 1862 General Braxton Bragg in command of James B. McCreary 1875-1879 Luke P. Blackburn 1879-1883 the Conſederates in eastern Tennessee, eluded General Don J. Proctor Knott 1883-1887 * He died in. 1852, but the traditions which he represented Simon B. Buckner 1887-1891 survived. John Y. Brown 1891-1895 < " 11 3 97 . 12 748 KENYA-KENYON GOVERNORS OF KENTUCKY-continued the axis runs from W.N.W. to S.S.E., ridges radiate outwards, William O. Bradley Republican 1895–1899 separated by broad valleys, ending upwards in vast cirques. William S. Taylor S 1899–1900 The most important ridges centre in the peak Lenana (16,300 ft.) William Goebel* Democrat 1900 at the eastern end of the central group, and through it runs the J. C. W. Beckham 1900-1907 Augustus E. Willson Republican 1907- chief water-parting of the mountain, in a generally north to south direction. Three main valleys, known respectively as Hinde, * Died in office. † Governor Crittenden resigned on the 31st of July to become Gorges and Hobley valleys, run down from this to the east, and Attorney-General of the United States and John L. Helm served four-Mackinder, Hausberg, Teleki and Höhnel-to the west. out the unexpired term. From the central peaks fifteen glaciers, all lying west of the main | Governor Stevenson resigned on the 13th of February 1871 to divide, descend to the north and south, the two largest being the become U.S. Senator from Kentucky: P: H. Leslie filled out the remainder of the term and was elected in 1871 for a full term. Lewis and Gregory glaciers, each about i m. long, which, with § Taylor's election was contested by Goebel, who received the the smaller Kolb glacier, lie inimediately west of the main divide. certificate of election. Most of the glaciers terminate at an altitude of 14,800-14,900 ft., BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For descriptionsof physicalfeaturesand accounts but the small César glacier, drained to the Hausberg valley, of natural resources see Reports of the Kentucky Geological Survey, reaches to 14,450. Glaciation was formerly much more extensive, the Biennial Reports of the Bureau of Agriculture, Labor and Statistics, old moraines being observed down to 12,000 ft. In the upper the Reports of the United States Census and various publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, and other publications listed in Bulletin parts of the valleys a number of lakes occur, occupying hollows 301 (Bibliography and Index of North American Geology for 1901-1905) and rock basins in the agglomerates and ashes, fed by springs, and other bibliographies of the Survey. For an early description, and feeding many of the streams that drain the mountain slopes. see Gilbert Imlay, A Topographical Description of the Western The largest of these are Lake Höhnel, lying at an altitude of Territory of North America (London, 3rd ed., 1797), in which John 14,000 it., at the head of the valley of the same name, and Filson's “ Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke" (1784) is reprinted. For a brief description of the Blue Grass Region, measuring 6oo by 400 yds.; and Lake Michaelson (12,700 ft.?) in see James Lane Allen's The Blue Grass Region of Kentucky and other the Gorges Valley. At a distance from the central core the radiat- Kentucky Articles (New York, 1900). An account of the social and ing ridges become less abrupt and descend with a gentle gradient, industrial life of the people in the mountain " districts is given in William H. Haney's The Mountain People of Kentucky (Cincinnati, finally passing somewhat abruptly, at a height of some 7000 ft., 1906). For administration, see the Oficial Manual for the Use of into the level plateau. These outer slopes are clothed with dense the Courts, State and County Officials and General Assembly of the forest and jungle, composed chiefly of junipers and Podocarpus, State of Kentucky (Lexington), which contains the Constitution of and between 8000 and 9800 ft. of huge bamboos. The forest 1891; The Report of the Debates and Proceedings of the Convention .. zone extends to about 10,500 ft., above which is the steeper alpine of 7849 (Frankfort, 1849); The Official Report of the Proceedings and Debates of the Constitutional Convention of 1890 (4 vols., Frankfort, zone, in which pasturages alternate with rocks and crags. This 1890); B. H. Young, History and Texts of Three Constitutions of , extends to a general height of about 15,000 ft., but in damp, Kentucky (Louisville, 1890); J. F.Bullitt and John Feland, The General sheltered valleys the pasturages extend some distance higher. Statutes of Kentucky (Frankfort and Louisville, 1877, revised editions. The only trees or shrubs in this zone are the giant Senecio (ground- 1881, 1887); and the Annual Reports of state officers and boards. For history see R. M. McElroy's Kentucky in the Nation's History (New sel) and Lobelia, and tree-heaths, the Senecio forming groves in York, 1909; with bibliography); or (more briefly) N. S. Shaler's the upper valleys. Of the fauna of the lower slopes, tracks of Kentucky (Boston, 1885), in the American Commonwealths Series. elephant, leopard and buffalo have been seen, between 11,500 John M. Brown's The Political Beginnings of Kentucky (Louisville: and 14,500 ft. That of the alpine żone includes two species of 1889) is a good monograph dealing with the period before 1792; should be compared with Thomas M. Green's The Spanish Conspiracy: dassy (Procavia), a coney (Hyrax), and a rat (Otomys). The bird A Review of Early Spanish Movements in the Southwest (Cincinnati, fauna is of considerable interest, the finest species of the upper 1891), written in reply to it. Among older histories are Humphrey zone being an eagle-owl, met with at 14,000 ft. At 11,000 ft. Marshall, The History of Kentucky. and the Present State of the Country, (2 vols., Frankfort, 1812, 1824), extremely_Federalistic in was found a brown chat, with a good deal of white in the tail. tone: Mann Butler, History of Kentucky from its Exploration and Both the fauna and flora of the higher levels present close affini- Settlement by the Whites to the close of the Southwestern Campaign of ties with those of Mount Elgon, of other mountains of East Africa 1813 (Louisville, 1834; 2nd ed., Cincinnati, 1836), and Lewis Collins, and of Cameroon Mountain. The true native names of the moun- The History of Kentucky (2 vols., revised edition, Covington, Ky: tain are said to be Kilinyaga, Doenyo Ebor (white mountain) 1874), a valuable store-house of facts, the basis of Shaler's work. E. D. Warfield's The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 (New York, 2nd ed.; and Doenyo Egeri (spotted mountain). It was first seen, from a 1887) is an excellent monograph. For the Civil War history see distance, by the missionary Ludwig Krapf in 1849; approached Campaigns in Kentucky and Tennessee,” in the 7th volume of from the west by Joseph Thomson in 1883; partially ascended by Papers of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts (Boston, Count S. Teleki (1889), J. W. Gregory (1893) and Georg Kolb 1908); Thomas Speed, The Union Cause in Kentucky (New York, 1907); Basil W. Duke, History of Morgan's Caralry (Cincinnati, 1867), (1896); and its summit reached by H. J. Mackinder in 1899. and general works on the history of the war. See also Alvin F. Lewis, See J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift-Valley (London, 1896); H. J. History of Higher Education in Kentucky, in Circulars of Informa Mackinder, “ Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya," Geog: Inl., tion of the U.S. Bureau of Education (Washington, 1899), and May 1900. (E. He.) R. G. Thwaites, Daniel Boone (New York, 1902). There is much valuable material in the Register (Frankfort, 1903. seq.) of the Ken- KENYON, LLOYD KENYON, ist BARON (1732-1802), lord tucky State Historical Society, and especially in the publications of chief-justice of England, was descended by his father's side from the Filson Club of Louisville. Among the latter are Ř. T. Durrett's an old Lancashire family; his mother was the daughter of a small John Filson, the first Historian of Kentucky (1884); Thomas Speed, The proprietor in Wales. He was born at Gredington, Flintshire, Wilderness Road (1886); W. H. Perrin, The Pioneer Press of Kentucky (1888); G. W. Ranck, Boonesborough: Tts Founding, Pioneer Struggles, on the 5th of October 1732. Educated at Ruthin grammar Indian Experiences, Transylvania Days and Revolutionary Annals school, he was in his fifteenth year articled to an attorney at (1901), and The Centenary of Kentucky (1892), containing an address, Nantwich, Cheshire. In 1750 he entered at Lincoln's Inn, The State of Kentucky; Its Discovery, Settlement, Autonomy and London, and in 1756 was called to the bar. As for several years Progress in a Hundred Years,” by Reuben T. Durrett. he was almost unemployed, he utilized his leisure in taking notes KENYA, a great volcanic mountain in British East Africa, of the cases argued in the court of King's Bench, which he aſter- situated just south of the equator in 37° 20' E. It is one of the wards published. Through answering the cases of his friend highest mountains of Africa, its highest peak reaching an altitude John Dunning, afterwards Lord Ashburton, he gradually became of 17,007 ft. (with a possible error of 30 ft. either way). The known to the attorneys, after which his success was so rapid that central core, which consists of several steep pyramids, is that of in 1780 he was made king's counsel. He showed conspicuous a very denuded old volcano, which when its crater was complete ability in the cross-examination of the witnesses at the trial of may have reached 2000 ft. above the present summit. Lavas Lord George Gordon, but his speech was so tactless that the dip in all directions from the central crystalline core, pointing verdict of acquittal was really due to the brilliant effort of to the conclusion that the main portion of the mountain repre- Erskine, the junior counsel. This want of tact, indeed, often sents a single volcanic mass. From the central peaks, of which | betrayed Kenyon into striking blunders; as an advocate he was, 14 : KEOKUK-KEPLER 749 moreover, deficient in ability of statement; and his position was the village of Elmendingen, he finally, in 1589, deserted his family. achieved chiefly by hard work, a good knowledge of law and The misfortune and misconduct of his parents were not the only several lucky friendships. Through the influence of Lord troubles of Kepler's childhood. He recovered from small-pox Thurlow, Kenyon in 1780 entered the House of Commons as in his fourth year with crippled hands and eyesight permanently member for Hindon, and in 1782 he was, through the same friend-impaired; and a constitution enfeebled by premature birth had ship, appointed attorney-general in Lord Buckingham's adminis- to withstand successive shocks of severe illness. His schooling tration, an office which he continued to hold under Pitt. In began at Leonberg in 1577—the year, as he himself tells us, of 1784 he received the mastership of the rolls, and was created a a great comet; but domestic bankruptcy occasioned his trans- baronet. In 1788 he was appointed lord chief justice as successor ference to field-work, in which he was exclusively employed for to Lord Mansfield, and the same year was raised to the peerage several years. Bodily infirmity, combined with mental aptitude, as Baron Kenyon of Gredington. As he had made many enemies, were eventually considered to indicate a theological vocation; his elevation was by no means popular with the bar; but on the he was, in 1584, placed at the seminary of Adelberg, and thence bench, in spite of his capricious and choleric temper, he proved removed, two years later, to that of Maulbronn. A brilliant himself not only an able lawyer, but a judge of rare and examination for the degree of bachelor procured him, in 1588, inflexible impartiality. He died at Bath, on the 4th of April admittance on the foundation to the university of Tübingen, 1802. Kenyon was succeeded as and baron by his son George where he laid up a copious store of classical erudition, and imbibed (1776-1855), whose great-grandson, Lloyd (b. 1864), became the Copernican principles from the private instructions of his teacher 4th baron in 1869. and life-long friend, Michael Maestlin. As yet, however, he See Life by Hon. G. T. Kenyon, 1873. had little knowledge of, and less inclination for, astronomy; KEOKUK, a city of Lee county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Missis- and it was with extreme reluctance that he turned aside from the sippi river, at the mouth of the Des Moines, in the S.E. corner of more promising career of the ministry to accept, early in 1594, the state, about 200 m. above St Louis. Pop. (1900), 14,641; the vacant chair of that science at Gratz, placed at the disposal (1905), 14,604, including 1534 foreign-born; (1910), 14,008. of the Tübingen professors by the Lutheran states of Styria. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, The best recognized function of German astronomers in that Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, and the Toledo, Peoria day was the construction of prophesying almanacs, greedily & Western railways. There is a bridge (about 2200 ft. long) bought by a credulous public. Kepler thus found that the first across the Mississippi, and another (about 1200 ft. long) across duties required of him were of an astrological nature, and set the Des Moines, The city has a public library and St Joseph himself with characteristic alacrity to master the rules of the art and Graham hospitals, and is the seat of the Keokuk Medical as laid down by Ptolemy and Cardan. He, moreover, sought in College (1849). There is a national cemetery here. Much of the the events of his own life a verification of the theory of planetary city is built on bluffs along the Mississippi. Keokuk is at the influences; and it is to this practice that we owe the summary foot of the Des Moines Rapids, round which the Federal Govern- record of each year's occurrences which, continued almost to his ment has constructed a navigable canal (opened. 1877) about 9 m. death, affords for his biography a slight but sure foundation. long, with a draft at extreme low 'water of 5 ft.; at the foot a But his thoughts were already working in a higher sphere. He great dam, il m. long and 38 ft. high, has been constructed. early attained to the settled conviction that for the actual dis- Keokuk has various manufactures; its factory product in 1905 position of the solar system some abstract intelligible reason was valued at $4,225,915, 38.6% more than in 1900. The city must exist, and this, after much meditation, he believed himself was named after Keokuk, a chief of the Sauk and Foxes (1780- to have found in an imaginary relation between the “five regular 1848), whose name meant" the watchful” or “ he who moves solids" and the number and distances of the planets. He notes alertly." In spite of Black Hawk's war policy in 1832 Keokuk with exultation the 9th of July 1595, as the date of the pseudo- was passive and neutral, and with a portion of his nation re- discovery, the publication of which in Prodromus Dissertationum mained peaceful while Black Hawk and his warriors fought. His Cosmographicarum seu Mysterium Cosmographicum (Tübingen, grave; surmounted by a monument, is in Rand Park. The first 1596) procured him much fame, and a friendly correspondence house on the site of the city was built about 1820, but further with the two most eminent astronomers of the time, Tycho Brahe settlement did not begin until 1836. Keokuk was laid out as a and Galileo. town in 1837, was chartered as a city in 1848, and in 1907 was one Soon after his arrival at Gratz, Kepler contracted an engage- of five cities of the state governed by a special charter. ment with Barbara von Mühleck, a wealthy Styrian heiress, who, KEONJHAR, a tributary state of India, within the Orissa at the age of twenty-three, had already survived one husband division of Bengal; area, 3096 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 285,758; and been divorced from another. Before her relatives could be estimated revenue, £20,000. The state is an offshoot from brought to countenance his pretensions, Kepler was obliged to Mayurbhanj. Part of it consists of rugged hills, rising to more undertake a journey to Württemberg to obtain documentary than 3000 ft. above sea level. The residence of the raja is at evidence of the somewhat obscure nobility of his family, and it Keonjhar (pop. 4532). was thus not until the 27th of April 1597 that the marriage was KEONTHAL, a petty hill state in the Punjab, India, with an celebrated. In the following year the archduke Ferdinand, on area of 116 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 22,499; estimated revenue, assuming the government of his hereditary dominions, issued an £4400. The chief, a Rajput, received the title of raja in 1857. edict of banishment against Protestant preachers and professors. After the Gurkha War in 1815, a portion of Keonthal, which had Kepler immediately fled to the Hungarian frontier, but, by the been occupied by the Gurkhas, was sold to the maharaja of favour of the Jesuits, was recalled and reinstated in his post. Patiala, the remainder being restored to its hereditary chief. The gymnasium, however, was deserted; the nobles of Styria In 1823 the district of Punar was added to the Keonthal state. began to murmur at subsidizing a teacher without pupils; and he The raja exercises rights of lordship over the petty states of found it prudent to look elsewhere for employment. His refusal Kothi, Theog, Madhan and Ratesh. to subscribe unconditionally to the rigid formula of belief adopted KEPLER, JOHANN (1571-1630), German astronomer, was by the theologians of Tübingen permanently closed against him born on the 27th of December 1571, at Weil, in the duchy of the gates of his alma mater. His embarrassment was relieved Württemberg, of which town his grandfather was burgomaster. however by an offer from Tycho Brahe of the position of assistant He was the eldest child of an ill-assorted union. His father, in his observatory near Prague, which, after a preliminary visit Henry Kepler, was a reckless soldier of fortune; his mother, of four months, he accepted. The arrangement was made just Catherine Guldenmann, the daughter of the burgomaster of in time; for in August 1600 he received definitive notice to leave Eltingen, was undisciplined and ill-educated. Her husband Gratz, and, having leased his wife's property, he departed with found campaigning in Flanders under Alva a welcome relief from his family for Prague. domestic life; and, after having lost all he possessed by a forfeited By Tycho's unexpected death (Oct. 24, 1601) a brilliant career security and tried without success the trade of tavern-keeping in, I seemed to be thrown open to Kepler. The emperor Rudolph II. I 750 KEPLER immediately appointed him to succeed his patron as imperial f 3rd of July carried off by typhus. Public calamity, was added mathematician, although at a reduced salary of 500 florins; the to private bereavement. On the 23rd of May 1611 Matthias, invaluable treasure of Tycho's observations was placed at his brother of the emperor, assumed the Bohemian crown in Prague, disposal; and the laborious but congenial task was entrusted to compelling Rudolph to take refuge in the citadel, where he died him of completing the tables to which the grateful Dane had on the 20th of January following. Kepler's fidelity in remaining already affixed the title of Rudolphine. The first works executed with him to the last did not deprive him of the favour of his by him at Prague were, nevertheless, a homage to the astrological successor. Payments of arrears, now amounting to upwards of proclivities of the emperor. In De fundamentis astrologiae 4000 florins, was not, however, in the desperate condition of the certioribus (Prague, 1602) he declared his purpose of preserving imperial finances, to be hoped for; and he was glad, while and purifying the grain of truth which he believed the science to retaining his position as court astronomer, to accept (in 1612) contain. Indeed, the doctrine of "aspects” and “influences” the office of mathematician to the states of Upper Austria. His fitted excellently with his mystical conception of the universe, residence at Linz was troubled by the harsh conduct of the pastor and enabled him to discharge with a semblance of sincerity the Hitzler, in excluding him from the rites of his church on the most lucrative part of his professional duties. Although he ground of supposed Calvinistic leanings-a decision confirmed, strictly limited his prophetic pretensions to the estimate of with the addition of an insulting reprimand, on his appeal to tendencies and probabilities, his forecasts were none the less in Württemberg. In 1613 he appeared with the emperor Matthias demand. Shrewd sense and considerable knowledge of the world before the diet of Ratisbon as the advocate of the introduction came to the aid of stellar lore in the preparation of “ prognostics into Germany of the Gregorian calendar; but the attempt was which, not unfrequently hitting off the event, earned him as much for the time frustrated by anti-papal prejudice. The attention credit with the vulgar as his cosmical speculations with the devoted by him to chronological subjects is evidenced by the learned. He drew the horoscopes of the emperor and Wallenstein, publication about this period of several essays in which he as well as of a host of lesser magnates; but, though keenly alive sought to prove that the birth of Christ took place five years to the unworthy character of such a trade, he made necessity earlier than the commonly accepted date. his excuse for a compromise with superstition. “Nature," he Kepler's second courtship forms the subject of a highly char- wrote, “ which has conferred upon every animal the means of acteristic letter addressed by him to Baron Stralendorf, in which subsistence, has given astrology as an adjunct and ally to astro- he reviews the qualifications of eleven candidates for his hand, nomy.” He dedicated to the emperor in 1603 a treatise on the and explains the reasons which decided his choice in favour of great conjunction" of that year (Judicium de trigono igneo); à portionless orphan girl named Susanna Reutlinger. The and he published his observations on a brilliant star which marriage was celebrated at Linz, on the 30th of October 1613, and appeared suddenly (Sept. 30, 1604), and remained visible for seems to have proved a happy and suitable one. The abundant seventeen months, in De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (Prague, vintage of that year drew his attention to the defective methods 1606). While sharing the opinion of Tycho as to the origin of in use for estimating the cubical contents of vessels, and his such bodies by condensation of nebulous matter from the Milky essay on the subject (Nova Stereometria Doliorum, Linz, 1615) Way, he attached a mystical signification to the coincidence in entitles him to rank among those who prepared the discovery time and place of the sidereal apparition with a triple conjunction of the infinitesimal calculus. His observations on the three comets of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. of 1618 were published in De Cometis, contemporaneously with The main task of his life was not meanwhile neglected. This De Harmonice Mundi (Augsburg, 1619), of which the first linea- was nothing less than the foundation of a new astronomy, in ments had been traced twenty years previously at Gratz. This which physical cause should replace arbitrary hypothesis. A extraordinary production is memorable as having announced preliminary study of optics led to the publication, in 1604; of his the discovery of the" third law”-that of the sesquiplicate ratio Astronomiae pars optica, containing important discoveries in the between the planetary periods and distances. But the main theory of vision, and a notable approximation towards the true purport of the treatise was the exposition of an elaborate system law of refraction. But it was not until 1609 that, the “ great of celestial harmonies depending on the various and varying Martian labour” being at length completed, he was able, in his velocities of the several planets, of which the sentient soul own ficurative language, to lead the captive planet to the foot animating the sun was the solitary auditor. The work exhibiting of the imperial throne. From the time of his first introduction this fantastic emulation of extravagance with genius was dedi- to Tycho he had devoted himself to the investigation of the orbit cated to James I. of England, and the compliment was acknow. of Mars, which, on account of its relatively large eccentricity, ledged with an invitation to that island, conveyed through Sir had always been especially recalcitrant to theory, and the results Henry Wotton. Notwithstanding the distracted state of his appeared in Astronomia nova aitio doyntós, seu Physica coelestis own country, he refused to abandon it, as he had previously, in tradila commentariis de motibus stellae Martis (Prague, 1609). 1617, declined the post of successor to G. A. Magini in the mathe- In this, the most memorable of Kepler's multifarious writings, matical chair of Bologna. two of the cardinal principles of modern astronomy-the laws of The insurmountable difficulties presented by the lunar theory elliptical orbits and of equal areas were established (see ASTRO- forced Kepler, after an enormous amount of fruitless labour, to NOMY: History); important truths relating to gravity were abandon his design of comprehending the whole scheme of the enunciated, and the tides ascribed to the influence of lunar heavens in one great work to be called Hipparchus, and he then attraction; while an attempt to explain the planetary revolutions threw a portion of his materials into the form of a dialogue in the then backward condition of mechanical knowledge pro- intended for the instruction of general readers. The Epitome duced a theory of vortices closely resembling that afterwards Astronomiae Copernicanae (Linz and Frankfort, 1618-1621), a adopted by Descartes. Having been provided, in August 1610, lucid and attractive textbook of Copernican science, was remark- by Ernest, archbishop of Cologne, with one of the new Galilean able for the prominence given to “physical astronomy," as well instruments, Kepler began, with unspeakable delight, to observe as for the extension to the Jovian system of the laws recently the wonders revealed by it. He had welcomed with a little essay discovered to regulate the motions of the planets. The first called Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo Galileo's first announce- of a series of ephemerides, calculated on these principles, was ment of celestial novelties; he now, in his Dioptrice (Augsburg, published by him at Linz in 1617; and in that for 1620, dedicated 1611), expounded the theory of refraction by lenses, and suggested to Baron Napier, he for the first time employed logarithms. This the principle of the “astronomical.” or inverting telescope. important invention was eagerly welcomed by him, and its theory Indeed the work may be said to have founded the branch of science formed the subject of a treatise entitled Chilias Logarithmorum, to which it gave its name. printed in 1624, but circulated in manuscript three years earlier, The year 1611 was marked by Kepler as the most disastrous of which largely contributed to bring the new method into general his life. The death by small-pox of his favourite child was followed use in Germany. by that of his wife, who, long a prey to melancholy, was on the His studies were interrupted by family trouble. The restless KEPPEL, VISCOUNT 751 (6 disposition and unbridled tongue of Catherine Kepler, his mother, the sphere of the fixed stars, and the intermediate space, filled with created for her numerous enemies in the little town of Leonberg; stars as so many suns. ethereal matter. It is a mistake to suppose that he regarded the while her unguarded conduct exposed her to a species of calumny Bruno to that effect, but with dissent. Among his happy conjectures He quotes indeed the opinion of Giordano at that time readily circulated and believed. As early as 1615 may be mentioned that of the sun's axial rotation, postulated by suspicions of sorcery began to be spread against her, which she, him as the physical cause of the revolutions of the planets, and soon with more spirit than prudence, met with an action for libel! after confirmed by the discovery of sun-spots; the suggestion of a periodical variation in the obliquity of the ecliptic; and the explana- The suit was purposely protracted, and at length, in 1620, the un- tion as a solar atmospheric effect of the radiance observed to surround happy woman, then in her seventy-fourth year, was arrested on the totally eclipsed sun. a formal charge of witchcraft. Kepler immediately hastened It is impossible to consider without surprise the colossal amount to Württemberg, and owing to his indefatigable exertions she was of work accomplished by Kepler under numerous disadvantages. acquitted after having suffered thirteen month's imprisonment, highest triumph of genius, that of having given to mankind the But his iron industry counted no obstacles, and secured for him the and endured with undaunted courage the formidable ordeal of best that was in him. In private character he was amiable and “ territion,” or examination under the imminent threat of torture. affectionate; his generosity in recognizing the merits of others She survived her release only a few months, dying on the 13th of secured him against the worst shafts of envy; and a life marked by numerous disquietudes was cheered and ennobled by sentiments of April 1622. sincere piety. Kepler's whole attention was now devoted to the production Kepler's extensive literary remains, purchased by the empress of the new tables. Germany," he wrote, “ does not long for Catherinc. II. in 1724 from some Frankfort merchants, and long peace more anxiously than I do for their publication." But inaccessibly deposited in the observatory of Pulkowa, were fully financial difficulties, combined with civil and religious convul- the first complete edition of his works. This important publication brought to light, under the able editorship of Dr Ch. Frisch, in sions, long delayed the accomplishment of his desires. From (Joannis Kepleri opera omnia, Frankfort, 1858-1871, 8 vols. 8vo) the 24th of June to the 29th of August 1626, Linz was besieged, contains, besides the works already enumerated and several minor and its inhabitants reduced to the utmost straits by bands of in- treatises, a posthumous scientific satire entitled Joh. Keppleri surgent peasants. The pursuit of science needed a more tranquil spondence." A careful biography is appended, founded mainly on his Somnium (first printed in 1634) and a vast mass of his corre- shelter; and on the raising of the blockade, Kepler obtained per- private notes and other authentic documents. His correspondence mission to transfer his types to Ulm, where, in September 1627, the with Herwart von Hohenburg, unearthed by C. Anschütz at Munich, Rudolphine Tables were at length given to the world. Although was printed at Prague in 1886. by no means free from errors, their value appears from the fact fort, 1871); Karl Goebel, Über Keplers astronomische Anschauungen AUTHORITIES-C. G. Reuschle, Kepler und die Astronomie (Frank- that they ranked for a century as the best aid to astronomy. (Halle, 1871); E. F. Apelt, Johann Keplers astronomische Wellansicht Appended were tables of logarithms and of refraction, together (Leipzig, 1849); J. L. c. Breitschwert, Johann Keplers Leben und with Tycho's catalogue of 777 stars, enlarged by Kepler to 1005. Wirken (Stuttgart, 1831); W. Förster, Johann Kepler und die Har- Kepler's claims upon the insolvent imperial exchequer (Munich, 1877); J. von Hasner, Tycho Brahe und J. Kepler in Prag monie der Spharen (Berlin, 1862); R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie amounted by this time to 12,000 florins. The emperor Ferdi- (1872); H. Brocard, Essai sur la Météorologie de Kepler (Grenoble, nand II., too happy to transfer the burden, countenanced an 1879, 1881); Siegmund Günther, Johannes Kepler und der tellurisch- arrangement by which Kepler entered the service of the duke of kosmische Magnetismus (Wien, 1888); N. Herz, Keplers Astrologie Friedland (Wallenstein), who assumed the full responsibility of (1895); Ludwig Günther, Keplers Traum vom Mond (1898; an anno. tated translation of the Somnium); A. Müller, Johann Keppler, der the debt. In July 1628 Kepler accordingly arrived with his family Gesetzgeber der neueren Astronomie (1903); Allgemeine Deutsche at Sagan in Silesia, where he applied himself to the printing of his Biographie, Bd. XV. (1882). (A. M. C.) ephemerides up to the year 1636, and whence he issued, in 1629, a Notice to the Curious in Things Celestial, warning astronomers of KEPPEL, AUGUSTUS KEPPEL, VISCOUNT (1725-1786), approaching transits. That of Mercury was actually seen by British admiral, second son of the second earl of Albemarle, Gassendi in Paris on the 7th of November 1631 (being the first was born on the 25th of April 1725. He went to sea at the age passage of a planet across the sun ever observed); that of Venus, of ten, and had already five years of service to his credit when he predicted for the 6th of December following, was invisible in was appointed to the “ Centurion,” and was sent with Anson western Europe. Wallenstein's promises to Kepler were but round the world in 1740. He had a narrow escape of being imperfectly fulfilled. In lieu of the sums due, he offered him a killed in the capture of Paita (Nov. 13, 1741), and was named professorship at Rostock, which Kepler declined. An expedition acting lieutenant in 1742. In 1744 he was promoted to be com- to Ratisbon, undertaken for the purpose of representing his case mander and post captain. Until the peace of 1748 he was to the diet, terminated his life. Shaken by the journey, which actively employed. In 1747 he ran his ship the “ Maidstone he had performed entirely on horseback, he was attacked with (50) ashore near Belleisle while chasing a French vessel, but fever, and died at Ratisbon, on the 15th of November (N.S.), was honourably acquitted by a court martial, and reappointed 1630, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. An inventory of his to another command. After peace had been signed he was sent effects showed him to have been possessed of no inconsiderable into the Mediterranean to persuade the dey of Algiers to restrain property at the time of his death. By his first wife he had five, the piratical operations of his subjects. The dey is said to have and by his second seven children, of whom only two, a son and a complained that the king of England should have sent a beard- daughter, reached maturity. less boy to treat with him, and to have been told that if the beard The character of Kepler's genius is especially difficult to estimate. was the necessary qualification for an ambassador it would His tendency towards mystical speculation formed a not less funda- have been easy to send a “ Billy goat.” After trying the effect mental quality of his mind than its strong grasp of positive scientific truth. Without assigning to each element its due value, no sound of bullying without success, the dey made a treaty, and Keppel comprehension of his modes of thought can be attained. His idea returned in 1751. During the Seven Years' War he saw constant of the universe was essentially Pythagorean and Platonic. He service. He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of started with the conviction that the arrangement of its parts must France in 1756, was detached on a cruise to reduce the French correspond with certain abstract conceptions of the beautiful and harmonious. His imagination, thus kindled, animated him to those settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758, and his ship the severe labours of which his great discoveries were the fruit. His (74) was the first to get into action in the battle of demonstration that the planes of all the planetary orbits pass through Quiberon in 1759. In 1757 he had formed part of the court the centre of the sun, coupled with his clear recognition of the sun as martial which had condemned Admiral Byng, and had been active the moving power of the system, entitles him to rank as the founder of physical astronomy. But the fantastic relations imagined by him among those who had endeavoured to secure a pardon for him; of planetary movements and distances to musical intervals and but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce geometrical constructions seemed to himself discoveries no less any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out. admirable than the achievements which have secured his lasting when Spain joined France in 1762 he was sent as socond in fame. Outside the boundaries of the solar system, the metaphysical side of his genius, no longer held in check by experience, fully command with Sir George Pocock in the expedition which took asserted itself. The Keplerian like the Pythagorean cosmos was Havannah. His health suffered from the fever which carried threefold, consisting of the centre, or sun, the surface, represented by 1 of an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the “ Torbay 752 KEPPEL, SIR H.-KER » £25,000ʻof prize money which he received freed him from the In 1837 he was promoted post captain, and appointed in 1841 unpleasant position of younger son of a family ruined by the to the “ Dido " for service in China and against the Malay extravagance of his father. He became rear-admiral in October pirates, a service which he repeated in 1847, when in command of 1762, was one of the Admiralty Board from July 1765 to Novem-H.M.S.“ Maeander.” The story of his two commands was told ber 1766, and was promoted vice-admiral on the 24th of October by himself in two publications, The Expedition to Borneo of 1770., When the Falkland Island dispute occurred in 1770 he was H.M.S. “ Dido” for the Suppression of Piracy (1846), and in to have commanded the fleet to be sent against Spain, but a A Visit to the Indian Archipelago in H.M.S.“ Maeander " (1853). settlement was reached, and he had no occasion to hoist his flag. The substance of these books was afterwards incorporated into The most important and the most debated period of his life his autobiography, which was published in 1899 under the title belongs to the opening years of the war of American Indepen- | A Sailor's Liſe under four Sovereigns. In 1853 he was appointed dence. Keppel was by family connexion and personal preference to the command of the “St Jean d'Acre " of 101 guns for service a strong supporter of the Whig connexion, led by the Marquess of in the Crimean War. But he had no opportunity to distinguish Rockingham and the Duke of Richmond. He shared in all the himself at sea in that struggle. As commander of the naval passions of his party, then excluded from power by the resolute brigade landed to co-operate in the siege of Sevastopol, he was will of George III. As a member of Parliament, in which he had more fortunate, and he had an honourable share in the latter a seat for Windsor from 1761 till 1780, and then for Surrey, he days of the siege and reduction of the fortress. After the Crimean was a steady partisan, and was in constant hostility with the War he was again sent out to China, this tíme in command of the “King's Friends.” In common with them he was prepared to “ Raleigh," as commodore to serve under Sir M. Seymour. The believe that the king's ministers, and in particular Lord Sand- “ Raleigh ” was lost on an uncharted rock near Hong-Kong, wich, then First Lord of the Admiralty, were capable of any but three small vessels were named to act as her tenders, and villany. When therefore he was appointed to command the Commodore Keppel commanded in them, and with the crew Western Squadron, the main fleet prepared against France of the “ Raleigh,” in the action with the Chinese at Fatshan in 1778, he went to sca predisposed to think that the First Lord Creek (June 1, 1857). He was honourably acquitted for the loss would be glad to cause him to be defeated. It was a further of the “ Raleigh,” and was named to the command of the misfortune that when Keppel hoisted his flag one of his subordi- “ Alligator,” which he held till his promotion to rear-admiral. nate admirals should have been Sir Hugh Palliser (1723-1796), For his share in the action at Fatshan Creek he was made K.C.B. who was a member of the Admiralty Board, a member of parlia- The prevalence of peace gave Sir Henry Keppel no further ment, and in Keppel's opinion, which was generally shared, chance of active service, but he held successive commands till jointly responsible with his colleagues for the bad state of the his retirement from the active list in 1879, two years after he navy. When, therefore, the battle which Keppel fought with attained the rank of Admiral of the Fleet. He died at the age the French on the 27th of July 1778 ended in a highly unsatis- of 95 on the 17th of January 1904. factory manner, owing mainly to his own unintelligent manage- KER, JOHN (1673-1726), Scottish spy, was born in Ayrshire ment, but partly through the failure of Sir Hugh Palliser to obey on the 8th of August 1673. His true name was Crawfurd, his orders, he became convinced that he had been deliberately father being Alexander Crawfurd of Crawfurdland; but having betrayed. Though he praised Sir Hugh in his public despatch married Anna, younger daughter of Robert Ker, of Kersland, he attacked him in private, and the Whig press, with the Ayrshire, whose only son Daniel Ker was killed at the battle unquestionable aid of Keppel's friends, began a campaign of of Steinkirk in 1692, he assumed the name and arms of Ker in calumny to which the ministerial papers answered in the same 1697, after buying the family estates from his wife's elder sister. style, each side accusing the other of deliberate treason. The re- Having become a leader among the extreme Covenanters, he sult was a scandalous series of scenes in parliament and of courts made use of his influence to relieve his pecuniary embarrass- martial. Keppel was first tried and acquitted in 1779, and then ments, selling his support at one time to the Jacabites, at another Palliser was also tried and acquitted. Keppel was ordered to to the government, and whenever possible to both parties at the strike his flag in March 1779. Until the fall of Lord North's same time. He held a licence from the government in 1707 ministry he acted as an opposition member of parliament. When permitting him to associate with those whose disloyalty was it fell in 1782 be became First Lord, and was created Viscount known or suspected, proving that he was at that daie the Keppel and Baron Elden. His career in office was not dis-government's paid spy; and in his Memoirs Ker asserts that tinguished, and he broke with his old political associates by he had a number of other spies and agents working under his resigning as a protest against the Peace of Paris. He finally orders in different parts of the country. He entered into corre- discredited himself by joining the Coalition ministry formed by spondence with Catholic priests and Jacobite conspirators, North and Fox, and with its fall disappeared from public life. whose schemes, so far as he could make himself cognisant of He died unmarried on the 2nd of October 1786. Burke, who them, he betrayed to the government. But he was known to regarded him with great affection, said that he had “something be a man of the worst character, and it is improbable that he high ” in his nature, and that it was “a wild stock of pride on succeeded in gaining the confidence of people of any importance. which the tenderest of all hearts had grafted the milder virtues." The duchess of Gordon was for a time, it is true, one of his His popularity disappeared entirely in his later years. His correspondents, but in 1707 she had discovered him to be portrait was six times painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds. The a knave.” He went to London in 1709, where he seems to copy which belonged originally to Burke is now in the National have extracted considerable sums of money from politicians Gallery. of both parties by promising or threatening, as the case might There is a full Life of Keppel (1842), by his grand-nephew, the be, to expose Godolphin's relations with the Jacobites. In Rev. Thomas Keppel. (D. H.) 1713, if his own story is to be believed, business of a semi- KEPPEL, SIR HENRY (1809-1904), British admiral, son of diplomatic nature took Ker to Vienna, where, although he the 4th earl of Albemarle and of his wife Elizabeth, daughter failed in the principal object of his errand, the emperor made of Lord de Clifford, was born on the 14th of June 1809, and him a present of his portrait set in jewels. Ker also occupied entered the navy from the old naval academy of Portsmouth in his time in Vienna, he says, by gathering information which he 1822. His family connexions secured him rapid promotion, forwarded to the electress Sophia; and in the following at a time when the rise of less fortunate officers was very slow. on his way home he stopped at Hanover to give some advice He became lieutenant in 1829 and commander in 1833. His to the future king of England as to the best way to govern the first command in the “Childers” brig (16) was largely passed on English. Although in his own opinion Ker materially assisted the coast of Spain, which was then in the midst of the convulsions in placing George I. on the English throne, his services were of the Carlist war. Captain Keppel had already made himself unrewarded, owing, he would have us believe, to the incor- known as a good seaman. He was engaged with the squadron ruptibility of his character. Similar ingratitude was the stationed on the west coast of Africa to suppress the slave trade. I recompense for his revelations of the Jacobite intentions in 1715; 6 " KERAK-KERBELA 753 and as he was no more successful in making money out of the until its destruction by the Mahommedans in 1565. For about East India Company, nor in certain commercial schemes which 80 years it seems to have preserved a precarious independence engaged his ingenuity during the next few years, he died in a under the naiks of Madura, but in 1640 was conquered by the debtors' prison, on the 8th of July 1726. While in the King's Adil Shah dynasty of Bijapur and in 1652 seized by the king of Bench he sold to Edmund Curll the bookseller, a fellow-prisoner, Mysore. who was serving a sentence of five months for publishing obscene See V. A. Smith, Early Hist. of India, chap. xvi. (2nd ed., Oxford, books, the manuscript of (or possibly only the materials on 1908). which were based) the Memoirs of John Ker of Kersland, which KERASUND (anc. Choerades, Pharnacia, Cerasus), a town Curll published in 1726 in three parts, the last of which appeared on the N. coast of Asia Minor, in the Trebizond vilayet, and the after Ker's death. For issuing the first part of the Memoirs, port-an exposed roadstead-of Kara-Hissar Shark with which which purported to make disclosures damaging to the govern- it is connected by a carriage road. Pop. just under 10,000, ment, but which Curll in self-justification described as “ vindi- Moslems being in a slight minority. The town is situated on a cating the memory of Queen Anne,” the publisher was sentenced rocky promontory, crowned by a Byzantine fortress, and has a to the pillory at Charing Cross; and he added to the third part growing trade. It exports filberts (for which product it is the of the Memoirs the indictment on which he had been convicted. centre), walnuts, hides and timber. Cerasus was the place from See the above-mentioned Memoirs (London, 1726-1727), and in which the wild cherry was introduced into Italy by Lucullus and particular the “preface" to part i.; George Lockhart, The Lockhart Papers (2 vols., London, 1817); Nathaniel Hooke, Correspondence, so to Europe (hence Fr. cerise, “ cherry "). edited by W. D. Macray (Roxburghe Club, 2 vols., London, 1870), KÉRATRY, AUGUSTE HILARION, COMTE DE (1769-1859), in which Ker is referred to under several pseudonyms, such as French writer and politician, was born at Rennes on the 28th of “ Wicks," “ Trustie,' "" The Cameronian Mealmonger," &c. December 1769. Coming to Paris in 1790, he associated himself KERAK, a town in eastern Palestine, 10 m. E. of the southern with Bernardin de St Pierre. After being twice imprisoned angle of the Lisan promontory of the Dead Sea, on the top of a during the Terfor he retired to Brittany, where he devoted him- rocky hill about 3000 ft. above sea-level. It stands on a platform self to literature till 1814. In 1818 he returned to Paris as forming an irregular triangle with sides about 3000 ft. in length, deputy for Finistère, and sat in the Chamber till 1824, becoming and separated by deep ravines from the ranges around on all one of the recognized liberal leaders. He was re-elected in sides but one. The population is estimated at 6000 Moslems 1827, took an active part in the establishment of the July and 1800 Orthodox Greek Christians. Kerak is identified with monarchy, was appointed a councillor of state (1830), and in the Moabite town of Kir-Hareseth (destroyed by the Hebrew- 1837 was made a peer of France. After the coup d'état of 1851 Edomite coalition, 2 Kings iii. 25), and denounced by Isaiah he retired from public life. Among his publications were under the name Kir of Moab (xv. 1), Kir-Hareseth (xvi. 7) Contes et Idylles (1791); Lysus et Cydippe, a poem (1801); or Kir-Heres (xvi. 11): Jeremiah also refers to it by the Inductions morales et physiologiques (1817); Documents pour last name (xxxix. 31, 36). The modern name, in the form servir à l'histoire de France (1820); Du Beau dans les arts Xápač, appears in 2 Macc. xii. 17. Later, Kerak was the d'imitation (1822); Le Dernier des Beaumanoir (1824). His seat of the archbishop of Petra. The Latin kings of Jerusalem, last work, Clarisse (1854), a novel, was written when he was recognizing its importance as the key of the E. Jordan eighty-five. He died at Port-Marly on the 7th of November 1859. region, fortified it in 1142: from 1183 it was attacked His son, comte Emile de Kératry (1832– ), became deputy desperately by Saladin, to whom at last it yielded in 1188. for Finistère in 1869, and strongly supported the war with The Arabian Ayyubite princes fortified the town, as did the Germany in 1870. He was in Paris during part of the siege, Egyptian Mameluke sultans. The fortifications were repaired but escaped in a balloon, and joined Gambetta. In 1871 Thiers by Bibars in the 13th century. For a long time after the appointed him to the prefecture, first of the Haute-Garonne, Turkish occupation of Palestine and Egypt it enjoyed a semi- and subsequently of the Bouches-du-Rhône, but he resigned independence, but in 1893 a Turkish governor with a strong in the following year. He is the author of La Contre-guérilla garrison was established there, which has greatly contributed française au Mexique (1868); L'Élévation et la chute de l'empereur to secure the safety of travellers and the general quiet of the Maximilien (1867); Le Quatre-septembre et le gouvernemeni de la district. The town is an irregular congeries of flat mud-roofed défense nationale (1872); Mourad V. (1878), and some volumes houses. In the Christian quarter is the church of St George; of memories. the mosque also is a building of Christian origin. The town is KERBELA, or MESHED-ħosain, a town of Asiatic Turkey, surrounded by a wall with five towers; entrance now is obtained the capital of a sanjak of the Bagdad vilayet, situated on the through breaches in the wall, but formerly it was accessible extreme western edge of the alluvial river plain, about 60 m. only by means of tunnels cut in the rocky substratum. The S.S.W. of Bagdad and 20 m. W. of the Euphrates, from which castle, now used as the headquarters of the garrison and closed a canal extends almost to the town. The surrounding territory to visitors, is a remarkably fine example of a crusaders' fortress. is fertile and well cultivated, especially in fruit gardens and palm- (R. A. S, M.) groves. The newer parts of the city are built with broad streets KERALA, or CHERA, the name of one of the three ancient and sidewalks, presenting an almost European appearance. Dravidian kingdoms of the Tamil country of southern India, The inner town, surrounded by a dilapidated brick wall, at the the other two being the Chola and the Pandya. Its original gates of which octroi duties are still levied, is a dirty Oriental territory comprised the country now contained in the Malabar city, with the usual narrow streets. Kerbela owes its existence district, with Travancore and Cochin, and later the country to the fact that Hosain, a son of ‘Ali, the fourth caliph, was slain included in the Coimbatore district and a part of Salem. The here by the soldiers of Yazid, the rival aspirant to the caliphate, boundaries, however, naturally varied much from time to on the roth of October A.D. 680 (see CALIPHATE, sec. B, § 2). The time. The earliest references to this kingdom appear in the most important feature of the town is the great shrine of Hosain, edicts of Asoka, where it is called Kerala putra (i.e. son of Kerala), containing the tomb of the martyr, with its golden dome and a name which in a slightly corrupt form is known to Pliny and triple minarets, two of which are gilded. Kerbela is a place the author of the Periplus. There is evidence of a lively trade of pilgrimage of the Shi'ite Moslems, and is only less sacred to carried on by sea with the Roman empire in the early centuries them than Meshed 'Ali and Mecca. Some 200,000 pilgrims from of the Christian era, but of the political history of the Kerala the Shi'ite portions of Islam are said to journey annually to kingdom nothing is known beyond a list of rajas compiled from Kerbela, many of them carrying the bones of their relatives to inscriptions, until in the 10th century the struggle began with be buried in its sacred soil, or bringing their sick and aged to the Cholas, by whom it was conquered and held till their over- die there in the odour of sanctity. The mullahs, who fix the throw by the Mahommedans in 1310. These in their turn were burial fees, derive an enormous revenue from the faithful. driven out by a Hindu confederation headed by the chiefs of Formerly Kerbela was a self-governing hierarchy and constituted Vijayanagar, and Kerala was absorbed in the Vijayanagar empire | an inviolable sanctuary for criminals; but in 1843 the Turkish XV 13 2a 754 KERCH--KERGUELEN ISLAND a government undertook to deprive the city of some of these Archaeologically Kerch is of particular interest, the kurgans or liberties and to enforce conscription. The Kerbelese resisted, sepulchral mounds of the town and vicinity having yielded a rich Since 1825 a large and Kerbela was bombarded (hence the ruined condition of the variety of the most beautiful works of art. number of tombs have been opened. In the Altun or Zolotai-oba old walls) and reduced with great slaughter. Since then it has (Golden Mound) was found a great stone vault similar in style to formed an integral part of the Turkish administration of Irak. an Egyptian pyramid; and within, among many objects of minor The enormous influx of pilgrims naturally creates a brisk trade note, were golden dishes adorned with griffins and beautiful araba esques. In the Kul-oba, or Mound of Cinders (opened in 1830-1831), in Kerbela and the towns along the route from Persia to that was a similar tomb, in which were found what would appear to be place and beyond to Nejef. The population of Kerbela, neces- the remains of one of the kings of Bosporus, of his queen, his horse sarily fluctuating, is estimated at something over 60,000, of and his groom. The ornaments and furniture were of the most whom the principal part are Shi'ites, chiefly Persians, with a costly kind; the king's bow and buckler were of gold; his very whip goodly mixture of British Indians. No Jews or Christians are breast-jewels, and at her feet lay a golden vase. intertwined with gold; the queen had golden diadems, necklace and In the Pavlovskoi allowed to reside there. kurgan (opened in 1858) was the tomb of a Greek lady, containing See Chodzko, Théâtre persan (Paris, 1878); J. P. Peters, Nippur among other articles of dress and decoration a pair of fine leather (1897). (J. P. PE.) boots (a unique discovery) and a beautiful yase on which is painted the return of Persephone from Hades and the setting out of Tri- KERCH, or KERTCH, a seaport of S. Russia, in the govern- | ptolemus for Attica. In a neighbouring tomb was what is believed ment of Taurida, on the Strait of Kerch or Yenikale, 60 m. to be“ the oldest Greek mural painting which has come down to us, E.N.E. of Theodosia, in 45° 21' N. and 36° 30' E. Pop. (1897), dating probably from the 4th century B.C. Among the minor 31,702. It stands on the site of the ancient Pantica paeum, the fragments of engraved boxwood, the only examples known of objects discovered in the kurgans perhaps the most noteworthy are and, like most towns built by the ancient Greek colonists in the art taught by the Sicyonian painter Pamphilus. this part of the world, occupies a beautiful situation, clustering Very important finds of old Greek art continue to be made in the round the foot and climbing up the sides of the hill (called after neighbourhood, as well as at Tamañ, on the east side of the Strait Mithradates) on which stood the ancient citadel or acropolis. Hill, of which nearly 200. have been explored since 1859, possess of Kerch. The catacombs on the northern slope of Mithradates The church of St John the Baptist, founded in 717, is a good considerable interest, not only for the relics of old Greek art which .example of the early Byzantine style. That of Alexander some of them. contain (although most were plundered in earlier Nevsky was formerly the Kerch museum of antiquities, founded times), but especially as material for the history and ethnography in 1825. The inore valuable objects were subsequently removed bearing a distinct date (491) was discovered. Its walls were covered of the Cimmerian Bosporus. In 1890 the first Christian catacomb to the Hermitage at St Petersburg, while those that remained with Greek inscriptions and crosses. at Kerch were scattered during the English occupation in the See H. D. Seymour's Russia on the Black Sea and Sea of Azoff Crimean War. The existing museum is a small collection in a London, 1855); J. B. Telfer, The Crimea (London, 1876); P. Bruhn, private house. Among the products of local industry are Tchernomore, 1852-1877 (Odessa, 1878); Gilles, Antiquités du Bosphore leather, tobacco, cement, beer, aerated waters, lime, candles 1857); Compte rendu de la Commission Imp. Archéologique (St Peters- Cimmérien (1854); D. Macpherson, Antiquities of Kertch (London, and soap. Fishing is carried on, and there are steam saw-mills burg); L. Stephani, Die Alterthümer vom Kertsch (St Petersburg, and flour-mills. A rich deposit of iron ore was discovered close 1880);C. T. Newton, Essays on Art and Archaeology (London, 1880); to Kerch in 1895, and since then mining and blasting have been reports of the [Russian) Imp. Archaeological Commission; Izvestia (Bulletin) of the Archives Commission for Taurida; Antiquités du actively prosecuted. The mineral mud-baths, one of which is Bosphore Cimmérien, conservées au Musée Impérial de l'Ermitage in the town itself and the other beside Lake Chokrak (9 m. (St Petersburg, 1854); Inscriptiones antiquae orae septentrionalis distant), are much frequented. Notwithstanding the deepen- Ponti Euxini graecae et latinae, with a preface by V. V. Latyshev ing of the strait, so that ships are now able to enter the Sea of (St Petersburg, 1890); Materials for the Archaeology of Russia, Azov, Kerch retains its importance for the export trade in published by the Imp. Arch. Commission (No. 6, St Petersburg, 1891). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) wheat, brought thither by coasting vessels. Grain, fish, linseed, rapeseed, wool and hides are also exported. About 6 m. N.E. KERCKHOVEN, JAN POLYANDER VAN DEN (1568–1646), are the town and old Turkish fortress of Yenikale, adminis-Dutch Protestant divine, was born at Metz, in 1568. He became tratively united with Kerch. Two and a half miles to the French preacher at Dort in 1591, and afterwards succeeded south are strong fortified works defending the entrance to the Franz Gomarus as professor of theology at Leiden. He was Sea of Azov. invited by the States General of Holland to revise the Dutch The Greek colony of Panticapaeum was founded about the translation of the Bible, and it was he who edited the canons middle of the 6th century B.C., by the town of Miletus. From of the synod of Dort (1618–1619). about 438 B.C. till the conquest of this region by Mithradates His many published works include Responsio ad sophismata A. the Great, king of Pontus, about 100 B.C., the town and territory Cocheletir doctoris surbonnistae (1610), Dispute contre l'adoration des formed the kingdom of the Bosporus, ruled over by an inde- reliques des Saincts trespassés (1611), Explicatio somae prophetae (1625). pendent dynasty. Phanaces, the son of Mithradates, became the founder of a new line under the protection of the Romans, KERGUELEN ISLAND, KERGUELEN'S LAND, or DESOLATION which continued to exist till the middle of the 4th century A.D., ISLAND, an island in the Southern Ocean, to the S.E. of the and extended its power over the maritime parts of Tauris. Cape of Good Hope, and S.W. of Australia, and nearly half-way After that the town—which had already begun to be known between them. Kerguelen lies between 48° 39' and 49° 44' S. as Bospora--passed successively into the hands of the Eastern and 68° 42' and 70° 35' E. Its extreme length is about 85 m., empire, of the Khazars, and of various barbarian tribes. In but the area is only about 1400 sq. m. The island is throughout 1318, the Tatars, who had come into possession in the previous mountainous, presenting from the sea in some directions the century, ceded the town to the Genoese, who soon raised it appearance of a series of jagged peaks. The various ridges and into new importance as a commercial centre. They usually mountain masses are separated by steep-sided valleys, which called the place Cerchio, a corruption of the Russian name run down to the sea, forming deep fjords, so that no part of the K'rtchev (whence Kerch), which appears in the 11th century interior is more than 12 m. from the sea. The chief summits inscription of Tmutarakan (a Russian principality at the north are Mounts Ross (6120 ft.), Richards (4000), Crozier (3251), foot of the Caucasus). Under the Turks, whose rule dates from Wyville Thomson (3160), Hooker (2600), Moseley (2400). The the end of the 15th century, Kerch was a military port; and as coast-line is extremely irregular, and the fjords, at least on the such it plays a part in the Russo-Turkish wars. Captured by north, cast and south, form a series of well-sheltered harbours. the Russians under Dolgorukov in 1771, it was ceded to them As the prevailing winds are westerly, the safest anchorage is along with Yenikale by the peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji, and it on the north-east. Christmas Harbour on the north and Royal became a centre of Russian naval activity. Its importance was Sound on the south are noble harbours, the latter with a greatly impaired by the rise of Odessa and Taganrog; and in labyrinth of islets interspersed over upwards of 20 m. of land- 1820 the fortress was dismantled. Kerch suffered severely locked waters. The scenery is generally magnificent. A dis- during the Crimean War. trict of considerable extent in the centre of the island is occupied KERGUELEN'S LAND CABBAGE-KERMAN 755 66 by snowfields, whence glaciers descend east and west to the sea. a pale yellow highly pungent essential oil, which gives the plant The whole island, exclusive of the snowfields, abounds in fresh- a peculiar flavour but renders it extremely wholesome. It was water lakes and pools in the hills and lower ground. Hidden discovered by Captain Cook during his first voyage, but the first deep mudholes are frequent. account of it was published by (Sir) Joseph Hooker in The Terror Kerguelen Island is of undoubted volcanic origin, the prevailing Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of the “Erebus” and rock being basaltic lavas, intersected occasionally by dikes, and an in 1839-1843. During the stay, of the latter expedition on the active volcano and hot springs are said to exist in the south-west of island, daily use was made of this vegetable either cooked by the island. Judging from the abundant fossil remains of trees, the itself or boiled with the ship's beef, pork or pea-soup. Hooker island must have been thickly clothed with woods and other vegeta- tion of which it has no doubt been denuded by volcanic action and observes of it, “ This is perhaps the most interesting plant pro- submergence, and possibly by changes of climate. It presents cured during the whole of the voyage performed in the Antarctic evidences of having been subjected to powerful glaciation, and to Sea, growing as it does upon an island the remotest of any from subsequent immersion and immense denudation. The soundings made by the “ Challenger ” and “ Gazelle " and the affinities which a continent, and yielding, besides this esculent, only seventeen in certain respects exist between the islands, seem to point to the other flowering plants.' existence at one time of an extensive land area in this quarter, of KERKUK, or QERQŪQ, the chief town of a sanjak in the Mosul which Kerguelen, Prince Edward's Islands, the Crozets, St Paul and vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated among the foot hills of the Amsterdam are the remains. The Kerguelen plateau rises in many Kurdistan Mountains at an elevation of about 1100 ft. on both parts to within 1500 fathoms of the surface of the sea. Beds of coal and of red earth are found in some places. The summits of the flat- banks of the Khassa Chai, a tributary of the Tigris, known in its topped hills about Betsy Cove, in the south-east of the island, are lower course as Adhem. Pop. estimated at 12,000 to 15,000, formed of caps of basalt. According to Sir J. D. Hooker the vegetation of Kerguelen Island chiefly Mahommedan Kurds. Owing to its position at the junc- tion of several routes, Kerkuk has a brisk transit trade in hides, is of great antiquity; and may have originally reached it from the American continent; it has nó affinities with Africa. The present Persian silks and cottons, colouring materials, fruit and timber; climate is not favourable to permanent vegetation; the island lies but it owes its principal importance to its petroleum and naphtha within the belt of rain at all seasons of the year, and is reached by springs. There are also natural warm springs at Kerkuk, used no drying winds; its temperature is kept down by the surrounding to supply baths and reputed to have valuable medical properties. vast expanse of sea, and it lies within the line of the cold Antarctic drift.. The temperature, however, is equable. The mean annual In the neighbourhood of the city is a burning mountain, locally temperature is about 39° F., while the summer temperature has been famous for many centuries. Kerkuk is evidently an ancient observed to approach 70°. Tempests and squalls are frequent, and site, the citadel standing upon an artificial mound 130 ft. high. the weather is rarely calm. On the lower slopes of the mountains It was a metropolitan see of the Chaldean Christians. There is a a rank vegetation exists, which, from the conditions mentioned, is con- stantly saturated with moisture. A rank grass, Festuca "Cookii, Jewish quarter beneath the citadel, and the reputed sarcophagi grows thickly in places up to 300 ft., with Azorella, Cotula plumosu, of Daniel and the Hebrew children are shown in one of the &c. Sir J. D. Hooker enumerated twenty-one species of flowering mosques. (J. P. PE.) plants, and seven of ferns, lycopods, and Characeae; at least seventy- KERMADEC, a small group of hilly islands in the Pacific, four species of mosses, twenty-five of Hepaticae, and sixty-one of lichens are known, and there are probably many more. Several of about 30° S., 178° W., named from D'Entrecasteaux's captain, the marine and many species of freshwater algae are peculiar to the Huon Kermadec, in 1791. They are British possessions. The island. The characteristic feature of the vegetation, the Kerguelen's largest of the group is Raoul cr Sunday Island, 20 m. in circum- Land cabbage, was formerly abundant, but has been greatly reduced ference, 1600 ft. high, and thickly wooded. The flora and fauna by rabbits introduced on to the island. Fur-seals are still found in belong for the most part to those of New Zealand, on which Kerguelen, though their numbers have been by reckl slaughter. The sea-elephant and sea-leopard are characteristic. colony the islands are also politically dependent, having been Penguins of various kinds are abundant; a teal (Querquedula Eatoni) | annexed in 1887. peculiar to Kerguelen and the Crozets is also found in consider- KERMAN (the ancient Karmania), a province of Persia, able numbers, and petrels, especially, the giant petrel (Ossifraga bounded E. by Seistan and Baluchistan, S. by Baluchistan and gigantea), skuas, gulls, sheath-bills (Chionis minor), albatross, terns, cormorants and Čape pigeons frequent the island. There is a con- Fars, W. by Fars, and N. by Yezd and Khorasan. It is of very siderable variety of insects, many of them with remarkable pecu- irregular shape, expanding in the north to Khorasan and gradu- liarities of structure, and with a predominance of forms incapable ally contracting in the south to a narrow wedge between Fars of flying. and Baluchistan; the extreme length between Şeistan and Fars The island was discovered by the French navigator, Yves (E. and W.) is about 400 m., the greatest breadth (N. and S.) Joseph de Kerguelen-Tremarec, a Breton noble (1745-1797), on from south of Yezd to the neighbourhood of Bander Abbasi the 13th of February 1772, and partly surveyed by him in the about 300 m., and the area is estimated at about 60,000 sq. m. following year. He was one of those explorers who had been Kerman is generally described as consisting of two parts, an unin- attracted by the belief in a rich southern land, and this island, habitable desert region in the north and a habitable mountainous the South France of his first discovery, was afterwards called region in the south, but recent explorations require this view to by him Desolation Land in his disappointment. Captain Cook be considerably modified. There are mountains and desert visited the island in 1776, and, among other expeditions, the tracts in all parts, while much of what appears on maps as Challenger ” spent some time here, and its staff visited and forming the western portion of the great Kerman desert consists surveyed various parts of it in January 1874. It was occupied of the fertile uplands of Kuhbanan, Raver and others stretching from October 1874 to February 1875 by the expeditions sent along the eastern base of the lofty range which runs from Yezd from England, Germany and the United States to observe the south-east to Khabis. West of and parallel to this range are transit of Venus. The German South Polar expedition in 1901- two others, one culminating north-west of Bam in the Kuh 1902 established a meteorological and magnetic station at Royal Hazar (14,700 ft.), the other continued at about the same Sound, under Dr Enzensperger, who died there. In January elevation under the name of the Jamal Bariz (also Jebel Bariz) 1893 Kerguelen was annexed by France, and its commercial south-eastward to Makran. These chains traverse fertile dis- exploitation was assigned to a private company. tricts dividing them into several longitudinal valleys of consider- See Y. J. de: Kerguelen-Trémarec, Relation de deux voyages dans able length, but not averaging more than 12 m. in width. Snow les mers australes (Paris, 1782); Narratives of the Voyages of Captain lies on them for a considerable part of the year, feeding the Cook and the “ Challenger Expedition; Phil. Irans., vol. 168, springs and canals by means of which large tracts in this almost containing account of the collections made in Kerguelen by the rainless region in summer are kept under cultivation. Still British transit of Venus expedition in 1874-1875; Lieutard," Mission farther west the Kuh Dina range is continued from Fars, also in aux îles Kerguelen," &c., Annales hydrographiques (Paris, 1893). a south-easterly direction to Bashakird beyond Bander Abbasi. KERGUELEN'S LAND CABBAGE, in botany, Pringlea anti- Between the south-western highlands and the Jamal Bariz there scorbutica (natural order Cruciferae), a plant resembling in habit, is some arid and unproductive land, but the true desert of and belonging to the same family as, the common cabbage Kerman lies mainly in the north and north-east, where it merges (Brassica oleracea). The cabbage-like heads of leaves abound in 1 northwards in the great desert “Lut,” which stretches into 756 KERMAN-KERMES Khorasan. These southern deserts differ from the kavir of port large flocks of sheep and goats. The sheep provide a great central Persia mainly in three respects: they are far less saline, part of the meat supply of Teheran. The province also produces are more sandy and drier, and present in some places tracts of much wheat and barley, and could supply great quantities for 80 to 100 miles almost absolutely destitute of vegetation. Yet export if the means of transport were better. they are crossed by well-known tracks running from Kerman KERMANSHAH (Kermisin of Arab geographers), the capital of eastwards and north-eastwards to Seistan and Khorasan and the province, is situated at an elevation of 5100 ſt, in 34° 19' N., frequently traversed by caravans. It appears that these sandy and 46° 59' E., about 220 m. from Bagdad, and 250 m. from wastes are continually encroaching on the fertile districts, and Teheran. Although surrounded by fortifications with five gates this is the case even in Narmashir, which is being invaded by the and three miles in circuit, it is now practically an open town, for sands of the desolate plains extending thence north-westwards the walls are in ruins and the moat is choked with rubbish. It to Bam. There are also some kefeh or salt swamps answering has a population of about 40,000. The town is situated on the to the kavir in the north, but occurring only in isolated high road between Teheran and Bagdad, and carries on a transit depressions and nowhere of any great extent. The desert of trade estimated in value at £750,000 per annum. Kerman lies about 1000 ft., or less, above the sea, apparently KERMES (Arab. qirmiz; see Crimson), a crimson dye-stuff, on nearly the same level as the Lut, from which it cannot now superseded by cochineal, obtained from Kermes ilicis be geographically separated. The climate, which varies (=Coccus ilicis, Lat.=C. vermilio, G. Planchon). The genus much with the relief of the land, has the reputation of being Kermes belongs to the Coccidae or Scale-insects, and its species unhealthy, because the cool air from the hills is usually attended are common on oaks wherever they grow. The species from by chills and agues. Still many of the upland valleys enjoy a which kermes is obtained is common in Spain, Italy and the genial and healthy climate. The chief products are cotton, South of France and the Mediterranean basin generally, where gums, dates of unrivalled flavour from the southern parts, and it feeds on Quercus coccifera, a small shrub. As in the case of wool, noted for its extreme softness, and the soft underhair of other scale-insects, the males are relatively small and are capable goats (kurk), which latter are used in the manufacture of the of flight, while the females are wingless. The females of the Kerman shawls, which in delicacy of texture yield only to those genus Kermes are remarkable for their gall-like form, and it was of Kashmir, while often surpassing them in design, colour and not until 1714 that their animal nature was discovered. finish. Besides woollen goods (shawls, carpets, &c.) Kerman In the month of May, when full grown, the females are globose, exports mainly cotton, grain and dates, receiving in return from 6 to 7 millim. in diameter, of a reddish-brown colour, and covered India cotton goods, tea, indigo, china, glass, sugar, &c. Wheat with an ash-coloured powder. They are found attached to the twigs and barley are scarce. or buds by a circular lower surface 2 millim. in diameter, and sur- Bander Abbasi is the natural outport; / rounded by a narrow zone of white cottony down. At this time there but; since shipping has shown a preference for Bushire farther are concealed under a cavity, formed by the approach of the west, the trade of Kerman has greatly fallen off. abdominal wall of the insect to the dorsal one, thousands of eggs of a For administrative purposes the province is divided into nine- red colour, and smaller than poppy seed, which are protruded and teen districts, one being the capital of the same name with its beginning of June the young escape by a small orifice, near the point At the end of May or the ranged regularly beneath the insect. immediate neighbourhood (humeh); the others are Akta and of attachment of the parent. They are then of a fine red colour, Urzu; Anar; Bam and Narmashir; Bardsir; Jiruft; Khabis; elliptic and convex in shape, but rounded at the two extremities, Khinaman; Kubenan (Kuhbanan); Kuhpayeh; Pariz; Rafsin- and bear two threads half as long as their body at their posterior jan; Rahbur; Raver; Rayin; Rudbar and Bashakird; Sardu; 1 with extraordinary rapidity all over the food plant, and in two or extremity. At this period they are extremely active, and swarm Sirjan; Zerend. The inhabitants number about 700,000, nearly three days attach themselves to fissures in the bark or buds, but one-third being nomads. (A. H.-S.) rarely to the leaves. In warm and dry summers the insects breed KERMAN, capital of the above province, situated in 30° 17' N., again in the months of August and September, according to Eméric, and then they are more frequently, found attached to the leaves. 56° 59' E., at an elevation of 6100 ft. Its population is Usually they remain immovable and apparently unaltered until the estimated at 60,000, including about 2000 Zoroastrians, 100 end of the succeeding March, when their bodies become gradually Jews, and a few Shikarpuri Indians. Kerman has post and distended and lose all trace of abdominal rings. They then appear telegraph offices (Indo-European Telegraph Department), full of a reddish juice resembling discoloured blood. 'In this state, British and Russian consulates, and an agency of the Imperial in some cases the insects from which the young are ready to escape or when the eggs are ready to be extruded, the insects are collected. bank of Persia. The neighbouring districts produce little grain are dried in the sun on linen cloths-care being taken to prevent the and have to get their supplies for four or five months of the year escape of the young from the cloths until they are dead. from districts far away. A traveller has stated that it was insects are then siſted from the shells, made into a paste with vinegar, and dried on skins exposed to the sun, and the paste packed in skins easier to get a mann (6] Ib) of saffron at Kerman than a mann is then ready for exportation to the East under the name of “ pâte of barley for his horse, and in 1879 Sir A. Houtum-Schindler was d'écarlate." ordered by the authorities to curtail his excursions in the province In the pharmacopoeia of the ancients kermes triturated with “ because his horses and mules ate up all the stock.” Kerman vinegar was used as an outward application, especially in wounds of manufactures great quantities of carpets and felts, and its carpets ingredient in the "confcctio alkermes," a well known medicine, at the nerves. From the 9th to the 16th century this insect formed an are almost unsurpassed for richness of texture and durability. one time official in the London pharmacopoeia as an astringent in The old name of the city was Guvashir. Adjoining the city on doses of 20 to 60 grains or more. Syrup of kermes was also prepared. hills rising 400 to 500 ft. above the plain in the east are the ruins Both these preparations have fallen into disuse. of two ancient forts with walls built of sun-dried bricks on stone Mineral kermes is trisulphide of antimony, containing a foundations. Some of the walls are in perfect condition. Among variable portion of trioxide of antimony both free and combined the mosques in the city two deserve special notice, one the Masjid with alkali. It was known as poudre des Chartreux because in i Jama, a foundation of the Muzaffarid ruler Mubariz ed din 1714 it is said to have sayed the life of a Carthusian monk who Mahommed dating from A.H. 1349, the other the Masjid i Malik had been given up by the Paris faculty; but the monk Simon who built by Malik Kaverd Seljuk (1041-1072): administered it on that occasion called it Alkermes mineral. Its KERMANSHAH, or KERMANSHAHAN, an important province reputation became so great that in 1720 the French government of Persia, situated W. of Hamadan, N. of Luristan, and S. of bought the recipe for its preparation. It still appears in the Kurdistan, and extending in the west to the Turkish frontier. pharmacopoeias of many European countries and in that of the Its population is about 400,000, and it pays a yearly revenue of United States. The product varies somewhat according to the over £20,000. Many of its inhabitants are nomadic Kurds and mode of preparation adopted. According to the French direc- Lurs who pay little taxes. The plains are well watered and very tions the official substance is obtained by adding 60 grammes fertile, while the hills are covered with rich pastures which sup- of powdered antimony trisulphide to a boiling solution of 1280 The word lu! means bare, void of vegetation, arid, waterless, grammes of crystallized sodium carbonate in 12,800 grammes of and has nothing in common with the Lot of Holy Writ, as many have distilled water and boiling for one hour. The liquid is then supposed filtered hot, and on being allowed to cool slowly deposits the The young KERMESSE-KERRY 757 kermes, which is washed and dried at 100° C.; prepared in this constant guests, and thither came also in 1826 Friederike Hauffe way it is a brown-red velvety powder, insoluble in water. (1801-1829), the daughter of a forester in Prevorst, a 'somnambu- See G. Planchon, Le Kermes du chêne (Montpellier, 1864); Lewis, list and clairvoyante, who forms the subject of Kerner's famous Materia Medica (9784), pp. 71, 365; Memorias sobre la grana Kermes work Die Seherin von Prevorst, Eröffnungen über das innere de España (Madrid, 1788): Adams, Paulus Aegineta, iii. 180; Beck- Leben des Menschen und über das Hineinragen einer Geisterwelt mann, History of Inventions. in die unsere (1829; 6th ed., 1892). In 1826 he published a KERMESSE (also KERMIS and KIRMESS), originally the mass collection of Gedichte which were later supplemented by Der said on the anniversary of the foundation of a church and in letzte Blütenstrauss (1852) and Winterblüten (1859). Among honour of the patron, the word being equivalent to “ Kirkmass." others of his well-known poems are the charming ballad Der Such celebrations were regularly held in the Low Countries and reichste Fürst; a drinking song, Wohlauf, noch getrunken, and the also in northern France, and were accompanied by feasting, pensive Wanderer in der Sägemühle. dancing and sports of all kinds. They still survive, but are now In addition to his literary productions, Kerner wrote some practically nothing more than country fairs and the old alle popular medical books of great merit, dealing with animal gorical representations are uncommon. The Brussels Kermesse magnetism, a treatise on the influence of sebacic acid on animal is, however, still marked by a procession in which the effigies of organisms, Das Fettgift oder die Fellsäure und ihre Wirkungen the Mannikin and medieval heroes are carried. At Mons the auf den tierischen Organismus (1822); a description of Wildbad Kermesse occurs annually on Trinity Sunday and is called the and its healing waters, Das Wildbad im Königreich Würllemberg procession of Lumeçon (Walloon for limaçon, a snail): the hero (1813); while he gave a pretty and vivid account of his youthful is Gilles de Chin, who slays a terrible monster, captor of a years in Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit (1859); and in Die princess, in the Grand Place. This is the story of George and Bestürmung der württembergischen Stadt Weinsberg im Jahre the Dragon. At Hasselt the Kermesse (now only septennial). 1525 (1820), showed considerable skill in historical narrative. not only commemorates the Christian story of the foundation In 1851 he was compelled, owing to increasing blindness, to retire of the town, but even preserves traces of a pagan festival. The from his medical practice, but he lived, carefully tended by his word Kermesse (generally in the form “ Kirmess ”) is applied aughters, at Weinsberg until his death on the 21st of February in the United States to any entertainment, especially one organ- 1862. He was buried beside his wife, who had predeceased him ized in the interest of charity. in 1854, in the churchyard of Weinsberg, and the grave is marked See Demetrius C. Boulger, Belgian Life in Town and Country by a stone slab with an inscription he himself had chosen: (1904). Friederike Kerner und ihr Justinus. Kerner was one of the most KERN, JAN HENDRIK (1833- ), Dutch Orientalist, was inspired poets of the Swabian school. His poems, which largely born in Java of Dutch parents on the 6th of April 1833. He deal with natural phenomena, are characterized by a deep studied at Utrecht, Leiden and Berlin, where he was a pupil of melancholy and a leaning towards the supernatural, which, the Sanskrit scholar, Albrecht Weber. After some years spent however, is balanced by a quaint humour, reminiscent of the as professor of Greck at Macstricht, he became professor of Volkslied. Sanskrit at Benares in 1863, and in 1865 at Leiden. His studies Kerner's Ausgewählte poetische Werke appeared in 2 vols. (1878); included the Malay languages as well as Sanskrit. His chief Sämtliche poetische Werke, ed. by J. Gaismaier, 4. vols. (1905); a work is Geschiedenis van het Buddhisme in Indië (Haarlem, 2 vols., selection of his poems will also be found in Reclam's Universal. 1881-1883); in English he wrote a translation (Oxford, 1884) of See also D. F. Strauss, Kleine Schriften (1866); A. Reinhard, J. bibliothek (1898). His correspondence was edited by his son in 1897 the Saddharma Pundarîka and a Manual of Indian Buddhism Kerner und das Kernerhaus zu Weinsberg (1862; 2nd ed., 1886); (Strassburg, 1896) for Bühler Kielhorn's Grundriss der indo-G. Rümelin, Reden und Aufsätze, vol. iii. (1894); M. Niethammer arischen Philologie. (Kerner's daughter), J. Kerners Jugendliebe und mein Vaterhaus KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of “corn," seed, grain), (1877); A. Watts, Life and Works of Kerner (London, 1884); T. Kerner, Das Kernerhaus und seine Gäste (1894). the soft and frequently edible part contained within the hard outer husk of a nut or the stone of a fruit; also used in botany KERRY, a county of Ireland in the province of Munster, of the nucleus of a secd, the body within its several integuments bounded W. by the Atlantic Ocean, N. by the estuary of the or coats, and generally of the nucleus or core of any structure; Shannon, which separates it from Clare, E. by Limerick and Cork, hence, figuratively, the pith or gist of any matter. and S.E. by Cork. The arca is 1,159,356 acres, or 1811 sq. m., KERNER, JUSTINUS ANDREAS CHRISTIAN (1786-1862), the county being the fifth of the Irish counties in extent. Kerry, German poet and medical writer, was born on the 18th of Sep- with its combination of mountain, sea and plain, possesses tember 1786 at Ludwigsburg in Württemberg. After attending some of the finest scenery of the British Islands. The portion the classical schools of Ludwigsburg and Maulbronn, he was of the county south of Dingle Bay consists of mountain masses apprenticed in a cloth factory, but, in 1804, owing to the good intersected by narrow valleys. Formerly the mountains were services of Professor Karl Philipp Conz (1762-1827) of Tübingen, covered by a great forest of fir, birch and yew, which was nearly was enabled to enter the university there; he studied medicine all cut down to be used in smelting iron, and the constant pas. but had also time for literary pursuits in the company of Uhland, turage of cattle prevents the growth of young trees. In the Gustav Schwab and others. He took his doctor's degree in north-east towards Killarney the hills rise abruptly into the 1808, spent some time in travel, and then settled as a practising ragged range of Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the highest summit of physician in Wildbad. Here he completed his Reiseschatten von which, Carntual (Carrantuohill), has a height of 3414 ft. The dem Schallenspieler Luchs (1811), in which his own experiences next highest summit is Caper (3200 ft.), and several others are are described with caustic humour. He next co-operated with over 2500 ft. Lying between the precipitous sides of the Tomies, Uhland and Schwah in producing the Poctischer Almanach für the Purple Mountains and the Reeks is the famous Gap of Dunloe 1812, which was followed by the Deutscher Dichterwald (1813), In the Dingle promontory Brandon Mountain attains a height and in these some of Kerner's best poems were published. In of 3127 ft. The sea-coast, for the most part wild and mountain- 1815 he obtained the official appointment of district medical ous, is much indented by inlets, the largest of which, Tralee Bay, officer (Oberamtsarzl) in Gaildorf, and in 1818 was transferred in Dingle Bay and Kenmare River, lie in synclinal troughs, the a like capacity to Weinsberg, where he spent the rest of his life. anticlinal folds of the rocks forming extensive promontories. His house, the site of which at the foot of the historical Schloss Between Kenmare River and Dingle Bay the land is separated Weibertreu was presented by the municipality to their revered by mountain ridges into three valleys. The extremity of the physician, became the Mecca of literary pilgrims. Hospitable peninsula between Dingle Bay and Tralee Bay is very precipi- welcome was oxtended to all, from the journeyman artisan to tous, and Mount Brandon, rising abruptly from the occan, is crowned heads. Gustavus IV. of Sweden came thither with a skirted at its base (in part) by a road from which magnificent knapsack on his back. The poets Count Christian Friedrich views are obtained. From near the village of Ballybunion to Alexander von Württemberg (1801-1844) and Lenau (9.v.) were l Kilconey Point near the Shannon there is a remarkable succession 758 KERRY of caves, excavated by the sea. One of these caves inspired and other trees indigenous to warm climates grow in the open air, Tennyson with some lines in “ Merlin and Vivien,” which he and several flowering plants are found which are unknown in England. In the northern parts the land is generally coarse and poor, except wrote on the spot. The principal islands are the picturesque in the valleys, where a rich soil has been formed by rocky deposits. Skelligs, Valencia Island and the Blasquet Islands. In the Old Red Sandstone valleys there are many very fertile regions, · The principal rivers are the Blackwater, which, rising in the and several extensive districts now covered by bog admit of easy reclamation so as to form very fruitful soil, but other tracts of boggy Dunkerran Mountains, forms for a few miles the boundary line land scarcely promise a profitable return for labour expended on between Kerry and Cork, and then passes into the latter county; their reclamation. Over one-third of the total area is quite barren. the Ruaughty, which with a course resembling the arc of a circle The numbers of live stock of every kind are generally increased or falls into the head of the Kenmare River; the Inny and Ferta, sustained. Dairy-farming is very largely followed. The Kerry breed of cattle---small finely-shaped animals, black or red in colour, which flow westward, the one into Ballinskellig Bay and the with small upturned horns--are lamed for the quality both of their other into Valencia harbour; the Flesk, which flows northward flesh and milk, and are in considerable demand for the parks sur. through the lower Lake of Killarney, after which it takes the name rounding mansion-houses. The “ Dexter,' a cross between the of Laune, and flows north-westward lo Dingle Bay; the Caragh, Kerry and an unknown breed, is larger but without its fine qualities. which rises in the mountains of Dunkerran, after forming several Little regard is paid to the breed of sheep, but those in most common use have been crossed with a merino breed from Spain. Goats share lakes falls into Castlemaine harbour; the Maine, which flows with sheep the sweet pasturage of the higher mountain ridges, while from Castle Island and south-westward to the sea at Castlemaine cattle occupy the lower slopes. harbour, receiving the northern Flesk, which rises in the moun- Other Industries.- In former times there was a considerable linen tains that divide Cork from Kerry; and the Feale, Gale and Brick, trade in Kerry, but this is now nearly extinct, the chief manufacture At Killarney the junction of which forms the Cashin, a short tidal river which being that of coarse wooilens and linens for home use. a variety of articles are made from the wood of the arbutus. Á flows into the estuary of the Shannon. The lakes of Kerry are considerable trade in agricultural produce is carried on at Tralee, not numerous, and none is of great size, but those of Killarney Dingle and Kenmare, and in slate and stone at Valencia. The decp- (q.v.) form one of the most important features in the striking and sea and coast fisheries are prosperous, and there are many sma!! fishing settlements along the coast, but the centres of the two picturesque mountain scenery amidst which they are situated. fishery districts are Valencia and Dingle. Salmon fishing is also an The other principal lakes are Lough Currane (Waterville Lake) industry, for which the district centres are Kenmare and Killarney. near Ballinskellig, and Lough Caragh near Castlemaine harbour. Communications.--The Great Southern & Western railway Salmon and trout fishing with the rod is extensively prosecuted almost monopolizes the lines in the county. The principal line in all these waters. Near the summit of Mangerton Mountain traverses the centre of the county, touching Killarney, Tralee and Listowel, and passing ultimately to Limerick. Branches are from an accumulation of water in a deep hollow forms what is known Headford to Kenmare; Farranſore to Killorglin, Cahersiveen and as the Devil's Punchbowl, the surplus water, after making a Valencia harbour, Tralee to Fenit and to Castlegregory; and the succession of cataracts, flowing into Muckross Lake at the foot Listowel and Ballybunion railway. All these are lines to the coast. The Tralee and Dingle railway connects these two towns. The only of the mountain. There are chalybeate mineral springs near inland branch is from Tralee to Castleisland. Killarney, ncar Valencia Island, and near the mouth of the Population and Administration.—The population (179,136 in Inny; sulphurous chalybeate springs near Dingle, Castlemaine 1891; 165,726 in 1901) decreases to an extent about equal to the and Tralee; and a saline spring at Magherybeg in Corkaguiney, average of the Irish counties, but the emigration returns are among the heaviest. The chief towns are Tralee (the county town, pop. which bursts out of clear white sand a little below high-water 9867); Killarney (5656), Listowel (3605) and Cahersiveen or mark. Killarney is an inland centre widely celebrated and much Cahirciveen (2013), while Dingle, Kenmare, Killorglin and Castle. visited on account of its scenic attractions; there are also several island are smaller towns. The county comprises 9 baronies, and well-known coast resorts, among them Derrynane, at the mouth contains 85 civil parishes. Assizes are held at Tralee, and quarter sessions at Cahersiveen, Dingle, Kenmare, Killarney, Listowel and of Kenmare Bay, the residence of Daniel O'Connell the “ libera- Tralee. The headquarters of the constabulary force is at Tralee. tor”; Glenbeigh on Dingle Bay, Parknasilla on Kenmare Bay, Previous to the Union the county returned eight members to the Waterville (an Atlantic telegraph station) between Ballinskellig Irish parliament, two for the county, and two for each of the boroughs Bay and Lough Currane, and Tarbert, a small coast town on the of Tralee, Dingle and Ardfert. At the Union the number was reduced to three, two for the county and one for the borough of Tralee; but Shannon estuary. Others of the smaller villages have grown the divisions now number four: north, south, east and west, each into watering-places, such as Ballybunion, Castlegregory and returning one member. The county is in the Protestant diocese Portmagee. of Limerick and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Kerry and Limerick. Geology.-Kerry includes on the north and east a considerable area of Carboniferous shales and sandstones, reaching the coal- History.—The county is said to have derived its name measures, with unproductive coals, east of Listowel and on the from Ciar, who with his tribe, the Ciarraidhe, is stated to have Glanruddery Mountains. The Carboniferous Limestone forms a inhabited about the beginning of the Christian era the territory fringe to these beds, and is cut off by the sca at Knockaneen Bay; lying between Tralee and the Shannon. That portion lying south Tralce and Castleniaine. In all the great promontories, Old Red Sandstone, including Jukes's "Glengariff Grits,"forms the mountains, of the Maine was at a later period included in the kingdom of while synclinal hollows of Carboniferous Limestone have become Desmond (q.v.). Kerry suffered frequently from invasions of submerged to form marine inlets between them. The Upper Lake the Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries, until they were finally of Killarney lies in a hollow of the Old Red Sandstone, which here overthrown at the battle of Clontarf in 1014. In 1172 Dermot rises to its greatest height in Macgillicuddy's Reeks; Lough Leane however, with its low shores, rests on Carboniferous Limestone. MacCarthy, king of Cork and Desmond, made submission 10 In the Dingle promontory the Old Red Sandstone is strikingly Henry II. on certain conditions, but was nevertheless gradually unconformable on the Dingle beds and the Upper Silurian series; the compelled to retire within the limits of Kerry, which is one of the latter include volcanic rocks of Wenlock age. The evidences of local glaciation in this county, especially on the wild slopes of the areas generally considered to have been made shire ground by mountains, are as striking as in North Wales. A copper-mine was King John. An English adventurer, Raymond le Gros, received formerly worked at Muckross, near Killarney, in which cobalt ores from this MacCarthy a large portion of the county round Lix- also occurred. Slate is quarried in Valencia Island. naw. In 1579-1580 attempts were made by the Spaniards to Fauna.-Foxes are numerous, and otters and badgers are not un- The alpine hare is very abundant. The red deer inhabits invade Ireland, landing at Limerick harbour, near Dingle, and the mountains round Killarney. The golden eagle, once frequently a fortress was erected here, but was destroyed by the English in seen in the higher mountain regions, is now rarely met. The sea 1580. The Irish took advantage of the disturbed state of Eng- eagle haunts the lofty marine cliffs, the mountains and the rocky land at the time of the Puritan revolution to attempt the over- islets. The osprey is occasionally seen, and also the peregrine falcon, The merlin is common. The common owl is indigenous, the long. throw of the English rule in Kerry, and ultimately obtained cared owl resident, and the short-eared owl a regular winter visitor. possession of Tralee, but in 1652 the rebellion was com- Rock pigeons breed on the sea-cliffs, and the turtle dove is an pletely subdued, and a large number of estates were afterwards occasional visitant. The great grey seal is found in Brandon and confiscated. Dingle bays. Climate and Agriculture.-Owing to the vicinity of the sea and the There are remains of a round tower at Aghadoe, near Killarney, height of the mountains, the climate is very moist and unsuitable and another, one of the finest and most perfect specimens in for the growth of cereals, but it is so mild even in winter that arbutus | Ireland, 92 ft. high, at Rattoe, not far from Ballybunion. On common. KERSAINT-KESHUB CHUNDER SEN 759 the summit of a hill to the north of Kenmare River is the remark- of the marine; and he failed to obtain even a post as officer. He able stone fortress known as Staigue Fort. There are several was arrested on the 23rd of September at Ville d’Avray, near stone cells in the principal Skellig island, where penance, involv- Paris, and taken before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where he ing the scaling of dangerous rocks, was done by pilgrims, and was accused of having conspired for the restoration of the where there were formerly monastic remains which have been monarchy, and of having insulted national representation by swept away by the sea. The principal groups of sepulchral resigning his position in the legislature. He was executed on stones are those on the summits of the Tomie Mountains, a the 4th of December 1793. remarkable stone fort at Cahersiveen, a circle of stones with His brother, Guy PIERRE (1747–1822), also served in the navy, cromlech in the parish of Tuosist, and others with inscriptions and took part in the American war of independence. He did near Dingle. The remote peninsula west of a line from Dingle to not accept the principles of the Revolution, but emigrated. Smerwick harbour is full of remains of various dates. The most He was restored to his rank in the navy in 1803, and died in notable monastic ruins are those of Innisfallen, founded by 1822, after having been préfet maritime of Antwerp, and prefect St Finian, a disciple of St Columba, and the fine remains of of the department of Meurthe. Muckross Abbey, founded by the Franciscans, but there are also See Kersaint's own works, Le Bon Sens (1789); the Rubicon (1789); monastic remains at Ardfert, Castlemaine, Derrynane, Kilcoleman Considérations sur la force publique et l'institution des gardes nationales and O'Dorney. Among ruined churches of interest are those of (1789); Lettre d Mirabeau (1791); Moyens présentés à l'Assemblée Aghadoe, Kitcrohane, Lough Currane, Derrynane and Muckross. Chevalier, Histoire de la Marine française sous la première République; nationale pour rétablir la paix et l'ordre dans les colonies; also E. The cathedral of Ardfert, founded probably in 1253, was partly E. Charavay, L'Assemblée électorale de Paris en 1790 et 1701 (Paris, destroyed during the Cromwellian wars, but was restored in 1831. 1890); and Agénor Bardoux, La Duchesse de Duras (Paris, 1898), the Some interesting portions remain (see TRALEE). There is a beginning of which deals with Kersaint, whose daughter married Amédée de Duras. large number of feudal castles. (R. A.*) KERSAINT, ARMAND GUY SIMON DE COETNEMPREN, KERVYN DE LETTENHOVE, CONSTANTINE BRUNO, COMTE DE (1742–1793), French sailor and politician, was born BARON, (1817-1891), Belgian historian, was born at Saint- at Paris on the 29th of July 1742. He came of an old family, Michel-les-Bruges in 1817. He was a member of the Catholic his father, Guy François de Coet nempren, comte de Kersaint, Constitutional party and sat in the Chamber as member for being a distinguished naval officer. He entered the navy in Eecloo. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the cabinet 1755, and in 1757, while serving on his father's ship, was pro- of Anethan as minister of the interior. But his official career moted to the rank of ensign for his bravery in action. By 1782 was short. The cabinet appointed as governor of Lille one he was a captain, and in this year took part in an expedition to Decker, who had been entangled in the financial speculations Guiana. At that time the officers of the French navy were of Langand-Dumonceau by which the whole clerical party had divided into two parties--the reds or nobles, and the blues or been discredited, and which provoked riots. The cabinet was roturiers. At the outbreak of the Revolution, Kersaint, in spite forced to resign, and Kervyn de Lettenhove devoted himself of his high birth, took the side of the latter. He adopted the new entirely to literature and history. He had already become known ideas, and in a pamphlet entitled Le Bon Sens attacked feudal as the author of a book on Froissart (Brussels, 1855), which was privileges; he also submitted to the Constituent Assembly a crowned by the French Academy. He edited a series of chron- scheme for the reorganization of the navy, but it was not icles-Chroniques relatives à l'histoire de la Belgique sous la accepted. On the 4th of January 1791 Kersaint was appointed domination des ducs de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870-1873), and administrator of the department of the Seine by the electoral Relations politiques des Pays Bas et de l'Angleterre sous le regne assembly of Paris. He was also elected as a député suppléant de Philippe II. (Brussels, 1882-1892). He wrote a history of to the Legislative Assembly, and was called upon to sit in it in Les Hugenots et les Gueux (Bruges, 1883–1885) in the spirit of a place of a deputy who had resigned. From this time onward his violent Roman Catholic partisan, but with much industry and chief aim was the realization of the navy scheme which he had learning. He died at Saint-Michel-les-Bruges in 1891. vainly submitted to the Constituent Assembly. He soon saw Şee Notices biographiques et bibliographiques de l'académie de that this would be impossible unless there were a general reform Belgique for 1887. . of all institutions, and therefore gave his support to the policy KESHUB CHUNDER SEN (KESHAVA CHANDRA SENA) (1838– of the advanced party in the Assembly, denouncing the conduct of 1884), Indian religious reformer, was born of a high-caste family Louis XVI., and on the roth of August 1792 voting in favour at Calcutta in 1838. He was educated at one of the Calcutta of his deposition. Shortly after, he was sent on a mission to colleges, where he became proficient in English literature and the armée du Centre, visiting in this way Soissons, Reims, Sedan history. For a short time he was a clerk in the Bank of Bengal, and the Ardennes. While thus occupied he was arrested by the but resigned his post to devote himself exclusively to literature municipality of Sedan; he was set free after a few days' detention. and philosophy. At that time Sir William Hamilton, Hugh He took an active part in one of the last debates of the Legisla- Blair, Victor Cousin, J. H. Newman and R. W. Emerson were tive Assembly, in which it was decided to publish a Bulletin among his favourite authors. Their works made the deepest officiel, a report continued by the next Assembly, and known by impression on him, for, as he expressed it, “ Philosophy first the name of the Bulletin de la Convention Nationale. Kersaint taught me insight and reflection, and turned my eyes inward was sent as a deputy to the Convention by the department of from the things of the external world, so that I began to reflect Seine-et-Oise in September 1792, and on the ist of January 1793 on my position, character and destiny.” Like many other was appointed vice-admiral. He continued to devote himself educated Hindus, Keshub Chunder Sen ħad gradually dissociated to questions concerning the navy and national defence, prepared himself from the popular forms of the native religion, without a report on the English political system and the navy, and caused abandoning what he believed to be its spirit. As early as 1857 a decree to be passed for the formation of a committee of general he joined the Brahma Samaj, a religious association aiming at defence, which after many modifications was to become the the reformation of Hinduism. Keshub Chunder Sen threw him famous Committee of Public Safety. He had also had a decree self with enthusiasm into the work of this society and in 1862 passed concerning the navy on the 11th of January 1793. He himself undertook the ministry of one of its branches. In the had, however, entered the ranks of the Girondins, and had voted same year he helped to found the Albert College and started the in the trial of the king against the death penalty and in favour Indian Mirror, a weekly journal in which social and moral sub- of the appeal to the people. He resigned his seat in the Conven-jects were discussed. In 1863 he wrote The Brahma Samaj tion on the 20th of January. After the death of the king his Vindicated. He also travelled about the country lecturing and opposition became more marked; he denounced the September preaching. The steady development of his reforming zeal led massacres, but when called upon to justify his attitude confined to a split in the society, which broke into two-sections, Chunder himself to attacking Marat, who was at the time all-powerful. Sen putting himself at the head of the reform movement, which His friends tried in vain to obtain his appointment as minister | took the name “ Brahma Samaj of India,” and tried to propagate 760 KÉSMÁRK-KESTREL 6 its doctrines by missionary enterprise. Its tenets at this time | length of its wings one of the true falcons, and by many ornitho. were the following: (1) The wide universe is the temple of logists placed among them under its Linnaean name of Falco God. fe) Wisdom is the pure land of pilgrimage. (3) Truth linnunculus, is by others referred to a distinct genus Tinnunculus is the everlasting scripture. (4) Faith is the root of all religions. as T. alaudariusthe last being an epithet wholly inappropriate. (5) Love is the true spiritual culture. (6) The destruction of We have here a case in which the propriety of the custom which selfishness is the true asceticism. In 1866 he delivered an requires the establishment of a genus on structural characters address on “ Jesus Christ, Europe and Asia;” which led to the may seem open to question. The differences of structure which false impression that he was about to embrace Christianity. separate Tinnunculus from Falco are of the slightest, and, if This helped to call attention to him in Europe, and in 1870 he insisted upon, must lead to including in the former birds which paid a visit to England. The Hindu preacher was warmly obviously differ from kestrels in all but a few characters arbi- welcomed by almost all denominations, particularly by the trarily chosen; and yet, if structural characters be set aside, the Unitarians, with whose creed the new Brahma Samaj had most in kestrels form an assemblage readily distinguishable by several common, and it was the committee of the British and Foreign peculiarities from all other Falconidae, and an assemblage Unitarian Association that organized the welcome soirée at scparable from the true Falcons of the genus Falco, with its Hanover Square Rooms on the 12th of April. Ministers of ten subsidiary groups Acsalon, Hypotriorchis, and the rest (see Fal- different denominations were on the platform, and among those con). Scarcely any one outside the walls of an ornithologica! who officially bade him welcome were Lord Lawrence and Dean museum or library would doubt for a moment whcther any bird Stanley. He remained for six months in England, visiting most shown to him was a kestrel or not; and Gurney has stated his of the chief towns. His eloquence, delivery and command of belief (Ibis, 1881, p. 277) that the aggregation of species placed the language won universal admiration. His own impression by Bowdler Sharpe (Cal. Birds Brit. Mus. i. 423-448) under of England was somewhat disappointing. Christianity in Eng. the generic designation of Cerchneis (which should properly land appeared to him too sectarian and narrow, too “ muscular be Tinnunculus) includes “three natural groups sufficiently and hard,” and Christian life in England more materialistic distinct to be treated as at least separate subgenera, bearing the and outward than spiritual and inward. “I came here an name of Dissodectes, Tinnunculus and Erythropus.” Of these Indian, I go back a confirmed Indian; I came here a Theist, the first and last are not kestrels, but are perhaps rather related I go back a confirmed Theist. I have learnt to love my own to the hobbies (Hypotriorchis). country more and more.” These words spoken at the fare- The ordinary kestrel of Europe, Falco tinnunculus or Tinnun- well soirée may furnish the key to the change in him which so culus alaudarius, is by far the commonest bird of prey in the greatly puzzled many of his English friends. He developed a British Islands. It is almost entirely a summer migrant, tendency towards mysticism and a greater leaning to the spiritual coming from the south in early spring and departing in autumn, teaching of the Indian philosophies, as well as a somewhat though examples (which are nearly always found to be birds of despotic attitude towards the Samaj. He gave his child | the year) occasionally occur in winter, some arriving on the daughter in marriage to the raja of Kuch Behar; he revived eastern coast in autumn. It is most often observed while hang- the performance of mystical plays, and himself took part in ing in the air for a minute or two in the same spot, by means of one. These changes alienated many followers, who deserted his short and rapid beats of its wings, as, with head pointing to standard and founded the Sadhārana (General) Brahma Samaj windward and expanded tail, it is looking out for prey-which (1878). Chunder Sen did what he could to reinvigorate his consists chiefly of mice, but it will at times take a small bird, own section by a new infusion of Christian ideas and phrases, and the remains of frogs, insects and even earthworms have been e.8. the New Dispensation,” “the Holy Spirit." He also in- found in its crop. It generally breeds in the deserted nest of a stituted a sacramental meal of rice and water. Two lectures crow or pie, but frequently in rocks, ruins, or even in hollow delivered between 1881 and 1883 throw a good deal of light trees-laying four or five eggs, mottled all over with dark on his latest doctrines. They were “ The Marvellous Mystery, brownish-red, sometimes tinged with orange and at other times the Trinity," and “ Asia's Message to Europe.” This latter is with purple. Though it may occasionally snatch up a young par- an eloquent plea against the Europeanizing of Asia, as well as tridge or pheasant, the kestrel is the most harmless bird of prey, a protest against Western sectarianism. During the intervals if it be not, from its destruction of mice and cockchaſers, a bene- of his last illness he wrote The New Samhita, or the Sacred Laws ficial species. Its range extends over nearly the whole of Europe of the Aryans of the New Dispensation. He died in January 1884, from 68° N. lat., and the greater part of Asia-though the form leaving many bitter enemies and many warm friends. which inhabits Japan and is abundant in north-eastern China See the article BRAHMA SAMAJ; also P. Mozoomdar, Life and has been by some writers deemed distinct and called T. japonicus Teachings of Keshub Chunder Sen (1888). -it is also found over a great part of Africa, being, however, KÉSMÁRK (Ger. Käsmark), a town of Hungary, in the county unknown beyond Guinea on the west and Mombasa on the east of Szepes, 240 m. N.E. Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 5560. coast (Ibis, 1881, p. 457). The southern countries of Europe It is situated on the Poprad, at an altitude of 1950 ft., and is have also another and smaller species of kestrel, T. linnunculoides surrounded on all sides by mountains. Among its buildings are (the T. cenchris and T. naumanni of some writers), which is the Roman Catholic parish church, a Gothic edifice of the 15th widely spread in Africa and Asia, though specimens from India century with fine carved altars; a wooden Protestant church of and China are distinguished as T. pekinensis. the 17th century; and an old town-hall. About 12 m. W. of Three other species are found in Africa, T. rupicola, T. rupi- Késmárk lies the famous watering-place Tatrafüred (Ger. coloides and T. alopex—the first a common bird in the Cape, Schmecks), at the foot of the Schlagendorfer peak in the Tatra while the others occur in the interior. Some of the islands of Mountains. Késmárk is one of the oldest and most important the Ethiopian region have peculiar species of kestrel, as the Saxon settlements in the north of Hungary, and became a royal T. newtoni of Madagascar, T. punctatus of Mauritius and free town at the end of the 13th century, In 1440 it became the T. gracilis of the Seychelles; while, on the opposite side, the seat of the counts of Szepes (Ger., Zips), and in 1464 it was kestrel of the Cape Verde Islands has been separated as granted new privileges by King Matthias Corvinus. During the T. neglectus. 16th century, together with the other Saxon towns in the The T. sparverius, commonly known in Canada and the Szepes county, it began to lose both its political and commercial United States as the "sparrow-hawk,” is a beautiful little bird. importance. It remained a royal free town until 1876. Various attempts have been made to recognize several species, KESTREL (Fr. Cresserelle or Créçerelle, O. Fr. Quercerelle and more or less in accordance with locality, but the majority of Quercelle, in Burgundy Cristel), the English name for one of ornithologists seem unable to accept the distinctions which have the smaller falcons. This bird, though in the form of its bill and been elaborated chiefly by Bowdler Sharpe in his Catalogue and 1 Other English names are windhover and standgale (the last often R. Ridgway (North American Birds, iii. 159-175), the former of corrupted into stonegale and stannell). whom recognizes six species, while the latter admits but three 66 >) (0 KESWICK-KETENES 761 » T. sparverius, T. leucophrys and T. sparverioides-with five geo-policy of the protector Somerset. A feast held at Wymondham graphical races of the first, viz. the typical T. sparverius from in July 1549 developed into a riot and gave the signal for the the continent of North America except the coast of the Gulf of outbreak. Leading his followers to Norwich, Ket formed a Mexico; T. australis from the continent of South America camp on Mousehold Heath, where he is said to have commanded except the North Atlantic and Caribbean coasts; T. isabel- 16,000 men, introduced a regular system of discipline, adminis- linus, inhabiting continental America from Florida to Fr.Guiana; tered justice and blockaded the city. He refused the royal T. dominicensis from the Lesser Antilles as far northwards as offer of an amnesty on the ground that innocent and just men St Thomas; and lastly T. cinnamominus from Chile and western had no need of pardon, and on the ist of August 1549 attacked Brazil. T. leucophrys said to be from Haiti and Cuba; and took possession of Norwich. John Dudley, earl of Warwick, and T. sparverioides peculiar to Cuba only. This last has been marched against the rebels, and after his offer of pardon had generally allowed to be a good species, though Dr Gundlach, been rejected he forced his way into the city, driving its defenders the best authority on the birds of that island, in his Contribucion before him. Then, strengthened by the arrival of some foreign a la Ornitologia Cubana (1876), will not allow its validity. More mercenaries, he attacked the main body of the rebels at Dussin- recently it was found (Ibis, 1881, pp. 547-564) that T. australis dale on the 27th of August. Ket's men were easily routed by and T. cinnamominus cannot be separated, that Ridgway's the trained soldiery, and Robert and William Ket were seized T. leucophrys should properly be called T. dominicensis, and his and taken to London, where they were condemned to death for T. dominicensis T. antillarum; while Ridgway has recorded the treason. On the 7th of December 1549 Robert was executed at supposed occurrence of T. sparverioides in Florida. Of other Norwich, and his body was hanged on the top of the castle, kestrels T. moluccensis is widely spread throughout the islands while that of William was hanged on the church tower at of the Malay Archipelago, while T. cenchroides seems to inhabit Wymondham. the whole of Australia, and has occurred in Tasmania (Proc. See F. W. Russell, Kett's Rebellion (1859), and J. A. Froude, Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1875, pp. 7,8). No kestrel is found in New History of England, vol. iv. (London, 1898). Zealand, but an approach to the form is made by the very KETCH, JOHN (d. 1686), English executioner, who as " Jack peculiar Hieracidea(or Harpe)novae-zelandiae(of which a second Ketch” gave the nickname for nearly two centuries to his race or species has been described, H. brunnea or H. ferox), the successors, is believed to have been appointed public hangman sparrow-hawk," " quail-hawk "and“ bush-hawk” of the colo- in the year 1663. The first recorded mention of him is in The nists--a bird of much higher courage than any kestrel, and per- Plotters Ballad, being Jack Ketch's incomparable Receipt for the haps exhibiting the more generalized and ancestral type from Cure of Traytorous Recusants and Wholesome Physick for a which both kestrels and falcons may have descended. (A. N.) Popish Contagion, a broadside published in December 1672. KESWICK, a market town in the Penrith parliamentary The execution of William, Lord Russell, on the 21st of July division of Cumberland, England, served by the joint line of the 1683 was carried out by him in a clumsy way, and a pamphlet. Cockermouth Keswick & Penrith, and London & North-Western is extant which contains' his “ Apologie,” in which he alleges railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4451. It lies in the that the prisoner did not “dispose himself as was most suitable" northern part of the Lake District, in an open valley on the and that he was interrupted while taking aim. On the scaffold, banks of the river Greta, with the mountain of Skiddaw to the on the 15th of July 1685, the duke of Monmouth, addressing north and the lovely lake of Derwentwater to the south. It is Ketch, referred to his treatment of Lord Russell, the result much frequented by visitors as a centre for this famous district being that Ketch was quite unmanned and had to deal at least -for boating on Derwentwater and for the easy ascent five strokes with is axe, and finally use a knife, to sever Mon- Skiddaw. Many residences are seen in the neighbourhood, and mouth's head from his shoulders. In 1686 Ketch was deposed the town as a whole is modern. Fitz Park, opened in 1887, is and imprisoned at Bridewell, but when his successor, Pascha a pleasant recreation ground. The town-hall contains a museum Rose, a butcher, was, after four months in the office, hanged at of local geology, natural history, &c. In the parish church of Tyburn, Ketch was reappointed. He died towards the close of Crosthwaite, m. distant, there is a monument to the poet 1686. Southey. His residence, Greta Hall, stands at the end of the KETCHUP, also written catsup and katchup (said to be from main street, close by the river. Keswick is noted for its the Chinese kôe-chiap or kê-tsiap, brine of pickled fish), a sauce manufacture of lead pencils; and the plumbago (locally wad) or relish prepared principally from the juice of mushrooms and used to be supplied from mines in Borrowdale. Char, caught in of many other species of edible fungi, salted for preservation and the neighbouring lakes, are potted at Keswick in large quantities variously spiced. The juices of various fruits, such as cucum- and exported. bers, tomatoes, and especially green walnuts, are used as a basis KESWICK CONVENTION, an annual summer reunion held of ketchup, and shell-fish ketchup, from oysters, mussels and at the above town for the main purpose of “promoting practical cockles, is also made; but in general the term is restricted to holiness by meetings for prayer, discussion and personal sauces having the juice of edible fungi as their basis. intercourse. It has no denominational limits, and is largely KETENES, in chemistry, a group of organic compounds which supported by the “ Evangelical ” section of the Church of may be considered as internal anhydrides of acetic acid and its England. The convention, started in a private manner by substitution derivatives. Two classes may be distinguished: Canon Harford-Battersby, then vicar of Keswick, and Mr the aldo-ketenes, including ketene itself, together with its mono- Robert Wilson in 1874, met first in 1875, and rapidly grew after alkyl derivatives and carbon suboxide, and the keto-ketenes the first few years, both in numbers and influence, in spite of which comprise the dialkyl ketenes. The aldo-ketenes are attacks on the alleged “perfectionism ” of some of its leaders colourless compounds which are not capable of autoxidation, and on the novelty of its methods. Its members take a deep are polymerized by pyridine or quinoline, and are inert towards interest in foreign missions. compounds containing the groupings C:N and C:0. The keto- In the History of the C.M.S., vol. iii. (by Eugene Stock), the ketenes are coloured compounds, which undergo autoxidation missionary influence of the “ Keswick men in Cambridge and else. readily, form ketene bases on the addition of pyridine and quino- where may be readily traced. See also The Keswick Convention: its line, and yield addition compounds with substances containing Message, its Method and its Men, edited by C. F. Harford (1906). the C:N and C:O groupings. The ketenes are usually obtained KET (or KETT), ROBERT (d. 1549), English rebel, is usually by the action of zinc on ethereal or ethyl acetate solutions of called a tanner, but he certainly held the manor of Wymondham halogen substituted acid chlorides or bromides. They are in Norfolk. With his brother William he led the men of characterized by their additive reactions: combining with water Wymondham in their quarrel with a certain Flowerden, and to form acids, with alcohols to form esters, and with primary having thus come into prominence, he headed the men of Norfolk amines to form amides. when they rose in rebellion in 1549 owing to the hardships inflicted Ketene, CH,:CO, was discovered by N. T. M. Wilsmore (Jour. by the extensive enclosures of common lands and by the general | Chem. Soc., 1907, vol. 91, p. 1938) among the gaseous products formed 762 KETI-KETONES acctates. when a platinum wire is electrically heated under the surface of RR' C:NOH + RC(NR)OH → R-CO-NHR acetic anhydride. It is also obtained by the action of zinc on bromacetyl bromide (H. Staudinger, Ber. 1908, 41, p. 594). At (see Oximes, also A. Hantzsch, Ber.,1891,24, p. 13). The ketones ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but it may be condensed to a react with mercaptan to form mercaptols (E. Baumann, Ber., liquid and finally solidified, the solid melting at -151° C. It is 1885, 18, p. 883), and with concentrated nitric acid they yield characterized by its penetrating, smell. On standing for some dinitroparaffins (G. Chancel, Bull. de la soc. chim., 1879, 31, time a brown-coloured liquid is obtained, from which a colourless liquid boiling at 126-127° C., has been isolater (Wilsmore, ibid., p. 503). With nitrous acid (obtained from amyl nitrite and 1908, 93, p. 946). Although originally described as acctylketen, it gaseous hydrochloric acid, the ketone being dissolved in acetic has proved to be a cyclic compound (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 4908). It acid) they form isonitroso-ketones, R.CO.CH:NOH (L. Claisen, is soluble in water, the solution showing an acid reaction, owing Ber., 1887, 20, pp. 656, 2194). With ammonia they yield to the formation of aceto-acetic acid, and with alkalis it yields It differs from the simple ketenes in that it is apparently complex condensation products; acetone forming di- and tri- unacted upon by phenols and alcohols. Dimethyl kelene, (CH) C:C0, acetonamines (W. Heintz, Ann. 1875, 178, p. 305; 1877, 189, obtained by the action of zinc on a-brom-isobutyryl bromide, is a P. 214. They also condense with aldehydes, under the influence yellowish coloured liquid. At ordinary temperatures it rapidly of alkalis or sodium ethylate (L. Claisen, Ann., 1883, 218, pp. 121, polymerizes (probably to a tetramethylcylobutanedione). It boils at 34° C. (750 mm.) (Staudinger, Ber. 1905, 38, p. 1735; 1908, 41, 129, 145; 1884, 223, p. 137; S. Kostanecki and G. Rossbach, P. 2208). Oxygen rapidly converts it into a white explosive solid. Ber., 1896, 29, pp. 1488, 1495, 1893, &c.). On treatment with Diethyl ketene, (CHs) C:CO, is formed on heating diethylmalonic an- the Grignard reagent, in absolute ether solution, they yield hydride (Staudinger, ibid.). Diphenyl kelene, (CH)2C:CO, obtained addition products which are decomposed by water with pro- by the action of zinc on diphenyl-chloracetyl chloride, is an orange- duction of tertiary alcohols (V. Grignard, Comptes rendus, 1900, red liquid which boils at !46° C. (12 mm.). It does not polymerize. Magnesium phenyl bromide gives triphenyl vinyl alcohol. 130, p. 1322 et seq.), RR'CO→ RR':C(OMGI).R"→ RR'R":C(OH) + MgI.OH. KETI, a sca-port of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, Ketones do not polymerize in the same way as aldehydes, but situated on the Hajamro branch of the Indus. Pop. (1901), under the influence of acids and bases yield condensation 2127. It is an important scat of trade, where sea-borne goods products; thus acetone gives mesityl oxide, phorone and are transferred to and from river boats. mesitylene (sce below). KETONES, in chemistry, organic compounds of the type For dimethyl kelone or acetone, see ACETONE. Diethyl kelone, R.CO.R', where R, R' =alkyl or aryl groups. If the groups (C2H5)z.CO, is a pleasant-smelling liquid boiling at 102.7°C. With R and R’ are identical, the ketone is called a simple ketone, concentrated nitric acid it forms dinitroethane, and it is oxidized if unlike, a mixed ketone. They may be prepared by the CH2-COC,H19, is the chief constituent of oil of rue, which also con- by chromic acid to acetic and propionic acids. Methylnonylketone, oxidation of secondary alcohols; by the addition of the tains methylheplylketone, CH3.CO-C, Hıs, a liquid of boiling point elements of water to hydrocarbons of the acetylene type 85-90° C. (7 mm.), which yields normal caprylic acid on oxidation RC CH ; by oxidation of primary alcohols of the type with hypobromites. RR :CH-CH2OH:RR’CHCH2OH → R.CO.R'+H20+H.CO2; of boiling point 129.5-130° C. It is insoluble in water, but readily Mesityl oxide, (CH3)2C:CH.CO:CHz, is an aromatic smelling liquid by distillation of the calcium salts of the fatty acids, C.H..02; dissolves in alcohol. On heating with dilute sulphuric acid it yields by heating the sodium salts of these acids CnH2nO2 with the acetone, but with the concentrated acid it gives mesitylene, C.Hız. corresponding acid anhydride to 190° C. (W. H. Perkin, Jour. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetic acid and hydroxyiso- Chem. Soc., 1886, 49, p. 322); by the action of anhydrous hydrocollidine when heated with 'acetamide and anhydrous zinc butyric acid (A. Pinner, Ber., 1882, 15, P. 591). It forms hydroxy- ferric chloride on acid chlorides (J. Hamonet, Bull. de la soc. chloride (F. Canzoneri and G. Spica, Gazz. chim. Ital., 1884, 14, chin., 1888, so, p. 357), p.349). Phorone, (CH3)2C:CH.CO.CH:C(CH3)2,forms yellow crystals 2CH3COC1>C2H-CO-CH(CH3)-COCI which melt at 28° C. and boil at 197•2° C. When heated with → C2H5.CO-CH(CH3).CO, HC2H5-CO-CH2 CH3; phosphorus pentoxide it yields acetone, water and some pseudo- Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to aceticand oxalic acids, while and by the action of zinc alkyls on acid chlorides (M. Freund, Ann., potassium permanganate oxidizes it to-acetone, carbon dioxide and 1861, 118, p. 1), 2CH3COCI+ZnCH3)2=ZnCl2+2CH3.CO.CH3. oxalic acid. In the last reaction complex addition products are formed, DIKETONES.-The diketones contain two carbonyl groups, and inust be quickly decomposed by water, otherwise tertiary and are distinguished as a or 1-2 diketones, B or 1.3 diketones, alcohols are produced (A. M. Butlerow, Jahresb., 1864, p. 496; Ann. 1867, 144, p. 1). They may also be prepared by the decom- Porr 4 diketones, &c., according as they contain the groupings -CO.CO-, -CO.CH.CO-,-CO-CH2-CH:CO-, &c. position of ketone chlorides with water; by the oxidation of the tertiary hydroxyacids; by the hydrolysis of the ketonic The a-diketones may be prepared by boiling the product of the acids or their esters with dilute alkalis or baryta water (see action of alkaline bisulphites on isonitrosoketones with 15 % sul- phuric acid (H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1887, 20, p.3112; 1889, 22, P:2115), ACETO-ACETIC ESTER); by the hydrolysis of alkyl derivatives CH3.CO-C:(N.OH).CH, CH3.CO.C:(NHSO3).CH3 CH3.CO.. of acetone dicarboxylic acid, HO2C.CH2.CO.CHR.CO2H; and CO-CH3; or by the action of isoamyl nitrite on the isonitrosoke. by the action of the Grignard reagent on nitriles (E. Blaise, tones (0. Manasse, Ber., 1888, 21, p.2177), C2H5.CO:C:(NOH).CH 3- Comples rendus, 1901, 132, p. 38), +1C HONO=C2H5.CO.CO.CH3+CSHOH +N,O. They condense R.CN + R'M Í ÝRR'C:N.MgI →R.CO.R'+NH:+MgI.OH. p. 327), and with ammonia and aldehydes to formimidazoles. Diacetyl, with orthodiamines toform quinoxalines (O. Hinsberg, Ann., 1887,237, The ketones are of neutral reaction, the lower members of the CH3.CO.CO.CH3, is a yellowish green liquid, which boils at 87-88°C., series being colourless, volatile, pleasant-smelling liquids. They and possesses a pungent smell. It combines with sodium bisulphite do not reduce silver solutions, and are not so readily oxidized and with hydrocyanic acid. Dilute alkalis convert it into para. as the aldehydes. On oxidation, the molecule is split at the xyloquinone. The B-diketones form characteristic copper salts, and in alcoholic carbonyl group and a mixture of acids is obtained. Sodium solution they combine with semicarbazide to form products which on amalgam reduces them to secondary alcohols; phosphorus boiling with ammoniacal silver nitrate solution give pyrazoles pentachloride replaces the carbonyl oxygen by chlorine, forming isoxazoles, and with 'phenyihydrazine pyrazoles. Acetyl acetone, (T. Posner, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3975); with hydroxylamine they form the ketone chlorides. Only those ketones which contain a CH3.CO.CH.CO.CH3, may be prepared by the action of aluminium methyl group are capable of forming crystalline addition com- chloride on acetyl chloride, or by condensing ethyl acetate with pounds with the alkaline bisulphites (F. Grimm, Ann., 1871, acetone in the presence of sodium (L. Claisen). It is a liquid of 157, p. 262). They combine with hydrocyanic acid to form boiling point 136° C. It condenses readily with aniline to give nitriles, which on hydrolysis furnish hydroxyacids, ay-dimethyl quinoline. (CH3)2CO → (CH3),C.OH.CN (CH3)2.C.OH.CO2H; The y-diketones are characterized by the readiness with which they yield furfurane, pyrrol and thiophene derivatives, the fur. with phenylhydrazine they yield hydrazones; with hydrazine furane derivatives being formed by heating the ketones with a de- they yield in addition ketazines RR':C:N:N:C.RR'(T. Curtius), hydrating agent, the thiophenes by heating with phosphorus penta- and with hydroxylamine ketoximes. The latter readily under- sulphide, and the pyrrols by the action of alcoholic ammonia or amines. Aceton yl acetone, CH 3.CO-CH2CH.CO.CH3, a liquid boiling go the “Beckmann ” transformation on treatment with acid at 194° C., may be obtained by condensing sodium aceto-acetate chlorides, yielding substituted acid amides. with mono-chloracetone (C. Paal, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 59), cumene. o 1 KETTELER-KETTLEDRUM 763 1 CH,COCH,CI+Na.CH.COCH,(COOR) with the glass-staining business. In 1845 he was called to the → CHCO.CH2CH.COCH,(COOR) ->CH3CO-CH2-CH2COCH3; bar, and in 1859 he was made judge of the Worcestershire county or by the hydrolysis of diaceto-succinic ester, prepared by the courts, becoming also a bencher of the Middle Temple (1882). action of iodine on sodium aceto-acetate (L. Knorr, Ber., 1889, He acted as arbitrator in several important strikes, and besides 22, pp. 169, 2100). being the first president of the Midland iron trade wages board, 1.5 diketones have been prepared by, L., Claisen by condensing he was largely responsible for the formation of similar boards in ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters and similar compounds with B-ketonic esters and with 1.3 diketones. The ethoxymethylene other staple trades. His name thus became identified with the aceto-acetic esters are prepared by condensing aceto-acetic ester organization of a system of arbitration between employers and with ortho-formic ester in the presence of acetic anhydride (German employed, and in 1880 he was knighted for his services in this patents 77354, 79087, 79863). "The 1.5 diketones of this type, when capacity. In 1851 he married; one of his sons subsequently heated with aqueous ammonia, form pyridine derivatives. Those became a London police magistrate. Kettle died on the 6th in which the keto groups are in combination with phenyl residues give pyridine derivatives on treatment with hydroxylamine, thus of October 1894 at Wolverhamptor. benzamarone, C6H5CH(CH(C6H5).CO.C6H5), gives pentaphenylpyri- KETTLEDRUM’ (Fr. timbales; Ger. Pauken; Ital. timpani; dine, NC-(C6H5)s. On the general reactions of the 1.5 diketones, Sp. timbal), the only kind of drum (q.v.) having a definite see É. Knoevenagel (Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25 et seq.) and H. Stobbe musical pitch. The kettledrum consists of a hemispherical (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1445). Many cyclic ketones are known, and in most respects they resemble pan of copper, brass or silver, over which a piece of vellum is the ordinary aliphatic ketones (see POLYMETHYLENES; TERPENES). stretched tightly by means of screws working on an iron ring, KETTELER, WILHELM EMMANUEL, BARON VON (1811- which fits closely round the head of the drum. In the bottom 1877), German theologian and politician, was born at Harkotten, of the pan is a small vent-hole, which prevents the head being in Bavaria, on the 25th of December 1811. He studied theology rent by the concussion of air. The vellum head may thus be at Göttingen, Berlin, Heidelberg and Munich, and was ordained slackened or tightened at will to produce any one of the notes priest in 1844. He resolved to consecrate his life to maintaining within its compass of half an octave. Each kettledrum gives the cause of the freedom of the Church from the control of the but one note at a time, and as it takes some little time to alter State. This brought him into collision with the civil power, an all the screws, two or three kettledrums, sometimes more, each attitude which he maintained throughout a stormy and eventful tuned to a different note, are used in an orchestra or band. life. Ketteler was rather a man of action than a scholar, and he For centuries kettledrums have been made and used in Europe first distinguished himself as one of the deputies of the Frankfort in pairs, one large and one small; the relative proportions of the National Assembly, a position to which he was elected in 1848, two instruments being well defined and invariable. Even when and in which he soon became noted for his decision, foresight, eight pairs of drums, all tuned to different notes, are used, as energy and eloquence. In 1850 he was made bishop of Mainz; by Berlioz in his “ Grand Requiem,” there are still but the two by order of the Vatican, in preference to the celebrated Professor sizes of drums to produce all the notes. Various mechanisms Leopold Schmidt, of Giessen, whose Liberal sentiments were not have been tried with the object of facilitating the change of agreeable to the Papal party. When elected, Ketteler refused pitch, but the simple old-fashioned model is still the most to allow the students of theology in his diocese to attend lectures frequently used in England. Two sticks, of which there are at Giessen, and ultimately founded an opposition seminary in the several kinds, are employed to play the kettledrum; the best diocese of Mainz itself. He also founded orders of School of these are made of whalebone for elasticity, and have a small Brothers and School Sisters, to work in the various educational wooden knob at one end, covered with a thin piece of fine sponge. agencies he had called into existence, and he laboured to institute Others have the button covered with felt or india-rubber. orphanages and rescue homes. In 1858 he threw down the The kettledrum is struck at about a quarter of the diameter gauntlet against the State in his pamphlet on the rights of the from the ring. Catholic Church in Germany. In 1863 he adopted Lassalle's Socialistic views, and published his Die Arbeitfrage und das The compass of kettledrums collectively is not much more than Christenthum. When the question of papal infallibility arose, an octave, between fet he opposed the promulgation of the dogma on the ground that ; the larger instruments, such promulgation was inopportune.' But he was not resolutę / which it is inadvisable to tune below F, take any one of the following in his opposition. The opponents of the dogma complained at the very outset that he was wavering, half converted by his hosts, the members of the German College at Rome, and further EC influenced by his own misgivings. He soon descrted his anti- Infallibilist colleagues, and submitted to the decrees in August 1870. He was the warmest opponent of the State in the Kultur- and the smaller are tuned to one of the notes completing the kampf provoked by Prince Bismarck after the publication of the Vatican decrees, and was largely instrumental in compelling chromatic and enharmonic scale from @to: These that statesman to retract the pledge he had rashly given, never to “ go to Canossa.” To such an extent did Bishop von Ketteler from kettledrums. limits comprise all the notes of artistic value that can be obtained When there are but two drums-the term carry his opposition, that in 1874 he forbade his clergy to take “ drum " used by musicians always denotes the kettledrum--they part in celebrating the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and are generally tuned to the tonic and dominant or to the tonic and declared the Rhine to be a “ Catholic river.” He died at Burg- subdominant, these notes entering into the composition of most of hausen, Upper Bavaria, on the 13th of July 1877. the harmonies of the key. Formerly, the kettledrums used to be treated as transposing instruments, the notation, as for the horn, (J. J. L.*) being in C, the key to which the kettledrums were to be tuned being KETTERING, a market town in the eastern parliamentary indicated in the score; Now composers write the real notes. division of Northamptonshire, England, 72 m. N.N.W. from The tone of a good kettledrum is sonorous, rich, and of great power. London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district When noise rather than music is required uncovered sticks are used. The drums may be muffled or covered by placing a piece of cloth or (1891), 19,454; (1901), 28,653. The church of SS Peter and over the ellum to damp und, a device which produces a Paul, mainly Perpendicular, has a lofty and ornate tower and lugubrious, mysterious effect and is indicated in the score by the spire. The chief manufactures are boots, shoes, brushes, stays, words timpani coperti, timpani con sordini, timbales couvertes, clothing and agricultural implements. There are iron-works in gedampfte Pauken. Besides the beautiful effects obtained by means of delicate gradations of tone, numerous rhythmical figures may be the immediate neighbourhood. The privilege of market was executed on one, two or more notes. German drummers who were granted in 1227 by a charter of Henry III. KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817-1894), English "From "drum" and " kettle," a covered metal vessel for boiling county court judge, was born at Birmingham on the oth of water or other liquid; the 0. E. word is celel, cl. Du. ketel, Ger. January 1817. His family had for some time been connected | Kessel, borrowed from Lat. catillus, dim. of catinus, bowl. コ​」 and: notes: 764 KETTLEDRUM etc etc etc etc 1.4401 etc. renowned during the 17th and 18th centuries, borrowing the terms | Frankfort-on-Main in 1836"; in England Cornelius Ward in 1837: from the trumpets with which the kettledrums were long associated, in Italy C. A. Boracchi of Monza in 1839.5 recognized the following beats:- The drawback in most of these systems is the complicated nature of the mechanism, which soon gets out of order, and, being very cumbersome and heavy, it renders the instrument more or less of a Single tonguing fixture. Potter's kettledrum with instantaneous systent of tuning, (Einfache Zungen) the best known at the present day in England, and used in some military bands with entire success, is a complete contrast to the above. There is practically no mechanism; the system is simple, ingenious, and neither adds to the weight nor to the bulk of the instrument. There are no screws round the head of Potter's kettle- Double tonguing drum; an invisible system of cords in the interior, regulated by screws and rods in the form of a Maltese cross, is worked from the outside (Doppel oder gerissene Zungen) by a small handle connected to a dial, on the face of which are twenty-eight numbered notches. By means of these the performer is able to tune the drum instantly to any note within the compass by remembering the numbers which correspond to each note and pointing the indicator to it on the face of the dial. Should the cords Legato tonguing become slightly stretched, flattening the pitch, causing the represen- (Tragende Zungen) tative numbers to change, the performer need only give his indicator an extra turn to bring his instrument back to pitch, each note having several notches at its service. The internal mechanism, being of an elastic nature, has no detrimental effect on the tone but tends to increase its volume and improve its quality. Whole double-tonguing The origin of the kettledrum is remote and must be sought (Ganze Doppel-Zungen) in the East. Its distinctive characteristic is a hemispherical or convex vessel, closed by means of a single parchment or skin drawn tightly over the aperture, whereas other drums consist of a cylinder, having one end or both covered by the parchment, Double cross-beat? as in the side-drum and tambourine respectively. The Romans (Doppel Kreuzschläge) were acquainted with the kettledrum, including it among the tympana; the tympanum leve, like a sieve, was the tambourine used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybele. The comparatively heavy tympanum of bronze mentioned by Catullus was probably the small kettledrum which appears in pairs on monuments of The roll the middle ages.? Pliny: states that half pearls having (Wirbel) one side round and the other flat were called tympania. If the name tympania (Gr. Tújtavov, from TÚTTELV, to strike) was given to pearls of a certain shape because they resembled the kettledrum, this argues that the instrument was well known The double roll among the Romans. It is doubtful, however, if it was (Doppel Wirbel) adopted by them as a military instrument, since it is not mentioned by Vegetius, who defines very clearly the duties of the service instruments buccina, tuba, cornu and lituus. The Greeks also knew the kettledrum, but as a warlike instrument of barbarians. Plutarch 10 mentions that the It is generally stated that Beethoven was the first to treat the kettledrum as a solo instrument, but in Dido, an opera by C. Graupner Parthians, in order to frighten their enemies, in offering battle performed at the Hamburg Opera House in 1707, there is a short used not the horn or tuba, but hollow vessels covered with a solo for the kettledrum.? skin, on which they beat, making a terrifying noise with these The tuning of the kettledrum is an operation requiring time, even when the screw-heads, as is now usual, are T-shaped; to expedite tympana. Whether the kettledrum penetrated into western the change, therefore, efforts have been made in all countries to Europe before the fall of the Roman Empire and continued invent some mechanism which would enable the performer to tune to be included during the middle ages among the tympana has the drum to a fixed note by a single movement. The first mechanical not been definitely ascertained. Isidore of Seville gives a some- kettledrums date from the beginning of the 19th century. In Holland a system was invented by: C. N. Stumpff*; in France by that his information has been obtained second-hand: “Tym- what vague description of tympanum, conveying the impression Labbaye in 1827; in Germany Einbigler patented a system in panum est pellis vel corium ligno ex una parte extentum. Est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem cribri. 1 This rhythmical use of kettledrums was characteristic of the Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est. Unde, et mar- military instrument of percussion, rather than the musical member garitum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia ad of the orchestra. During the middle ages and until the end of the virgulam percutitur.”ll It is clear that in this passage Isidore 18th century, the two different notes obtainable from the pair of is referring to Pliny. kettledrums were probably used more as a means of marking and varying the rhythm than as musical notes entering into the com- The names given during the middle ages to the kettledrum are position of the harmonies. The kettledrums, in fact, approximated derived from the East. We have attambal or atlabal in Spain, to the side drums in technique. The contrast between the purely rhythmical use of kettledrums, given above, and the more modern + See Gustav Schilling's Encyklopädie der gesammten musikal. musical use is well exemplified by the well-known solo for four Wissenschaften (Stuttgart, 1840), vol. v., art.“ Pauke." kettledrums in Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable, beginning thus-- * See Manuale pel Timpanista (Milan, 1842), where Boracchi describes and illustrates his invention. 6 Catullus, Ixiii. 8-10; Claud. De cons. Slilich. ii. 365; Lucret. ii. 618; Virg. Aen. ix. 619, &c. John Carter, Specimens of Ancient Sculpture, bas-relief from seats of choir of Worcester cathedral and of collegiate church of St Kath- erine near the Tower of London (plates, vol. i. following p. 53 and vol. i. following p. 22). ? See Wilhelm Kleefeld, Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper (1678- 8 Nat. Hist. ix. 35, 23. 1738); Internationale Musikgesellschaft, Sammelband i. 2, p. 278 9 De re militari, ii. 22; iii. 5, &c. (Leipzig, 1899). 10 Crassus, xxiii. 10. See also Justin xli. 2, and Polydorus, lib. 1, Sec J. Georges Kastner, Méthode complète et raisonnée de timbales cap. xv. (Paris), p. 19, where several of the early mechanical kettledrums are ii See Isidore of Seville, Etymologiarum, lib. iii. cap. 21, 141; Migne, described and illustrated. Patr. curs. complelus. Ixxxii. 107 7 KETTLEDRUM 765 . HEA 2017 W . Hi Fig. 2. Ms. stian from the Persian lambal, whence is derived the modern French the instrument before it became inseparably associated with the timbales; nacaire, naquaire or nakeres (English spelling), from trumpet, sharing its position as the service instrument of the the Arabic nakkarah or noqqārich (Bengali, nāgarā), and the cavalry. Jost Amman ' gives a picture of a pair of kettledrumas German Pauke, M.H.G. Bûke or Půke, which is probably derived with banners being played by an armed knight on horseback.us from byk, the Assyrian name of the instrument. brasque M abnost A line in the chronicles of Joinville definitely establishes the அரி பர்பர் AIVANH identity of the nakeres as a kind of drum: “ Lor il fist sonner ved ti ngisqus gainsad baino 979 TVO 's soitizoa sono uh Eigns ho toto Illino pallo stort bod boboczy Food រប់ ៦៤។ sdt 02 9713olod 1 to - Etobfaithak 了​高​员 ​23 Pນ 6 shers troup? ch Bopola 101 yd bewood abis3572 JATOR obs io novi HA0321 10 (From Hartelu. Wickhoff's “Die Wiener, Genesis," Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des allerhöchslen Kaiserhauses.) in an Hoit OM hes As in the case of the trumpet, the use of the kettledrum was placed under great restrictions in Germany and France and to some extent in England, but it was used in churches with the trumpet.4 No French or German regiment was allowed பொற் Saas 5091 Hodies Ebsia inime 170 Hynd fysig to Tea 100 totoo $6073 9 UVI vib isto bogor simolob 21 His il sebino iso 913. 10 olob bol ad aia odgal- to (Geo Potter & Co of Aldershot.) Samo) FIG. 1.-Mechanical Kettledrum, showing the system 91 odgova of cords inside the head. edia This regiment is now the 21st (Empress of India) Lancers. ==ិនសំងd od 2) abad les tabours que l'on appelle nacaires.” The nacaire is among -៧៥ Krisdons the instruments mentioned by Froissart as having been used 91V estros ei on the occasion of Edward III's triumphal entry into Calais bonita Simmo in 1347: trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies, muses.” 1 Fig. 3.-Medieval Kettledrums, 14th century. (Brit. Museum.) To Chaucer mentions them in the description of the tournament kettledrums unless they had been captured from the enemy, nas in the Knight's Tale (line 2514):- and the timbalier or the Heer pauker on parade, in reviews Pipes, trompes, nakeres and clarionnes and marches generally, rode at the head of the squadron; in That in the bataille blowen blody sonnes." battle his position was in the wings. In England, before the The earliest European illustration showing kettledrums is the Restoration, only the Guards were allowed kettledrums, but scene depicting Pharaoh's banquet in the fine illuminated MS. after the accession of James II. every regiment of horse was book of Genesis of the 5th or 6th century, preserved in Vienna. provided with them.5 Before the Royal Regiment of Artillery There are two pairs of shallow metal bowls on a table, on which was established, the master-general of ordnance was responsible a woman is performing with two sticks, as an accompaniment for the raising of trains of artillery. Among his retinue in time to the double pipes. As a companion illumination may be of war were a trumpeter and kettledrummer. The kettledrums cited the picture of an Eastern banquet given in a 14th century were mounted on a chariot drawn by six white horses. They MS. at the British Museum (Add. MS. 27,695), illuminated by a appeared in the field for the first time in a train of artillery skilled Genoese. The potentate is enjoying the music of various during the Irish rebellion of 1689, and the charges for ordnance instruments, among which are two kettledrums strapped to the back of a Nubian slave. This was the earlier manner of using -3 Artliche u. kunstreiche Figuren zu der Reutterey (Frankfort-on- Main, 1584). 1 Panthéon littéraire (Paris, 1837), J. A, Buchon, vol. i. cap. 322, 1 See Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum and Monatshefte f. p. 273 Musikgeschichte, Jahrgang x. 51. 2 Reproduced by Franz Wickhoff, " Die Wiener Genesis," supple- 6 See Georges Kastner, op. cit., pp. 10 and 11; Johann Ernst Alten- ment to the 15th and 16th volumes of the Jahrb. d kunsthistorischenburg, Versuch einer Anleitung 2. heroisch-musikalischen Trompeter u. Sammlungen d. allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses (Vienna, 1895); see frontis-Paukerkunst (Halle, 1795), p. 128; and H. G. Farmer, Memoirs of piece in colours and plate illustration XXXIV. the Royal Artillery Band, p. 23, note 1 (London, 1904). E LOKID স্বা СЛІОГООР 1193 66 ציר ה 1) - 766 KEUPER-KEW 66 » include the item, “large kettledrums mounted on a carriage rock salt (8c0-3000 ft.). Lower Keuper sandstone, marls and with cloaths marked I.R. and cost £158, 9s."! A model thin sandstones at the top, red and white sandstones (including of the kettledrums with their carriage which accompanied the the so-called waterstones ”) below, with breccias and con- duke of Marlborough to Holland in 1702 is preserved in the glomerates at the base (150–250 ft.). The basal or “ dolomitic Rotunda Museum at Woolwich. The kettledrums accompanied conglomerate ” is a shore or scree .breccia derived from local the Royal Artillery train in the Vigo expedition and during the materials; it is well developed in the Mendip district. The rock- campaign in Flanders in 1748. Macbean? states that they salt beds vary from i in. to 100 ft. in thickness; they are exten- were mounted on a triumphal car ornamented and gilt, bearing sively worked (mined and pumped) in Cheshire, Middlesbrough the ordnance flag and drawn by six white horses. The position and Antrim. The Keuper covers a large area in the midlands of the car on march was in front of the flag gun, and in camp in and around the flanks of the Pennine range; it reaches southward front of the quarters of the duke of Cumberland with the artillery to the Devonshire coast, eastward into Yorkshire and north- guns packed round them. The kettledrummer had by order west ward into north Ireland and south Scotland. As in Germany, " to mount the kettledrum carriage every night half an hour there are one or more“ bone beds” in the English Rhaetic with before the sun sett and beat till gun fireing." In 1759 the a similar assemblage of fossils. In the “ white lias " the upper kettledrums ceased to form part of the establishment of the hard limestone is known as the “sun bed or “ Jew stone "; Royal Artillery, and they were deposited, together with their at the base is the Cotham or landscape marble. carriage, in the Tower, at the same time as a pair captured at Representatives of the Rhaetic are found in south Sweden, Malplaquet in 1709. These Tower drums were frequently where the lower portion contains workable coals, in the Hima- borrowed by Handel for performances of his oratorios. layas, Japan, Tibet, Burma, eastern Siberia and in Spitzbergen. The kettledrums still form part of the bands of the Life Guards | The upper portion of the Karroo beds of South Africa and part and other cavalry regiments. (K. S.) of the Otapiri series of New Zealand are probably of Rhaetic KEUPER, in geology the third or uppermost subdivision of age. the Triassic system. The name is a local miners' term of German origin; it corresponds to the French marnes irisées. The forma- The Keuper is not rich in fossils; the principal plants are cypress- like conifers (Walchia, Voltzia) and a few calainites with such forms tion is well exposed in Swabia, Franconia, Alsace and Lorraine as Equisetum arenaceum and Pterophyiium Jaegeri, Avicula and Luxemburg; it extends from Basel on the east side of the contoria, Protocardium rhaeticum, Terebralula gregaria, Myophoria Rhine into Hanover, and northwards it spreads into Sweden and costata, M. Goldfassi and Lingula tenuessima, Anoplophoria lettica through England into Scotland and north-east Ireland; it Ceratodus, Hybodus and Lepidotus. Labyrinthodonts represented may be mentioned among the invertebratés. Fishes include appears flanking the central plateau of France and in the Pyrenees by the footprints of Cheirotherium and the bones of Labyrinthodon, and Sardinia. In the German region it is usual to divide the Mastodonsaurus and Capitosaurus. Among the reptiles are Hy- Keuper into three groups, the Rhaetic or upper Keuper, the peroda pedon,; Palaeosaurus, Zanclodon, Nolnosaurus and Belodon. middle, Haupikeuper or gypskeuper, and the lower, Kohlenkeu per Microlestes, the earliest known mammalian genus, has already been mentioned. or Leltenkolle. In Germany the lower division consists mainly See also the article TRIASSIC SYSTEM. (J. A. H.) of grey clays and schieferletlen with white, grey and brightly coloured sandstone and dolomitic limestone. The upper part KEW, a township in the Kingston parliamentary division of of this division is often a grey dolomite known as the Grenz Surrey, England, situated on the south bank of the Thames, dolomite; the impure coal beds-Lellenkohle-are aggregated 6 m. W.S.W. of Hyde Park Corner, London. Pop. (1901), 2699. towards the base. The middle division is thicker than either A stone bridge of seven arches, erected in 1789, connecting Kew of the others (at Göttingen, 450 metres); it consists of a marly with Brentford on the other side of the river, was replaced by serics below, grey, red and green marls with gypsum and dolo- a bridge of three arches opened by Edward VII. in 1903 and mite--this is the gypskeuper in its restricted sense. The higher named after him. Kew has increased greatly as a residential part of the series is sandy, hence called the Steinmergel, it is suburb of London; the old village consisted chiefly of a row of comparatively free from gypsum. To this division belong the houses with gardens attached, situated on the north side of a Myophoria beds (M. Raibliana) with galena in places; the green, to the south of which is the church and churchyard and Estheria beds (E. laxılesla), the Schelfsandstein, used as a at the west the principal entrance to Kew Gardens. From building-stone; the Lehrberg and Berg-gyps beds; Semionotus remains found in the bed of the river near Kew bridge it has been beds (S Bergeri) with building-stone of Coburg, and the Burg- conjectured that the village marks the site of an old British and Stubensandstein. The salt, which is associated with gypsum, settlement. The name first occurs in a document of the reign is exploited in south Germany at Dreuze, Pettoncourt, Vie in of Henry VII., where it is spelt Kayhough. The church of Lorraine and Wimpfen on the Neckar. A 4-metre coal is found St Anne (1714) has a mausoleum containing the tomb of the duke on this horizon in the Erzgebirge, and another, 2 metres thick, of Cambridge (d. 1850) son of George III., and is also the burial- has been mined in Upper Silesia. The upper Keuper, Rhaetic place of Thomas Gainsborough the artist, Jeremiah Meyer the or Avicula contorta zone in Germany is mainly sandy with dark painter of miniatures (d.1789), John Zoffany the artist (d. 1810), grey shales and marls; it is seldom more than 25 metres thick. Joshua Kirby the architect (d. 1774), and William Aiton the The sandstones are used for building purposes at Bayreuth, botanist and director of Kew Gardens (d. 1793). Culmbach and Bamberg. In Swabia and the Wesergebirge are The free school originally endowed by Lady Capel in 1721 several “ bone-beds,” thicker than those in the middle Keuper, received special benefactions from George IV., and the title of which contain a rich assemblage of fossil remains of fish, reptiles “the king's free school.” and the mammalian teeth of Microlesles antiquus and Triglyptus The estate of Kew House about the end of the 17th century Fraasi. The name Rhactic is derived from the Rhaetic Alps came into the possession of Lord Capel of Tewkesbury, and in where the beds are well developed; they occur also in central 1721 of Samuel Molyneux, secretary to the prince of Wales, France, the Pyrenees and England. In S.Tirol and the Judic- afterwards George II. After his death it was leased by Frederick arian Mountains the Rhactic is represented by the Kössener prince of Wales, son of George II., and was purchased about 1789 beds. In the Alpine region the presence of coral beds gives rise by George III., who devoted his leisure to its improvement. The to the so-called “ Lithodendron Kalk." old house was pulled down in 1802, and a new mansion was begun In Great Britain the Keuper contains the following sub- from the designs of James Wyatt, but the king's death prevented divisions: Rhaetic or Penarth beds, grey, red and green marls, its completion, and in 1827 the portion built was removed. black shales and so-called “white lias” (10-150 ft.). Upper Dutch House, close to Kew House, was sold by Robert Dudley, Keuper marl, red and grey marls and shales with gypsum and earl of Leicester, to Sir Hugh Portman, a Dutch merchant, late 1 Miller's Artillery Regimental History; see also H. G. Farmer, in the 16th century, and in 1781 was purchased by George III. op. cit., p. 22; illustration 1702, p. 26. as a nursery for the royal children. It is a plain brick structure, 2 Memoirs of the Royal Artillery. now known as Kew Palace. a KEWANEE_KEY 767 The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew originated in the exotic “Sanskritists,” and the etymological portion of his Latin garden formed by Lord Capel and greatly extended by the Dictionary, published in 1888, was severely criticized on this princess dowager, widow of Frederick, prince of Wales, and by account. He was a member of the Royal Society and president George III., aided by the skill of William Aiton and of Sir of the Philological Society, to the Transactions of which he Joseph Banks. In 1840 the gardens were adopted as a national contributed largely. establishment, and transferred to the department of woods See Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xxiv. (1876); R. Ellis and forests. The gardens proper, which originally contained in the Academy (Dec. 4, 1875); J. P. Hicks, T Hewiti Key (1893), only about it acres, were subsequently increased to 75 acres, where a full list of his works and contributions is given. and the pleasure grounds or arboretum adjoining extend to KEY (in O. Eng. caég; the ultimate origin of the word is 270 acres. There are extensive conservatories, botanical unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic museums, including the magnificent herbarium and a library. languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation A lofty Chinese pagoda was erected in 1761. A flagstaff 159 ft. was kay, as in other words in 0. Eng. ending in aég; cf. high is made out of the fine single trunk of a Douglas pine. daég, day; claég, clay; the New English Dictionary takes the In the neighbouring Richmond Old Park is the important Kew change to kee to be due to northern influence), an instrument of Observatory. metal used for the opening and closing of a lock (see Lock). KEWANEE, a city of Henry county, Illinois, U S.A., in the Until the 14th century bronze and not iron was most commonly N. W. part of the state, about 55 m. N. by W. of Peoria. used. The terminals of the stem of the keys were frequently Pop. (1900), 8382, of whom 2006 were foreign-born; (1910 decorated, the “ bow" or loop taking the form sometimes of a census), 9307 It is served by the Chicago Burlington & trefoil, with figures inscribed within it; this decoration increased Quincy railroad and by the Galesburg & Kewanee Electric in the 16th century, the terminals being made in the shape of railway. Among its manufactures are foundry and machine- animals and other figures. Still more elaborate ceremonial shop products, boilers, carriages and wagons, agricultural keys were used by court officials; a series of chamberlains' keys implements, pipe and fittings, working-men's gloves, &c. In used during the 18th and 19th centuries in several courts in 1905 the total factory product was valued at $6,729,381, Europe is in the British Museum. The terminals are decorated or 61.5% more than in 1900. Kewanee was settled in 1836 with crowns, royal monograms and ciphers. The word “key by people from Wethersfield, Connecticut, and was first chartered is by analogy applied to things regarded as means for the opening as a city in 1897 or closing of anything, for the making clear that which is hidden. KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888), English admiral, Thus it is used of an interpretation as to the arrangement of the was born in London in 1821, and entered the navy in 1833. letters or words of a cipher, of a solution of mathematical or other His father was Charles Aston Key (1793-1849), a well-known problems, or of a translation of exercises or books, &c., from a surgeon, the pupil of Sir Astley Cooper, and his mother was foreign language. The term is also used figuratively of a place the latter's niece. After distinguishing himself in active of commanding strategic position. Thus Gibraltar, the “ Key service abroad, on the South American station (1844-1846), in of the Mediterranean,” was granted in 1462 by Henry IV. of the Baltic during the Crimean War (C.B. 1855) and China (1857), Castile, the arms, gules, a castle proper, with key pendant to Key was appointed in 1858 a member of the royal commission the gate, or; these arms form the badge of the soth regiment on national defence, in 1860 captain of the steam reserve at of foot (now 2nd Batt. Essex Regiment) in the British army, in Devonport, and in 1863 captain of H.M.S. Excellent and memory of the part which it took in the siege of 1782. The superintendent of the Royal Naval College. He had a con- word is also frequently applied to many mechanical contrivances siderable share in advising as to the reorganization of adminis- for unfastening or loosening a valve, nut, bolt, &c., such as a tration, and in 1866, having become rear-admiral, was made spanner or wrench, and to the instruments used in tuning a piano- director of naval ordnance. Between 1869 and 1872 he held forte or .harp or in winding clocks or watches. A farther the offices of superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard, super- extension of the word is to appliances or devices which serve to intendent of Malta dockyard, and second in command in the lock or fasten together distinct parts of a structure, as the Mediterranean. In 1872 he was made president of the projected “key-stone” of an arch, the wedge or piece of wood, metal, &c., Royal Naval College at Greenwich, which was organized by him, which fixes a joint, or a small metal instrument, shaped like and after its opening in 1873 he was made a K.C.B. and a vice- a U, used to secure the bands in the process of sewing in book- admiral. In 1876 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the binding. North American and West Indian station. Having become full In musical instruments the term “key” is applied in certain admiral in 1878, he was appointed in 1879 principal A.D C, and wind instruments, particularly of the wood-wind type, to the soon afterwards first naval lord of the admiralty, retaining levers which open and close valves in order to produce various this post till 1885. In 1882 he was made G CB He died at notes, and in keyboard instruments, such as the organ' or the Maidenhead on the 3rd of March, 1888. pianoforte, to the exterior white or black parts of the levers See Memoirs of Sir Astley Cooper Key, by Vice-Admiral Colomb which either open or shut the valves to admit the wind from (1898). the bellows to the pipes or to release the hammers against the KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875), English classical strings (see KEYBOARD). It is from this application of the word scholar, was born in London on the 20th of March, 1799. He to these levers in musical instruments that the term is also was educated at St John's and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge, used of the parts pressed by the finger in typewriters and in and graduated 19th wrangler in 1821. From 1825 to 1827 he telegraphic instruments. was professor of mathematics in the university of Virginia, and A key is the insignia of the office of chamberlain in a royal after his return to England was appointed (1828) professor of household (see CHAMBERLAIN and LORD CHAMBERLAIN). The Latin in the newly founded university of London. In 1832 power of the keys ” (clavium potestas) in ecclesiastical usage he became joint headmaster of the school founded in connexion represents the authority given by Christ 10 Peter by the words, with that institution; in 1842 he resigned the professorship “I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven of Latin, and took up that of comparative grammar together (Matt, xvi. 19). This is claimed by the Roman Church to have with the undivided headmastership of the school. These two been transmitted to the popes as the successors of St Peter. posts he held till his death on the 29th of November 1875. * Key” was formerly the common spelling of " quay,” a Key is best known for his introduction of the crude-form (the wharf, and is still found in America for “cay,” an island reef uninflected form or stem of words) system, in general use among or sandbank off the coast of Florida (see QUAY). Sanskrit grammarians,into the teaching of the classicallanguages. This system was embodied in his Latin Grammar (1846). In of the legislature, the court of Tynwald, of the Isle of Mar, has been The origin of the name Keys or House of Keys, the lower branch Language, its Origin and Development (1874), he upholds the much discussed, but it is generally accepted that it is a particular onomatopocic theory. Key was prejudiced against the German I application of the word " key" by English- and not Manx-speaking 6 " 66 768 KEYBOARD people. According to A. W. Moore, History of the Isle of Man, of horn, regaining its natural bent by its own elasticity, pulls the i. 160 sqq. (1900), in the Manx statutes and records the name of the slider out so that the perforation of the slider overlaps and the pipe house was in 1417 Claves Manniae et Claves legis, Keys of Man and is silenced. The description of the keyboard by Vitruvius Pollio, Keys of the Law, but the popular and also the documentary name till a variant of that of Hero, is less accurate and less complete. From 1585 seems to have been the 24," in Manx Kiare as feed. From evidence discussed in the article Organ, it is clear that the principle 1585 to 1734 the name was in the statutes, &c., "the 24 Keys," or of a balanced keyboard was well understood both in the 2nd and in simply the Keys." Moore suggests that the name was possibly the 5th century A.D After this all trace of this important develop- originally due to an English “clerk of the rolls," the members of the ment disappears, sliders of all kinds with and without handles doing house being called in to " unlock or solve the difficulties of the law.' duty for keys until the 12th or 13th century, when we find the small There is no evidence for the suggestion that Keys is an English cor- portative organs furnished with narrow keys which appear to be ruption of Kiare-as, the first part of Kiare as feed. Another sugges- balanced; the single bellows were manipulated by one hand while tion is that it is from a Scandinavian word keise, chosen. the other fingered the keys. As this little instrument was mainly KEYBOARD, or MANUAL (Fr. clavier; Ger. Klaviatur; Ital. used to accompany the voice in simple chaunts, it needed few keys, at most nine or twelve. tastatura), a succession of keys for unlocking sound in stringed, little instrument, having tiny invisible pipes furnished with beating The pipes were fue-pipes. A similar wind or percussion musical instruments, together with the case reeds and a pair of bellows (therefore requiring two performers) or board on which they are arranged. The two principal types was known as the regal. There are representations of these medieval of keyboard instruments are the organ and the piano; their balanced keyboards with keys of various shapes, the most common being the rectangular with or without rounded corners and the keyboards, although similarly constructed, differ widely in T-shaped. Until the 14th century all the keys were in one row and scope and capabilities. The keyboard of the organ, a purely of the same level, and although the B flat was used for modulation, mechanical contrivance, is the external means of communicating it was merely placed between A and B natural in the sequence of notes. with the valves or pallets that open and close the entrances to During the 14th century small square additional keys made their appearance, one or two to the octave, inserted between the the pipes. As its action is incapable of variation at the will others in the position of our black keys but not raised. An example of the performer, the keyboard of the organ remains without of this keyboard is reproduced by J. F. Riaño from a fresco in the influence on the quality and intensity of the sound. The key-Cistercian monastery of Nuestra Señora de Piedra in Aragon, dated board of the piano, on the contrary, besides its purely mechanical 1390. function, also forms a sympathetic vehicle of transmission for stringed instruments with keys before this date were the organisirum So far the history of the keyboard is that of the organ. The only the performer's rhythmical and emotional feeling, in consequence and the hurdy-gurdy, in which little tongues of wood manipulated by of the faithfulness with which it passes on the impulses communi- handles or keys performed the function of the fingers in stopping cated by the fingers. The keyboard proper does not, in instru- the strings on the neck of the instruments, but they did not influence the development of the keyboard. The advent of the immediate ments of the organ and piano types, contain the complete precursors of the pianoforte was at hand. In the Wunderbuchs mechanical apparatus for directly unlocking the sound, but (1440), preserved in the Grand Ducal Library at Weimar, are repre. only that external part of it which is accessible to the performer. sented a number of musical instruments, all'named. Among them The first instrument provided with a keyboard was the organ; are a clavichordium and a clavicymbalum with narrow additional keys we must therefore seek for the prototype of the modern keyboard let in between the wider ones, one to every group of two large keys. in connexion with the primitive instrument which marks the transi- The same arrangement prevailed in a clavicymbalum figured in an tion between the mere syrinx provided with bellows, in which all the anonymous MS. attributed to the 14th century, preserved in the pipes sounded at once unless stopped by the fingers, and the first public library at Ghent'; from the lettering over the jacks and strings, of which there are but eight, it would seem as though the draughts- organ in which sound was elicited from a pipe only when unlocked man had left the accidentals out of the scheme of notation. These are by means of some mechanical contrivance. The earliest contri- vance was the simple slider, unprovided with a key or touchpiece and the earliest known representations of instruments with keyboards. working in a groove like the lid of a box, which was merely pushed The exact date at which our chromatic keyboard came into use has not been discovered, but it existed in the 15th century and may be in or drawn out to open or close the hole that formed the communica- tion between the wind chest and the hole in the foot of the pipe. studied in the picture of St Cecilia playing the organ on the Ghent These sliders fulfilled in a simple manner the function of the modern altarpiece painted by the brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck. keys, and preceded the groove and pallet system of the modern Praetorius distinctly states that the large Halberstadt organ had the organ. We have no clear or trustworthy information concerning keyboard which he figures (plates xxiv. and xxv.) frorn the outset, the primitive organ with sliders. Athanasius Kircher gives a and reproduces the inscription asserting that the organ was built. Magraketha (Mashroqıtha', Dan. iii. 5), and Ugolini" describes a similar of the present day with raised black notes; it is not improbable drawing of a small mouth-blown instrument under the name of in 1361 by, the priest Nicolas Fabri and was renovated in 1495 by Gregorius Kleng. The keyboard of this organ has the arrangement one, but with a pair of bellows, as the magrēphah of the treatise that Praetorius's statement was correct, for Germany and the Nether- 'Arākhin.3 By analogy wiih the evolution of the organ in central and western Europe from the 8th to the 15th century, of which we lands led the van in organ-building during the middle ages. are able to study the various stages, we may conclude that in At the beginning of the 16th century, to facilitate the playing of contrapuntal music having a drone bass or point d orgue, the arrange- principle both drawings were probably fairly representative, even il nothing better than efforts of the imagination to illustrate a text. ment of the pipes of organs and of the strings of spinets and harp- The invention of the keyboard with balanced keys has been placed sichords was altered, with the result that the lowest octave of the by some writers as late as the 13th or 14th century, in spite of its keyboard was made in what is known as short measure, or mi, ré, ut, having been described by both Hero of Alexandria and Vitruvius sixth instead of appearing as a full ' octave. 1.é a diatonic with B Rat included, but grouped in the space of a and mentioned by poets and writers. The misconception probably this device, the note below F was C, instead of E, the missing D and In order to carry out arose from the casy assumption that the organ was the product of Western skill and that the primitive instruments with sliders found E and the B flat being substituted for the three sharps of F, G and in 11th century documents represent the sum of the progress made | A, and appearing as black notes, thus:- in the evolution; in reality they were the result of a laborious effort DE Bb to reconquer a lost art. The earliest trace of a balanced keyboard CFGA B C, we possess is contained in Hero's description of the hydraulic organ or if the lowest note appeared to be B, it sounded as G' and the said to have been invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria in the 2nd | arrangement was as follows:- century B.C. After describing the other parts (see ORGAN), Hero А B passes on to the sliders with perforations corresponding with the open GCDEFG. feet of the speaking pipes which, when drawn forward, traverse and This was the most common scheme for the short octave during the block the pipes. He describes the following contrivances: attached 16th and 17th centuries, although others are occasionally found. to the slider is a three-limbed, pivoted elbow-key, which, when Praetorius also gives examples in which the black notes of the short depressed, pushes the slider inwards; in order to provide for its octave were divided into two halves, or separate keys, the forward automatic return when the finger is lifted from the key, a slip of horn is attached by a gut string to each elbow-key. When the key is depressed and the slider pushed home, the gut string pulls the slip 6 See the original Greek with translation by Charles Maclean in of horn and straightens it.' As soon as the key is released, the piece The Principle of the Hydraulic Organ," Inlern. Musikges. vi. 2, 219-220 (Leipzig 1905). 1 See Musurgia, bk. II., iv. $ 3. 6 See Clément Loret's account in Revue archéologique, pp. 76-102 ? Thes. Antiq Sacra. (Venice, 1744-1769), xxxii. 477. (Paris, 1890). 311. 3 and fol. 10, 2. "Arākhin Valuations is a treatise * Early Hist. of Spanish Music (London, 1807). in the Babylɔnian Talmud. The word Magrephah occurs in the & Reproduced by Dr Alwin Schulz in Deutsches Leben im XIV. u. Mishna, the description of the instrument in the gemārā. XV. Ihdt., figs. 522 seq. (Vienna, 1892). 4 See the Cividale Prayer Book of St Elizabeth in Arthur Hase- 9 "De diversis monocordis, pentacordis, etc., ex quibus diversa loff's Eine Sachs.-thüring: Malerschule, pl. 26, No. 57, also Bible of formantur instrumenta musica,” reproduced by Edm. van der St Etienne Harding at Dijon (see ORGAN: History). Straeten in Hist. de la musique aux Pays-Bas, i. 278, KEYSTONE-KHAIRPUR 769 half for the drone note, the back half for the chromatic semitore, , after being almost annihilated by the Caloosas, fled to Cuba. thus: F# G# There are relics of early European occupation of the island which suggest that it was once the resort of pirates. The city was settled Б E Bb about 1822. · The Seminole War and the war of the United CF G A B C States with Mexico gave it some military importance. In 1861 This arrangement, which accomplishes its object without sacrifice, Confederate forces attempted to seize Fort Taylor, but they were was to be found early in the i7th century in the organs of the successfully resisted by General William H. French. monasteries of Riddageshausen and of Bayreuth in Vogtland. See A. J. Hipkins, History of the Pianoforte (London, 1896), and KHABAROVSK (known as KHABAROVKA until 1895), a town the older works of Girolamo Diruta (1597), Praetorius (1618), and of Asiatic Russia, capital of the Amur region and of the Maritime Mersenne (1636). (K. S.) Province. Pop. (1897), 14,932. It was founded in 1858 and KEYSTONE, the central voussoir of an arch (q.v.). The is situated on a high cliff on the right bank of the Amur, at its Etruscans and the Romans emphasized its importance by confluence with the Usuri, in 48° 28' N. and 135° 6' E. It is decorating it with figures and busts, and, in their triumphal connected by rail with Vladivostok (480 m.), and is an important arches, projected it forward and utilized it as an additional entrepôt for goods coming down the Usuri and its tributary the support to the architrave above. Throughout the Italian Sungacha, as well as a centre of trade, especially in sables. The period it forms an important element in the design, and serves town is built of wood, and has a large cathedral, a monument to connect the arch with the horizontal mouldings running (1891) to Count Muraviev-Amurskiy, a cadet corps (new building above it. In Gothic architecture there is no keystone, but 1904), a branch of the Russian Geographical Society, with the junction of pointed ribs at their summit is sometimes museum, and a technical railway school. decorated with a boss to mask the intersection. KHAIRAGARH, a feudatory state in the Central Provinces, KEY WEST (from the Spanish Cayo Hueso, “ Bone Reef”), a India. Area, 931 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 137,554, showing a decrease city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Monroe county, of 24% in the decade due to the effects of famine; estimated Florida, U.S.A., situated on a small coral island (4}m. long revenue, £20,000; tribute £4600. The chief, who is descended and about i m. wide) of the same name, 60 m. S. W. of Cape Sable, froñ the old Gond royal family, received the title of raja as an the most southerly point of the mainland. It is connected by hereditary distinction in 1898. The state includes a fertile plain, lines of steamers with Miami and Port Tampa, with Galveston, yielding rice and cotton. Its prosperity has been promoted by Texas, with Mobile, Alabama, with Philadelphia and New York the Bengal-Nagpur railway, which has a station at Dongargarh, City, and with West Indian ports, and by regular schooner lines the largest town (pop.5856), connected by road with Khairagarh with New York City, the Bahamas, British Honduras, &c. There town, the residence of the raja. is now an extension of the Florida East Coast railway from KHAIREDDIN (Khair-ed-Din “ Joy of Religion "') (d. Miami to Key West (155 m.). Pop. (1880), 9890; (1890), 18,080; 1890), Turkish statesman, was of Circassian race, but nothing is (1900), 17,114, of whom 7266 were foreign-born and 5562 were known about his birth and parentage. In early boyhood he was negroes; (1910 census), 19,945. The island is notable for its in the hands of a Tunisian slave-dealer, by whom he was sold to tropical vegetation and climate. The jasmine, almond, banana, Hamuda Pasha, then bey of Tunis, who gave him his freedom and cork and coco-nut palm are among the trees. The oleander a French education. When Khaireddin left school the bey made grows here to be a tree, and there is a banyan tree, said to be the him steward of his estates, and from this position he rose to be only one growing out of doors in the United States. There are minister of finance. When the prime minister, Mahmud ben many species of plants in Key West not found elsewhere in North Ayad, absconded to France with the treasure-chest of the beylic, America. The mean annual temperature is 76° F., and the mean Hamuda despatched Khaireddin to obtain the extradition of the of the hottest months is 82•2° F.; that of the coldest months is fugitive. The mission failed; but the six years it occupied enabled 69° F.; thus the mean range of temperature is only 13°. The Khaireddin to make himself widely known in France, to become precipitation is 35 in.; most of the rain falls in the“ rainy season” acquainted with French political ideas and administrative from May to November, and is preserved in cisterns by the in- methods, and, on his return to Tunisia, to render himself more habitants as the only supply of drinking water. The number of than ever useful to his government. Hamuda died while Khair- cloudy days per annum averages 60. The city occupies the eddin was in France, but he was highly appreciated by the three highest portion of the island. The harbour accommodates beys-Ahmet (1837), Mohammed (1855), and Sadok (1859)— vessels drawing 27 ft.; vessels of 27-30 ft. draft can enter by who in turn followed Hamuda, and to his influence was due the either the “ Main Ship” channel or the south-west channel; the sequence of liberal measures which distinguished their successive south-east channel admits vessels of 25 ft. draft or less; and reigns. Khaireddin also secured for the reigning family the con- four other channels may be used by vessels of 15-19 ft. draft. firmation from the sultan of Turkey of their right of succession The harbour is defended by Fort Taylor, built on the island of to the beylic. But although Khaireddin's protracted residence Key West in 1846, and greatly improved and modernized after in France had imbued him with liberal ideas, it had not made him the Spanish-American War of 1898. Among the buildings are a French partisan, and he strenuously opposed the French scheme the United States custom house, the city hall, a convent, and a of establishing a protectorate over Tunisia upon which France public library. embarked in the early 'seventies, This rendered him obnoxious In 1869 the insignificant population of Key West was greatly to Sadok's prime minister--an apostate Jew named Mustapha increased by Cubans who left their native island after an attempt ben Ismael-who succeeded in completely undermining the bey's at revolution; they engaged in the manufacture of tobacco, and confidence in him. His position thus became untenable in Key West cigars were soon widely known. Towards the close of Tunisia, and shortly after the accession of Abdul Hamid he the 19th century this industry suffered from labour troubles, acquainted the sultan with his desire to enter the Turkish service. from the competition of Tampa, Florida, and from the commercial | In 1877 the sultan bade him come to Constantinople, and on his improvement of Havana, Cuba; but soon after 1900 the tobacco arrival gave him a seat on the Reform Commission then sitting business of Key West began to recover. Immigrants from the at Tophane. Early in 1879 the sultan appointed him grand vizier, Bahama Islands form another important element in the popu- and shortly afterwards he prepared a scheme of constitutional lation. They are known as “ Conchs,” and engage in sponge government, but Abdul Hamid refused to have anything to do fishing. In 1905 the value of factory products was $4,254,024 with it. Thereupon Khaireddin resigned office, on the 28th of (an increase of 37.7% over the value in 1900); the exports July 1879. More than once the sultan offered him anew the in 1907 were valued at $852,457; the imports were valued at grand vizierate, but Khaireddin persistently refused it, and thus $994,472, the excess over the exports being due to the fact that incurred disfavour. He died on the 30th of January 1890, the food supply of the city is derived from other Florida ports practically a prisoner in his own house. and from the West Indies. KHAIRPUR, or KHYRPOOR, a native state of India, in the According to tradition the native Indian tribes of Key West, / Sind province of Bombay. Area, 6050 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1 770 KHAJRAHO—KHAMSIN 199,313, showing an apparent increase of 55 % in the decade; | and, according to his own statement, at once recognized in him estimated revenue, £90,000. Like other parts of Sind, Khairpur the mahdi (“guide ") divinely appointed to regenerate Islam in consists of a great alluvial plain, very rich and fertile in the the latter days. His advice to Mahommed to stir up revolt in neighbourhood of the Indus and the irrigation canals, the remain- Darfur and Kordofan being justified by the result, he became ing area being a continuous series of sand-hill ridges covered his most trusted counsellor, and was soon declared principal with a stunted brushwood, where cultivation is altogether khalifa or vicegerent of the mahdi, all of whose acts were to impossible. A small ridge of limestone hills passes through the be regarded as the mahdi's own. The mahdi on his deathbed northern part of the state, being a continuation of a ridge known (1885) solemnly named him his successor; and for thirteen years as the Ghar, running southwards from Rohri. The state is Abdullah ruled over what had been the Egyptian Sudan. watered by five canals drawn off from the Indus, besides the Khartum was deserted by his orders, and Omdurman, at first Eastern Nara, a canal which follows an old bed of the Indus. I intended as a temporary camp, was made his capital. At length In the desert tracts are pits of natron. the progress of Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener's KHAIRPUR town is situated on a canal 15 m. E. of the Indus, expedition compelled him to give battle to the Anglo-Egyptian with a railway station, 20 m. S. of Sukkur, on the Kotri-Rohri forces near Omdurman, where on the end of September 1898 his branch of the North-Western railway, which here crosses a army, fighting with desperate courage, was almost annihilated. corner of the state. Pop. (1901), 14,014. There are manu- The khalifa, who had not left Omdurman since the death of factures of cloth, carpets, goldsmiths' work and arms, and an the mahdi, fled to Kordofan with the remnant of his host. On export trade in indigo, grain and oilseeds. the 25th of November 1899 he gave battle to a force under Colonel (afterwards General Sir) F. R. Wingate, and was The chief, or mir, of Khairpur belongs to a Baluch family, known as the Talpur, which rose on the fall of the Kalhora dynasty of Sind. slain at Om Debreikat. He met death with great fortitude, About 1813, during the troubles in Kabul incidental to the establish- refusing to fly, and his principal amirs voluntarily perished with ment of the Barakzai dynasty, the mirs were able to withhold the him. tribute which up to that date had been somewhat irregularly paid The khalifa was a man of iron will and great energy, and to the rulers of Afghanistan. In 1832 the individuality of the Khair- pur state was recognized by the British government in a treaty possessed some military skill. By nature tyrannical, he was under which the use of the river Indus and the roads of Sind were impatient of all opposition and appeared to delight in cruelty. secured. When the first Kabul expedition was decided on the mir It must be remembered, however, that he had to meet the secret of Khairpur, Ali Murad, cordially supported the British policy; or open hostility of all the tribes of the Nile valley and that his and the result was that, after the battles of Meea nee and Daba had put the whole of Sind at the disposal of the British, Khairpur was authority was dependent on his ability to overawe his opponents. the only state allowed to retain its political existence under the pro- He, maintained in public the divine character of the power he tection of the paramount power. The chief mir, Faiz Mahommed inherited from the mahdi and inspired his followers to perform Khan, G.C.I.E., who was an enlightened ruler, died in 1999, shortly prodigies of valour. Although he treated many of his European after returning from a pilgrimage to the Shiite shrine of Kerbela. captives with terrible severity he never had any of them executed. KHAJRAHO, a village of Central India, in the state of It is said that their presence in Omdurman ministered to his Chhatarpur, famous for its old temples; pop. (1901), 1242. It vanity-one of the most marked features of his character. In is believed to have been the capital of the ancient kingdom of private life he showed much affection for his family. Jijhoti, corresponding with modern Bundelkhand. The temples Personal sketches of the khalifa are given in Slatin Pasha's Fire consist of three groups: Saiva, Vaishnay and Jain, almost all and Sword in the Sudan (London, 1896), and in Father Ohrwalder's built in the roth and 11th centuries. They are covered outside Ten Years in the Mahdi's Camp (London, 1892). See so Sir F. R. and inside with elaborate sculptures, and also bear valuable Wingate's Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1891). inscriptions. KHALIL IBN AHMAD (ABŪ 'ABDURRAHMAN UL-KHALIL IBN KHAKI (from Urdu khak, dust), originally a dust-coloured AHMAD IBN 'AMR IBN TAMİM) (718–791), Arabian philologist, was fabric, of the character of canvas, drill or holland, used by the a native of Oman. He was distinguished for having written the British and native armies in India. It seems to have been first first Arabic dictionary and for having first classified the Arabic worn by the Guides, a mixed regiment of frontier troops, in 1848, metres and laid down their rules. He was also a poet, and lived and to have spread to other regiments during the following years. the ascetic life of a poor student. His grammatical work was Some at any rate of the British troops had uniforms of khaki carried on by his pupil Sibawaihī. The dictionary known as the during the Indian Mutiny (1857-58), and thereafter drill or Kitāb-ul-'Ain is ascribed, at least in its inception, to Khalil. It holland (generally called “khaki” whatever its colour) became was probably finished by one of his pupils and was not known in the almost universal dress of British and native troops in Asia Bagdad until 862. The words were not arranged in alphabetical and Africa. During the South African War of 1899-1902, drill order but according to physiological principles, beginning with of a sandy shade of brown was worn by all troops sent out 'Ain and ending with Ya. The work seems to have been in from Great Britain and the Colonies. Khaki drill, however, existence as late as the 14th century, but is now only known proved unsuitable material for the cold weather in the uplands from extracts in manuscript. of South Africa, and after a time the troops were supplied with Various grammatical works are ascribed to Khalil, but their dust-coloured serge uniforms. Since 1900 all drab and green-authenticity seems doubtful; cf. C. Brockelmann, Gesch. der (G. W. T.) grey uniforms have been, unofficially at any rate, designated arabischen Literatur, i. 100 (Weimar, 1898). khaki. KHAMGAON, a town of India, in the Buldana district of KHALIFA, THE. ABDULLAH ET TAAISHA (Seyyid Abdullah Berar, 340 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (1901), 18,341. It is an ibn Seyyid Mahommed) (1846-1899), successor of the' mahdi important centre of the cotton trade. The cotton market, the Mahommed Ahmed, born in 1846 in the south-western portion second in the province, was established about 1820. Khamgaon of Darfur, was a member of the Taaisha section of the Baggara was connected in 1870 with the Great Indian Peninsula railway or cattle-owning Arabs. His father, Mahommed et Taki, had by a short branch line. determined to emigrate to Mecca with his family; but the KHAMSEH, a small but important province of Persia, between unsettled state of the country long prevented him, and he died Kazvin and Tabriz. It consisted formerly of five districts, in Africa after advising his eldest son, Abdullah, to take refuge whence its name Khamseh, “the five,” but is now subdivided with some religious sheikh on the Nile, and to proceed to Mecca into seventeen districts. The language of the inhabitants is on a favourable opportunity. Abdullah, who had already had Turkish. The province pays a revenue of about £20,000 per much connexion with slave-hunters, and had fought against the annum, and its capital is Zenjān. Egyptian conquest of Darfur, departed for the Nile valley with KHAMSIN (Arabic for “ fifty"), a hot oppressive wind arising this purpose; hearing on the way of the disputes of Mahommed in the Sahara. It blows in Egypt at intervals for about fifty Ahmed, who had not yet claimed a sacred character, with the days during March, April and May, and fills the air with sand. Egyptian officials, he went to him in spite of great difficulties, l In Guinea the wind from the Sahara is known as harmattan (9.v.). a KHAMTIS-KHARGA 1 771 KHAMTIS, à tribe of the north cast frontier of India, trade, it has superseded the old capital of Burhanpur. It is an dwelling in the hills bordering the Lakhimpur district of Assam. important railway junction, where the Malwa line from Indore They are of Shan origin, and appear to have settled in their meets the main line of the Great Indian Peninsula. There are present abode in the middle of the 18th century. In 1839 they factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and raw cotton is raided the British outpost of Sadiya, but they have since given exported. no trouble. Their headquarters are in a valley 200 m. from KHANSĀ (Tumāļir bint 'Amr, known as al-Khansā) (d. Sadiya, which can be reached only over high passes and through C. 645), Arabian poetess of the tribe Sulaim, a branch of Qais, dense jungle. In 1901 the number of speakers of Khamti was was born in the later years of the 6th century and brought up in returned as only 1490, mostly in Burma. such wealth and luxury as the desert could give. Refusing the KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khān), a offer of Duraid ibn uş-Şimma, a poet and prince, she married title of respect in Mahommedan countries. It is a contracted Mirdās and had by him three sons. Afterwards she married again. form of khāgān (khakan), a word equivalent to sovereign or Before the time of Islam she lost her brothers Şakhr and Moawiya emperor, used among the Mongol and Turki-nomad hordes. in battle. Her elegies written on these brothers and on her The title khan was assumed by Jenghis when he became supreme father made her the most famous poetess of her time. At the ruler of the Mongols; his successors became known in Europe fair of 'Ukāz Nābigha Dhubyāni is said to have placed A'sha first as the Great Khans (sometimes as the Chams, &c.) of Tatary or among the poets then present and Khansā second above Hassan Cathay. Khan is still applied to semi-independent rulers, such ibn Thābit. Khansā with her tribe accepted Islam somewhat as the khans of Russian Turkestan, or the khan of Kalat in late, but persisted in wearing the heathen sign of mourning, Baluchistan, and is also used immediately after the name of against the precepts of Islam. Her four sons fought in the armies rulers such as the sultan of Turkey; the meaning of the term has of Islam and were slain in the battle of Kadisīya. Omar wrote also extended downwards, until in Persia and Afghanistan it has her a letter congratulating her on their heroic end and assigned become an affix to the name of any Mahommedan gentleman, her a pension. She died in her tent c. 645. Her daughter like Esquire, and in India it has become a part of many Mahom- 'Amra also wrote poetry. Opinion was divided among later medan names, especially when Pathan descent is claimed. critics as to whether Khansā or Laila (see ARABIC LITERATURE: The title of Khan Bahadur is conferred by the British govern- $Poetry) was the greater. ment on Mahommedans and also on Parsis. Her diwan has been edited by L. Cheikho (Beirut, 1895) and trans- KHANDESH, EAST and WEST, two districts of British lated into French by De Coppier (Beirut, 1889). Cl. T. Nöldeke's India, in the central division of Bombay. They were formed Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber (Hanover, in 1906 by the division of the old single district of Khandesh. 1864). Stories of her life are contained in the Kitāb ul-Aghāni, xiii. 136-147. (G. W. T.) Their areas are respectively 4544 sq. m. and 5497 sq. m., and the population on these areas in 1901- was 957,728 and 469,654. KHAR, a small but very fertile province of Persia, known The headquarters of East Khandesh are at Jalgaon, and those by the ancients as Choara and Choarene; pop. about 10,000. of West Khandesh at Dhulia. The governor of the province resides at Kishlak Khar, a large The principal natural feature is the Tapti river, which flows village situated 62 m. S.E. of Teheran, or at Aradân, a village through both districts from east to west and divides each into two To m. farther E. The province has an abundant water-supply unequal parts. Of these the larger lie towards the south, and from the Hableh-rūd, and produces great quantities of wheat, are drained by the rivers Girna, Bori and Panjhra. Northwards barley and rice. Of the £6000 which it pays to the state, more beyond the alluvial plain, which contains some of the richest than £4000 is paid in kind-wheat, barley, straw and rice. tracts in Khandesh, the land rises towards the Satpura hills. KHARAGHODA, a village of British India, in the Ahmedabad In the centre and east the country is level, save for some low district of Bombay, situated on the Little Runn of Cutch, and ranges of barren hills, and has in general an arid, unfertile the terminus of a branch railway; pop. (1901), 2108. Here is appearance. Towards the north and west, the plain rises into a the government factory of salt, known as Baragra salt, producing difficult and rugged country, thickly wooded, and inhabited by nearly 2,000,000 cwt. a year, most of which is exported to wild tribes of Bhils, who chiefly support themselves on the fruits other provinces in Central and Northern India. of the forests and by wood-cutting. The drainage of the district KHARGA (WAH EL-KHARGA, the outer oasis), the largest centres in the Tapti, which receives thirteen principal tributaries of the Egyptian oases, and hence frequently called the Great in its course through Khandesh. None of the rivers is navigable, Oasis. It lies in the Libyan desert between 24° and 26° N. and and the Tapti flows in too deep a bed to be useful for irrigation. 30° and 31° E., the chief town, also called Kharga, being 435 m. The district on the whole, however, is fairly well supplied with by rail S. by W. of Cairo. It is reached by a narrow-gauge line surface water. Khandesh is not rich in minerals. A large area (opened in 1908) from Kharga junction, a station on the Nile is under forest; but the jungles have been denuded of most of valley line near Farshut. The oasis consists of a depression in their valuable timber. Wild beasts are numerous. In 1901 the the desert some 1200 sq. m. in extent, and is about 100 m. long population of the old single district was 1,427,382, showing an N. to S. and from 12 to 50 broad E. to W. Formerly, and into increase of less than 1% in the decade. of the aboriginal historic times, a lake occupied a considerable part of the depres- tribes the Bhils are the most important. They number 167,000, sion, and the thick deposits of clay and sand then laid down now and formerly were a wild and lawless robber tribe. Since the form the bulk of the cultivated lands of the oasis. It includes, introduction of British rule, the efforts made by kindly treatment; however, a good deal of desert land. The inhabitants numbered and by the offer of suitable employment, to win the Bhils from (1907 census) 8348. They are of Berber stock. Administra- their disorderly life have been most successful. Many of them tively the oasis forms part of the mudiria of Assiut. It is are now employed in police duties and as village watchmen. The practically rainless, and there is not now a single natural flowing principal crops are millets, cotton, pulse, wheat and oilseeds. spring. There are, however, numerous wells, water being ob- There are many factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a tained freely from the porous sandstone which underlies a great cotton-mill at Jalgaon. The eastern district is traversed by part of the Libyan desert. Some very ancient wells are 400 ft. the Great Indian Peninsula railway, which branches at Bhusawal deep. In water-bearing sandstones near the surface there are (an important centre of trade) towards Jubbulpore and Nagpur. underground aqueducts dating from Roman times. The oasis Both districts are crossed by the Tapti Valley line from Surat. contains many groves of date palms, there being over 60,000 Khandesh suffered somewhat from famine in 1896-1897, and adult trees in 1907. The dom palm, tamarisk, acacia and wild more severely in 1899-1900. senna are also found. Rice, barley and wheat are the chief KHANDWA, a town of British India, in the Nimar district of cereals cultivated, and lucerne for fodder. Besides agriculture the Central Provinces, of which it is the headquarters, 353 m. the only industry is basket and mat making—from palm leaves N.E. of Bombay by rail. Pop. (1901), 19,401. Khandwa is an and fibre. Since 1906 extensive boring and land reclamation ancient town, with Jain and other temples. As a centre of works have been undertaken in the oasis. 772 KHARKOV ---KHARPUT The name of the oasis appears in hieroglyphics as Kenem, and breeding of sheep, cattle and horses, though various manufactur. that of its capital as Hebi (the plough). In Pharaonic times it ing industries have developed rapidly, more especially since the supported a large population, but the numerous ruins are mostly middle of the 19th century. Horses are bred for the army, and of later date. The principal ruin, a temple of Ammon, built the yield of wool is of special importance. The ordinary cereals, under Darius, is of sandstone, 142 ft. long by 63 ft. broad and maize, buckwheat, millet, hemp, flax, tobacco, poppies, potatoes 30 ft. in height. South-east is another temple, a square stone and beetroot are all grown, and bee-keeping and silkworm-rearing building with the name of Antoninus Pius over one of the en- are of considerable importance. Sixty-three per cent. of the land trances. On the eastern escarpment of the oasis on the way to is owned by the peasants, 25% by the nobility, 6% by owners Girga are the remains of a large Roman fort with twelve bastions. of other classes, and 6% by the crown and public institutions. On the road to Assiut is a fine Roman columbarium or dove-cote. Beetroot sugar factories, cotton-mills, distilleries, four-mills, Next to the great temple the most interesting ruin in the oasis is, tobacco factories, brickworks, breweries, woollen factories, iron- however, the necropolis, a burial-place of the early Christians, works, pottery-kilns and tanneries are the leading industrial placed on a hill 3 m. N. of the town of Kharga. There are some establishments. Gardening is actively prosecuted. Salt is two hundred rectangular tomb buildings in unburnt brick with extracted at 'Slavyansk. The mass of the people are Little ornamented fronts. In most of the tombs is a chamber in which Russians, but there are also Great Russians, Kalmucks, Germans, the mummy was placed, the Egyptian Christians at first con- Jews and Gypsies. In 1867 the total population was 1,681,486, tinuing this method of preserving the bodies of their dead. In and in 1897 2,507,277, of whom 1,242,892 were women and several of the tombs and in the chapel of the cemetery is painted 367,602 lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was the Egyptian sign of life, which was confounded with the Chris- 2,983,900. The government is divided into eleven districts. tian cross. The chapel is basilican; in it and in another building The chief town is Kharkov (q.v.). The other district towns, in the necropolis are crude frescoes of biblical subjects. with their populations in 1897, are Akhtyrka (25,965 in 1900), Kharga town (pop. 1907 census, 5362) is picturesquely situated Bogodukhov (11,928), Izyum (12,959), Kupyansk (7256), amid palm groves. The houses are of sun-dried bricks, the streets Lebedin (16,684), Starobyelsk (13,128), Sumy (28,519 in 1900), narrow and winding and for the most part roofed over, the roofs Valki (8842), Volchansk (11,322), and Zmiyev (4652). carrying upper storeys. Some of the streets are cut through the KHARKOV, a town of southern Russia, capital of the above solid rock. South of the town are the villages of Genna, Guehda government, in 56° 37' N. and 25° 5' E., in the valley of the (with a temple dedicated to Ammon, Mut and Khonsu), Bulak Donets, 152 m. by rail S.S.E. of Kursk. Oak forests bound it (pop. 1012), Dakakin, Beris (pop. 1564), Dush (with remains of on two sides. Pop. (1867), 59,968; (1900), 197,405. Kharkov is a fine temple bearing the names of Domitian and Hadrian), &c. an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, and the Kharga is usually identified with the city of Oasis mentioned headquarters of the X. army corps. The four annual fairs are by Herodotus as being seven days' journey from Thebes and among the busiest in Russia, more especially the Kreshchen- called in Greek the Island of the Blessed. The oasis was tra- skaya or Epiphany fair, which is opened on the 6th (19th) of versed by the army of Cambyses when on its way to the oasis of January, and the Pokrovsky fair in the autumn. The turnover Ammon (Siwa), the army perishing in the desert before reaching at the former is estimated at £3,000,000 to £4,000,000. Thou. its destination. During the Roman period, as it had also been sands of horses are bought and sold. At the Trinity (Troitsa) in Pharaonic times, Kharga was used as a place of banishment, fair in June an extensive business (£800,000) is done in wool. A the most notable exile being Nestorius, sent thither after his great variety of manufactured goods are produced in the town condemnation by the council of Ephesus. Later it became a linen, felt, beetroot sugar, tobacco, brandy, soap, candles, cast- halting place for the caravans of slaves brought from Darfur to iron. Kharkov is an educational centre for the higher and Egypt. middle classes. Besides a flourishing university, instituted in About 100 m. W. of Kharga is the oasis of Dakhla, the inner 1805, and attended by from 1600 to 1700 students, it possesses a or receding oasis, so named in contrast to Kharga as being farther technological institute (400 students), a railway engineering from the Nile. Dakhla has a population (1907) of 18,368. Its school, an observatory, a veterinary college, a botanical garden, chief town, El Kasr, has 3602 inhabitants. The principal ruin, of a theological seminary, and a commercial school. The univer- Roman origin and now called Deir el Hagar (the stone convent), sity building was formerly a royal palace. The library contains is of considerable size. The Theban triad were the chief deities 170,000 volumes; and the zoological collections are especially worshipped here. Some 120 m. N.W. of Dakhla is the oasis of rich in the birds and fishes of southern Russia. Public gardens Farafra, population about 1000, said to be the first of the oases occupy the site of the ancient military works; and the govern- conquered by the Moslems from the Christians. It is noted for ment has a model farm in the neighbourhood. Of the Orthodox the fine quality of its olives. The Baharia, or Little Oasis churches one has the rank of cathedral (1781). Among the (pop. about 6000), lies 80 m. N.N.E. of Farafra. Many of its public institutions are a people's palace (1903) and an industrial inhabitants, who are of Berber race, are Senussites. Baharia is museum. about 250 m. E.S.E. of the oasis of Şiwa (see EGYPT: The Oases; The foundation of Kharkov is assigned to 1650, but there is and Siwa). archaeological evidence of a much earlier occupation of the district, if not of the site. The Cossacks of Kharkov remained faithful to the See H. Brugsch, Reise nach dem grossen Oase el-Khargeh in der tsar during the rebellions of the latter part of the 17th century; Libyschen Wüste (Leipzig, 1878); H. J. L. Beadnell, An Egyptian in return they received numerous privileges, and continued to be a Oasis (London, 1909); Murray's_Handbook for_Egypt, with cd. strong advance-guard of the Russian power, till the final subjugation (London, 1907); Geological and Topographical Report on Kharga of all the southern region. With other military settlements Kharkov Oasis (1899), on Farafra Oasis (1899), on Dakhla Oasis (1900), on was placed on a new footing in 1765; and at the same time it became Baharia Oasis (1903), all issued by the Public Works Department, the administrative centre of the Ukraine. Cairo. (F. R. C.) KHARPUT, the most important town in the Kharput (or KHARKOV, a government of Little Russia, surrounded by Mamuret el-Aziz) vilayet of Asia Minor, situated at an altitude of those of Kursk, Poltava, Ekaterinoslav, territory of the Don 4350 ft., a few miles south of the Murad Su or Eastern Euphrates, Cossacks, and Voronezh, and belonging partly to the basin of and almost as near the source of the Tigris, on the Samsun- the Don and partly to that of the Dnieper. The area is 21,035 Sivas-Diarbekr road. Pop. about 20,000. The town is built on sq. m. In general the government is a table-land, wiin an eleva- a hul terrace about 1000 lt. above a well-watered plain of excep- tion of 300 to 450 ft., traversed by deep-cut river valleys. The tional fertility which lies to the south and suppurts a large popu- soil is for the most part of high fertility, about 57% of the surface lation. Kharput probably stands on or near the site of Carcathio. being arable land and 24% natural pasture; and though the certa in Sophene, reached by Corbulo in A.D. 65. The early winter is rather severe, the summer heat is sufficient for the Moslem geographers knew it as Hisn Ziyad, but the Armenian ripening of grapes and melons in the open air. The bulk of name was Khartabirt or Kharbirt, whence Kharput. Cedrenus the population is engaged in agricultural pursuits and the l (11th century) writes XáptoTE. There is a story that in 1122 a a KHARSAWAN-KHASI 773 Joscelin (Jocelyn) of Courtenay, and Baldwin II., king of Jeru- for British troops occupy the end of the line facing the Blue salem, both prisoners of the Amir Balak in its castle, were mur- Nile. dered by being cast from its cliffs after an attempted rescue. On the right (northern) bank of the Blue Nile is the suburb of The story is told by William of Tyre, who calls the place Quart Khartum North, formerly called Halfaya,' where is the principal Piert or Pierre, but it is a mere romance. Kharput is an impor- railway station. It is joined to the city by a bridge (completed tant station of the American missionaries, who have built a 1910) containing a roadway and the railway, Khartum itself college, a theological seminary, and boys and girls' schools. being served by steam trams and rickshaws. The steamers for In November 1895 Kurds looted and burned the Armenian the White and the Blue Nile start from the quay along the villages on the plain; and in the same month Kharput was at- esplanade. West of the zoological gardens is the point of tacked and the American schools were burned down. A large junction of the Blue and White Niles and here is a ferry across number of the Gregorian and Protestant Armenian clergy and to Omdurman (q.v.) on the west bank of the White Nile a mile people were massacred, and churches, monasteries and houses or two below Khartum. In the river immediately below were looted. The vilayet Kharput was founded in 1888, being Khartum is Tuti Island, on which is an old fort and an Arab the result of a provincial rearrangement, designed to ensure village. better control over the disturbed districts of Kurdistan. It has From its geographical position Khartum is admirably adapted much mineral wealth, a healthy climate and a fertile soil. The as a commercial and political centre. It is the great entrepôt seat of government is Mezere, on the plain 3 m. S. of Kharput. for the trade of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. By the Nile water- (D. G. H.) ways there is easy transport from the southern and western KHARSAWAN, a feudatory state of India, within the Chota equatorial provinces and from Sennar and other eastern dis- Nagpur division of Bengal; area 153 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 36,540; tricts. Through Omdurman come the exports of Kordofan estimated revenue £2600. Since the opening of the main line and Darfur, while by the Red Sea railway there is ready access of the Bengal-Nagpur railway through the state trade has been to the markets of the world. The only important manufacture stimulated, and it is believed that both iron and copper can be is the making of bricks. worked profitably. The population is heterogeneous. The official class is com- KHARTUM, the capital of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, on the posed chiefly of British and Egyptians; the traders are mostly left bank of the Blue Nile immediately above its junction with Greeks, Syrians and Copts, while nearly all the tribes of the Sudan the White Nile in 15° 36' N., 32° 32' E., and 1252 ft. above the are represented in the negro and Arab inhabitants.. sea. It is 432 m. by rail S.W. of Port Sudan, on the Red Sea, At the time of the occupation of the Sudan by the Egyptians a and 1345 m. S. of Cairo by rail and steamer. Pop. (1907) with small fishing village existed on the site of the present city. In 1822 suburbs, but excluding Omdurman, 69,349. the Egyptians established a permanent camp here and out of 'this The city, laid out on a plan drawn up by Lord Kitchener in grew the city, which in 1830 was chosen as the capital of the Sudanese possessions of Egypt. It got its name from the resemblance of the 1898, has a picturesque aspect with its númerous handsome promontory at the confluence of the two Niles to an elephant's stone and brick buildings surrounded by gardens and its groves trunk, the meaning of khartum in the dialect of Arabic spoken in of palms and other trees. The river esplanade, 2 m. long, con- the locality. The city rapidly acquired importance as the Sudan tains the chief buildings. Parallel with it is Khedive Avenue, of much legitimate commerce, a great slave mart. was opened up by travellers and traders, becoming, besides the seat It was chosen of equal length. The rest of the city is in squares, the streets as the headquarters of Protestant and Roman Catholic missions, forming the design of the union jack. In the centre of the and had a population of 50,000 or more. Despite its size it contained esplanade is the governor-general's palace, occupying the site few buildings of any architectural merit; the most important were of the palace destroyed by the Mahdists in 1885. It is a three- the palace of the governor-general and the church of the Austrian mission. The history of the city is intimately bound up with that storeyed building with arcaded verandas and a fine staircase of the Sudan generally, but it may be recalled here that in 1884, leading to a loggia on the first floor. . Here a tablet indicates at the time of the Mahdist rising, General Gordon was sent to Khar. the spot in the old palace where General Gordon fell. In the tum to arrange for the evacuation by the Egyptians of the Sudan. gardens, which cover six acres, is a colossal stone "lambº At Khartum he was besieged by the Mahdists, whose headquarters were at Omdurman. Khartum was captured and Gordon killed brought from the ruins of Soba, an ancient Christian city on the on the 26th of January 1885, two days before the arrival off the town Blue Nile. The “lamb ” is in reality a ram of Ammon, and of a small British relief force, which withdrew on seeing the city has an inscription in Ethiopian hieroglyphs. In front of the in the hands of the enemy. Nearly every building in Khartum was southern façade, which looks on to Khedive Avenue, is a bronze destroyed by the Mahdists and the city abandoned in favour of statue of General Gordon seated on a camel, a copy of the Omdurman, which place remained the headquarters of the mahdi's successor, the khalifa Abdullah, till September 1898, when it was statue by Onslow Ford at Chatham, England. Government taken by the Anglo-Egyptian forces under General (afterwards Lord) offices and private villas are on either side of the palace, and Kitchener, and the seat of government again transferred to Khartum. beyond, on the east, are the Sudan Club, the military hospital, than the original city. In 1899 the railway from Wadi Halfa was It speedily arose from its ruins, being rebuilt on a much finer scale and the Gordon Memorial College. The college, the chief completed to Khartum, and in 1906 through communication by rail educational centre in the Sudan, is a large, many-windowed was established with the Red Sea. building with accommodation for several hundred scholars KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS, a district of British India, in and research laboratories and an economic museum. At the the Hills division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies western end of the esplanade are the zoological gardens, the chief hotel, the Coptic church and the Mudiria House and the Surma. Area, 6027 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 202,250, showing the central plateau between the valleys of the Brahmaputra (residence of the governor of Khartum). Running south from an increase of 2% in the decade. Khedive Avenue at the spot where the Gordon statue stands, is The district consists of a succession of steep ridges running Victoria Avenue, leading to Abbas Square, in the centre of east and west, with elevated table-lands between. On the which is the great mosque with two minarets. On the north-southern side, towards Sylhet, the mountains rise precipitously east side of the square are the public markets. The Anglican from the valley of the Bārāk or Surma. The first plateau is church, dedicated to All Saints, the principal banks and business about 4000 ft. above sea level. Farther north is another houses, are in Khedive Avenue. There are Maronite and Greek plateau, on which is situated the station of Shillong, 4900 ft. churches, an Austrian Roman Catholic mission, a large and above the sea; behind lies the Shillong range, of which the well-equipped civil hospital and a museum for Sudan archaeo- highest peak rises to 6450 ft. On the north side, towards logy. Outside the city are a number of model villages (each Kamrūp, are two similar plateaus of lower elevation. The of the principal tribes of the Sudan having its own settlement) in which the dwellings are built after the tribal fashion. Adja- foundation of Khartum, is 4 m. to the N., on the eastern bank of the 1 The village of Halfaya, a place of some importance before the cent are the parade ground and racecourse and the golf-links. Nile. From the 15th century up to 1821 it was the capital of a small A line of fortifications extends south of the city from the Blue to state, tributary to Sennar, regarded as a continuation of the Christian the White Nile. The buildings are used as barracks. Barracks / kingdom of Aloa (see DONGOLA). . 774 KHASKOY-KHAZARS general appearance of all these table-lands is that of undulating | (Tarkhu), the older capital, Khamlidje or Khalendsch, Belend- downs, covered with grass, but destitute of large timber. At scher, the outpost towards Armenia, and Sarkel on the Don. 3000 ft. elevation the indigenous pine predominates over all They were the Venetians of the Caspian and the Euxine, the other vegetation, and forms almost pure pine forests. The highest organizers of the transit between the two basins, the universal ridges are clothed with magnificent clumps of timber trees, carriers between East and West; and Itil was the meeting-place which superstition has preserved from the axe of the wood-cutter. of the commerce of Persia, Byzantium, Armenia, Russia and the The characteristic trees in these sacred groves chiefly consist of Buigarians of the middle Volga. The tide of their dominion ebbed oaks, chestnuts, magnolias, &c. Beneath the shade grow rare and flowed repeatedly, but the normal Khazari may be taken as orchids, rhododendrons and wild cinnamon. The streams are the territory between the Caucasus, the Volga and the Don, merely mountain torr ts; many of them pass through narrow with the outlying province of the Crimea, or Little Khazaria. gorges of wild beauty. From time immemorial, Lower Bengal | The southern boundary never greatly altered; it did at times has drawn its supply of lime from the Khasi Hills, and the reach the Kur and the Aras, but on that side the Khazars were quarries along their southern slope are inexhaustible. Coal of confronted by Byzantium and Persia, and were for the most part fair quality crops out at several places, and there are a few restrained within the passes of the Caucasus by the fortifications small coal-mines. of Dariel. Amongst the nomadic Ugrians and agricultural Slavs The Khasi Hills were conquered by the British in 1833. They of the north their frontier fluctuated widely, and in its zenith are inhabited by a tribe of the same name, who still live in Khazaria extended from the Dnieper to Bolgari upon the middle primitive communities under elective chiefs in political subordi- Volga, and along the eastern shore of the Caspian to Astarabad. nation to the British government. There are 25 of these chiefs called Siems, who exercise independent jurisdiction and pay no Ethnology.—The origin of the Khazars has been much disputed, tribute. According to the census of 1901 the Khasis numbered Finno-Ugrians and Turks. This last view is perhaps the most and they have been variously regarded as akin to the Georgians, 107,500. They are a peculiar race, speaking a language that probable. Their king Joseph, in answer to the inquiry of Hasdai belongs to the Mon-Anam family, following the rule of matri- Ibn Shaprūt of Cordova (c. 958), stated that his people sprang archal succession, and erecting monolithic monuments over from Thogarmah, grandson of Japhet, and the supposed ancestor their dead. The Jaintia Hills used to form a petty Hindu knew the Khazars best connect them either with the Georgians of the other peoples of the Caucasus. The Arab geographers who principality which was annexed in 1835. The inhabitants, (Ibn Athir) or with the Armenians (Dimishqi, ed. Mehren, p. 263); called Syntengs, a cognate tribe to the Khasis, were subjected whilst Aḥmad ibn Fadlān, who passed through Khazaria on a to a moderate income tax, an innovation against which they mission from the caliph Moqtadir (A.D. 921), positively asserts that rebelled in 1860 and 1862. The revolt was stamped out by the that of the bordering nations, which were Ugrian. the Khazar tongue differed not only from the Turkish, but from Khasi and Jaintia Expedition of 1862–63. The headquarters Nevertheless there are many points connected with the Khazars of the district were transferred in 1864 from Cherrapunji to which indicate a close connexion with Ugrian ur Turkish peoples. Shillong, which was afterwards made the capital of the province The official titles recorded by Ibn Fadlān are those in use amongst of Assam. A good cart-road runs north from Cherrapunji | Mongols. The names of their cities can be explained only by refer- the Tatar nations of that age, whether Huns, Bulgarians, Turks or through Shillong to Gauhati on the Brahmaputra; total length, ence to Turkish or Ugrian dialects (Klaproth, Mém. sur les Khazars; The district was the focus of the great earthquake of Howorth, Khazars). Some too amongst the medieval authorities the 12th of June 1897, which not only destroyed every permanent (Ibn Hauqal and Isțakhri) note a resemblance between the speech building, but broke up the roads and caused many landslips. Magyar-a Ugrian language-can be traced back to a tribe which in use amongst the Khazars and the Bulgarians; and the modern The loss of life was put at only 916, but hundreds died subse- in the 9th century formed part of the Khazar kingdom. These quently of a malignant fever. In 1901 the district had 17,32! characteristics, however, are accounted for by the fact that the Christians, chiefly converts of the Welsh Calvinistic Mission. Khazars were at one time subject to the Huns (A.D. 448 et seq.), at another to the Turks (c. 580), which would sufficiently explain See District Gazetteer (1906); Major P. R. T. Gurdon, The Khasis the signs of Tatar influence in their polity, and also by the testimony (1907). of all observers, Greeks, Arabs and Russians, that there was a double KHASKOY (also Chaskoi, Haskoi, Khaskioi, Chaskovo, Has- strain within the Khazar nation. There were Khazars and Kara kovo, and in Bulgarian Khaskovo), the capital of the department (black) Khazars: The Khazars were fair-skinned, black-haired and of Khaskoy in the eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria; 45 m. E.S.E. of sought as wives equally at Byzantium and Bagdad; while the Kara of a remarkable beauty and stature; their women indeed were Philippopolis . Pop. (1900), 14,928. The town has a station Khazars were ugly, short, and were reported by the Arabs almost 9 m. N. on the Philippopolis-Adrianople section of the Belgrade- as dark as Indians. The latter were indubitably the Ugrian nomads Constantinople railway Carpets and woollen goods are manu- of the steppe, akin to the Tatar invaders of Europe, who filled the armies and convoyed the caravans of the ruling caste. But the factured, and in the surrounding country tobacco and silk are Khazars proper were a civic commercial people, the founders of produced. cities, remarkable for somewhat elaborate political institutions, for KHATTAK, an important Pathan tribe in the North-West persistence and for good faith-all qualities foreign to the Hunnic Frontier Province of India, inhabiting the south-eastern portion character: of the Peshawar district and the south-eastern and eastern Khazari, or White Khazars) who appear upon the lower Volga in They have been identified with the 'Akár Šipol (perhaps Ak- portions of Kohat. They number 24,000, and have always been the Byzantine annals, and thence they have been deduced, though quiet and loyal subjects of the British government. They furnish with less convincing proof, either from the 'Ayubupo (Agathyrsi) many recruits to the Indian army, and make most excellent or the Katiapol of Herodotus, iv. 104. There was throughout historic times a close connexion which eventually amounted to soldiers. political identity between the Khazars and the Barsileens (the KHAZARS (known also as Chozars, as ’AxátšipoL or Xáš apol in Passils of Moses of Chorene) who occupied the delta of the Volga; Byzantine writers, as Khazirs in Armenian and Khwalisses in and the Barsileens can be traced through the pages of Ptolemy Russian chronicles, and Ugri Bielii in Nestor), an ancient people (Geog. v. 9), of Pliny (iv. 26), of Strabo (vii. 306), and of Pomponius who occupied a prominent place amongst the secondary powers Mela (ii. c. 1, p. 119) to the so-called Royal Scyths, Exibai Baoulñes, who were known to the Greek colonies upon the Euxine, and whose of the Byzantine state-system. In the epic of Firdousi Khazar political superiority and commercial enterprise led to this rendering is the representative name for all the northern foes of Persia, of their name. Such points, however, need not here be further and legendary invasions long before the Christian era are vaguely pursued than to establish the presence of this white race around the attributed to them. But the Khazars are an historic figure Caspian and the Euxine throughout historic times. They appear in European history as White Huns (Ephthalites), White Ugrians upon the borderland of Europe and Asia for at least 900 years (Sar-ogours), White Bulgarians. Owing to climatic causes the (A.D. 190-1100). The epoch of their greatness is from A.D. 600 tract they occupied was slowly drying up. They were the outposts Their home was in the spurs of the Caucasus and along of civilization towards the encroaching desert, and the Tatar the shores of the Caspian--called by medieval Moslem geographers nomadism that advanced with it. They held in precarious subjec: tion the hordes whom the conditions of the climate and the soil Bahr-al-Khazar (“ sea of the Khazars ”'); their cities, all populous made it impossible to supplant. They bore the brunt of each of and civilized commercial centres, were Itil, the capital, upon the the great waves of Tatar conquests, and were eventualiy over. delta of the Volga, the “river of the Khazars," Semender whelmed.' 97 m. to 950. KHAZARS 775 Pay History.-Amidst this white race of the steppe the Khazars can important was this traffic held at Constantinople that, when the be first historically distinguished at the end of the 2nd century A.D. portage to the Don was endangered by the irruption of a fresh They burst into Armenia with the Barsileens, A.D. 198. They were horde of Turks (the Petchenegs), the emperor Theophilus himself repulsed and attacked in turn. The pressure of the nomads of the despatched the materials and the workmen to build for the Khazars steppe, the quest of plunder or revenge, these seem the only motives a fortress impregnable to their forays (834). Famous as the one of these carly expeditions; but in the long struggle between the stone structure is in that stoneless region, the post became known Roman and Persian empires, of which Armenia was often the far and wide amongst the hordes of the steppe as Sar-kel or the battlefield, and eventually the prize, the attitude of the Khazars White Abode. Merchants from every nation found protection and assumed political importance. Armenia inclined to the civilization good faith in the Khazar cities. The Jews, expelled from Constanti- and ere long to the Christianity of Rome, whilst her Arsacid princes nople, sought a home amongst them, developed the Khazar trade, maintained an inveterate feud with the Sassanids of Persia. It and contended with Mahommedans and Christians for the theological became therefore the policy of the Persian kings to call in the allegiance of the Pagan people. The dynasty accepted Judaism Khazars in every collision with the empire (200-350). During the (c. 740), but there was equal tolerance for all, and each man was 4th century, however, the growing power of Persia culminated in held amenable to the authorized code and to the official judges of the annexation of eastern Armenia. The Khazars, endangered by his own faith. At the Byzantine court the khakan was held in high so powerful a neighbour, passed from under Persian influence into honour. The emperor Justinian Rhinotmetus took refuge with that remote alliance with Byzantium which thenceforth charac-him during his exile and married his daughter (702). Justinian's terized their policy, and they aided Julian in his invasion of Persia rival Vardanes in turn sought an asylum in Khazaria, and in Leo IV. (363). Simultaneously with the approach of Persia to the Caucasus (775) the grandson of a Khazar sovereign ascended the Byzantine the terrible empire of the Huns sprang up among the Ugrians of the throne. Khazar troops were amongst the bodyguard of the imperial northern steppes. The Khazars, straitened on every side, remained court; they fought for Leo VI. against Simeon of Bulgaria; and the passive till the danger culminated in the accession of Attila (434). khakan was honoured in diplomatic intercourse with the scal of The emperor Theodosius sent envoysto bribe the Khazars ('Axát šipol) three solidi, which marked him as a potentate of the first rank, to divert the Huns from the empire by an attack upon their flank. above even the pope and the Carolingian monarchs. Indeed his But there was a Hunnic party amongst the Khazar chieſs. The dominion became an object of uneasiness to the jealous statecraft of design was betrayed to Attila; and he extinguished the independence Byzantium, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing for his son's of the nation in a moment. Khazaria became the apanage of his instruction in the government, carefully enumerates the Alans, the eldest son, and the centre of government amongst the eastern Petchenegs, the Uzes and the Bulgarians as the forces he must rely subjects of the Hun (448). Even the iron rule of Attila was prefer- on to restrain it. able to the time of anarchy that succeeded it. Upon his death (454) It was, however, from a power that Constantine did not consider the wild immigration which he had arrested revived. The Khazars that the overthrow of the Khazars came. The arrival of the and the Sarogours (i.e. White Ogors, possibly the Barsileens of the Varangians amidst the scattered Slavs (862) had united them into Volga delta) were swept along in a Hood of mixed Tatar peoples a nation. The advance of the Petchenegs from the East gave the which the conquests of the Avars had set in motion. The Khazars Russians their opportunity. Before the onset of those fierce invaders and their companions broke through the Persian defences of the the precarious suzerainty, of the khakan broke up: By calling in Caucasus. They appropriated the territory up to the Kur and the the Uzes, the Khazars did indeed dislodge the Petchenegs from the Aras, and roamed at large through Iberia, Georgia and Armenia. position they had seized in the heart of the kingdom between the The Persian king implored the emperor Leo I. to help him defend Volga and the Don, but only to drive them inwards to the Dnieper. Asia Minor at the Caucasus (457), but Rome was herself too hard The Hungarians, severed from their kindred and their rulers, migrated pressed, nor was it for fifty years that the Khazars were driven back to the Carpathians, whilst Oleg, the Russ prince of Kiev, passed and the pass of Derbent fortified against them (c. 507). through the Slay tribes of the Dnieper basin with the cry Throughout the 6th century Khazaria was the mere highway for nothing to the Khazars" (884). The kingdom dwindled rapidly to the wild hordes to whom the Huns had opened the passage into its ancient limits between the Caucasus, the Volga and the Don, Europe, and the Khazars took refuge (like the Venetians from whilst the Russian traders of Novgorod and Kiev supplanted the Attila) amongst the seventy mouths of the Volga. The pressure of Khazars as the carriers between Constantinople and the North, the Turks in Asia precipitated the Avars upon the West. The When Ibn Fadlan visited Khazaria forty years later, Itil was even conquering Turks followed in their footsteps (560-580). They beat yet a great city, with baths and market-places and thirty mosques. down all opposition, wrested even Bosporus in the Crimea from the But there was no domestic product nor manufacture; the kingdom empire, and by the annihilation of the Ephthalites completed the depended solely upon the now precarious transit dues, and adminis- ruin of the White Race of the plains from the Oxus to the Don. tration was in the hands of a major domus also called khakan. At The empires of Turks and Avars, however, ran swiftly their barbaric the assault of Swiatoslav of Kiev the rotten fabric crumbled into course, and the Khazars arose out of the chaos to more than their dust. His troops were equally at home on land and water. Sarkel, ancient renown. They issued from the land of Barsilia, and extended Itil and Semender surrendered to him (965-969). He pushed his their rule over the Bulgarian hordes left masterless by the Turks, conquests to the Caucasus, and established Russian colonies upon compelling the more stubborn to migrate to the Danube (641). the Sea of Azov. The principality of Tmutarakan, founded by his The agricultural Slavş of the Dnieper and the Oka were reduced to grandson Mstislav (988), replaced the kingdom of Khazaria, the last tribute, and before the end of the 7th century the Khazars had trace of which was extinguished by a joint expedition of Russians annexed the Crimea, had won complete command of the Sea of and Byzantines (1016). The last of the khakans, George, Tzula, Azov, and, seizing upon the narrow neck which separates the Volga was taken prisoner. A remnant of the nation took refuge in an from the Don, had organized the portage which has continued since island of the Caspian (Siahcouyé); others retired to the Caucasus; an important link in the traffic between Asia and Europe. The part emigrated to the district of Kasakhi in Georgia, and appear for alliance with Byzantium was revived. Simultaneously, and no the last time joining with Georgia in her successful effort to throw doubt in concert, with the Byzantine campaign against Persia (589), off the yoke of the Seljuk Turks (1089). But the name is thought the Khazars had reappeared in Armenia, though it was not till 625 to survive in Sadzaria, the Georgian title for Mingrelia, and in that they appear as Khazars in the Byzantine annals. They are Kadzaro, the Turkish word for the Lazis. Till the 13th century the then described as "Turks from the East," a powerful nation which Crimea was known to European travellers as Gazaria; the “ram- held the coasts of the Caspian and the Euxine, and took tribute of parts of the Khazars are still distinguished in the Ukraine; and the Viatitsh, the Severians and the Polyane. The khakan, enticed the record of their dominion survives in the names of Kazarek, by the promise of an imperial princess, furnished Heraclius with Kazaritshi, Kazarinovod, Kozar-owka, Kozari, and perhaps in 40,000 men for his Persian war, who shared in the victory over Kazan. Chosroes at Nineveh. AUTHORITIES.-Khazar: The letter of King Joseph to R. Hasdai Meanwhile the Moslem empire had arisen. The Persian empire Ibn Shaprūt, first published by J. Akrish, Kol Mebasser (Constanti was struck down (637). and the Moslems poured into Armenia. The nople, 1577), and often reprinted in editions of Jehuda hal-Levy's khakan, who had defied the summons sent him by the invaders, Kuzari. German translations by Zedner (Berlin, 1840) and Cassel, now aided the Byzantine patrician in the defence of Armenia. The Magyar. Alterth. (Berlin, 1848); French by Carmoly, Rev. Or. (1841). allies were defeated, and the Moslems undertook the subjugation C1. Harkavy, Russische Revue, iv. 69; Graetz, Geschichte, v. 364, of Khazaria (651). Eighty years of warfare followed, but in the and Carmoly, Itinéraires de la Terre Sainte (Brussels, 1847). Arme. end the Moslems prevailed. The khakan and his chieftains were nian: Moses of Chorene; cf. Saint-Martin, Mémoires historiques captured and compelled to embrace Islam (737), and till the decay et géographiques sur l'Armènie (Paris, 1818). Arabic: The account of the Mahommedan empire Khazaria with all the other countries of Ibn Fadlan (921) is preserved by Yāķūt, ii. 436 seq. See also of the Caucasus paid an annual tribute of children and of corn (737-Istakhry (ed. de Geoje, pp. 220 seq.), idy, ch. xvii. pp. 406 seq. 861). Nevertheless, though overpowered in the end, the Khazars of Sprenger's translation; Ibn Haukal (ed. de Goeję, pp. 279 seq.) had protected the plains of Europe from the Mahommedans, and and the histories of Ibn el Athir and Tabary. Much of the Arabic made the Caucasus the limit of their conquests. material has been collected and translated by Fraehn, “ Veteres In the interval between the decline of the Mahommedan empire Memoriae Chasarorum " in Mém. de St Pét. (1822); Dorn (from the and the rise of Russia the Khazars reached the zenith of their power. Persian Țabary), Mém. de Șt Pét. (1844); Dufrémery. Journ. As. The merchants of Byzantium, Armenia and Bagdad met in the (1849). See also D'Ohsson's imaginary Voyage d'Abul Cassim, based markets of Itil (whither since the raids of the Mahommedans the on these sources. Byzantine Historians: The relative passages are capital had been transferred from Semender), and traded for the collected in Stritter's Memoriae populorum (St Petersburg, 1778), wax, furs, leather and honey that came down the Volga. So | Russian: The Chronicle ascribed to Nestor. 11 776 KHEDIVE-KHEVENHÜLLER a 1 Modern: Klaproth, "Mém. sur les Khazars," in Journ. As | Elisavetgrad, Voznesenask, Olviopol and Tiraspol play an impor. Ist series, vol. iii.; id., Tableaux hist. de l'Asie (Paris, 1823); id., tant part in the inland traffic. In 1871 the total population was Tabl. hist. de Caucases (1827); memoirs on the Khazars by Harkavy and by Howorth (Congrès intern. des Orientalistes, vol. ii.); Latham, 1,661,892, and in 1897 2,744,040, of whom 1,332, 175 were women Russian and Turk, pp. 209-217; Vivien St Martin, Études de géog. and 785,094 lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was ancienne (Paris, 1850); id., Recherches sur les populations du 3,257,600. Besides Great and Little Russians, it comprises Caucase (1847); id., 'Sur les Khazars," in Nouvelles, ann. des Rumanians, Greeks, Germans (123,453), Bulgarians, Bohemians, voyages (1857); D'Ohsson, Peuples du Caucase (Paris, 1828); S. Krauss, "Zur Geschichte der Chazaren," in Revue orientale pour Swedes, and Jews (30% of the total), and some Gypsies. About les études Ourals-altaïques (1900). (P. L. G.; C. EL.) 84% belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; there are also nu- merous Stundists. The government is divided into six districts, KHEDIVE, a Persian word meaning prince or sovereign, the chief towns of which are: Kherson (q.v.), Alexandriya granted as a title by the sultan of Turkey in 1867 to his viceroy (14,002 in 1897), Ananiev (16,713), Elisavetgrad (66,182 in 1900), in Egypt, Ismail, in place of that of “vali.” Odessa (449,673 in 1900), and Tiraspol (29,323 in 1900). This KHERI, a district of British India, in the Lucknow division region was long subject to the sway of the Tatar khans of the of the United Provinces, which takes its name from a small town Crimea, and owes its rapid growth to the colonizing activity of with a railway station 81 m. N.W. of Lucknow. The area of the Catherine II., who between 1778 and 1792 founded the cities of district is 2963 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 905,138. Kherson, Odessa and Nikolayev. Down to 1803 this government It consists of a series of fairly elevated plateaus, separated by was called Nikolayev. rivers flowing from the north-west, each bordered by alluvial KHERSON, a town of south Russia, capital of the above land. North of the river Ul, the country is considered very un- government, on a hill above the right bank of the Dnieper, about healthy. Through this tract, probably the bed of a lake, flow 19 m. from its mouth. Founded by the courtier Potemkin in two rivers, the Kauriala and Chauka, changing their courses 1778 as a naval station and seaport, it had become by 1786 a constantly, so that the surface is seamed with deserted river beds place of 10,000 inhabitants, and, although its progress was much below the level of the surrounding country. The vegeta- checked by the rise of Odessa and the removal (in 1794) of the tion is very dense, and the stagnant waters are the cause of naval establishments to Nikolayev, it had in 1900 a population endemic fevers. The people reside in the neighbourhood of the of 73,185. The Dnieper at this point breaks into several arms, low ground, as the soil is more fertile and less expensive to culti- forming islands overgrown with reeds and bushes; and vessels vate than the forest-covered uplands. South of the Ul, the of burden must anchor at Stanislavskoe-selo, a good way down scene changes. Between every two rivers or tributaries stretches the stream. Of the traffic on the river the largest share is due a plain, considerably less elevated than the tract to the north. to the timber, wool, cereals, cattle and hides trade; wool-dressing, There is very little slope in any of these plains for many miles, soap-boiling, tallow-melting, brewing, flour-milling and the and marshes are formed, from which emerge the headwaters manufacture of tobacco are the chief industries. Kherson is a of many secondary streams, which in the rains become dangerous substantially built and regular town. The cathedral is the torrents, and frequently cause devastating floods. The general burial-place of Potemkin, and near Kherson lie the remains of drainage of the country is from north-west to south-east. John Howard, the English philanthropist, who died here in Several large lakes exist, some formed by the ancient channels 1790. The fortifications have fallen into decay. The name of the northern rivers, being fine sheets of water, from 10 to 20 ft. Kherson was given to the town from the supposition that the deep and from 3 to 4 m. long; in places they are fringed with site was formerly that of Chersonesus Heracleotica, the Greek magnificent groves. The whole north of the district is covered city founded by the Dorians of Heraclea. with vast forests, of which a considerable portion are govern- KHEVENHÜLLER, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1683-1744), Aus- ment reserves. Säl occupies about two-thirds of the forest trian field-marshal, Count of Aschelberg-Frankenburg, came of a The district is traversed by a branch of the Oudh & noble family, which, originally Franconian, settled in Carinthia Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Bareilly. in the 11th century. He first saw active service under Prince KHERSON, a government of south Russia, on the N. coast of Eugène in the War of the Spanish Succession, and by 1716 had the Black Sea, bounded W. by the governments of Bessarabia risen to the command of Prince Eugène's own regiment of and Podolia, N. by Kiev and Poltava, S. by Ekaterinoslav and dragoons. He distinguished himself greatly at the battles of Taurida. The area is 27,497 sq. m. The aspect of the country, Peterwardein and Belgrade, and became in 1723 major-general especially in the south, is that of an open steppe, and almost of cavalry (General-Wachtmeister), in 1726 proprietary colonel the whole government is destitute of forest. The Dniester marks of a regiment and in 1733 lieutenant field marshal. In 1734 the western and the Dnieper the south-eastern boundary; the the War of the Polish Succession brought himn into the field again. Bug, the Ingul and several minor streams drain the intermediate He was present at the battle of Parma (June 29), where Count territory. Along the shore stretch extensive goons. Iron, Mercy, the Austrian commander, was killed, and after Mercy's kaolin and salt are the principal minerals. Nearly 45% of death he held the chief command of the army in Italy till Field the land is owned by the peasants, 31% by the nobility, 12% by Marshal Königsegg's arrival. Under Königsegg he again dis- other classes, and 12% by the crown, municipalities and public tinguished himself at the battle of Guastalla (September 19). institutions. The peasants rent 1,730,000 acres more from the He was once more in command during the operations which landlords. Agriculture is well developed and 9,000,000 acres followed the battle, and his skilful generalship won for him the (51.1%) are under crops. Agricultural machinery is extensively grade of general of cavalry. He continued in military and used. The vine is widely grown, and yields 1,220,000 gallons diplomatic employment in Italy to the close of the war. In of wine annually. Some tobacco is grown and manufactured. 1737 he was made field marshal, Prince Eugène recommending Besides the ordinary cereals, maize, hemp, flax, tobacco and him to his sovereign as the best general in the service. His chief mustard are commonly grown; the fruit trees in general culti- exploit in the Turkish War, which soon followed his promotion, vation include the cherry, plum, peach, apricot and mulberry; was at Radojevatz (September 28,1737), where he cut his way and gardening receives considerable attention. Agriculture through a greatly superior Turkish army. It was in the Austrian has been greatly improved by some seventy German colonies. Succession War that his most brilliant work was done. As com- Cattle-breeding, horse-breeding and sheep-farming are pursued mander-in-chief of the army on the Danube he not only drove out on a large scale. Some sheep farmers own 30,000 or 40,000 the French and Bavarian invaders of Austria in a few days of merinos each. Fishing is an important occupation. There are rapid marching and sharp engagements (January, 1742), but manufactures of wool, hemp and leather; also iron-works, machi- overran southern Bavaria, captured Munich, and forced a large nery and especially agricultural machinery works, sugar factories, French corps in Linz to surrender. Later in the summer of steam flour-mills and chemical works. The ports of Kherson, 1742, owing to the inadequate forces at his disposal, he had to Ochakov, Nikolayev, and especially Odessa, are among the evacuate his conquests, but in the following campaign, though principal outlets of Russian commerce; Berislav, Alexandriya I now subordinated to Prince Charles of Lorraine, Khevenhüller area. KHEVSURS-KHIVA 777 16 reconquered southern Bavaria, and forced the emperor in June range and on its south-eastern slopes. The range was in to conclude the unfavourable convention of Nieder-Schönfeld. volcanic activity in 1720-1721. He disapproved the advance beyond the Rhine which followed South-west of Peking the Great Khingan is continued by the these successes, and the event justified his fears, for the Austrians In-shan mountains, which exhibit similar features to those of the had to fall back from the Rhine through Franconia and the Great Khingan, and represent the same terraced escarpment of the Breisgau, Khevenhüller himself conducting the retreat with Mongolian plateau. Moreover, it appears from the map of the Russian General Staff (surveys of Skassi, V. A. Obruchev, G. N. admirable skill. On his return to Vienna, Maria Theresa Potanin, &c.) that similar terrace-shaped escarpments--but consider- decorated the field marshal with the order of the Golden ably, wider apart than in Manchuria--occur in the Shan-si province Fleece. He died suddenly at Vienna on the 26th of January | These escarpments are pierced by the Yellow River or Hwang-ho of China, along the southern border of the South Mongolian plateau. 1744. south of the Great Wall, between 38° and 39° N., and in all prob. He was the author of various instructional works for officers and ability a border range homologous to the Great Khingan separates soldiers (Des G. F. M. Grafen v. Khevenhüller Observationspunkte für the upper tributaries of the Hwang-ho (namely the Tan-ho) from sein Dragoner-regiment (1734 and 1748) and a règlement for the those of the Yang-tsze-kiang. But according to Obruchev the infantry (1737), and of an important work on war in general, Kurzer escarpments of the Wei-tsi-shan and Lu-huang-lin, by which southern Begrif'aller militärischen Operationen (Vienna, 1756; French version, Ordos drops towards the Wei-ho (tributary of the Hwang-ho), can Maximes de guerre, Paris, 1771). hardly be taken as corresponding to the Kalgan escarpment. They KHEVSURS, a people of the Caucasus, kinsfolk of the Georgians. them, while a steep descent towards the low plain seems to exist fall with gentle slopes only towards the high plains on the south of They live in scattered groups in East Georgia to the north and further south only, between 32° and 34º. Thus the southern con. north-west of Mount Borbalo. Their name is Georgian and tinuations of the Great Khingan, south of 38 ° N., possibly consist means People of the Valleys.” For the most part nomadic, the Great Khingan ís pierced by the Amur has not been ascer- of two separate escarpments. At its northern end the place where they are still in a semi-barbarous state. They have not the tained by direct observation. Prince P. Kropotkin considers that beauty of the Georgian race. They are gaunt and thin to almost the upper Amur emerges from the high plateau and its border-ridge, a ghastly extent, their generally repulsive aspect being accentu- the Khingan, below Albazin and above Kumara. If this view ated by their large hands and feet and their ferocious expression. been upheld in all the Gotha publications-it would appear that the prevail-- Petermann has adopted it for his map of Asia, and it has In complexion and colour of hair and eyes they vary greatly. Great Khingan joins the Stanovoi ridge or Jukjur, in that portion They are very muscular and capable of bearing extraordinary of it which faces the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. At any rate fatigue. They are fond of fighting, and still wear armour of the Khingan, separating the Mongolian plateau from the much the true medieval type. This.panoply is worn when the law of lower plains of the Sungari and the Nonni, is one of the most impor- tant orographical dividing-lines in Asia. vendetta, which is sacred among them as among most Caucasian Şee Semenov's Geographical Dictionary (in Russian); D. V. peoples, compels them to seek or avoid their enemy. They carry Putiata, Expedition to the Khingan in 1897 , (St Petersburg, 1893); a spiked gauntlet, the terrible marks of which are borne by a Potanin, “ Journey to the Khingan,” in Izvestia Russ. Geog. Soc. (1901). large proportion of the Khevsur faces. (2) The name LITTLE KHINGAN is applied indiscriminately to Many curious customs still prevail among the Khevsurs, as for instance the imprisonment of the woman during childbirth in a two distinct mountain ranges. The proper application of the lonely hut, round which the husband parades, firing off his musket term would be to reserve it for the typical range which the Amur at intervals. After delivery, food is surreptitiously brought the pierces 40 m. below Ekaterino-Nikolsk (on the Amur), and which mother, who is kept in her prison a month, after which the hut is burnt. The boys are usually named after some wild animal, e.g. is also known as the Bureya mountains, and as Dusse-alin. This bear or wolf, while the girls' names are romantic, such as Daughter range, which may be traced from the Amur to the Sea of Okhotsk, of the Sun, Sun of my Heart. Marriages are arranged by parents seems to be cleft twice by the Sungari and to be continued under when the bride and bridegroom are still in long clothes. The chief different local names in the same south-westerly direction to the ceremony is a forcible abduction of the girl. Divorce is very com- peninsula of Liao-tung in Manchuria. The other range to which mon, and some Khevsurs are polygamous. Formerly no Khevsur might die in a house, but was always carried out under the sun or the name of Little Khingan is applied is that of the Ilkhuri-alin stars. The Khevsurs like to call themselves Christians, but their mountains (51° N., 122°-126° E.), which run in a north-westerly religion is a mixture of Christianity, Mahommedanism and heathen direction between the upper Nonni and the Amur, west of rites. They keep the Sabbath of the Christian church, the Friday Blagovyeshchensk. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) of the Moslems and the Saturday of the Jews. They worship sacred trees and offer sacrifices to the spirits of the earth and air. Their KHIVA, formerly an important kingdom of Asia, but now a priests are a combination of medicine-men and divines. much reduced khanate, dependent upon Russia, and confined to See G. F. R. Radde, Die Chevs'uren und ihr Land (Cassel, 1878); the delta of the Amu-darya (Oxus). Its frontier runs down the Ernest Chantre, Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase (Lyons, left bank of the Amu, from 40° 15' N., and down its left branch to 1885-1887), Lake Aral; then, for about 40 m. along the south coast of Lake KHILCHIPUR, a mediatized chiefship in Central India, under Aral, and finally southwards, following the escarpment of the the Bhopal agency; area, 273 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 31,143; esti- Ust-Urt platcau. From the Transcaspian territory of Russia mated revenue, £7000; tribute payable to Sindhia, £700. The Khiva is separated by a line running almost W.N.W.-E.S.E. residence of the chief, who is a Khichi Rajput of the Chauhan under 40° 30' N., from the Uzboi depression to the Amu-darya. clan, is at Khilchipur (pop. 5121). The length of the khanate from north to south is 200 m., and its KHINGAN, two ranges of mountains in eastern Asia. greatest width 300 m. The area of the Khiva oasis is 52 10 sq.m. (1) GREAT KHINGAN is the eastern border ridge of the immense while the area of the steppes is estimated at 17,000 sq. m. The plateau which may be traced from the Himalaya to Bering population of the former is estimated at 400,000, and that of the Strait and from the Tian-shan Mountains to the Khingan latter also at 400,000 (nomadic). The water of the Amu is Mountains. It is well known from 50° N. to Kalgan (41° N., brought by a number of irrigation canals to the oasis, the general 115° E.), where it is crossed by the highway from Urga to Peking. declivity of the surface westwards facilitating the irrigation. As a border ridge of the Mongolian plateau, it possesses very several old beds of the Amu intersect the territory. The water great orographical importance, in that it is an important climatic of the Amu and the very thin layer of ooze which it deposits boundary, and constitutes the western limits of the Manchurian render the oasis very fertile. Millet, rice, wheat, barley, oats, flora. The base of its western slope, which is very gentle, lies at peas, flax, hemp, madder, and all sorts of vegetables and fruit altitudes of 3000 to 3500 ft. Its crest rises to to 6500 ft., (especially melons) are grown, as also the vine and cotton. The but its eastern slope sinks very precipitately to the plains white-washed houses scattered amidst the elms and poplars, and of Manchuria, which have only 1500 to 2000 ft. of altitude. surrounded by flourishing fields, produce the most agreeable On this stretch one or two subordinate ridges, parallel to the contrast with the arid steppes. Livestock, especially sheep, main range and separated from it by longitudinal valleys, fringe camels, horses and cattle, is extensively bred by the nomads. its eastern slope, thus marking two different terraces and giving See his sketch of the orography of East Siberia (French trans., to the whole system a width of from 80 to 100 m. Basalts, with addenda, published by the Institut Géographique of Brussels in trachytes and other volcanic formations are found in the main | 1902). 778 KHIVA KHOI 6 The population is composed of four divisions: Uzbegs (150,000 more to Khiva. In 1869 Krasnovodsk on the east shore of the to 200,000), the dominating race among the settled inhabitants Caspian was founded, and in 1871-1872 the country leading to of the oasis, from whom the officials are recruited; Sarts and Khiva from different parts of Russian Turkestan was thoroughly Tajiks, agriculturists and tradespeople of mixed race; Turkomans explored and surveyed. In 1873 an expedition to Khiva was (c. 170,000), who live in the steppes, south and west of the oasis, carefully organized on a large scale. The army of 10,000 men and formerly plundered the settled inhabitants by their raids; | placed at the disposal of General Kaufmann started from three and the Kara-kalpaks, or Black Bonnets, a Turki tribe some different bases of operation-Krasnovodsk, Orenburg and 50,000 in number. They live south of Lake Aral, and in the Tashkent. Khiva was occupied almost without opposition. towns of Kungrad, Khodsheili and Kipchak form the prevailing All the territory (35,700 sq. m. and 110,000 souls) on the right clement. They cultivate the soil, breed cattle, and their women bank of the Oxus was annexed to Russia, while a heavy war. make carpets. There are also about 10,000 Kirghiz, and when indemnity was imposed upon the khanate. The Russians the Russians took Khiva in 1873 there were 29,300 Persian slaves, thereby so crippled the finances of the state that the khan is in stolen by Turkoman raiders, and over 6500 liberated slaves, complete subjection to his more powerful neighbour. mostly Kizil-bashes. The former were set free and the slave (3. T. BE.; C. El.) trade abolished. Of domestic industries, the embroidering of KHIVA, capital of the khanate of Khiva, in Western Asia, cloth, silks and leather is worthy of notice. The trade of Khiva 25 m. W. of the Amu-darya and 240 m. W.N.W. of Bokhara. is considerable: cotton, wool, rough woollen cloth and silk Pop. about 10,000. It is surrounded by a low earthen wall, and cocoons are exported to Russia, and various animal products to has a citadel, the residence of the khan and the higher officials. Bokhara. Cottons, velveteen, hardware and pepper are imported There are a score of mosques, of which the one containing the from Russia, and silks, cotton, china and tea from Bokhara. tomb of Polvan, the patron saint of Khiva, is the best, and four Khivan merchants habitually attend the Orenburg and Nizhniy- large madrasas (Mahommedan colleges). Large gardens exist Novgorod fairs. in the western part of the town. A small Russian quarter has History.— The present khanate is only a meagre relic of the grown up. The inhabitants make carpets, silks and cottons. great kingdom which under the name of Chorasmia, Kharezm KHNOPFF, FERNAND EDMOND JEAN MARIE (1858– ), (Khwārizm) and Urgenj (Jurjānīya, Gurganj) held the keys of Belgian painter and etcher, was born at the château de Grem- the mightiest river in Central Asia. Its possession has con- bergen (Termonde), on the 12th of September 1858, and studied sequently been much disputed from early times, but the country under X. Mellery. He developed a very original talent, his has undergone great changes, geographical as well as political, work being characterized by great delicacy of colour, tone and which have lessened its importance. The Oxus (Amu-darya) has harmony, as subtle in spiritual and intellectual as in its material changed its outlet, and no longer forms a water-way to the qualities. “A Crisis ” (1881) was followed by “ Listening to Caspian and thence to Europe, while Khiva is entirely surrounded Schumann,” “St Anthony” and “ The Queen of Sheba ” (1883), by territory either directly administered or protected by Russia. and then came one of his best known works, “The Small Sphinx" Chorasmia is mentioned by Herodotus, it being then one of the (1884). His“ Memories ” (1889) and“ White, Black and Gold” Persian provinces, over which Darius placed satraps, but nothing (1901) are in the Brussels Museum; “ Portrait of Mlle R.” material of it is known till it was seized by the Arabs in A.D. 680.(1889) in the Venice Museum; “A Stream at Fosset" (1897) at When the power of the caliphs declined the governor of the pro- Budapest Museum; “ The Empress "(1899) in the collection of vince probably became independent; but the first king known the emperor of Austria, and “A Musician " in that of the king to history is Mamun-ibn-Mahommed in 995. Khwārizm fell of the Belgians.' “I lock my Door upon Myself ” (1891), which under the power of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017, and subsequently was exhibited at the New Gallery, London, in 1902 and there under that of the Seljuk Turks. In 1097 the governor Kutb-ud- attracted much attention, was acquired by the Pinakothek at din assumed the title of king, and one of his descendants, ‘Ala- Munich. Other works are “ Silence (1890), “ The Idea of ud-din-Mahommed, conquered Persia, and was the greatest prince Justice” (1905) and Isolde (1906), together with a poly- in Central Asia when Jenghiz Khan appeared in 1219. Khiva chrome bust “ Sibyl ” (1894) and an ivory mask (1897). In was conquered again by Timur in 1379; and finally fell under quiet intensity of feeling Khnopff was influenced by Rossetti, the rule of the Uzbegs in 1512, who are still the dominant race and in simplicity of line by Burne-Jones, but the poetry and the under the protection of the Russians. delicately mystic and enigmatic note of his work are entirely Russia established relations with Khiva in the 17th century. individual. He did good work also as an etcher and dry- The Cossacks of the Yaik during their raids across the Caspian pointist. learnt of the existence of this rich territory and made more See L. Dumont-Wilden, Fernand Khnopff (Brussels, 1907). . than one plundering expedition to the chief town Urgenj. In KHOI, a district and town in the province of Azerbaijan, 1717 Peter the Great, having heard of the presence of auriferous Persia, towards the extreme north-west frontier, between the sand in the bed of the Oxus, desiring also to " open mercantile Urmia Lake and the river Aras. The district contains many relations with India through Turan "and to release from slavery flourishing villages, and consists of an elevated plateau 60 m. some Russian subjects, sent a military force to Khiva. When by 10 to 15, highly cultivated by a skilful system of drainage and within 100 miles of the capital they encountered the troops of the irrigation, producing fertile meadows, gardens and fields yielding khan. The battle lasted three days, and ended in victory for rich crops of wheat and barley, cotton, rice and many kinds of the Russian arms. The Khivans, however, induced the victors fruit. In the northern part and bounding on Maku lies the plain to break up their army into small detachments and treacher- of Chaldaran (Kalderan), where in August 1514 the Turks under ously annihilated them in detail. It was not until the third Sultan Selim I. fought the Persians under Shah Ismail and gained decade of the 19th century that the attention of the Muscovite a great victory. government was again directed to the khanate. In 1839 a force The town of Khoi lies in 38° 37' N., 45° 15' E., 77 m. (90 by under General Perovsky moved from Orenburg across the Ust-Urt road) N.W. of Tabriz, at an elevation of 3300 ft., on the great plateau to the Khivan frontiers, to occupy the khanate, liberate trade route between Trebizond and Tabriz, and about 2 m. the captives and open the way for trade. This expedition like from the left bank of the Kotur Chai (river from Kotur) which is wise terminated in disaster. In 1847 the Russians founded a fort crossed there by a seven-arched bridge and is known lower at the mouth of the Jaxartes or Syr-darya. This advance de-down as the Kizil Chai, which flows into the Aras. The walled prived the Khivans not only of territory, but of a large number part of the town is a quadrilateral with faces of about 1200 yds. of tax-paying Kirghiz, and also gave the Russians à base for in length and fortifications consisting of two lines of bastions, further operations. For the next few years, however, the ditches, &c., much out of repair. The population numbers about attention of the Russians was taken up with Khokand, their 35,000, a third living inside the walls. The Armenian quarter, operations on that side culminating in the capture of Tashkent with about soo families and an old church, is outside the walls. in 1865. Free in this quarter, they directed *heir thoughts once | The city within the walls forms one of the best laid out towns in CG KHOJENT–KHORASAN 779 Persia, cool streams and lines of willows running along the broad to destroy the Khokand forts, and to secure possession, first, of and regular streets. There are some good buildings, including the Ili (and so of Dzungaria), and next of the Syr-darya region, the governor's residence, several mosques, a large brick bazaar the result being that in 1866, after the occupation of Ura-tyube and a fine caravanserai. There is a large transit trade, and con- and Jizakh, the khanateof Khokand was separated from Bokhara. siderable local traffic across the Turkish border. The city sur-During the forty-five years after the death of Omar (he died in rendered to the Russians in 1827 without fighting and after the 1822) the khanate of Khokand was the seat of continuous wars treaty of peace (Turkman Chai, Feb. 1828) was held for some between the settled Sarts and the nomad Kipchaks, the two time by a garrison of 3000 Russian troops as a guarantee for parties securing the upper hand in turns, Khokand falling under the payment of the war indemnity. In September 1881 Khoi the dominion or the suzerainty of Bokhara, which supported suffered much from a violent earthquake. It has post and Khudayar-khan, the representative of the Kipchak party, in telegraph offices. 1858-1866; while Alim-kul, the representative of the Sarts, put KHOJENT, or KHOJEND, a town of the province of Syr-darya, himself at the head of the gazawat (Holy War) proclaimed in in Russian Turkestan, on the left bank of the Syr-darya or 1860, and fought bravely against the Russians until killed at Jaxartes, 144 m. by rail S.S.E. from Tashkent, in 40° 17' N. and Tashkent in 1865. In 1868. Khudayar-khan, having secured 69° 30' E., and on the direct road from Bokhara to Khokand. independence from Bokhara, concluded a commercial treaty with Pop. (1900), 31,881. The Russian quarter lies between the river the Russians, but was compelled to flee in 1875, when a new and the native town. Near the river is the old citadel, on the top Holy War against Russia was proclaimed. It ended in the cap- of an artificial square mound, about 100 ft. high. The banks ture of the strong fort of Makhram, the occupation of Khokand of the river are so high as to make its water useless to the town and Marghelan (1875), and the recognition of Russian superiority in the absence of pumping gear, Formerly the entire commerce by the amir of Bokhara, who conceded to Russia all the territory between the khanates of Bokhara and Khokand passed through north of the Naryn river. War, however, was renewed in the this town, but since the Russian occupation (1866) much of it following year. It ended, in February 1876, by the capture of has been diverted. Silkworms are reared, and silk and cotton Andijan and Khokand and the annexation of the Khokand goods are manufactured. A coarse ware is made in imitation khanate to Russia. Out of it was made the Russian province of of Chinese porcelain. The district immediately around the town Ferghana. is taken up with cotton plantations, fruit gardens and vineyards. AUTHORITIES.—The following publications are all in Russian: The majority of the inhabitants are Tajiks. Kuhn, Sketch of the Khanate of Khokand (1876); V. Nalivkin, Short Khojent has always been a bone of contention between Kho- History of Khokand (French trans., Paris, 1889): Niazi Mohammed, kand and Bokhara. When the amir of Bokhara assisted Pantusov (Kazañ, 1885); Makshéev, Historical Sketch of Turkestan Tarihi Shahrohi, or History of the Rulers of Ferghana, edited by Khudayar Khan to regain his throne in 1864, he kept posses- and the Advance of the Russians (St Petersburg, 1890); N. Petrovskiy, sion of Khojent. In 1866 the town was stormed by the Old Arabian Journals of Travel (Tashkent, 1894) Russian Ency- (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) Russians; and during their war with Khokand in 1875 it played clopaedic Dictionary, vol. xv. (1895). án important part. KHOLM (Polish Chelm), a town of Russian Poland, in the KHOKAND, or KOKAN, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the pro- government of Lublin, 45 m. by rail E.S.E. of the town of vince of Ferghana, on the railway from Samarkand to Andijan, Lublin. Pop. (1897), 19,236. It is a very old city and the 85 m. by rail S.W. of the latter, and 20 m. S. of the Syr-darya. see of a bishop, and has an archaeological museum for church Pop. (1900), 86,704. Situated at an altitude of 1375 ft., it has antiquities. a severe climate, the average temperatures being-year, 56°; KHONDS, or KANDAS, an aboriginal tribe of India, inhabiting January, 22°; July, 65º. Yearly rainfall, 3.6 in. It is the centre the tributary states of Orissa and the Ganjam district of Madras. of a fertile irrigated oasis, and consists of a citadel, enclosed at the census of 1901 they numbered 701,198. Their main by a wall nearly 12 m. in circuit, and of suburbs containing divisions are into Kutia or hill Khonds and plain-dwelling luxuriant gardens. The town is modernized, has broad streets Khonds; the landowners are known as Raj Khonds. Their and large squares, and a particularly handsome bazaar. The religion is animistic, and their pantheon includes eighty-four former palace of the khans, which recalls by its architecture the gods. They have given their name to the Khondmals, a sub- mosques of Samarkand, is the best building in the town. Kho-division of Angul district in Orissa: area, 800 sq. m.; pop. (1901), kand is one of the most important centres of trade in Turkestan. 64,214. The Khond language, Kui, spoken in 1901 by more than Raw cotton and silk are the principal exports, while manufac-half a million persons, is much more closely related to Telugu tured goods are imported from Russia. Coins bearing the than is Gondi. The Khonds are a finer type than the Gonds. inscription" Khokand the Charming," and known as khokands, They are as tall as the average Hindu and not much darker, while have or had a wide currency in features they are very Aryan They are undoubtedly a mixed The khanate of Khokand was a powerful state which grew up Dravidian race, with much Aryan blood. in the 18th century Its early history is not well known, but the The Khonds became notorious, on the British occupation of town was founded in 1732 by Abd-ur-Rahim under the name of their district about 1835, from the prevalence and cruelty of the Iski-kurgan, or Kali-i-Rahimbai. This must relate, however, human sacrifices they practised. These “ Meriah " sacrifices, to the fort only, because Arab travellers of the roth century as they were called, were intended to further the fertilization of mention Hovakend or Hokand, the position of which has been the earth. It was incumbent on the Khonds to purchase their identified with that of Khokand Many other populous and victims. Unless bought with a price they were not deemed wealthy towns existed in this region at the time of the Arab con- acceptable. They seldom sacrificed Khonds, though in hard quest of Ferghana, In 1758–1759 the Chinese conquered Dzun- times Khonds were obliged to sell their children and they could garia and East Turkestan, and the begs or rulers of Ferghana then be purchased as Meriahs. Persons of any race, age or sex, recognized Chinese suzerainty. In 1807 or 1808 Alim, son of were acceptable if purchased. Numbers were bought and kept Narbuta, brought all the begs of Ferghana under his authority, and well treated, and Meriah women were encouraged to become and conquered Tashkent and Chimkent. His attacks on the mothers. Ten or twelve days before the sacrifice the victim's Bokharan fortress of Ura-tyube were however unsuccessful, hair was cut off, and the villagers having bathed, went with the and the country rose against him He was killed in 1817 by the priest to the sacred grove to forewarn the goddess. The festival adherents of his brother Omar, Omar was a poet and patron lasted three days, and the wildest orgies were indulged in. of learning, but continued to enlarge his kingdom, taking the See Major Macpherson, Religious Doctrines of the Khonds; his sacred town of Azret (Turkestan), and to protect Ferghana from account of their religion in Jour R. Asiatic Soc xiii. 220–221 and the raids of the nomad Kirghiz built fortresses on the Syr-darya, his Report upon the Khonds of Ganjam and Cuttack (Calcutta, 1842); which became a basis for raids of the Khokand people into also Districi Gazetteer of Angul (Calcutta, 1908). Kirghiz land. This was the origin of a conflict with Russia. KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. “ land of the sun ”), a Several petty wars were undertaken by the Russians after 1847 1 geographical term originally applied to the eastern of the four 1 780 KHORREMABAD_KHORSABAD quarters (named from the cardinal points) into which the ancient produce rice and other cereals, cotton, tobacco, opium and monarchy of the Sassanians was divided. After the Arab con- fruits in profusión. : Other products are manna, suffron, asafoe- quest the name was retained both as the designation of a definite tida and other gums. The chief manufactures are swords, stone- province and in a looser sense. Under the new Persian empire ware, carpets and rugs, woollens, cottons, silks and sheepskin the expression has gradually become restricted to the north- pelisses (puslin, Afghan poshtin). eastern portion of Persia which forms one of the five great The administrative divisions of the province are: 1, Nishapur; provinces of that country. The province is conterminous E. 2, Sabzevar; 3, Jovain; 4, Asfarain; 5. Bujnurd; 6. Kuchan; 7. with Afghanistan, N. with Russian Transcaspian territory, W. Derrehgez; 8, Kelat; 9, Chinaran; 10, Meshed; 11, Jam; 12, Bakharz; with Astarabad and Shahrud-Bostam, and S. with Kerman and 13. Radkan; 14: Serrakhs; 15, Sar-i-jam; 16, Bam and Safiabad; Yezd. It lies mainly within 29° 45'-38° 15' N. and 560–61° E., | 21, Kain; 22, Seistan. 17, Turbet i Haidari; 18, Turshiz; 19, Khaf; 20, Tun and Tabbas; extending about 320 m. east and west and 570 m north and The population consists of Iranians (Tajiks, Kurds, Baluchis), south, with a total area of about 150,000 sq. m. The surface is Mongols, Tatars and Arabs, and is estimated at about a million. mountainous. The ranges generally run in parallel ridges, and trading elements, and to them the Kurds and the Arabs have The Persians proper have always represented the settled, industrial inclosing extensive valleys, with a normal direction from N.w. become largely assimilated. Even many of the original Tatar, to S.E. The whole of the north is occupied by an extensive Mongol and other nomad tribes (ilat), instead of leading their former highland system composed of a part of the Elburz and its con- roving and unsettled life of the sahara-nishin (dwellers in the desert), tinuation extending to the Paropamisus. This system, sometimes are settled and peaceful shahr-nishin (dwellers in towns). In religion spoken of collectively as the Kuren Dagh, or Kopet Dagh from all except some Tatars and Mongols and the Baluchis have con- formed to the national Shiah faith. The revenues (cash and kind) its chief sections, forms in the east three ranges, the Hazar of the province amount to about £180,000 a year, but very little of Masjed, Binalud Kuh and Jagatai, enclosing the Meshed-this amount reaches the Teheran treasury: The value of the Kuchan valley and the Jovain plain. The former is watered by exports and imports from and into the whole province is a little the Kashaf-rud (Tortoise River), or river of Meshed, flowing east under a million sterling a year. The province produces about 10,000 tons of wool and a third of this quantity, or rather more, to the Hari-rud, their junction forming the Tejen, which sweeps valued at £70,000 to £80,000, is exported via Russia to the markets round the Daman-i-Kuh, or northern skirt of the outer range, of western Europe, notably to Marseilles, Russia keeping only a towards the Caspian but loses itself in the desert long before small part. Other important articles of export, all to Russia, are reaching it. The Jovain plain is watered by the Kali-i-mura, cotton, carpets, shawls and turquoises, the last from the mines near Nishapur. (A. H.-S.) an unimportant river which flows south to the Great Kavir or central depression. In the west the northern highlands develop KHORREMABAD, a town of Persia, capital of the province of two branches: (1) the Kuren Dagh, stretching through the Great Luristan, in 33° 32' N., 48° 15' E., and at an elevation of 4250 ft. and Little Balkans to the Caspian at Krasnovodsk Bay, (2) the Pop. about 6000. It is situated 138 m. W.N.W. of Isfahan and Ala Dagh, forming a continuation of the Binalud Kuh and joining 117 m. S.E. of Kermanshah, on the right bank of the broad but the mountains between Bujnurd and Astarabad, which form shallow Khorremabad river, also called Ab-i-istaneh, and, lower part of the Elburz system. The Kuren Dagh and Ala Dagh down, Kashgan Rud. On an isolated rock between the town enclose the valley of the Atrek River, which flows west and south- and the river stands a ruined castle, the Diz-i-siyah (black castle), west into the Caspian at Hassan Kuli Bay. The western off the residence of the governor of the district (then called Samha) shoots of the Ala Dagh in the north and the mountains of Astara- in the middle ages, and, with some modern additions, one of them bad in the south enclose the valley of the Gurgan River, which consisting of rooms on the summit, called Felek ul aflak (heaven also flows westwards and parallel to the Atrek to the south- of he ens), the residence of the governors of Luristan in the eastern corner of the Caspian. The outer range has probably beginning of the 19th century. At the foot of the castle stands a mean altitude of 8000 ft., the highest known summits being the modern residence of the governor, built c. 1830, with several the Hazar Masjed (10,500) and the Kara Dagh (9800). The spacious courts and gardens. On the left bank of the river central range seems to be higher, culminating with the Shah- opposite the town are the ruins of the old city of Samha. There Jehan Kuh (11,000) and the Ala Dagh (11,500). The southern are a minaret 60 ft. high, parts of a mosque, an aqueduct, a ridges, although generally much lower, have the highest point number of walls of other buildings and a four-sided monolith, of the whole system in the Shah Kuh (13,000) between Shahrud measuring 91 ft. in height, by 3 ft. long and 2} broad, with an and Astarabad. South of this northern highland several inscription partly illegible, commemorating Mahmud, a grand- parallel ridges run diagonally across the province in a N.W.-S.E. son of the Seljuk king Malik Shah, and dated A.H. 517, or 519 direction as far as Seistan. (A.D. 1148–1950). There also remain ten arches of a bridge Beyond the Atrek and other rivers watering the northern which led over the river from Samha on to the road to Shapur- valleys a few brackish and intermittent 'rivers lose themselves khast, a city situated some distance west. in the Great Kavir, which occupies the central and western parts KHORSABAD, a Turkish village in the vilayet of Mosul, of the province. The true character of the kavir, which forms the 12 m. N.E. of that town, and almost 20 m. N. of ancient Nine- distinctive feature of east Persia, has scarcely been determined, veh, on the left bank of the little river Kosar. Here, in 1843, some regarding it as the bed of a dried-up'sca, others as developed P. E. Botta, then French consul at Mosul, discovered the re- by the saline streams draining to it from the surrounding high- mains of an Assyrian palace and town, at which excavations were lands. Collecting in the central depressions, which have a mean conducted by him and Flandin in 1843–1844, and again by Victor elevation of scarcely more than 500 ft. above the Caspian, the Place in 1851-1855. The ruins proved to be those of the town water of these streams is supposed to form saline deposits with a of Dur-Sharrukin, “Sargon's Castle,” built by Sargon, king of thin hard crust, beneath which the moisture is retained for a con- Assyria, as a royal residence. The town, in the shape of a recta siderable time, thus producing those dangerous and slimy quago angular parallelogram, with the corners pointing approximately mires which in winter are covered with brine, in summer with a toward the cardinal points of the compass, covered 741 acres of treacherous incrustation of salt. Dr Sven Hedin explored the ground. On the north-west side, half within and half without central depressions in 1906. the circuit of the walls, protruding into the plain like a great The surface of Khorasan thus consists mainly of highlands, bastion, stood the royal palace, on a terrace, 45 ſt. in height, saline, swampy deserts and upland valleys, some fertile and well-covering about 25 acres. The palace proper was divided into watered. Of the last, occurring mainly in the north, the chief three sections, built around three sides of a large court on the are the longitudinal valley stretching from near the Herat south-east or city side, into which opened the great outer gates, frontier through Meshed, Kuchan and Shirvan to Bujnurd, the guarded by winged stone bulls, each section containing suites of Derrehgez district, which lies on the northern skirt of the outer rooms built around several smaller inner courts. In the centre range projecting into the Akhal Tekkeh domain, now Russian was the serai, occupied by the king and his retinue, with an territory, and the districts of Nishapur and Sabzevar which lie extension towards the north, opening on a large inner court, con- south of the Binalud and Jagatai ranges. These fertile tracts I taining the public reception rooms, elaborately decorated with KHOTAN-KHURJA 781 sculptures and historical inscriptions, representing scenes of abundance of cotton, with flax, hemp, wheat, wine, and the like. hunting, worship, feasts, battles, and the like. The harem, with The people have vineyards and gardens and estates. They live separate provisions for four wives, occupied the south corner, the by commerce and manufactures, and are no soldiers."1 The domestic quarters, including stables, kitchen, bakery, wine cellar, place suffered severely during the Dungan revolt against China &c., being at the east corner, to the north-east of the great in 1864-1875, and again a few years later when Yakub Beg of entrance court. In the west corner stood a temple, with a stage- Kashgar made himself master of East Turkestan. tower (ziggurat) adjoining. The walls of the rooms, which stood The KHOTAN-DARYA rises in the Kucn-lun Mountains in two only to the height of one storey, were from 9 to 25 ft. in thickness, headstreams, the Kara-kash and the Yurun-kash, which unite of clay, faced with brick, in the reception rooms wainscoted with towards the middle of the desert, some 90 m. N. of the town of stone slabs or tiles, elsewhere plastered, or, in the harem, adorned Khotan. The conjoint strcam the flows 180 m. northwards with fresco paintings and arabesques. Here and there the floors across the desert of Takla-makan, though it carries water only were formed of tiles or alabaster blocks, but in general they were in the early summer, and empties itself into the Tarim a few miles of stamped clay, on which were spread at the time of occupancy below the confluence of the Ak-su with the Yarkand-darya mats and rugs. The exterior of the palace wall exhibited a (Tarim). » In crossing the desert it falls 1250 ft. in a distance of system of groups of half columns and stepped recesses, an orna- 270 m. Its total length is about 300 m. and the area it drains ment familiar in Babylonian architecture. The palace and city probably nearly 40,000 sq. m. were completed in 707 B.C., and in 706 Sargon took up his resi- See J. P. A. Rémusat, Histoire de la ville de Kholan (Paris, 1820); dence there. He died the following year, and palace and city and Sven Hedin, Through Asia (Eng. trans., London, 1898), chs. lx. seem to have been abandoned shortly thercaſter. Up to 1909 and lxii., and Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899- this was the only Assyrian palace which had ever been explored 1902, vol. ii. (Stockholm, 1906). (J. T. Be.) systematically, in its entirety, and fortunately it was found on KHOTIN, or KHOTEEN (variously written Khochim, Choczim, the whole in an admirable state of preservation. An immense and Chocim), a fortified town of South Russia, in the government number of statues and bas-reliefs, excavated by Botta, were of Bessarabia, in 48° 30' N. and 26° 30' E., on the right bank of transported to Paris, and formed the first Assyrian museum the Dniester, near the Austrian (Galician) frontier, and opposite opened to the world. The objects excavated by Place, together Podolian Kamenets. Pop. (1897), 18,126. It possesses a few with the objects found by Fresnel's expedition in Babylonia and manufactures (leather, candles, beer, shoes, bricks), and carries on a part of the results of Rawlinson’s excavations at Nineveh, were a considerable trade, but has always been of importance mainly unfortunately lost in the Tigris, on transport from Bagdad to as a military post, defending one of the most frequented passages Basra. Flandin had, however, made careful drawings and copies of the Dniester. In the middle ages it was the seat of a Genoese of all objects of importance from Khorsabad. The whole colony; and it has been in Polish, Turkish and Austrian possession. material was published by the French government in two The chicf events in its annals are the defeat of the Turks in 1621 monumental publications. by Ladislaus IV., of Poland, in 1673 by John Sobieski, of Poland, See P. E. Botta and E. Flandin, Monument de Ninive (Paris, 1849- and in 1739 by the Russians under Münnich; the defeat of the 1850; 5 vols. 400 plates); Victor Place, Ninive et l'Assyrie, avec des Russians by the Turks in 1768; the capture by the Russians in essais de restauration par F. Thomas (Paris, 1866–1869: 3 vols.). 1769, and by the Austrians in 1788; and the occupation by the (J. P. PE.) Russians in 1806. It finally passed to Russia with Bessarabia in KHOTAN (locally ILCHI), a town and oasis of East Turkestan, 1812 by the peace of Bucharest. on the Khotan-darya, between the N. foot of the Kuenlun and KHULNA, a town and district of British India, in the Presi- the edge of the Takla-makan desert, nearly 200 m. by caravan dency division of Bengal. The town stands on the river Bhairab, road S.E. from Yarkand. Pop., about 5000. The town con- and is the terminus of the Bengal Central railway, 109 m. E. of sists of a labyrinth of narrow, winding, dirty streets, with poor, Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 10,426. It is the most important centre square, flat-roofed houses, half a dozen madrasas (Mahommedan of river-borne trade in the delta. colleges), a score of mosques, and some masars (tombs of Mahom- The DISTRICT OF KHULNA lies in the middle of the delta of medan saints). Dotted about the town are open squares, with the Ganges, including a portion of the Sundarbans or seaward tanks or ponds overhung by trees. For centuries Khotan was fringe of swamps. It was formed out of Jessore in 1882. Area famous for jade or nephrite, a semi-precious stone greatly (excluding the Sundarbans), 2077 sq. m. Besides the Sundar- esteemed by the Chinese for making small fancy boxes, bottles bans, the north-east part of the district is swampy; the north- and cups, mouthpieces for pipes, bracelets, &c. The stone is west is more elevated and drier, while the central part, though still exported to China. Other local products are carpets (silk low-lying, is cultivated. The whole is alluvial. In 1901 the and felt), silk goods, hides, grapes, rice and other cereals, fruits, population was 1,253,043, showing an increase of 6% in tobacco, opium and cotton. There is an active trade in these the decade. Rice is the principal crop; mustard, jute and goods and in wool with India, West Turkestan and China. The tobacco are also grown, and the fisheries are important. Sugar oasis contains two small towns, Kara-kash and Yurun-kash, and is manufactured from the date palm. The district is entered over 300 villages, its total population being about 150,000. by the Bengal Central railway, but by far the greater part of Khotan, known in Sanskrit as Kustana and in Chinese as the traffic is carried by water. Yu-than, Yu-tien, Kiu-sa-tan-na, and Khio-tan, is mentioned in See District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908). Chinese chronicles in the 2nd century B.C. In A.D. 73 it was KHUNSAR, a town of Persia, sometimes belonging to the conquered by the Chinese, and ever since has been generally province of Isfahan, at others to Irak, 96 m. N.W. of Isfahan, dependent upon the Chinese empire. During the early centuries in 33° 9', N., 50° 23' E., at an elevation of 7600 ít. Pop., about of the Christian era, and long before that, it was an important 10,000. It is picturesquely situated on both sides of a narrow and Nourishing place, the capital of a kingdom to which the valley through which the Khunsar River, a stream about 12 ſt. Chinese sent embassies, and famous for its glass-wares, copper wide, flows in a north-east direction to Kuom. The town and its tankards and textiles. About the year A.D. 400 it was a city of fine gardens and orchards straggle some 6 m. along the valley some magnificence, and the seat of a flourishing cult of Buddha, with a mean breadth of scarcely half a mile. There is a great with temples rich in paintings and ornaments of the precious profusion of fruit, the apples yielding a kind of cider which, metals; but from the 5th century it seems to have declined. however, does not keep longer than a month. The climate is In the 8th century it was conquered, after a struggle of 25 years, cool in summer and cold in winter. There are five caravanserais, by the Arab chieftain Kotaiba ibn Moslim, from West Turkestan, threc mosques and a post office. who imposed Islam upon the people. In 1220 Khotan was KHURJA, a town of British India, in the Bulandshahr district destroyed by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan. Marco Polo, of the United Provinces, 27 m. N.W. of Aligarh, near the main who passed through the town in 1274, says that “ Everything Sir H. Yule, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, bk. i. ch. xxxvi. (3rd is to be had there (at Cotan, i.e. Khotan) in plenty, including ed., London, 1903). 782 KHYBER PASS-KIANG-SI line of the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901), 29,277. It is an the plains of Afghanistan. After leaving Landi Kotal the great important centre of trade in grain, indigo, sugar and ghi, and has Kabul highway passes between low hills, until it debouches cotton gins and presses and a manufacture of pottery. Jain on the Kabul River and leads to Dakka. The whole of the traders form a large and wealthy class; and the principal Khyber Pass from end to end lies within the country of the building in the town is a modern Jain temple, a fine domed Afridis, and is now recognized as under British control. From structure richly carved and ornamented in gold and colours. Shadi Bagiar on the cast to Landi Kotal on the west is about KHYBER PASS, the most important of the passes which lead 20 m. in a straight line. from Afghanistan into India. It is a narrow defile winding The Khyber has been adopted by the British as the main road between cliffs of shale and limestone 600 to 1000 ft. high, to Kabul, but its difficulties (before they were overcome by stretching up to more lofty mountains behind. No other pass in British engineers) were such that it was never so regarded by the world has possessed such strategic importance or retains so former rulers of India. The old road to India left the Kabul many historic associations as this gateway to the plains of River near its junction with the Kunar, and crossed the great India. It has probably seen Persian and Greek, Seljuk, Tatar, divide between the Kunar valley and Bajour; then it turned Mongol and Durani conquerors, with the hosts of Alexander the southwards to the plains. During the first Afghan War the Great, Mahmud of Ghazni, Jenghiz Khan, Timur, Baber, Khyber was the scene of many skirmishes with the Afridis and Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah, and numerous other warrior chicís some disasters to the British troops. In July 1839 Colonel Wade pass and repass through its rocky defiles during a period of captured the fortress of Ali Masjid. In 1842, when Jalalabad 2000 years. The mountain barrier which separates the Peshawar was blockaded, Colonel Moseley was sent to occupy the same fort, plains from the Afghan highlands differs in many respects but was compelled to evacuate it after a few days owing to from the mountain barrier which intervenes between the Indus scarcity of provisions. In April of the same year it was reoccu- plains and the plateau farther south. To the south this barricr pied by General Pollock in his advance to Kabul. It was at consists of a series of flexures folded parallel to the river, through Ali Masjid that Sir Neville Chamberlain's friendly mission to the which the plateau drainage breaks down in transverse lines form-amir Shere Ali was stopped in 1878, thus causing the second ing gorges and cleſts as it cuts through successive ridges. West Afghan War; and on the outbreak of that war Ali Masjid was of Peshawar the strike of the mountain systems is roughly from captured by Sir Samuel Browne. The treaty which closed the war west to east, and this formation is maintained with more or in May 1879 left the Khyber tribes under British control. From less regularity as far south as the Tochi River and Waziristan. that time the pass was protected by jezailchis drawn from the Almost immediately west of Peshawar, and stretching along Afridi tribe, who were paid a subsidy by the British government, the same parallel of latitude from the meridian of Kabul to For 18 years, from 1879 onward, Colonel R. Warburton controlled within ten miles of the Peshawar cantonment, is the great the Khyber, and for the greater part of that time secured its central range of the Safed Koh, which forms throughout its safety; but his term of office came to an end synchronously long, straight line of rugged peaks the southern wall, or water- with the wave of fanaticism which swept along the north-west divide, of the Kabul River basin. About the meridian of 71 E. border of India during 1897. The Afridis were persuaded by it forks, sending off to the north-east what is locally known as a lheir mullahs to attack the pass, which they themselves had spur to the Kabul River, but which is geographically only part guaranteed. The British government were warned of the of that stupendous water-divide which hedges in the Kunar intended movement, but only withdrew the British officers and Chitral valleys, and, under the name of the Shandur Range, belonging to the Khyber Rifles, and left the pass to its fate. unites with the Hindu Kush near the head of the Taghdumbash The Khyber Rifles, deseried by their officers, made a half- Pamir. The Kabul River breaks through this northern spur hearted resistance to their fellow-tribesmen, and the pass fell of the Safed Koh; and in breaking through it is forced to the into the hands of the Afridis, and remained in their possession northward in a curved channel or trough, deeply sunk in the for some months. This was the chief cause of the Tirah Ex- mountains between terrific cliffs and precipices, where its narrow pedition of 1897. The Khyber Rifles were afterwards strength- waterway affords no foothold to man or beast for many miles. ened, and divided into two battalions commanded by four To reach the Kabul River within Afghan territory it is neces- British officers. sary to pass over this water-divide; and the Khyber stream, See Eighteen years in the Khyber, by Sir Robert Warburton (1900); flowing down from the pass at Landi Kotal to a point in the Indian Borderland, by Sir T. Holdich (1901). (T. H. H.*) plains opposite Jamrud, 9 m. W. of Peshawar, affords the KIAKHTA, a town of Siberia, one of the chief centres of opportunity. trade between Russia and China, on the Kiakhta, an affluent Pursuing the main road from Peshawar to Kabul, the fort of of the Selenga, and on an elevated plain surrounded by moun- Jamrud, which commands the British end of the Khyber Pass, tains, in the Russian government of Transbaikalia, 320 m. S.W. lies some ii m. W. of Peshawar. The road leads through a of Chita, the capital, and close to the Chinese frontier, in 50° 20' barren stony plain, cut up by water-courses and infested by all N., 106° 40' E. Besides the lower town or Kiakhta proper, the the worst cut-throats in the Peshawar district. Some three municipal jurisdiction comprises the fortified upper town of miles beyond Jamrud the road enters the mountains at an Troitskosavsk, about 2 m. N., and the settlement of Ust- opening called Shadi Bagiar, and here the Khyber proper Kiakhta, 10 m. farther distant. The lower town stands directly begins. The highway runs for a short distance through the bed opposite to the Chinese emporium of Maimachin, is surrounded of a ravine, and then joins the road made by Colonel Mackeson by walls, and consists, principally of one broad street and a in 1839-1842, until it ascends on the left-hand side to a large exchange courtyard. From 1689 to 1727 the trade of plateau called Shagai. From here can be seen the fort of Ali Kiakhta was a government monopoly, but in the latter year it Masjid, which commands the centre of the pass, and which has was thrown open to private merchants, and continued to been the scene of more than one famous sicge. Still going improve until 1860, when the right of commercial intercourse westward the road turns to the right, and by an easy zigzag was extended along the whole Russian-Chinese frontier. The descends to the river of Ali Masjid, and runs along its bank. annual December fairs for which Kiakhta was formerly famous, The new road along this cliff was made by the British during and also the regular traffic passing through the town, have con- the Second Afghan War (1879-80), and here is the narrowest siderably fallen off since that date. The Russians exchange part of the Khyber, not more than 15 ft. broad, with the Rhotas here leather, sheepskins, furs, horns, woollen cloths, coarse hill on the right fully 2000 ft. overhead. Some three miles linens and cattle for teas (in value 95% of the entire imports), ſarther on the valley widens, and on either side lie the hamlets porcelain, rhubarb, manuſactured silks, nankeens and other and some sixty towers of the Zakka Khel Afridis. Then comes Chinese produce. The population, including Ust-Kiakhta the Loargi Shinwari plateau, some seven miles in length and (5000) and Troitskosavsk (9213 in 1897), is nearly 20,000. three in its widest part, ending at Landi Kotal, where is another KIANG-SI, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by British fort, which closes this end of the Khyber and overlooks | Hu-peh and Ngan-hui, s. by Kwang-tung, E. by Fu-kien, and KIANG-SU_KIDD 783 sea. W. by Hu-nan. It has an area of 72,176 sq. m., and a popula- | customs has been established there for the collection of duties tion returned at 22,000,000. It is divided into fourteen pre- upon goods coming from or going to the interior, in accordance fectures. The provincial capital is Nan-ch'ang Fu, on the Kan with the general treaty tariff. Trade centres at Ts'ingtao, a Kiang, about 35 m. from the Po-yang Lake. The whole province town within the bay. The country in the neighbourhood is is traversed in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction mountainous and bare, but the lowlands are well cultivated. by the Nan-shan ranges. The largest river is the Kan Kiang, Ts'ingtao is connected by railway with Chinan Fu, the capital which rises in the mountains in the south of the province and of the province; a continuation of the same line provides for flows north-east to the Po-yang Lake. It was over the Meiling a junction with the main Lu-Han (Peking-Hankow) railway. Pass and down this river that, in old days, embassies landing at The value of the trade of the port during 1904 was £2,712,145 Canton proceeded to Peking. During the summer time it has (£1,808,113 imports and £904,032 exports). water of sufficient depth for steamers of light draft as far as KICKAPOO (" he moves about "), the name of a tribe of Nan-ch'ang, and it is navigable by native craft for a considerable North American Indians of Algonquian stock. When first met distance beyond that city. Another river of note is the Chang by the French they were in central Wisconsin. They sub- Kiang, which has its source in the province of Ngan-hui and sequently removed to the Ohio valley. They fought on the flows into the Po-yang Lake, connecting in its course the Wu- English side in the War of Independence and that of 1812. yuen district, whence come the celebrated “Moyune " green In 1852 a large band went to Texas and Mexico and gave much teas, and the city of King-te-chên, celebrated for its pottery, trouble to the settlers; but in 1873 the bulk of the tribe was with Jao-chow Fu on the lake. The black “ Kaisow" teas are settled on its present reservation in Oklahoma. They number brought from the Ho-kow district, where they are grown, down some 800, of whom about a third are still in Mexico. the river Kin to Juy-hung on the lake, and the Siu-ho connects KIDD, JOHN (1775-1851), English physician, chemist and by a navigable stream I-ning Chow, in the neighbourhood of geologist, born at Westminster on the 10th of September 1775, which city the best black teas of this part of China are produced, was the son of a naval officer, Captain John Kidd. He was with Wu-ching, the principal mart of trade on the lake. The educated at Bury St Edmunds and Westminster, and after- principal products of the province are tea, China ware, grass- wards at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in cloth, hemp, paper, tobacco and tallow. Kiu-kiang, the treaty 1797 (M.D. in 1804). He also studied at Guy's Hospital, London port of the province, opened to foreign trade in 1861, is on the (1797-1801), where he was a pupil of Sir Astley Cooper. He Yangtsze-kiang, a short distance above the junction of the became reader in chemistry at Oxford in 1801, and in 1803 was Po-yang Lake with that river. elected the first Aldrichian professor of chemistry. He then KIANG-SU, a maritime province of China, bounded N. by voluntarily gave courses of lectures on mineralogy and geology: Shan-tung, S. by Cheh-kiang, W. by Ngan-hui, and E. by the these were delivered in the dark chambers under the Ashmolean It has an area of 45,000 sq. m., and a population estimated Museum, and there J. J. and W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland, at 21,000,000. Kiang-su forms part of the great plain of northern C. G. B. Daubeny and others gained their first lessons in geology. China. There are no mountains within its limits, and few hills. Kidd was a popular and instructive lecturer, and through his It is watered as no other province in China is watered. The efforts the geological chair, first held by Buckland, was established. Grand Canal runs through it from south to north; the Yangtsze- In 1818 he became a F.R.C.P.; in 1822 regius professor of medi- kiang crosses its southern portion from west to east; it possesses cine in succession to Sir Christopher Pegge; and in 1834 he was several lakes, of which the T'ai-hu is the most noteworthy, and appointed keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He delivered the numberless streams connect the canal with the sea. Its coast Harveian oration before the Royal College of Physicians in is studded with low islands and sandbanks, the results of the 1834. He died at Oxford on the 7th of September 1851. deposits brought down by the Hwang-ho. Kiang-su is rich in PUBLICATIONS. --Outlines of Mineralogy (2 vols., 1809); A Geologi: places of interest. Nanking, “ the Southern Capital,” was the cal Essay on the Imperfect Evidence in Support of a Theory of ike seat of the Chinese court until the beginning of the 15th century, Earth (1815); On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical and it was the headquarters of the T'ai-p'ing rebels from 1853, Condition of Man, 1833 (Bridgewater Treatise). when they took the city by assault, to 1864, when its garrison KIDD, THOMAS (1770-1850), English classical scholar and yielded to Colonel Gordon's army. Hang-chow Fu and Su-chow schoolmaster, was born in Yorkshire. He was educated at Fu, situated on the T'ai-hu, are reckoned the most beautiful Giggleswick School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He held cities in China. "Above there is Paradise, below are Su and numerous scholastic and clerical appointments, the last being Hang,” says a Chinese proverb. Shang-hai is the chief port in the rectory of Croxton, near Cambridge, where he died on the the province. In 1909 it was connected by railway (270 m. 27th of August 1850. Kidd was an intimate friend of Porson long) via Su-Chow and Chin-kiang with Nanking. Tea and silk and Charles Burney the younger. He contributed largely to are the principal articles of commerce produced in Kiang-su, periodicals, chiefly on classical subjects, but his reputation and next in importance are cotton, sugar and medicines. The mainly rests upon his editions of the works of other scholars: silk manufactured in the looms of Su-chow is famous all over the Opuscula Ruhnkeniana (1807), the minor works of the great empire. In the mountains near Nanking, coal, plumbago, iron Dutch scholar David Ruhnken; Miscellanea Critica of Richard ore and marble are found. Shang-hai, Chin-kiang, Nanking Dawes (2nd ed., 1827); Tracts and Miscellaneous Criticisms of and Su-chow are the treaty ports of the province. Richard Porson (1815). He also published an edition of the KIAOCHOW BAY, a large inlet on the south side of the works of Horace (1817) based upon Bentley's recension. promontory of Shantung, in China. It was seized in November KIDD, WILLIAM (CAPTAIN KIDD] (c. 1645-1701), privateer 1897 by the German fleet, nominally to secure reparation for the and pirate, was born, perhaps, in Greenock, Scotland, but murder of two German missionaries in the province of Shantung. his origin is quite obscure. He told Paul Lorraine, the ordinary In the negotiations which followed, it was arranged that the bay of Newgate, that he was “about 56." at the time of his con- and the land on both sides of the entrance within certain defined demnation for piracy in 1701. In 1691 an award from the lines should be leased to Germany for 99 years. During the council of New York of £150 was given him for his services continuance of the lease Germany exercises all the rights of during the disturbances in the colony after the revolution of territorial sovereignty, including the right to erect fortifications. 1688. He was commissioned later to chase a hostile privateer The area leased is about 117 sq. m., and over a further area, off the coast, is described as an owner of ships, and is known comprising a zone of some 32 m., measured from any point on to have served with credit against the French in the West Indies. the shore of the bay, the Chinese government may not issue any In 1695 he came to London with a sloop of his own to-trade. ordinances without the consent of Germany. The native popu- Colonel R. Livingston (1654-1724), a well-known New York land- lation in the ceded area is about 60,000. The German govern- owner, recommended him to the newly appointed colonial ment in 1899 declared Kiaochow a free port. By arrangement governor Lord Bellomont, as a fit man to command a vessel to with the Chinese government a branch of the Imperial maritime I cruise against the pirates in the Eastern seas (see PIRATE). 784 KIDDERMINSTER-KIDNEY DISEASES " 6 1 Accordingly the “ Adventure Galley,” a vessel of 30 guns and At the Domesday Survey, Kidderminster was still in the hands 275 tons, was privately fitted out, and the command given to of the king and remained a royal manor until Henry II. granted Captain Kidd, who received the king's commission to arrest it to Manser Biset. The poet Edmund Waller was one of the and bring to trial all pirates, and a commission of reprisals 17th century lords of the manor. The town was possibly a against the French. Kidd sailed from Plymouth in May 1696 borough in 1187 when the men paid £4 to an aid. As a royal for New York, where he filled up his crew, and in 1697 reached possession it appears to have enjoyed various privileges in the Madagascar, the pirates' principal rendezvous. He made no 12th century, among them the right of choosing a bailiff to effort whatever to hunt them down. On the contrary he collect the toll and render it to the king, and to elect six burgesses associated himself with a notorious pirate named Culliford. and send them to the view of frankpledge twice a year. The The fact would seem to be that Kidd meant only to capture first charter of incorporation, granted in 1636, appointed a French ships. When he found none he captured native trading bailiff 12 capital burgesses forming a common council. vessels, under pretence that they were provided with French The town was governed under this charler until the Municipal passes and were fair prize, and he plundered on the coast of Reform Act of 1835. Kidderminster sent two members to the Malabar. During 1698-1699 complaints reached the British parliament of 1295, but was not again represented until the government as to the character of his proceedings. Lord privilege of sending one member was conferred by the Reform Bellomont was instructed to apprehend him if he should return Act of 1832. The first mention of the cloth trade for which to America. Kidd deserted the “Adventure" in Madagascar, Kidderminster was formerly noted occurs in 1334, when it was and sailed for America in one of his prizes, the “Quedah Mer- enacted that no one should make woollen cloth in the borough chant,” which he also left in the West Indies. He reached New without the bailiff's seal. At the end of the 18th century the England in a small sloop with several of his crew and wrote trade was still important, but it began to decline after the in- to Bellomont, professing his ability to justify himself and sending vention of machinery, probably owing to the poverty of the the governor booty. He was arrested in July 1699, was sent manufacturers. The manufacture of woollen goods was however to England and tried, first for the murder of one of his crew, and replaced by that of carpets, introduced in 1735. At first only then with others for piracy. He was found guilty on both the “ Kidderminster” carpets were made, but in 1749 a Brussels charges, and hanged at Execution Dock, London, on the 23rd of loom was set up in the town and Brussels carpets were soon May 1.701. The evidence against him was that of two members produced in large quantities. of his crew, the surgeon and a sailor who turned king's evidence, See Victoria County History: Worcestershire; J. R. Burton, A but no other witnesses could be got in such circumstances, as History of Kidderminster, with Short Accounts of some Neighbouring Parishes (1890). the judge told him when he protested. Captain Kidd's KIDNAPPING (from kid, a slang term for a child, and nap Treasure" has been sought by various expeditions and about or nab, to steal), originally the stealing and carrying away £14,000 was recovered from Kidd's ship and from Gardiner's of children and others to serve as servants or labourers in the Island (off the E. end of Long Island); but its magnitude was palpably exaggerated. He left a wife and child at New York. forcible abduction or stealing away of a man, woman or child American plantations; it was defined by Blackstone as the The so-called ballad about him is a poor imitation of the from their own country and sending them into another. The authentic chant of Admiral Benbow. Much has been written about Kidd, less because of the intrinsic difference between kidnapping, abduction (q.v.) and false im- interest of his career than because the agreement made with him by prisonment is not very great; indeed, kidnapping may be said Bellomont was the subject of violent political controversy. The to be a form of assault and false imprisonment, aggravated by best popular account is in An Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and the carrying of the person to some other place. The term is, Captain Kidd by W. W. Campbell (New York, 1853), in which the however, more commonly applied in England to the offence of essential documents are quoted. But see Pirate. KIDDERMINSTER, a market town and municipal and parlia- the Offences against the Person Act 1861, taking away children from the possession of their parents. By “ whosoever shall mentary borough of Worcestershire, England, 1353 m. N.W. by unlawfully, by force or fraud, lead or take away or decoy or W. from London and 15 m. N. of Worcester by the Great entice away or detain any child under the age of fourteen years Western railway, on the river Stour and the Staffordshire and with intent to deprive any parent, guardian or other person Worcestershire canal. Pop. (1901), 24,692. The parish church having the lawful care or charge of such child of the possession of All Saints, well placed above the river, is a fine Early English of such child, or with intent to steal any article upon or about and Decorated building, with Perpendicular additions. Of other the person of such child, to whomsoever such article may belong, buildings the principal are the town hall (1876), the corporation and whosoever shall with any such intent receive or harbour buildings, and the school of science and art and free library: any such child, &c.," shall be guilty of felony, and is liable to There is a free grammar school founded in 1637. A public penal servitude for not more than seven years, or to imprison- recreation ground, Brinton Park, was opened in 1887. Richard ment for any term not more than two years with or without Baxter, who was elected by the townsfolk as their minister in hard labour. The abduction or unlawfully taking away an 1641, was instrumental in saving the town from a reputation unmarried girl under sixteen out of the possession and against of ignorance and depravity caused by the laxity of their clergy. the will of her father or mother, or any other person having the He is commemorated by a statue, as is Sir Rowland Hill, the lawful care or charge of her, is a misdemeanour under the same introducer of penny postage, who was born here in 1795. act. The term is used in much the same sense in the United Kidderminster is chiefly celebrated for its carpets. The per- States. manency of colour by which they are distinguished is attributed The kidnapping or forcible taking away of persons to serve at sea to the properties of the water of the Stour, which is impregnated is treated under ÎMPRESSMENT. with iron and fuller's earth. Worsted spinning and dyeing are KIDNEY DISEASES. (For the anatomy of the kidneys, also carried on, and there are iron foundries, tinplate works, see URINARY SYSTEM.) The results of morbid processes in the breweries, malt houses, &c. The parliamentary borough returns kidney may be grouped under three heads: the actual lesions one member. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen produced, the effects of these on the composition of the urine, and 18 councillors. Area, 1214 acres. 1 The word "kidney" first appears in the carly part of the 14th In 736 lands upon the river Stour, called Stour in Usmere; kidneys , &c. It has been assumed that the second part of the word in the form kidenei, with plural kideneiren, kideneris, which have been identified with the site of Kidderminster (cf. Ger. Niere), the common dialect word for (Chideminstre), were given to Earl Cyneberght by King Æthel- "kidney" in northern, north midland and castern counties of England bald to found a monastery. If this monastery was ever built, (see J. Wright, English Dialect Dictionary, 1903, s.v. Near), and that it was afterwards annexed to the church of Worcester, and the first part represents the O.E. cwið, belly, womb; this the New the lands on the Stour formed part of the gift of Coenwulf, English Dictionary considers improbable; there is only one doubtful king of the Mercians, to Deneberht, bishop of Worcester, but Possibly this represents M.E. ey, plur. eyren, egg, the name being instance of singular kidnere and the ordinary form ended in -ei or ey. were exchanged with the same king in 816 for other property. I given from the resemblance in shape. The first part is uncertain. is neer or near KIDNEY DISEASES 785 and the effects of the kidney-lesion on the body at large. Affec. Passive congestion of the kidneys occurs in heart diseases and tions of the kidney are congenital or acquired. When acquired lung-diseases, where the return of venous blood is interfered with. It may also be produced by tumours pressing on the vena cava. they may be the result of a pathological process limited to the The engorged kidneys become brownish red, enlarged and fibroid, kidney, in which case they are spoken of as primary, or an and they secrete a scanty, high-coloured urine. accompaniment of disease in other parts of the body, when they Active congestion is produced by the excretion in the urine of such may be spoken of as secondary. materials as turpentine and cantharides and the toxins of various diseases. These irritants produce engorgement and inflammation Congenital Affections.—The principal congenital affections are of the kidney, much as they would that of any other structures with anomalies in the number or position of the kidneys or of their ducts; which they come in contact. Renal disturbance is often the result atrophy: cystic disease and growths. The most common abnor- of the excretion of microbic poisons. Extreme congestion of the mality is the existence of a single kidney; rarely a supernumerary kidneys may be produced by exposure to cold, owing to some kidney may be present. The presence of a single kidney may be intimate relationship existing between the cutaneous and the renal due to failure of development, or to atrophy in foetal liſe; it may also vessels, the constriction of the one being accompanied by the be dependent on the fusion of originally separate kidneys in such a dilatation of the other. Infective diseases, such as typhoid ſever, way as to lead to the formation of a horse-shoe kidney, the two pneumonia, scarlet fever, in fact, most acute specific diseases, organs being connected at their lower ends. In some cases of horse produce during their height a temporary nephritis, not usually shoe kidney the organs are united merely by fibrous tissue. Occa. followed by permanent alteration in the kidney; but some acute sionally the two kidneys are fused end to end, with two ureters. diseases cause a nephritis which may lay the foundation of permanent A third variety is that where the fusion is more complete, producing renal disease. This is most common as a result of scarlet fever. a disk-like mass with two ureters. The kidneys may be situated in Bright's disease is the term applied to certain varieties of acute abnormal positions; thus they may be in front of the sacro-iliac and chronic inflammation of the kidney. Three forms are usually articulation, in the pelvis, or in the iliac fossa. The importarce of recognized-acute, chronic and the granular or cirrhotic kidney. such displacements lies in the fact that the organs may be mistaken In the more common form of granular kidney the renal lesion is for tumours. In some cases atrophy is associated with mal-develop- only part of a widespread affection involving the whole arterial ment, so that only the medullary portion of the kidney is developed: Bright's disease is sometimes the sequel to acute Bright's disease, system, and is not actually related to Bright's disease. Chronic in others it is associated with arterial obstruction, and sometimes it may be dependent upon obstruction of the ureter. In congenital but in a great number of cases the malady is chronic from the cystic disease the organ is transformed into a mass of cysts, and the beginning. The lesions of the kidney are probably produced by enlargement of the kidneys may be so great as to produce difficulties irritation of the kidney-structures owing to the excretion of toxic in birth. The cystic degeneration is caused by obstruction of the substances either ingested or formed in the body; it is thought by uriniferous tubules or by anomalies in development, with persistence some that the malady may arise as a result of exposure to cold. of portions of the Wolffian body. In some cases cystic degeneration The principal causes of Bright's disease are alcoholism, gout, prego is accompanied by anomalies in the ureters and in the arterial nancy and the action of such poisons as lead; it may also occur as a supply. Growths of the kidney are sometimes found in infants; they sequel to acute diseases, such as scarlet fever. Persons following are usually malignant, and may consist of a peculiar form of sarcoma, certain occupations are peculiarly liable to Bright's disease, e.g. which has been spoken of as rhabdo-sarcoma, owing to the presence engineers who work in hot shops and pass out into the cold air in the mass of involuntary muscular fibres. The existence of these scantily clothed; and painters, in whom the malady is dependent on tumours is dependent on anomalies of development; the tissue which the action of lead on the kidney. In the case of alcohol and lead forms the primitive kidney belongs to the same layer as that which the poison is ingested; in the case of scarlet fever, pneumonia, and gives rise to the muscular system (mesoblast). Anomalies of the perhaps pregnancy, the toxic agent causing the renal affection is excretory ducts: in some cases the ureter is double, in others it is kidney, the glomeruli, the tubular epithelium, and the interstitial formed in the body.. In Bright's disease all the elements of the greatly dilated: in others the pelvis of the kidney may be greatly tissue, are affected. When the disease follows scarlet fever, the dilated, with or without dilatation of the ureter. Acquired Affections. Movable Kidney.-One or both of the glomerular structures are mostly affected, the capsules being kidneys in the adult may be preternaturally mobile. This condition thickened by fibrous tissue, and the glomerular tuft compressed and is more common in women, and is ally the result of a severe atrophied! The epithelium of the convoluted tubules undergoes shaking or other form of injury, or of the abdominal walls degeneration; considerable quantities of it are shed, and form the becoming lax as a sequel to abdominal distension, to emaciation well-known casts in the urine. The tubules become blocked by the or pregnancy, or to the effects of tight-lacing. The more extreme epithelium, and distended with the pent-up urine; this is one cause forms of movable kidney are dependent, generally, on anomalies Bright's disease. The lesions in the tubules and in the glomeruli of the increase in size that the kidneys undergo in certain forms of in the arrangement of the peritoneum, so that the organ has a partial mesentery; and to this condition, where the kidney can are not generally uniform. The interstitial tissue is always affected, be moved freely from one part of the abdomen to another, the term and exudation, proliferation and formation of fibrous tissue occur. floating kidney is applied. But more usually the organ is loose In the granular and contracted kidney the lesion in the interstitial under the peritoneum, and not efficiently supported in its fatty bed. tissue reaches a high degree of development, little renal secreting Movable kidney produces a variety of symptoms, such as pain in tissue being. left. Such tubules as remain are dilated, and the the loin and back, faintness, nausea and vomiting-and the function epithelium lining them is altered, the cells becoming hyaline and of the organ may be seriously interfered with, owing to the ureter losing their structure. The vessels are narrowed owing to thickening becoming kinked. In this way hydronephrosis, or distension of of the subendothelial layer, and the muscular coat undergoes hyper- the kidney with urine, may be produced. The return of blood trophic and fibroid changes, so that the vessels are abnormally rigid. through the renal vein may also be hindered, and temporary vascular When the overgrowth of fibrous tissue is considerable, the surface engorgement of the kidney, with haematuria, may be produced. of the organ becomes uneven, and it is for this reason that the term its place by a pad and belt, but in other cases an operation has to be changes described above being in active progress. In the chronic In some cases the movable kidney may be satisfactorily kept in granular kidney has been applied to the condition. In acute Bright's disease the kidney is increased in size and engorged with blood, the undertaken. This consists in exposing the kidney (generally the right) through an incision below the last rib, and fixing it in its form the kidney may be large or small, and is usually white or proper position by segeral permanent sutures of silk or silkworm gut. pyramids are congested; if small, the fibrous change has advanced mottled. If large, the cortex is thickened, pale and waxy, and the The operation is neither difficult nor dangerous, and its results are excellent. and the cortex is diminished. Bright's disease, both acute and Embolism.-The arrangement of the blood-vessels of the kidney the kidney. The true granular kidney, classified by some as a third chronic, is essentially a disease of the cortical secreting portion of is peculiarly favourable to the production of wedge-shaped areas of necrosis, the result of a blocking by clots. Sometimes the clot is variety, is usually part of a general arterial degeneration, the over- detached from the interior of the heart, the effect being an arrest growth of fibrous tissue in the kidney and the lesions in the arteries of the circulation in the part of the kidney supplied by the blocked being well marked. artery. In other cases, the plug is infective owing to the presence of The principal degenerations affecting the kidney are the fatty and septic micro-organisms, and this is likely to lead to the formation the albuminoid. Falty degeneration often reaches a high degree in of small pyaemic abscesses. It is exceptional for the large branches alcoholics, where fatty degeneration of the heart and liver are also of the renal artery to be blocked, so that the symptoms produced in present. Albuminoid disease is frequently associated with some the ordinary cases are only the temporary appearance of blood or varieties of Bright's disease, and is also seen as a result of chronic albumen in the urine. Blocking of the main renal vessels as a result bone disease, or of long-continued suppuration involving other parts of disease of the walls of the vessels may lead to disorganization of of the body, or of syphilis. It is due to irritation of the kidneys the kidneys. Blocking of the veins, leading to extreme congestion by toxic products. of the kidney, also occurs. It is seen in cases of extreme weakness Growths of the Kidney.—The principal growths are tubercle, and wasting, sometimes in septic conditions, as in puerperal pyaemia, adenoma, sarcoma and carcinoma. In addition, fatty and fibrous where a clot, formed first in one of the pelvic veins, may spread up growths, the nodules of glanders and the gummata of syphilis, may the vena cava and secondarily block the renal veins. Thrombosis be mentioned. Tuberculous disease is sometimes primary; more of the renal vein also occurs in malignant disease of the kidney and frequently it is secondary to tubercle in other portions of the genito- in certain forms of chronic Bright's disease. urinary apparatus. The genito-urinary tract may be infected by XV 13* 786 KIDNEY DISEASES rests . In some tubercle in two ways; ascending, in which the primary lesion is in produced by the extension of gonorrhoeal or other septic inflamma. the testicle, epididymis, or urinary bladder, the lesion travelling up tion upwards from the bladder and lower urinary tract, or by the by the ureter or the lymphatics to the kidney: descending, where the presence of stone or oí tubercle in the pelvis of the kidney. Pyo. tubercle bacillus reaches the kidney through the blood vessels. In nephrosis, or distension of the kidney with pus, may result as a sequel the latter case, miliary tubercles, as scattered granules, are seen, to pyelitis or as a complication of hydronephrosis: in many cases especially in the cortex of the kidney; the lesion is likely to be the inflammation spreads to the capsule of the kidney, and leads bilateral. In primary tuberculosis, and in ascending tuberculosis, to the formation of an abscess outside the kidney-a perinephritic the lesion is at first unilateral. Malignant disease of the kidney abscess. In some cases a perinephritic abscess results from a septic takes the form of sarcoma or carcinoma. Sometimes it is dependent plug in a blood vessel of the kidney, or it may occur as the result on the malignant growths starting in what are spoken of as "adrenal of an injury to the loose cellular tissue surrounding the kidney, in the cortex of the kidney: Sarcoma is most often seen in without lesion of the kidney. the young; carcinoma in the middle-aged and elderly. Carcinoma Hydronephrosis, or distension of the kidney with pent-up urine, may be primary or secondary, but the kidney is not so prone to results from obstruction of the ureter, although all obstructions of malignant disease as other organs, such as the stomach, bowel or liver. the ureter are not followed by it, calculous obstruction, as already Cystic Kidneys.-Cysts may be single-sometimes of large size. noted, often causing complete suppression of urine. Obstruction of Scattered small cysts are met with in chronic Bright's disease and the ureter, causing hydronephrosis, is likely to be due to the impac- in granular contracted kidney, where the dilatation of tubules reaches tion of a stone, or to pressure on the ureter from a tumour in the a high degree. Certain growths, such as adenomata, are liable to pelvis—as, for instance, a cancer of the uterus-or to some abnor. cystic degeneration, and cysts are also found in malignant disease.mality of the ureter. Sometimes a kink of the ureter of a movable Finally, there is a rare condition of general cystic disease somewhat kidney causes hydronephrosis. The hydronephrosis produced by similar to the congenital affection. . In this form the kidneys, greatly obstruction of the ureter may be intermittent; and when a certain enlarged, consist of a congeries of cysts separated by the remains of degree of distension is produced, either as a result of the shifting of renal tissue. the calculus or of some other cause, the obstruction is temporarily Parasitic Affections.—The more common parasites affecting the relieved in a great outflow of urine, and the urinary discharge is re. kidney, or some other portion of the urinary tract, and causing established. When the hydronephrosis has long existed the kidney disease, are filaria, bilharzia and the cysticercus form of the taenia is converted into a sac, the remains of the renal tissues being spread echinococcus (hydatids). The presence of filaria in the thoracic out as a thin layer. duct and other lymph-channels may determine the presence of chyle Effects on the Urine.--Diseases of the kidney produce alterations in the urine, together with the ova and young forms of the filaria, in the composition of the urine; either the proportion of the normal owing to the distension and rupture of a lymphatic vessel into some constituents being altered, or substances not normally present being portion of the urinary tract. This is the common cause of chyluria excreted. In most diseases the quantity of urinary water is dimin- in hot climates, but chyluria is occasionally seen in the United ished, especially in those in which the activity of the circulation is Kingdom without filaria. Bilharzia, especially in Egypt and South impaired. There are diseases, however, more especially the granular Africa, causes haematuria. The cysticercus form of the laenia kidney and certain forms of chronic Bright's disease, in which the echinococcus leads to the production of hydatid cysts in the kidney; | quantity of urinary water is considerably increased, notwithstanding this organ, however, is not so often affected as the liver. the profound anatomical changes that have occurred in the kidney. Stone in the Kidney.---Calculi are frequently found in the kidney. There are two forms of suppression of the urine: one is obstructive consisting usually of uric acid, sometimes of oxalates, more rarely suppression, seen where the ureter is blocked by stone or other of phosphates. Calculous disease of the bladder (q.v.) is generally morbid process; the other is non-obstructive suppression, which is the sequel to the formation of a stone in the kidney, which, passing apt to occur in advanced diseases of the kidney: . In other cases down, becomes coated by the salts in the urine. Calculi are usually complete suppression may occur as the result of injuries to distant formed in the pelvis of the kidney, and their formation is dependent parts of the body, as after severe surgical operations. either on the excessive amounts of uric acid, oxalic acid, &c., in the diseases in which the quantity of urinary water excreted is normal, urine, or on an alteration in the composition of the urine, such as or even greater than normal, the efficiency of the renal activity is increased acidity, or on uric acid or oxalate of lime being present in an really diminished, inasmuch as the urine contains few solids. In abnormal amount. The formation of abnormal crystals is oftendue to estimating the efficiency of the kidneys, it is necessary to take into the presence some colloid, such as ood, mucus or albumen, in the consideration the so-called “ solid urine," that is to say, the quantity secretion, modifying the crystalline form. Once a minute calculus of solid matter daily excreted, as shown by the specific gravity of has been formed, its subsequent growth is highly probable, owing the urine. The nitrogenous constituents-urea, uric acid, creatinin, to the deposition on it of the urinary constituent forming it. Calculi &c.-vary greatly in amount in different diseases. In most renal formed in the pelvis of the kidney may be single and may reach a diseases the quantities of these substances are diminished because very large size, forming, indeed, an actual cast of the interior of of the physiological impairment of the kidney. The chief abnormal the expanded kidney. At other times they are multiple and of constituents of the urine are serum-albumen, serum-globulin, albu- varying size. They may give rise to no symptoms, or on the other moses (albuminuria), blood (haematuria), blood pigment (haemo- hand may cause distressing renal colic, especially when they are globinuria), pus (pyuria), chyle (chyluria) and pigments such as small and loose and are passed or are trying to be passed. Serious melanuria and urobilinuria. complications may result from the presence of a stone in the kidney, Effects on the Body at large.—These may be divided into the persis- such as hydronephrosis, from the urinary secretion being pent up tent and the intermittent or transitory. The most important behind the obstruction, or complete suppression, which is apparently persistent effects produced by disease of the kidney are, first, produced reflexly through the nervous system. In such cases the nutritional changes leading to general ill health, wasting and surgical removal of the stone is often followed by the restoration of cachexia; and, secondly, certain cardio-vascular phenomena, such the renal secretion. as enlargement (hypertrophy) of the heart, and thickening of the The symptoms of renal calculus may be very slight, or they may inner, and degeneration of the middle, coat of the smaller arteries. be entirely absent if the stone is moulding itself into the interior of Amongst the intermittent or transitory effects are dropsy, secondary the kidney; but if the stone is movable, heavy and rough, it may inflammations of certain organs and serous cavities, and uraemia. cause great distress, especially during exercise. There will probably Some of these effects are seen in every form of severe kidney disease, be blood in the urine; and there will be pain in the loin and thigh and uraemia may occur in any advanced kidney disease. Renal and down into the testicle. The testicle also may be drawn up by dropsy is chiefly seen in certain forms of Bright's disease, and the its suspensory muscle, and there may be irritability of the bladder. cardiac and arterial changes are commonest in cases of granular or With stone in one kidney the pains may be actually referred to the contracted kidney, but may be absent in other diseases which destroy kidney of the other side. Generally, but not always, there is tender- the kidney tissue, such as hydronephrosis. Uraemia is a toxic ness in the loin. If the stone is composed of lime it may throw a condition, and three varieties of it are recognized--the acute, the shadow on the Röntgen plate, but other stones may give no shadow. chronic and the latent. Many of these effects are dependent upon Renal colic is the acute pain felt when a small stone is travelling the action of poisons retained in the body owing to the deficient down the ureter to the bladder. The pain is at times so acute that action of the kidneys. It is also probable that abnormal substances fomentations, morphia and hot baths fail to ease it, and nothing having a toxic action are produced as a result of a perverted meta- short of chloroform gives relief. bolism. Uraemia is of toxic origin, and it is probable that the For the operative treatment of renal calculus an incision is made a dropsy of renal disease is due to effects, produced in the capillaries little below the last rib, and, the muscles having been traversed, by the presence of abnormal substances in the blood. High arteriat the kidney is reached on the surface which is not covered by peri- tension, cardiac hypertrophy and arterial degeneration may also toneum. Most likely the stone is then felt, so it is cut down upon be of toxic origin, or they may be produced by an attempt of the and removed. If it is not discoverable on gently, pinching the body to maintain an active circulation through the greatly dimin. kidney between the finger and thumb, the kidney had better be ished amount of kidney tissue available. opened in its convex border and explored by the finger. Often it Rupture of the kidney may result from a kick or other direct injury: has happened that when a man has presented most of the symptoms Vomiting and collapse are likely to ensue, and most likely blood will of renal calculus and has been operated on with a negative result appear in the urine, or a tumour composed of blood and urine may as regards finding a stone, all the symptoms have nevertheless form in the renal region. An incision made into the swelling from disappeared as the direct result of the blank operation. the loin may enable the surgeon to see the torn kidney. An attempt Pyelitis.-Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney is generally I should be made to save the kidney by suituring and draining: unless ! KIDWELLY-KIELCE 787 the damage is obviously past repair, the kidney should not be the town,' between Gaarden and Ellerbeck, and comprise basins removed without giving nature a chance. (J. R. B.; E. O.*) capable of containing the largest war-ships afloat. The imperial KIDWELLY (Cydweli), a decayed market-town and municipal yard employs 7000 hands, and another 7000 are employed in borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated (as its name two large private ship-building works, the Germania (Krupp's) implies) near the junction of two streams, the Gwendraeth Fawr and Howalds'. The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, commonly called and the Gwendraeth Fach, a short distance from the shores of the Kiel Canal, connecting the Baltic with the North Sea at Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (1901), 2285. It has a station on the Brunsbüttel, has its eastern entrance at Wik, it m. N. of Kiel Great Western railway. The chief attraction of Kidwelly is its (see GERMANY: Waterways). The town and adjacent villages, magnificent and well-preserved castle, one of the finest in Southe.g. Wik, Heikendorf and Laboe, are resorted to for sea-bathing, Wales, dating chiefly from the 13th century and admirably and in June of each year a regatta, attended by yachts from all situated on a knoll above the Gwendraeth Fach. The parish countries, is held. The Kieler Woche is one of the principal church of St Mary, of the 14th century, possesses a lofty tower social events in Germany, and corresponds to the “Cowes with a spire. The quiet little town has had a stirring history. It week" in England. Kiel is connected by day and night services was a place of some importance when William de Londres, a with Korsör in Denmark by express passenger boats. The companion of Fitz Hamon and his conquering knights, first harbour yields sprats which are in great repute. The principal erected a castle here. In 1135 Kidwelly was furiously attacked industries are those connected with the imperial navy and ship- by Gwenllian, wife of Griffith ap Rhys, prince of South Wales, building, but embrace also flour-mills, oil-works, iron-foundries, and a battle, fought close to the town at a place still known as printing-works, saw-mills, breweries, brick-works, soap-making Maes Gwenllian, ended in the total defeat and subsequent exe- and fish-curing. There is an important trade in coal, timber, cution of the Welsh princess. Later, the extensive lordship of cereals, fish, butter and cheese. Kidwelly became the property through marriage of Henry, earl of The name of Kiel appears as early as the roth century in the Lancaster, and to this circumstance is due the exclusive juris-form Kyl (probably from the Anglo-Saxon Kille = a safe place diction of the town. Kidwelly received its first charter of for ships). Kiel is mentioned as a city in the next century; in incorporation from Henry VI.; its present charter dating 1242 it received the Lübeck rights ; in the 14th century it from 1618. The decline of Kidwelly is due to the accumula- acquired various trading privileges, having in 1284 entered the tion of sand at the mouth of the river, and to the consequent Hanseatic League. In recent times Kiel has been associated prosperity of the neighbouring Llanelly. with the peace concluded in January 1814 between Great KIEF, KEF or KEIF (a colloquial form of the Arabic kaif, Britain, Denmark and Sweden, by which Norway was ceded to pleasure or enjoyment), the state of drowsy contentment pro- Sweden. In 1773 Kiel became part of Denmark, and in 1866 duced by the use of narcotics. To“ do kef," or to “make kef,” it passed with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Since is to pass the time in such a state. The word is used in northern being made a great naval arsenal, Kiel has rapidly developed Africa, especially in Morocco, for the drug used for the purpose. | in prosperity and population. KIEL, the chief naval port of Germany on the Baltic, a town See Prahl, Chronika der Stadt Kiel (Kiel, 1856); Erichsen, Topo- of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. Pop. (1900), graphie des Landkreises Kiel (Kiel, 1898): H. Eckardt, Al-Kiel in 107,938; (1905), 163,710, including the incorporated suburbs. Wort und Bild (Kiel, 1899); P. Hasse, Das Kieler Stadtbuch, 1264- It is beautifully situated at the southern end on the Kieler 1289 (Kiel, 1875); Das älteste Kieler Rentebuch 1300, 487, edited Busen (bay or harbour of Kiel), 70 m. by rail N. from Hamburg. by C. Reuter (Kiel, 1893): Das zweite Kieler Rentebuch 1487, 1586, edited by W. Stern (Kiel, 1904); and the Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft It consists of a somewhat cramped old town, lying between the für Kieler Stadtgeschichte (Kiel, 1877, 1904). harbour and a sheet of water called Kleiner Kiel, and a better built and more spacious new town, which has been increased KIELCE, a government in the south-west of Russian Poland, by the incorporation of the garden suburbs of Brunswick and surrounded by the governments of Piotrkow and Radom and by Düsternbrook. In the old town stands the palace, built in the Austrian Galicia. Area, 3896 sq. m. Its surface is an elevated 13th century, enlarged in the 18th and restored after a fire in plateau 800 to 1000 ft. in altitude, intersected in the north-east 1838. It was once the seat of the dukes of Holstein-Gottorp, by a range of hills reaching 1350 ft. and deeply trenched in the who resided here from 1721 to 1773, and became the residence south. It is drained by the Vistula on its south-east border, of Prince Henry of Prussia. Other buildings are the church of and by its tributaries, the Nida and the Pilica, which have a very St Nicholas (restored in 1877–1884), dating from 1240, with a rapid fall and give rise to inundations. Silurian and Devonian lofty steeple; the old town hall on the market square; the church quartzites, dolomite, limestones and sandstones prevail in the of the Holy Ghost; three fine modern churches, those of St James, north, and contain rich iron ores, lead and copper ores. Carbon- and St Jürgen and of St Ansgar; and the theatre. Further to the iferous deposits containing rich coal seams occur chiefly in the north and facing the bay is the university, founded in 1665 by south, and extend into the government of Piotrkow. Permian Christian Albert, duke of Schleswig, and named after him limestones and sandstones exist in the south. The Triassic “ Christian Albertina." The new buildings were erected in deposits contain very rich zinc ores of considerable thickness 1876, and connected with them are a library of 240,000 volumes, and lead. The Jurassic deposits consist of iron-clays and lime- a zoological museum, a hospital, a botanical garden and a school stones, containing large caves. The Cretaceous deposits yield of forestry. The university, which is celebrated as a medical gypsum, chalk and sulphur. White and black marble are also school, is attended by nearly 1000 students, and has a teaching extracted. The soil is of great variety and fertile in parts, but staff of over 100 professors and docents. Among other scientific owing to the proximity of the Carpathians, the climate is more and educational institutions are the Schleswig-Holstein museum severe than might be expected. Rye, wheat, oats, barley and of national antiquities in the old university buildings, the buckwheat are grown; modern intensive culture is spreading, Thaulow museum (rich in Schleswig-Holstein wood-carving of and land fetches high prices, the more so as the peasants' allot- the 16th and 17th centuries), the naval academy, the naval ments were small at the outset and are steadily decreasing. school and the school for engineers. Out of a total of 2,193,300 acres suitable for cultivation 53.4 % The pride of Kiel is its magnificent harbour, which has a are actually cultivated. Grain is exported. Gardening is a comparatively uniform depth of water, averaging 40 ft., and close thriving industry in the south; beet is grown for sugar in the to the shores 20 ft. Its length is 11 m.and its breadth varies from south-east. Industries are considerably developed: zinc ores m. at the southern end to 42 m. at the mouth. Its defences, are extracted, as well as some iron and a little sulphur. Tiles, which include two forts on the west and four on the east side, metallic goods, leather, timber goods and flour are the chief all situated about 5 m. from the head of the harbour at the products of the manufactures. Pop. (1897), 765,212, for the place (Friedrichsort) where its shores approach one another, most part Poles, with 11% Jews; (1906, estimated), 910,900. make it a place of great strategic stength. The imperial docks By religion 88% of the people are Roman Catholics. Kielce is (five in all) and ship-building yards are on the east side facing I divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which, with 788 KIELCE-KIEV sea, " populations in 1897, are Kielce (9.0.), Jedrzejow (Russ. Andreyev, To him Ibsen owed his character Brand in the drama of that 5010), Miechow (4156), Olkusz (3491), Pinczów (8095), Stopnica name. (4659) and Wloszczowa (23,065). See his posthumous autobiographical sketch, Syns punktetfor min KIELCE, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the above Forfattervirksomhed (“Standpoint of my Literary Work"): Georg government, 152 m. by rail S. of Warsaw, situated in a picturesque Brandes, Soren Kierkegaard (Copenhagen, 1877): A. Barthold, hilly country. Pop. (1890), 12,775; (1897), 23,189. It has a castle, ästhetischen Schriften S. Kierkegaarde (Halle, 1879) and S. K.'s Noten zu K.'s Lebensgeschichte (Halle, 1876), Die Bedeutung der built in 1638 and for some time inhabited by Charles XII.; Persönlichkeit in ihrer Verwirklichung der Ideale (Gütersloh, 1886); it was renowned for its portrait gallery and the library of F. Petersen, S. K.'s Christendomsforkyndelae (Christiania, 1877). Zaluski, which was taken to St Petersburg. The squares and For Kierkegaard's relation to recent Danish thought, see Höffding's boulevards are lined with handsome modern buildings. The Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie (1888), vol. ii. principal factories are hemp-spinning, cotton-printing and cement KIEV, KIEFF, or KiYEFF, a government of south-western works. The town was founded in 1173 by a bishop of Cracow, Russia, conterminous with those of Minsk, Poltava, Chernigov, In the 16th century it was famous for its copper mines, but they Podolia, Kherson and Volhynia; area 19,686 sq. m. It are no longer worked. represents a deeply trenched plateau, 600 to 800 ft. in altitude, KIEPERT, HEINRICH (1818–1899), German geographer, was reaching 950 to 1050 ft. in the west, assuming a steep character born at Berlin on the 31st of July 1818. He was educated at in the middle, and sloping gently northwards to the marshy the university there, studying especially history, philology and regions of the Pripet, while on the east it falls abruptly to the geography. In 1840-1846, in collaboration with Karl Ritter, valley of the Dnieper, which lies only 250 to 300 ft. above the he issued his first work, Allas von Hellas und den hellenischen General A. Tillo has shown that neither geologically nor Kolonien, which brought him at once into eminence in the tectonically can spurs of the Carpathians penetrate into sphere of ancient historical cartography. In 1848 his Historisch- Kiev. Many useful minerals are extracted, such as granites, geographischer Atlas der alten Welt appeared, and in 1854 the gabbro, labradorites of a rare beauty, syenites and gneiss, first edition of the Atlas antiquus, which has obtained very marble, grinding stones, pottery clay, phosphorites, iron ore wide recognition, being issued in English, French, Russian, and mineral colours. Towards the southern and central parts Dutch and Italian. In 1894 Kiepert produced the first part the surface is covered by deep rich“ black earth." Nearly the of a larger atlas of the ancient world under the title Formae whole of the government belongs to the basin of the Dnieper, orbis antiqui; his valuable maps in Corpus inscriptionum that river forming part of its eastern boundary. In the south- latinarum must also be mentioned. In 1877–1878 his Lehrbuch west are a few small tributaries of the Bug. Besides the Dnieper der allen Geographie was published, and in 1879 Leitfaden der the only navigable stream is its confluent the Pripet. The alten Geographie, which was translated into English (A Manual climate is more moderate than in middle Russia, the average of Ancient Geography, 1881) and into French. Among Kiepert's temperatures at the city of Kiev being-year, 44:5°; January, general works one of the most important was the excellent 21°; July, 68°; yearly rainfall, 22 inches. The lowlands of Neuer Handallas über alle Teile der Erde (1855 et seq.), and he the north are covered with woods; they have the flora of also compiled a large number of special and educational maps. the Polyesie, or marshy woodlands of Minsk, and are peopled Asia Minor was an area in which he took particular interest. with animals belonging to higher latitudes.' The population, He visited it four times in 1841-1888; and his first map (1843- which was 2,017,262 in 1863, reached 3,575,457 in 1897, of whom 1846), together with his Karte des osmanischen Reiches in Asien 1,791,503 were women, and 147,878 lived in towns; and in (1844 and 1869), formed the highest authority for the geography 1904 it reached 4,042,526, of whom 2,030,744 were women. of the region. Kiepert was professor of geography in the The estimated population in 1906 was 4,206,100. In 1897 there university of Berlin from 1854. He died at Berlin on the 21st were 2,738,977 Orthodox Greeks, 14,888 Nonconformists, 91,821 of April 1899. He left unpublished considerable material in Roman Catholics, 423,875 Jews, and 6820 Protestants. various departments of his work, and with the assistance of No less than 41% of the land is in large holdings, and 45% this his son Richard (b. 1846), who followed his father's career, belongs to the peasants. Out of an area of 12,600,000 acres, was enabled to issue a map of Asia Minor in 24 sheets, on a scale 11,100,000 acres are available for cultivation, 4,758,000 acres of 1: 400,000 (1902 et seq.), and to carry on the issue of Formae are under crops, 650,000 acres under meadows, and 1,880,000 orbis antiqui. acres under woods. About 290,000 acres are under beetroot, KIERKEGAARD, SÖREN AABY (1813-1855), Danish philo- for sugar. The crops principally grown are wheat, rye, oats, sopher, the seventh child of a Jutland hosier, was born in Copen- millet, barley and buckwheat, with, in smaller quantities, hagen on the 5th of May 1813. As a boy he was delicate, hemp, flax, vegetables, fruit and tobacco. Camels have been precocious and morbid in temperament. He studied theology used for agricultural work. Bee-keeping and gardening are at the university of Copenhagen, where he graduated in 1840 general. The chief factories are sugar works and distilleries. with a treatise On Irony. For two years he travelled in The former produce 850,000 to 1,150,000 tons of sugar and Germany, and in 1842 settled finally in Copenhagen, where he over 50,000 tons of molasses annually. The factories include died on the rith of November 1855. He had lived in studious machinery works and iron foundries, tanneries, steam flour- retirement, subject 10 physical suffering and mental depression. mills, petroleum refineries and tobacco factories. Two main His first volume, Papers of a Still Living Man (1838), a charac- railways, starting from Kiev and Cherkasy respectively, cross terization of Hans Andersen, was a failure, and he was for some the government from N.E. to S.W., and two lines traverse its time unnoticed. In 1843 he published Euten-Eller (Either-or) southern part from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the Dnieper. (4th ed., 1878), the work on which his reputation mainly rests; Steamers ply on the Dnieper and some of its tributaries. Wheat, it is a discussion of the ethical and aesthetic ideas of life. In rye, oats, barley and flour are exported. There are two great his last years he carried on a feverish agitation against the fairs, at Kiev and Berdichev respectively, and many of minor theology and practice of the state church, on the ground that importance. Trade is very brisk, the river traffic alone being religion is for the individual soul, and is to be separated abso- valued at over one million sterling annually. The government is lutely from the state and the world. In general his philosophy divided into twelve districts. The chief town is Kiev (9.v.)and the was a reaction against the speculative thinkers-Steffens (q.v.), district towns, with their populations in 1897, Berdichev (53,728), Niels Treschow (1751-1833) and Frederik Christian Sibbern Cherkasy (29,619), Chigirin (9870), Kanev (8892), Lipovets (1785-1872); it was based on the absolute dualism of Faith and (6068), Radomysl (11,154), Skvira (16,265), Tarashcha (11,452), Knowledge. His chief follower was Rasmus Nielsen (1809-1884) Umañ (28,628), Vasilkov (17,824) and Zvenigorodka (16,972). and he was opposed by Georg Brandes, who wrote a brilliant The plains on the Dnieper have been inhabited since probably account of his life and works. As a dialectician he has been the Palaeolithic period, and the burial-grounds used since the described as little inferior to Plato, and his influence on the literature of Denmark is considerable both in style and in matter. i Schmahlhausen's Flora of South-West Russia (Kiev, 1886) contains a good description of the flora or the province. KIEV 789 Stone Age. The burial mounds (kurgans) of both the Scythians 1 in florid rococo style, dates from 1744-1767. The church of the and the Slavs, traces of old forts (gorodishche), stone statues, and Tithes, rebuilt in 1828–1842, was founded in the close of the roth more recent caves offer abundant material for anthropological century by Prince Vladimir in honour of two martyrs whom and ethnographical study. he had put to death; and the monastery of St Michael (or of KIEV, a city of Russia, capital of the above government, on the Golden Heads--so called from the fifteen gilded cupolas the right or west bank of the Dnieper, in 50° 27' 12" N. and of the original church) claims to have been built in 1108 by 30° 30' 18" E., 628 m. by rail S.W. of Moscow and 406 m. by railSvyatopolk II., and was restored in 1655 by the Cossack chieftain N.N.E. of Odessa. The site of the greater part of the town Bogdan Chmielnicki. On a plateau above the river, the favour- consists of hills or bluffs separated by ravines and hollows, the ite promenade of the citizens, stands the Vladimir monument elevation of the central portions being about 300 ft. above the (1853) in bronze. In this quarter, some distance back from the ordinary level of the Dnieper. On the opposite side of the river river, is the new and richly decorated Vladimir cathedral (1862– the country spreads out low and level like a sea. Having 1896), in the Byzantine style, distinguished for the beauty and received all its important tributaries, the Dnieper is here a broad richness of its paintings. (400 to 580 yds.) and navigable stream; but as it approaches the Until 1820 the south-eastern district of Pechersk was the town it divides into two arms and forms a low grassy island industrial and commercial quarter; but it has been greatly of considerable extent called Tukhanov. During the spring altered in carrying out fortifications commenced in that year floods there is a rise of 16 or even 20 ft., and not only the island by Tsar Nicholas I. Most of the houses are small and old- but the country along the left bank and the lower grounds on the fashioned. The monastery--the Kievo-Pecherskaya-is the right bank are laid under water. The bed of the river is sandy chief establishment of its kind in Russia; it is visited every and shifting, and it is only by costly engineering works that the year by about 250,000 pilgrims. Of its ten or twelve conventual main stream has been kept from returning to the more eastern churches the chief is that of the Assumption. There are four channel, along which it formerly flowed. Opposite the southern distinct quarters in the monastery, each under a superior, part of the town, where the currents have again united, the subject to the archimandrite: the-Laura proper or New Monas- river is crossed by a suspension bridge, which at the time of its tery, that of the Infirmary, and those of the N er and the erection (1848-1853) was the largest enterprise of the kind in Further Caves. These caves or catacombs are the most striking Europe. It is about half a mile in length and 52% ft. in breadth, characteristic of the place; the name Pechersk, indeed, is con- and the four principal spans are each 440 ft. The bridge was nected with the Russian peshchera, “a cave." The first series designed by Vignoles, and cost about £400,000. Steamers ply of caves, dedicated to St Anthony, contains eighty saints in summer to Kremenchug, Ekaterinoslav, Mogilev, Pinsk and tombs; the second, dedicated to St Theodosius, a saint greatly Chernigov. Altogether Kiev is one of the most beautiful cities venerated in Russia, about forty-five. The bodies were formerly in Russia, and the vicinity too is picturesque. exposed to view; but the pilgrims who now pass through the Until 1837 the town proper consisted of the Old Town, galleries see nothing but the draperies and the inscriptions. Pechersk and Podoli; but in that year three districts were Among the more notable names are those of Nestor the chroni- added, and in 1879 the limits were extended to include Kure- cler, and Iliya of Murom, the Old Cossack of the Russian epics. nevka, Lukyanovka, Shulyavka and Solomenka. The admini- The foundation of the monastery is ascribed to two saints of strative area of the town is 13,500 acres. the rith century-Anthony and Hilarion, the latter metropolitan The Old Town, or Old Kiev quarter (Starokievskaya Chast), of Kiev. By the middle of the 12th century it had become occupies the highest of the range of hills. Here the houses are wealthy and beautiful. Completely ruined by the Mongol most closely built, and stone structures most abundant. In prince Batu in 1240, it remained deserted for more than two some of the principal streets are buildings of three to five centuries. Prince Simeon Oblkovich was the first to begin the storeys, a comparatively rare thing in Russia, indeed in the restoration. A conflagration laid the buildings waste in 1716, main street (Kreshchatik) fine structures have been erected and their present aspect is largely due to Peter the Great. The since 1896. In the rith century the area was enclosed by cathedral of the Assumption, with seven gilded cupolas, was earthen ramparts, with bastions and gateways; but of these dedicated in 1989, destroyed by the Mongols in 1240, and the only surviving remnant is the Golden Gate. In the centre restored in 1729; the wall-paintings of the interior are by of the Old Town stands the cathedral of St Sophia, the oldest V. Vereshchagin. The monastery contains a school of picture- cathedral in the Russian empire. Its external walls are of a makers of ancient origin, whose productions are widely pale green and white colour, and it has ten cupolas, four spangled diffused throughout the empire, and a printing press, from with stars and six surmounted each with a cross. The golden which have issued liturgical and religious works, the oldest cupola of the four-storeyed campanile is visible for many miles known examples bearing the date 1616. It possesses a wonder- across the steppes. The statement frequently made that the working ikon or image of the “ Death of the Virgin," said to church was a copy of St Sophia's in Constantinople has been have been brought from Constantinople in 1073, and the second shown to be a mistake. The building measures in length 177 ft., highest bell-tower in Russia. while its breadth is 118 ft. But though the plan shows no The Podol quarter lies on the low ground at the foot of the imitation of the great Byzantine church, the decorations of the bluffs. It is the industrial and trading quarter of the city, interior (mosaics, frescoes, &c.) do indicate direct Byzantine and the seat of the great fair of the “ Contracts,” the transference influence. During the occupation of the church by the Uniats of which from Dubno in 1797 largely stimulated the commercial or United Greek Church in the 17th century these were covered prosperity of Kiev. The present regular arrangement of its with whitewash, and were only discovered in 1842, after which streets arose after the great fire of 1811. Lipki district (from the cathedral was internally restored, but the chapel of the the lipki or lime trees, destroyed in 1833) is of recent origin, Three Pontiffs has been left untouched to show how carefully and is mainly inhabited by the well-to-do classes. It is some- the old style has been preserved or copied. Among the mosaics times called the palace quarter, from the royal palace erected is a colossal representation of the Virgin, 15 ft. in height, which, between 1868 and 1870, on the site of the older structure dating like the so-called “indestructible wall ” in which it is inlaid, from the time of Tsaritsa Elizabeth. Gardens and parks dates from the time (1019–1054) of Prince Yaroslav. This prince abound; the palace garden is exceptionally fine, and in the same founded the church in 1037 in gratitude for his victory over the neighbourhood are the public gardens with the place of amuse- Petchenegs, a Turkish race then settled in the Dnieper valley. ment known as the Château des Fleurs. His sarcophagus, curiously sculptured with palms, fishes, &c., In the New Buildings, or the Lybed quarter, are the university is preserved. The church of St Andrew the Apostle occupies and the botanical gardens. The Ploskaya Chast (Flat quarter) the spot where, according to Russian tradition, that apostle or Obolon contains the lunatic asylum; the Lukyanovka Chast, stood when as yet Kiev was not, and declared that the hill the penitentiary and the camp and barracks; and the Bulvar. would become the site of a great city. The present building, Inaya Chast, the military gymnasium of St Vladimir and the 790 KILBARCHAN KILDARE railway station. The educational and scientific institutions of town), cotton, silks and “ Paisley" shawls, and calico-printing, Kiev rank next to those of the two capitals. Its university, besides quarries, coal and iron mines in the neighbourhood. removed from Vilna to Kiev in 1834, has about 2500 students, Two miles south-west is a great rock of greenstone called Clocho- and is well provided with observatories, laboratories, libraries derrick, 12 ft. in height, 22 ft. in length, and 17 ft. in breadth. and museums; five scientific societies and two societies for About 2 m. north-west on Gryfe Water, lies Bridge of Weir (pop. aid to poor students are attached to it. There are, besides, a 2242), the industries of which comprise tanning, currying, iheological academy, founded in 1615; a society of church calico-printing, thread-making and wood-turning. It has a archaeology, which possesses a museum built in 1900, very rich station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Immediately in old ikons, crosses, &c., both Russian and Oriental; an to the south-west of Bridge of Weir are the ruins of Ranfurly imperial academy of music; university courses for ladies; a Castle, the ancient seat of the Knoxes. Sir John de Knocks polytechnic, with 1300 students—the building was completed (A. 1422) is supposed to have been the great-grandfather of in 1900 and stands on the other side of Old Kiev, away from John Knox; and Andrew Knox (1559-1633), one of the most the river. Of the learned societies the more important are the distinguished members of the family, was successively bishop medical (1840), the naturalists' (1869), the juridical (1876), the of the Isles, abbot of Icolmkill (Iona), and bishop of Raphoe. historical of Nestor the Chronicler (1872), the horticultural About 4 m. N.W. of Bridge of Weir lies the holiday resort of (1875), and the dramatic (1879), the archaeological commission Kilmalcolm (pronounced Kilmacome; pop. 2220), with a (1843), and the society of church archaeology. station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has Kiev is the principal centre for the sugar industry of Russia, a golf-course, public park and hydropathic establishment, as well as for the general trade of the region. Its Stryetenskaya Several charitable institutions have been built in and near the fair is important. More than twenty caves were discovered on town, amongst them the well-known Quarrier's Orphan Homes the slope of a hill (Kirilov Street), and one of them, excavated of Scotland. in 1876, proved to have belonged to neolithic troglodytes. KILBIRNIE, a town in north Ayrshire, Scotland, on the Numerous graves, both from the pagan and the Christian Garnock, 201 m. S.W. of Glasgow, with stations on the Glasgow periods, the latter containing more than 2000 skeletons, with & South-Western and the Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), a great number of small articles, were discovered in the same 4571. The industries include flax-spinning, rope works, year in the same neighbourhood. Many colonial Roman coins engineering works, and manufactures of linen thread, wincey, of the 3rd and 4th centuries, and silver dirhems, stamped at flannels and fishing-nets, and there are iron and steel works and Samarkand, Balkh, Merv, &c., were also found in 1869. coal mines in the vicinity. The parish church is of historical In 1862 the populātion of Kiev was returned as 70,341; interest, most of the building dating from the Reformation. in 1874 the total was given as 127,251; and in 1902 as 319,000. In the churchyard are the recumbent effigies of Captain Thomas This includes 20,000 Poles and 12,000 Jews. Kiev is the head-Crawford of Jordanhill (d. 1603), who in 1575 effected the surprise quarters of the IX. Army Corps, and of a metropolitan of the of Dumbarton Castle, and his lady. Near Kilbirnie Place, a Orthodox Greek Church. modern mansion, are the ruins of Kilbirnie Castle, an ancient The history of Kiev cannot be satisfactorily separated from that seat of the earls of Crawford, destroyed by fire in 1757. About of Russia. According to Nestor's legend it was founded in 864 by i m. E. is Kilbirnie Loch, 1} m. long. three brothers, Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv, and after their deaths the KILBRIDE, WEST, a town on the coast of Ayrshire, Scotland, principality was seized by two Varangians (Scandinavians), Askold and Dir, followers of Rurik, also in 864. Rurik's successor Oleg near the mouth of Kilbride Burn, 4 m. N.N.W. of Ardrossan conquered Kiev in 882 and made it the chief town of his principality, and 351 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western It was in the waters of the Dnieper opposite the town that Prince railway. Pop. (1901), 2315. It has been growing in repute Vladimir, the first saint of the Russian church, caused his people as a health resort; the only considerable industry is weaving. to be baptized (988), and Kiev became the seat of the first Christian church, of the first Christian school, and of the first library in In the neighbourhood are the ruins of Law Castle, Crosbie Russia. For three hundred and seventy-six years itAwas an indepen- Castle and Portinçross Castle, the last, dating from the 13th dent Russian city; for eighty years (1240-1320) it was subject to the century, said to be a seat of the Stuart kings. Farland Head, Mongols; for two hundred and forty-nine years (1320-1569) it be- with cliffs 300 ft. high, lies 2 m. W. by N. ; and the inland country longed to the Lithuanian principality; and for eighty-five years to Poland (1569–1654). It was finally united to the Russian empire is hilly, one point, Kaim Hill, being 1270 ft. above sea level. in 1686. The city was devastated by the khan of the Crimea in KILDARE, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, 1483. The Magdeburg rights, which the city enjoyed from 1516, | bounded W. by Queen's County and King's County, N. by Meath, were abolished in 1835, and the ordinary form of town government introduced ; and in 1840 it was made subject to the common civil 418,496 acres or about 654 sq. m. E. by Dublin and Wicklow, and S. by Carlow. The area is law of the empire. The greater part of Kildare The Russian literature concerning Kiev is voluminous. Its belongs to the great central plain of Ireland. In the east of the bibliography will be found in the Russian Geographical Dictionary county this plain is bounded by the foot-hills of the mountains of P. Semenov, and in the Russian Encyclopaedic Dictionary, pub- of Dublin and Wicklow; in the centre it is interrupted by an lished by Brockhaus and Efron (vol. xv., 1895). Among recent publications are: Rambaud's La Russie épique (Paris, 1876); clevated plateau terminated on the south by the hills of Dun. Avenarius, Kniga o Kievskikh Bogatuiryakh (St Petersburg, 1876). murry, and on the north by the Hill of Allen (300 ft.) which rises dealing with the early Kiev heroes; Zakrevski, Opisanie Kieva (1868): abruptly from the Bog of Allen. The principal rivers are the the materials issued by the commission for the investigation of the Boyne, which with its tributary the Blackwater rises in the north ancient records of the city; Taranovskiy, Gorod Kiev (Kiev, 1881); De Baye, Kiev, la mère des villes russes (Paris, 1896); Goetz, Das part of the county, but soon passes into Meath; the Barrow, Kiewer Höhlenkloster als Kullurzentrum des Vormongolischen Russ- which forms the boundary of Kildare with Queen's County, and lands (Passau, 1904). See also Count Bobrinsky, Kurgans of Smiela receives the Greese and the Lane shortly after entering Kildare; (1897); and N. Byelyashevsky, The Mints of Kiev. the Lesser Barrow, which flows southward from the Bog of Allen (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) to near Rathangan; and the Liffey, which enters the county near KILBARCHAN, a burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland, Ballymore Eustace, and flowing north-west and then north-east 1 m. from Milliken Park station on the Glasgow & South- quits it at Leixlip, having received the Morrel between Celbridge Western railway, 13 m. W. by S. of Glasgow. Pop. (1901), and Clane, and the Ryewater at Leixlip. Trout are taken in 2886. The public buildings include a hall, library and masonic the upper waters, and there are salmon reaches near Leixlip. lodge (dating from 1784). There also a park. In a niche in the town steeple (erected in 1755) is the statue of the famous grey Carboniferous limestone, well seen in the flat land about Geology:—The greater part of the county is formed of typical piper, who died about the beginning of the 17th century and is Clane. The natural steps at the Salmon Falls at Leixlip are formed commemorated in the elegy on “ The Life and Death of Habbie from similar strata. Along the south-east the broken ground of Simson, Piper of Kilbarchan” by Robert Sempill of Beltrees chain." The granite core of the latter, with its margin of mica-schist Silurian shales forms the higher country, rising towards the Leinster (1595-1665). The chief industries are manufactures of linen produced by the metamorphism of the Silurian beds, appears in (introduced in 1739 and dating the rise of the prosperity of the the south round Castledermot. A parallel ridge of Silurian rocks, KILDARE-KILHAM 791 including an interesting series of basic lavas, rises from the plain the only daughter of William de Ferrars it passed to William de north of Kildare town (Hill of Allen and Chair of Kildare), with some Vescy—who, when challenged to single combat by John Fitz Old Red Sandstone on its flanks. The limestone in this ridge is rich in fossils of Bala age, and has been compared with that at Port Thomas, baron of Offaly, for accusing him of treason, fled to rane in county Dublin. The low ground is diversified by eskers France. His lands were thereupon in 1297 bestowed on Fitz and masses of glacial gravel, notably at the dry sandy plateau Thomas, who in 1316 was created earl of Kildare, and in 1317 of the Curragh; but in part it retains sufficient moisture to give rise to extensive bogs. The Liffey, which comes down as a mountain- was appointed sheriff of Kildare, the office remaining in the stream in the Silurian area, forming a picturesque fall in the gorge family until the attainder of Gerald, the ninth earl, in the reign of Pollaphuca, wanders through the limestone region between low of Henry VIII. Kildare was a liberty of Dublin until 1296, banks as a true river of the plain. when an act was passed constituting it a separate county. Climate and Industries.-Owing to a considerable degree to the large extent of bog, the climate of the northern districts is very In the county are several old gigantic pillar-stones, the moist, and fogs are frequent, but the eastern portion is drier, and the principal being those at Punchestown, Harristown, Jigginstown climate of the Liffey valley is very mild and healthy. The soil, and Mullamast. Among remarkable earthworks are the raths whether resting on the limestone or on the clay slate, is principally at Mullamast, Knockcaellagh near Kilcullen, Ardscull near a rich deep loam inclining occasionally to clay, easily cultivated Naas, and the numerous sepulchral mounds in the Curragh. and very fertile if properly drained. About 40,000 acres in the northern part of the county are included in the Bog of Allen, which of the round towers the finest is that of Kildare; there are is, however, intersected in many places by elevated tracts of firm remains of others at Taghadoe, Old Kilcullen, Oughterard and ground. To the east of the town of Kildare is the Curragh, an un- Castledermot. Formerly there were an immense number of dulating down upwards of 4800 acres in extent. The most fertile religious houses in the county. There are remains of a Francis- and highly cultivated districts of Kildare are the valleys of the Liffey and a tract in the south watered by the Greese. The demesne lands can abbey at Castledermot. At Graney are ruins of an Augus- along the valley of the Liffey are finely wooded. More attenticn is paid tinian nunnery and portions of a building said to have belonged to drainage and the use of manures on the larger farms than is done to the Knights Templars. The town of Kildare has ruins of in many other parts of Ireland. The pastures which are not subjected four monastic buildings, including the nunnery founded by St to the plough are generally very rich and fattening. The tion of tillage to, pasture is roughly as I to 21. Wheat is a scanty Brigit. The site of a monastery at Old Kilcullen, said to date crop, but oats, barley, turnips and potatoes are all considerably from the time of St Patrick, is marked by two stone crosses, one cultivated. Cattle and sheep are grazed extensively, and the num- of which is curiously sculptured. The fine abbey of Monas- bers are well sustained. Of the former, crosses with the shorthorn terevan is now the seat of the marquess of Drogheda. On the or the Durham are the commonest breed. Leicesters are the prin- cipal breed of sheep. Poultry farming is a growing industry. Liffey are the remains of Great Connel Abbey near Celbridge, of Though possessing a good supply of water-power the county is St Wolstan's near Celbridge, and of New Abbey. At Moone, almost destitute of manufactures; there are a few small cotton, where there was a Franciscan monastery, are the remains of an woollen and paper mills, as well as breweries and distilleries, and ancient cross with curious sculpturings. Among castles may several corn mills Large quantities of turf are exported to Dublin by canal. The main line of the Midland Great Western follows the be mentioned those of Athy and Castledermot, built about the northern boundary of the county, with a branch to Carbury and time of the Anglo-Norman invasion; Maynooth Castle, built by Edenderry; and that of the Great Southern & Western crosses the Fitzgeralds; Kilkea, originally built by the seventh earl of the county by way of Newbridge and Kildare, with southward Kildare, and restored within the 19th century; and Timolin, branches to Naas (and Tullow, county Carlow) and to Athy and erected in the reign of King John. the south: The northern border is traversed by the Royal Canal, which connects Dublin with the Shannon at Cloondara. Farther KILDARE, a market town and the county town of county south the Grand Canal, which connects Dublin with the Shannon Kildare, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, a junction at Shannon Harbour, occupies the valley of the Liffey until at on the main line of the Great Southern & Western railway, Sallins it enters the Bog of Allen, passing into King's County near the source of the Boyne. Several branch canals afford communica-Kilkenny diverging southward. Pop. (1901), 1576. The town 30. m. S.W. from Dublin, the branch line to Athy, Carlow and tion with the southern districts. is of high antiquarian interest. There is a Protestant cathedral Population and Administration.- The decreasing population church, the diocese of which was united with Dublin in 1846. (70,206 in 1891; 63,566 in 1901) shows an unusual excess of St Brigit or Bridget founded the religious community in the sth males over females, in spite of an excess of male emigrants. century, and a fire sacred to the memory of the saint is said to About 86% of the population are Roman Catholics. The have been kept incessantly burning for several centuries (until county comprises 14 baronies and contains 110 civil parishes. the Reformation) in a small ancient chapel called the Fire House, Assizes are held at Naas, and quarter sessions at Athy, Kildare, part of which remains. The cathedral suffered with the town Maynooth and Naas. The military stations at Newbridge and from frequent burnings and destructions at the hands of the Danes the Curragh constitute the Curragh military district, and the and the Irish, and during the Elizabethan wars. The existing barracks at Athy and Naas are included in the Dublin military church was partially in ruins when an extensive restoration was district. The principal towns are Athy (pop. 3599), Naas (3836) begun in 1875 under the direction of G.E. Street; while the choir, and Newbridge (2903); with Maynooth (which is the seat of a which dated from the latter part of the 17th century, was rebuilt Roman Catholic college), Celbridge, Kildare (the county town), in 1896. Close to the church are an ancient cross and a very fine Monasterevan, Kilcullen and Leixlip. Ballitore, one of the larger round tower its summit unhappily restored with a modern villages, is a Quaker settlement, and at a school here Edmund battlement) 1051 ft, high, with a doorway with unusual ornament Burke was educated. Kildare returned ten members to the Irish of Romanesque character. There are remains of a castle of the parliament, of whom eight represented boroughs, it sends only 13th century, and of a Carmelite monastery. From the elevated iwo (for the north and south divisions of the county) to the situation of the town, a striking view of the great central plain parliament of the United Kingdom. The county is in the of Ireland is afforded. Kildare was incorporated by James II., Protestant diocese of Dublin and the Roman Catholic dioceses and returned two members to the Irish parliament. of Dublin and of Kildare and Leighlin. KILHAM, ALEXANDER (1762-1798), English Methodist, History and Antiquities.--According to a tale in the Book of was born at Epworth, Lincolnshire, on the roth of July 1762. Leinster the original name of Kildare was Druim Criaidh (Drum- He was admitted by John Wesley in 1785 into the regular itin- cree), which it retained until the time of St Brigit, after which erant ministry. He became the leader and spokesman of the it was changed to Cilldara, the church of the oak, from an old democratic party in the Connexion which claimed for the laity oak under whose shadow the saint had constructed her cell. For the free election of class-leaders and stewards, and equal repre- some centuries it was under the government of the Macmur- sentation with ministers at Conference. They also contended roughs, kings of Leinster, but with the remainder of Leinster it that the ministry should possess no official authority or pastoral was granted by Henry II. to Strongbow. On the division of the prerogative, but should merely carry into effect the decisions palatinate of Leinster among the five grand-daughters of Strong. of majorities in the different meetings. Kilham further advo- bow, Kildare fell to Sibilla, the fourth daughter, who married cated the complete separation of the Methodists from the William de Ferrars, earl of Derby. Through the marriage of | Anglican Church. In the violent controversy that ensued he i 792 KILIA-KILIN... wrote many pamphlets, often anonymous, and frequently not forth vast lava-flows. In the south-east the regularity of the in the best of taste. For this he was arraigned before the outline is likewise broken by a ridge running down from Conference of 1796 and expelled, and he then founded the Mawenzi. Methodist New Connexion (1798, merged since 1906 in the United The lava slopes of the Kibo peak are covered to a depth of Methodist Church). He died in 1798, and the success of the some 200 ft. with an ice-cap, which, where ravines occur, takes church he founded is a tribute to his personality and to the the form of genuine glaciers. The crater walls are highest on principles for which he strove. Kilham's wiſe (Hannah Spurr, the south, three small peaks, uncovered by ice, rising from the 1774-1832), whom he married only a few months before his rim on this side. To the central and highest of these, the culmi- death, became a Quaker, and worked as a missionary in the nating point of the mountain, the name Kaiser Wilhelm Spitze Gambia and at Sierra Leone; she reduced to writing several West has been given. The rim here sinks precipitously some 600 ft. African vernaculars. to the interior of the crater, which measures rather over 2000 KILIA, a town of S. Russia, in the government of Bessarabia, yds. in diameter, and is in part covered by ice, in part by a bare 100 m. S.W. of Odessa, on the Kilia branch of the Danube, 20 m. cone of ashes. On the west the rim is breached, allowing the from its mouth. Pop. (1897), 11,703. It has steam flour-mills passage of an important glacier formed from the snow which and a rapidly increasing trade. The town, anciently known as falls within the crater. Lower down this cleft, which owed its Chilia, Chele, and Lycostomium, was a place of banishment for origin to dislocation, is occupied by two glaciers, one of which political dignitaries of Byzantium in the 12th-13th centuries. reaches a lower level (13,800 ft.) than any other on Kilimanjaro. After belonging to the Genoose from 1381-1403 it was occupied on the north-west three large glaciers reach down to 16,000 ſt. successively by Walachia and Moldavia, until in 1484 it fell into Mawenzi peak has no permanent ice-cap, though at times snow the hands of the Ottoman Turks. It was taken from them by lies in patches. The rock of which it is composed has become the Russians in 1790. After being bombarded by the Anglo- very jagged by denudation, forming stupendous walls and preci- French fleet in July 1854, it was given to Rumania on the con- pices. On the cast the peak falls with great abruptness some clusion of the war; but in 1878 was transferred to Russia with 6500 ft. to a vast ravine, due apparently to dislocation and Bessarabia. sinking of the ground. Below this the slope is more gradual and KILIAN (CHILIAN, KILLIAN), ST, British missionary bishop more symmetrical. Like the other high mountains of eastern and the apostle of eastern Franconia, where he began his Africa, Kilimanjaro presents well-defined zones of vegetation. labours towards the end of the 7th century. There are several | The lowest slopes are arid and scantily covered with scrub, but biographies of him, the first of which dates back to the oth between 4000 and 6ooo ft. on the south side the slopes are well century (Bibliotheca hagiographica latina, Nos. 4660-4663). The watered and cultivated. The forest zone begins, on the south, oldest texts which refer to him are an 8th century necrology at at about 6500 ft., and extends to 9500, but in the north it is Würzburg and the notice by Hrabanus Maurus in his martyr- narrower, and in the north-west, the driest quarter of the moun. ology. According to Maurus Kilian was a native of Ireland, tain, almost disappears. In the alpine zone, marked especially whence with his companions he went to eastern Franconia. After by tree lobelias and Senecio, flowering plants extend up to having preached the gospel in Würzburg, the whole party were 15,700 ft. on the sheltered south-west flank of Mawenzi, but put to death by the orders of an unjust judge named Gozbert. elsewhere vegetation grows only in dwarfed patches beyond It is difficult to fix the period with precision, as the judge 13,000 ft. The special fauna and flora of the upper zone are (or duke) Gozbert is not known through other sources. Kilian's akin to those of other high African mountains, including Came- comrades, Coloman and Totman, were, according to the Würz- roon. The southern slopes, between 4000 and 6000 ft., form the burg necrology, respectively priest and deacon. The elevation of well-peopled country of Chaga, divided into small districts. the relics of the three martyrs was performed by Burchard, the As the natives believe that the summit of Kilimanjaro is composed first bishop of Würzburg, and they are venerated in the cathedral of silver, it is conjectured that Aristotle's reference to “ the so-called of that town. His festival is celebrated on the 8th of July. Silver Mountain from which the Nile flows was based on reports See Acta Sanctorum, Julii, ii. 599-619; F. Emmerich, Der heilige Mountain " was Ruwenzori (9.v.), from whose snow-clad heights about this mountain. It is possible, however, that the "Silver Kilian (Würzburg, 1896); J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, vii several headstreams of the Nile do descend. It is also possible, 122-143 (Dublin, 1875-1904); A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutsch- lands, 3rd ed., i. 382 seq. (H. De.) though improbable, that Ruwenzori and not Kilimanjaro nor Kenya may be the range known to Ptolemy and to the Arab geographers KILIMANJARO, a great mountain in East Africa, its centre of the middle ages as the Mountains of the Moon. Reports of the lying in 3° 5' S. and 37° 23' E. It is the highest known summit of existence of mountains covered with snow were brought to Zanzibar about 1845 by Arab traders. Attracted by these reports Johannes the continent, rising as a volcanic cone from a plateau of about Rebmann of the Church Missionary Society journeyed inland from 3.000 ſt. to 19,321 ft. Though completely isolated it is but one Mombasa in 1848 and discovered Kilimanjaro, which is some 200 m. of several summits which crown the eastern edge of the great inland, Rebmann's account, though fully borne out by his colleague plateau of equatorial Africa. About 200 m. almost due north, professional geographers. The matter was finally set at rest by the Dr Ludwig Krapf, was at first received with great incredulity by across the wide expanse of the Kapte and Kikuyu uplands, lies visits paid to the mountain by Baron Karl von der Decken (1861 Mount Kenya, somewhat inferior in height and mass to Kiliman- and 1862) and Charles New (1867), the latter of whom reached the jaro; and some 25 m. due west rises the noble mass of Mount lower edge of the snow. Kilimanjaro has since been explored by Meru. Joseph Thomson (1883), Sir H. H. Johnston (1884), and others. It has been the special study of Dr Hans Meyer, who made four ex• The major axis of Kilimanjaro runs almost east and west, and peditions to it, accomplishing the first ascent to the summit in 1889. on it rise the two principal summits, Kibo in the west, Mawenzi In the partition of Africa between the powers of western Europe, (Ki-mawenzi) in the east. Kibo, the higher, is a truncated cone Kilimanjaro was secured by Germany (1886) though the first treatics with a nearly perfect extinct crater, and marks a comparatively by Sir H. H. Johnston on behalf of a British company. On the concluded with native chiefs in that region had been made in 1884 recent period of volcanic activity; while Mawenzi (16,892 ft.) is southern side of the mountain at Moshi is a German government the very ancient core of a former summit, of which the crater walls have been removed by denudation. The two peaks, about See R. Thornton (the geologist of von der Decken's party) in 7 m. apart, are connected by a saddle or plateau, about 14,000 ft. Proc. of Roy. Geog. Soc. (1861-1862); Ludwig Krapf, Travels in East in altitude, below which the vast mass slopes with great regularity Hooker in Journal of Linnean Society (1875); Sir H. Africa (1860); Charles New, Liſe ... in East Africa (1873); Sir J. D. Johnston, in a typical volcanic curve, especially in the south, to the plains The Kilimanjaro Expedition (1886); Hans Meyer, Across East African below. The sides are furrowed on the south and east by a large Glaciers (1891); Der Kilimanjaro (Berlin, 1900). Except the last- number of narrow ravines, down which flow streams which feed named all these works were published in London. (E. He.) the Pangani and Lake Jipe in the south and the Tsavo tributary KILIN, or CH'-I-LIN, one of the four symbolical creatures of the Sabaki in the east. South-west of Kibo, the Shira ridge which in Chinese mythology are believed to keep watch and seems to be of independent origin, while in the north-west a ward over the Celestial Empire. It is a unicorn, portrayed in rugged group of cones, of comparatively recent origin, has poured | Chinese art as having the body and legs of a deer and an ox's a station. KILKEE-KILKENNY 793 tail. Its advent on earth heralds an age of enlightened govern- proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as 1 to 21. Oats, ment and civic prosperity. It is regarded as the noblest of the barley, turnips and potatoes are all grown; the cultivation of animal creation and as the incarnation of fire, water, wood, wheat has very largely lapsed. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry metal and earth. It lives for a thousand years, and is believed are extensively reared, the Kerry cattle being in considerable to step so softly as to leave no footprints and to crush no living request. thing. The linen manufacture introduced into the county in the 17th KILKEE, a seaside resort of county Clare, Ireland, the ter-century by the duke of Ormonde to supersede the woollen manu- minus of a branch of the West Clare railway. Pop. (1901), facture gradually became extinct, and the woollen manu- 1661. It lies on a small and picturesque inlet of the Atlantic facture now carried on is also very small. There are, however, named Moore Bay, with a beautiful sweep of sandy beach. The breweries, distilleries, tanneries and flour-mills, as well as marble coast, fully exposed to the open ocean, abounds in fine cliff polishing works. The county is traversed from N. to S. by the scenery, including numerous caves and natural arches, but is Maryborough, Kilkenny and Waterford branch of the Great notoriously dangerous to shipping. Moore Bay is safe and Southern & Western railway, with a connexion from Kilkenny attractive for bathers. Bishop's Island, a bold isolated rock to Bagenalstown on the Kildare and Carlow line; and the Water- in the vicinity, has remains of an oratory and house ascribed ford and Limerick line of the same company runs for a short to the recluse St Senan. distance through the southern part of the county. KILKENNY, a county of Ireland, in the province of Leinster, The population (87,496 in 1891; 79,159 in 1901) includes bounded N. þy Queen's County, E. by Carlow and Wexford, S. about 94% of Roman Catholics. The decrease of population by Waterford, and W. by Waterford and Tipperary. The area is a little above the average, though emigration is distinctly is 511,775 acres, or about 800 sq. m. The greater part of Kil- below it. The chief towns and villages are Kilkenny (q.v.), kenny forms the south-eastern extremity of the great central Callan (1840), Castlecomer, Thomastown and Graigue. The plain of Ireland, but in the south-east occurs an extension of the county comprises 10 baronies and contains 134 civil parishes. mountains of Wicklow and Carlow, and the plain is interrupted | The county includes the parliamentary borough of Kilkenny, in the north by a hilly region forming part of the Castlecomer and is divided into north and south parliamentary divisions, coal-field, which extends also into Queen's County and Tipperary. each returning one member. Kilkenny returned 16 members The principal rivers, the Suir, the Barrow and the Nore, have their to the Irish parliament, two representing the county. Assizes origin in the Slieve Bloom Mountains (county Tipperary and are held at Kilkenny, and quarter sessions at Kilkenny, Pilltown, Queen's County), and after widely divergent courses southward Urlingford, Castlecomer, Callan, Grace's Old Castle and Thomas- discharge their waters into Waterford Harbour. The Suir forms town. The county is in the Protestant diocese of Ossory and the boundary of the county with Waterford, and is navigable the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ossory and Kildare and for small vessels to Carrick. The Nore, which is navigable to Leighlin. Innistioge, enters the county at its north-western boundary, Kilkenny is one of the counties generally considered to have and flows by Kilkenny to the Barrow, 9 m. above Ross, having been created by King John. It had previously formed part received the King's River at Jerpoint and the Argula near Innis- of the kingdom of Ossory, and was one of the liberties granted tioge. The Barrow, which is navigable beyond the limits of to the heiresses of Strongbow with palatinate rights. Circular Kilkenny into Kildare, forms the eastern boundary of the county groups of stones of very ancient origin are on the summits of from near New Bridge. There are no lakes of any extent, but Slieve Grian and the hill of Cloghmanta. There are a large turloughs or temporary lakes are occasionally formed by the number of cromlechs as well as raths (or encampments) in various bursting up of underground streams. parts of the county. Besides numerous forts and mounds there The coal of the Castlecomer basin is anthracite, and the most are five round towers, one adjoining the Protestant cathedral of productive portions of the bed are in the centre of the basin at Kilkenny, and others at Tulloherin, Kilree, Fertagh and Agha- Castlecomer. Hematitic iron of a rich quality is found in the viller. All, except that at Aghaviller, are nearly perfect. Cambro-Silurian rocks at several places; and tradition asserts There are remains of a Cistercian monastery at Jerpoint, said that silver shields were made about 850 B.C. at Argetros or to have been founded by Dunnough, King of Ossory, and of Silverwood on the Nore. Manganese is obtained in some of the another belonging to the same order at Graigue, founded by the limestone quarries, and also near the Barrow. Marl is abundant earl of Pembroke in 1212. The Dominicans had an abbey at in various districts. Pipeclay and potter's clay are found, and Rosbercon founded in 1267, and another at Thomastown, of also yellow ochre. Copper occurs near Knocktopher. which there are some remains. The Carmelites had a monastery The high synclinal coal-field forms the most important feature of at Knocktopher. There were an Augustinian monastery at the north of the county. A prolongation of the field runs out south- Inistioge, and priories at Callan and Kells, of all of which there west by Tullaroan. The lower ground is occupied by Carboniferous are remains. limestone. The Old Red Sandstone, with a Silurian core, forms the There are also ruins of several old castles, such high ridge of Slievenaman in the south; and its upper laminated beds as those of Callan, Legan, Grenan and Clonamery, besides the contain Archanodon, the earliest known freshwater mollusc, and ancient portions of Kilkenny Castle. plant-remains, at Kiltorcan near Ballyhale. The Leinster granite appears mainly as inliers in the Silurian of the south-east. The (returning one member), the capital of county Kilkenny, KILKENNY, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough Carboniferous sandstones furnish the hard pavement-slabs sold as "Carlow flags." The black limestone with white shells in it at Ireland, finely situated on the Nore, and on the Great Southern Kilkenny is quarried as an ornamental marble. Good slates are and Western railway, 81 m. S.W. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), quarried at Kilmoganny, in the Silurian inlier on the Slievenaman 10,609. It consists of Englishtown (or Kilkenny proper) and range. Irishtown, which are separated by a small rivulet, but although On account of the slope of the country, and the nature of the Irishtown retains its name, it is now included in the borough soil, the surface occupied by bog or wet land is very small, and of Kilkenny. The city is irregularly built, possesses several the air is dry and healthy. So temperate is it in winter that the spacious streets with many good houses, while its beautiful myrtle and arbutus grow in the open air. There is less rain environs and imposing ancient buildings give it an unusual than at Dublin, and vegetation is earlier than in the adjacent interest and picturesque appearance. The Nore is crossed by counties. Along the banks of the Suir, Nore and Barrow a very two handsome bridges. The cathedral of St Canice, from whom rich soil has been formed by alluvial deposits. Above the Coal- the town. takes its name, dates in its present form from about measures in the northern part of the county there is a moorland 1255. The see of Ossory, which originated in the monastery of tract devoted chiefly to pasturage. The soil above the limestone Aghaboe founded by St Canice in the 6th century, and took its is for the most part a deep and rich loam admirably adapted for name from the early kingdom of Ossory, was moved to Kilkenny the growth of wheat. The heath-covered hills afford honey (according to conjecture) about the year 1200. In 1835 the with a flavour of peculiar excellence. Proportionately to its diocese of Ferns and Leighlin was united to it. With the excep- area, Kilkenny has an exceptionally large cultivable area. The I tion of St Patrick's, Dublin, the cathedral is the largest 794 KILKENNY_KILLALA a ecclesiastical building in Ireland, having a length from east to been the subject of many conjectures. It is said to be an allegory west of 226 ft., and a breadth along the transepts from north to on the disastrous municipal quarrels of Kilkenny and Irishtown which lasted from the end of the 14th to the end of the 17th centuries south of 123 ft. It occupies an eminence at the western extre- (Noles and Queries, ist series, vol. ii. P: 71). It is referred also to mity of Irishtown. It is a cruciform structure mainly in Early the brutal sport of some Hessian soldiers, quartered in Kilkenny English style, with a low massive tower supported on clustered during the rebellions of 1798 or 1803, who tied two cats together columns of the black marble peculiar to the district. The by their tails, hung them over a line and left them to fight. A soldier building was extensively restored in 1865. It contains many from the officers (ibid. 3rd series, vol. v. p. 433). Lastly, it is attri. is said to have freed them by cutting off their tails to escape censure old sepulchral monuments and other ancient memorials. The buted to the invention of J. P. Curran. As a sarcastic protest north transept incorporates the parish church. The adjacent against cock-fighting in England, he declared that he had witnessed library of St Canice contains numerous ancient books of great in Sligo (?) fights between trained cats, and that once they had value. A short distance from the south transept is a round fought so fiercely that only their tails were left (ibid. 7th series, vol. ii. p. 394). tower 100 ft. high; the original cap is wanting. The episcopal KILKENNY, STATUTE OF, the name given to a body of laws palace near the east end of the cathedral was erected in the time promulgated in 1366 with the object of strengthening the of Edward III. and enlarged in 1735. Besides the cathedral English authority in Ireland. In 1361, when Edward III. was the principal churches are the Protestant church of St Mary, a plain cruciform structure of earlier foundation than the present duke of Clarence, who was already married to an Irish heiress, on the English throne, he sent one of his younger sons, Lionel, cathedral; that of St John, including a portion of the hospital to represent him in Ireland. From the English point of view of St John founded about 1220; and the Roman Catholic the country was in a most unsatisfactory condition. Lawless cathedral, of the diocese of Ossory, dedicated to St Mary (1843- and predatory, the English settlers were hardly distinguishable 1857), a cruciform structure in the Early Pointed style, with a from the native Irish, and the authority of the English king over massive central tower. There are important remains of two both had been reduced to vanishing point. In their efforts to monasteries--the Dominican abbey founded in 1225, and now used as a Roman Catholic church; and the Franciscan abbey moned a parliament to meet at Kilkenny early in 1 366 and here cope with the prevailing disorder Lionel and his advisers sum- on the banks of the Nore, founded about 1230. But next in the statute of Kilkenny was passed into law. This statute was importance to the cathedral is the castle, the seat of the marquess written in Norman-French, and nineteen of its clauses are merely of Ormonde, on the summit of a precipice above the Nore.. It repetitions of some ordinances which had been drawn up at was originally built by Strongbow, but rebuilt by William Marshall after the destruction of the first castle in 1175; and Kilkenny fifteen years earlier. It began by relating how the many additions and restorations by members of the Ormonde existing state of lawlessness was due to the malign influence exercised by the Irish over the English, and, like Magna Carta, family have maintained it as a princely residence. The Protes- its first positive provision declared that the church should be tant college of St John, originally founded by Pierce Butler, free. 8th earl of Ormonde, in the 16th century, and re-endowed in 1684 between the two races were forbidden. Englishmen must not As a prime remedy for the prevailing evils all marriages by James, ist duke of Ormonde, stands on the banks of the river opposite the castle. In it Swift, Farquhar, Congreve and speak the Irish tongue, nor receive Irish minstrels into their Bishop Berkeley received part of their education. On the out- dwellings, nor even ride in the Irish fashion; while to give or sell skirts of the city is the Roman Catholic college of St Kyran Moreover English and not Breton law was to be employed, and horses or armour to the Irish was made a treasonable offence. (Kieran), a Gothic building completed about 1840. The other no Irishman could legally be receivd into a religious house, nor principal dings are the modern court-house, the tholsel or city court (1764), the city and county prison, the barracks and presented to a benefice. The statute also contained clauses for the county infirmary. In the neighbourhood are collieries as well compelling the English settlers to keep the laws. For each as long-established quarries for marble, the manufactures con- county four wardens of the peace were to be appointed, while the sheriffs were to hold their tourns twice a year and were not to nected with which are an important industry of the town. The city also possesses corn-mills, breweries and tanneries. Not far oppress the people by their exactions. An attempt was made from the city are the remarkable limestone caverns of Dunmore, arm was invoked to secure obedience to these laws by threats of to prevent the emigration of labourers, and finally the spiritual which have yielded numerous human remains. The corporation of excommunication. The statute, although marking an inter- Kilkenny consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Kilkenny proper owes its origin to an English settlement in esting stage in the history of Ireland, had very little practical effect. the time of Strongbow, and it received a charter from William Marshall, who married Strongbow's daughter. This charter was The full text is published in the Statutes and Ordinances of Ireland. John to Henry V., by H. F. Berry (1907). confirmed by Edward III., and from Edward IV. Irishtown received the privilege of choosing a portreeve independent of KILLALA (pron. Killálla), a small town on the north coast of Kilkenny. By Elizabeth the boroughs, while retaining their county Mayo, Ireland, in the northern parliamentary division, distinct rights, were constituted one corporation, which in 1609 on the western shore of a fine bay to which it gives name. Pop. was made a free borough by James I., and in the following year a (1901), 510. It is a terminus of a branch of the Midland Great free city. From James II. the citizens received a new charter, Western railway. Its trade is almost wholly diverted to Ballina constituting the city and liberties a distinct county, to be styled on the river Moy, which enters the bay, but Killala is of high the county of the city of Kilkenny, the burgesses of Irishtown antiquarian and historical interest. It was for many centuries continuing, however, to elect a portreeve until the passing of the a bishop's see, the foundation being attributed to St Patrick in Muncipal Reform Act. Frequent parliaments were held at the 5th century, but the diocese was joined with Achonry early Kilkenny from the 14th to the 16th century, and so late as the in the 17th century and with Tuam in 1833. The cathedral reign of Henry VIII. it was the occasional residence of the lord- church of St Patrick is a plain structure of the 17th century. lieutenant. In 1642 it was the meeting-place of the assembly There is a fine souterrain, evidently connected with a rath, or of confederate Catholics. In 1648 Cromwell, in the hope of encampment, in the graveyard. A round tower, 84 ft. in height, obtaining possession of the town by means of a plot, advanced stands boldly on an isolated eminence. Close to Killala the towards it, but before his arrival the plot was discovered. In French under Humbert landed in 1798, being diverted by con- 1650 it was, however, compelled to surrender after a long and trary winds from the Donegal coast. Near the Moy river, south resolute defence. At a very early period Kilkenny and Irishtown of Killala, are the abbeys of Moyne and Roserk or Rosserick, returned each two members to the Irish parliament, but since both Decorated in style, and both possessing fine cloisters. the Union one member only has been returned to Westminster At Rathfran, 2 m. N., is a Dominican abbey (1274), and in the for the city of Kilkenny. neighbourhood are camps, cromlechs, and an inscribed ogham The origin of the expression “ to fight like Kilkenny cats," which, stone, 12 ft. in height. Killala gives name to a Roman Catholic according to the legend, fought till only their tails were left, has | diocese, the seat of which, however, is at Ballina. KILLALOE-KILLIGREW, SIR H. 795 KILLALOE, a town of county Clare, Ireland, in the east | wings; beneath it is pure white except two pectoral bands parliamentary division, at the lower extremity of Lough Derg of deep black. It is one of the finest as well as the largest of on the river Shannon, at the foot of the Slieve Bernagh moun- the group commonly known as ringed plovers or ring dotterels, tains. Pop. (1901), 885. It is connected, so as to form one forming the genus Aegialitis of Boie. Mostly wintering in the town, with Ballina (county Tipperary) by a bridge of 13 arches. south or only on the sea-shore of the more northern states, in Ballina is the terminus.of a branch of the Great Southern and spring it spreads widely over the interior, breeding on the Western railway, 15 m. N.E. of Limerick. Slate is quarried newly ploughed lands or on open grass-fields. The nest is in the vicinity, and there were formerly woollen manufactures. made in a slight hollow, and is often surrounded with small The cathedral of St Flannan occupies the site of a church pebbles and fragments of shells. Here the hen lays her pear- founded by St Dalua in the 6th century. The present building shaped, stone-coloured eggs, four in number, and always is mainly of the 12th century, a good cruciform example of the arranged with their pointed ends touching each other, as is period, preserving, however, a magnificent Romanesque doorway. the custom of most Limicoline birds. The parents exhibit the It was probably completed by Donall O'Brien, king of Munster, greatest anxiety for their offspring on the approach of an in- but part of the fabric dates from a century before his time. truder. It is the best-known bird of its family in the United In the churchyard is an ancient oratory said to date from the States, where it is less abundant in the north-east than farther period of St Dalua. Near Killaloe stood Brian Boru's palace of south or west. In Canada it does not range farther northward Kincora, celebrated in verse by Moore; for this was the capital than 56° N.; it is not known in Greenland, and hardly in of the kings of Munster. Killaloe is frequented by anglers for Labrador, though it is a passenger in Newfoundland every the Shannon salmon-fishing and for trout-fishing in Lough spring and autumn. In winter it finds its way to Bermuda Derg. Killaloe gives name to Protestant and Roman Catholic and to some of the Antilles, but it is not recorded from any dioceses. of the islands to the windward of Porto Rico. In the other KILLARNEY, a market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in direction, however, it travels down the Isthmus of Panama the east parliamentary division, on a branch line of the Great and the west coast of South America to Peru. The killdeer Southern & Western railway, 1851 m. S.W. from Dublin. Pop. has several other congeners in America, among which may be of urban district (1901), 5656. On account of the beautiful noticed Ae. semipalmata, curiously resembling the ordinary scenery in the neighbourhood the town is much frequented by ringed plover of the Old World, Ae. hiaticula, except that it tourists. The principal buildings are the Roman Catholic has its toes connected by a web at the base; and Ae. nivosa, cathedral and bishop's palace of the diocese of Kerry, designed a bird inhabiting the western parts of both the American by A. W. Pugin, a large Protestant church and several hotels. continents, which in the opinion of some authors is only a Adjoining the town is the mansion of the earl of Kenmare. local form of the widely spread Ae. alexandrina or canliana, There is a school of arts and crafts, where carving and inlaying best known as Kentish plover, from its discovery near Sandwich are prosecuted. The only manufacture of importance now towards the end of the 18th century, though it is far more carried on at Killarney is that of fancy articles from arbutus abundant in many other parts of the Old World. The common wood; but it owed its origin to iron-smelting works, for which ringed plover, Ae, hiaticula, has many of the habits of the abundant fuel was obtained from the neighbouring forests. killdeer, but is much less often found away from the sea- The lakes of Killarney, about 11 m. from the town, lie in a shore, though a few colonies may be found in dry warrens in basin between several lofty mountain groups, some of which rise certain parts of England many miles from the coast, and in abruptly from the water's edge, and all clothed with trees and Lapland at a still greater distance. In such localities it shrubbery almost to their summits. The lower lake, or Lough paves its nest with small stones (whence it is locally known as Leane (area 5001 acres), is studded with finely wooded islands, Stone hatch ”'), a habit almost unaccountable unless regarded on the largest of which, Ross Island, are the ruins of Ross Castle, as an inherited instinct from shingle-haunting ancestors. an old fortress of the O'Donoghues; and on another island, the (A. N.) sweet Innisfallen " of Moore, are the picturesque ruins of an KILLIEERANKIE, a pass of Perthshire, Scotland, 3i m. abbey founded by St Finian the leper at the close of the 6th N.N.W. of. Pitlochry by the Highland railway. Beginning century. Between the lower lake and the middle or Torc lake close to Killiecrankie station it extends southwards to the (680 acres in extent) stands Muckross Abbey, built by Francis- bridge of Garry for nearly iż m. through the narrow, extremely cans, about 1440. With the upper lake (430 acres), thickly beautiful, densely wooded glen in the channel of which flows studded with islands, and close shut in by mountains, the lower the Garry. A road constructed by General Wade in 1732 and middle lakes are connected by the Long Range, a winding runs up the pass, and between this and the river is the and finely wooded channel, 2} m. in length, and commanding railway, built in 1863. The battle of the 27th of July 1689, magnificent views of the mountains. Midway in its course is a between some 3000 Jacobites under Viscount Dundee and famous echo caused by the Eagle's Nest, a lofty pyramidal the royal force, about 4000 strong, led by General Hugh rock. Mackay, though named from the ravine, was not actually Besides the lakes of Killarney themselves, the immediate fought in the pass. When Mackay emerged from the gorge he neighbourhood includes many features of natural beauty and of found the Highlanders already in battle array on the high historic interest. Among the first are Macgillicuddy's Reeks ground on the right bank of the Girnaig, a tributary of the and the Torc and Purple Mountains, the famous pass known as Garry, within half a mile of where the railway station now is. the Gap of Dunloe, Mount Mangerton, with a curious depression Before he had time to form on the more open table-land, the (the Devil's Punchbowl) near its summit, the waterfalls of Torc clansmen charged impetuously with their claymores and swept and Derrycunihy, and Lough Guitane, above Lough Leane. his troops back into the pass and the Garry. Mackay lost Notable ruins and remains, besides Muckross and Innisfallen, nearly half his force, the Jacobites about 900, including their include Aghadoe, with its ruined church of the 12th century leader. Urrard House adjoins the spot where Viscount Dundee (formerly a cathedral) and remains of a round tower; and the received his death-wound. Ogham Cave of Dunloe, a souterrain containing inscribed stones. KILLIGREW, SIR HENRY (d. 1603), English diplomatist, The waters of the neighbourhood provide trout and mon, and belonged to an old Cornish amily and became member of the flora is of high interest to the botanist. Innumerable parliament for Launceston in 1553. Having lived abroad legends centre round the traditional hero O'Donoghue. 1 The word dotterel seems properly applicable to a single species KILLDEER, a common American plover, so called in imitation only, the Charadrius morinellus of Linnaeus, which, from some of its of its whistling cry, the Charadrius vociferus of Linnaeus, and osteological characters, may be fitly regarded as the type of a dis- the Aegialitis vocifera of modern ornithologists. About the tinct genus, Eudromias. Whether any other species agree with it in the peculiarity alluded to is at present uncertain. size of a snipe, it is mostly sooty-brown above, but showing a 2 À single example is said to have been shot near Christchurch, in bright buff on the tail coverts, and in flight a white bar on the | Hampshire, England, in April 1857 (Ibis, 1862, p. 276). 66 796 : KILLIGREW, T.-KILLYBEGS . during the whole or part of Mary's reign, he returned to England Killigrew enjoyed a greater reputation as a wit than as a dramatist. when Elizabeth came to the throne and at once began to serve Sir John Denham said of him :- the new queen as a diplomatist. He was employed on a mission Had. Cowley ne'er spoke, Killigrew ne'er writ, 'to Germany, and in conducting negotiations in Scotland, where Combined in one, they'd made a matchless wit. he had several interviews with Mary Queen of Scots. He Many stories are related of his bold speeches to Charles I. Pepys was knighted in 1591, and after other diplomatic missions in (Feb. 12, 1668) records that he was said to hold the title of King's various parts of Europe he died early in 1603. Many of Sir Fool or Jester, with a cap, and bells at the expense of the king's Henry's letters on public matters are in the Record Office, wardrobe, and that he might therefore revile or jeer anybody, even the greatest, without offence. London, and in the British Museum. His first. wife, Catherine (c. 1530–1583), daughter of Sir Anthony. Cooke (1504-1576), His elder brother, Sir WiLLIAM KILLIGREW (1606-1695), was tutor to Edward VI., was a lady of talent. a court official under Charles I. and Charles II. He attempted Another celebrated member of this family was Sir ROBERT to drain the Lincolnshire fens, and was the author of four KILLIGREW (c. 1579-1633), who was knighted by James I. in plays (printed 1665 and 1666) of some merit. the same year (1603) as his father, Sir William Killigrew. Sir A younger brother, Dr HENRY KILLIGREW (1613-1700), William was an officer in Queen Elizabeth's household and was chaplain and almoner to the duke of York, and master a member of parliament; he died in November 1622. Sir of the Savoy after the Restoration. A juvenile play of his, Robert was a member of all the parliaments between 1603 and The Conspiracy, was printed surreptitiously in 1638, and in an his death, but he came more into prominence owing to his authenticated version in 1653 as Pallantus and Eudora. He alleged connexion with the death of Sir Thomas Overbury. had two sons, HENRY KILLIGREW (d. 1712), an admiral, and A man of some scientific knowledge, he had been in the habit JAMES KILLIGREW, also a naval officer, who was killed in an of supplying powders to Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, but it encounter with the French in January 1695; and a daughter, is not certain that the fatal powder came from the hands of ANNE (1660-1685), poet and painter, who was maid of honour Killigrew. He died early in 1633, leaving five sons, three of to the duchess of York, and was the subject of an ode by whom attained some reputation (see below). Dryden, which Samuel Johnson thought the noblest in the KILLIGREW, THOMAS (1612–1683), English dramatist and language. wit, son of Sir Robert Killigrew, was born in Lothbury, London, A sister, ELIZABETH KILLIGREW, married Francis Boyle, on the 7th of February 1612. Pepys says that as a boy he Ist Viscount Shannon, and became a mistress of Charles II. satisfied his love of the stage by volunteering at the Red Bull KILLIN, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, at the to take the part of a devil, thus seeing the play for nothing: south-western extremity of Loch Tay, 4 m. N.E. of Killin In 1633 he became page to Charles I., and was faithfully attached Junction on a branch line of the Callander & Oban railway. to the royal house throughout his life. In 1635 he was in Pop. of parish (1901), 1423. It is situated near the confluence France, and has left an account (printed in the European Maga- of the rivers and glens of the Dochart and Lochay, and is a zine, 1803) of the exorcizing of an evil spirit from some nuns at popular tourist centre, having communication by steamer with Loudun. In 1641 he published two tragi-comedies, The Prisoners Kenmore at the other end of the lake, and thence by coach to and Claracilla, both of which had probably been produced Aberfeldy, the terminus of a branch of the Highland railway. before 1636. In 1647 he followed Prince Charles into exile. It has manufactures of tweeds. In a field near the village His wit, easy morals and accommodating temper recommended a stone marks the site of what is known as Fingal's Grove. him to Charles, who sent him to Venice in 1651 as his repre-An island in the Dochart (which is crossed at Killin by a brid sentative. Early in the following year he was recalled at the of five arches) is the ancient burial-place of the clan Macnab. request of the Venetian ambassador in Paris. At the Restora- Finlarig Castle, a picturesque mass of ivy-clad ruins, was a tion he became groom of the bedchamber to Charles II., and stronghold of the Campbells of Glenorchy, and several earls later chamberlain to the queen. He received in 1660, with of Breadalbane were buried in ground adjoining it, where the Sir William Davenant, a patent tó erect a new playhouse, the modern mausoleum of the family stands. Three miles up the performances in which were to be independent of the censorship Lochay, which rises in the hills beyond the forest of Mamlorn of the master of the revels. This infringement of his prerogative and has a course of 15 m., the river forms a graceful cascade. caused a dispute with Sir Henry Herbert, then holder of the The Dochart, issuing from Loch Dochart, flows for 13 m. in a office, but Killigrew settled the matter by generous concessions. north-easterly direction and falls into Loch Tay. The ruined He acted independently of Davenant, his company being known castle on an islet in the loch once belonged to the Campbells as the King's Servants. They played at the Red Bull, until in of Lochawe. 1663 he built for them the original Theatre Royal in Drury KILLIS, a town of N. Syria, in the vilayet of Aleppo, 60 m. N. m Lane. Pepys writes in 1664 that Killigrew intended to have of Aleppo city. It is situated in an extremely fertile plain, and four opera seasons of six weeks each during the year, and with is completely surrounded with olive groves, the produce of this end in view paid several visits to Rome to secure singers which is reckoned the finest oil of all Syria; and its position and scene decorators. In 1664 his plays were published as on the carriage-road from Aleppo to Aintab and Birejik gives Comedies and Tragedies. Written by Thomas Killigrew. They it importance. The population (20,000) consists largely of are Claracilla; The Princess, or Love at First Sight; The Circassians, Turkomans and Arabs, the town lying just on the Parson's Wedding; The Pilgrim; Cicilia and Clorinda, or Love northern rim of the Arab territory. As Killis lies also very in Arms; Thomaso, or the Wanderer; and Bellamira, her near the proposed junction of the Bagdad and the Beirut-Aleppo Dream, or Love of Shadows. The Parson's Wedding (acted railways (at Tell Habesh), it is likely to increase in importance. c. 1640, reprinted in the various editions of Dodsley's Old KILLYBEGS, a seaport and market town of county Donegal, Plays and in the Ancient British Drama) is an unsavoury play, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on the north coast which displays nevertheless considerable wit, and some of its on Donegal Bay, the terminus of the Donegal railway. Pop. jokes were appropriated by Congreve. It was revived after (1901), 607. It derives some importance from its fine land- the Restoration in 1664 and 1672 or 1673, all the parts being locked harbour, which, affording accommodation to large vessels, in both cases taken by women. Killigrew succeeded Sir Henry is used as a naval station, and is the centre of an important Herbert as master of the revels in 1673. He died at Whitehall fishery. There is a large pier for the fishing vessels. The on the 19th of March 1683. He was twice married, first to manufacture of carpets occupies a part of the population, Cecilia Crofts, maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria, and employing both male and female labour-the productions being secondly to Charlotte de Hesse, by whom he had a son Thomas known as Donegal carpets. There are slight remains of a castle (1657–1719), who was the author of a successful little piece, and ancient church; and a mineral spring is still used. . The Chit-Chat, played at Drury Lane on the 14th of February 1719, town received a charter from Janies I., and was a parliamentary with Mrs Oldfield in the part of Florinda. borough, returning two members, until the Union KILLYLEAGH-KILPATRICK 797 KILLYLEAGH, a small seaport and market town of county | Portland for £90co, stands the Burns Memorial, consisting of two Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, on the western storeys and a tower, and containing a museum in which have been shore of Strangford Lough. Pop. (1901), 1410. Linen manu- placed many important MSS. of the poet and the McKie library facture is the principal industry, and agricultural produce is of Burns's books. The marble statue of the poet, by W. G. exported. Killyleagh was an important stronghold in early Stevenson, stands on a terrace on the southern face. A Reformers' times, and the modern castle preserves the towers of the old monument was unveiled in Kay Park in 1885. Kilmarnock rose building. Sir John de Courcy erected this among many other into importance in the 17th century by its production of striped fortresses in the neighbourhood; it was besieged by Shane woollen “ Kilmarnock cowls” and broad blue bonnets, and O'Neill (1567), destroyed by Monk (1648), and subsequenily afterwards acquired a great name for its Brussels, Turkey and rebuilt. The town was incorporated by James I., and returned Scottish carpets. Tweeds, blankets, shawls, tartans, lace two members to the Irish parliament. curtains, cottons and winceys are also produced. The boot and KILMAINE, CHARLES EDWARD (1751-1799), French shoe trade is prosperous, and there are extensive engineering and general, was born at Dublin on the 19th of October 1751. hydraulic machinery works. But the iron industry is prominent, At the age of eleven he went with his father, whose surname the town being situated in the midst of a rich mineral region. was Jennings, to France, where he changed his name to Kil-Here, too, are the workshops of the Glasgow & South-Western maine, after a village in Mayo. He entered the French army railway company. Kilmarnock is famous for its dairy produce, as an officer in a dragoon regiment in 1774, and afterwards and every. October holds the largest cheese-show in Scotland. served as a volunteer in the Navy (1778), during which period The neighbourhood abounds in freestone and coal. The burgh, he was engaged in the fighting in Senegal. From 1780 to 1783 which is governed by a provost and council, unites with Dum- he took part in the War of American Independence under barton, Port Glasgow, Renfrew and Rutherglen in returning one Rochambeau, rejoining the army on his return to France. In member to parliament. Alexander Smith, the poet (1830–1867), 1791, as a retired captain, he took the civic oath and was recalled whose father was a lace-pattern designer, and Sir James Shaw to active service, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1792, and (1764-1843), lord mayor of London in 1806, to whom a statue lonel brigadier-general, and lieutenant-general in 1793. In was erected in the town in 1848, were natives of Kilmarnock. It this last capacity he distinguished himself in the wars on the dates from the 15th century, and in 1591 was made a burgh of northern and eastern frontiers. But he became an object of barony under the Boyds, the ruling house of the district. The suspicion on account of his foreign birth and his relations with last Boyd who bore the title of Lord Kilmarnock was beheaded England. He was suspended on the 4th of August 1793, and on Tower Hill, London, in 1746, for his share in the Jacobite was not recalled to active service till 1795. He then took part rising. The first edition of Robert Burns's poems was published in the Italian campaigns of 1796 and 1797, and was made here in 1786. commandant of Lombardy. He afterwards received the KILMAURS, a town in the Cunningham division of Ayrshire, command of the cavalry in Bonaparte's " army of England,” Scotland, on the Carmel, 213 m. S. by W. of Glasgow by the of which, during the absence of Desaix, he was temporarily Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 1803. Once commander-in-chief (1798). He died on the 15th of December noted for its cutlery, the chief industries now are shoe and 1799 bonnet factories, and there are iron and coal mines in the neigh- See J. G. Alger, Englishmen in the French Revolution (1889); bourhood. The parish church dates from 1170, and was dedi- Eugène Fieffé, Histoire des troupes étrangères au service de France cated either to the Virgin or to a Scottish saint of the gth century (1854); Etienne Charavay, Correspondance de Carnot, tome iii. called Maure. It was enlarged in 1403 and in great part rebuilt KILMALLOCK, a market town of county Limerick, Ireland, in 1888. Adjoining it is the burial-place of the earls of Glencairn, in the east parliamentary division, 1241 m. S.W. of Dublin by the leading personages in the district during several centuries, - the Great Southern & Western main line. Pop. (1901), 1206. some of whom bore the style of Lord Kilmaurs. Their family It commands a natural route (now followed by the railway) name was Cunningham, adopted probably from the manor which through the hills to the south and south-west, and is a site of they acquired in the 12th century. The town was made a burgh great historical interest. It received a charter in the reign of of barony in 1527 by the earl of that date. Burns's patron, the Edward III., at which time it was walled and fortified, and thirteenth earl, on whose death the poet wrote his touching entered by four gates, two of which remain. It was a military “ Lament,” sold the Kilmaurs estate in 1786 to the marchioness post of importance in Elizabeth's reign, but its fortifications of Titchfield. were for the most part demolished by order of Cromwell. KILN (O. E. cylene, from the Lat. culina, a kitchen, cooking- Two castellated mansions are still to be seen. The church of stove), a place for burning, baking or drying. Kilns may be St Peter and St Paul belonged to a former abbey, and has a divided into two classes—those in which the materials come into tower at the north-west corner which is a converted round tower. actual contact with the flames, and those in which the furnace is The Dominican Abbey, of the 13th century, has Early English beneath or surrounding the oven. Lime-kilns are of the first remains of great beauty and a tomb to Edmund, the last of the class, and brick-kilns, pottery-kilns, &c., of the second, which White Knights, a branch of the family of Desmond intimately also includes places for merely drying materials, such as connected with Kilmallock, who received their title from hop-kilns, usually called “oasts or “oast-houses." Edward III. at the battle of Halidon Hill. The foundation of KILPATRICK, NEW, or EAST, also called BEARSDEN, a town of Kilmallock, however, is attributed to the Geraldines, who had Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 51 m. N.W.of Glasgow by road, with several towns in this vicinity. Eight miles from the town is a station on the North British railway company's branch line Lough Gur, near which are numerous stone circles and other from Glasgow to Milngavie. Pop. (1901), 2705. The town is remains. Kilmallock returned two members to the Irish largely inhabited by business men from Glasgow. The public parliament. buildings include the Shaw convalescent home, Buchanan KILMARNOCK, a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire, Retreat, house of refuge for girls, library, and St Peter's College, Scotland, on Kilmarnock Water, a tributary of the Irvine, 24 m. a fine structure, presented to the Roman Catholic Church in 1892 S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. by the archbishop of Glasgow. There is some coal-mining, and Pop. (1901), 35,091. Among the chief buildings are the town lime is manufactured. Remains of the Wall of Antoninus are hall, court-house, corn-exchange (with the Albert Tower, 110 ft. close to the town. At Garscube and Garscadden, both within high), observatory, academy, corporation art gallery, institutej m. of New Kilpatrick, are extensive jron-works, and at the (containing a free library and a museum), Kay schools, School former place coal is mined and stone quarried. of Science and Art, Athenaeum, theatre, infirmary, Agricultural KILPATRICK, OLD, a town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on Hall, and Philosophical Institution. The grounds of Kilmarnock the right bank of the Clyde, 10 m. N.W. of Glasgow by rail, with House, presented to the town in 1893, were laid out as a public stations on the North British and Caledonian railways. Pop. park. In Kay Park (483 acres), purchased from the duke of | (1901), 1533. It is traditionally the birthplace of St Patrick, 798 KILRUSH–KIMBERLEY, EARL OF a whose father is said to have acted there as a Roman magistrate. from Zanzibar to Sofala, and the city came to be regarded as the Roman remains occur in the district, and the Wall of Antoninus capital of the Zenj. empire" (see ZANZIBAR:“Sultanate"). An Arab chronicle gives a list of over forty sovereigns who reigned at Kilwa ran through the parish. To the north, occupying an area of in a period of five hundred years (cf. A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel about 6 m. from east to west and 5 m. from north to south d'histoire, Leiden, 1888, i. 558). Pedro Alvares Cabral, the Portu- run the Kilpatrick Hills, of which the highest points are guese navigator, was the first European to visit it. His fleet, on its Duncomb and Fynloch Hill (each 1313 ft.). way to India, anchored in Kilwa Bay in 1500. Kilwa was then a KILRUSH, a seaport and watering-place of county Clare, In 1502 Kilwa submitted to Vasco da Gama, but the sultan neglect- large and wealthy city, possessing, it is stated, three hundred mosques. Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, on the north shore ing to pay the tribute imposed upon him, the city in 1505 was occu- of the Shannon estuary 45 m. below Limerick. Pop. 'of urban pied by the Portuguese. They built a ſort there; the first erected district (1901), 4179. It is the terminus of a branch of the West by them on the east coast of Africa. Fighting ensued between the Arabs and the Portuguese, the city was destroyed; and in 1512 the Clare railway. The only seaport of importance in the county, Portuguese, whose ranks had been decimated by fever, temporarily it has a considerable export trade in peat fuel, extensive fisheries, abandoned the place. Subsequently Kilwa became one of the chief and flagstone quarries; while general fairs, horse fairs and annual centres of the slave trade. Towards the end of the 17th century agricultural shows are held. The inner harbour admits only it fell under the dominion of the imams of Muscat, and on the small vessels, but there is a good pier a mile south of the town. subject to the sultan of Zanzibar. separation in 1856 of their Arabian and African possessions became With the rest of the southern Off the harbour lies Scattery Island (Inis Cathaigh), where part of the sultan's continental dominions Kilwa was acquired by St Senan (d. 544) founded a monastery. There are the remains Germany in 1890 (see Africa, $ 5; and German East Africa). of his oratory and house and of seven rude churches or chapels, KILWARDBY, ROBERT (d. 1279), archbishop of Canterbury together with a round tower and a holy well still in repute. The and cardinal, studied at the university of Paris, where he soon island also received the epithet of Holy, and was a favourite became famous as a teacher of grammar and logic. Afterwards burial-ground until modern times. joining the order of St Dominic and turning his attention to KILSYTH, a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the theology, he was chosen provincial prior of his order in England Kelvin, 13 m. N.N.E. of Glasgow by the North British railway, in 1261, and in October 1272 Pope Gregory X. terminated and close to the Forth and Clyde canal. Pop. (1901), 7292. dispute over the vacant hbishopric of Canterbury by The principal buildings are the town and public halls, and the appointing Kilwardby. Although the new archbishop crowned academy. The chief industries are coal-mining and iron-works; Edward I. and his queen Eleanor in August 1274, he took little there are also manufactures of paper and cotton, besides quarry- part in business of state, but was energetic in discharging the ing of whinstone and sandstone. There are considerable remains spiritual duties of his office. He was charitable to the poor, of the Wall of Antoninus south of the town, and to the north and showed liberality to the Dominicans. In 1278 Pope the ruins of the old castle. Kilsyth dates from the middle of the Nicholas III. made him cardinal-bishop of Porto and Santa 17th century and became a burgh of barony in 1826. It was Rufina; he resigned his archbishopric and left England, carrying the scene of Montrose's defeat of the Covenanters on the with him the registers and other valuable property belonging 15th of August 1645. The town was the centre of remarkable to the see of Canterbury. He died in Italy on the 11th of religious revivals in 1742–3 and 1839, the latter conducted by September 1279. Kilwardby was the first member of a men- William Chalmers Burns (1815-1868), the missionary to China. dicant order to attain a high position in the English Church. KILT, properly the short loose skirt or petticoat, reaching Among his numerous writings, which became very popular to the knees and usually made of tartan, forming part of the among students, are De ortu scientiarum, De tempore, De Uni- dress of a Scottish Highlander (see CoSTUME). The word versali, and some commentaries on Aristotle. means that which is “girded or tucked up," and is apparently See N. Trevet, Annales sex regum Angliae, edited by T. Hog of Scandinavian origin, cf. Danish kilte, to tuck up. The early (London, 1845); W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, kilt was not a separate garment but was merely the lower part vol. iii. (London, 1860-1876); J. Quétif and J. Échard, Scriptores of the plaid, in which the Highlander wrapped himself, hanging ordinis Predicatorum (Paris, 1719-1721). down in folds below the belt. KILWINNING, a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire, KILWA (Quiloa), a seaport of German East Africa, about Scotland, on the right bank of the Garnock, 24 m. S.W. of 200 m. S. of Zanzibar. There are two Kilwas, one on the main- Glasgow by the Caledonian railway, and 26 m. by the Glasgow land-Kilwa Kivinje; the other, the ancient city, on an island- & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4440. The chief Kilwa Kisiwani. Kilwa Kivinje, on the northern side of Kilwa buildings include the public library, the Masonic hall and the Bay, is regularly laid out, the houses in the European quarter district hospital. The centre of interest, however, is the ruined being large and substantial. The government house and barracks abbey, originally one of the richest in Scotland. Founded are fortified and are surrounded by fine public gardens. The about 1140 by Hugh de Morville, lord of Cunninghame, for adjacent country is fertile and thickly populated, and the trade Tyronensian monks of the Benedictine order, it was dedicated of the port is considerable. Much of it is in the hands of Banyans. to St Winnin, who lived on the spot in the 8th century and has Kilwa is a starting-point for caravans to Lake Nyasa. Pop. given his name to the town. This beautiful specimen of Early about 5000. Most of the inhabitants are Swahili. English architecture was partly destroyed in 1561, and its Kilwa Kisiwani, 18 m. to the south of the modern town, lands were granted to the earl of Eglinton and others. Kil- possesses a deep harbour sheltered from all winds by projecting winning is the traditional birthplace of Scottish freemasonry, coral reefs. The island on which it is built is separated from the the lodge, believed to have been founded by the foreign archi- mainland by a shallow and narrow channel. The ruins of the tects and masons who came to build the abbey, being regarded city include massive walls and bastions, remains of a palace as the mother lodge in Scotland. The royal company of archers and of two large mosques, of which the domed roofs are in fair of Kilwinning-dating, it is said, as far back as 1488—-meet preservation, besides several Arab forts. The new quarter every July to shoot at the popinjay. The industry in weaving contains a customs house and a few Arab buildings. Pop. about shawls and lighter fabrics has died out; and the large iron, 600. On the island of Songa Manara, at the southern end of coal and fire-clay works at Eglinton, and worsted spinning, Kilwa Bay, hidden in dense vegetation, are the ruins of another employ most of the inhabitants. About a mile from Kilwinning city, unknown to history. Fragments of palaces and mosques is Eglinton Castle, the seat of the earls of Eglinton, built in in carved limestone exist, and on the beach are the remains of a 1798 in the English castellated style. lighthouse. Chinese coins and pieces of porcelain have been KIMBERLEY, JOHN WODEHOUSE, ist EARL OF (1826–1902), found on the sea-shore, washed up from the reefs. English statesman, was born on the 7th of January 1826, being the eldest son of the Hon. Henry Wodehouse and grandson of The sultanate of Kilwa is reputed to have been founded about the 2nd Baron Wodehouse (the barony dating from 1797), A.D. 975 by Ali ibn Hasan, a Persian prince from Shiraz, upon the site of the ancient Greek colony of Rhapta. The new state, at first whom he succeeded in 1846. He was educated at Eton and confined to the town of Kilwa, extended its influence along the coast | Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first-class degree in KIMBERLEY_KIMERIDGIAN 799 classics in 1847; in the same year married Lady Florence The Kaffirs who work in the mines are housed in large com- Fitzgibbon (d. 1895), daughter of the last earl of Clare. He pounds. Wire netting is spread over these enclosures, and was by inheritance a Liberal in politics, and in 1852–1856 and every precaution taken to prevent the illicit disposal of diamonds. 1859-1861 he was under secretary of state for foreign affairs in Ample provision is made for the comfort of the inmates, who in Lord Aberdeen's and Lord Palmerston's ministries. In the addition to food and lodging earn from 173. to 245. a week. interval (1856–1858) he had been envoy-extraordinary to Russia; Most of the white workmen employed live at Kenilworth, laid and in 1863 he was sent on a special mission to Copenhagen on out by the De Beers company as a " model village.” Beacons- the forlorn hope of finding a peaceful solution of the Schleswig- field, near Du Toits Pan Mine, is also dependent on the Holstein question. The mission was a failure, but probably diamond industry. nothing else was possible. In 1864 he became under secretary Kimberley was founded in 1870 by diggers who discovered for India, but towards the end of the year was made Lord- diamonds on the farms of Du Toits Pan and Bultfontein. In Lieutenant of Ireland. In that capacity he had to grapple 1871 richer diamonds were found on the neighbouring farm of with the first manifestations of Fenianism, and in recognition Vooruitzight at places named De Beers and Colesberg Kopje. of his vigour and success he was created (1866) earl of Kimberley. There were at first three distinct mining camps, one at Du In July 1866 he vacated his office with the fall of Lord Russell's Toits Pan, another at De Beers (called De Beers Rush or Old ministry, but in 1868 he became Lord Privy Seal in Mr Glad- De Beers) and the third at the Colesberg Kopje (called De stone's cabinet, and in July 1870 was transferred from that Beers New Rush, or New Rush simply). The Colesberg Kopje post to be secretary of state for the colonies. It was the mine was in July 1873 renamed Kimberley in honour of the moment of the great diamond discoveries in South Africa, and then secretary of state for the colonies, the ist earl of Kimberley, the new town of Kimberley was named after the colonial secre- by whose direction the mines were--in 1871-taken under the tary of the day. After an interval of opposition from 1874 to protection of Great Britain. Kimberley was also chosen as 1880, Lord Kimberley returned to the Colonial Office in Mr the name of the town into which the mining camps developed. Gladstone's next ministry; but at the end of 1882 he exchanged Doubt having arisen as to the rights of the crown to the minerals this office first for that of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and on Vooruitzight farm, litigation ensued, ending in the purchase then for the secretaryship of state for India, a post he retained of the farm by the state for £100,000 in 1875. In 1880 the town during the remainder of Mr Gladstone's tenure of power was incorporated in Cape Colony (see GRIQUALAND). In 1874 a (1882–1886, 1892-1894), though in 1892-1894 he combined with great part of the population left for the newly discovered gold it that of the lord presidency of the council. In Lord Rosebery's diggings in the Lydenburg district of the Transvaal, but others cabinet (1894–1895) he was foreign secretary. Lord Kimberley took their place. Among those early attracted to Kimberley was an admirable departmental chief, but it is difficult to asso- were Cecil Rhodes and “ Barney” Barnato, who in time came ciate his own personality with any ministerial act during his to represent two groups of financiers controlling the mines. occupation of all these posts. He was at the colonial office The amalgamation of their interests in 1889—when the Dė. when responsible government was granted to Cape Colony, Beers group purchased the Kimberley mine for £5,338,650- when British Columbia was added to the Dominion of Canada, put the whole diamond production of the Kimberley fields in the and during the Boer War of 1880-81, with its conclusion at hands of one company, the De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., Majuba; and he was foreign secretary when the misunderstand- so named after the former owners of the farms on which are ing arose with Germany over the proposed lease of territory from situated the chief mines. Kimberley in consequence became the Congo Free State for the Cape to Cairo route. He was largely dependent on the good-will of the De Beers corporation, essentially a loyal Gladstonian party man. His moderation, the town having practically no industries other than diamond common sense, and patriotism had their influence, nevertheless, mining. Horse-breeding is carried on to a limited extent. on his colleagues. As leader of the Liberal party in the House The value of the annual output of diamonds averages about of Lords he acted with undeviating dignity; and in opposition £4,500,000. The importance of the industry led to the building he was a courteous antagonist and a critic of weight and of a railway from Cape Town, opened in 1885. On the outbreak experience. He took considerable interest in education, and of war between the British and the Boers in 1899 Kimberley was after being for many years a member of the senate of London invested by a Boer force. The siege began on the 12th of University, he became its chancellor in 1899. He died in October and lasted until the 15th of February 1900, when the London on the 8th of April 1902, being succeeded in the earldom town was relieved by General Sir John French. Among the by his eldest and only surviving son, Lord Wodehouse (b. 1848). besieged was Cecil Rhodes, who placed the resources of the KIMBERLEY, a town of the Cape province, South Africa, De Beers company at the disposal of the defenders. In 1906 the centre of the Griqualand West diamond industry, 647 m. the town was put in direct railway communication with Johan- N.E. of Cape Town and 310 m. S.V of Johannesburg by rail.nesburg, and in 1908 the completion of the line from Bloem- Pop. (1904), 34,331, of whom 13,556 were whites. The town is fontein gave Natal direct access to Kimberley, which thus built on the bare veld midway between the Modder and Vaal became an important railway centre. Rivers and is 4012 ft. above the sea. Having grown out of KIMERIDGIAN, in geology, the basal division of the Upper camps formed round the diamond mines, its plan is very irregular Colites in the Jurassic system. The name is derived from the and in striking contrast with the rectangular outline common hamlet of Kimeridge or Kimmeridge near the coast of Dorset- to South African towns. Grouped round market square are shire, England. It appears to have been first suggested by the law courts, with a fine clock tower, the post and telegraph T. Webster in 1812; in 1818, in the form Kimeridge Clay, it was offices and the town-hall. The public library and the hospital used by Buckland. From the Dorsetshire coast, where it is are in Du Toits Pan Road. In the district of Newton, laid out splendidly exposed in the fine cliffs from St Alban's Head to during the siege of 1899–1900, a monument to those who fell Gad Cliff, it follows the line of Jurassic outcrop through Wilt- during the operations has been erected where four roads meet. shire, where there is a broad expanse -between Westbury and Siege Avenue, in the suburb of Kenilworth, 250 ft. wide, a mile Devizes, as far as Yorkshire, there it appears in the vale of and a quarter long, and planted with 16 rows of trees, was also Pickering and on the coast in Filey Bay. It generally occupied laid out during the siege. In the public gardens are statues broad valleys, of which the vale of Aylesbury may be taken as of Queen Victoria and Cecil Rhodes. The diamond mines form, typical. Good exposures occur at Seend, Calne, Swindon, however, the chief attraction of the town (see DIAMOND). Of Wootton Bassett, Faringdon, Abingdon, Culham, Shotover Hill, these the Kimberley is within a few minutes' walk of market Brill, Ely and Market Rasen. Traces of the formation are found square. The De Beers mine is one mile east of the Kimberley as far north as the east coast of Cromarty and Sutherland at mine. The other principal mines, Bultfontein, Du Toits Pan Eathie and Helmsdale. and Wesselton, are still farther distant from the town. Barbed In England the Kimeridgian is usually divisible into an Upper wire fencing surrounds the mines, which cover about 180 acres. I Series, 600-650 ſt. in the south, dark bituminous shales, paper 800 ĶIMHI-KIN " shales and clays with layers and nodules of cement-stones and sep- as Mahalak. It is an elementary introduction to the study of taria. These beds merge gradually into the overlying Portlandian formation. The Lower Series, with a maximum thickness of 400 ft., Hebrew, the first of its kind, in which only the most indispensable consists of clays and dark shales with septaria, cement-stones and definitions and rules have a place, the remainder being almost calcareous “doggers." These lithological characters are very wholly occupied by paradigms. Moses Ķimḥi was the first who persistent. The Upper Kimeridgian is distinguished as the zone made the verb paqadh a model for conjugation, and the first of Perisphinctes biplex, with the sub-zone of Discina latissima in the also who introduced the now usual sequence in the enumeration higher portions. Cardioceras alternans is the zonal ammonite charac- teristic of the lower division, with the sub-zone of Ostrea deltoidea in of stem-forms.' His handbook was of great historical importance the lower portion. Exogyra virgula is common in the upper part of as in the first half of the 16th century it became the favourite the lower division, and the lower part of the Upper Kimeridgian. manual for the study of Hebrew among non-Judaic scholars A large number of ammonites are peculiar to this formation, in- (ist ed., Pesaro, 1508). Elias Levita (q.v.) wrot cluding Reineckia eudoxus, R. Thurmanni, Aspidoceras longispinus, Hebrew explana- Moses &c. Large dinosaurian reptiles are abundant, Cetiosaurus, Giganto- tions, and Sebastian Münster translated it into Latin. saurus, Megalosaurus, also plesiosaurs and' ichthyosaurs; croco- Ķimḥi also composed commentaries to the biblical books; those dilian and chelonian remains are also found. Protocardia striatula, on Proverbs, Ezra and Nehemiah are in the great rabbinical Thracia depressa, Belemnites abreviatus, B. Blainvillei, Lingula ovalis, bibles falsely ascribed to Abraham ibn Ezra. Rhynchonella inconstans and Exogyra nana are characteristic fossils. Alum has been obtained from the Kimeridge Clay, and the cement. DAVID ĶIMŅI (C. 1160-1235), also known as Redaq(=R. David stones have been employed in Purbeck; coprolites are found in small Ķimḥi), eclipsed the fame both of his father and his brother. quantities. Bricks, tiles, flower-pots, &c., are made from the clay From the writings of the former he quotes a great number of at Swindon, Gillingham, Brill, Ely, Horncastle, and other places. explanations, some of which are known only from this source. The so-called “Kimeridge coal”, is a highly bituminous shale cap- able of being used as fuel, which has been worked on the cliff at His magnum opus is the Sefer Miklol, “Book of Completeness." Little Kimeridge: This falls into two divisions: the grammar, to which the title The “ Kimeridgien" of continental geologists is usually made to of the whole, Miklol, is usually applied (first printed in Constanti- contain the three sub-divisions of A. Oppel and W. Waagen, viz.;- nople, 1532-1534, then, with the notes of Elias Levita, at Venice, Upper (Virgulian) with Exogyra virgula Kimeridgien Middle (Pteroceran) 1545), and the lexicon, Sefer Hashorashim, “Book of Roots,” with Pteroceras oceani (Lower (Astartian)" with Astarte supracorallina; which was first printed in Italy before 1486, then at Naples in but the upper portion of this continental Kimeridgian is equivalent 1490, and at Venice in 1546 with the annotations of Elias. The to some of the British Portlandian; while most of the Astartian cor- model and the principal source for this work of David ķimại's responds to the Corallian. A. de Lapparent now recognizes only the Virgulian and Pteroceran in the Kimeridgien. Clays and marls was the book of R. Jonah (Abulwalid), which was cast in a with occasional limestones and sandstones represent the Kime similar bipartite form; and it was chiefly due to ķimhi's grammar ridgien of most of northern Europe, including Russia. In Swabia and lexicon that, while the contents of Abulwalid's works were and some other parts of Germany' the curious ruiniform marble common knowledge, they themselves remained in oblivion for Felsenkalk occurs on this horizon, and most of the Kimeridgien of southern Europe, including the Alps, is calcareous. Representatives centuries. In spite of this dependence on his predecessors his of the formation occur in Caucasia, Algeria, Abyssinia, Madagascar; work shows originality, especially in the arrangement of his in South America with volcanic rocks, and possibly in California material. In the grammar he combined the paradigmatic (Maripan beds), Alaska and King Charles's Land. method of his brother Moses with the procedure of the older See" Jurassic Rocks of Britain,” vols. v. and i., Memoirs of the scholars who devoted a close attention to details. In his Geological Survey (vol. v. contains references to literature up to 1895). dictionary, again, he recast the lexicological materials inde- pendently, and enriched lexicography itself, especially by his ĶIMĦI, or QIMŅI, the family name of three Jewish grammar- numerous etymological explanations. Under the title Et Sofer, ians and biblical scholars who worked at Narbonne in the 12th “Pen of the Writer” (Lyk, 1864), David Kimḥi composed a sort century and the beginning of the 13th, and exercised great of grammatical compendium as a guide to the correct punctua- influence on the study of the Hebrew language. The name, as is tion of the biblical manuscripts; it consists, for the most part, shown by manuscript testimony, was also pronounced Kamặi of extracts from the Miklol. After the completion of his great and further mention is made of the French surname Petit. work he began to write commentaries on portions of the Scrip- JOSEPH ĶIMūI was a native of southern Spain, and settled tures. The first was on Chronicles, then followed one on the in Provence, where he was one of the first to set forth in the Psalms, and finally his exegetical masterpiece-the commentary Hebrew language the results of Hebraic philology as expounded on the prophets. His annotations on the Psalms are especially by the Spanish Jews in their Arabic treatises. He was acquainted interesting for the polemical excursuses directed against the moreover with Latin grammar, under the influence of which he Christian interpretation. He was also responsible for a commen- resorted to the innovation of dividing the Hebrew vowels into tary on Genesis (ed. A. Günsburg, Pressburg, 1842), in which he five long vowels and five short, previous grammarians having followed Moses Maimonides in explaining biblical narratives as simply spoken of seven vowels without distinction of quantity. visions. He was an enthusiastic adherent of Maimonides, and, His grammatical textbcok, Sefer Ha-Zikkaron, “Book of though far advanced in years, took an active part in the battle Remembrance” (ed. W. Bacher, Berlin, 1888), was marked by which raged in southern France and Spain round his philosophico- methodical comprehensiveness, and introduced into the theory religious writings. The popularity of his biblical exegesis is of the verbs a new classification of the stems which has been demonstrated by the fact that the first printed texts of the retained by later scholars. In the far more ample Sefer Ha-Hebrew Bible were accompanied by his commentary: the Psalms Galuy, “Book of Demonstration” (ed. Matthews, Berlin, 1887), 1477, perhaps at Bologna; the early Prophets, 1485, Soncino; Joseph ķimhi attacks the philological work of the greatest French the later Prophets, ibid. 1486. Talmud scholar of that day, R. Jacob Tam, who espoused the His commentaries have been frequently reprinted, many of them antiquated system of Menahem b.Saruq, and this he supplements in Latin translations. A new edition of that on the Psalms was by an independent critique of Menahem. This work is a mine begun by Schiller-Szinessy (First Book of Psalms, Cambridge, 1883), of varied exegetical and philological details. He also wrote Abr. Geiger wrote of the three Kimḥis in the Hebrew periodical commentaries-the majority of which are lost-on a great Ozar Nehmad (vol. ii., 1857. A. Geiger. Gesammelte Schriften, (W. BA.) number of the scriptural books. Those on Proverbs and Job have v. 1-47). See further the Jewish Encyclopedia. been published. He composed an apologetic work under the KIN (O. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic title Sefer Ha-Berith (“Book of the Bond”), a fragment of which languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kön, Goth kuni, tribe; is extant, and translated into Hebrew the ethico-philosophical the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to work of Bahya ibn Paquda (“ Duties of the Heart ”). In his beget, produce, is seen in Gr. gyévos, Lat. genus, cf. “kind”), commentaries he also made contributions to the comparative a collective word for persons related by blood, as descended from philology of Hebrew and Arabic. In law, the term next of kin " is applied Moses ĶIMẠI was the author of a Hebrew grammar, known- | to the person or persons who, as being in the nearest degree of after the first three words-as Mahalak Shebile Ha-daat, or briefly blood relationship to a person dying intestate, share according to " a common ancestor. KINCARDINESHIRE 801 ) ) degree in his personal estate (see INTESTACY, and INHERITANCE). I as the shore was approached it gradually took on an easterly and “Kin" is frequently associated with “kith” in the phrase finally a northerly direction. “kith and kin, now used as an emphasized form of “ kin ” for owing to the exposure to east winds. The average temperature for Climate and Agriculture.—The climate is healthy, but often cold, family relatives. It properly means one's “ country and kin,” the year is 45° F., for July 58°, and for January 37. The average or one's “ friends and kin.” Kith (O.E. cyðše and cyð, native annual rainfall is 34 in. Much of the Grampian territory is occupied land, acquaintances) comes from the stem of cunnan, to know, by grouse moors, but the land by the Dee, in the Howe and along the coast, is scientifically farmed and yields well. The soil of the Howe and thus means the land or people one knows familiarly. is richer and stronger than that in the Dee valley, but the most fer- The suffix-kin, chiefly surviving in English surnames, seems to have tile region is along the coast, where the soil is generally deep loam been early used as a diminutive ending to certain Christian names in resting on clay, although in some places it is poor and thin, or stiff Flanders and Holland. The termination is represented by the dimi- and cold. Oats are the principal crop, wheat is not largely grown, nutive -chen in German, as in Kindchen, Hüuschen, &c. Many but the demands of the distillers maintain a very considerable acre- English words, such as pumpkin," firkin," seem to have no age under barley. Rather more than one-tenth of the total area diminutive significance, and may have been assimilated from earlier is under wood. Turnips form the main green crop, but potatoes forms, e.g. " pumpkin" from“ pumpion." are extensively raised. A little more than half the holdings consist KINCARDINESHIRE, or The Mearns, an eastern county of 50 acres and under. Great attention is paid to livestock. Short- of Scotland, bounded E. by the North Sea, S. and S.W. by horns are the most common breed, but the principal home-bred stock is a cross between shorthorned and polled, though there are Forfarshire, and N.W. and N. by Aberdeenshire. Area, 243,974 many valuable herds of pure polled. Cattle-feeding is carried on acres, or 381 sq. m. In the west and north-west the Grampians according to the most advanced methods. Blackfaced sheep are are the predominant feature. The highest of their peaks is chiefly kept on the hill runs, Cheviots or a cross with Leicesters Mount Battock (2555 ft.), where the counties of Aberdeen, being usually found on the lowland farms. Most of the horses are Forfar and Kincardine meet, but there are a score of hills employed in connexion with the cultivation of the soil, but several gocd strains, including Clydesdales, are retained for stock purposes. exceeding 1500 ft. in height. In the extreme north, on the Pigs are also reared in considerable numbers. confines of Aberdeenshire, the Hill of Fare, famous for its sheep Other Industries.- Apart from agriculture, the principal industry walks, attains an altitude of 1545 ft. In the north the county dangerous and the harbours difficult in rough weather, the fishermen is the fishing, of which Stonehaven is the centre. The coast being slopes from the Grampians to the picturesque and finely-wooded. Often run great risks. The village of Findon (pron. Finnan) has given valley of the Dee, and in the south it falls to the Howe (HoHow) its name to the well-known smoked haddocks, which were first cured of the Mearns, which is a continuation north-eastwards of in this way at that hamlet. The salmon fisheries of the sea and the Strathmore. The principal rivers are Bervie Water (20 m. long), rivers yield a substantial annual return. Manufactures are of little flowing south-eastwards to the North Sea; the Water of Feugh and at Bervie, Laurencekirk and a few other places flax-spinning more than local importance. Woollens are made at Stonehaven, (20 m.) taking a north-easterly direction and falling into the and weaving are carried on. There are also some distilleries, brew- Dee at Banchory, and forming near its mouth a beautiful eries and tanneries. Stonehaven, Gourdon and Johnshaven are the cascade; the Dye (15 m.) rising in Mount Battock and ending chief ports for seaborne trade. its course in the Feugh; Luther Water (14 m.) springing not The Deeside railway runs through the portion of the county on the northern bank of the Dee. The Caledonian and North far from the castle of Drumtochty and meandering pleasantly British railways run to Aberdeen via Laurencekirk to Stonehaven, to its junction with the North Esk; the Cowie (13 m.) and the using the same metals, and there is a branch line of the N.B.R. from Carron (84 m.) entering the sea at Stonehaven. The Dee and Montrose to Bervie. There are also coaches between Blairs and North Esk serve as boundary streams during part of their Aberdeen, Bervie and Stonehaven, Fettercairn and Edzell, Banchory and Birse, and other points. course, the one of Aberdeenshire, the other of Forfarshire. Loch Loirston, in the parish of Nigg, and Loch Lumgair, in Population and Government.—The population was 35,492 in Dunnottar parish, both small, are the only lakes in the shire. 1891, and 40,923 in 1901, when 103 persons spoke Gaelic and Of the glens Glen Dye in the north centre of the county is English. The chief town is Ştonehaven (pop. in 1901, 4577) remarkable for its beauty, and the small Den Fenella, to the with Laurencekirk (1512) and Banchory (1475), but part of south-east of Laurencekirk, contains a picturesque waterfall. the city of Aberdeen, with a population of 9386, is within the Its name perpetuates the memory of Fenella, daughter of a county. The county returns one member to parliament, and thane of Angus, who was slain here after betraying Kenneth II. Bervie, the only royal burgh, belongs to the Montrose group of to his enemies, who (according to local tradition) made away parliamentary burghs. Kincardine is united in one sheriffdom with him in Kincardine Castle. Excepting in the vicinity of with the shires of Aberdeen and Banff, and one of the Aberdeen St Cyrus, the coast from below Johnshaven to Girdle Ness sheriffs-substitute sits at Stonehaven. The county is under presents a told front of rugged cliffs, with an average height of school-board jurisdiction. The academy at Stonehaven and a from 100 to 250 ft., interrupted only by occasional creeks and few of the public schools earn grants for higher education. bays, as at Johnshaven, Gourdon, Bervie, Stonehaven, Port- The county council hands over the “residue" grant to the lethen, Findon, Cove and Nigg. county secondary education committee, which expends it Geology.-The great fault which traverses Scotland from shore to in technical education grants. At Blairs, in the north-east of shore passes through this county from Craigeven Bay, about a mile north of Stonehaven, by Fenella Hill to Edzell. On the northern ing of young men for the priesthood. the shire near the Dee, is a Roman Catholic college for the train- side of this line are the old crystalline schists of the Dalradian group; on the southern side Old Red Sandstone occupies all the remaining History.—The annals of Kincardineshire as a whole are space. Good exposures of the schists are seen, repeatedly folded, almost blank. The county belonged of old to the district of in the cliffs between Aberdeen and Stonehaven. They consist of a Pictavia and apparently was overrun for a brief period by the lower series of greenish slates and a higher, more micaceous and schistose series with grits; bands of limestone occur in these rocks Romans. In the parish of Fetteresso are the remains of the near Bunchory. Besides the numerous minor flexures the schists camp of Raedykes, in which, according to tradition, the Cale- are bent into a broad synclinal fold which crosses the county, donians under Galgacus were lodged before their battle with its axis lying in a south-westerly-north-easterly direction.. Rising Agricola. It is also alleged that in the same district Malcolm I. " through the schists are several granite masses, the largest being that forming the high ground around Mt Battock; south of the Dee are was killed (954) whilst endeavouring to reduce the unruly tribes several smaller masses, some of which have been extensively quarried. of this region. Mearns, the alternative name for the county, is The lower part of the Old Red Sandstone consists of flags, red sand believed to have been derived from Mernia, a Scottish king, to stones and purple clays in great thickness; these are followed by whom the land was granted, and whose brother, Angus, had coarse conglomerates, well seen in the cliff at Dunnottar Castle, obtained the adjoining shire of Forfar. The antiquities consist with ashy grits and some thin sheets of diabase. The diabase forms the Bruxie and Leys Hills and some minor elevations. Above the mostly of stone circles, cairns, tumuli, standing stones and a volcanic series more red sandstones, conglomerates and marls appear. structure in the parish of Dunnottar vaguely known as a “ Picts! The Old Red Sandstone is folded synclinally in a direction con- tinuing the vale of Strathmore; south of this is an anticline, as may kiln.” By an extraordinary reversion of fortune the town which be seen on the coast between St Cyrus and Kinneff. Glacial striae gave the shire its name has practically vanished. It stood about on the higher ground and débris on the lower ground show that the 2 m. N.E. of Fettercairn, and by the end of the 16th century direction taken by the ice flow was south-eastward on the hills but had declined to a mere hamlet, being represented now only by 802 KINCHINJUNGA_KING, C. W. 1 66 or 9) the ruins of the royal castle and an ancient burial-ground. The The first kindergarten was opened at Blankenburg, near Rudolstadt, Bruces, earls of Elgin, also bear the title of earl of Kincardine. in 1837, but after a needy existence of eight years was closed for want of funds. In 1851 the Prussian government declared that "schools See A. Jei vise, History and Traditions of the Lands of the Lindsays founded on Froebel's principles or principles like them could not be (1853), History and Antiquities of the Mearns (1858), Memorials of allowed." As early as 1854 it was introduced into England, and Angus and the Mearns (1861); J. Anderson, The Black Book of Kin- Henry Barnard reported on it that it was " by far the most original, cardineshire (Stonehaven, 1879): C. A. Mollyson, The Parish of For- attractive and philosophical form of infant development the world doun (Aberdeen, 1893); A. C. Cameron, The History of Fellercairn has yet seen " (Report to Governor of Connecticut, 1854). The great (Paisley, 1899). propagandist of Froebelism, the Baroness Berta von Marenholtz- Bülow (1811-1893), drew the attention of the French to the kinder- KINCHINJUNGA, or KANCHANJANGA, the third (or second; garten from the year 1855, and Michelet declared that Froebel had see K2) highest mountain in the world. It is a peak of the solved the problem of human education." In Italy the kinder- eastern Himalayas, situated on the boundary between Sikkim garten was introduced by Madame Salis-Schwabe. In Austria it is and Nepal, with an elevation of 28,146 ft. Kinchinjunga is best recognized and regulated by the government, though the Volks- Kindergärten are not numerous. But by far the greatest develop- seen from the Indian hill-station of Darjeeling, where the view ments of the kindergarten system are in the United States and in of this stupendous mountain, dominating all intervening ranges Belgium. The movement was begun in the United States by Miss and rising from regions of tropical undergrowth to the altitude Elizabeth Peabody in 1867, aided by Mrs Horace Mann and Dr Henry Barnard. The first permanent kindergarten was established of eternal snows, is one of the grandest in the world. in St Louis in 1873 by Miss Susan Blow and Dr W. T. Harris. In KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in “ kin,” Belgium the mistresses of the " Ecoles gardiennes are instructed supra), a word in origin meaning birth, nature, or as an adjective, in the idea of the kindergarten " and " Froebel's method," and in natural. From the application of the term to the natural 1880 the minister of public instruction issued a programme for the disposition or characteristic which marks the class to which an Écoles Gardiennes Communales," which is both in fact and in profession a kindergarten manual. object belongs, the general and most common meaning of" class," For the position of the kindergarten system in the principal genus or species easily develops; that of race, natural order or countries of the world see Report of a Consuliative Committee upon the group, is particularly seen in such expressions as " mankind." School Allendance of Children below the Age of Five, English Board The phrase "payment in kind," i.e. in goods or produce as of Education Reports (Cd. 4259, 1908); and “The Kindergarten,' by Laura Fisher, Report of the United Stales Commissioner for Educa. distinguished from money, is used as equivalent to the Latin tion for 1903, vol. i. ch. xvi. (Washington, 1905). in specie; in ecclesiastical usage communion in both kinds" “ in one kind” refers to the elements of bread and wine KINDI [ABÛ YUSUF YA'QÜB IBN ISHAQ UL-KINDī, sometimes (Lat. species) in the Eucharist. The present main sense of the called pre-eminently“ The Philosopher of the Arabs '') flourished adjective“ kind,” i.e. gentle, friendly, benevolent, has developed in the 9th century, the exact dates of his birth and death being from the meaning“ born,” “natural,” through“ of good birth, unknown. He was born in Kufa, where his father was governor disposition or nature,” naturally well-disposed.” under the Caliphs Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid. His studies KINDERGARTEN, a German word meaning "garden of were made in Başra and Bagdad, and in the latter place he 'children,” the name given by Friedrich Froebel to a kind of remained, occupying according to some a government position. “play-school” invented by him for furthering the physical, In the orthodox reaction under Mötawakkil, when all philosophy moral and intellectual growth of children between the ages was suspect, his library was confiscated, but he himself seems of three and seven. For the theories on which this type of to have escaped. His writings-like those of other Arabian school was based see FROEBEL. Towards the end of the 18th philosophers-are encyclopaedic and are concerned with most century Pestalozzi planned, and Oberlin formed, day-asylums of the sciences; they are said to have numbered over two for young children. Schools of this kind took in the Netherlands hundred, but ewer than twenty are extant. Some of these the name of “play school,” and in England, where they have were known in the middle ages, for Kindi is placed by Roger especially thriven, of “infant schools” (q.v.). But Froebel's Bacon in the first rank after Ptolemy as a writer on optics. idea of the “ Kindergarten ” differed essentially from that of the His work De Somniorum Visione was translated by Gerard of infant schools. The child required to be prepared for society by Cremona (q.v.) and another was published as De medicinarum being early associated with its equals; and young children thus compositarum gradibus investigandis Libellus (Strassburg, 1531). brought together might have their employments, especially He was one of the earliest translators and commentators of their chief employment, play, so organized as to draw out their Aristotle, but like Fārābi (q.v.) appears to have been superseded capacities of feeling and thinking, and even of inventing and by Avicenna. creating. See G. Flügel, Al Kindi genannt der Philosoph der Araber (Leipzig, Froebel therefore invented a course of occupations, most of 1857), and T. J. de Boer, Geschichte der Philosophie im Islam (Siutt- which are social games. Many of the games are connected gart, 1901), pp. 90'sqq.; also ARABIAN PUILOSOPHY. (G. W. T.) with the " gifts,” as he called the simple playthings provided KINEMATICS (from Gr. xivnua, a motion), the branch of for the children. These “ gifts are, in order, six coloured mechanics which discusses the phenomena of motion without balls, a wooden ball, a cylinder and a cube, a cube cut to form reference to force or mass (see MECHANICS). eight smaller cubes, another cube cut to form eight parallelo- KINETICS (from Gr. Kivelv, to move), the branch of mechanics grams, square and triangular tablets of coloured wood, and strips which discusses the phenomena of motion as affected by force; of lath, rings and circles for pattern-making. In modern, it is the modern equivalent of dynamics in the restricted sense kindergartens much stress has been laid on such occupations (see MeCHANICS). as sand-drawing, modelling in clay and paper, pattern-making, KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818–1888), English writer plaiting, &c. The artistic faculty was much thought of by on ancient gems, was born at Newport (Mon.) on the 5th of Froebel, and, as in the education of the ancients, the sense of September 1818. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in rhythm in sound and motion was cultivated by music and poetry 1836; graduated in 1840, and obtained a fellowship in 1842; introduced in the games. Much care was to be given to the he was senior fellow at the time of his death in London on the training of the senses, especially those of sight, sound and touch. 25th of March 1888. He took holy orders, but never held any Intuition or first-hand experience (Anschauung) was to be He spent much time in Italy, where he laid the founda- recognized as the true basis of knowledge, and though stories tion of his collection of gems, which, increased by subsequent were to be told, instruction of the imparting and “ learning-up purchases in London, was sold by him in consequence of his kind was to be excluded. Froebel sought to teach the children failing eyesight and was presented in 1881 to the Metropolitan not what to think but how to think, in this following in the Museum of Art, New York. King was recognized universally steps of Pestalozzi, who had done for the child what Bacon as one of the greatest authorities in this department of art. nearly two hundred years before had done for the philosopher. His chief works on the subject are: Antique Gems, their Origin, Where possible the children were to be much in the open air, Usos and Value (1860), a complete and exhaustive treatise; The and were each to cultivate a little garden. Gnostics and their Remains (2nd ed. by J. Jacobs, 1887, which cure. ܙܙ KING, CLARENCE-KING, RUFUS 803 led to an animated correspondence in the Athenaeum); The for ritualistic practices before the archbishop of Canterbury, Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems and oj the Precious Dr Benson, and, on appeal, before the judicial committee of the Metals (1865); The Handbook of Engraved Gems (2nd ed., 1885); Privy Council (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT). Dr King, who loyally Early Christian Numismatics (1873). King was thoroughly conformed his practices to the archbishop's judgment, devoted familiar with the works of Greek and Latin authors, especially himself unsparingly to the work of his diocese; and, irrespective Pausanias and the elder Pliny, which bore upon the subject in of his High Church views, he won the affection and reverence which he was most interested; but he had little taste for the of all classes by his real saintliness of character. The bishop, minutiae of verbal criticism. In 1869 he brought out an edition who never married, died at Lincoln on the 8th of March 1910. of Horace, illustrated from antique gems; he also translated See the obituary notice in The Times, March 9, 1910. Plutarch's Moralia (1882) and the theosophical works of the KING, HENRY (1591-1669), English bishop and poet, eldest Emperor Julian (1888) for Bohn's Classical Library. son of John King, afterwards bishop of London, was baptized KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901), American geologist, was born at Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the 6th of January he proceeded from Westminster School to Christ Church, Oxford, on the 16th of January 1591. With his younger brother John 1842. He graduated at Yale in 1862. His most important work was the geological exploration of the fortieth parallel, of where both matriculated on the 20th of January 1609. Henry King entered the church, and after receiving various ecclesiastical which the main reports (1876 and 1877) comprised the geological preferments he was made bishop of Chichester in 1642, receiving and topographical atlas of the Rocky Mountains, the Green River and Utah basins, and the Nevada plateau and basin. When the 29th of December of that year Chichester surrendered to the at the same time the rich living of Petworth, Sussex. On the United States Geological Survey was consolidated in 1879 King Parliamentary army, and King was among the prisoners. After was chosen director, and he vigorously conducted investigations his release he found an asylum with his brother-in-law, Sir in Colorado, and in the Eureka district and on the Comstock Richard Hobart of Langley, Buckinghamshire, and afterwards lode in Nevada. He held office for a year only; in later years at Richkings near by, with Lady Salter, said to have been a his only noteworthy contribution to geology was an essay on the sister of Dr Brian Duppa (1588-1662). King was a close friend age of the earth, which appeared in the annual report of the of Duppa and personally acquainted with Charles I. In one of Smithsonian Institution for 1893. He died at Phoenix, Arizona, his poems dated 1649 he speaks of the Eikon Basilike as the on the 24th of December 1901. KING, EDWARD (1612-1637), the subject of Milton's Lycidas, King died at Chichester on the 30th of September 1669. His king's own work. Restored to his benefice at the Restoration, was born in Ireland in 1612, the son of Sir John King, a member works include Poems, Elegies, Paradoxes and Sonets (1657), The of a Yorkshire family which had migrated to Ireland. Edward Psalmes of David from the New Translation of the Bible, turned King was admitted á pensioner of Christ's College, Cambridge, into Meter (1651), and several sermons. He was one of the on the gth of June 1626, and four years later was elected a fellow. Milton, though two years his senior and himself anxious to edition of his friend's poems. executors of John Donne, and prefixed an elegy to the 1663 secure a fellowship, remained throughout on terms of the closest friendship with his rival, whose amiable character seems to have King's Poems and Psalms were cdited, with a biographical sketch, endeared him to the whole college. King served from 1633 to by the Rev. J. Hannah (1843). 1634 as praelector and tutor of his college, and was to have KING, RUFUS (1755-1827), American political leader, was entered the church. His career, however, was cut short by the born on the 24th of March 1755 at Scarborough, Maine, then tragedy which inspired Milton's verse. In 1637 he set out for a part of Massachusetts. He graduated at Harvard in 1777, Ireland to visit his family, but on the roth of August the ship in read law at Newburyport, Mass., with Theophilus Parsons, and which he was sailing struck on a rock near the Welsh coast, and was admitted to the bar in 1780. He served in the Massachu- King was drowned. Of his own writings many Latin poems setts General Court in 1783-1784 and in the Confederation Con- contributed to different collections of Cambridge verse survive, gress in 1784-1787. During these critical years he adopted the but they are not of sufficient merit to explain the esteem in states' rights" attitude. It was largely through his efforts which he was held. that the General Court in 1784 rejected the amendment to the A collection of Latin, Greek and English verse written in his Articles of Confederation authorizing Congress to levy a 5% memory by his Cambridge friends was printed at Cambridge in 1638, impost. He was one of the three Massachusetts delegates in with the title Justa Edouardo King naufrago ab amicis moerentibus Congress in 1785 who refused to present the resolution of the amoris et yvelas xápiv. The second part of this collection has a separate title-page, Obsequies to the Memorie of, Mr Edward King, General Court proposing a convention to amend the articles. Anno Dom. 1638, and contains thirteen English poems, of which He was also out of sympathy with the meeting at Annapolis in Lycidas ? (signed J. M.) is the last. 1786. He did good service, however, in opposing the extension KING, EDWARD (1829–1910), English bishop, was the second of slavery. Early in 1787 King was moved by the Shays son of the Rev. Walter King, archdeacon of Rochester and Rebellion and by the influence of Alexander Hamilton to take a rector of Stone, Kent. Graduating from Oriel College, Oxford, broader view of the general situation, and it was he who intro- he was ordained in 1854, and four years later became chaplain duced the resolution in Congress, on the 21st of February 1787, and lecturer at Cuddesdon Theological College. He was principal sanctioning the call for the Philadelphia constitutional con- at Cuddesdon from 1863 to 1873, when he became regius professor vention. In the convention he supported the large-state party, of pastoral theology at Oxford and canon of Christ Church. To favoured a strong executive, advocated the suppression of the the world outside he was only known at this time as one of slave trade, and opposed the counting of slaves in determining Dr Pusey's most intimate friends and as a leading member of the the apportionment of representatives. In 1788 he was one of English Church Union. But in Oxford, and especially among the the most influential members of the Massachusetts convention younger men, he exercised an exceptional influence, due, not to which ratified the Federal Constitution. He married Mary special profundity of intellect, but to his remarkable charm in Alsop (1769–1819) of New York in 1786 and removed to that personal intercourse, and his abounding sincerity and goodness. city in 1788. He was elected a member of the New York In 1885 Dr King was made bishop of Lincoln. The most Assembly in the spring of 1789, and at a special session of the eventful episode of his episcopate was his prosecution (1888-1890) legislature held in July of that year was chosen one of the first 11. W. Hales, in the Athenaeum for the 1st of August 1891, sug- representatives of New York in the United States Senate. In gests that in writing King's elegy Milton had in his mind, besides the this body he served in 1789-1796, supported Hamilton's financial idylls of Theocritus, a Latin eclogue of Gioyanni Baptista Amalteo measures, Washington's neutrality proclamation and the Jay entitled Lycidas, in which Lycidas bids farewell to the land he loves Treaty, and became one of the recognized leaders of the Federal- and prays for gentle breezes on his voyage. He was familiar with the Italian Latin poets of the Renaissance, and he may also have been ist party. He was minister to Great Britain in 1796–1803 and influenced in his choice of the name by the shepherd Lycidas in again in 1825-1826, and was the Federalist candidate for vice- Sannazaro's eclogue Phillis. president in 1804 and 1808, and for president in 1816, when he (6 1 804 KING, THOMAS-KING, WILLIAM received 34 electoral votes to 183 cast for Monroe. He was KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729), Anglican divine, the son of again returned to the Senate in 1813, and was re-elected in 1819 James King, an Aberdeen man who migrated to Antrim, was as the result of a struggle between the Van Buren and Clinton born in May 1650. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, factions of the Democratic-Republican party. In the Missouri and after being presented to the parish of St Werburgh, Dublin, Compromise debates he supported the anti-slavery programme in in 1679, became dean of St Patrick's in 1689, bishop of Derry in the main, but for constitutional reasons voted against the second 1691, and archbishop of Dublin in 1702. In 1718 he founded clause of the Tallmadge Amendment providing that all slaves the divinity lectureship in' Trinity College, Dublin, which bears born in the state after its admission into the Union should be his name. He died in May 1729. King was the author of The free at the age of twenty-five years. He died at Jamaica, Slate of the Protestants in Ireland under King James's Government Long Island, on the 29th of April 1827. (1691), but is best known by his De Origine Mali (1702; Eng, The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, begun about 1850 trans., 1731), an essay deemed worthy of a reply by Bayle and by his son, Charles King, was completed by his grandson, Charles Leibnitz. King was a strong supporter of the Revolution, and R. King, and published in six volumes (New York, 1894-1900). his voluminous correspondence is a valuable help to our know- Rufus King's son, JOHN ALSOP KING (1788-1867), was edu- ledge of the Ireland of his day. cated at Harrow and in Paris, served in the war of 1812 as a See A Great Archbishop of Dublin, William King, D.D., edited by lieutenant of a cavalry company, and was a member of the New Sir C. S. King, Bart. (1908). York Assembly in 1819-1821 and of the New York Senate in KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712), English poet and iniscellaneous 1823. When his father was sent as minister to Great Britain in writer, son of Ezekiel King, was born in 1663. From his father 1825 he accompanied him as secretary of the American legation, he inherited a small estate and he was connected with the Hyde and when his father returned home on account of ill health he family. He was educated at Westminster School under Dr remained as chargé d'affaires until August 1826. He was a Busby, and at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A. 1685; D.C.L. 1692). member of the New York Assembly again in 1832 and in 1840, His first literary enterprise was a defence of Wycliffe, written was a Whig representative in Congress in 1849-1851, and in in conjunction with Sir Edward Hannes (d. 1710) and entitled 1857-1859 was governor of New York State. He was a prominent Reflections upon Mons. Varillas's History of Heresy ... (1688). member of the Republican party, and in 1861 was a delegate to He became known as a humorous writer on the Tory and High the Peace Conference in Washington. Church side. He took part in the controversy aroused by the Another son, CHARLES KING (1789-1867), was also educated conversion of the once stubborn non-juror William Sherlock, one abroad, was captain of a volunteer regiinent in the early part of of his contributions being an entertaining ballad, “ The Battle the war of 1812, and served in 1814 in the New York Assembly, Royal,” in which the disputants are. Sherlock and South. In and after working for some years as a journalist was president of 1694 he gained the favour of Princess Anne by a defence of her Columbia College in 1849-1864. husband's country entitled Animadversions on the Pretended A third son, JAMES GORE KING (1791-1853), was an assistant Account of Denmark, in answer to a depreciatory pamphlet by adjutant-general in the war of 1812, was a banker in Liverpool Robert (afterwards Viscount) Molesworth. For this service he and afterwards in New York, and was president of the New was made secretary to the princess. He supported Charles York & Erie railroad until 1837, when by his visit to London he Boyle in his controversy with Richard Bentley over the genuine- secured the loan to American bankers of £1,000,000 from the ness of the Epistles of Phalaris, by a letter (printed in Dr Bent- governors of the Bank of England. In 1849-1851 he was a ley's Dissertations . (1698), more commonly known as representative in Congress from New Jersey. Boyle against Bentley), in which he gave an account of the cir- Charles King's son, Rufus King (1814–1876), graduated at cumstances of Bentley's interview with the bookseller Bennet. the U.S. Military Academy in 1833, served for three years in Bentley attacked Dr King in his Dissertation in answer (1699) to the engineer corps, and, after resigning from the army, became this book, and King replied with a second letter to his friend assistant engineer of the New York & Erie railroad. He was Boyle. He further satirized Bentley in ten Dialogues of the Dead adjutant-general of New York state in 1839-1843, and became relating to ... the Epistles of Phalaris (1699). In 1700 he pub- a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army in 1861, lished The Transactioneer, with some of his Philosophical Fancies, commanded a division in Virginia in 1862-1863, and, being com- in twc Dialogues, ridiculing the credulity of Hans Sloane, who was pelled by ill health to resign from the army, was U.$. minister then the secretary of the Royal Society. This was followed up to the Papal States in 1863-1867. later with some burlesque Useful Transactions in Philosophy His son, CHARLES KING (b. 1844), served in the artillery until (1709). By an able defence of his friend, James Annesley, 1870 and in the cavalry until 1879; he was appointed brigadier- sth earl of Anglesey, in a suit brought against him by his wife general U.S. Volunteers in the Spanish War in 1898, and served before the House of Lords in 1701, he gained a legal reputation in the Philippines. He wrote Famous and Decisive Battles which he did nothing further to advance. He was sent to Ireland (1884), Campcigning with Crook (1890), and many popular in 1701 to be judge of the high court of admiralty, and later romances of military life. became sole commissioner of the prizes, keeper of the records in KING, THOMAS (1730-1805), English actor and dramatist, the Bermingham Tower of Dublin Castle, and vicar-general to the was born in London on the 20th of August 1730. Garrick saw 'primate. About 1708 he returned to London. He served the him when appearing as a strolling player in a booth at Windsor, Tory cause by writing for The Examiner before it was taken up and engaged him for Drury Lane. He made his first appearance by Swift. He wrote four pamphlets in support of Sacheverell, there in 1748 as the Herald in King Lear. He played the part of in the most considerable of which, “A Vindication of the Rev. Allworth in the first presentation of Massinger's New Way to Dr Henry Sacheverell ... in a Dialogue between a Tory and a Pay Old Debts (1748), and during the summer he played Romeo Whig” (1711), he had the assistance of Charles Lambe of Christ and other leading parts in Bristol. For eight years he was the Church and of Sacheverell himself. In December 1711 Swift leading comedy actor at the Smock Alley theatre in Dublin, obtained for King the office of gazetteer, worth from £200 to but in 1759 he returned to Drury Lane and took leading parts £250. King was now very poor, but he had no taste for work, until 1802. One of his earliest successes was as Lord Ogleby and he resigned his office on the ist of July 1912. He died on în The Clandestine Marriage (1766), which was compared to the 25th of December in the same year. Garrick's Hamlet and Kemble's Coriolanus, but he reached the The other works of William King include: A Journey to London, climax of his reputation when he created the part of Sir Peter in the year 1698. After the Ingenious Method of that made by Dr. Martin Teazle at the first representation of The School for Scandal Lister to Paris, in the same Year ... (1699), which was considered by (1777). He was the author of a number of farces, and part- the author to be his best work; Adversaria, or Occasional Remarks on Men and Manners, a selection from his critical note-book, which owner and manager of several theatres, but his fondness for shows wide and varied reading; Rufinus, or An Historical Essay on gambling brought him to poverty. He died on the ith of the Favourite Ministry (:712), a satire on the duke of Marlborough. December 1805. His chief poems are: The Art of Cookery: in imilation of Horace's KING OF OCKHAM-KING 805 C a Art of Poetry. With some Letters to Dr Lister and Others (1708), one whº were little more than Oriental sheiks. A more practical of his most amusing works; The Art of Love; in imitation of Ovid (1709); “Multy of Mountoun;" and a burlesqueä Orpheus and redury before diplomatic conventions became, in the 19th century, more difficulty, moreover, presented itself in international intercourse, dice. A of Miscellanies in appeared in 1705; his Remains were edited by J. Brown in 1732; and in or less stereotyped. Originally the title of king was superior to 1776 John Nichols produced an excellent edition of his Original that of emperor, and it was to avoid the assumption of the Works with Historical Notes and Memoirs of the Author. Dr Johnson included him in his Lives of the Poets, and his works superior title of rex that the chief magistrates of Rome adopted appear in subsequent collections. the names of Caesar, imperator and princeps to signalize their King is not to be confused with another William KING (1685- authority. But with the development of the Roman imperial 1763), author of a mock-heroic poem called The Toast (1736) satirizing idca the title emperor came to mean more than had been in- the countess of Newburgh, and principal of St Mary Hall, Oxford. volved in that of rex; very early in the history of the Empire KING (OF OCKHAM), PETER KING, IST BARON (1669–1734), there were subject kings; while with the Hellenizing of the East lord chancellor of England, was born at Exeter in 1669. In his Roman Empire its rulers assumed the style of Baoideós, no youth he was interested in early church history, and published longer to be translated "king" but "emperor." From this anonymously in 1691 An Enquiry into the Constitution, Discipline, Roman conception of the supremacy of the emperor the medieval Unity and Worship of the Primitive Church that flourished within Empire of the West inherited its traditions. With the bar- the first Three Hundred Years after Christ. This treatise engaged barian invasions the Teutonic idea of kingship had come into the interest of his cousin, John Locke, the philosopher, by whose touch with the Roman idea of empire and with the theocratic advice his father sent him to the university of Leiden, where he conceptions which this had absorbed from the old Roman and stayed for nearly three years. He entered the Middle Temple Oriental views of kingship. With these the Teutonic kingship in 1694 and was called to the bar in 1698. In 1700 he was had in its origin but little in common. returned to parliament for Beer Alston in Devonshire; he was Etymologically the Romance and Teutonić words for king appointed recorder of Glastonbury in '1705 and recorder of have quite distinct origins. The Latin rex corresponds to the London in 1708. He was chief justice of the common pleas Sanskrit rajah, and meant originally steersman. The Teutonic from 1714 to 1725, when he was appointed speaker of the king on the contrary corresponds to the Sanskrit genaka, and House of Lords and was raised to the peerage. In June of the simply meant father, the father of a family, the king of his same year he was made lord chancellor, holding office until own kin, the father of a clan, the father of a people.”'The Teu- compelled by a paralytic stroke to resign in 1733. He died at tonic kingship, in short, was national; the king was the supreme Ockham, Surrey, on the 22nd of July 1734. Lord King as representative of the people," hedged with divinity” in so far chancellor failed to sustain the reputation which he had acquired as he was the reputed descendant of the national gods, but with at the common law bar. Nevertheless he left his mark on Eng- none of that absolute theocratic authority associated with the lish law by establishing the principles that a will of immovable titles of rex or Baoileús. This, however, was modified by contact property is governed by the lex loci rei sitäe, and that where a with Rome and Christianity. The early Teutonic conquerors husband had a legal right to the personal estate of his wife, which had never lost their reverence for the Roman emperor, and were must be asserted by a suit in equity, the court would not help from time to time proud to acknowledge their inferiority by him unless he made a provision out of the property for the wife, accepting titles, such as “patrician,” by which this was implied. if she required it. He was also the author of the Act (4 Geo. II. But by the coronation of Charles, king of the Franks, as emperor c. 26) by virtue of which English superseded Latin as the lan- of the West, the German kingship was absorbed into the Roman guage of the courts. Lord King published in 1702 a History of imperial idea, a process which exercised a profound effect on the the Apostles' Creed (Leipzig, 1706; Basel, 1750) - which went evolution of the Teutonic kingship generally. In the symmetri- through several editions and was also translated into Latin. cal political theory of medieval Europe pope and emperor were His great-great-grandson, WILLIAM (1805–1893), married in sun and moon, kings but lesser satellites; though the theory 1835 the only daughter of Lord Byron the poet, and was created only partially and occasionally corresponded with the facts. earl of Lovelace in 1838. Another descendant, PETER JOHN But the elevation of Charlemagne had had a profound effect in Locke KING (1811-1885), who was member of parliament for modifying the status of kingship in nations that never came under East Surrey from 1847 to 1874, won some fame as an advocate his sceptre nor under that of his successors. The shadowy of reform, being responsible for the passing of the Real Estate claim of the emperors to universal dominion was in theory Charges Act of 1854, and for the repeal of a large number of everywhere acknowledged; but independent kings hastened to obsolete laws. assert their own dignity by surrounding themselves with the KING (0. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O.H.G. ceremonial forms of the Empire and occasionally, as in the case chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. künic, künec, künc, Mod. of the Saxon bretwaldas in England, by assuming the imperial Ger. König, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung), a style. The mere fact of this usurpation showed that the title title, in its actual use generally implying sovereignty of the most of king was regarded as inferior to that of emperor; and so it exalted rank. Any inclusive definition of the word “ king” is, continued, as a matter of sentiment at least, down to the end of however, impossible. It always implies sovereignty, but in no the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the cheapening of the special degree or sense; e.g. the sovereigns of the British Empire imperial title by its multiplication in the 19th century. To the and of Servia are both kings, and so too, at least in popular parlance, are the chiefs of many barbarous peoples, e.g. the Zulus. 1 Max Müller, Lect. Sci. Lang., 2nd series, p. 255, “ All people, save The use of the title is, in fact, involved in considerable confusion, those who fancy that the name king has something to do with a Tartar khan or with a 'canning'... man, are agreed that the Eng- largely the result of historic causes. Freeman, indeed, in his lish cyning and the Sanskrit gancka both come from the same root, Comparative Politics (p. 138) says: “ There is a common idea of from that widely spread root whence comes our own cyn or kin kingship which is at once recognized however hard it may be to and the Greek yivos. The only question is whether there is any define it. This is shown among other things by the fact that no implied in their both coming from the same original root. That is connexion between cyning and ganaka closer than that which is difficulty is ever felt as to translating the word king and the words to say, are we to suppose that cyning and ganaka are strictly the same which answer to it in other languages.” This, however, is subject word common to Sanskrit and Teutonic, or is it enough to think to considerable modification. "King," for instance, is used to that cyning is an independent formation made after the Teutons translate the Homeric ávað equally with the Athenian Baoideus had separated themselves from the common stock ? ... The differ- ence between the two derivations is not very remote, as the cyn is or the Roman rex. Yet the Homeric “kings were but tribal | the ruling idea in any case; but if we make the word immediately chiefs; while the Athenian and Roman kings were kings in cognate with ganaka we bring in a notion about 'the father of his something more than the modern sense, as supreme priests as people' which has no place if we simply derive cyning from cyn.” well as supreme rulers and lawgivers (see ARCHON; and Rome: See also O. Schrader, Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertums- History). In the English Bible, too, the title of king is given the chunni (Kin) 'personified; cf. A.Š. léod masc. = kunde (Strassburg, 1901). s.v. " König "; the chuning (King), is but prince"; léod indiscriminately to the great king of Persia and to potentates . fem. =" race," i.e. Lat. gens. 9 1 806 KING-BIRD ) Divine last, moreover, the emperor retained the prerogative of creating | Louis XIV.'s famous saying: “ L'élal, c'est moi !" or limitable kings, as in the case of the king of Prussia in 1701, a right bor- only by his own free act; in the other his actions would be rowed and freely used by the emperor Napoleon. Since 1814 the governed by the advice and consent of the people, to whom title of king has been assumed or bestowed by a consensus of the he would be ultimately responsible. The victory of this latter Powers; e.g. the elector of Hanover was made king by the con- principle was proclaimed to all the world by the execution of gress of Vienna (1814), and per contra the title of king was refused Charles I. The doctrine of divine right, indeed, for a while to the elector of Hesse by the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). drew nourishment from the blood of the royal “martyr"; it In general the title of king is now taken to imply a sovereign was the guiding principle of the Anglican Church of the Restora. and independent international position. This was implied in the tion; but it suffered a rude blow when James II. made it impos. recognition of the title of king in the rulers of Greece, Rumania, sible for the clergy to obey both their conscience and their king; Servia and Bulgaria when these countries were declared abso- and the revolution of 1688 made an end of it as a great political lutely independent of Turkey. The fiction of this independent force. These events had effects far beyond England. They sovereignty is preserved even in the case of the kings of Bavaria, served as precedents for the crusade of republican France against Saxony and Württemberg, who are technically members of a kings, and later for the substitution of the democratic kingship free confederation of sovereign states, but are not independent, of Louis Philippe,“ king of the French by the grace of God since their relations with foreign Powers are practically con- and the will of the people,” for the “legitimate" kingship of trolled by the king of Prussia as German emperor. Charles X.,“ king of France by the grace of God.” The theory of the “divine right” of kings, as at present The theory of the crown in Britain, as held by descent modified understood, is of comparatively modern growth. The principle and modifiable by parliamentary action, and yet also“ by the that the kingship is “ descendible in one sacred grace of God,” is in strict accordance with the earliest traditions Right of family," as George Canning put it, is not only still of the English kingship; but the rival theory of inalienable Klogs. that of the British constitution, as that of all mon- divine right is not dead. It is strong in Germany and especially archical states, but is practically that of kingship from the be- in Prussia; it survives as a militant force among the Carlists in ginning. This is, however, quite a different thing from asserting Spain and the Royalists in France (see LEGITIMISTS); and even with the modern upholders of the doctrine of “divine right” not in England a remnant of enthusiasts still maintain the claims of only that " legitimate ” monarchs derive their authority from, a remote descendant of Charles I. to the throne (see JACOBITES). and are responsible to, God alone, but that this authority is by See J. Neville Figgis, Theory of the Divine Right of Kings (Cambridge, divine ordinance hereditary in a certain order of succession. 1896). (W. A. P.) The power of popular election remained, even though popular choice was by custom or by religious sentiment confined within KING-BIRD, the Lanius tyrannus of Linnaeus, and the the limits of a single family. The custom of primogeniture Tyrannus carolinensis or T. pipiri of most later writers, a com- mon and characteristic inhabitant of North America, ranging grew up owing to the obvious convenience of a simple rule that should avoid ruinous contests; the so-called “Salic Law" went as high as 57° N. lat. or farther, and westward to the Rocky further, and by excluding females, removed another possible Mountains, beyond which it is found in Oregon, in Washington (State), and in British Columbia, though apparently not occurring source of weakness. Neither did the Teutonic kingship imply in California. In Canada and the northern states of the Union it is absolute power. The idea of kingship as a theocratic function which played so great a part in the political controversies of the and, passing through Central America, it has been found in a summer visitor, wintering in the south, but also reaching Cuba; 17th century, is due ultimately to Oriental influences brought to Bolivia and eastern Peru. Both the scientific and common bear through Christianity. The crowning and anointing of the emperors, borrowed from Byzantium and traceable to the names of this species are taken from the way in which the cock influence of the Old Testament, was imitated by lesser poten- will at times assume despotic authority over other birds, attack- tates; and this “sacring ” by ecclesiastical authority gave to the ing them furiously as they fly, and forcing them to divert or Yet it is love of his mate king a character of special sanctity. The Christian king thus altogether desist from their course. young that became, in a sense, like the Roman rex, both king and priest. prompts this bellicose behaviour, for it is only Shakespeare makes Richard II. say, “ Not all the water in the in the breeding season that he indulges in it; but then almost rough rude sea can wash the balm off from an anointed king every large bird that approaches his nest, from an eagle down- (act iii. sc. 2); and this conception of the kingship tended to wards, is assaulted, and those alone that possess greater command gather strength with the weakening of the prestige of the papacy of flight can escape from his repeated charges, which are accom- and of the clergy generally. Before the Reformation the anointed panied by loud and shrill cries. On these occasions it may be king was, within his realm, the accredited vicar of God for secu- that the king-bird displays the emblem of his dignity, which lar purposes; after the Reformation he became this in Protestant is commonly concealed; for, being otherwise rather plainly states for religious purposes also. In England it is not without coloured-dark-ashy grey above and white beneath-the erectile significance that the sacerdotal vestments, generally discarded feathers of the crown of the head, on being parted, form as it by the clergy--dalmatic , alb and stole-continued to be among golden-orange in front, deepening into scarlet, and then passing were a deep furrow, and reveal their base, which is of a bright the insignia of the sovereign (see CORONATION). Moreover, this sacrosanct character he acquired not by virtue of his into silvery white. This species seems to live entirely on insects, “sacring;” but by hereditary right; the coronation, anointing which it captures on the wing; it is in bad repute with bee-keepers, and vesting were but the outward and visible symbol of a divine though, according to Dr E. Coues, it “ destroys a thousand grace adherent in the sovereign by virtue of his title. Even noxious insects for every bee it eats.” It builds, often in an Roman Catholic monarchs, like Louis XIV., would never have exposed situation, a rather large nest, coarsely constructed out- admitted that their coronation by the archbishop constituted side, but neatly lined with fine roots or grasses, and lays five or six eggs of any part of their title to reign; it was no more than the conse- a pale salmon colour, beautifully marked with blotches cration of their title. In England the doctrine of the divine and spots of purple, brown and orange, generally disposed in a right of kings was developed to its extremest logical conclusions zone near the larger end. during the political controversies of the 17th century. Of its Nearly akin to the king-bird is the petchary or chicheree, so exponents the most distinguished was Hobbes, the most exagger- called from its loud and petulant cry, T. dominicensis, or T. ated Sir Robert Filmer. It was the main issue to be decided griseus, one of the most characteristic and conspicuous birds of by the Civil War, the royalists holding that all Christian the West Indies, and the earliest to give notice of the break of kings, princes and governors ” derive their authority direct from day. In habits, except that it eats a good many berries, it is God, the parliamentarians that this authority is the outcome of a the very counterpart of its congener, and is possibly even more contract, actual or implied, between sovereign and people. In jealous of any intruder. At all events its pugnacity extends to one case the king's power would be unlimited, according to * It is called in some parts the bee-martin. 0 or his 1 KING-CRAB 807 animals from which it could not possibly receive any harm, and some of the species are sufficiently numerous and important to is hardly limited to any season of the year. warrant the recognition of three genera-Xiphosura, of which In several respects both of these birds, with several of their Limulus is a synonym, Tachypleus and Carcinoscorpius. In allies, resemble some of the shrikes; but it must be clearly under- | Xiphosura the genital operculum structurally resembles the stood that the likeness is but of analogy, and that there is no gill-bearing appendages in that the inner branches consist of near affinity between the two families Laniidae and Tyrannidae, three distinct segments, the distal of which is lobate and projects which belong to wholly distinct sections of the great Passerine freely beyond the margin of the adjacent distal segment of the outer branch; the entosternite (see ARACHNIDA) has two pairs of antero-lateral processes, and in the male only the ambulatory appendages of the second pair are modified as claspers. In Tachypleus and Carcinoscorpius, on the other hand, the genital operculum differs from the gill-bearing appendages in that the inner branches consist of two segments, the distal of which are apically pointed, partially or completely fused in the middle line, and do not project beyond the distal segments of the outer branches; the entosternite has only one pair of antero-lateral processes, and in the male the second and third pairs of ambulatory limbs are modified as claspers. Tachypleus differs from Carcinoscorpius in possessing a long movable spur upon the fourth segment of the sixth ambulatory limb, in having the postanal spine triangular in section instead of round, and the claspers in the male hemichelate, owing to the suppression of the immovable finger, which is well developed in Carcinoscorpius. At the present time king-crabs have a wide but discontinuous distribution. Xiphosura, of which there is but one species, X. polyphemus, ranges along the eastern side of North America from the coast of Maine to Yucatan. Carcinoscorpius, which is also represented by a single species, C. rotundicauda, extends from the Bay of Bengal to the coast of the Moluccas and the Philippines, while of the two better-known species of Tachypleus, T. gigas ( = moluccanus) ranges from Singapore to Torres Straits, and T. tridentatus from Borneo to southern Japan. A third King-Bird: species, T. hoeveni, has been recorded from the Moluccas. But although Xiphosura is now so widely sundered geographically order; and, while the former is a comparatively homogeneous from Tachypleus and Carcinoscorpius, the occurrence of the group, much diversity of form and habits is found among the remains of extinct species of king-crabs in Europe, both in latter, Similarly many of the smaller Tyrannidae bear some Tertiary deposits and in Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous strata, analogy to certain Muscicapidae, with which they were at one suggests that there was formerly a continuous coast-line, with time confounded (see FLYCATCHER), but the difference between tropical or temperate conditions, extending from Europe west- them is deep seated. Nor is this all, for out of the seventy ward to America, and eastward to southern Asia. There are, genera, or thereabouts, into which the Tyrannidae have been however, no grounds for the assumption that the supposed divided, comprehending perhaps three hundred and fifty coast-line between America and Europe synchronized with species, all of which are peculiar to the New World, a series of that between Europe and south Asia. King-crabs do not appear forms can be selected which find a kind of parallel to a series of to differ from each other in habits. Except in the breeding forms to be found in the other group of Passeres; and the genus season they live in water ranging in depth from about two to six Tyrannus, though that from which the family is named, is by no fathoms, and creep about the bottom or bury themselves in the means a fair representative of it; but it would be hard to say sand. Their food consists for the most part of soft mariñe which genus. should be so accounted. The birds of the genus worms, which are picked up in the nippers, thrust into the Muscisaxicola have the habits and almost the appearance of mouth, and masticated by the basal segments of the appendages wheat-ears; the genus Alectorurus calls to mind a water-wagtail; between which the mouth lies. At the approach of the breeding Euscarthmus may suggest a titmouse, Elained perhaps a willow- season, which in the case of Xiphosura polyphemus is in May, June wren; but the greatest number of forms have no analogous bird and July, king-crabs advance in pairs into very shallow water of the Old World with which they can be compared; and, while at the time of the high tides, the male holding securely to the the combination of delicate beauty and peculiar external form back of the female by means of his clasping nippers. No actual possibly attains its utmost in the long-tailed Milvulus, the glory union between the sexes takes place, the spawn of the female of the family may be said to culminate in the king of king-birds, being fertilized by the male at the time of being laid in the sand Muscivora regia. (A. N.) or soon afterwards. This act accomplished, the two retreat KING-CRAB, the name given to an Arachnid, belonging to again into deeper water. Deposited in the mud or sand near the order Xiphosurae, of the grade Delobranchia or Hydropneu-high-water mark, the eggs are eventually hatched by the heat of stea. King-crabs, of which four, possibly five, existing species the sun, to which they are exposed every day for a considerable are known, were formerly referred to the genus Limulus, a name time. The newly hatched young is minute and subcircular in still applied to them in all zoological textbooks. It has recently shape, but bears a close resemblance to its parents except in the been shown, however, that the structural differences between absence of the caudal spine and in the presence of a fringe of Two easy modes of discriminating them externally may be stiff bristles round the margin of the body. During growth it mentioned. All the Laniidae and Muscicapidae have but nine undergoes a succession of moults, making its exit from the old primary quills in their wings, and their tarsi are covered with scales integument through a wide split running round the edge of the in front only; while in the Tyrannidae there are ten primaries, and the tarsal scales extend the whole way round. The more recondite carapace. Moulting is effected in exactly the same way in distinction in the structure of the trachea seems to have been first scorpions, Pedipalpi, and normally in spiders. The caudal spine detected by Macgillivray, who wrote the anatomical descriptions appears at the second moult and gradually increases in length published in 1839 by Audubon (Orn. Biography; v: 421, 422), but with successive changes of the skin. This organ is of considerable its value was not appreciated till the publication of Johannes Müller's classical treatise on the vocal organs of Passerine birds (Abhandl. k. importance, since it enables the king-crab to right itself when Akad. Wissensch, Berlin, 1845, pp. 321, 405). overturned by rough water or other causes. Without it the 808 KINGFISHER le 2 3 animal would remain helpless like an upturned turtle, because to the sea-shore, but a severe winter is sure to occasion a great it is unable to reach the ground with its legs when lying on its mortality in the species, for many of its individuals seem unable back. Before the tail is sufficiently developed to be used for to reach the tidal waters where only in such a season they could that purpose, the young king-crab succeeds in regaining the obtain sustenance; and to this cause rather than any other is normal position by flapping its flattened abdominal appendages perhaps to be ascribed its general scarcity. Very early in the and rising in the water by that means. The king-crab fishery year it prepares its nest, which is at the end of a tunnel bored by itself in a bank, and therein the six or eight white, glossy, translucent eggs are laid, sometimes on the bare soil, but often on the fishbones which, being indigestible, are thrown up in pellets by the birds; and, in any case, before incubation is completed these rejectamenta accumulate so as to form a pretty cup-shaped structure that increases in bulk after the young are hatched, but, mixed with their fluid excretions and with decaying fishes brought for their support, soon becomes a dripping fetid mass. The kingfisher is the subject of a variety of legends and super- stitions, both classical and medieval. Of the latter one of the most curious is that having been originally a plain grey bird it acquired its present bright colours by flying towards the sun on its liberation from Noah's ark, when its upper surface assumed the hue of the sky above it and its lower plumage was scorched by the heat of the setting orb to the tint it now bears. More than this, the kingfisher was supposed to possess many virtues. Its dried body would avert thunderbolts, and if kept in a ward- robe would preserve from moths the woollen stuffs therein laid, or hung by a thread to the ceiling of a chamber would point with its bill to the quarter whence the wind blew. All readers of Ovid (Metam., bk. xi.) know how the faithful but unfortunate Ceyx and Alcyone were changed into kingfishers—birds which bred at the winter solstice, when through the influence of Aeolus, the wind-god and father of the fond wife, all gales were hushed and the sea calmed so that their floating nest might ride un- injured over the waves during the seven proverbial “ Halcyon days ”; while a variant or further development of the fable assigned to the halcyon itself the power of quelling storms.3 The common kingfisher of Europe is the representative of a well-marked family of birds, the Alcedinidae or Halcyonidae of ornithologists, which is considered by most authorities to be closely related to the Bucerotidae (see HORNBILL); but the affinity FIG. I. can scarcely be said as yet to be proved. Be that as it the may, present family forms the subject of an important work by 1, Limulus polyphemus, adult (dorsal aspect). Bowdler Sharpe. Herein are described one hundred and twenty- 2, Limulus polyphemus, young (dorsal aspect), 3, Prestwichia rotundata, Coal M., Shropshire. five species, nearly all of them being beautifully figured by 4. Prestwichia Birtwelli, Coal M., Lancashire. Keulemans, and that number may be taken even now as 5, Neolimulus falcatus, U. Silurian, Lanark. approximately correct; for, while the validity of a few has been 6, Hemiaspis limuloides, L. Ludlow, Leintwardine, Shropshire. denied by some eminent men, nearly as many have since 7. Pseudoniscus aculeatus, U. Silurian, Russia. been made known, and it seems likely that two or three more is an industry of some importance in the United States, and in described by older writers may yet be rediscovered. These the East Indies the natives eat the animal and tip their lances one hundred and twenty-five species Sharpe groups in nineteen and arrows with the caudal spine. They also use the hollow genera, and divides into two sub-families, Alcedininae and empty shell as a water-ladle or pan-hence the name “ pan-fish” Daceloninae, the one containing five and the other fourteen or "saucepan-crab” by which the animal is sometimes known. genera. With existing anatomical materials perhaps no Fossil king-crabs have been recorded from strata of the Tertiary better arrangement could have been made, but the method and Secondary epochs, and related but less specialized.types of afterwards published by Sundevall (Tentamen, pp. 95, 96) the same order are found in rocks of Palaeozoic age. Of these differs from it not inconsiderably. Here, however, it will be the most important are Belinurus of the Carboniferous, Proto- convenient to follow Sharpe. Externally, which is almost all limulus of the Devonian, and Hemiaspis of the Silurian periods. we can at present say, kingfishers present a great uniformity of These ancient forms differ principally from true king-crabs in structure. One of their most remarkable features is the feeble- having the segments of the opisthosoma or hinder half of the ness of their feet, and the union (syndactylism) of the third and body distinctly defined instead of welded into a hexagonal fourth digits for the greater part of their length; while, as if still shield. (R. I. P.) KINGFISHER (Ger. Königsfischer; Walloon Roi-péheux= * In many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean the prevalent king. fisher is the object of much veneration. pêcheur), the Alcedo ispida of ornithologists, one of the most • Cf. Eyton, Contrib. Ornithology (1850), p. 80; Wallace, Ann. beautiful and well-known of European birds, being found, though Nat. History, series 2, vol. xviiia pp. 201, 205; and Huxley, Proc. nowhere very abundantly, in every European country, as well as Zool. Society (1867), p. 467. in North Africa and South-Western Asia as far as Sindh. İts $ A Monograph of ihe Alcedinidae or Family of the Kingfishers, by blue-green back and rich chestnut breast render it conspicuous R. B. Sharpe, 4to (London, 1868–1871). Some important anatomical points were briefly noticed by Professor Cunningham (Proc. Zool. as it frequents the streams and ponds whence it procures its food, Soc., 1870, p. 280). by plunging almost perpendicularly into the water, and emerging . The name of this latter sub-family as constituted by Sharpe a moment after with the prey--whether a small fish, crustacean, would seem to be more correctly Ceycinae--the genus Ceyx, founded or an aquatic insect-it has captured. In hard frosts it resorts in 1801 by Lacépède, being the oldest included in it. The word Dacelo, invented by Leach in 1815. is simply an anagram of Alcedo, But more commonly called Eisvogel, which finds its counterpart and, though of course without any etymological meaning, has been in the Anglo-Saxon Isern or Isea. very generally adopted. KINGHORN-KINGLET 809 further to show the comparatively functionless character of above the battery was purchased by government in 1903 and these members, in two of the genera, Alcyone and Ceyx, the second is used as a point of observation. About 1 m. to the north digit is aborted, and the birds have but three toes. In most of Kinghorn is the estate of Grange, which belonged to Sir forms the bill does not differ much from that of the common William Kirkcaldy. INCHKEITH, an island in the fairway of Alcedo ispida, but in Syma its edges are serrated, while in the Firth of Forth, 21 m. S. by E. of Kinghorn and 31 m. N. by Carcineutes, Dacelo and Melidora the maxilla is prolonged, E. of Leith, belongs to the parish of Kinghorn. It has a north- becoming in the last a very pronounced hook. Generally the westerly and south-easterly trend, and is nearly 1 m. long and wings are short and rounded, and the tail is in many forms incon- m. wide. It is a barren rock, on the summit of which stands a spicuous; but in Tanysiptera, one of the most beautiful groups, lighthouse visible at night for 21 m. In 1881 forts connected by the middle pair of feathers is greatly elongated and spatulate, a military road were erected on the northern, western and while this genus possesses only ten rectrices, all the rest having southern headlands. twelve: Sundevall relies on a character not noticed by Sharpe, KING LAKE, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1809–1891), English and makes his principal divisions depend on the size of the historian and traveller, was born at Taunton on the 5th of scapulars, which in one form a mantle, and in the other are so August 1809. His father, a successful solicitor, intended his small as not to cover the back. The Alcedinidae are a cosmo- son for a legal career. Kinglake went to Eton and Trinity politan family, but only one genus, Ceryle, is found in America, | College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1828, being a con- and that extends as well over a great part of the Old World, temporary and friend of Tennyson and Thackeray. After leaving though not into the Australian region, which affords by far the Cambridge he joined Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in greater number both of genera and species, having no fewer thạn 1837. While still a student he travelled, in 1835, throughout ten of the former and fifty-nine of the latter peculiar to it." the East, and the impression made upon him by his experiences In habits kingfishers display considerable diversity, though was so powerful that he was seized with a desire to record them all, it would seem, have it in common to sit at times motionless in literature. Eothen, a sensitive and witty record of impres- on the watch for their prey, and on its appearance to dart upon sions keenly felt and remembered, was published in 1844, and it, seize it as they fly or dive, and return to a perch where it may enjoyed considerable reputation. In 1854 he went to the Crimea, be conveniently swallowed. But some species, and especially and was present at the battle of the Alma. During the campaign that which is the type of the family, are not always content to he made the acquaintance of Lord Raglan, who was so much await at rest their victim's showing itself. They will hover like attracted by his talents that he suggested to Kinglake the plan a hawk over the waters that conceal it, and, in the manner for an elaborate History of the Crimean War, and placed his already described, precipitate themselves upon it. This is private papers at the writer's disposal. For the rest of his life particularly the way with those that are fishers in fact as well as Kinglake was engaged upon the task of completing this monu- in name; but no inconsiderable number live almost entirely in mental history. Thirty-two years elapsed between its commence- forests, feeding on insects, while reptiles furnish the chief susten- ment and the publication of the last volume, and eight volumes ance of others. The last is characteristic of at least one Aus- in all appeared at intervals between 1863 and 1887. Kinglake tralian form, which manages to thrive in the driest districts of lived principally in London, and sat in parliament for Bridg- that country, where not a drop of water is to be found for miles, water from 1857 until the disfranchisement of the borough in and the air is at times heated to a degree that is insupportable 1868. He died on the 2nd of January 1891. Kinglake's life- by most animals. The belted kingfisher of North America, work, The History of the Crimean War, is in scheme and execution Ceryle alcyon, is a characteristic bird of that country, though its too minute and conscientious to be altogether in proportion, but habits greatly resemble those of the European species; and the it is a wonderful example of painstaking and talented industry. so-called “ laughing jackass ” of New South Wales and South It is not without errors of partisanship, but it shows remarkable Australia, Dacelo gigas-with its kindred forms, D. leachi, skill in the moulding of vast masses of despatches and technical D. cervina and D. occidentalis, from other parts of the country-details into an absorbingly interesting narrative; it is illumined deserve special mention. Attention must also be called to the by natural descriptions and character-sketches of great fidelity speculations of Dr Bowdler Sharpe (op. cit., pp. xliv.-xlvii.) on and acumen; and, despite its length, it remains one of the most the genetic affinity of the various forms of Alcedinidae, and it is picturesque, most vivid and most actual pieces of historical to be regretted that hitherto no light has been shed by palaeon- narrative in the English language. tologists on this interesting subject, for the only fossil referred to KINGLET, a name applied in many books to the bird called the neighbourhood of the family is the Halcyornis lolia picus by Linnaeus Motacilla regulus, and by most modern ornitho- of Sir R. Owen (Br. Foss. Mamm. and Birds, p. 554) from the logists Regulus cristatus, the golden-crested or golden-crowned Eocene of Sheppey—the very specimen said to have been pre- wren of ordinary persons. This species is the type of a small viously placed by König (Icon. foss. sectiles, fig. 153) in the genus group which has been generally placed among the Sylviidae Larus. (A. N.) or true warblers, but by certain systematists it is referred to KINGHORN, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. the titmouse family, Paridae. That the kinglets possess many Pop. (1901), 1550. It is situated on the Firth of Forth, 21 m. of the habits and actions of the latter is undeniable, but on E. by N. of Burntisland, on the North British railway. The the other hand they are not known to differ in any important public buildings include a library and town-hall. It enjoys points of organization or appearance from the former—the chief some repute as a summer resort. The leading industries are distinction being that the nostril is covered by a single bristly ship-building, bleaching and the making of flax and glue. At feather directed forwards. The golden-crested wren is the the time of his visit Daniel Defoe found thread-making in vogue, smallest of British birds, its whole length being about 3} ini, which employed the women while the men were at sea. Alex- and its wing measuring only 2 in. from the carpal joint. ander III. created Kinghorn a burgh, but his connexion with the Generally of an olive-green colour, the top of its head is bright town proved fatal to him. As he was riding from Inverkeithing yellow, deepening into orange, and bounded on either side by a on the 12th of March 1286 he was thrown by his horse and fell black line, while the wing coverts are dull black, and some of over the cliffs, since called King's Wud End, a little to the west them tipped with white, forming a somewhat conspicuous bar. of the burgh, and killed. A monument was erected in 1887 to The cock has a pleasant but weak song. The nest is a beautiful mark the supposed scene of the accident. The Witch Hill object, thickly felted of the softest moss, wool, and spiders' used to be the place of execution of those poor wretches. King- webs, lined with feathers, and usually built under and near the horn belongs to the Kirkcaldy district group of parliamentary end of the branch of a yew, fir or cedar, supported by the inter- burghs. At PetTYCUR, 1 m. to the south, is a good harbour for weaving of two or three laterally diverging and pendent twigs, its size, and at Kinghorn Ness a battery has been established and sheltered by the rest. The eggs are from six to ten in number, in connexion with the fortifications on Inchkeith. The hill of a dull white sometimes finely freckled with reddish-brown. 1 Cf. Wallace, Geog. Distr. Animals, ii. 315!" The species is particularly social, living for the most part of the 1) 810 KINGS, BOOKS OF Successive year in family parties, and often joining bands of any species of parts of the history, features which are imbued with the teaching titmouse in a common search for food. Though to be met with of Deuteronomy recur regularly in similar stereotyped forms. in Britain at all seasons, the bird in autumn visits the east coast They point in fact to a specific redaction, and thus it would seem in enormous flocks, apparently emigrants from Scandinavia, that the editor who treated the foundation of the Temple, the while hundreds perish in crossing the North Sea, where they are central event of Solomon's life, as a religious epoch of the first well known to the fishermen as “woodcock's pilots.” A second importance, regarded this as the beginning of a new era—the and more local European species is the fire-crested wren, R. igni- history of Israel under the one sanctuary. capillus, easily recognizable by the black streak on each side When we assume that the book of Kings wa's thrown into its of the head, before and behind the eye, as well as by the deeper present form by a Deuteronomistic redactor we do not affirm colour of its crown. A third species, R. maderensis, inhabits that he was the first who digested the sources of the the Madeiras, to which it is peculiar; and examples from the history into a continuous work, nor must we ascribe Redactioas. Himalayas and Japan have been differentiated as R. himalay. | absolute finality to his work. He gave the book a ensis and R. ja ponicus. North America has two well-known definite shape and character, but the recognized methods of species, R. satrapa, very like the European R. ignica pillus, and Hebrew literature left it open to additions and modifications the ruby-crowned wren, R. calendula, which is remarkable for by later hands. Even the redaction in the spirit of Deutero- a loud song that has been compared to that of a canary-bird or nomy seems itself to have had more than one stage, as Ewald a skylark, and for having the characteristic nasal feather in a long ago recognized. rudimentary or aborted condition. (A. N.) The evidence to be detailed presently shows that there was a cer- KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF, two books of the tain want of definiteness about the redaction. The mass of dis- Bible, the last of the series of Old Testament histories known as jointed materials, not always free from inconsistencies, which lay the Earlier or Former Prophets. They were originally reckoned before the editor in separate documents or in excerpts already par- as a single book (Josephus; Origen ap. Eus., H.E. vi. 25;tially arranged by an earlier hand, could not have been reduced to rcal unity, without critical sifting, and an entire recasting of the Peshitta; Talmud), though modern Bibles follow the biparti- narrative in a way foreign to the ideas and literary habits of the tion which is derived from the Septuagint. In that version Hebrews. The unity which the editor aimed at was limited to (a) they are called the third and fourth books of “ kingdoms chronological continuity in the events recorded and (b) a certain (Baoilewv), the first and second being our books of Samuel. uniformity in the treatment of the religious meaning of the narrative. The division into two books is not felicitous, and even the old and the links of the history were not firmly enough riveted to pre- Even this could not be perfectly attained in the circumstances, Hebrew separation between Kings and Samuel must not be vent disarrangement or rearrangement of details by later scribes. taken to mean that the history from the birth of Samuel to the (a) The continued efforts of successive redactors can be traced exile was treated by two distinct authors in independent volumes. in the chronology of the book. The chronological method of the We cannot speak of the author of Kings or Samuel, but only of the events of each king's reign are thrown into a kind of stereotyped narrative appears most clearly in the history after Solomon, where an editor or of successive editors whose main work was to arrange framework on this type: “In the twentieth year of Jeroboam, king in a continuous form extracts or abstracts from earlier sources. of Israel, Asa began to reign over Judah, and reigned in Jerusalem The introduction of a chronological scheme and of a series of forty-one years.' “ In the third year of Asa, king of Judah, Baasha began to reign over Israel in Tirzah twenty-four years.' editorial comments and additions, chiefly designed to enforce The history moves between Judah and Israel according to the date the religious meaning of the history, gives a kind of unity to of each accession; as soon as a new king has been introduced, every- the book of Kings as we now read it; but beneath this we can thing that happened in his reign is discussed, and wound up by still distinguish a variety of documents, which, though some- another stereotyped formula as to the death and burial of the sove- times mutilated in the process of piecing together, retain reign; and to this mechanical arrangement the natural connexion In this scheme the elaborate synchron- sufficient individuality of style and colour to prove their original isms between contemporary monarchs of the north and south give independence. an aspect of great precision to the chronology. But in reality the Of these documents one of the best defined is the vivid picture data for Judah and Israel do not agree, and remarkable deviations of David's court at Jerusalem (2 Sam. ix.-xx.) from which the are sometimes found. The key to the chronology is 1 Kings vi. 1, which, as Wellhausen has shown, was not found in the original first two chapters of 1 Kings manifestly cannot be separated. Septuagint, and contains internal evidence of post-Chaldean date. As it would be unreasonable to suppose that the editor of the In fact the system as a whole is necessarily later than 535 B.C., the history of David closed his work abruptly before the death of fixed point from which it counts back, and although the numbers the king, breaking off in the middle of a valuable memoir which synchronisms appear to have been inserted at a much later stage for the duration of the reigns may be based upon early sources, the lay before him, this observation leads us to conclude that the in the history of the text. books of Samuel and Kings are not independent histories. They (6). Another aspect in the redaction may be called theological. have at least one source in common, and a single editorial hand Its characteristic is the retrospective application to the history of a was at work on both. From an historical point of view, however, religion. Thus the redactor regards the sins of Jeroboam as the real standard belonging to the later developments of Old Testament the division which makes the beginning of Solomon's reign the cause of the downfall of Israel (2 Kings xvii. 21 seq.), and passes an beginning of a new book is very convenient. The conquest of unfavourable judgment upon all its rulers, not merely to the effect Palestine by the Israelite tribes, recounted in the book of Joshua, that they did evil in the sight of Yahweh but that they followed in leads up to the era of the judges”. (Judg. ii . 6–23; iii. sqq.), | by Elijah or'Elisha, nor by the original narrator of the lives of these the way of Jeroboam. But his opinion was manifestly not shared and the books of Samuel follow with the institution of the prophets. Moreover, the redactor in 1 Kings iii. 2 seq. regards wor- monarchy and the first kings. The books of Kings bring to a ship at the high places as sinful after the building of the Temple, close the life of David (c. 975 B.C.), which forms the introduction although even the best kings. before Hezekiah made no attempt to to the reign of Solomon (1 Kings ii. 12-xi.), the troubles in whose suppress these shrines. This feature in the redaction displays itself not only in occasional comments or homiletical excursuses, time prepared the way for the separation into the two distinct but in that part of the narrative in which all ancient historians kingdoms, viz. Judah and the northern tribes of Israel (xii. sqq.). allowed themselves free scope for the development of their reflec- After the fall of Saniaria, the history of these Israelites is rounded tions--the speeches placed in the mouths of actors in the history. off with a review (2 Kings xvii.-xviii. 12). The history of the Here also there is often textual evidence that the theological element is somewhat loosely attached to the earlier narrative and underwent surviving kingdom of Judah is then carried down to the destruc- successive additions. tion of Jerusalem and the exile (5 and 6), and, after an account of the Chaldean governorship, concludes with the release of the Consequently it is necessary to distinguish between the older captive king Jehoiachin (561 B.c.) and with an allusion to his sources and the peculiar setting in which the history has been kind treatment during the rest of his lifetime. placed; between earlier records and that specific General The most noticeable feature in the book is the recurring interest colouring which, from its affinity to Deuteronomy Structure. in the centralization of worship in the Temple at Jerusalem as and to other portions of the Old Testament which appear prescribed in Deuteronomy and enforced by Josiah. Amidst to have been similarly treated under the influence of its teach- the great variety in style and manner which marks the several ling, may be conveniently termed “Deuteronomistic.” For KINGS, BOOKS OF 811 or « his sources the compiler refers chiefly to two distinct works, the parallel texts in Chronicles will exemplify the persistence of the “words" “ chronicles ” of the kings of Israel and fluctuation to a late period (4th-2nd cent. B.C.). those of the kings of Judah. Precisely how much is copied Thus iii. 2 seq. cannot be by the same hand as v. 4, and v. 2 is from these works and how much has been expressed in the probably a later Deut. gloss upon v. 3 (earlier Deut.), which repre- compiler's own language is of course uncertain. It is found closely after fi. 12. Ch. ii. I can scarcely be severed from ix. 16, sents the compiler's view and (on the analogy of the framework) comes on inspection that the present history consists usually of an and in the Septuagint they appear in iv. in the order: iv. 1-19 (the epitome of each reign. It states the king's age at succession (so officers), 27 seq. (their duties), 22-24 (the daily provision), 29-34 Judah only), length of reign, death and burial, with allusions (Solomon's reputation), iii. 1; ix. 16-172 (alliance with Egypt); to his buildings, wars, and other political events. In the case iv, 20 seq. 25 are of a generalizing character and recur in the Septua. of Judah, also, the name of the royal or queen-mother is speci- related to x. 26 (cf. 2 Chron. i. 14) and takes its place in Lucian's gint with much supplementary matter in ii. Ch. iv, 26 is naturally fically mentioned. The references to the respective "chronicles,” recension (cf. 2 Chron. ix. 25). There is considerable variation again made as though they were still accessible, are wanting in the case in ix. 10-x. 29, and the order ix. 10-14; 26-28, X. 1-22 (so partly of Jehoram and Hoshea of Israel, and of Solomon, Ahaziah, Septuagint) has the advantage of recording continuously Solomon's Athaliah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah of Judah. But dealings with Hiram. The intervening verses belong to a class of floating notices (in a very unnatural order) which seem to have got for Solomon the authority cited,“ book of the acts of Solomon " stranded almost by chance at different points in the two recensions; (1 Kings xi. 41), presumably presupposes Judaean chronicles, contrast also 2 Chron. viii. Solomon's preliminary arrangements and the remaining cases preserve details of an annalistic with Hiram in ch, v, have been elaborated to emphasize the impor- character. Moreover, distinctive annalistic material is found by the relation between 13 seq. and 15 seq. (see 2 Chron. ii. 17 seq.) tance of the Temple (vv. 3-5, cf. 2 Sam. vii.); further difficulty is caused for the Israelite kings Saul and Ishbosheth in I Sam. and between both of these and ix. 20 seq. xi. 28. The account of the xiii. 1; xiv. 47-51; 2 Sam. ii. 8-100 (including even their age royal buildings now sandwiched in between the related fragments at accession), and for David in 2 Sam. ii. ii and parts of v. of a is descriptive rather than narrative, and the accurate details might have been obtained by actual observation of the Temple at a and viii. date long subsequent to Solomon. It is not all due to a single hand. The use which the compiler makes of his sources shows that Ch. vi. 11-14 (with several late phrases) break the connexion and are his aim was not the history of the past but its religious significance. omitted by the Septuagint; v. 15-22, now untranslatable, appear in It is rare that even qualified praise is bestowed upon the kings a simple and intelligible form in the Septuagint. The account of the of Israel (Jehoram, 2 Kings iii. 2; Jehu x. 30; Hoshea xvii. 2). | due to a Deuteronomic writer, and that they are an expansion of the dedication contains many signs of a late date; viii. 14-53, 54-61 are Kings of great historical importance are treated with extreme older narrative (vv. 1-13) is suggested by the fact that the ancient brevity (Omri, Jeroboam (2), Uzziah), and similar meagreness of fragment, w. 12, 13 (imperfect in the Hebrew) appears in the Septua- historical information is apparent when the editorial details and gint after v. 53 in completer form and with a reference to the book of The redac- the religious judgments are eliminated from the accounts of Jashar as source (Bibliov tñs woñs ** (90.) 200 ). tional insertion displaced it in one recension and led to its mutilation Nadab, Baasha, and the successors of Jeroboam (2) in Israel or of in the other. With viii. 27-30, cf. generally Isa. xl.-Ivi.; v. 44-51 Abijam and Manasseh in Judah. presuppose the exile, vv. 54-61 are wanting in Chron., and even the To gain a more exact idea of the character of the book we may older parts of this chapter have also been retouched in conformity divide the history into three sections: (1) the life of Solomon, with later (even post-exilic) ritual and law. The Levites who appear (2) the kingdoms of Ephraim (or Samaria)2 and at v. 4 in contrast to the priests, in a way unknown to the pre-exilic Solomon. history, are not named in the Septuagint, which also omits the post- Judah, and (3) the separate history of Judah after exilic term congregation " ('edah) in v. 5. There is a general the fall of Samaria. I. Solomon.—The events which lead up similarity of subject with Deut. xxviii. to the death of David and the accession of Solomon(1 Kings The account of the end of Solomon's reign deals with (a) his i., ii.) are closely connected with 2 Sam. ix.-XX. The unity is religious laxity (xi. 1-13, now in a Deuteronomic form), as the broken by the appendix 2 Sam. xxi. xxi.-xxiv. which is closely punishment for which the separation of the two kingdoms is connected, as regards general subject-matter, with ibid. v.-viii.; | announced; and (b) the rise of the adversaries who, according to the literary questions depend largely upon the structure of xi. 25, had troubled the whole of his reign, and therefore cannot the books of Samuel (q.v.). It is evident, at least, that either have been related originally as the penalty for the sins of his old the compiler drew upon other sources for the occasion and age. Both, however, form an introduction to subsequent events, has been remarkably brief elsewhere, or that his epitomes and the life of Solomon concludes with a brief annalistic notice have been supplemented by the later insertion of material of his death, length of reign, successor, and place of burial. not necessarily itself of late origin. At present 1 Kings i., ii. (See further SOLOMON.) are both the close of David's life (no source is cited) and the II. Ephraim and I udah. - In the history of the two kingdoms necessary introduction to Solomon. But Lucian's recension of the redactor follows a fixed scheme determined, as has been the Septuagint (ed. Lagarde), as also Josephus, begin the book at seen, by the order of succession. The fluctuation thus separating the annalistic accounts of the two. Since of tradition concerning the circumstances of the The Divided the contents of 1 Kings iii.-xi. do not form a continuous narrative, schism is evident from a comparison with the Kingdom. the compiler's authority (“ Acts of S.” xi. 41) can hardly have Septuagint, and all that is related of Ahijah falls under been an ordinary chronicle. The chapters comprise (a) sundry suspicion of being foreign to the oldest history. The story notices of the king's prosperous and peaceful career, severed by of the man of God from Judah (xiii.) is shown to be late by (b) a description of the Temple and other buildings; and they con- its general tone (conceptions of prophetism and revelation),5 clude with (c) some account of the external troubles which prove and by the term “ cities of Samaria” (v. 32, for Samaria to have unsettled the whole of his reign. After an introduction as a province, cf. 2 Kings xvii. 24, 26; for the building of (iii.), a contains generalizing statements of Solomon's might, the city by Omri see 1 Kings xvi. 24). It is a late Judaean wealth and wisdom (iv. 20 seq., 25, 29-34; X. 23-25, 27) and narrative inserted after the Deuteronomic redaction, and stories of a distinctly late and popular character (iii. 16-28, 3 Here and elsewhere a careful study (e.g. of the marginal refer- x. i-10, 13). The present lack of unity can in some cases be ences in the Revised Version) will prove the close relation between remedied by the Septuagint, which offers many deviations from the “ Deuteronomic passages and the book of Deuteronomy the Hebrew text; this feature together with the present form of itself. The bearing of this upon the traditional date of that book should not be overlooked. "Çp. the brief annalistic form of the Babylonian chronicles (for a * See art. JEROBOAM; also W. R. Smith, Old Test, in Jew. Church, specimen, see C. F. Kent, Israel's Hist. and Biog. Narratives, p. 502 pp. 117 sqq.; H. Winckler, Alttest. Untersuchungen, pp. I sqq., and seq.). For a synchronistic history of Assyria and Babylonia, the subsequent criticisms by C. F. Burney.(Kings, pp. 163 sqq.); prepared for diplomatic purposes, see Schrader's Keilinschr. Bibl. i. J. Skinner (Kings, pp. 443 sqq.); and Ed. Meyer" (Isracliten u. 194 sqq.; also L: W. King, Studies in Eastern Hist. i. (Tukulti-Ninib), Nachbar stämme, pp. 357 sqq.). pp. 1, 75 seq. (with interesting variant traditions). 5 Notice should everywhere be taken of those prophetical stories '? The term “ Israel " as applied to the northern kingdom is apt which have the linguistic features of the Deuteronomic writers, or to be ambiguous, since as a general national name, with a religious which differ in style and expression from the prophecies of Amos, significance, it can include or suggest the inclusion of Judah, Hosea and others, previous to Jeremiah. ii. 12, 812 KINGS, BOOKS OF breaks the connexion between xii. 31 and xiii. 33 seq. The | Ahaziah (xxii. 51-53)' finds its conclusion in 2 Kings i. 17 seq. latter describe the idolatrous worship instituted by the first where v. 18 should precede the accession of his brother Jehoram king of the schismatic north, and the religious attitude occurs (v. 17b). Jehoram is again introduced in iii. 1-3 (note the regularly throughout the compiler's epitome, however brief variant synchronism), but the usual conclusion is wanting. In the reigns of the kings. In the account of Nadab, xv. 25 seq., Judah, Jehoshaphat was succeeded by his son Jehoram, who had 29b, 30 seq. are certainly the compiler's, and the synchronism in married Athaliah the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (viii. 16-24); v. 28 must also be editorial; xv. 32 (Septuagint omit) and 16 to the annalistic details (vv. 20-22) 2 Chron. xxi. 11 sqq. adds are duplicates leading up to the Israelite and Judaean accounts a novel narrative. His son Ahaziah (viii. 25 sqq.) is similarly of Baasha respectively. But xv. 33-xvi. 7 contains little denounced for his relations with Israel. He is again introduced annalistic information, and the prophecy in xvi. 1-4 is very in the isolated ix. 29, while Lucian's recension adds after x. 36 similar to xiv. 7-11, which in turn breaks the connexion between a variant summary of his reign but without the regular intro- vv. 6 and 12. Ch. xvi. 7 is a duplicate to vv. 1-4 and out of place; duction. Further confusion appears in the Septuagint, which the Septuagint inserts it in the middle of v. 8. The brief reign inserts after i. 18 (Jehoram of Israel) a notice corresponding of Elah preserves an important entract in xvi. 9, but the date to iii. 1-3, and concludes “and the anger of the Lord was in v. 109 (LXX. omits) presupposes the late finished chronological kindled against the house of Ahab.” This would be appropriate scheme. Zimri's seven days receive the inevitable condemnation, in a position nearer ix. seq. where the deaths of Jehoram and but the older material embedded in the framework (xvi. 156-18) Ahaziah are described. These and other examples of serious is closely connected with v. 9 and is continued in the non- disorder in the framework may be associated with the literary editorial portions of Omri's reign (xvi. 21 seq., length of reign in features of the narratives of Elijah and Elisha. V. 23, and v. 24). The achievements of Omri to which the Of the more detailed narratives those that deal with the northern editor reſers can fortunately be gathered from external sources kingdom are scarcely Judaean (see i Kings xix. 3), and they do not (see Omri). Under Omri's son Ahab the separate kingdoms history of the north. But they are plainly not of one origin. To criticize Elijah's work, as the Judacan compiler denounces the whole converge. supplement the articles ELIJAH and Elisha, it is to be noticed that Next, as to Judah: the vivid account of the accession of the account of Naboth's death in the history of Elijah (1 Kings Rehoboam in xii. 1-16 is reminiscent of the full narratives in xxi.) differs in details from that in the history of Elisha and Jehu 2 Sam. ix.-xx.; 1 Kings i., ii. (cf. especially v. 16 with 2 Sam. (2 Kings ix.), and the latter more precise narrative presupposes xx. 1); xii. 156 refers to the prophecy of Ahijah (see above), events themselves. events recorded in the extant accounts of Elijah but not these In i Kings xx., xxii. 1-28 (xxi. follows xix. and “unto this day," v. 19, cannot be by a contemporary in the LXX.) Ahab is viewed rather more favourably than in the author.; v. 17 (LXX. omits) finds a parallel in 2 Chron. xi. 16 seq., Elijah-narratives (xix., xxi.) or in the compiler's summary. Ch. xxii. 6, and could represent an Ephraimite standpoint. The Judaean moreover, proves that there is some exaggeration in xviii. 4. 13: standpoint is prominent in vv. 21-24, where (a) the inclusion Baal, has been idealized. The denunciation of Ahab in xx. 35-43 the great contest between Elijah and the king, between Yahweh and of Benjamin and (b) the cessation of war (at the command of has some notable points of contact with xiii. and seems to be a supple- Shemaiah) conflict with (a) xi. 32, 36, xii. 20 and (b) xiv. 30 ment to the preceding incidents. Ch. xxii. is important for its ideas respectively. Rehoboam's history, resumed by the redactor of prophetism (especially vv. 19-23; cf. Ezek. xiv. 9; 2 Sam. xxiv. I in xiv. 21-24, continues with a brief account of the spoiling in contrast to : Chron. xxi. 1)); a gloss at the end of v. 28, omitted by the Septuagint, wrongly identifies Micaiah with the well-known of the Temple and palace by Sheshonk (Shishak). (The Micah (i. 2). Although the punishment passed upon Ahab in xxi, incident appears in 2 Chron. xii. in a rather different context, 20 sqq. (206-26 betray the compiler's hand; cf. xiv. 10 seq.) is modified before the details which now precede v. 21 seq.) The reign of in u. 29, this is ignored in the account of his death, xxii. 38, which Abijam is entirely due to the editor, whose brief statement of takes place at Samaria (see below). the war in xv. 76 is supplemented by a lengthy story in 2 Chron. revelation through an angel. The prophet's name appears in an The episode of Elijah and Ahaziah (2 Kings i.) is marked by the xiii. (where the name is Abijah). Ch. xv. 56 (last clause) and unusual form (viz. ēliyyah, not -yahu), especially in v. 2-8. The v. 6 are omitted by the Septuagint, the former is a unique gloss prediction of Ahaziah's fate finds a parallel in 2'Chron. xxi. 12-15; (see 2 Sam. xi. seq.), the latter is a mere repetition of xiv. 30; story in 1 Sam. xix. 18-24. The ascension of Elijah (2 Kings ii.) the more supernatural additions have been compared with the late with xv. 2 cf. v. 10. The account of Asa's long reign contains is related as the introduction to the work of Elisha, which apparently a valuable summary of his war with Baasha, xv. 16–22; the begins before the death of Jehoshaphat (see iii. 1, 11 sqq.; contrast isolated 0. 15 is quite obscure and is possibly related to 2 Chron. loc. cit.). Among the stories of Elisha are some which find v. 18 (but cf. vii. 51). His successor Jehoshaphat is now dealt him at the head of the prophetic gilds (iv. 1, 38-44, vi. 1-7), whilst in others he has friendly relations with the “ king of Israel " and the with completely in xxii. 41-50 after the death of Ahab; but court. As a personage of almost superhuman dignity he moves the Septuagint, which follows a different chronological scheme in certain narratives where political records appear to have been (placing his accession in the reign of Omri), gives the summary utilized to describe the activity of the prophets. The Moabite (with some variations) after xvi. 28. Another light is thrown campaign (ii.) concerns a revolt already referred to in the isolated i. 1; there are parallels with the story of Jehoshaphat and Ahab upon the incomplete annalistic fragments (xxii. 44, 47-49) | (iii . 7, 11 seq.; cf. i Kings xxii. 4 seq., 7 sqq.), contrast, however, xxii. 7 by 2 Chron. xx. 35-37: the friendship between Judah and (where Elijah is not even named) and iii. 11 seq. But Jehoshaphat's Israel appears to have been displeasing to the redactor of death has been already recorded (: Kings xxii. 50), and, while Lucian's Kings. recension in 2 Kings iii. reads Ahaziah, i. 17 presupposes the acces- The history of the few years between the close of Ahab's lie the stories of the Aramaean wars; with vi. 24-vii. 20 (aſter the sion of the Judaean Jehoram. Other political narratives may under- life and the accession of Jehu covers about one-third of the complete cessation of hostilities in vi. 23)compare the general style Ephraim entire book of Kings. This is due to the inclu- of i Kings xx., xxii.; with the famine in Samaria,vi. 25; cf. ibid. xvii.; from Ahab sion of a number of narratives which are partly of viii . 7-15) implies friendly relations with Damascus (in v. 12 the with the victory, cf. ibid. xx. The account of Elisha and Hazael to Jehu. a political character, and partly are interested in terrors of war are in the future), but the description of Jehu's acces- the work of contemporary prophets. The climax is reached sion (ix.) is in the midst of hostilities. Ch.ix. 7-100 are a Deuteronomic in the overthrow of Omri's dynasty by the usurper Jehu, insertion amplifying the message in v. 3-6 (cf. 1 Kings xxi. 20 seq.). when, after a period of close intercourse between Israel and The origin of the repetition in ix. 14-152 (cf. viii. 28 seq.) is not clear. Judah, its two kings perished. The annals of each kingdom the additional detail that Naboth's sons were slain. The oracle in ix. 25 seq. is not that in 1 Kings xxi. 19 seq., and mentions Here his field would naturally deal independently with these events, but or portion is located near Jezreel, but in 1 Kings xxi. 18 his vineyard the present literary structure of 1 Kings xvii.-2 Kings xi. is is by the royal palace in Samaria (cf. xxii. 38 and contrast xxi. I, extremely complicated by the presence of the narratives referred where the LXX. omits reference to Jezree!). . This fluctuation re- to. First as regards the framework, the epitome of Ahab is appears in 2 Kings x: 1; 11. seq., and 17; in ix. 27 compared with 2 Chron. xxii. 9; and in the singular duplication of an historical inci- preserved in xvi. 29–34 and xxii. 39; it contains some unknown dent, viz. the war against the Aramaeans at Ramoth-Gilead (a) by references (his ivory house and cities), and a stern religious Jehosha phat and Ahab, and (b) by Ahaziah and Jehoram, in each judgment upon his Phoenician alliance, on which the intervening The division of the two books at this point is an innovation first chapters throw more light. The colourless summary of his son made in the LXX. and Vulgate. KINGS, BOOKS OF 813 of Jebu. case with the death of the Israelite king, at Samaria and Jezreel respec- Hezekiah (xvii. 1-6, xviii. 9-12); the chronology is again tively (see above and observe the contradiction in 1 Kings xxi. 29 intricate. Reflections on the disappearance of the northern and xxii. 38). These and other critical questions in this section are involved with (a) the probability that Elisha's work belongs rather kingdom appear in xvii. 7-23 and xviii . 12; the latter belongs to the accession of Jehu, with whose dynasty he was on most intimate to the Judaean history. The former is composite; xvii. 21-23 terms until his death some forty-five years later (2 Kings xiii. 14-21), (cf. v. 18) look back to the introduction of calf-worship by and (b) the problem of the wars between Israel and Syria which Jeroboam (1), and agree with the compiler's usual standpoint; appear to have begun only in the time of Jehu (x. 32). See Jew. but v. 19-20 include Judah and presuppose the exile. The Quart. Rev. (1908), pp. 597-630, and Jews: History, § 11 seq. In the annals of Jehu's dynasty the editorial introduction ! remaining verses survey types of idolatry partly of a general to Jebu himself is wanting (x. 32 sqq.), although Lucian's last years of the monarchy (vv. 165, 17). The brief account of the kind (vv. 9-12, 16a), and partly characteristic of Judah in the recension in x. 36 concludes in annalistic manner Dynasty the lives of Jehoram of Israel and Ahaziah of subsequent history of Israel in xvii . 24-41 is not from one source, Judah. The summary mentions the beginning of since the piety of the new settlers (v. 32-340, 41) conflicts with the the Aramaean wars, the continuation of which is found in later point of view in 346-40. The last-mentioned supplements the the redactor's account of his successor Jehoahaz (xiii. 1-9). the northern kingdom, and is apparently aimed at the Samaritans. eqilogue in xvii. 7-23, forms a solemn conclusion to the history of But xii. 4-6 modify the disasters, and by pointing to the “ saviour or deliverer (cf. Judg. iii. 9, 15) anticipate xiv. 27. III. Later History of Judah.—The summary of Jotham The self-contained account of his son "Jehoash (xiii. 10-13) iš (xv. 32–38) shows interest in the Temple (o. 35) and alludes supplemented (a) by the story of the death of Elisha (vv. 14-21) to the hostility of Pekah (v. 37) upon which the Judah. Israelite annals are silent. and (b) by some account of the Aramaean wars (vv. 22–25), 2. Chron. xxvii. expands where v. 23, like vv. 4-6 (Lucian's recension actually reads it the former but replaces the latter by other not unrelated after v. 7), is noteworthy for the sympathy towards the northern details (see UzZIAH). But xv. 37 is resumed afresh in the kingdom. Further (c) the defeat of Amaziah of Judah ap- account of the reign of Ahaz (xvi. 5 sqq.; the text in v. 6 pears in xiv. 8-14 after the annals of Judah, although from is confused)—another version in 2 Chron. xxviii. 5 sqq. an Israelite source (v. 11b Bethshemesh defined as belonging and is supplemented by a description, evidently from the to Judah, see also v. 15, and with the repetition of the concluding Temple records, in which the ritual innovations by “king statements in v. 15 seq., see xiii. 12 seq.). These features and Ahaz” (in contrast to “ Ahaz” alone in vv. 5-9) are described the transference of xiii. 12 seq. after xiii. 25 in Lucian's recension (vv. 10-18). There is further variation of detail in 2 Chron. point to late adjustment. In Judaean history, Jehu's reform xxviii. 20-27. The summary of Hezekiah (xviii. 1-8) em- and the overthrow of Jezebel in the north (ix., X. 15-28) find phasizes his important religious reforms (greatly expanded in their counterpart in the murder of Athaliah and the destruction 2 Chron. xxix. seq. from a later standpoint), and includes two of the temple of Baal in Judah (xi. 18). But the framework references to his military achievements. Of these v. 8 is ignored is incomplete. The editorial conclusion of the reign of Ahaziah, in Chron., and v. 7 is supplemented by (@) the annalistic extract the introduction to that of Athaliah, and the sources for both are in vv. 13-16, and (b) narratives in which the great contemporary wanting. A lengthy Judaean document is incorporated detail-prophet Isaiah is the central figure. The latter are later than ing the accession of Joash and the prominence of the abruptly Isaiah himself (xix. 37 refers to 681 B.c.) and reappear, with introduced priest Jehoiada.' The interest in the Temple and some abbreviation and rearrangement, in Isa. xxxvi. xxxix. (see temple-procedure is obvious; and both xi. and xii. have points ISAIAH). They are partly duplicate (cf. xix. 7 with v. 28, 33; of resemblance with xxii. seq. (see below and cf. also xi. 4, 7, 11, vv. 10-13 with xviii. 28-35), and consist of two portions, xviii. 19, with 1 Kings xiv. 27 seq.). The usual epitome is found in 17-xix. 8 (Isa. xxxvi. 2-xxxvii. 8) and xix. 96-35 (Isa. xxxvii. xi. 21-xii. 3 (the age at accession should follow the synchronism, 96-36); to which of these xix. 9a and v. 36 seq. belong is dis- so Lucian), with fragments of annalistic matter in xii. 17-21 puted. 2 Chron. xxxii. (where these accounts are condensed) (another version in 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 sqq.). For Joash's son is in general agreement with 2 Kings xviii. 7, as against Amaziah see above; xiv. 6 refers to Deut: xxiv. 16, and 2 Chron. vv. 14–16. The poetical fragment, xix. 21-28, is connected with xxv. 5-16 replaces v. 7 by a lengthy narrative with some interest: the sign in vv. 29-31; both seem to break the connexion between ing details. Azariah or Uzziah is briefly summarized in xv. 1-7, xix. 20 and 32 sqq. Chap. xx. 1-19 appears to belong to an earlier hence the notice in xiv. 22 seems out of place; perhaps the period in Hezekiah's reign (see v. 6 and cf. 2 Chron. xxxii . 25 seq.); usual staiements of Amaziah's death and burial (cf. xiv. 206, with vv. 1-11 note carefully the forms in Isa. xxxviii. 1-8, 21 seq., 22b), which were to be expected after v. 18, have been supple- and 2 Chron. xxxii. 24-26; with xx. 12-19 (Isa. xxxix) contrast mented by the account of the rebellion (vv. 19, 200, 21). The the brief allusion in 2 Chron. xxxii. 31. In v. 17 seq. the exile chronological notes for the accession of Azariah imply different is foreshadowed. Use has probably been made of a late cycle views of the history of Judah after the defeat of Amaziah; with of Isaiah-stories; such a work is actually mentioned in 2 Chron. xiv. 17, cf. xiii. 10, xiv. 2,23, but contrast xv. 1, and again v. 8.2 xxxii. 32. The accounts of the reactionary kings Manasseh and The important reign of Jeroboam (2) is dismissed as briefly Amon, although now by the compiler, give some reference to as that of Azariah (xiv. 23-29). The end of the Aramaean war political events (see xxi. 17, 23 seq.); xxi. 7-15 refer to the exile presupposed by v. 25 is supplemented by the sympathetic ad- and find a parallel in xxiii. 26 seq., and xxi. 10 sqq. are replaced dition in v. 26 seq. (cf. xiii. 4 seq. 23). Of his successors Zechariah, in ? Chron. xxxiii. 10-20 by a novel record of Manasseh's Shallum and Menahem only the briefest records remain, now penitence (see also ibid. v. 23 and note omission of 2 Kings imbedded in the editorial framework (xv. 8–25). The summary xxiii. 26 from Chron). of Pekah (perhaps the same as Pekahiah, the confusion being due Josiah's reign forms the climax of the history. The usual to the compiler) contains excerpts which form the continuation framework (xxii. 1; 2, xxiii. 28, 30b) is supplemented by narra- of the older material in v. 25 (cf. also vv. 10, 14, 16, 19, 20). For tives dealing with the Temple repairs and the reforms of Josiah. an apparently similar adjustment of an earlier record to the These are closely related to xi. seq. (cf. xxii. 3–4 with xii. 4 sqq.), framework see above on 1 Kings xv. 25-31, xvi. 8-25. The but show many signs of revision; xxii . 16 seq., xxiii. 20 seq., account of Hoshea's conspiracy (xv. 29 seq.) gives the Israelite point distinctly to the exile, and xxiii. 16-20 is an insertion version with which Tiglath-Pileser's own statement can now be (the altar in v. 16 is already destroyed in v. 15) after 1 Kings compared. Two accounts of the fall of Samaria are given, But it is difficult elsewhere to distinguish safely between one of which is under the reign of the contemporary Judaean the original records and the later additions. In their present shape the reforms of Josiah are described in terms that point 1 Both xiv. 22 and xv. 5 presuppose fuller records of which 2 Chron. xxvi. 6-7, 16–20 may represent merely later and less trustworthy promulgates the reforms themselves.! to an acquaintance with the teaching of Deuteronomy which versions. 2 See F. Rühl, Deutsche Zeit. f. Geschichtwissens. xii. 54 sqq.; also See further the special study by E. Day, Journ. Bib. Lit. (1902), Jews: History, $ 12. pp. 197 sqq. a 4 xiii. 814 KINGS, BOOKS OF > The annalist c notice in xxiii. 29 seq. (contrast xxii. 20) should in the Judaean history) consisting of complete passages, obvious precede v. 28; 2 Chron. xxxv. 20-27 gives another version in the interpolations, and also sporadic phrases in narratives whose correct position and ignores 2 Kings xxiii. 24-27 (see however the Septuagint). For the last four kings of Judah, lhe references 10 pre-exilic origin is sometimes clear and sometimes only to be the worship at the high places (presumably abolished by Josiah) presumed. Further (c), the Septuagint supports the independent are wanting, and the literary source is only cited for Jehoiakim; conclusion that the elaborate synchronisms belong to a late xxiv. 3 seq. (and probably v. 2), which treat the fall of Judah as stage in the redaction. Consequently it is necessary to allow the punishment for Manasseh's sins, are a Deuteronomistic insertion (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6 sqq. differs.widely; see, however, the Septuagint); that the previous arrangement of the material may have been 8. 13. seq. and v. 15 seq. are duplicates. With xxiv. 18-xxv. 2! cf. different; the actual wording of the introductory notices was Jer. lii. 1-27 (the text of the latter, especially v. 19 sqq. is superior); necessarily also affected. In general, it becomes ever more and the fragments ibid. xxxix. 1-10. Ch. xxv. 22-26 appears in much difficult to distinguish between passages incorporated by an fuiler form in Jer. xl. seq. (see xl. 7-9, xli. 1-3, 17 seq.). It is note- worthy that Jeremiah does not enter into the history in Kings (contrast early redactor and those which may have been inserted later, I saiah above). The book of Chronicles in general has a briefer though possibly from old sources. Where the regular framework account of the last years, and ignores both the narratives which is disturbed such considerations become more cogent. The also appear in Jeremiah and the concluding hopeful note struck by relation of annalistic materials in 1 Sam. (xiji. 1; xiv. 47-51, &c.) the restoration of Jehoiachin (xxv. 27-30). This last, with the addition of statistical data, forms the present conclusion also of to the longer detailed narratives will bear upon the question, as the book of Jeremiah. also the relation of 2 Sam. ix-xx. to 1 Kings i. seq. (see Samuel, Conclusions. A survey of these narratives as a whole BOOKS OF). Again (d) the lengths of the reigns of the Judaean strengthens our impression of the merely mechanical character kings form an integral part of the framework, and their total, of the redaction by which they are united. Though editors with fiſty years of exile, allows four hundred and eighty years have written something of their own in almost every chapter, from the beginning of the Temple to the return from Babylon.) generally from the standpoint of religious pragmatism, there is This round number (cf. again i Kings vi. 1) points to a date not the least attempt to work the materials into a history in our subsequent to 537, and Robertson Smith has observed that sense of the word; and in particular the northern and southern almost all events dated by the years of the kings of Jerusalem histories are practically independent, being merely pieced together have reference to the affairs of the Temple. This suggests a in a sort of mosaic in consonance with the chronological system, connexion between the chronology and the incorporation of which we have seen to be really later than the main redaction. those narratives in which the Temple is clearly the centre of It is very probable that the order of the pieces was considerably interest. (e) But, apart from the question of the origin of the readjusted by the author of the chronology; of this indeed the more detailed Judaean records, the arguments for a pre-exilic Septuagint still shows traces. But with all its imperfections as Judaean Deuteronomic compilation are not quite decisive. judged from a modern standpoint, the redaction has the great The phrase “unto this day” is not necessarily valid (cf. merit of preserving material nearer to the actual history than 2 Chron. v. 9, viii. 8, xxi. 10 with 1 Kings viii. 8, ix. 21, 2 Kings would have been the case had narratives been rewritten from viii. 22), and depends largely upon the compiler's sagacity. much later standpoints-as often in the book of Chronicles. Also, the existence of the Temple and of the Davidic dynasty Questions of date and of the growth of the literary process are (1 Kings viii. 14-53; ix. 3; xi. 36–38; xv. 4; 2 Kings viii. 19; still unsettled, but it is clear that there was an independent cf. 2 Chron. xiii. 5) is equally applicable to the time of the second history of (north) Israel with its own chronological scheme. temple when Zerubbabel, the Davidic representative, kindled It was based upon annals and fuller political records, and at new hopes and aspirations. Indeed, if the object of the Deu- some period apparently passed through circles where the teronomic compiler is to show from past history that "the purely domestic stories of the prophets (Elisha) were current. sovereign is responsible for the purity of the national religion This was ultimately taken over by a Judaean editor who was (Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 2079), a date somewhere after the under the influence of the far-reaching reforms ascribed to the death of Jehoiachin (released in 561) in the age of Zerubbabel 18th year of Josiah (621 B.c.). Certain passages seem to imply and the new Temple equally satisfies the conditions. With this that in his time the Temple was still standing and the Davidic is concerned (1) the question whether, on historical grounds, dynasty uninterrupted. Also the phrase "unto this day the account of the introduction of Deuteronomic reforms by sometimes apparently presupposes a pre-exilic date. On the Josiah is trustworthy. Moreover, although a twofold Deu- other hand, the history is carried down to the end of Jehoiachin's teronomic redaction of Kings is generally recognized, the criteria life (xxv, 27 refers to his fifty-fifth year, vv. 29 seq. look back for the presumably pre-exilic form are not so decisive as those on his death), and a number of allusions point decisively to the which certainly distinguish the post-exilic portions, and it is post-exilic period. Consequently, most scholars are agreed frequently very difficult to assign Deuteronomic passages to that an original pre-exilic Deuteronomic compilation made the earlier rather than to the later. Again, apart from the shortly after Josiah's reforms received subsequent additions contrast between the Israelite detailed narratives (relatively from a later Deuteronomic writer. early) and those of Judaean origin (often secondary), it These questions depend upon several intricate literary and is noteworthy that the sympathetic treatment of northern historical problems. At the outset (a) the compiler deals with history in 2 Kings xiii. 4 seq. 23, xiv. 26 has literary parallels history from the Deuteronomic standpoint, selecting certain in the Deuteronomic redaction of Judges (where Israelite notices and referring further to separate chronicles of Israel tradition is again predominant), but is quite distinct from the and Judah. The canonical book of Chronicles refers to such hostile feeling to the north which is also Deuteronomic. Even a combined work, but is confined to Judah; it follows the re- the northern prophet Hosea (q.v.) approximates the Deutero- ligious judgment passed upon the kings, but it introduces new nomic standpoint, and the possibility that the first Deutero- details apparently derived from extant annals, replaces the nomic compilation of Kings could originate outside Judah is annalistic excerpts found in Kings by other passages, or uses new narratives which at times are clearly based upon older particularly has in many places been corrected after the later Greek versions that express the Hebrew receplus of the 2nd century of our Next (6) the Septuagint proves that Kings did not Yet the LXX. not only preserves many good readings in reach its present form until a very late date; “ each represents detail, but throws much light on the long-continued process of a stage and not always the same stage in the long protracted redaction at the hand of successive editors or copyists of which the labours of the redactors ” (Kuenen). In agreement with this extant Hebrew of Kings is the outcome. Even the false readings are the unambiguous indications of the post-exilic age (especially corrupting influences of precisely the same kind" (W. R. SMITH). of the Greek are instructive, for both recensions were exposed to Cf. similarly the prophetic narratives in the books of Samuel (9.v.). 3 See W. R. Smith, Journ. of Philology, x. 209 sqq.; Prophets of ?“ The LXX. of Kings is not a corrupt reproduction of the Hebrew Israel, p. 147 seq.; and K. Marti, Ency. Bib. art. Chronology." receplus, but represents another recension of the text. Neither * Against earlier doubts by Havet (1878), Vernes (1887) and Horst recension can claim absolute superiority. The defects of the LXX. (1888), see W. E. Addis, Documents of Hexaleuch, ii. 2 sqq.; but the lie on the surface, and are greatly aggravated by the condition of whole question has been reopened by E. Day (loc. cit. above) and the Greek text, which has suffered much in transmission, and R. H. Kennett (Journ. Theol. Stud., July 1906, 481 sqq). ? 1 sources. era. 44 KING'S BENCH-KING'S COUNTY 815 museum. strengthened by the fact that an Israelite source could be drawn | (Bankruptcy Appeals (County Courts) Act 1884), when the upon for an impartial account of Judaean history (2 Kings decision of the court of appeal on appeal from a divisional court xiv. 8-15). Finally, (g) literary and historical problems here sitting in appeal is made final and conclusive. converge. Although Judaean writers ultimately rejected as There are masters in the king's bench division. Unlike the heathen a people who could claim to be followers of Yahweh masters in the chancery division, they have original jurisdiction, (Ezra iv. 2; 2 Kings xvii. 28, 33; contrast ibid. 34-40, a secondary and are not attached to any particular judge. They hear appli- insertion), the anti-Samaritan feeling had previously been at cations in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as most only in an incipient stage, and there is reason to infer that referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages. relations between the peoples of north and south had been | There is an appeal from the master to the judge in chambers. closer.' The book of Kings reveals changing historical condi- Formerly there was an appeal from the judge in chambers to a tions in its literary features, and it is significant that the very divisional court in every case and thence to the court of appeal, age where the background is to be sought is that which has until the multiplication of appeals in small interlocutory matters been (intentionally ?) left most obscure: the chronicler's became a scandal. Under the Supreme Court of Judicature history of the Judaean monarchy (Chron.-Ezra-Nehemiah), (Procedure) Act 1894 there is no right of appeal to the court of as any comparison will show, has its own representation of the appeal in any interlocutory matters (except those mentioned course of events, and has virtually superseded both Kings and in subs. (b) ) without the leave of the judge or of the court of Jeremiah, which have now an abrupt conclusion. (See further appeal, and in matters of " practice and procedure " the appeal S. A. Cook, Jew. Quari. Rev. (1901), pp. 158 sqq.; and the articles lies (with leave) directly to the court of appeal from the judge Jews: History, $8 20, 22; PALESTINE: History). in chambers. LITERATURE.-A. Kuenen, Einleitung: J. Wellhausen, Compos. KINGSBRIDGE, a market town in the Totnes parliamentary d. Hexateuch, pp. 266–302; H. Winckler, Alttest. Untersuchungen division of Devonshire, England, 48 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, on a (1892); and B. Stade, Akademische Reden (1899; on 1 Kings v;-vii.; branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district 2 Kings X.-xiv.; xv.-xxi.); S. R. Driver, Lit. of 0. T. (1909); see also C. Holzhey, Das Buch. d. Könige (1899); the commentaries of (1901), 3025. It lies 6 m. from the English Channel, at the head Benzinger (1899) and Kittel (1900), and especially F.C. Kent, Israel's of an inlet or estuary which receives only small streams, on a Hist. and Biog. Narr. (1905). The article by W. R. Smith, Ency; sharply sloping site. The church of St Edmund is mainly Brit., 9th ed. (partly retained here), is revised and supplemented Perpendicular, but there are Transitional Norman and Early by E. Kautzsch in the Ency. Bib. For the Hebrew text see Kloster- mann's Sam. u. Könige (1887); C. F. Burney, Noles on the Hebrew English portions. The town-hall contains a natural history Text (1903); and Stade and Schwally's edition in Haupt's Sacred A house called Pindar Lodge stands on the site of the Books of the Old Testament (1904): For English readers, J Skinner's birthplace of John Wolcot (“Peter Pindar,"1738-1819). William commentary in the Century Bible, and W. E. Barnes in the Cam-Cookworthy (1705-1780), a porcelain manufacturer, the first to bridge Bible, are useful introductions. (S. A. C.) exploit the deposits of kaolin in the south-west of England, was KING'S BENCH, COURT OF, in England, one of the superior also born at Kingsbridge. The township of Dodbrooke, in- courts of common law. This court, the most ancient of English | cluded within the civil parish, adjoins Kingsbridge on the north- courts—in its correct legal title, “ the court of the king before east. Some iron-founding and ship-building, with a coasting the king himself,” coram ipso rege--is far older than parliament trade, are carried on. itself, for it can be traced back clearly, both in character and the Kingsbridge (Kyngysbrygge) was formerly included in the essence of its jurisdiction, to the reign of King Alfred. The king's manor of Churchstow, the first trace of its separate existence bench, and the two offshoots of the aula regia, the common pleas being found in the Hundred Roll of 1276, which records that in and the exchequer, for many years possessed co-ordinate juris- the manor of 'Churchstow there is a new borough, which has a diction, although there were a few cases in which each had Friday market and a separate assize of bread and ale. The name exclusive authority, and in point of dignity precedence was given Kingsbridge however does not appear till half a century later. to the court of king's bench, the lord chief justice of which was When Kingsbridge became a separate parish is not certainly also styled lord chief justice of England, being the highest per- known, but it was before 1414 when the church was rebuilt and manent judge.of the Crown. The court of exchequer attended consecrated to St Edmund. In 1461 the abbot of Buckfastleigh to the business of the revenue, the common pleas to private obtained a Saturday market at Kingsbridge and a three-days' fair actions between citizens, and the king's bench retained criminal at the feast of St Margaret, both of which are still held. The cases and such other jurisdiction as had not been divided between manor remained in possession of the abbot until the Dissolution, the other two courts. By an act of 1830 the court of exchequer when it was granted to Sir William Petre. Kingsbridge was never chamber was constituted as a court of appeal for errors in law in represented in parliament or incorporated by charter, the govern- all three courts. Like the court of exchequer, the king's bench ment being by a portreeve, and down to the present day the assumed by means of an ingenious fiction the jurisdiction in civil steward of the manor holds a court leet and court baron and matters which properly belonged to the common pleas. appoints a portreeve and constables. In 1798 the town mills Under the Judicature Act 1873 the court of king's bench be- were converted into a woollen manufactory, which up to recent came the king's bench division of the High Court of Justice. It times produced large quantities of cloth, and the serge manu- consists of the lord chief justice and fourteen puisne judges. It facture was introduced early in the 19th century. The town exercises original jurisdiction and also appellate jurisdiction from has been famous from remote times for a beverage called the county courts and other inferior courts. By the act of 1873 “white ale.” Included in Kingsbridge is the little town of (sec. 45) ihis appellate jurisdiction is conferred upon the High Dodbrooke, which at the time of the Domesday Survey had Court generally, but in practice it is exercised by a divisional a population of 42, and a flock of 108 sheep and 27 goats; and court of the king's bench division only. The determination of in 1257 was granted a Wednesday market and a fair at the such appeals by the High Court is final, unless leave to appeal is Feast of St.Mary Magdalene. given by the court which heard the appeal or by the court of See " Victoria County History": Devonshire; Kingsbridge and appeal. There was an exception to this rule as regards certain Sulcombe, with the intermediate Estuary, historicallyand topographically orders of quarter sessions, the history of which involves some depècted (Kingsbridge, 1819); S. F. Fox, Kingsbridge Estuary (Kings- complication. But by sec. 1 (5) of the Court of Session Act 1894 bridge, 1864). the rule applies to all cases where there is a right of appeal to the KING'S COUNTY, a county of Ireland in the province of High Court from any court or person. It may be here mentioned Leinster, bounded N. by Meath and Westmeath,W.by Roscommon; that iſ leave is given to appeal to the court of appeal there is a Galway and Tipperary (the boundary with the first two counties further appeal to the House of Lords, except in bankruptcy being the river Shannon); S. by Tipperary and Queen's County, 1 See Kennett, Journ. Theol. Slud. 1905, pp. 169 sqq.; 1906, pp. and E. by Kildare. The area is 493,999 acres or about 772 sq. m. 488 sqq.; and cf. J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans (1907), pp. 47, The greater part of the county is included in the central plain of 53 seq., 57, 59, 61 sqq. Ireland. In the south-east the Slieve Bloom Mountains form the 816 KINGSDOWN, BARON-KING'S EVIL boundary between King's County and Queen's County, and run sessions at Parsonstown, Philipstown and Tullamore. The into the former county from south-west to north-east for a discounty is divided into the Protestant dioceses of Killaioe, Meath tance of about 20 m. consisting of a mass of lofty and precipitous and Ossory; and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh, Kildare crags through which there are two narrow passes, the Black Gap and Leighlin, Ossory and Clonſert. and the Gap of Glandine. In the north-east Croghan Hill, a King's County, with portions of Tipperary, Queen's County beautiful green eminence, rises to a height over 700 ft. The and Kildare, at an early period formed one kingdom under the remainder of the county is flat, but a range of low hills crosses name of Offaly, a title which it retained after the landing of the its north-eastern division to the north of the Barrow. In the English. Subsequently it was known as Glenmallery, Western centre of the county from east to west a large portion is occupied Glenmallery pretty nearly corresponding to the present King's by the Bog of Allen. The county shares in the advantage of the County, and Eastern Glenmallery to Queen's County. By a navigation of the Shannon, which skirts its western side. The statute of 1556 the western district was constituted a shire under Brosna, which issues from Loch Ennell in Westmeath, enters the the name of King's County in honour of Philip, consort of Queen county near the town of Clara, and flowing south-westwards Mary—the principal town, formerly the seat of the O'Connors, across its north-west corner, discharges itself into the Shannon being called Philipstown; and the eastern district at the same after receiving the Clodagh and the Broughill. A small portion time received the name of Queen's County in honour of Mary. of the north-eastern extremity is skirted by the upper Boyne. Perhaps the oldest antiquarian relic is the large pyramid of white The Barrow forms the south-eastern boundary with Queen's stones in the Slieve Bloom Mountains called the Temple of the County. The Little Brosna, which rises in the Slieve Bloom Sun or the White Obelisk. There are a considerable number of Mountains, forms the boundary of King's County with Tipperary, Danish raths, and a chain of moats commanding the passes of the and falls into the Shannon. bogs extended throughout the county. On the borders of Tippe- This county lies in the great Carboniferous Limestone plain, rary is an ancient causeway leading presumably to a crannog or with clay-soils and bogs upon its surface, and many drier deposits lake-dwelling. The most important ecclesiastical ruins are those of esker-gravels rising as green hills above the general level. The of the seven churches of Clonmacnoise (q.v.) on the Shannon in Slieve Bloom Mountains, consisting of Old Red Sandstone with the north-west of the county, where an abbey was founded by St Silurian inliers, form a bold feature in the south. North of Kieran in 648, and where the remains include those of churches, Philipstown, the prominent mass of Croghan Hill is formed of two round towers, crosses, inscribed stones and a castle. Among basic volcanic rocks contemporaneous with the Carboniſerous the more famous religious houses in addition to Clonmacnoise Limestone, and comparable with those in Co. Limerick. were Durrow Abbey, founded by St Columba in 550; Monasteroris Notwithstanding the large area occupied by bogs, the climate founded in the 14th century by John Bermingham, earl of is generally healthy, and less moist than that of several neigh-Louth; and Seirkyran Abbey, founded in the beginning of the bouring districts. The whole of the county would appear to 5th century. The principal old castles are Rathmore, probably have been covered formerly by a vast forest, and the district the most ancient in the county; Banagher, commanding an im- bordering on Tipperary is still richly wooded. The soil naturally portant pass on the Shannon; Leap Castle, in the Slieve Bloom is not of great fertility except in special cases, but is capable of Mountains; and Birr or Parsonstown, now the seat of the earl of being rendered so by the judicious application of bog and lime Rosse. manures according to its special defects. It is generally either KINGSDOWN, THOMAS PEMBERTON LEIGH, BARON (1793- a deep bog or a shallow gravelly loam. On the borders of the 1867), the eldest son of Thomas Pemberton, a chancery barrister, Slieve Bloom Mountains there are some very rich and fertile was born in London on the 11th of February 1793. He was called pastures, and there are also extensive grazing districts on the to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1816, and at once acquired a borders of Westmeath, which are chiefly occupied by sheep. | lucrative equity practice. He sat in parliament for Rye (1831- Along the banks of the Shannon there are some fine tracts of 1832) and for Ripon (1835-1843). He was made a king's counsel meadow land. With the exception of the tract occupied by the in 1829. Of a retiring disposition, he seldom took part in parlia- Bog of Allen, the remainder of the county is nearly all under mentary debates, although in 1838 in the case of Slockdale v. tillage, the most productive portion being that to the north-west Hansard he took a considerable part in upholding the privileges of the Hill of Croghan. The percentage of tillage to pasture is of parliament. In 1841 he accepted the post of attorney-general roughly as 1 to 2 Oats, barley and rye, potatoes and turnips, for the duchy of Cornwall. In 1842- a relative, Sir Robert H. are all considerably grown; wheat is almost neglected, and the Leigh, left him a life interest in his Wigan estates, amounting to acreage of all crops has a decreasing tendency. Cattle, sheep, some £15,000 a year; he then assumed the additional surname pigs and poultry are bred increasingly; dairies are numerous in of Leigh. Having accepted the chancellorship of the duchy of the north of the county, and the sheep are pastured chiefly in the Cornwall and a privy councillorship, he became a member of the hilly districts. judicial committee of the privy council, and for nearly twenty The county is traversed from S.E. to N.W. by the Portarling- years devoted his energies and talents to the work of that body; ton, Tullamore, Clara and Athlone line of the Great Southern and his judgments, more particularly in prize cases, of which he took Western railway, with a branch from Clara to Banagher; from especial charge, are remarkable not only for legal precision and Roscrea (Co. Tipperary) a branch of this company runs to accuracy, but for their form and expression. In 1858, on the Parsonstown (Birr); while the Midland Great Western has formation of Lord Derby's administration, he was offered the branches from its main line from Enfield (Co. Kildare) to Great Seal, but declined; in the same year, however, he was raised Edenderry, and from Streamstown (Co. Westmeath) to Clara. to the peerage as Baron Kingsdown. He died at his seat, Lorry The Grand Canal runs through the length of the county from Hill, near Sittingbourne, Kent, on the 7th of October 1867. east to west, entering the Shannon at Shannon harbour. Lord Kingsdown never married, and his title became extinct. The population (65,563 in 1891; 60,187 in 1901), decreasing See Recollections of Life at the Bar and in Parliament, by Lord through emigration, includes about 89% of Roman Catholics. Kingsdown (privately printed for friends, 1868); The Times (8th The decrease is rather below the average. The chief towns are of October 1867). Tullamore (the county town, pop. 4639) and Birr or Parsons- KING'S EVIL, an old, but not yet obsolete, name given to the town (4438), with Edenderry and Clara. Philipstown near Tulla- scrofula, which in the popular estimation was deemed capable of more was formerly the capital of the county and was the centre cure by the royal touch. The practice of “ touching ” for the of the kingdom of Offaly. The ccunty comprises 12 baronies scrofula, or “ King's Evil,” was confined amongst the nations of and 46 civil parishes. It returns two members to parliament, Europe to the two Royal Houses of England and France. As for the Birr and Tullamore divisions respectively, Previous to the monarchs of both these countries owned the exclusive right the Union, King's County returned six members to parliament, of being anointed with the pure chrism, and not with the ordinary two for the county, and two for each of the boroughs of Philips- sacred oil, it has been surmised that the common belief in the town and Banagher. Assizes are held at Tullamore and quarter I sanctity of the chrism was in some manner inseparably connected KINGSFORD-KINGSLEY, CHARLES 817 a with faith in the healing powers of the royal touch. The kings | in 10 volumes (1887-1897), ending with the union of Upper both of France and England claimed a sole and special right to and Lower Canada in 1841. Kingsford died on the 28th of this supernatural giſt: the house of France deducing its origin September 1898. from Clovis (5th century) and that of England declaring Edward KINGSLEY, CHARLES (1819-1875), English clergyman, poet the Confessor the first owner of this virtue. That the Saxon origin and novelist, was born on the 12th of June 1819, at Holne of the royal power of healing was the popular theory in England vicarage, Dartmoor, Devon. His early years were spent at is evident from the striking and accurate description of the cere. Barnack in the Fen country and at Clovelly in North Devon. mony in Macbeth (act vi. scene iii.). Nevertheless the practice of | The scenery of both made a great impression on his mind, this rite cannot be traced back to an earlier date than the reign and was afterwards described with singular vividness in his of Edward III. in England, and of St Louis (Louis IX.) in France; writings. He was educated at private schools and at King's consequently, it is believed that the performance of healing by the College, London, after his father's promotion to the rectory touch emanated in the first instance from the French Crusader- of St Luke's, Chelsea. In 1838 he entered Magdalene College, King, whose miraculous powers were subsequently transmitted Cambridge, and in 1842 he was ordained to the curacy of Evers- to his descendant and representative, Isabella of Valois, wife of ley in Hampshire, to the rectory of which he was not long after- Edward II. of England. In any case, Queen Isabella's son and wards presented, and this, with short intervals, was his home heir, Edward III., claimant to the French throne through his for the remaining thirty-three years of his life. In 1844 he mother, was the first English king to order a public display of an married Fanny, daughter of Pascoe Grenfell, and in 1848 attribute that had hitherto been associated with the Valois kings he published his first volume, The Saint's Tragedy. In 1859 ho alone. From his reign dates the use of the “ touch-piece," a gold became chaplain to Queen Victoria; in 1860 he was appointed medal given to the sufferer as a kind of talisman, which was origi- to the professorship of modern history at Cambridge, which he naily the angel coin, stamped with designs of St Michael and of resigned in 1869; and soon after he was appointed to a canonry a three-masted ship. at Chester. In 1873 this was exchanged for a canonry at West- The actual ceremony seems first to have consisted of the minster. He died at Eversley on the 23rd of January 1875. sovereign's personal act of washing the diseased flesh with water, With the exception of occasional changes of residence in but under Henry VII. the use of an ablution was omitted, and a England, generally for the sake of his wife's health, one or two regular office was drawn up for insertion in the Service Book. short holiday trips abroad, a tour in the West Indies, and another At the “ Ceremonies for the Healing" the king now merely in America to visit his eldest son settled there as an engineer, touched his afflicted subject in the presence of the court chaplain bis life was spent in the peaceful, if active, occupations of a who offered up certain prayers and afterwards presented the clergyman who did his duty earnestly, and of a vigorous and touch-piece, pierced so that it might be suspended by a ribbon prolific writer. But in spite of this apparently uneventful life, round the patient's neck. Henry VII.'s office was henceforth he was for many years one of the most prominent men of his issued with variations from time to time under successive kings, time, and by his personality and his books he exercised con. nor did it disappear from certain editions of the Book of Commonsiderable influence on the thought of his generation. Though not Prayer until the middle of the 18th century. The practice of the profoundly learned, he was a man of wide and various informa- Royal Healing seems to have reached the height of its popularity tion, whose interests and sympathies embraced many branches during the reign of Charles II., who is stated on good authority of human knowledge. He was an enthusiastic student in par- to have touched over 100,000 strumous persons. So great a ticular of natural history and geology. Sprung on the father's number of applicants becoming a nuisance to the Court, it was side from an old English race of country squires, and on his afterwards enacted that special certificates should in future be mother's side from a good West Indian family who had been granted to individuals demanding the touch, and such certificates slaveholders for generations, he had a keen love of sport and are occasionally to be found amongst old parish registers of the a genuine sympathy with country-folk, but he had at the same close of the 17th century. After the Revolution, William of time something of the scorn for lower races to be found in the Orange refused to touch, and referred all applicants to the exiled members of a dominant race. James II. at St Germain; but Queen Anne touched frequently, With the sympathetic organization which made him keenly one of her patients being Dr Samuel Johnson in his infancy. sensible of the wants of the poor, he threw himself heartily into The Hanoverian kings declined to touch, and there exists no the movement known as Christian Socialism, of which Frederick further record of any ceremony of healing henceforward at the Denison Maurice was the recognized leader, and for many years English court. The practice, however, was continued by the he was considered as an extreme radical in a profession the exiled Stuarts, and was constantly performed in Italy by James traditions of which were conservative. While in this phase Stuart, “ the Old Pretender,” and by his two sons, Charles and he wrote his novels Yeast and Allon Locke, in which, though he Henry (Cardinal York). (H. M. V.) pointed out, unsparingly the folly of extremes, he certainly KINGSFORD, WILLIAM (1819-1898), British engineer and sympathized not only with the poor, but with much that was Canadian historian, was born in London on the 23rd of December done and said by the leaders in the Chartist movement. Yet 1819. He first studied architecture, but disliking the confine even then he considered that the true leaders of the people were ment of an office enlisted in the ist Dragoon Guards, obtaining his a peer and a dean, and there was no real inconsistency in the discharge in Canada in 1841. After serving for a time the fact that at a later period he was among the most strenuous office of the city surveyor of Montreal he made a survey for the defenders of Governor Eyre in the measures adopted by him to Lachine canal (1846-1848), and was employed in the United put down the Jamaican disturbances. He looked rather to the States in the building of the Hudson River railroad in 1849, and extension of the co-operative principle and to sanitary reform in Panama on the railroad being constructed there in 1851. for the amelioration of the condition of the people than to any In 1853 he was surveyor and, afterwards district superintendent radical political change. His politics might therefore have been for the Grand Trunk railroad, remaining in the employment of described as Toryism tempered by sympathy, or as Radicalism that company until 1864. The following year he went to England tempered by hereditary scorn of subject races. He was bitterly but returned to Canada in 1867 in the hope of taking part in the opposed to what he considered to be the medievalism and construction of the Intercolonial Railway. In this he was un- narrowness of the Oxford Tractarian Movement. In Mac- successful, but from 1872 to 1879 he held a government post in millan's Magazine for January 1864 he asserted that truth for charge of the harbours of the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence. its own sake was not obligatory with the Roman Catholic He had previously written books on engineering and topo- clergy, quoting as his authority John Henry Newman (9.v.). graphical subjects, and in 1880 he began to study the records of In the ensuing controversy Kingsley was completely discomfited. Canadian history at Ottawa. Among other books he published He was a broad churchman, who held what would be called a Canadian Archaeology (1886) and Early Bibliography of Ontario liberal theology, but the Church, its organization, its creed, its (1892). But the great work of his life was a / istory of Canada dogma, had ever an increasing hold upon him. Although at one XV 14 2a 818 KINGSLEY, HENRY-KINGSLEY, MARY H. period he certainly shrank from reciting the Athanasian Creed America (1875). He was a large contributor to periodical literature: in church, he was towards the close of his life found ready to many of his essays are included in Prose Idylls and other works in the above list. But no collection has been made of some of his more join an association for the defence of this formulary. The characteristic writings in the Christian Socialist and Politics for the more orthodox and conservative elements in his character gained People, many of them signed by the pseudonym he then assumed. the upper hand as time went on, but careful students of him and “ Parson Lot." his writings will find a deep conservatism underlying the most KINGSLEY, HENRY (1830-1876), English novelist, younger radical utterances of his earlier years, while a passionate sym- brother of Charles Kingsley, was born at Barnack, Northampton- pathy for the poor, the afflicted and the weak held possession shire, on the 2nd of January 1830. In 1853 he left Oxford, of him till the last hour of his life. where he was an undergraduate at Worcester College, for the Both as a writer and in his personal intercourse with men, Australian goldfields. This venture, however, was not a success, Kingsley was a thoroughly stimulating teacher. As with his and after five years he returned to England. He achieved con- own teacher, Maurice, his influence on other men rather consisted siderable popularity with his Recolleclions of Geoffrey Hamlyn in inducing them to think for themselves than in leading them (1859), a novel of Australian life. This was the first of a series to adopt his own views, never, perhaps, very definite. But of novels of which Ravenshoe (1861) and The Hillyars and The his healthy and stimulating influence was largely due to the Burlons (1865) are the best known. These stories are charac- fact that he interpreted the thoughts which were stirring in terized by much vigour, abundance of incident, and healthy the minds of many of his contemporaries. sentiment. He edited for eighteen months the Edinburgh As a preacher he was vivid, eager and earnest, equally plain- Daily Review, for which he had acted as war correspondent spoken and uncompromising when preaching to a fashionable during the Franco-German War. He died at Cuckfield, Sussex, congregation or to his own village poor. One of the very best on the 24th of May 1876. of his writings is a sermon called The Message of the Church to KINGSLEY, MARY HENRIETTA (1862–1900), English Working Men, and the best of his published .discourses are the traveller, ethnologist and author, daughter of George Henry Twenty-five Village Sermons which he preached in the early Kingsley (1827-1892), was born in Islington, London, on the years of his Eversley life. 13th of October 1862. Her father, though less widely known As a novelist his chief power lay in his descriptive faculties. than his brothers, Charles and Henry (see above), was a man of The descriptions of South American scenery in Westward Hol, versatile abilities, with a passion for travelling which he managed of the Egyptian desert in Hypatia, of the North Devon scenery to indulge in combination with his practice as a doctor He in Two Years Ago, are among the most brilliant pieces of word- wrote one popular book of travel, South Sea Bubbles, by the painting in English prose-writing; and the American scenery Earl and the Doctor (1872), in collaboration with the 13th earl is even more vividly and more truthfully described when he of Pembroke. Mary Kingsley's reading in history, poetry and had seen it only by the eye of his imagination than in his work philosophy was wide if desultory, but she was most attracted Al Last, which was written after he had visited the tropics. to natural history. Her family moved to Cambridge in 1886, His sympathy for children taught him how to secure their where she studied the science of sociology. The loss of both interests. His version of the old Greek stories entitled The parents in 1892 left her free to pursue her own course, and she Heroes, and Water-babies and Madom How and Lady Why, in resolved to study native religion and law in West Africa with a which he deals with popular natural history, take high rank view to completing a book which her father had left unfinished. among books for children. With her study of “raw fetish" she combined that of a scientific As a poet he wrote but little, but there are passages in The collector of fresh-water fishes. She started for the West Coast Saint's Tragedy and many isolated lyrics, which are worthy of a in August 1893; and at Kabinda, at Old Calabar, Fernando place in all standard collections of English literature. Andromeda Po and on the Lower Congo she pursued her investigations, is a very successful attempt at naturalizing the hexameter as returning to England in June 1894. She gained sufficient a form of English verse, and reproduces with great skill the knowledge of the native customs to contribute an introduction sonorous roll of the Greek original. to Mr R. E. Dennett's Notes on the Folk Lore of the Fjort (1898). In person Charles Kingsley was tall and spare, sinewy rather Miss Kingsley made careful preparations for a second visit to than powerful, and of a restless excitable temperament. His the same coast; and in December 1894, provided by the complexion was swarthy, his hair dark, and his eye bright and British Museum authorities with a collector's equipment, she piercing. His temper was hot, kept under rigid control; his proceeded via Old Calabar to French Congo, and ascended the. disposition tender, gentle and loving, with Aashing scorn and Ogowé River. From this point her journey, in part across indignation against all that was ignoble and impure; he was a country hitherto untrodden by Europeans, was a long series of good husband, father and friend. One of his daughters, Mary adventures and hairbreadth escapes, at one time from the St Léger Kingsley (Mrs Harrison), has become well known as a dangers of land and water, at another from the cannibal Fang. novelist under the pseudonym of “ Lucas Malet.” Returning to the coast Miss Kingsley went to Corisco and to the Kingsley's life was written by his widow in 1877, entitled Charles the Great Cameroon (13,760 ft.) from a direction until then German colony of Cameroon, where she made the ascent of Kingsley, his Letters and Memories of his Life, and presents a very touching and beautiful picture of her husband, but perhaps hardly unattempted. She returned to England in October 1895. The does justice to his humour, his wit, his overflowing vitality and story of her adventures and her investigations in fetish is boyish fun. The following is a list of Kingsley's writings:-Saini's Tragedy, vividly told in her Travels in West Africa (1897). The book a drama (1848); Alton Locke, a novel (1849); Yeast, a novel (1849) aroused wide interest, and she lectured to scientific gatherings Twenty-five Village Sermons (1849); Phaeton, or Loose Thoughts for on the fauna, flora and folk-lore of West Africa, and to com- Loose Thinkers (1852); Sermons on National Subjects (1st series, 1852): mercial audiences on the trade of that region and its possible Hypatia, a novel (1853); Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore (1855): developments, always with a protest against the lack of detailed Sermons on National Subjects (2nd series, 1854); Alexandria and her Schools (1854); Westward Hol a novel (1855); Sermons for the Times knowledge characteristic of modern dealings with new fields of (1855); The Heroes, Greek fairy tales (1856); Two Years Ago, a novel trade. In both cases she spoke with authority, for she had brought (1857); Andromeda and other Poems (1858); The Good News of God, back a considerable number of new specimens of fishes and plants, sermons (1859); Miscellanies (1859); Limits of Exact Science applied and had herself traded in rubber and oil in the districts through to History (inaugural Lectures, 1860); Town and Country, Sermons which she passed. But her chief concern was for the develop- (1861); Sermons on the Pentateuch (1863); Water-babies (1863); The Roman and the Teuton (1864); David and other Sermons (1866); ment of the negro on African, not European, lines and for the Hereward the Wake, a novel (1866); The Ancient Régime (Lectures government of the British possessions on the West Coast by at the Royal Institution, 1867); Water of Life and other Sermons methods which left the native" a free unsmashed man-not a (1867); The Hermits (1869); Madam How and Lady Why (1869); whitewashed slave or an enemy." At last (1871); Town Geology (1872); Discipline and other Sermons With undaunted energy 1872); Prose Idylls (1873): Plays and Puritans (1873); Health and Miss Kingsley made preparations for a third journey to the West Education (1874): Westminster Sermons (1874); Lectures delivered in Coast, but the Anglo-Boer War changed her plans, and she KING'S LYNN—KINGSTON, DUCHESS OF 819 i decided to go first to South Africa to nurse fever cases. She | Among numerous later charters one of 1268 confirmed the died of enteric fever at Simon's Town, where she was engaged privilege granted to the burgesses by the bishop of choosing a in tending Boer prisoners, on the 3rd of June 1900. Miss mayor; another of 1416 re-established his election by the Kingsley's works, besides her Travels, include West African aldermen alone. Henry VIII. granted Lynn two charters, Studies, The Story of West Africa, a memoir of her father prefixed the first (1524) incorporating it under mayor and aldermen; to his Notes on Sport and Travel (1899), and many contributions the second (1537) changing its name to King's Lynn and to the study of West African law and folk-lore. To continue transferring to the corporation all the rights hitherto enjoyed the investigation of the subjects Miss Kingsley had made her by the bishop. Edward VI. added the possessions of the gild own “ The African Society was founded in 1901. of the Trinity, or gild merchant, and St George's gild, while Valuable biographical information from the pen of Mr George Queen Mary annexed South Lynn. Admiralty rights were A. Macmillan is prefixed to a second edition (1901) of the Studies. granted by James I. Lynn, which had declared for the Crown KING'S LYNN (Lynn or LYNN Regis), a market town, sea- in 1643, surrendered its privileges to Charles II. in 1684, but port and municipal and parliamentary borough of Norfolk, recovered its charter on the eve of the Revolution. À fair England, on the estuary of the Great Ouse near its outflow held on the festival of St Margaret (July 20) was included in into the Wash. Pop. (1901), 20, 288. It is 97 m. N. by E. from the grant to the monks of Norwich about 1100. Three charters London by the Great Eastern railway, and is also served by the of John granting the bishop fairs on the feasts of St Nicholas, Midland and Great Northern joint line. On the land side the St Ursula and St Margaret are extant, and another of Edward I., town was formerly defended by a fosse, and there are still con- changing the last to the feast of St Peter ad Vincula (Aug. 1). siderable remains of the old wall, including the handsome South A local act was passed in 1558–1559 for keeping a mart or Gate of the 15th century. Several by-channels of the river, fair once a year. In the eighteenth century besides the pleasure passing through the town, are known as fleets, recalling the fair, still held in February, there was another in October, now similar flelhe of Hamburg. The Public Walks forms a pleasant abolished. i A royal charter of 1524 established the cattle, corn promenade parallel to the wall, and in the centre of it stands a and general provisions market, still held every Tuesday and picturesque octagonal Chapel of the Red Mount, exhibiting Saturday. Lynn has ranked high among English seaports from crnate Perpendicular work, and once frequented by pilgrims. early times. The church of St Margaret, formerly the priory church, is a fine See E. M. Beloe, Our Borough (1899); H. Harrod, Report on building with two towers at the west end, one of which was Deeds, &c., of King's Lỳnn (1874); Victoria County History: Norfolk. formerly surmounted by a spire, blown down in 1741. Norman KING'S MOUNTAIN, a mountainous ridge in Gaston county, or transitional work appears in the base of both towers, of North Carolina and York county, South Carolina, U.S.A. It which the southern also shows Early English and Decorated is an outlier of the Blue Ridge running parallel with it, i.e. N.E. work, while the northern is chiefly Perpendicular. There is a and S.W., but in contrast with the other mountains of the Blue fine Perpendicular east window of circular form. The church Ridge, King's Mountain has a crest marked with sharp and possesses two of the finest monumental brasses in existence, irregular notches. Its highest point and great escarpment are dated respectively 1349 and 1364. St Nicholas chapel, at the in North Carolina. About it m. S. of the line between the two north end of the town, is also of rich Perpendicular workmanship, states, where the ridge about 60 ft. above the surrounding with a tower of earlier date. All Saints' church in South Lynn country and very narrow at the top, the battle of King's Moun- is a beautiful Decorated cruciform structure. Of a Franciscan tain was fought on the 7th of October 1780 between a force of friary there remains the perpendicular Grey Friars’ Steeple, about 100 Provincial Rangers and about 1000 Loyalist militia and the doorway remains of a priests' college founded in 1502. under Major Patrick Ferguson (1744-1780), and an American force At the grammar school, founded in the reign of Henry VIII., of about 900 backwoodsmen under Colonels William Campbell but occupying modern buildings, Eugene Aram was usher. (1745-1781), Benjamin Cleveland (1738-1806), Isaac Shelby, John Among the other public buildings are the guildhall, with Re- Sevier and James Williams (1740-1780), in which the Americans naissance front, the corn exchange, the picturesque custom-house were victorious. The British loss is stated as 119 killed (includ- of the 17th century, the athenaeum (including a museum, hall ing the commander), 123 wounded, and 664 prisoners; the and other departments), the Stanley Library and the municipal American loss was 28 killed (including Colonel Williams) and 62 buildings. The fisheries of the town are important, including wounded. The victory largely contributed to the success of extensive mussel-fisheries under the jurisdiction of the corpora-General Nathanael Greene's campaign against Lord Cornwallis, tion, and there are also breweries, corn-mills, iron and brass There has been some dispute as to the exact site of the engage- foundries, agricultural implement manufactories, ship-building ment, but the weight of evidence is in favour of the position yards, rope and sail works. Lynn Harbour has an area of 30 acres mentioned above, on the South Carolina side of the line. A and an average depth at low tide of 10 ft. There is also good monument erected in 1815 was replaced in 1880 by a much larger anchorage in the roads leading from the Wash to the docks. one, and a monument for which Congress appropriated $30,000 There are two docks of 61 and 10 acres area respectively. A in 1906, was completed in 1909. considerable traffic is carried on by barges on the Ouse. The See L. C. Draper, King's Mountain and its Heroes (Cincinnati, municipal and parliamentary boroughs of Lynn are co-extensive; 1881); and Edward McCrady, South Carolina in the Revolution the parliamentary borough returns one member. The town is 1775-1780 (New York, 1901). governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, KINGSTON, ELIZABETH, DUCHESS OF (1720-1788), sometimes 3061 acres. called countess of Bristol, was the daughter of Colonel Thomas As Lynn (Lun, Lenne, Bishop's Lynn) owes its origin to the Chudleigh (d. 1726), and was appointed maid of honour to trade which its early settlers carried by the Ouse and its tribu- Augusta, princess of Wales, in 1743, probably through the good taries its history dates from the period of settled occupation by offices of her friend, William Pulteney, earl of Bath. Being a the Saxons. It belonged to the bishops of Thetford before the very beautiful woman Miss Chudleigh did not lack admirers, Conquest and remained with the see when it was translated to among whom were James, 6th duke of Hamilton, and Augustus Norwich. Herbert de Losinga (c. 1054-1119) granted its juris- John Hervey, afterwards 3rd earl of Bristol. Hamilton, how- diction to the cathedral of Norwich but this right was resumed ever, left England, and on the 4th of August 1744 she was by a later bishop, John de Gray, who in 1204 had obtained privately married to Hervey at Lainston, near Winchester. from John a charter establishing Lynn as a free borough. A Both husband and wife being poor, their union was kept secret fuller grant în 1206 gave the burgesses a gild merchant, the to enable Elizabeth to retain her post at court, while Hervey, husting court'to be held once a week only, and general liberties who was a naval officer, rejoined his ship, returning to England according to the customs of Oxford, saving the rights of the towards the close of 1746. The marriage was a very unhappy bishop and the earl of Arundel, whose ancestor William D’Albini one, and the pair soon ceased to live together; but when it had received from William II. the moiety of the tolbooth. I appeared probable that Hervey would succeed his brother as earl 820 KINGSTON, W. H. G.--KINGSTON of Bristol, bis wife took steps to obtain proof of her marriage. I at one time made it one of the strongest fortresses in Canada, are This did not, however, prevent her from becoming the mistress now out of date. The sterility of the surrounding country, and of Evelyn Pierrepont, and duke of Kingston, and she was not the growth of railways have lessened its commercial importance, only a very prominent figure in London society, but in 1765 in but it still contains a number of small factories, and important Berlin she was honoured by the attentions of Frederick the locomotive works and ship-building yards. As an educational Great. By this time Hervey wished for a divorce from his wife; and residential centre it retains high rank, and is a popular but Elizabeth, although equally anxious to be free, was un- summer resort. It is the seat of an Anglican and of a Roman willing to face the publicity attendant upon this step. However Catholic bishopric, of the Royal Military College (founded by she began a suit of jactitation against Hervey. This case was doubt. the Dominion government in 1875), of an artillery school, and less collusive, and after Elizabeth had sworn she was unmarried, of Queen's University, an institution founded in 1839 under the the court in February 1769 pronounced her a spinster. Within nominal control of the Presbyterian church, now including about a month she married Kingston, who died four years later, leaving 1200 students. In the suburbs are a Dominion penitentiary, her all his property on condition that she remained a widow. and a provincial lunatic asylum. Founded by the French in Visiting Rome the duchess was received with honour by Clement 1673, under the name of Kateracoui, soon changed to Fort XIV.; after which she hurried back to England to defend herself Frontenac, it played an important part in the wars between from a charge of bigamy, which had been preferred against her English and French. Taken and destroyed by the English in by Kingston's nephew, Evelyn Meadows (d. 1826). The house 1758, it was refounded in 1782 under its present name, and was of Lords in 1776 found her guilty, and retaining her fortune she from 1841 to 1844 the capital of Canada. hurriedly left England to avoid further proceedings on the part KINGSTON, a city and the county-seat of Ulster county, New of the Meadows family, who had a reversionary interest in the York, U.S.A., on the Hudson River, at the mouth of Rondout Kingston estates. She lived for a time in Calais, and then Creek, about 90 m. N. of New York and about 53 m. S. of Albany. repaired to St Petersburg, near which city she bought an estate Pop. (1900), 24,535–3551 being foreign-born; (1910 census) which she named “ Chudleigh.” Afterwards she resided in 25,908. . It is served by the West Shore (which here crosses Paris, Rome, and elsewhere, and died in Paris on the 26th of Rondout Creek on a high bridge), the New York Ontario & August 1788. The duchess was a coarse and licentious woman, Western, the Ulster & Delaware, and the Wallkill Valley rail- and was ridiculed as Kitty Crocodile by the comedian Samuel ways, by a ferry across the river to Rhinecliff, where connexion Foote in a play A Trip to Calais, which, however, he was not is made with the New York Central & Hudson River railroad, allowed to produce. She is said to have been the original of and by steamboat lines to New York, Albany and other river Thackeray's characters, Beatrice and Baroness Bernstein. points. The principal part of the city is built on a level plateau There is an account of the duchess in J. H. Jesse's Memoirs of the about 150 ft. above the river; other parts of the site vary from Court of England 1688-1700, vol. iv. (1901). flatlands to rough highlands. To the N.W. is the mountain KINGSTON, WILLIAM HENRY GILES (1814–1880), English scenery of the Catskills, to the S.W. the Shawangunk Mountains novelist, son of Lucy Henry Kingston, was born in London on and Lake Mohonk, and in the distance across the river are the the 28th of February 1814. Much of his youth was spent at Berkshire Hills. The most prominent public buildings are the Oporto, where his father was a merchant, but when he entered post office and the city hall; in front of the latter is a Soldiers' the business, he made his headquarters in London. He early and Sailors' Monument. The city has a Carnegie library. The wrote newspaper articles on Portuguese subjects. These were “Senate House ”-now the property of the state, with a colonial translated into Portuguese, and the author received a Portuguese museum-was erected about 1676; it was the meeting place of order of knighthood and a pension for his services in the con- the first State Senate in 1777, and was burned (except the walls) clusion of the commercial treaty of 1842. In 1844 his first book, in October of that year. The court house (1818) stands on the The Circassian Chief, appeared, and in 1845 The Prime Minister, site of the old court house, in which Governor George Clinton e Story of the Days of the Great Marquis of Pombal. The Lusi. was inaugurated in July 1777, and in which Chief Justice John tanian Sketches describe Kingston's travels in Portugal. In Jay held the first term of the New York Supreme Court in 1851 Peter the Whaler, his first book for boys, came out. These September 1777. The Elmendorf Tavern (1723) was the books proved so popular that Kingston retired from business, meeting-place of the New York Council of Safety in October and devoted himself to the production of tales of adventure for 1777. Kingston Academy was organized in 1773, and in 1864 boys. Within thirty years he wrote upwards of one hundred was transferred to the Kingston Board of Education and became and thirty such books. He had a practical knowledge of sea- part of the city's public school system; its present building dates manship, and his stories of the sea, full of thrilling adventures from 1806. Kingston's principal manufactures are tobacco, and hairbreadth escapes, exactly hit the taste of his boy readers. cigars and cigarettes, street railway cars and boats; other Characteristic specimens of his work are The Three Midshipmen; manufactures are Rosendale cement, bricks, shirts, lace curtains, The Three Lieutenants; The Three Commanders; and The brushes, motor wheels, sash and blinds. The city ships large Three Admirals. He also wrote popular accounts of famous quantities of building and flag stones quarried in the vicinity. travellers by land and sea, and translated some of the stories of The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $5,000,922, Jules Verne. an increase of 26.5 % since 1900.. In all philanthropic schemes Kingston took deep interest; he In 1614 a small fort was built by the Dutch at the mouth of was the promoter of the mission to seamen; and he acted as Rondout Creek, and in 1652 a settlement was established in the secretary of a society for promoting an improved system of vicinity and named Esopus after the Esopus Indians, who were emigration. He was editor of the Colonist for a short time in a subdivision of the Munsee branch of the Delawares; and whose 1844 and of the Colonial Magazine and East Indian Review from name meant small river," referring possibly 10 Rondout 1849 10 1851. He was a supporter of the volunteer movement Creek. The settlement was deserted in 1655-56 on account of in England from the first. He died at Willesden on the 5th of threatened Indian attacks. In 1658 a stockade was built by August 1880. the order of Governor Peter Stuyvesant, and from this event KINGSTON, the chief city of Frontenac county, Ontario, the actual founding of the city is generally dated. In 1659 the Canada, at the north-eastern extremity of Lake Ontario, and massacre of several drunken Indians by the soldiers caused a the mouth of the Cataraqui River. Pop. (1901), 17,961. It is general rising of the Indians, who unsuccessfully attacked the an important station on the Grand Trunk railway, the terminus stockade, killing some of the soldiers and inhabitants, and of the Kingston & Pembroke railway, and has steamboat capturing and torturing others. Hostilities continued into communication with other ports on Lake Ontario and the Bay the following year. In 1661 the governor named the place of Quinte, on the St Lawrence and the Rideau canal. It contains Wilt wyck and gave it a municipal charter. In 1663 it suffered a fine stone graving dock, 280 ft. long, 100 ft. wide, and with a from another Indian attack, a number of the inhabitants depth of 16 ft. at low water on the sill. The fortifications, which I being slain or taken prisoners. The English took possession 46 KINGSTON-KINGSTON-UPON-HULL, EARLS OF 821 in 1664, and in 1669 Wilt wyck was named Kingston, after and South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 34,375. It has a Kingston Lisle, near Wantage, England, the family seat frontage with public walks and gardens upon the right bank of of Governor Frar.cis Lovelace. In the same year the English the Thames, and is in close proximity to Richmond and Bushey garrison was removed. In 1673-1674 Kingston was again tempo- | Parks, its pleasant situation rendering it a favourite residential rarily under the control of the Dutch, who called it Swanen- district. The ancient wooden bridge over the river, which was burg. In 1777 the convention which drafted the new state in existence as early as 1223, was superseded by a structure of constitution met in Kingston, and during part of the year stone in 1827. The parish church of All Saints , chiefly Per- Kingston was the seat of the new state government. On the pendicular in style, contains several brasses of the 15th century, 16th of October 1777 the British under General Sir John Vaughan and monuments by Chantrey and others; the grammar school, (1748-95) sacked it and burned nearly all its buildings. In rebuilt in 1878, was originally founded as a chantry by Edward 1908 the body of George Clinton was removed from Washington, Lovekyn in 1305, and converted into a school by Queen Eliza- D.C., and reinterred in Kingston on the 250th anniversary of beth. Near the parish church stood the chapel of St Mary, the building of the stockade. In 1787 Kingston was one of the where it is alleged the Saxon kings were crowned. The ancient places contemplated as a site for the national capital. In 1805 stone said to have been used as a throne at these coronations it was incorporated as a village, and in 1872 it absorbed the was removed to the market-place in 1850. At Norbiton, within villages of Rondout and Wilbur and was made a city. the borough, is the Royal Cambridge Asylum for soldiers' See M. Schoonmaker, History of Kingslon (New York, 1888). widows (1854). At Kingston Hill is an industrial and training KINGSTON, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, school for girls, opened in 1892. There are large market gardens U.S.A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, opposite in the neighbourhood, and the town possesses oil-mills, four- Wilkes-Barré. Pop. (1900), 3846 (1039 foreign-born); (1910) mills, breweries and brick and tile works. The borough is under 6449. Kingston is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 1133 acres. Western and the Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of The position of Kingston (Cyningeslun, Chingestune) on the Wyoming Seminary (1844; co-educational), a well-known Thames where there was probably a ford accounts for its origin; secondary school. Anthracite coal is mined here, there are its later prosperity was due to the bridge which existed in 1223 railway repair and machine-shops; and among the borough's and possibly long before. In 836 or 838 it was the meeting-place manufactures are hosiery, silk goods, underwear and adding of the council under Ecgbert, and in the roth century some if not machines. Kingston (at first called “Kingstown,” from Kings all of the West Saxon kings were crowned at Kingston. In the Towne, Rhode Island) was commonly known in its early days time of Edward the Confessor it was a royal manor, and in 1086 as the “ Forty Township," because the first permanent settle included a church, five mills and three fisheries. Domesday ment was made by forty pioneers from Connecticut, who were also mentions bedels in Kingston. The original charters were sent out by the Susquehanna Company and took possession granted by John in 1200 and 1209, by which the free men of of the district in its name in 1769. In 1972 the famous “Forty Kingston were empowered to hold the town in fee-farm for ever, Fort," a stockade fortification, was built here, and in 1777 it was with all the liberties that it had while in the king's hands. Henry rebuilt, strengthened and enlarged. Here on the 3rd of July III. sanctioned the gild-merchant which had existed previously, 1778 about 400 men and boys met, and under the command of and granted other privileges. These charters were confirmed Colonel Zebulon Butler (1731-95) went out to meet a force of and extended by many succeeding monarchs down to Charles I. about 1100 British troops and Indians, commanded by Major Henry VI incorporated the town under two bailiffs Except John Butler and Old King (Sayenqueraghte). The Americans for temporary surrenders of their corporate privileges under were defeated in the engagement that followed, and many of Charles II. and James II. the government of the borough the prisoners taken were massacred or tortured by the Indians. continued in its original form until 1835, when it was rein- A monument near the site of the fort commemorates the battle corporated under the title of mayor, aldermen and burgesses. and massacre. Kingston was incorporated as a borough in 1857. Kingston returned two members to parliament in 1311, 1313, (See WYOMING VALLEY.) 1353 and 1373, but never afterwards. The market, still held on KINGSTON, the capital and chief port of Jamaica, West Indies. Saturdays, was granted by James I., and the Wednesday market Pop. (1901), 46,542, mostly negroes. It is siluated in the county by Charles II. To these a cattle-market on Thursdays has been of Surrey, in the south-cast of the island, standing on the north added by the corporation. The only remaining fair, now held shore of a land-locked harbour-for its size one of the finest in on the 13th of November, was granted by Henry III., and was the world—and with its suburbs occupying an area of 1080 then hold on the morrow of AU Souls and seven days following. The town contains the principal government offices. KINGSTON-UPON-HULL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. These It has a good water supply, a telephone service and a supply of titles were borne by the family of Pierrepont, or Pierrepoint, both gas and electric light, while electric trams ply between from 1628 to 1773. the town and its suburbs. The Institute of Jamaica maintains ROBERT PIERREPONT (1584-1643), second son of Sir Henry a public library, museum and art gallery especially devoted to Pierrepont of Holme Pierrepont, Nottinghamshire, was member local interests. The old parish church in King Street, dating of parliament for Nottingham in 1601, and was created Baron probably from 1692 was the burial-place of William Hall (1699) Pierrepont and Viscount Newark in 1627, being made earl of and Admiral Benbow (1702). The suburbs are remarkable for Kingston-upon-Hull in the following year He remained neutral their beauty. The climate is dry and healthy, and the tempera- on the outbreak of the Civil War, but afterwards he joined ture ranges from 93° to 66°F Kingston was founded in 1693, the king, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the counties after the neighbouring town of Port Royal had been ruined by of Lincoln, Rutland, Huntingdon, Cambridge and Norfolk. an earthquake in 1692 In 1703, Port Royal having been again Whilst defending Gainsborough he was taken prisoner, and was laid waste by fire, Kingston became the commercial, and in 1872 accidentally killed on the 25th of July 1643 while being conveyed the political, capital of the island. On several occasions King-to Hull The earl had five sons, one of whom was Francis ston was almost entirely consumed by fire, the conflagrations of Pierrepont (d. 1659), a colonel in the parliamentary army and 1780, 1843, 1862 and 1882 being particularly severe. On the afterwards a member of the Long Parliament, and another was 14th of January 1907 it was devastated by a terrible earthquake. William Pierrepont (9.0), a leading member of the parliamentary A long immunity had led to the erection of many buildings not party. specially designed to withstand such shocks, and these and the His son HENRY PIERREPONT (1606-1680), 2nd earl of Kingston fire which followed were so destructive that practically the whole and ist marquess of Dorchester, was member of parliament for town had to be rebuilt. (See JAMAICA.) Nottinghamshire, and was called to the House of Lords as Baron KINGSTON-ON-THAMES, a market town and municipal Pierrepont in 1641 During the earlier part of the Civil War he borough in the Kingston parliamentary division of Surrey, was at Oxford in attendance upon the king, whom he represented England, 11 m. S.W. of Charing Cross, London: on the London at the negotiations at Uxbridge. In 1645 he was made a privy acres 822 KINGSTOWN-KINKAJOU name. 1) councillor and created marquess of Dorchester; but in 1647 he factories. Since the Ch'in dynasty (557-589) this has been the compounded for his estates by paying a large fine to the parlia- great trade of the place, which was then called by its earlier mentarians. Afterwards the marquess, who was always fond In the reign of King-tê (Chên-tsung) of the Sung dynasty, of books, spent his time mainly in London engaged in the study early in the 17th century A.D., a manufactory was founded there of medicine and law, his devotion to the former science bringing for making vases and objects of art for the use of the emperor. upon him a certain amount of ridicule and abuse. After the Hence its adoption of its present title Since the time of the Restoration he was restored to the privy council, and was made Ming dynasty a magistrate has been specially appointed to recorder of Nottingham and a fellow of the Royal Society. superintend the factories and to despatch at regulated intervals Dorchester had two daughters, but no sons, and when he died the imperial porcelain to Peking. The town is situated on a vast in London on the 8th of December 1680 the title of marquess of plain surrounded by mountains, and boasts of three thousand Dorchester became extinct. He was succeeded as 3rd earl of porcelain furnaces. These constantly burning fires are the causes Kingston by Robert (d. 1682), a son of Robert Pierrepont of of frequent conflagrations, and at night give the city the appear- Thoresby, Nottinghamshire, and as 4th earl by Robert's brother ance of a place on fire. The people are as a rule orderly, though William (d. 1690). they have on several occasions shown a hostile bearing towards Evelyn PIERREPONT (c. 1655-1726), 5th earl and ist duke of foreign visitors. This is probably to be accounted for by a desire Kingston, another brother had been member of parliament for to keep their art as far as possible a mystery, which appears less East Retford before his accession to the peerage. While serving unreasonable when it is remembered that the two kinds of earth as one of the commissioners for the union with Scotland he was of which the porcelain is made are not found at King-tê Chên, but created marquess of Dorchester in 1706, and took a leading part are brought from K'i-mun in the neighbouring province of Ngan- in the business of the House of Lords. He was made a privy hui, and that there is therefore no reason why the trade should be councillor and in 1715 was created duke of Kingston; afterwards necessarily maintained at that place. The two kinds of earth serving as lord privy seal and lord president of the council. The are known as pai-tun-tsze, which is a fine fusible quartz powder, duke, who died on the 5th of March 1726, was a prominent figure and kao-lin, which is not fusible, and is said to give strength to in the fashionable society of his day. He was twice married, the ware. Both materials are prepared in the shape of bricks at and had five daughters, among whom was Lady Mary Wortley K'i-mun, and are brought down the Chang to the seat of the Montagu (9.v.), and one son, William, earl of Kingston (d. 1713). manufacture. The latter's son, Evelyn PIERREPONT (1711--1773), succeeded KINGUSSIE, a town of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), his grandfather as second duke of Kingston. When the rebellion 987. It lies at a height of 750 ft. above sea-level, on the left bank of 1745 broke out he raised a regiment called “Kingston's light of the Spcy, here crossed by a bridge, 46 m. S. by S.E. of Inver- horse,” which distinguished itself at Culloden. The duke, who ness by the Highland railway. It was founded towards the end attained the rank of general in the army, is described by Horace of the 18th century by the duke of Gordon, in the hope of its Walpole as “ a very weak man, of the grcatest beauty and finest becoming a centre of woollen manufactures. This expectation, person in England.” He is chiefly famous for his connexion however; was not realized, but in time the place grew popular as a with Elizabeth Chudleigh, who claimed to be duchess of Kingston health resort, the scenery in every direction being remarkably (9.v.). The Kingston titles became extinct on the duke's death picturesque. On the right bank of the river is Ruthven, where without children on the 23rd of September 1773, but on the death James Macpherson was born in 1736, and on the left bank, some of the duchess in 1788 the estates came to his nephew Charles 2į m. from Kingussie, is the house of Belleville (previously Meadows (1737-1816), who took the name of Pierrepont and was known as Railts) which he acquired from Mackintosh of Borlum created Baron Pierrepont and Viscount Newark in 1796, and Earl and where he died in 1796. The mansion, renamed Balavil by Manvers in 1806. His descendant, the present Earl Manvers, is Macpherson's great-grandson, was burned down in 1903, when thus the representative of the dukes of Kingston. the fine library (including some MSS. of Sir David Brewster, KINGSTOWN, a seaport of Co. Dublin, Ireland, in the south who had married the poet's second daughter) was destroyed. Of parliamentary division, at the south-eastern extremity of Ruthven Castle, one of the residences of the Comyns of Badenoch, Dublin Bay, 6 m. S.E. from Dublin by the Dublin & South-only the ruins of the walls remain. Here the Jacobites made an Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 17,377. It is a ineffectual rally under Lord George Murray after the battle of large seaport and favourite watering-place, and possesses several Culloden fine streets, with electric trams, and terraces commanding KING WILLIAM'S TOWN, a town of South Africa, in the Cape picturesque sea views. The original name of Kingstown was province and on the Buffalo River, 42 m. by rail W.N.W. of the Dunleary, which was exchanged for the present designation after port of East London. Pop. (1904), 9506, of whom 5987 were the embarkation of George IV. at the port on his return from whites. It is the headquarters of the Cape Mounted Police. Ireland in 1821, an event which is also commemorated by a * King," as the town is locally called, stands 1275 ft. above the granite obelisk erected near the harbour. The town was a mere sea at the foot of the Amatola Mountains, and in the midst of a fishing village until the construction of an extensive harbour, thickly populated agricultural district. The town is well laid begun in 1817 and finally completed in 1859. The eastern pier out and most of the public buildings and merchants' stores are has a length of 3500 ft. and the western of 4950 ft., the total built of stone. There are manufactories of sweets and jams, area enclosed being about 250 acres, with a varying depth of candles, soap, matches and leather, and a large trade in wool, from 15 to 27 ft. Kingstown is the station of the City of Dublin hides and grains is done with East London. "King" is also an Steam Packet Company's mail stcamers to Holyhead in con- important entrepôt for trade with the natives throughout nexion with the London & North-Western railway. It has large Kaffraria, with which there is direct railway communication. export and import trade both with Great Britain and foreign Founded by Sir Benjamin D'Urban in May 1835 during the Kaffir countries. The principal export is cattle, and the principal War of that year, the town is named after William IV. It was imports corn and provisions. Kingstown is the centre of an abandoned in December 1836, but was rcoccupied in 1846 and was extensive sea-fishery; and there are three yacht clubs: the Royal the capital of British Kaffraria from its creation in 1847 to its Irish, Royal St George and Royal Alfred. incorporation in 1865 with Cape Colony. Many of the colonists KING-TÊ CHÊN, a town near Fu-liang Hien, in the province of in the neighbouring districts are descendants of members of the Kiang-si, China, and the principal seat of the porcelain manu- German legion disbanded after the Crimean War and provided facture in that empire. Being situated on the south bank of the with homes in Cape Colony; hence such names as Berlin, Potsdam, river Chang, it was in ancient times known as Chang-nan Chên, Braunschweig, Frankfurt, given to seillements in this part of the or“ town on the south of the river Chang.” It is unwalled, and country straggles along the bank of the river. The streets are narrow, KINKAJOU (Cercoleples caudivolvulus or Polos flavus), the and crowded with a population which is reckoned at a million, single species of an aberrant genus of the raccoon family (Pro- the vast majority of whom find employment at the porcelain I cyonidae). It has been split up into a number of local races. А 66 a KINKEL-KINORHYNCHA 823 native of the forests of the warmer parts of South and Central of Pterocarpus Marsupium (Leguminosae), though Botany Bay America, the kinkajou is about the size of a cat, of a uniform or eucalyptus kino is used in Australia. When exuding from the pale, yellowish-brown colour, nocturnal and arboreal in its tree it resembles red-currant jelly, but hardens in a few hours after habits, feeding on fruit, honey, eggs and small birds and exposure to the air and sun. When sufficiently dried it is packed mammals, and is of a tolerably gentle disposition and easily into wooden boxes for exportation. When these are opened it tamed. (See CARNIVORA.) breaks up into angular brittle fragments of a blackish-red colour KINKEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1815-1882), German poet, and shining surface. In cold water it is only partially dissolved, was born on the 11th of August 1815 at Obercassel near Bonn. leaving a pale flocculent residue which is soluble in boiling water Having studied theology at Bonn and afterwards in Berlin, he but deposited again on cooling. It is soluble in alcohol and established himself at Bonn in 1836 as privat docent of theology, caustic alkalis, but not in ether. later became master at the gymnasium there, and was for a short The chief constituent of the drug is kino-tannic acid, which time assistant preacher in Cologne. Changing his religious is present to the extent of about 75%; it is only very slightly opinions, he abandoned theology and delivered lectures on the soluble in cold water. It is not absorbed at all from the stomach history of art, in which he had become interested on a journey to and only very slowly from the intestine. Other constituents Italy in 1837. In 1846 he was appointed extraordinary professor are gum, pyrocatechin, and kinoin, a crystalline neutral principle. of the history of art at Bonn University. For his share in the Kino-red is also present in small quantity, being an oxidation revolution in the Palatinate in 1849 Kinkel was arrested and, product of kino-tannic acid. The useful preparations of this drug sentenced to penal servitude for life, was interned in the fortress are the tincture (dose }-1 drachm), and the pulvis kino compositus of Spandau. His friend Carl Schurz contrived in November 1850 (dose 5-20 gr.) which contains one part of opium in twenty. to effect his escape to England, whence he went to the United The drug is frequently used in diarrhoea, its value being due to States. Returning to London in 1853, he for several years taught the relative insolubility of kino-tannic acid, which enables it to German and lectured on German literature, and in 1858 founded affect the lower part of the intestine. In this respect it is parallel the German paper Hermann. In 1866 he accepted the professor- with catechu. It is not now used as a gargle, antiseptics being ship of archaeology and the history of art at the Polytechnikum recognized as the rational treatment for sore-throat. in Zürich, in which city he died on the 13th of November 1882. KINORHYNCHA, an isolated group of minute animals con- The popularity which Kinkel enjoyed in his day was hardly taining the single genus Echinoderes F. Dujardin, with some justified by his talent; his poetry is of the sweetly sentimental eighteen species. They occur in mud and on sea-weeds at the type which was much in vogue in Germany about the middle of bottom of shallow seas below low-water mark and devour organic the 19th century. His Gedichte first appeared in 1843, and have débris. gone through several editions. He is to be seen to most advan- The body is enclosed in a stout cuticle, prolonged in places into tage in the verse romances, Otto der Schütz, eine rheinische spines and bristles. These are especially conspicuous in two rings Geschichte in zwölf Abenteuern (1846) which in 1896 had attained its 75th edition, and Der Grobschmied von Antwerpen (1868). Among Kinkel's other works may be mentioned the tragedy Nimrod (1857), and his history of art, Geschichte der bildenden I ELEV Künste bei den christlichen Völkern (1845). Kinkel's first wife, Johanna, née Mockel (1810-1858), assisted her husband in his literary ork, and was herself an author of considerable merit. 2013 ottom ont GECU I und Her adınirable autobiographical novel Hans Ibeles in London was not published until 1860, after her death. She also wrote -- photo) on musical subjects. sg- C.S. See A. Strodtmann, Gottfried Kinkel (2 vols., Hamburg, 1851); Tira sg ziren and O. Henne am Rhyn, G. Kinkel, ein Lebensbild (Zürich, 1883). KINNING PARK, a southern suburb of Glasgow, Scotland.svg Pop. (1901), 13,852. It situated on the left bank of the Clyde e che between Glasgow, with which it is connected by tramway and GOLD subway, and Govan. Since 1850 it has grown from a rural 1939 300 village to a busy centre mainly inhabited by artisans and Davies labourers. Its principal industries are engineering, bread and DIE HOOP inod biscuit baking, soap-making and paint-making. (After Hartog, from Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c.,” by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) KINNOR (Gr. Kevúpa), the Hebrew name for an ancient stringed instrument, the first mentioned in the Bible (Gen. iv. 21), b, bristle; cs, caudal spine; ph, pharynx; s & s', the spines on the where it is now always translated" harp.” The identification of two segments of the proboscis; sg, salivary glands; st, stomach. the instrument has been much discussed, but, from the stand- point of the history of musical instruments, the weight of evidence round the proboscis and in the two posterior caudal spines. The is in favour of the view that the Semitic kinnor is the Greek body is divided into eleven segments and the protrusible pro- cithara (q.o.). This instrument was already in use before '2000 B.C. boscis apparently into two, and the cuticle of the central segment among the Semitic races and in a higher state of development is thickened to form three plates, one dorsal and two ventro- than it ever attained in Greece during the best classic period. lateral. The cuticle is secreted by an epidermis in which no cell It is unlikely that an instrument (which also appears on Hebrew boundaries are to be seen; it sends out processes into the bristles. coins) so widely known and used in various parts of Asia Minor The mouth opens at the tip of the retractile proboscis; it leads in remote times, and occuring among the Hittite sculptures, into a short thin-walled tube which opens into an oval muscular should pass unmentioned in the Bible, with the exception of gizzard lined with a thick cuticle; at the posterior end of this are the verses in Dan. iii. some minute glands and then follows a large stomach slightly KINO, the West African name of an astringent drug intro- sacculated in each segment, this tapers through the rectum to the duced into European medicine in 1757 by John Fothergill. When tezminal anus. A pair of pear-shaped, ciliated glands inside lie described by him it was believed to have been brought from the in the eighth segment and open on the ninth. They are regarded river Gambia in West Africa, and when first imported it was sold as kidneys. The nervous system consists of a ganglion or brain, in England as Gummi rubrum astringens gambiense. It was which lies dorsally about the level of the junction of the pharynx obtained from Pterocarpus erinaceus. The drug now recognized and the stomach, a nerve ring and a segmented neutral cord. as the legitimate kind is East Indian, Malabar or Amboyna kino, The only sense organs described are eyes, which occur in some which is the evaporated juice obtained from incisions in the trunk I species, and mav number one to four pairs. .S GLA MADINI 1ste se 824 KINROSS-SHIRE-KINSALE are vacant. The Kinorhyncha are dioecious. The testes reach forward to | Tartans, plaids and other woollens, and linen are manufactured the fifth and even to the second segment, and open one each side at Kinross and Milnathort, which is besides an important centre of the anus. The ovaries open in a similar position but never for livestock sales. Brewing and milling are also carried on in reach farther forward than the fourth segment. The external the county town, but stock-raising and agriculture are the staple openings in the male are armed with a pair of hollowed spines. interests. The North British railway company's lines, from The animals are probably oviparous. the south and west run through the county via Kinross, and the LITERATURE.-F. Dujardin, Ann. Sci. Nal., 3rd series, Zool. xv. Mid-Fife line branches of at Mawcarse Junction. 1851, p. 158; W. Reinhard, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xlv. 1887, pp. Population and Government.--The population was 6673 in 401-467, t. XX.-xxii.; C. Zelinka, Verh. d. Deutsch. Zool. Ges., 1894. (A. E. S.) 1891 and 6981 in 1901, when 55 persons spoke Gaelic and English. The only towns are Kinross (pop. in 1901, 2136) and KINROSS-SHIRE, a county of Scotland, bounded N. and W. by Milnathort (1052). Kinross is the county town, and of consider- Perthshire, on the extreme S.W. by Clackmannanshire and S. and able antiquity. The county unites with Clackmannanshire to E. by Fifeshire. Its area is 52,410 acres or 81.9 sq. m. Except return one member to parliament. It forms a sheriffdom with ing Clackmannan it is the smallest county in Scotland both in Fifeshire and a sheriff-substitute sits at Kinross. The shire is point of area and of population. On its confines the shire is hilly: under school-board jurisdiction. To the N. and W. are several peaks of the Ochils, the highest History.- For several centuries the shire formed part of Fife, being Innerdouny (1621 ft.) and Mellock (1573); to the E. are and during that period shared its history. Towards the middle the heights of the Lomond group, such as White Craigs (1492 ft.) of the 13th century, however, the parishes of Kinross and Orwell and Bishop Hill; to the S. are Benarty (1131 ft.) on the Fife seem to have been constituted into a shire, which, at the date border and farther west the Cleish Hills, reaching in Dumglow (1305) of Edward I.'s ordinance for the government of Scotland, an altitude of 1241 ft. With the exception of the Leven, which had become an hereditary sheriffdom, John of Kinross then being drains Loch Leven and of which only the first mile of its course named for the office. James I. dispensed with the attendance belongs to the county, all the streams are short. Green's Burn, of small barons in 1427 and introduced the principle of represen. the North and South Queich, and the Gairney are the principal. tation, when the shire returned one member to the Scots parlią. Loch Leven, the only lake, is remarkable rather for its associ- ment. The inclusion of the Fife parishes of Portmoak, Cleish ations than its natural features. The scenery on the Devon, west and Tullibole in 1685, due to the influence of Sir William Bruce, of the Crook, the river here forming the boundary with Perth- the royal architect and heritable sheriff, converted the older shire shire, is of a lovely and romantic character. At one place the into the modern county. Excepting, however, the dramatic stream rushes through the rocky gorge with a loud clacking and romantic episodes connected with the castle of Loch Leven, sound which has given to the spot the name of the Devil's Mill, the annals of the shire, so far as the national story is concerned, and later it flows under the Rumbling Bridge. In reality there As to its antiquities, there are traces of an ancient are two bridges, one built over the other, in the same vertical fort or camp on the top of Dumglow, and on a hill on the northern line. The lower one dates from 1713 and is unused; but the boundary of the parish of Orwell a remarkable cairn, called Cairn. loftier and larger one, erected in 1816, commands a beautiful a-vain, in the centre of which a stone cist was discovered in 1810 view. A little farther west is the graceful cascade of the Caldron containing an urn full of bones and charcoal. Close to the town Linn, the fall of which was lessened, however, by a collapse of of Kinross, on the margin of Loch Leven, stands Kinross House, the rocks in 1886. which was built in 1685 by Sir William Bruce as a residence for Geology.-The northern higher portion of the county is occupied the Duke of York (James II.) in case the Exclusion Bill should by the Lower Old Red Sandstone volcanic lavas and agglomerates of the Ochils. The coarse character of some of the lower agglomer- debar him from the throne of England. The mansion, however, ate beds is well seen in the gorge at Rumbling Bridge. The beds was never occupied by royalty. dip gently towards the S.S.E.; in a north-easterly direction they con- See Æ. J.G. Mackay, History of Fife and Kinross (Edinburgh, 1896); tain more sandy sediments, and the agglomerates and breccias frequently become conglomerates. The plain of Kinross is occupied 1895); C. Ross, Antiquities of Kinross-shire (Perth, 1886); R. B. W. J. N. Liddall, The Place Names of Fife and Kinross (Edinburgh, by the soft sandstones, marls and conglomerates of the upper Old Begg, History of Lochleven Castle (Kinross, 1887). Red Sandstone, which rest unconformably upon the lower division with a strong dip. Southward and castward these rocks dip con- KINSALE, a market town and seaport of Co. Cork, Ireland, formably beneath the Lower Carboniferous cement stone series of the in the south-east parliamentary division, on the east shore Calciferous Sandstone group. The overlying Carboniferous lime- stone occupies only a small area in the south and east of the county. of Kinsale Harbour (the estuary of the Bandon river) 24 m. Intrusive basalt sheets have been intercalated between some of the south of Cork by the Cork Bandon & South Coast railway, Carboniferous strata, and the superior resisting power of this rock the terminus of a branch line. Pop. of urban district (1901), has been the cause of the existence of West Lomond, Benarty, 4250. The town occupies chiefly the acclivity of Compass Cleish Hills and Bishop Hill, which are formed of soft marls and sandstones capped by basalt. The Hurlet limestone is worked on Hill, and while of picturesque appearance is built in a very the Lomond and Bishop Hills st- and west-running dikes of irregular manner, the streets being narrow and precipitous. basalt are found in the north-east of the county, traversing the Old | The Charles Fort was completed by the duke of Ormonde in Red volcanic rocks. Kames of gravel and sand and similar glacial | 1677 and captured by the earl of Marlborough in 1690. The detritus are widely spread over the older rocks. parish church of St Multose is an ancient but inelegant struc- Climate and Industries. The lower part of the county is ture, said to have been founded as a conventual church in the generally well sheltered and adapted to all kinds of crops; and 12th century by the saint to whom it is dedicated. Kinsale, the climate, though wet and cold, offers no hindrance to high with the neighbouring villages of Scilly and Cove, is much fre- farming. The average annual rainfall is 35.5 inches, and the quented by summer visitors, and is the headquarters of the temperature for the year is 48° F., for January 38° F. and for July South of Ireland Fishing Company, with a fishery pier and a 59°:5 F. More than half of the holdings exceed 50 acres each. commodious harbour with 6 to 8 fathoms of water; but the Much of the land has been reclaimed, the mossy tracts when general trade is of little importance owing to the proximity of drained and cultivated being very fertile. Barley is the principal Queenstown and Cork. The Old Head of Kinsale, at the west crop, and oats also is grown largely, but the acreage under wheat of the harbour entrance, affords fine views of the coast, and is is small. Turnips and potatoes are the chief green crops, the commonly the first British land sighted by ships bound from former the more important. The raising of livestock is pursued New York, &c., to Queenstown. with great enterprise, the hilly land being well suited for this Kinsale is said to derive its name from cean laile, the headland industry, although many cattle are pastured on the lowland in the sea. At an early period the town belonged to the De farms. The cattle are mainly a native breed, which has been Courcys, a representative of whom was created baron of Kinsale much improved by crossing. The number of sheep is high for or Kingsale in 1181. It received a charter of incorporation the area. Although most of the horses are used for agricultural from Edward III., having previously been a borough by pre- work, a considerable proportion are kept solely for breeding. I scription, and its privileges were confirmed and extended by KINTORE-KIPLING 825 various subsequent sovereigns. For several centuries previous | also adapted themselves to the foreign market, and weave and dye to the Union it returned two members to the Irish parliament. quantities of silk fabrics, for which a large and constantly growing It was the scene of an engagement between the French and demand is found in Europe and America. Nowhere else can be English fleets in 1380, was forcibly entered by the English in traced with equal clearness the part played in Japanese civiliza. 1488, captured by the Spaniards and retaken by the English tion by Buddhism, with its magnificent paraphernalia and impos. in 1601, and entered by the English in 1641, who expelled the ing ceremonial spectacles; nowhere else, side by side with this Irish inhabitants. Finally, it was the scene of the landing of luxurious factor, can be witnessed in more striking juxtaposition James II. and of the French army sent to his assistance in 1689, the austere purity and severe simplicity of the Shinto cult; and and was taken by the English in the following year. nowhere else can be more intelligently observed the fine faculty KINTORE, a royal and police burgh of Aberdeenshire, Scot- of the Japanese for utilizing, emphasizing and enhancing the land. Pop. (1901), 789. It is situated on the Don, 131 m. beauties of nature. The citizens' dwellings and the shops, on N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway. It the other hand, are insignificant and even sombre in appearance, is a place of some antiquity, having been made a royal burgh in their exterior conveying no idea of the pretty chambers within the reign of William the Lion (d. 1214). Kintore forms one of or of the tastefully laid-out grounds upon which they open the Elgin group of parliamentary burghs, the others being Banff, behind. Kioto is celebrated equally for its cherry and azalea Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie and Peterhead. One mile to the south- blossoms in the spring, and for the colours of its autumn west are the ruins of Hallforest Castle, of which two-storeys still foliage. exist, once a hunting-scat of Robert Bruce and afterwards a KIOWAS, a tribe and stock of North American Indians. residence of the Keiths, earls marischal. There are several | Their former range was around the Arkansas and Canadian examples of sculptured stones and circles in the parish, and 2 m. rivers, in Indian Territory (Oklahoma), Colorado and New to the north-west is the site of Bruce's camp, which is also Mexico. A fierce people, they made raids upon the settlers ascribed to the period of the Romans. Near it is Thainston in western Texas until 1868, when they were placed on a House, the residence of Sir Andrew Mitchell (1708-1771), the reservation in Indian Territory. In 1874 they broke out again, British envoy to Frederick the Great. Kintore gives the title but in the following year were finally subdued. In number of earl in the Scottish, and of baron in the British peerage to about 1200, and settled in Oklahoma, they are the sole the head of the Keith-Falconer family. representatives of the Kiowan linguistic stock. KIOTO (Kyoto), the former capital of Japan, in the province of Yamashiro, in 35° or' N., 135° 46' E. Pop. (1903), 379,404. Report of Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington, 1898). See J. Mooney, " Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians," 17th The Kamo-gawa, upon which it stands, is a mere rivulet in ordi. nary times, trickling through a wide bed of pebbles; but the city KIPLING, RUDYARD (1865- ), British author, was born is traversed by several aqueducts, and was connected with Lake in Bombay on the 30th of December 1865. His father, John Biwa in 1890 by a canal 61 m. long, which carries an abundance of Lockwood Kipling (1837–1911), an artist of considerable ability, water for manufacturing purposes, brings the great lake and the was from 1875 to 1893 curator of the Lahore museum in India. city into navigable communication, and forms with the Kamo-His mother was Miss Alice Macdonald of Birmingham, two of gawa canal and the Kamo-gawa itself a through route to Osaka, whose sisters were married respectively to Sir E. Burne-Jones from which Kioto is 25 m. distant by rail. Founded in the year and Sir Edward Poynter. He was educated at the United 793, Kioto remained the capital of the empire during nearly Services College, Westward Ho, North Devon, of which a some- eleven centuries. The emperor Kwammu, when he selected this what lurid account is given in his story Sialky and Co. On his remarkably picturesque spot for the residence of his court, return to India he became at the age of seventeen the sub-editor caused the city to be laid out with mathematical accuracy, after of the Lahore Civil and Military Gazelle. In 1886, in his twenty- the model of the Tang dynasty's capital in China. Its area, 3 m. first year, he published Departmental Ditties, a volume of light by 31, was intersected by 18 principal thoroughfares, 9 running verse chiefly satirical, only in two or three poems giving promise due north and south, and 9 due east and west, the two systems of his authentic poetical note. In 1887 he published Plain being connected at intervals by minor streets. At the middle Tales from the Hills, a collection mainly of the stories contributed of the northern face stood the palace, its enclosure covering three-to his own journal. During the next two years he brought out, quarters of a square mile, and from it to the centre of the south in six slim paper-covered volumes of Wheeler's Railway Library face ran an avenue 283 ft. wide and 31 m. long. Conflagrations (Allahabad), Soldiers Three, The Story of the Gadsbys, In Black and subsequent reconstructions modified the regularity of this and White, Under the Deodars, The Phantom 'Rickshaw and plan, but much of it still remains, and its story is perpetuated in Wee Willie Winkee, at a rupee apiece. These were in form and the nomenclature of the streets. In its days of greatest prosperity substance a continuation of the Plain Tales. This series of tales, Kioto contained only half a million inhabitants, thus never even al] written before the author was twenty-four, revealed a new approximating to the size of the Tokugawa metropolis, Yedo, or master of fiction. A few, but those the best, he afterwards said the Hojo capital Kamakura. The emperor Kwammu called that his father gave him. The rest were the harvest of his own it Heian-jo, or the “ city of peace, " when he made it the seat of powers of observation vitalized by imagination. In method they government; but the people knew it as Miyako, or Kyoto, terms owed something to Bret Harte; in matter and spirit they were both of which signify “capital,” and in modern times it is often absolutely original. . They were unequal, as his books continued spoken of as Saikyo, or western capital, in opposition to Tokyo, to be throughout; the sketches of Anglo-Indian social life being or eastern capital. Having been so long the imperial, intellectual, generally inferior to the rest. The style was to some extent political and artistic metropolis of the realm, the city abounds disfigured by jerkiness and mannered tricks. But Mr Kipling with evidences of its unique career. Magnificent temples and possessed the supreme spell of the story-teller to entrance and shrines, grand monuments of architectural and artistic skill, transport. The freshness of the invention, the variety of charac- beautiful gardens, gorgeous festivals, and numerous ateliers ter, the vigour of narrative, the raciness of dialogue, the magic of where the traditions of Japanese art are obeyed with attractive atmosphere, were alike remarkable. The soldier-stories, especially results, offer to the foreign visitor a fund of interest. Clear water the exuberant vitality of the cycle which contains the immortal ripples everywhere through the city, and to this water Kioto Mulvaney, established the author's fame throughout the world. owes something of its importance, for nowhere else in Japan can The child-stories and tales of the British official were not less fabrics be bleached so white or dyed in such brilliant colours. masterly, while the tales of native life and of adventure“ beyond The people, like their neighbours of Osaka, are full of manu- the pale " disclosed an even finer and deeper vein of romance. facturing energy. Not only do they preserve, amid all the India, which had been an old story for generations of English- progress of the age, their old-time eminence as producers of the men, was revealed in these brilliant pictures as if seen for the first finest porcelain, faience, embroidery, brocades, bronze, cloisonné time in its variety, colour and passion, vivid as mirage, enchant- enamel, fans, toys and metal-work of all kinds, but they have ) ing as the Arabian Nights. The new author's talent was quickly 9 826 KIPPER-KIRBY recognized in India, but it was not till the books reached See Rudyard Kipling's chapter in My First Book (Chatto, 1894); England that his true rank was appreciated and proclaimed. Kipling: a Criticism, by Richard de Gallienne: " Mr Kipling's "A Bibliography of Rudyard Kipling," by John Lane, in Rudyard Between 1887 and 1889 he travelled through India, China, Japan Short Stories" in Questions al Issue, by Edmund Gosse (1893): and America, finally arriving in England to find himself already Mr Kipling's Stories " in Essays in Lillle, by Andrew Lang: " Mr famous. His travel sketches, contributed to The Civil and Kipling's Stories,” by J.M. Barrie in the Contemporary Review (March Military Gazelle and The Pioneer, were afterwards collected (the 1891); articles in the Quarterly Review (July 1892) and Edinburgh author's hand having been forced by unauthorized publication) Generation, by William Archer (1902). Sce also for bibliography Review (Jan. 1898); and section on Kipling in Poets of the Younger in the two volumes From Sea to Sea (1899). A further set of to 1903 English Illustrated Magazine, new series, vol. xxx. pp. 298 Indian. tales, equal to the best, appeared in Macmillan's Maga- and 429-432. (W. P. J.) zine and were republished with others in Life's Handicap (1891). KIPPER, properly the name by which the male salmon is In The Light that Failed (1891, after appearing with a different known at some period of the breeding season. At the approach ending in Lippincott's Magazine) Mr Kipling essayed his first long of this season the male fish develops a sharp cartilaginous beak, story (dramatized 1905), but with comparative unsuccess. In known as the “ kip," from which the name“ kipper " is said to be his subsequent work his delight in the display of descriptive and derived. The earliest uses of the word (in Old English cypera verbal technicalities grew on him. His polemic against “the and Middle English kypre) seem to include salmon of both sexes, sheltered life" and "little Englandism ” became more didactic. and there is no certainty as to the etymology. Skeat derives it His terseness sometimes degenerated into abruptness and from the Old English kippian,“ to spawn." The term has been obscurity. But in the meanwhile his genius became prominent applied by various writers to salmon both during and after in verse. Readers of the Plain Tales had been impressed by the milting; early quotations leave the precise meaning of the word snatches of poetry prefixed to them for motto, certain of them obscure, but generally refer to the unwholesomeness of the fish being subscribed “ Barrack Room Ballad.” Mr Kipling now as food during the whole breeding season. It has been usually contributed to the National Observer, then edited by W. E. accepted, without much direct evidence, that from the practice Henley, a series of Barrack Room Ballads: These vigorous of rendering the breeding (i.e. “ kipper ") salmon fit for food by verses in soldier slang, when published in a book in 1892, together splitting, salting and smoke-drying them, the term “ kipper " with the fine ballad of “ East and West” and other poems, won is also used of other fish, particularly herrings cured in the same for their author a second fame, wider than he had attained as a way. The“ bloater as distinct from the “ kipper” is a herring story-teller. In this volume the Ballads of the “ Bolivar ” and cured whole without being split open. of the“ Clampherdown,” introducing Mr Kipling's poetry of the KIPPIS, ANDREW (1725-1795), English nonconformist divine ocean and the engine-room, and “The Flag of England,” finding and biographer, son of Robert Kippis, a silk-hosier, was born at a voice for the Imperial sentiment, which-largely under the Nottingham on the 28th of March 1725. From school at influence of Mr Kipling's own writings-had been rapidly gaining Sleaford in Lincolnshire he passed at the age of sixteen to the force in England, gave the key-note of much of his later verse. nonconformist academy at Northampton, of which Dr Dod. In 1898 Mr Kipling paid the first of several visits to South Africa dridge was then president. In 1746 Kippis became minister and became imbued with a type of imperialism that reacted on of a church at Boston; in 1750 he removed to Dorking in his literature, not altogether to its advantage. Before finally Surrey; and in 1753 he became pastor of a Presbyterian con- settling in England Mr Kipling lived some years in America gregation at Westminster, where he remained till his death on and married in 1892 Miss Caroline Starr Balestier, sister of the the 8th of October 1795. Kippis took a prominent part in the Wolcott Balestier to whom he dedicated Barrack Room Ballads, affairs of his church. From 1763 till 1784 he was classical and and with whom in collaboration he wrote the Naulahka (1891), philological tutor in Coward's training college at Hoxton; and one of his less successful books. The next collection of stories, subsequently for some years at another institution of the same Mony Inventions (1893), contained the splendid Mulvaney kind at Hackney. In 1778 he was elected a fellow of the extravaganza, “ My Lord the Elephant "; a vividly realized tale Antiquarian Society, and a fellow of the Royal Society in 1779. of metempsychosis, “ The Finest Story in the World ”; and in Kippis was a very voluminous writer. He contributed largely that fascinating tale“ In the Rukh," the prelude to the next new to The Gentleman's Magazine, The Monthly Review and The Library; exhibition of the author's genius. This came in 1894 with The and he had a good deal to do with the establishment and conduct of The New Annual Register. He published also a number of sermons Jungle Book, followed in 1895 by The Second Jungle Book. With and occasional pamphlets; and he prefixed a life of the author these inspired beast-stories Kipling conquered a new world and a to a collected edition of Dr Nathaniel Lardner's Works (1788). new audience, and produced what many critics regard as his He wrote a life of Dr Doddridge, which is prefixed to Doddridge's most flawless work. His chief subsequent publications were Exposition of the New Testament (1792). His chief work is his edition of the Biographia Britannica, of which, however, he only The Seven Seas (poems), 1896; Caplains Courageous (a yarn of lived to publish 5 vols. (folio, 1778-1793). In this work he had the deep-sea fishery), 1897; The Day's Work (collected stories), assistance of Dr Towers. See notice by A. Rees, D.D., in The New 1898; A Fleet in Being (an account of a cruise in a man-of-war), Annual Register for 1795. 1898; Stalky and Co. (mentioned above), 1899; From Sea to Sea KIRBY, WILLIAM (1759–1850), English entomologist, was' (mentioned above),1899; Kim, 1901; Just So Stories (for children), born at Witnesham in Suffolk on the 19th of September 1759. 1902; The Five Nations (poems, concluding with what proved From the village school of Witnesham he passed to Ipswich Mr Kipling's most universally known and popular poem, Re- grammar school, and thence to Caius College, Cambridge, cessional,” originally published in The Times on the 17th of July where he graduated in 1781. Taking holy orders in 1782, he 1897 on the occasion of Queen Victoria's second jubilee), 1903; I spent his entire life in the peaceful seclusion of an English Traffics and Discoveries (collected stories), 1904; Puck of Pook's country parsonage at Barham in Suffolk. His favourite study Hill (stories), 1906; Actions and Reactions (stories), 1909. Of was natural history; and eventually entomology engrossed all these Kim was notable as far the most successful of Mr Kipling's his leisure. His first work of importance was his Monographia longer narratives, though it is itself rather in the nature of a A pum Angliae (2 vols. 8vo, 1802), which as the first scientific string of episodes. But everything he wrote, even to a farcical treatise on its subject brought him into notice with the leading extravaganza inspired by his enthusiasm for the motor-car, entomologists of his own and foreign countries. The practical breathed the meteoric energy that was the nature of the man. A result of a friendship formed in 1805 with William Spence, of vigorous and unconventional poet, a pioneer in the modern phase Hull, was the jointly written Introduction to Entomology (4 vols., of literary Imperialism, and one of the rare masters in English 1815-1826; 7th ed., 1856), one of the most popular books of prose of the art of the short story, Mr Kipling had already by science that have ever appeared. In 1830 he was chosen to the opening of the 20th century won the most conspicuous place write one of the Bridgewater Trealises, his subject being The among the creative literary forces of his day. His position in History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals (2 vols., 1835). This English literature was recognized in 1907 by the award to him of undeniably fell short of his earlier works in point of scientific the Nobel prize. value. He died on the 4th of July 1850. 2 KIRCHER-KIRGHIZ 827 Besides the books already mentioned he was the author of many, mination of the constant on which depends the intensity of papers in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, the Zoological induced currents; while others were devoted to Ohm's law, Journal and other periodicals; Strictures on Sir James Smith's Hypothesis respecting the Lilies of the field of our Saviour and the the motion of electricity in submarine cables, induced mag Acanthus of Virgil (i819); Seven Sermons on our Lord's Templations netism, &c. In other papers, again, various miscellaneous (1829); and he wrote the sections on insects in the Account of the topics were treated—the thermal conductivity of iron, crystal- Animals seen by the late Northern Expedition while within the Arctic line reflection and refraction, certain propositions in the thermo- Circle (1821), and in Fauna Boreali-Americana (1837). His Life by the Rev. John Freeman, published in 1852, contains a list of his dynamics of solution and vaporization, &c. An important works. part of his work was contained in his Vorlesungen über mathe- KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS (1601-1680), German scholar and matische Physik (1876), in which the principles of dynamics, mathematician, was born on the end of May 1601, at Geisa as well as various special problems, were treated in a somewhat near. Fuld2. He was educated at the Jesuit college of Fulda, novel and original manner. But his name is best known for and entered upon his noviciate in that order at Mainz in 1618. the researches, experimental and mathematical, in radiation He became professor of philosophy, mathematics, and Oriental which led him, in company with R. W. von Bunsen, to the languages at Würzburg, whence he was driven (1631) by the development of spectrum analysis as a complete system in troubles of the Thirty Years' War to Avignon. Through the 1859-1860. He can scarcely be called its inventor, for not only influence of Cardinal Barberini he next (1635) settled in Rome, had many investigators already used the prism as an instrument where for eight years he taught mathematics in the Collegio of chemical inquiry, but considerable progress had been made Romano, but ultimately resigned this appointment to study towards the explanation of the principles upon which spectrum hieroglyphics and other archaeological subjects. He died on analysis rests. But to him belongs the merit of having, most the 28th of November 1680. probably without knowing what had already been done, enun- Kircher was a man of wide and varied learning, but singularly ciated a complete account of its theory, and of thus having firmly devoid of judgment and critical discernment. His voluminous established it as a means by which the chemical constituents writings in philology, natural history, physics and mathematics of celestial bodies can be discovered through the comparison often accordingly have a good deal of the historical interest which of their spectra with those of the various elements that exist attaches to pioneering work, however imperfectly performed; other- wise they now take rank as curiosities of literature merely.' They on this earth. include Ars Magnesia (1631); Magnes, sive de arte magnetica opus KIRCHHOFF, JOHANN WILHELM ADOLF (1826-1908), tripartitum (1641); and Magneticum naturae regnum (1667); Prodro-German classical scholar and epigraphist, was born in Berlin mus Coplus (1636); Lingua Aegyptiaca restituta (1643); Obeliscus Pamphilius (1650); and Oedipus Aegyptiacus, hoc est universalis doc- fessor of classical philology in the university of his native city, on the 6th of January 1826. In 1865 he was appointed pro- trinae hieroglyphicae instauratio (1652–1655)-works which may claim the merit of having first called attention to Egyptian hieroglyphics; He died on the 26th of February 1908. He is the author of Ars magna lucis et umbrae in mundo (1645-1646); Musurgia univer- Die Homerische Odyssee (1859), putting forward an entirely salis, sive ars magna consoni et dissoni (1650); Polygraphia, seu artifi- new theory as to the composition of the Odyssey; editions of cium linguarum quo cum omnibus mundi populis poterit quis respondere Plotinus (1856), Euripides (1855 and 1877–1878). Aeschylus (1663); Mundus subterraneus, quo subterrestris mundi opificium, universae denique naturae divitiae, abditorum effectuum causae demon" (1880), Hesiod (Works and Days, 1889), Xenophon, On the strantur (1665–1678); China illustrata (1667); Ars magna sciendi Athenian Constitution (3rd ed., 1889); Über die Entstehungszeit (1669); and Latium (1669), a work which may still be consulted with des Herodotischen Geschichtswerkes (2nd ed., 1878); Thukydides advantage. The Specula Melitensis Encyclica (1638) gives an ac- und sein Urkundenmaterial (1895). count of a kind of calculating machine of his invention. The valuable collection of antiquities which he bequeathed to the Collegio Romano has been described by Buonanni (Musaeum Kircherianum, 1709; graphical studies: Die Umbrischen Sprachdenkmäler (1851); Das The following works are the result of his epigraphical and palaeo- republished by Battara in 1773). . Stadtrecht von Bantia (1853), on the tablet discovered in 1790 at KIRCHHEIM-UNTER-TECK, a town of Germany, in the Oppido near Banzi, containing a plebiscite relating to the municipa! kingdom of Württemberg, is prettily, situated on the Lauter, Die Fränkischen Runen (1855): Sludien zur Geschichte des Griechischen affairs of the ancient Bantia; Das. Gotische Runenalphabet (1852); at the north-west foot of the Rauhe Alb, 15 m. S.E. of Stuttgart Alphabets (4th ed., 1887). The second part of vol. iv. of the Corpus by rail. Pop. (1905), 8830. The town has a royal castle Inscriptionum Graecarum (1859, containing the Christian inscrip- built in 1538, two schools and several benevolent institutions. tions) and vol. i. of the C. 1. Atticarum (1873, containing the in- The manufactures include cotton goods, damask, pianofortes, scriptions before 403) with supplements thereto (vol. iv. pts. 1-3, machinery, furniture, chemicals and cement. The town alsó 1877–1891) are edited by him. has wool-spinning establishments and breweries, and a corn KIRGHIZ, a large and widespread division of the Turkish exchange. It is the most important wool market in South family, of which there are two main branches, the Kara-Kirghiz Germany, and has also a trade in fruit, timber and pigs. In of the uplands and the Kirghiz-Kazaks of the steppe. They the vicinity are the ruins of the castle of Teck, the hereditary jointly number about 3,000,000, and occupy an area of perhaps stronghold of the dukes of that name. Kirchbeim has belonged the same number of square miles, stretching from Kulja west- to Württemberg since 1381. wards to the lower Volga, and from the headstreams of the Ob KIRCHHOFF, GUSTAV ROBERT (1824-1887), German southwards to the Pamir and the Turkoman country. They physicist, was born at Königsberg (Prussia) on the 12th of seem closely allied ethnically to the Mongolians and in speech March 1824, and was educated at the university of his native to the Tatars. But both Mongols and Tatars belonged them- town, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1847. After acting as selves originally to one racial stock and formed part of the same privat-docent at Berlin for some time, he became extraordinary bordes or nomadic armies: also the Western Turks have to a professor of physics at Breslau in 1850. Four years later he large extent lost their original physique and become largely was appointed professor of physics at Heidelberg, and in 1875 assimilated to the regular “ Caucasian " type. But the Kirghiz he was transferred to Berlin, where he died on the 17th of October have either remained nearly altogether unmixed, as in the 1887. Kirchhofi's contributions to mathematical physics were uplands, or else bave intermingled in the steppe mainly with numerous and important, his strength lying in his powers of the Volga Kalmucks in the west, and with the Dzungarian stating a new physical problem in terms of mathematics, not nomads in the east, all alike of Mongol stock. Hence they have merely in working out the solution after it had been so formu- everywhere to a large extent preserved the common Mongolian lated. A number of his papers were concerned with electrical features, while retaining their primitive Tatar speech. Physi- questions. One of the earliest was devoted to electrical con cally they are a middle-sized, square-built race, inclined to stout- duction in a thin plate, and especially in a circular one, and it ness, especially in the steppe, mostly with long black hair, scant also contained a theorem which enables the distribution of beard or none, small, black and oblique eyes, though blue or currents in a network of conductors to be ascertained. Another grey also occur in the south, broad Mongoloid features, high cheek- discussed conduction in curved sheets; a third the distribution bones, broad, flat nose, small mouth, brachycephalous head, of electricity in two influencing spheres; a fourth the deter- | very small hands and feet, dirty brown or swarthy complexion, 828 KIRGHIZ often yellowish, but also occasionally fair. These character. I their subjects. In religious matters they differ little from the istics, while affiliating them directly to the Mongol stock, also Kazaks, whose practices are described below. Although generally betray an admixture of foreign elements, probably due to recognizing Russian sovereignty since 1864, they pay no taxes. Finnish influences in the north, and Tajik or Iranian blood in The Kazaks.-Though not unknown to them, the term the south. Their speech also, while purely Turkic in structure, Kirghiz is never used by the steppe nomads, who always call possesses, not only many Mongolian and a few Persian and even themselves simply Kazaks, commonly interpreted as riders. Arabic words, but also some terms unknown to the other The first authentic reference to this name is by the Persian poet branches of the Mongolo-Tatar linguistic family, and which and historian Firdousi (1020), who speaks of the Kazak tribes should perhaps be traced to the Kiang-Kuan, Wu-sun, Ting- as much dreaded steppe marauders, all mounted and armed ling, and other peoples of South Siberia partly absorbed by with lances. From this circumstance the term Kazak came them. to be gradually applied to all freebooters similarly equipped, and The Kara-Kirghiz.-The Kara or “Black” Kirghiz, so called it thus spread from the Aralo-Caspian basin to South Russia, from the colour of their tents, are known to the Russians either where it still survives under the form of Cossack, spelt Kazak as Chernyie (Black) or Dikokammenyie (Wild Stone or Rocky) or Kozak in Russian. Hence though Kazak and Cossack are Kirghiz, and are the Block Kirghiz of some English writers. originally the same word, the former now designates a Mongolo- They are on the whole the purest and best representatives of the Tatar nomad race, the latter various members of the Slav race, and properly speaking to them alone belongs the distinctive family. Since the 18th century the Russians have used the national name Kirghiz or Krghiz. This term is commonly , compound expression Kirghiz-Kazak, chiefly in order to dis- traced to a legendary chief, Kirghiz, sprung of Oghuz-Khan, tinguish them from their own Cossacks, at that time overrunning ninth in descent from Japheth. It occurs in its present form Siberia. Siegmund Herberstein (1486-1566) is the first European for the first time in the account of the embassy sent in 569 by who mentions them by name, and it is noteworthy that he the East Roman emperor Justin II. to the Uighur Khan, Dugla- speaks of them as “Tartars,” that is, a people rather of Turki Ditubulu, where it is stated that this prince presented a slave than Mongolian stock. of the Kirghiz tribe to Zemark, head of the mission. In the In their present homes, the so-called " Kirghiz steppes," they are Chinese chronicles the word assumes the form Ki-li-ki-tz', and far more numerous and widespread than their Kara-Kirghiz kinsmen, the writers of the Yuan dynasty (1280-1367) place the territory stretching almost uninterruptedly from Lake Balkash round the of these people 10,000 li north-west of Pekin, about the head- Aral and Caspian Seas westwards to the lower Volga, and from the streams of the Yenisei. In the records of the T'ang dynasty | Their domain, which is nearly 2,000,000 sq. m. in extent, thus river Irtish southwards to the lower Oxus and Ust-Urt plateau. (618-907) they are spoken of under the name of Kha-kia-tz' lies mainly between 45º and 55° N. lat. and from 45° to 80° E. long. (pronounced Khaka, and sometimes transliterated Haka), and Here they came under the sway of Jenghiz Khan, after whose death it is mentioned that these Khakas were of the same speech as they fell to the share of his son Juji , head of the Golden Horde, but the Khoei-khu. From this it follows that they were of Mongolo- the ascendancy, many of the former subjects of the Juji and Jagatai continued to retain their own khans. When the Uzbegs acquired Tatar stock, and are wrongly identified by some ethnologists hordes ſell off and joined the Kazaks. Thus about the year 1500 were with the Kiang-Kuan, Wu-sun, or Ting-ling, all of whom are formed two powerful states in the Kipchak and Kheta steppes, the described as tall, with red hair, “green or grey eyes, and fair Mogul-Ulus and the Kazak, the latter of whom, under their khan complexion, and must therefore have been of Finnish stock, akin | Arslane, are said by Sultan Baber to have had as many as 400,000 fighting men. Their numbers continued to be swollen by voluntary to the present Soyotes of the upper Yenisei. or enforced accessions from the fragments of the Golden Horde, such The Kara-Kirghiz are by the Chinese and Mongolians called as the Kipchaks, Naimans, Konrats, Jalairs, Kankali, whose names Burui, where ut is the Mongolian plural ending, as in Tangut, Yakut, are still preserved in the tribal divisions of the Kazaks. And as modified to yat in Buryat, the collective name of the Siberian Mon- some of these peoples were undoubtedly of true Mongolian stock, golians of the Baikal district. Thus the term Bur is the common their names have given a colour to the statement that all the Kazaks Mongolian designation both of the Baikal Mongols and of the Kara- were rather of Mongol than of Turki origin. But the universal Kirghiz, who occupied this very region and the upper Yenisei valley prevalence of a nearly pure variety of the Turki speech throughout generally till comparatively recent times. For the original home of the Kazak steppes is almost alone sufficient to show that the Tatar their ancestors, the Khakas, lay in the south of the present govern. element must at all times have been in the ascendant. Very various ments of Yeniseisk and Tomsk, stretching thence southwards beyond accounts have been given of the relationship of the Kipchak to the the Sayan range to the Tannuola hills in Chinese territory. Here Kirghiz, but at present they seem to form a subdivision of the Kir. the Russians first met them in the 17th century, and by the aid ghiz-Kazaks. The Kara-Kalpaks are an allied but apparently of the Kazaks exterminated all those cast of the Irtish, driving the separate tribe: rest ſarther west and south-westwards. Most of them took refuge The Kirghiz-Kazaks have long been grouped in three large “ hordes with their kinsmen, the Kara-Kirghiz nomad highlanders, whose or encampments, further subdivided into a number of so-called " homes, at least since the 13th century, have been the Ala-tau range, races,” which are again grouped in tribes, and these in the Issyk-kui basin, the Tekes, Chu and Talass river valleys, the sections, branches and auls, or communities of from five to fifteen Tian-shan range, the uplands draining both to the Tarim and to the powerful khan, who divided his states amongst his three sons, the tents. The division into hordes has been traditionally referred to a Jaxartes and Oxus, including, Khokand, Karateghin and Shignan eldest of whom became the founder of the Ulu-Yuz, or Great Horde, southwards to the Pamir table-land, visited by them in suminer. They thus occupy most of the uplands along the Russo-Chinese the second of the Urta-Yuz, or Middle Horde, and the third of the frontier, between 35° and 50° N. lat. and between 70° and 85° E. Kachi-Yuz, or Little Horde. The last two under their common long. khan Abulkhair voluntarily submitted in 1730 to the Empress Anne. The Kara-Kirghiz are all grouped in two main sections--the On Most of the Great Horde were subdued by Yunus, khan of Ferghana, or“ Right " in the cast, with seven branches (Bogu, Sary-Bagishch, in 1799, and all the still independent tribes finally accepted Russian Son-Bagishch, Sultu or Solye, Cherik, Sayak, Bassinz), and the Sol sovereignty in 1819. or “Left" in the west, with four branches (Kokche or Kûchy, Since 1801 a fourth division, known as the Inner or Bukeyep. Soru, Mundus, Kitai or Kintai). The Sol section occupies the skaya Horde, from the name of their first khan, Bukei, has been region between the Talass and Oxus headstreams in Ferghana settled in the Orenburg steppe. (Khokand) and Bokhara, where they come in contact with the But these divisions affect the common people alone, all the higher Galchas or Highland Tajiks. The On section lies on both sides of orders and ruling families being broadly classed as White and Black the Tian-shan, about Lake Issyk-kul, and in the Chu, Tekes and Kost or Bones. The White Bones comprise only the khans and their Narin (upper Jaxartes) valleys. descendants, besides the issue of the khojas or Moslem "saints." The total number of Kara-Kirghiz exceeds 800,000. The Black Bones include all the rest, except the Telengut or servants All are essentially nomads, occupied mainly with stock breeding, of the khans, and the Kül or slaves. chiefly horses of a small but hardy breed, sheep. of th fat-tailed species, oxen used both for riding and as pack animals, some goats, The Kazaks are an honest and trustworthy people, but heavy, and camels of both species. Agriculture is limited chiefly to the sluggish, sullen and unfriendly. Even the hospitality enjoined cultivation of wheat, barley and millet, from the last of which a by the Koran is displayed only towards the orthodox Sunnite coarse vodka or brandy is distilled. Trade is carried on chiefly by sect. So essentially nomadic are all the tribes that they cannot barter, cattle being taken by the dealers from China, Turkestan and adopt a settled life without losing the very sentiment of their Russia in exchange for manufactured goods. The Kara-Kirghiz are governed by the manaps," or tribal rulers, nationality, and becoming rapidly absorbed in the Slav popula. who enjoy almost unlimited authority, and may even sell or kill tion. They dwell exclusively in semicircular tents consisting KIRINKIRK 829 “Kafir" of a light wooden framework, and red cloth or felt covering, LITERATURE.-Alexis Levshin, Description des hordes et des steppes with an opening above for light and ventilation, des Kirghiz-Kazaks, translated from the Russian by Ferry de Cigny The camp life of the Kazaks seems almost unendurable to Südsiberiens; Ch. de Ujfalvy, Le Kohistan, le Ferghanah, et Kouldja; (1840); W. Radloff, Proben der Volksliteratur der Türkischen Stänime Europeans in winter, when they are confined altogether to the also Bullo de la Soc. de Géo. (1878–1879); Semenoff, paper in Peier. tent, and exposed to endless discomforts. In summer the day mann's Mittheilungen (1859), No. 3; Valikhanov's Travels in 1858- is spent mostly in sleep or drinking koumiss, followed at night | 1859: Madame de Ujfalvy, papers in Tour du Monde (1874); Vambéry, by feasting and the recital of tales, varied with songs accompanied Observations sur les Kirghiz (1769; French trans., 1803); Andriev, Die primitive Cultur des Turko-Tatarischen Volkes; P. S. Pallas, by the music of the flute and balalaika. But horsemanship “La Horde Moyenne," in Bull. de la Soc. de Géogr. de St Petersburg is the great amusement of all true Kazaks, who may almost be (1875); Radomtsev, Excursion dans le steppe Kirghiz; Lansdeli , said to be born in the saddle. Hence, though excellent riders, and Ross, Heart of Asia (1899); E. H. Parker, A Thousand Years of Russian Centralasia (1885); Jadrinzer, La Sibérie (1886). Skrine they are bad walkers. Though hardy and long-lived, they are the Tartars (1895). Various Russian works by Nalivkin, published uncleanly in their habits and often decimated by small-pox and in Turkestan, contain much valuable information, and N. N. Pantu- Şiberian plague. They have no fixed meals, and live mainly on sov, Specimens of Kirghiz Popular Poetry, with Russian translations mutton and goat and horse flesh, and instead of bread use the (Kazan, 1903-1904). so-called balamyk, a mess of flour fried in dripping and diluted KIRIN, a province of central Manchuria, with a capital bear- in water. The universal drink is koumiss, which is wholesome, ing the same name. The province has an area of 90,000 sq. m., nourishing and a specific against all chest diseases. and a population of 6,500,000. The chief towns besides the The dress consists of the chapân, a flowing robe of which capital are Kwang-chêng-tsze, 80 m. N.W. of the capital, one or two are worn in summer and several in winter, fastened and Harbin on the Sungari river. The city of Kirin is situated with a silk or leather girdle, in which are stuck a knife, tobacco at the foot of the Lau-Ye-Ling mountains, on the left bank of pouch, seal and a few other trinkets. Broad silk or cloth the Sungari or Girin-ula, there 300 yds. wide, and is served by pantaloons are often worn over the chapân, which is of velvet, a branch of the Manchurian railway. The situation is one of silk, cotton or felt, according to the rank of the wearer. Large exceptional beauty; but the streets are narrow, irregular and black or red leather boots, with round white fell pointed caps, indescribably filthy. The western part of the town is built upon complete the costume, which is much the same for both sexes. a swamp and is under water a great part of the year. The Like the Kara-Kirghiz, the Kazaks are nominally Sunnites, dockyards are supplied with machinery from Europe and are but Shamanists at heart, worshipping, besides the Kudai or good efficient. Tobacco is the principal article of trade, the kind divinity, the Shaitan or bad spirit. Their faith is strong in the grown in the province being greatly prized throughout the talchi or soothsayer and other charlatans, who know everything, Chinese empire under the name of " Manchu leaf.” Formerly can do everything, and heal all disorders at pleasure. But they ginseng was also an important staple, but the supply from this are not fanatics, though holding the abstract doctrine that the quarter of the country has been exhausted. Outside the town may be lawfully oppressed, including in this category lies a plain" thickly covered with open coffins containing the not only Buddhists and Christians, but even Mahommedans of dead bodies of Chinese emigrants exposed for identification and the Shiah sect. There are no fasts or ablutions, mosques or removal by their friends; if no claim is made during ten years mollahs, or regular prayers. Although Mussulmans since the the remains are Luried on the spot.” Kirin was chosen by the beginning of the 16th century, they have scarcely yet found emperor K'anghi as a military post during the wars with the their way to Mlecca, their pilgrims visiting instead the more con- Eleuths; and it owes its Chinese name of Ch'uen-ch'ang, i.e.' venient shrines of the "saints" scattered over eastern Turkestan. Naval Yard, to his building there the vessels for the transport Unlike the Mongolians, the Kazaks treat their dead with great of his troops. The population was estimated at 300,000 in 1812; respect, and the low steppe hills are often entirely covered with in 1909 it was about 120,000. monuments raised above their graves. KIRK, SIR JOHN (1832– ), British naturalist and ad. Letters are neglected to such an extent that whoever can ministrator, son of the Rev. John Kirk, was born at Barry, merely write is regarded as a savant, while he becomes a prodigy near Arbroath, on the 19th of December 1832. He was edu- of learning if able to read the Koran in the original. Yet the cated at Edinburgh for the medical profession, and after Kazaks are naturally both musical and poetical, and possess a serving on the civil medical staff throughout the Crimean War, considerable number of national songs, which are usually was appointed in February 1858 physician and naturalist to repeated with variations from mouth to mouth. David Livingstone's second expedition to Central Africa. He The Kazaks still choose their own khans, who, though con- was by. Livingstone's side in most of his journeyings during firmed by the Russian government, possess little authority the next five years, and was one of the first four white men beyond their respective tribes. The real rulers are the elders to behold Lake Nyassa (Sept. 16, 1859). He was finally in. or umpires and sultans, all appointed by public election. Brig- valided home on the oth of May 1863. The reputation he andage and raids arising out of tribal feuds, which were formerly gained during this expedition led to his appointment in January recognized institutions, are now severely punished, sometimes 1866 as acting surgeon to the political agency at Zanzibar. In even with death. Capital punishment, usually by hanging or 1868 he became assistant political agent, being raised to the strangling, is inflicted for murder and adultery, while three, rank of consul-general in 1873 and agent in 1880. He retired nine or twenty-seven times the value of the stolen property from that post in 1887. The twenty-one years spent by Kirk is exacted for theft. in Zanzibar covered the most critical period of the history of The domestic animals, daily pursuits and industries of the European intervention in East Africa; and during the greater Kazaks differ but slightly from those of the Kara-Kirghiz. part of that time he was the virtual ruler of the country. With Some of the wealthy steppe nomads own as many as 20,000 Seyyid Bargash, who became sultan in 1870, he had a con- of the large fat-tailed sheep.' Goats are kept chiefly as guides trolling influence, and after the failure of Sir Bartle Frere's for these flocks; and the horses, though small, are hardy, swift, efforts he succeeded in obtaining (June 5, 1873) the sultan's light-footed and capable of covering from so to 60 miles at a signature to a treaty abolishing the slave trade in his dominions. stretch. Amongst the Kazaks there are a few workers in silver, In 1877 Bargash offered to a British merchant-Sir W. Mac- copper and iron, the chief arts besides, being skin dressing, kinnon-a lease of his mainland territories, and he gave Kirk a wool spinning and dyeing, carpet and felt weaving. Trade is declaration in which he bound himself not to cede territory to confined mainly to an exchange of live stock for woven and any other power than Great Britain, a declaration ignored by other goods from Russia, China and Turkestan. the British government. When Germany in 1885 claimed Since their subjection to Russia the Kazaks have become less districts considered by the sultan to belong to Zanzibar, ķirk lawless, but scarcely less nomadic. A change of habit in this intervened to prevent Bargash going in person to Berlin to respect is opposed alike to their tastes and to the climatic and protest and induced him to submit to the dismemberment of other outward conditions. See also TURKS. his dominions. In the delicate negotiations which followed " 830 KIRKBY-KIRKCALDY OF GRANGE, SIR W Kirk used his powers to checkmate the German designs to Sinclairtown and Gallatown on the east, it has reached a supplant the British in Zanzibar itself; this he did without length of nearly 4 m. Its public buildings include the parish destroying the Arab form of government. He also directed the church, in the Gothic style, St Brycedale United Free church, efforts, this time successful, to obtain for Britain a portion of with a spire 200 ft. high, a tow'n-hall, corn exchange, public the mainland-Bargash in May 1887 granting to Mackinnon a libraries, assembly rooms, fever hospital, sheriti cuurt buildings, lease of territory which led to the foundation of British East people's club and institute, high school (1894)-on the site of Africa. Having thus served both Great Britain and Zanzibar, the ancient burgh school (1582)--the Beveridge hall and free Kirk resigned his post (July 1887), retiring from the consular library, and the Adam Smith memorial hall. To the west lies service. In 1889-1890 he was a plenipotentiary at the slave Beveridge Park of 110 acres, including a large sheel of water, trade conference in Brussels, and was one of the delegates who which was presented to the town in 1892. The harbour has an fixed the tariff duties to be imposed in the Congo basin. In inner and outer division, with wet dock and wharves. Plans 1895 he was sent by the British government on a mission to for its extension were approved in 1903. They include the the Niger; and on his return he was appointed a member of the extension of the cast pier, the construction of a south pier 800 ft. Foreign Office committee for constructing the Uganda railway. in length, and of a tidal harbour 5 acres in area and a dock of As a naturalist Kirk took high rank, and many species of the 4 acres. Besides the manufacture of sheeting, towelling, ticks, flora and fauna of Central Africa were made known by him, and dowlas and sail-cloth, the principal industries include flax-spin- several bear his name, e.g. the Otogale kirkii (a lemuroid), the ning, net-making, bleaching, dyeing, tanning, brewing, brass and Madoqua kirkii (a diminutive antelope), the Landolphia kirkii iron founding, and there are potteries, flour-mills, engineering and the Clematis kirkii. For his services to geography he works, fisheries, and factories for the making of oil-cioth and received in 1882 the patrons' medal of the Royal Geographical linoleum. In 1847 Michael Nairn conceived the notion of Society, of which society he became foreign secretary. Kirk utilizing the fibre of cork and oil-paint in such a way as to was created K.C.B. in 1900. He married, in 1867, Miss Helen produce a floor-covering more lasting than carpet and yet Cooke. capable of taking a pattern. The result of his experiments was KIRKBY, JOHN (d. 1290), English ecclesiastic and states-oil-cloth, in the manufacture of which Kirkcaldy has kept the man, entered the public service as a clerk of the chancery predominance to which Nairn's enterprise entitled it. Indeed, during the reign of Henry III. Under Edward I. he acted as this and the kindred linoleum business (also due to Nairn, who keeper of the great seal during the frequent absences of the in 1877 built the first linoleum factory in Scotland) were for chancellor, Robert Burnell, being referred to as vice-chancellor many years the monopoly of Kirkcaldy. There is a large In 1282 he was employed by the king to make a tour through direct export trade with the United States. Among well- the counties and boroughs for the purpose of collecting money; | known natives of the town were Adam Smith, Henry Balnaves this and his other services to Edward were well rewarded, and of Halhill, the Scottish reformer and lord of session in the time although not yet ordained priest he held several valuable of Queen Mary; George Gillespie, the theologian and a leading benefices in the church. In 1283 he was chosen bishop of member of the Westminster Assembly, and his younger brother Rochester, but owing to the opposition of the archbishop of Patrick (1617-1675), a friend of Cromwell and principal of Canterbury, John Peckham, he did not press his claim to this Glasgow University; John Ritchie (1778-1870), one of the In 1286, however, two years after he had become treasurer, founders of the Scotsman; General Sir John Oswald (1771-1840), he was elected bishop of Ely, and he was ordained priest and who had a command at San Sebastian and Vittoria. Sir Michael then consecrated by Peckham. He died at Ely on the 26th of Scott of Balwearie castle, about iż m. W. of the town, was sent March 1290. Kirkby was a benefactor to his see, to which he with Sir David Wemyss to bring the Maid of Norway to Scotland left some property in London, including the locality now known in 1290; Sir Walter Scott was therefore in error in adopting the as Ely Place, where for many years stood the London residence tradition that identified him with the wizard of the same name, of the bishop of Ely. who died in 1234. Carlyle and Edward Irving were teachers Kirkby's Quest is the name given to a survey of various English in the town, where Irving spent seven years, and where he made counties which was made under the bishop's direction probably the acquaintance of the lady he afterwards married. Kirkcaldy in 1284 and 1285. For this see Inquisitions and Assessments relating combines with Dysart, Kinghorn and Burntisland to return one to Feudal Aids, 1284-1431, vol. i. (London, 1899). member to parliament. KIRKCALDY (locally pronounced Kerkawdi), a royal, munici. KIRKCALDY OF GRANGE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1520-1573), pal and police burgh and seaport of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. Scottish politician, was the eldest son of Sir James Kirkcaldy (1901), 34,079. It lies on the Firth of Forth, 26 m. N. of Edinburgh of Grange (d. 1556), a member of an old Fifeshire family. Sir by the North British railway, via the Forth Bridge. Although James was lord high treasurer of Scotland from 1537 to 1543 Columba is said to have planted a church here, the authori- and was a determined opponent of Cardinal Beaton, for whose tative history of the town does not begin for several centuries murder in 1546 was partly responsible. William Kirk- after the era of the saint. In 1240 the church was bestowed by caldy assisted to compass this murder, and when the castle of David, bishop of St Andrews, on Dunfermline Abbey, and in St Andrews surrendered to the French in July 1547 he was sent 1334 the town with its harbour was granted by David II. to the as a prisoner to Normandy, whence he escaped in 1550. He was same abbey, by which it was conveyed to the bailies and council then employed in France as a secret agent by the advisers of in 1450, when Kirkcaldy was created a royal burgh. In the course Edward VI., being known in the cyphers as Corax; and later of another century it had become an important commercial he served in the French army, where he gained a lasting reputa- centre, the salt trade of the district being then the largest in tion for skill and bravery. The sentence passed on Kirkcaldy Scotland. In 1644, when Charles I. raised it to a free port, it for his share in Beaton's murder was removed in 1556, and owned a hundred vessels, and six years later it was assessed as returning to Scotland in 1557 he came quickly to the front; as the sixth town in the kingdom. After the Union its shipping a Protestant he was one of the leaders of the lords of the con- fell off, Jacobite troubles and the American War of Independence gregation in their struggle with the regent, Mary of Lorraine, accelerating the decline. But its linen manufactures, begun and he assisted to harass the French troops in Fife. He opposed early in the 18th century, gradually restored prosperity; and Queen Mary's marriage with Darnley, being associated at this when other industries had taken root its fortunes advanced time with Murray, and was forced for a short time to seek refuge by leaps and bounds, and there is now no more flourishing com- in England. Returning to Scotland, he was accessory to the munity in Scotland. The chief topographical feature of the murder of Rizzio, but he had no share in that of Darnley; and burgh is its length, from which it is called the “lang toun.” he was one of the lords who banded themselves together to rescue Formerly it consisted of little besides High Street, with closes Mary after her marriage with Bothwell. After the fight at and wynds branching off from it; but now that it has absorbed Carberry Hill the queen surrendered herself to Kirkcaldy, and Invertiel, Linstown and Abbotshall on the west, and Pathhead, I his generalship was mainly responsible for her defeat at Langside. see. KIRKCUDBRIGHT-KÍRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE 831 1 vehe- and « waters He seems, however, to have believed that an arrangement with the Early Pointed style. TONGUELAND (or Tungland), 2} m Mary was possible, and coming under the influence of Maitland N. by E., has interesting historical associations. It was the site of Lethington, whom in September 1569 he released by a strata- of a Premonstratensian abbey built by Fergus, and it was here gem from his confinement in Edinburgh, he was soon that Queen Mary rested in her light from the field of Langside mently suspected of his fellows.” After the murder of Murray (May 13, 1568). The well near Tongueland bridge from which Kirkcaldy ranged himself definitely among the friends of the she drank still bears the name of the Queen's Well. imprisoned queen. About this time he forcibly released one of KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE (also known as the STEWARTRY his supporters from imprisonment, a step which led to an alter- OF KIRKCUDBRIGHT and East GALLOWAY), a south-western cation with his former friend John Knox, who called him a county of Scotland, bounded N. and N.W. by Ayrshire, W. and “ murderer and throat-cutter." Defying the regent Lennox, S.W. by Wigtownshire, S. and S.E. by the Irish Sea and Solway Kirkcaldy began to strengthen the fortifications of Edinburgh Firth, and E. and N.E. by Dumfriesshire. It includes the small castle, of which he was governor, and which he held for Mary, islands of Hestan and Little Ross, which are utilized as light- and early in 1573 he refused to come to an agreement with the house stations. It has an area of 575,565 acres or 899 sq. m. regent Morton because the terms of peace did not include à The north-western part of the shire is rugged, wild and desolate. section of his friends. After this some English troops arrived In this quarter the principal mountains are Merrick (2764 ft.), to help the Scots, and in May 1573 the castle surrendered the highest in the south of Scotland, and the group of the Rinns Strenuous efforts were made to save Kirkcaldy from the vengeance of Kells, the chief peaks of which are Corscrine (2668), Carlins of his foes, but they were unavailing; Knox had prophesied that Cairn (2650), Meikle Millyea (2446) and Millfire (2350). To- he would be hanged, and he was hanged on the 3rd of August wards the south-west the chief eminences are Lamachan (2349), 1573. Larg (2216), and the bold mass of Cairnsmore of Fleet (2331). See Sir James Melville's Memoirs, edited by T. Thomson (Edin. In the south-east the only imposing height is Criffel (1866). In burgh, 1827): J. Grant, Memoirs and Adventures of Sir W. Kirkaldy the north rises the majestic hill of Cairnsmuir of Carsphairn (Edinburgh, 1849); L. A, Barbé, Kirkcaldy of Grange (1897); and A. (2012), and close to the Ayrshire border is the Windy Standard Lang, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (1902). and county town of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), The shore is generally bold and rocky, indented by numerous KIRKCUDBRIGHT (pron. Ker-kú-bri), a royal and police burgh, (2287). The southern section of the shire is mostly level or undulating, but characterized by much picturesque scenery. 2386. It is situated at the mouth of the Dee, 6 m. from the sea and 30 m. S.W. of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western estuaries forming natural harbours, which however are of little railway, being the terminus of a branch line. The old form of use for commerce owing to the shallowness of the sea. Large the name of the town was Kilcudbrit, from the Gaelic Cil Cudberi, stretches of sand are exposed in the Solway at low water and the the chapel of Cuthbert,” the saint's body having lain here for rapid flow of the tide has often occasioned loss of life. The number of “burns" a short time during the seven years that lapsed between its is remarkable, but their exhumation at Lindisfarne and the re-interment at Chester-le-length seldom exceeds 7 or 8 m. Among the longer rivers are Street. The estuary of the Dee is divided at its head by the the Cree, which rises in Loch Moan and reaches the sea near peninsula of St Mary's Isle, but though the harbour is the best Creetown after a course of about 30 m., during which it forms in south-western Scotland, the great distance to which the tide the boundary, at first of Ayrshire and then of Wigtownshire; the Dee or Black Water of Dee (so named from the peat by which retreats impairs its usefulness. Among the public buildings are the academy, Johnstone public school, the county buildings , S.E. and finally S., enters the sea at St Mary's Isle below Kirk- it is coloured), which rises in Loch Dee and after a course mainly town-hall, museum, Mackenzie hall and market cross, the last- cudbright, its length being nearly 36 m.; the Urr , rising in Loch named standing in front of the old court-house, which is now used as a drill hall and fire-station. No traces remain of the Urr on the Dumfriesshire border, falls into the sea a few miles Greyfriars’ or Franciscan convent founded by Alexander II., south of Dalbeattie 27 m. from its source; the Ken, rising on the nor of the nunnery that was erected in the parish of Kirkcudº confines of Ayrshire, flows mainly in a southerly direction and bright. The ivy-clad ruins of Bomby castle, founded in 1582 joins the Dee at the southern end of Loch Ken after a course of by Sir Thomas Maclellan, ancestor of the barons of Kirkcud- 24 m. through lovely scenery; and the Deugh which, rising on the northern flank of the Windy Standard, pursues an extra- bright, stand at the end of the chief street. The town, which witnessed much of the international strife and Border lawless-ordinarily winding course of 20 m. before reaching the Ken. ness, was taken by Edward I. in 1300. It received its royal The Nith, during the last few miles of its flow, forms the boundary charter in 1455. After the battle of Towton, Henry VI. crossed with Dumfriesshire, to which county it almost wholly belongs. the Solway (August 1461) and landed at Kirkcudbright to join but except Loch Ken, which is about 6 m. long by } m. wide, few The lochs and mountain tarns are many and well distributed; Queen Margaret at Linlithgow. It successfully withstood the English siege in 1547 under Sir Thomas Carleton, but after the of them attain noteworthy dimensions. There are several passes country had been overrun was compelled to surrender at dis- in the hill regions, but the only well-known glen is Glen Trool, cretion. Lord Maxwell, earl of Morton, as a Roman Catholic, not far from the district of Carrick in Ayrshire, the fame of which mustered his tenants here to act in concert with the Armada; rests partly on the romantic character of its scenery, which is but on the approach of King James VI. to Dumfries he took ship very wild around Loch Trool, and more especially on its associa- tions with Robert Bruce. at Kirkcudbright and was speedily captured. The burgh It was here that when most closely of the Dumfries district group of parliamentary burghs. On beset by his enemies, who had tracked him to his fastness by St Mary's Islc was situated the seat of the earl of Selkirk, at sleuth hounds, Bruce with the aid of a few faithful followers won whose house Robert Burns gave the famous Selkirk grace:- a surprise victory over the English in 1307 which proved the " Some ha'e meat, and canna eat, turning point of his fortunes. And some wad eat that want it; But we ha'e meat, and we can eat, Geology.-Silurian and Ordovician rocks are the most important in this county, they are thrown into oft-repeated folds with their And sae the Lord be thankit. axes lying in a N.E.-S.W. direction. The Ordovician rocks are Fergus, lord of Galloway, a celebrated church-builder of the graptolitic black shales and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age. 12th century, had his principal seat on Palace Isle in a lake called They occupy all the northern part of the county north-west of a after him Loch Fergus, near St Mary's Isle, where he erected line which runs some 3 m. N. of New Galloway and just S. of the the priory de Trayle, in token of his penitence for rebellion against of Llandovery age prevail; they are found around Dalry, Creetown, Rinns of Kells. South-east of this line graptolitic Silurian shales David I. The priory was afterwards united as a dependent New Galloway, Castle Douglas and Kirkcudbright. Overlying the cell to the abbey of Holyrood. DUNDRENNAN ABBEY, 41 m. S.E., Llandovery beds on the south coast are strips of Wenlock rocks; they was, however, his greatest achievement. It was a Cistercian extend from Bridgehouse Bay to Auchinleck and are well exposed in house, colonized from Rievaulx, and was built in 1140. There Kirkcudbright Bay, and they can be traced farther round the coast between the granite and ihe younger rocks. Carboniferous rocks now remain only the transept and choir, a unique example of appear in small faulted tracts, unconformable on the Silurian, on one 832 KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE the shores of the Solway Firth. They are best developed about History. The country west of the Nith was originally peopled Kirkbean, where they include a basal red breccia followed by con- by a tribe of Celtic Gaels called Noyantae, or Atecott Picts, who, glomerates, grits and cement stones of Calciferous Sandstone age. Brick-red sandstones of Permian age just come within the county on owing to their geographical position, which prevented any ready the W. side of the Nith at Dumfries. Volcanic necks occur in the intermingling with the other Pictish tribes farther north, long Permian and basalt dikes penetrate the Silurian at Borgue, Kirk retained their independence. After Agricola's invasion in A.D. 79 andrews, &c. Most of the highest ground is formed by the masses the country nominally formed part of the Roman province, of granite which have been intruded into the Ordovician and Silurian rocks; the Criffel mass lies about Dalbeattie and Bengairn, another but the evidence is against there ever having been a prolonged mass extends cast and west between the Cairnsmore of Fleet and Loch effective Roman occupation. After the retreat of the Romans Ken, another lies N.W. and S.E. between Loch Doon and Loch Dee the Novantae remained for a time under their own chiefs, but and a small mass forms the Cairnsmore of Carsphairn. Glacial in the 7th century accepted the overlordship of Northumbria. deposits occupy much of the low ground; the ice, having travelled in a southerly or south-easterly direction, has left abundant striae on The Saxons, soon engaged in struggles with the Norsemen, had the higher ground to indicate its course. Radiation of the ice streams no leisure to look after their tributaries, and early in the oth took place from the heights of Merrick, Kells, &c.; local moraines are century the Atecotts made common cause with the Vikings. found near Carsphairn and in the Deagh and Minnoch valleys. Glacial Henceforward they were styled, probably in contempt, Gall- drumlins of boulder clay lie in the vales of the Dee, Cree and Urr. gaidhel, or stranger Gaels (i.e. Gaels who fraternized with the Climate and Agriculture. --The climate and soil are better fitted foreigners), the Welsh equivalent for which, Gallwyddel, gave for grass and green crops than for grain. The annual rainfall rise to the name of Galloway (of which Galway is a variant), averages 45.7 in. The mean temperature for the year is 48° F.; which was applied to their territory and still denotes the for January 38.5°; for July 59º. The major part of the land is Stewartry of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wigtown. When either waste or poor pasture. More than half the holdings con- Scotland was consolidated under Kenneth MacAlpine (crowned sist of so acres and over. Oats is the predominant grain crop, at Scone in 844), Galloway was the only district in the south that the acreage under barley being small and that under wheat did not form part of the kingdom; but in return for the services insignificant. Turnips are successfully cultivated, and potatoes rendered to him at this crisis Kenneth gave his daughter in are the only other green crop raised on a moderately large scale. marriage to the Galloway chief, Olaf the White, and also con- Sheep-rearing has been pursued with great enterprise. The ferred upon the men of Galloway the privilege of marching in average is considerably in excess of that for Scotland. Black- the van of the Scottish armies, a right exercised and recognized faced and Cheviots are the most common on the high ground, for several centuries. During the next two hundred years the and a cross of Leicester with either is also in favour. Cattle-country had no rest from Danish and Saxon incursions and breeding is followed with steady success; the black polled the continual lawlessness of the Scandinavian rovers. When Galloway is the general breed, but Aryshires have been introduced Malcolm Canmore defeated and slew Macbeth in 1057 he married for dairying, cheese-making occupying much of the farmers' the dead king's widow Ingibiorg, a Pictish princess, an event attention. Horses are extensively raised, a breed of small-sized which marked the beginning of the decay of Norse influence. hardy and spirited animals being specifically known as Gallo- The Galloway chiefs hesitated for a time whether to throw in ways. Most of the horses are used in agricultural work, but a their lot with the Northumbrians or with Malcolm; but language, large number are also kept for stock; Clydesdales are bred to race and the situation of their country at length induced them some extent. Pig-rearing is an important pursuit, pork being to become lieges of the Scottish king. By the close of the 11th supplied to the English markets in considerable quantities. century the boundary between England and Scotland was During the last quarter of the 19th century the number of pigs roughly delimited on existing lines. The feudal system ulti- increased 50%. Bee-keeping has been followed with special mately destroyed the power of the Galloway chiefs, who resisted care and the honey of the shire is consequently in good repute the innovation to the last. Several of the lords or “ kings ” of The proportion of woodland in the county is small. Galloway, a line said to have been founded by Fergus, the Indusiries. The shire ranks next to Aberdeen as a granite greatest of them all, asserted in vain their independence of the yielding county and the quarries occupy a large number of hands. Scottish crown; and in 1234 the line became extinct in the male In some towns and villages there are manufactures of liren, branch on the death of Fergus's great-grandson Alan. One of woollen and cotton goods; at various places distilling, brev'ing, Alan's daughters, Dervorguila, had married John de Baliol tanning and paper-making are carried on, and at Dalbeattie (father of the John de Baliol who was king of Scotland from 1292 there are brick and tile works. There is a little ship-building until his abdication in 1296), and the people, out of affection for at Kirkcudbright. The Solway fishery is of small account, but | Alan's daughter, were lukewarm in support of Robert Bruce. In salmon fishing is prosecuted at the mouth of certain rivers, the 1308 the district was cleared of the English and brought under Dee fish being notable for their excellence. allegiance to the king, when the lordship of Galloway was given The only railway communication is by the Glasgow & South- to Edward Bruce. Later in the 14th century Galloway espoused Western railway running from Dumfries to Castle Douglas, from the cause of Edward Baliol, who surrendered several counties, which there is a branch to Kirkcudbright, and the Portpatrick | including Kirkcudbright, to Edward III. In 1372 Archibald and Wigtownshire railway, beginning at Castle Douglas and the Grim, a natural son of Sir James Douglas “the Good," leaving the county at Newton Stewart. These are supplemented became Lord of Galloway and received in perpetual fee the by coaches between various points, as from New Galloway to Crown lands between the Nith and Cree. He appointed a steward Carsphairn, from Dumfries to New Abbey and Dalbeattie, and to collect his revenues and administer justice, and there thus from Auchencairn to Dalbeattie. arose the designation of the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright. The Population and Government.—The population was 39,985 in high-handed rule of the Douglases created general discontent, and 1891 and 39,383 in 1901, when 98 persons, spoke Gaelic and when their treason became apparent their territory was overrun English. The chief towns are Castle Douglas (pop. in 1901, by the king's men in 1455; Douglas was attainted, and his 3018), Dalbeattie (3469), Kirkcudbright (2386), Maxwelltown honours and estates were forfeited. In that year the great (5796) with Creetown (991), and Gatehouse of Fleet (1013). stronghold of the Thrieve, the most important fortress in Gallo- The shire returns one member to parliament, and the county way, which Archibald the Grim had built on the Dee immediately town (Kirkcudbright) belongs to the Dumfries district group to the west of the modern town of Castle Douglas, was reduced of parliamentary burghs, and Maxwelltown is combined with and converted into a royal keep. (It was dismantled in 1640 Dumfries. The county forms part of the sheriffdom of Dumfries by order of the Estates in consequence of the hostility of its and Galloway, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at keeper, Lord Nithsdale, to the Covenant.) The famous cannon Kirkcudbright. The county is under school-brard jurisdic- Mons Meg, now in Edinburgh Castle, is said, apparently on tion. There is an academy at Kirkcudbright, high schools at insufficient evidence, to have been constructed in order to aid Dumfries and Newton Stewart, and technical classes at Kirkcud-James III. in this siege. As the Douglases went down the bright, Dalbeattie, Castle Douglas and Dumfries. Maxwells cose, and the debateable land on the south-east of 9) KIRKE-KIRKWALL 833 " Dumfriesshire was for generations the scene of strife and raid, where it receives from the north the Glazert and from the south not only between the two nations but also among the leading the Luggie, commemorated by David Gray. The Wall of families, of whom the Maxwells, Johnstones and Armstrongs Antoninus ran through the site of the town, the Gaelic name of were always conspicuous. After the battle of Solway Moss which (Caer, a fort, not Kirk, a church) means “ the fort at the (1542) the shires of Kirkcudbright and Dumfries fell under end of the ridge." The town became a burgh of barony under English rule for a short period. The treaty of Norham the Comyns in 1170. The cruciform parish church with crow- (March 24, 1550) established a truce between the nations for ten stepped gables dates from 1644. The public buildings include years; and in 1552, the Wardens of the Marches consenting, the the town-hall, with a clock tower, the temperance hall, a con- debateable land ceased to be matter for debate, the parish of valescent home, the Broomhill home for incurables (largely due Canonbie being annexed to Dumfriesshire, that of Kirkandrews to Miss Beatrice Clugston, to whom a memorial was erected in to Cumberland. Though at the Reformation the Stewartry 1891), and the Westermains asylum. In 1898 the burgh acquired became fervent in its Protestantism, it was to Galloway, through as a private park the Peel, containing traces of the Roman Wall, the influence of the great landowners and the attachment of a fort, and the foundation of Comyn's Castle. The leading the people to them, that Mary owed her warmest adherents, and industries are chemical manufactures, iron-founding, muslin- it was from the coast of Kirkcudbright that she made her luckless weaving, coal mining and timber sawing. LENZIE, a suburb, a voyage to England. Even when the crowns were united in 1603 mile to the south of the old town, contains the imposing towered turbulence continued; for trouble arose over the attempt to edifice in the Elizabethan style which houses the Barony asylum. establish episcopacy, and nowhere were the Covenanters more David Gray, the poet, was born at Merkland, near by, and is cruelly persecuted than in Galloway. After the union things buried in Kirkintilloch churchyard, where a monument was mended slowly but sürely, curious evidence of growing com- erected to his memory in 1865. mercial prosperity being the enormous extent to which smuggling KIRK-KILISSEH (KIRK-KILIsse or Kirk-Kilissia), a town was carried on, No coast could serve the “ free traders " better of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, 35 m. E. of than the shores of Kirkcudbright, and the contraband trade Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 16,000, of whom about half are flourished till the 19th century. The Jacobite risings of 1715 Greeks, and the remainder Bulgarians, Turks and Jews. Kirk- and 1745 elicited small sympathy from the inhabitants of the Kilisseh is built near the headwaters of several small tributaries shire. of the river Ergene, and on the western slope of the Istranja See Sir Herbert Maxwell, History of Dumfries and Galloway Dagh. It owes its chief importance to its position at the southern (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. Andrew Symson, & Large Description of outlet of the Fakhi defile over these mountains, through which Galloway (1684; new ed., 1823); Thomas Murray, The Literary History passes the shortest road from Shumla to Constantinople. The of Galloway (1822); Rev. William Mackenzie, History of Galloway (1841); P. H. McKerlie, History of the Lands and their Owners in name Kirk-Kilisseh signifies “four churches," and the town Galloway (Edinburgh, 1870-1879); Galloway Ancient and Modern possesses many mosques and Greek churches. It has an im- (Edinburgh, 1891); J. A. H. Murray, Dialect of the Southern Counties portant trade with Constantinople in butter and cheese, and also of Scotland (London, 1873). exports wine, brandy, cereals and tobacco. KIRKE, PERCY (c. 1646–1691), English soldier, was the son of KIRKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Adair county, George Kirke, a court official to Charles I. and Charles II. In Missouri, U.S.A., about 129 m. N. by W. of Jefferson City. Pop. 1666 he obtained his first commission in the Lord Admiral's (1900), 5966, including 112 foreign-born and 291 negroes; (1910), regiment, and subsequently served in the Blues. He was with 6347. It is served by the Wabash and the Quincy, Omaha & Monmouth at Maestricht (1673), and was present during two Kansas City railways. It lies on a rolling prairie at an eleva- campaigns with Turenne on the Rhine. In 1680 he became tion of 975 ft. above the sea. It is the seat of the First District lieutenant-colonel, and soon afterwards colonel of one of the Missouri State Normal School (1870); of the American School of Tangier regiments (afterwards the King's Own Royal Lancaster Osteopathy (opened 1892); and of the related A. T. Still Regt.) In 1682 Kirke became governor of Tangier, and colonel Infirmary incorporated 1895), named in honour of its founder, of the old Tangier regiment (afterwards the Queen's Royal West Andrew Taylor Still (b. 1820), the originator of osteopathic Surrey). He distinguished himself very greatly as governor, treatment, who settled here in 1875. In 1908 the School of though he gave offence by the roughness of his manners and the Osteopathy had 18 instructors and 398 students. Grain and wildness of his life. On the evacuation of Tangier “ Kirke's fruit are grown in large quantities, and much coal is mined in Lambs" (so called from their badge) returned to England, and the vicinity of Kirksville. Its manufactures are shoes, bricks, a year later their colonel served as a brigadier in Faversham's lumber, ice, agricultural implements, wagons and handles. army. After Sedgemoor the rebels were treated with great Kirksville was laid out in 1842, and was named in honour of severity; but the charges so often brought against the " Lambs" Jesse Kirk. It 'was incorporated as a town in 1857 and are now known to be exaggerated, though the regiment shared chartered as a city of the third class in 1892. In April 1899 a to the full in the ruthless hunting down of the fugitives. It is cyclone caused serious damage to the city. often stated that it formed Jeffreys's escort in the “Bloody KIRKWALL (Norse, Kirkjuvagr, (“church bay"), a royal, Assize," but this is erroneous. Brigadier Kirke took a notable municipal and police burgh, seaport and capital of the Orkney part in the Revolution three years later, and William III. Islands, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3711. It is promoted him. He commanded at the relief of Derry, and situated at the head of a bay of the same name on the east of made his last campaign in Flanders in 1691. He died, a lieu- the island of Pomona, or Mainland, 247 m. N. of Leith and 54 ms tenant-general, at Brussels in October of that year. His eldest N. of Wick by steamer. Much of the city is quaint-looking and son, Lieut.-General Percy Kirke (1684-1741), was also colonel old-fashioned, its main street (nearly 1 m. long) being in parts of the “ Lambs.” so narrow that two vehicles cannot pass each other. The more KIRKEE (or KIRKI), a town and military cantonment of modern quarters are built with great regularity and the suburbs British India in Poona district, Bombay, 4 m. N.W. of Poona . contain several substantial villas surrounded by gardens. Kirk- city. Pop. (1901), 10,797. It is the principal artillery station in wall has very few manufactures. The linen trade introduced the Bombay presidency, and has a large ammunition factory in the middle of the 18th century is extinct, and a like fate has It was the scene of a victory over Baji Rao, the last peshwa, overtaken the kelp and straw-plaiting industries, Distilling in 1817. however prospers, and the town is important not only as regards KIRKINTILLOCH, a municipal and police burgh of Dumbar- its shipping and the deep-sea fishery, but also as a distributing tonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 10,680. It is situated 8 m.N.E.of centre for the islands and the seat of the superior law courts. Glasgow, by the North British railway, a portion of the parish The port has two piers. Kirkwall received its first charter from extending into Lanarkshire. It lies on the Forth & Clyde canal, James III. in 1486, but the provisions of this instrument being and the Kelvin-from which Lord Kelvin, the distinguished disregarded by such men as Robert (d. 1592) and Patrick Stewart scientist, took the title of his barony-flows past the town, 1 (d. 1614), ist and 2nd earls of Orkney, and others, the Scottish XV. 15 2a 834 KIRRIEMUIR-KISFALUDY 9 run parliament passed an act in 1670 confirming the charter granted | Cerasus avium. The cherries are subjected to natural fermenta- by Charles II. in 1661. The prime object of interest is the tion and subsequent distillation. Occasionally a certain quantity cathedral of St Magnus, a stately cruciform red sandstone struc-of sugar and water are added to the cherries after crushing, and ture in the severest Norman, with touches of Gothic. It was the mass so obtained is filtered or pressed prior to fermentation. founded by Jarl Rognvald (Earl Ronald) in 1137 in memory of The spirit is usually “ at a strength of about 50% of his uncle Jarl Magnus who was assassinated in the island of absolute alcohol. Compared with brandy or whisky the charac- Egilshay in 1915, and afterwards canonized and adopted as the teristic features of kirsch are (a) that it contains relatively patron saint of the Orkneys.. The remains of St Magnus were large quantities of higher alcohols and compound 'ethers, and ultimately interred in the cathedral. The church is 234 ft. long (b) the presence in this spirit of small quantities of hydrocyanic from east to west and 56 ft. broad, 71 ft. high from floor to roof, acid, partly as such and partly in combination as benzaldehyde. and 133 ft. to the top of the present spire-the transepts being cyanhydrine, to which the distinctive flavour of kirsch is largely the oldest portion. The choir was lengthened and the beautiful due. eastern rose window added by Bishop Stewart in 1511, and the KIR-SHEHER, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name porch and the western end of the nave were finished in 1540 by in the Angora vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of Bishop Robert Reid. Saving that the upper half of the original the Kizil Irmak (Halys), on the Angora-Kaisarieh road. It is on spire was struck by lightning in 1671, and not rebuilt, the cathe- the line of the projected railway from Angora to Kaisarieh. The dral is complete at all points, but it underwent extensive repairs town gives its name to the excellent carpets made in the vicinity. in the 19th century. The disproportionate height and narrow- On the outskirts there is a hot chalybeate spring. Population ness of the building lend it a certain distinction which otherwise about 9000 (700 Christians, mostly Armenians). Kir-shcher it would have lacked. The sandstone has not resisted the effects represents the ancient Mocissus, a small town which became ini. of weather, and much of the external decorative work has portant in the Byzantine period: it was enlarged by the emperor perished. The choir is used as the parish church. The skellat, Justinian, who re-named it Justinianopolis, and made it the or fire-bell, is not rung now. The church of St Olaf, from which capital of a large division of Cappadocia, a position it still the town took its name, was burned down by the English in retains. 1502; and of the church erected on its site by Bishop Reid—the KIRWAN, RICHARD (1733-1812), Irish scientist, was born at greatest building the Orkneys ever had little more than the Cloughballymore, Co. Galway, in 1733. Part of his early life merest fragment survives. Nothing remains of the old castle, was spent abroad, and in 1754 he entered the Jesuit novitiate a fortress of remarkable strength founded by Sir Henry Sinclair either at St Omer or at Hesdin, but returned to Ireland in the (d. 1400), earl and prince of Orkney and ist earl of Caithness, following year, when he succeeded to the family estates through its last vestiges having been demolished in 1865 to provide better the death of his brother in a duel. In 1766, having conformed access to the harbour; and the earthwork to the east of the town to the established religion two years previously, he was called thrown up by the Cromwellians has been converted into a battery to the Irish bar, but in 1768 abandoned practice in favour of of the Orkney Artillery Volunteers. Adjoining the cathedral scientific pursuits. During the next nineteen years he resided are the ruins of the bishop's palace, in which King Haco died chiefly in London, enjoying the society of the scientific men after his defeat at Largs in 1263. The round tower, which still living there, and corresponding with many savants on the conti- stands, was added in 1550 by Bishop Reid. It is known as the nent of Europe, as his wide knowledge of languages enabled him Mass Tower and contains a niche in which is a small effigy to do with ease. His experiments on the specific gravities and believed to represent the founder, who also endowed the grammar attractive powers of various saline substances formed a sub- school which is still in existence. To the east of the remains of stantial contribution to the methods of analytical chemistry, the bishop's palace are the ruins of the earl's palace, a structure and in 1782 gained him the Copley medal from the Royal in the Scottish Baronial style, built about 1600 for Patrick Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1780; and in 1784 he Stewart, and earl of Orkney, and on his forfeiture given to the was engaged in a controversy with Cavendish in regard to the bishops for a residence. Tankerness House is a characteristic latter's experiments on air. In 1787 he removed to Dublin, example of the mansion of an Orkney. laird of the olden time. where four years later he became president of the Royal Irish Other public buildings include the municipal buildings, the Academy. To its proceedings he contributed some thirty-eight sheriff court and county buildings, Balfour hospital, and the memoirs, dealing with meteorology, pure and applied chemistry, fever hospital. There is daily communication with Scrabster geology, magnetism, philology, &c. One of these, on the primi- pier (Thurso), via Scapa pier, on the southern side of the waist tive state of the globe and its subsequent catastrophe, involved of Pomona, about i} m. to the S. of Kirkwall; and steamers sail him in a lively dispute with the upholders of the Huttonian at regular intervals from the harbour to Wick, Aberdeen and theory. His geological work was marred by an implicit belief Leith. Good roads place the capital in touch with most places in the universal deluge, and through finding fossils associated in the island and a coach runs twice a day to Stromness. Kirk- with the trap rocks near Portrush he maintained basalt was of wall belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs, aqueous origin. He was one of the last supporters in England the others being Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch and Tain. of the phlogistic hypothesis, for which he contended in his KIRRIEMUIR, a police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids (1787), identi- (1901), 4096. It is situated on a height above the glen through fying phlogiston with hydrogen. This work, translated by which the Gairie flows, 61 m. N.W. of Forfar by a branch line of Madame Lavoisier, was published in French with critical notes the Caledonian railway of which it is the terminus. There are by Lavoisier and some of his associates; Kirwan attempted to libraries, a public hall and a park. The staple industry is linen- refute their arguments, but they proved too strong for him, and weaving. The hand-loom lingered longer here than in any other he acknowledged himself a convert in 1791. His other books place in Scotland and is not yet wholly extinct. The Rev. Dr included Elements of Mineralogy (1784), which was the first Alexander Whyte (b. 1837) and J. M. Barrie (b. 1860) are natives, systematic work on that subject in the English language, and the latter having made the town famous under the name of which long remained standard; An Estimate of the Temperature “Thrums.” The original Secession church-the kirk of the Auld of Different Latitudes (1787); Essay of the Analysis of Mineral Lichts—was founded in 1806 and rebuilt in 1893. Kinnordy, Waters (1799), and Geological Essays (1799). In his later im. N.W., was the birthplace of Sir Charles Lyell the geologist; years he turned to philosophical questions, producing a paper and Cortachy castle, a fine mansion in the Scottish Baronial on human liberty in 1798, a treatise on logic in 1807, and a style, about 4 m. N., is the seat of the earl of Airlie. volume of metaphysical essays in 1811, none of any worth. KIRSCH (or KIRSCHENWASSER), a potable spirit distilled from Various stories are told of his eccentricities as well as of his cherries. Kirsch is manufactured chiefly in the Black Forest conversational powers. He died in Dublin in June 1812. in Germany, and in the Vosges and Jura districts in France. KISFALUDY, KÁROLY (Charles) (1788–1830), Hungarian Generally the raw material consists of the wild cherry known as I author, was born at Téte, near Raab, on the 6th of February KISH., 835 1788. His birth cost his mother her life and himself his father's of September 1772, educated at Raab, and graduated in philo- undying hatred. He entered the army as a cadet in 1804; saw sophy and jurisprudence at Pressburg. He early fell under the active service in Italy, Servia and Bavaria (1805-1809), espe- influence of Schiller and Kleist, and devoted himself to the resus- cially distinguishing himself at the battle of Leoben (May 25, citation of the almost extinct Hungarian literature. Disgusted 1809), and returned to his quarters at Pest with the rank of first with his profession, the law, he entered the Life Guards (1793) lieutenant. It was during the war that he composed his first and plunged into the gay life of Vienna, cultivating literature, poems, e.g. the tragedy Gyilkos (“ The Murder," 1808), and learning French, German and Italian, painting, sketching, numerous martial songs for the encouragement of his comrades. assiduously frequenting the theatre, and consorting on equal It was now, too, that he fell hopelessly in love with the beautiful terms with all the literary celebrities of the Austrian capital. Katalin Heppler, the daughter of a wealthy tobacco merchant. In 1796 he was transferred to the army in Italy for being con- Tiring of the monotony of a soldier's life, yet unwilling to sacri- cerned with some of his brother officers of the Vienna garrison fice his liberty to follow commerce or enter the civil service, in certain irregularities. When Milan was captured by Napoleon Kisfaludy, contrary to his father's wishes, now threw up his Kisfaludy was sent a prisoner of war to Vaucluse, where he commission and made his home at the house of a married sister studied Petrarch with enthusiasm and fell violently in love with at Vörröck, where he could follow his inclinations. In 1812 he Caroline D'Esclapon, a kindred spirit to whom he addressed studied painting at the Vienna academy and supported himself his melancholy Himfy Lays, the first part of the subsequently precariously by his brush and pencil, till the theatre at Vienna famous sonnets. On returning to Austria he served with some proved a still stronger attraction. In 1812 he wrote the tragedy distinction in the campaigns of 1798 and 1799 on the Rhine and Klára Zách, and in 1815 went to Italy to study art more in Switzerland; but tiring of a military life and disgusted at the thoroughly. But he was back again within six months, slowness of his promotion, he quitted the army in September and for the next three years flitted from place to place, living 1799, and married his old love Rózá Szegedy at the beginning on the charity of his friends, lodging in hovels and dashing off of 1800. The first five happy years of their life were passed at scores of daubs which rarely found a market. The united Kám in Vás county, but in 1805 they removed to Sümeg where and repeated petitions of the whole Kisfaludy family failed to Kisfaludy gave himself up entirely to literature. bring about a reconciliation between the elder Kisfaludy At the beginning of the 19th century he had published a and his prodigal son. It was the success of his drama Ilka, volume of erotics which made him famous, and his reputation written for the Fehérvár dramatic society, that first made him was still further increased by his Regék or Tales. During the famous and prosperous. The play was greeted with enthusiasm troublous times of 1809, when the gentry of Zala county founded both at Fehérvár and Buda (1819). Subsequent plays, The a confederation, the palatine appointed Kisfaludy one of his Voivode Stiber and The Petitioners (the first original Magyar adjutants. Subsequently, by command, he wrote an account of dramas), were equally successful. Kisfaludy's fame began to the movement for presentation to King Francis, which was com- spread. He had found his true vocation as the creator of mitted to the secret archives, and Kisfaludy was forbidden to the Hungarian drama. In May 1820 he wrote three new plays communicate its contents. In 1820 the Marczebánya Institute for the dramatic society (he could always turn out a five-act crowned his Tales and the palatine presented him with a prize drama in four days) which still further increased his reputa- of 400 florins in the hall of the Pest county council. In 1822 tion. From 1820 onwards, under the influence of the great he started the Aurora with his younger brother Károly (sce critic Kazinczy, he learnt to polish and refine his style, while his above). When the academy was founded in 1830 Kisfaludy friend and adviser György Gaal (who translated some of his was the first county member elected to it. In 1835 he resigned dramas for the Vienna stage) introduced him to the works of because he was obliged to share the honour of winning the Shakespeare and Goethe. By this time Kisfaludy had evolved academy's grand prize with Vörösmarty. After the death of a literary theory of his own which inclined towards romanticism; his first wife (1832) he married a second time, but by neither of and in collaboration with his elder brother Alexander (see below) his wives had he any child. The remainder of his days were he founded the periodical Aurora(1822), which he edited to the day spent in his Tusculum among the vineyards of Sümeg and of his death. The Aurora was a notable phenomenon in Magyar Somla. He died on the 28th of October 1844. Alexander literature. It attracted towards it many of the rising young Kisfaludy stands alone among the rising literary schools of authors of the day (including Vörösmarty, Bajza and Czuczor) his day. He was not even influenced by his friend the great and speedily became the oracle of the romanticists. Kisfaludy's critic Kazinczy, who gave the tone to the young classical material position had now greatly improved, but he could not writers of his day. Kisfaludy's art was self-taught, solitary shake off his old recklessness and generosity, and he was never and absolutely independent. If he imitated any one it was able to pay a tithe of his debts. The publication of Aurora so Petrarch; indeed his famous Himfy szerelmei (“The Loves engrossed his time that practically he abandoned the stage. But of Himfy'), as his collected sonnets are called, have won he contributed to Aurora ballads, epigrams, short epic pieces, for him the title of “The Hungarian Petrarch.” But and, best of all, his comic stories. Kisfaludy was in fact the the passion of Kisfaludy is far more sincere and real than founder of the school of Magyar humorists and his comic types ever Petrarch’s was, and he completely Magyarized everything amuse and delight to this day. When the folk-tale became he borrowed. After finishing the sonnets Kisfaludy devoted popular in Europe, Kisfaludy, set to work upon folk-tales also himself to more objective writing, as in the incomparable Regék, and produced (1828) some of the masterpieces of that genre. He which reproduce the scenery and the history of the delightful died on the 21st of November 1830. Six years later the great counties which surround Laķe Balaton. He also contributed literary society of Hungary, the Kisfaludy Társaság, was founded numerous tales and other pieces to Aurora. Far less successful to commemorate his genius. Apart from his own works it is were his plays, of which Hunyadi János (1816), by far the longest the supreme mcrit of Kisfaludy to have revived and nationalized drama in the Hungarian language, need alone be mentioned. the Magyar literature, giving it a range and scope undreamed of The best critical edition of Sándor Kisfaludy's works is the fourth before his time. complete edition, by David Angyal, in eight volumes (Budapest, The first edition of Kisfaludy's works, in 10 yolumes, appeared 1893). See Tamás Szana, The two Kisfaludys (Hung;) (Budapest, at Buda in 1831, shortly after his death, but the 7th edition (Budapest 1876); Imre Sándor, The Influence of the Italian on the Hungarian 1893) is the best and fullest. See Ferenc Toldy, Lives of the Magyar Literature (Hung.) (Budapest, 1878); Kálmán Sümegi, Kisfaludy Poets (Hung.) (Budapest, 1870); Zsolt Bcöthy, The Father of Hun and his Tales (Hung.) (Budapest, 1877). (R. N. B.) garian Comedy (Budapest, 1882); Tamás Szana, The Two Kisfaludys (Hung.) (Budapest, 1876). Kisfaludy's struggles and adventures KISH, or Kais (the first form is Persian and the second are also most vividly described in Jókai's novel, Eppur si muove Arabic), an island in the Persian Gulf. It is mentioned in the (Hung.). 12th century as being the residence of an Arab pirate from Oman, Sándor (ALEXANDER) KISFALUDY (1772-1844), Hungarian who exacted a tribute from the pearl fisheries of the gulf and had poet, elder brother of the preceding, was born at Lala on the 27th | the title of King of the Sea," and it rose to importance in the 836 KISHANGARH-KISMET a 13th century with the fall of Siraf as a transit station of the and skins, exported to Austria and 10 Odessa. The town played trade between India and the West. In the 14th century it was an important part in the war between Russia and Turkey in supplanted by Hormuz and lapsed into its former insignificance. 1877–78, as the chief centre of the Russian invasion. The island is nearly 10 m. long and 5 m. broad, and contains KISHM (also Arab. Jazirat ul-lawilah, Pers. Jazarih i daraz, a number of small villages, the largest, Mashi, with about 100 i.e. Long Island), an island at the mouth of the Persian Gull, houses, being situated on its north-eastern corner in 26° 34' N. separated from the Persian mainland by the Khor-i.Jafari, a and 54° 2' E. The highest part of the island has an elevation of strait which at its narrowest point is less than 2 m. broad. 120 ft. The inhabitants are Arabs, and nearly all pearl fishers, On British Admiralty charts it figures as Clarence Strait," possessing many boats, which they take to the pearl banks on the name given to it by British surveyors in 1828 in honour of the Arabian coast. The water supply is scanty and there is the duke of Clarence (William IV.). The island is 70 m. long, little vegetation, but sufficient for sustaining some flocks of its main axis running E.N.E. by W.S.W. Its greatest breadth sheep and goats and some cattle. Near the centre of the north is 22 m. and the mean breadth about 7 m. A range of hills coast are the ruins of the old city, now known as Harira, with from 300 to 600 ft. high, with strongly marked escarpments, remains of a mosque, with octagonal columns, masonry, water- runs nearly parallel to the southern coast; they are largely cisterns (two 150 ft. long, 40 ft. broad, 24 ft. deep) and a fine composed, like those of Hormuz and the neighbouring mainland, underground canal, or aqueduct, half a mile long and cut in the of rock salt, which is regularly quarried in several places, solid rock 20 ft. below the surface. Fragments of glazed tiles principally at Nimakdan (i.e. salt cellar) and Salakh on the and brown and blue pottery, of thin white and blue Chinese south coast, and forms one of the chief products of the island, porcelain, of green céladon (some with white scroll-work or finding its way to Muscat, India and Zanzibar. In the centre of figures in relief), glass beads, bangles, &c., are abundant. Kish the island some hills, consisting of sandstone and marl, rise to an is the Kataia of Arrian; Chisi and Quis of Marco Polo; Quixi, elevation of 1300 ft. In its general aspect the island is parched Queis, Caez, Cais, &c., of Portuguese writers; and Khenn, or and barren-looking, like the south of Persia, but it contains Kenn, of English. fertile portions, which produce grain, dates, grapes, melons, &c KISHANGARH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana Traces of naphtha were observed near Salakh, but extensive agency. Area, 858 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 90,970, showing a decrease boring operations in 1892 did not lead to any result. The of 27% in the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1900; town of Kishm (pop. 5000) is on the eastern extremity of the estimated revenue, £34,000; there is no tribute. The state was island. The famous navigator, William Baffin, was killed here founded in the reign of the emperor Akbar, by a younger son in January 1622 by a shot from the Portuguese castle close by, of the raja of Jodhpur. In 1818 Kishangarh first came into which a British force was then besieging. Lafit (Laſt, Leit), direct relations with the British government, by entering into a the next place in importance (reduced by a British fleet in 1809), treaty, together with the other Rajput states, for the suppression is situated about midway on the northern coast in the most of the Pindari marauders by whom the country was at that time fertile part of the island. There are also many flourishing overrun. The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the villages. At Basidu or Bassadore (correct name Baba Sa'idu), Rathor clan. Maharaja Madan Singh ascended the throne in 1900 on the western extremity of the island, the British government at the age of sixteen, and attended the Delhi Durbar of 1903 as a maintained until 1879 a sanatorium for the crews of their cadet in the Imperial Cadet Corps. The administration, under gunboats in the gulf, with barracks for a company of sepoys the diwan, is highly spoken of. Irrigation from tanks and wells belonging to the marine battalion at Bombay, workshops, has been extended; factories for ginning and pressing cotton have hospital, &c. The village is still British property, but its been started; and the social reform movement, for discouraging occupants are reduced to a couple of men in charge of a coal excessive expenditure on marriages, has been very successful. depot, a provision store and about 90 villagers. In December The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway. The town of 1896 a terrible earthquake destroyed about four-fifths of the KISHANGARH is 18 m. N.W. of Ajmere by rail. Pop. (1901), houses on the island and over 1000 persons lost their lives. 12,663. It is the residence of many Jain merchants. The total population is generally estimated at about 15,000 KISHINEV (Kishlanow of the Moldavians),a town of south-west to 20,000, but the German Admiralty's Segelhandbuch für den Russia, capital of the government of Bessarabia, situated on the Persischen Golf for 1907 has 40,000. right bank of the Byk, a tributary of the Dniester, and on the Kishm is the ancient Oaracta, or Vorochla, a name said to railway between Odessa and Jassy in Rumania, 120 m. W.N.W. have survived until recently in a village called Brokt, or Brokht. from the former. At the beginning of the 19th century it was It was also called the island of the Beni Kavan, from an Arab but a poor village, and in 1812 when it was acquired by Russia tribe of that name which came from Oman. (A. H.-S.) from Moldavia it had only 7000 inhabitants; twenty years later KISKUNFÉLEGYHÁZA, a town of Hungary, in the county its population numbered 35,000, while in 1862 it had with its of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 80 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. suburbs 92,000 inhabitants, and in 1900-125,787, composed of Pop. (1900), 33,242. Among the principal buildings are a fine the most varied nationalities-Moldavians, Walachians, Rus- town hall, a Roman Catholic gymnasium and a modern large sians, Jews (43%), Bulgarians, Tatars, Germans and Gypsies. parish church. The surrounding country is covered with A massacre (pogrom) of the Jews was perpetrated here in 1903. vineyards, fruit gardens, and tobacco and corn fields. The The town consists of two parts-the old or lower town, on the town itself, which is an important railway junction, is chiefly banks of the Byk, and the new or upper town, situated on high noted for its great cattle-market. Numerous Roman urns and crags, 450 to 500 ft. above the river. The wide suburbs are other ancient relics have been dug up in the vicinity. In the remarkable for their gardens, which produce great quantities of 17th century the town was completely destroyed by the Turks, fruits (especially plums, which are dried and exported), tobacco, and it was not recolonized and rebuilt till 1743. mulberry leaves for silkworms, and wine. The buildings of the KISLOVODSK, a town and health-resort of Russian town are sombre, shabby and low, but built of stone; and the Caucasia, in the province of Terek, situated at an altitude of streets, though wide and shaded by acacias, are mostly unpaved. 2690 ft., in a deep caldron-shaped valley on the N. side of the Kishinev is the seat of the archbishop of Bessarabia, and has Caucasus, 40 m. by rail S.W. of Pyatigorsk. Pop. (1897), cathedral, an ecclesiastical seminary with 800 students, a college, 4078. The limestone hills which surround the town rise by and a gardening sch a museum, a public library, a botanic successive steps or terraces, and contain numerous caves. The garden, and a sanatorium with sulphur springs. The town is mineral waters are strongly impregnated with carbonic acid adorned with statues of Tsar Alexander II. (1886) and the poet gas and have a temperature of 51° F. The principal spring Pushkin (1885). There are tallow-melting houses, steam flour is known as Narsan, and its water is called by the Circassians mills, candle and soap works, distilleries and tobacco factories. the “ drink of heroes.” The trade is very active and increasing, Kishinev being a centre KISMET, fate, destiny, a term used by Mahommedans to for the Bessarabian trade in grain, wine, tobacco, tallow, wool | express all the incidents and details of man's lot in life. The KISS-KISTNA 837 " word is the Turkish form of the Arabic gismal, from gasama, basin area of 97,000 sq. m., and its length is 800 m. Its source to divide. is held sacred, and is frequented by pilgrims in large numbers. KISS, the act of pressing or touching with the lips, cheek, From Mahabaleshwar the Kistna runs southward in a rapid hand or lips of another, as a sign or expression of love, affection, course into the nizam's dominions, then turns to the east, and reverence or greeting. Skeat (Etym. Dict., 1898) connects the ultimately falls into the sea by two principal mouths, carrying Teut. base kussa with Lat. gustus, taste, and with Goth, kustus, with it the waters of the Bhima from the north and the Tunga- test, from kinsan, to choose, and takes “ kiss” as ultimately a badhra from the south-west. Along this part of the coast runs doublet of “ choice." an extensive strip of land which has been entirely formed by the For the liturgical osculum pacis or “ kiss of peace," see Pax. See detritus washed down by the Kistna and Godavari. The river further C. Nyrop, The Kiss and its History, trans. by W. F. Harvey channel is throughout too rocky and the stream too rapid to (1902); J. J. Claudius, Dissertatio de salutationibus veterum (Utrecht, allow navigation even by small native craft. In utility for irri- 1702); and " Baisers d'étiquette" (1689) in Archives curieuses de gation the Kistna is also inferior to its two sister streams, the l'histoire de France (1834-1890, series ii. tom. 12). KISSAR, or GYTARAH BARBARYEH, the ancient Nubian lyre, Godavari and Cauvery. By far the greatest of its irrigation works still in use in Egypt and Abyssinia. It consists of a body is the Bezwada anicut, begun by Sir Arthur Cotton in 1852. having instead of the traditional tortoiseshell back a shallow, Bezwada is a small town at the entrance of the gorge by which round bowl of wood, covered with a sound-board of sheepskin, the Kistna bursts through the Eastern Ghats and immediately in which are three small round sound-holes. The arms, set spreads over the alluvial plain. The channel there is 1300 yds. through the sound-board at points distant about the third of the wide. During the dry season the depth of water is barely 6 ft., diameter from the circumference, have the familiar fan shape. but sometimes it rises to as much as 36 ft., the maximum flood Five gut strings, knotted round the bar and raised from the discharge being calculated at 1,188,000 cub. ft. per second. Of sound-board by means of a bridge tailpiece similar to that in use the two main canals connected with the dam, that on the left on the modern guitar, are plucked by means of a plectrum by bank breaks into two branches, the one running 39 m. to Ellore, the right hand for the melody, while the left hand sometimes the other 49 m. to Masulipatam. The canal on the right bank twangs some of the strings as a soft drone accompaniment. proceeds nearly parallel to he river, and So sends off two KISSINGEN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the principal branches, to Nizampatam and Comamur. The total kingdom of Bayaria, delightfully situated in a broad valley length of the main channels is 372 m. and the total area irrigated surrounded by high and well-wooded hills, on the Franconian in 1903-1904 was about 700,000 acres. Saale, 656 ft. above sea-level, 62 m. E. of Frankfort-on-Main, KISTNA (or KRISHNA), a district of British India, in the N.E. and 43 N.E.of Würzburg by rail. Pop. (1900), 4757. Its streets of the Madras Presidency. Masulipatam is the district head. are regular and its houses attractive. It has an Evangelical, an quarters. Area, 8490 sq. m. The district is generally a flat English, a Russian and three Roman Catholic churches, a theatre, country, but the interior is broken by a few low hills, the highest and various benevolent institutions, besides all the usual buildings which cuts the district into two portions, and the Munyeru, being 1857 ft. above sea-level. The principal rivers are the Kistna, for the lodging; cure and amusement of the numerous visitors who are attracted to this, the most popular watering-place in Paleru and Naguleru (tributaries of the Gundlakamma and Bavaria. In the Kurgarten, a tree-shaded expanse between the the Kistna); the last only is navigable. The Kolar lake, which Kurhaus and the handsome colonnaded Konversations-Saal, are covers an area of 21 by 14 m., and the Romparu swamp are the three principal springs, the Rákóczy, the Pandur and the natural receptacles for the drainage on the north and south sides Maxbrunnen, of which the first two, strongly impregnated of the Kistna respectively. with iron and salt, have a temperature of 51.26° F.; the last In 1901 the population was 2,154,803, showing an increase or (50.72°) is like Selters or Seltzer water. At short distances 16% in the decade. Subsequently the area of the district was from the town are the intermittent artesian spring Solensprudel, reduced by the formation of the new district of Guntur (q.v.), the · Schönbornsprudel and the Theresienquelle; and in the though Kistna received an accretion of territory from Godavari same valley as Kissingen are the minor spas of Bocklet and district. The population in 1901 on the area as reconstituted Brückenau. The waters of Kissingen are prescribed for both (5899 sq. m.) was 1,744,138. The Kistna delta system of irriga- internal and external use in a great variety of discases. They tion canals, which are available also for navigation, connect with are all highly charged with salt, and productive government the Godavari system. The principal crops are rice, millets, salt-works were at one time stationed near Kissingen. The pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, indigo, tobacco and a little sugar-cane. number of persons who visit the place amounts to about 20,000 There are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton. The a year. The manufactures of the town, chiefly carriages and cigars known in England as Lunkas are partly made from to- furniture, are unimportant; there is also a trade in fruit and bacco grown on lankas or islands in the Kistna. The manufacture wine. of chintzes at Masulipatam is a decaying industry, but cotton is The salt springs were known in the 9th century, and their woven everywhere for domestic use. Salt is evaporated, under medicinal properties were recognized in the 16th, but it was government supervision, along the coast. Bezwada, at the head only during the 19th century that Kissingen became a popular of the delta, is a place of growing importance, as the central resort. The town belonged to the counts of Henneberg until junction of the East Coast railway system, which crosses the 1394, when it was sold to the bishop of Würzburg. With this inland portion of the district in three directions. Some sea- bishopric it passed later to Bavaria. On the oth of July 1866 borne trade, chiefly coasting, carried on at the open roadsteads the Prussians defeated the Bavarians with great slaughter near of Masulipatam and Nizampatam, both in the delta. The Kissingen. On the 13th of July 1874 the town was the scene Church Missionary Society supports a college at Masulipatam. of the attempt of the fanatic Kullmann to assassinate Prince The early history of Kistna is inseparable from that of the Bismarck, to whom a statue has been erected. There are also northern Circars. Dharanikota and the adjacent town of Amra- monuments to Kings Louis I. and Maximilian I. of Bavaria. vati were the seats of early Hindu and Buddhist govern- See Balling, Die Heilquellen und Bäder zu Kissingen (Kissingen, ments; and the more modern Rajahmundry owed its importance 1886); A. Sotier, Bad Kissingen (Leipzig, 1883), Werner, Bad to later dynasties. The Chalukyas here gave place to the Cholas, Kissingen als Kurort (Berlin, 1904); Leusser, Kissingen für Herz- who in turn were ousted by the Reddi kings, who flourished kranke (Würzburg, 1902): Diruf, Kissingen und seine Heilquellen during the 14th century, and built the forts of Bellamkonda, (Würzburg, 1892); and Roth, Bad Kissingen (Würzburg, 1901). Kondavi and Kondapalli in the north of the district, while the KISTNA, or KRISHNA, a large river of southern India. It Gajapati dynasty of Orissa ruled in the north. Afterwards the rises near the Bombay sanatorium of Mahabaleshwar in the entire district passed to the Kutb Shahis of Golconda, until Western Ghats, only about 40 m. from the Arabian Sea, and, as annexed to the Mogul empire by Aurangzeb in 1687. Meantime it discharges into the Bay of Bengal, it thus flows across almost the English 'had in 1611 established a small factory at Masulipa- the entire peninsula from west to east. It has an estimated I tam, where they traded with varying fortune from 1759, when, 838 KIT- (6 masters. -KITE Masulipatam being captured from the French by Colonel Forde, | he received the C.B. in 1889 after the action of Toski. In 1892 with a force sent by Lord Clive from Calcutta, the power of the Colonel Kitchener succeeded Sir Francis (Lord) Grenfell as sirdar English in the greater part of the district was complete. of the Egyptian army, and three years later, when he had com- KIT (1) (probably an adaptation of the Middle Dutch kitte, pleted his predecessor's work of re-organizing the forces of the a wooden tub, usually with a lid and handles; in modern Dutch khedive, he began the formation of an expeditionary force on kit means a tankard), a tub, basket or pail used for holding milk, the vexed military frontier of Wady Halſa. The advance into butter, eggs, fish and other goods; also applied to similar recep the Sudan (see Egypt, Military Operations) was prepared by tacles for various domestic purposes, or for holding a workman's thorough administrative work on his part which gained universal tools, &c. By transference “ kit " came to mean the tools them- admiration. In 1896 Kitchener won the action of Ferket selves, but more commonly personal effects such as clothing, (June 7) and advanced the frontier and the railway to Dongola. especially that of a soldier or sailor, the word including the knap. In 1897 Sir Archibald Hunter's victory of Abu Hamed (Aug. 7) sack or other receptacle in which the effects are packed. carried the Egyptian flag one stage farther, and in 1898 the (2) The name (perhaps a corruption of cittern Gr. Kilapa) resolve to destroy the Mahdi's power was openly indicated by of a small violin, about 16 in. long, and played with a bow the despatch of a British force to co-operate with the Egyptians. of nearly the same length, much used at one time by dancing. The sirdar, who in 1896 became a British major-general and The French name is pochette, the instrument being received the K.C.B., commanded the united force, which stormed small enough to go into the pocket. the Mahdist zareba on the river Atbara on the 8th of April, and, KITAZATO, SHIBASABURO (1856– ), Japanese doctor of the outposts being soon afterwards advanced to Metem meh and medicine, was born at Kumamoto in 1856 and studied in Shendy, the British force was augmented to the strength of a Germany under Koch from 1885 to 1891. He became one of the division for the final advance on Khartum. Kitchener's work foremost bacteriologists of the world, and enjoyed the credit of was crowned and the power of the Mahdists utterly destroyed having discovered the bacilli of tetanus, diphtheria and plague, by the victory of Omdurman (Sept. 2), for which he was raised the last in conjunction with Dr Aoyama, who accompanied him to the peerage as Baron Kitchener of Khartoum, received the to Hong-Kong in 1894 during an epidemic at that place. G.C.B., the thanks of parliament and a grant of £30,000. Little KIT-CAT CLUB, a club of Whig wits, painters, politicians more than a year afterwards, while still sirdar of the Egyptian and men of letters, founded in London about 1703. The name army, he was promoted lieutenant-general and appointed chief- was derived from that of Christopher Cat, the keeper of the pie-of-staff to Lord Roberts in the South African War (sce TRANS- house in which the club met in Shire Lane, near Temple Bar. VAAL, History). In this capacity he served in the campaign of The meetings were afterwards held at the Fountain tavern in Paardeberg, the advance on Bloemfontein and the subsequent the Strand, and latterly in a room specially built for the purpose northward advance to Pretoria, and on Lord Roberts' return to at Barn Elms, the residence of the secretary, Jacob Tonson, England in November 1900 succeeded him as commander-in- the publisher. In summer the club met at the Upper Flask, chief, receiving at the same time the local rank of general. In Hampstead Heath. The club originally consisted of thirty-nine, June 1902 the long and harassing war came to its close, and afterwards of forty-eight members, and included among others Kitchener was rewarded by advancement to the dignity of the duke of Marlborough, Lords Halifax and Somers, Sir Robert viscount, promotion to the substantive rank of general “ for Walpole, Vanbrugh, Congreve, Steele and Addison. The por distinguished service," the thanks of parliament and a grant of traits of many of the members were painted by Sir Godfrey £50,000. He was also included in the Order of Merit. Kneller, himself a member, of a uniform size suited to the height Immediately after the pea he went to India as commander- of thc Barn Elms room in which the club dined. The canvas, in-chief in the East Indies, and in this position, which he held 36 X 28 in., admitted of less than a half-length portrait but for seven years, he carried out not only many far-reaching was sufficiently long to include a hand, and this is known as the administrative reforms but a complete re-organization and strate- kit-cat size. The club was dissolved about 1720. gical redistribution of the British and native forces. On leaving KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as India in 1909 he was promoted field marshal, and succeeded the Dutch keuken, Ger. Küche, Dan. kökken, Fr. cuisine, are formed dukę of Connaught as commander-in-chief and high commis- from the Low Lat. cuciina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook), the sioner in the Mediterranean. This post, not of great importance room or place in a house set apart for cooking, in which the in itself, was regarded as a virtual command of the colonial as culinary and other domestic utensils are kept. The range or distinct from the home and the Indian forces, and on his appoint- cooking-stove fitted with boiler for hot water, oven and other ment Lord Kitchener (after a visit to Japan) undertook a tour of appliances, is often known as a “ kitchener" (see Cookery and inspection of the forces of the empire, and went to Australia HEATING). Archaeologists have used the term “ kitchen-midden,” and New Zealand in order to assist in drawing up local schemes of i.e. kitchen rubbish-heap (Danish kökken-mödding) for the rubbish defence. In this mission he was highly successful, and earned heaps of prehistoric man, containing bones, remains of edibleshell-golden opinions. But soon after his return to England in fish, implements, &c. (see SHELL-HEAPs). Midden,” in Middle April 1910 he declined to take up his Mediterranean appoint- English mydding, is a Scandinavian word, from myg, muck, ment, owing to his dislike of its inadequate scope, and he was filth, and dyng, heap; the latter word gives the English " dung.” succeeded in June by Sir Ian Hamilton. KITCHENER, HORATIO HERBERT KITCHENER, VISCOUNT KITE,' the Falco milvus oi Linnaeus and Milvus ictinus of (1850- ), British field marshal, was the son of Lieut.-Colonel modern ornithologists, once probably the most familiar bird of H. H. Kitchener and was born at Bally Longford, Co. Kerry, prey in Great Britain, and now one of the rarest. Three or four on the 24th of June 1850. He entered the Royal Military hundred years ago foreigners were struck with its abundance in Academy, Woolwich, in 1868, and was commissioned second the streets of London. It was doubtless the scavenger in ordinary lieutenant, Royal Engineers, in 1871. As a subaltern he of that and other large towns (as kindred species now are in was employed in survey work in Cyprus and Palestine, and Eastern lands), except where its place was taken by the raven; on promotion to captain in 1883 was attached to the Egyptian for Sir Thomas Browne (c. 1662) wrote of the latter at Norwich- army, then in course of re-organization under British officers. “ in good plentie about the citty which makes so few kites to be In the following year he served on the staff of the British expedi- seen hereabout." John Wolley has well remarked of the modern tionary force on the Nile, and was promoted successively major Londoners that few “who see the paper toys hovering over the and lieutenant-colonel by brevet for his services. From 1886 toparks in fine days of summer, have any idea that the bird from 1888 he was commandant at Suakin, commanding and receiving which they derive their name used to float all day in hot weather a severe wound in the action of Handub in 1888. In 1888 he high over the heads of their ancestors.” Even at the begin- commanded a brigade in the actions of Gamaizieh and Toski. ning of the 19th century the kite formed a feature of many From 1889 to 1892 he served as adjutant-general of the army. ! In 0.E. is cýta; no related word appears in cognate languages. He had become brevet-colonel in the British army in 1888, and | Glede, cognate with glide," is also another English name. » 66 " KITE-FLYING 839 " 2 à rural landscape in England, as they had done in the days of India),' the M. melanotis of Eastern Asia, and the M. affinis and when the poet Cowper wrote of them. But an evil time soon M. isurus; the last is by some authors removed to another genus came upon the species. It must have been always hated by the or sub-genus as Lophoictinia, and is peculiar to Australia, while henwife, but the resources of civilization in the shape of the gun M. afinis also occurs in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay and the gin were denied to her. They were, however, employed countries as well. All these may be considered true kites, while with fatal zeal by the gamekeeper; for the kite, which had long those next to be mentioned are more aberrant forms. First there afforded the supremest sport to the falconer, was now left friend is Elanus, the type of which is E. caeruleus, a beautiful little bird, less,"l and in a very few years it seems to have been exterminated the black-winged kite of English authors, that comes to the south throughout the greater part of England, certain woods in the of Europe from Africa, and has several congeners-E. axillaris Western Midlands, as well as Wales, excepted. In these latter and E. scriptus of Australia being most worthy of notice. An a small remnant still exists; but the well-wishers of this beautiful extreme development of this form is found in the African species are naturally chary of giving information that might lead Nauclerus riocourii, as well as in Elanoides furcatus, the swallow- to its further persecution. In Scotland there is no reason to tailed kite, a widely-ranging bird in America, and remarkable suppose that its numbers suffered much diminution until about for its length of wing and tail, which gives it a marvellous power 1835, or even later, when the systematic destruction of “vermin of flight, and serves to explain the unquestionable fact of its on so many moors was begun. In Scotland, however, it is now having twice appeared in Great Britain. To Elanus also Ictinia, as much restricted to certain districts as in England or Wales, another American form, is allied, though perhaps more remotely, and those districts it would be most inexpedient to indicate. and it is represented by I. mississippiensis, the Mississippi kite, The kite is, according to its sex, from 25 to 27 in. in length, which is by some considered to be but the northern race of the about one half of which is made up by its deeply forked tail, Neotropical I. plumbea. Gampsonyx, Rostrhamus and Cymindis, capable of great expansion, and therefore a powerful rudder, all belonging to the Neotropical region, complete the series of enabling the bird while soaring on its wide wings, more than forms that seem to compose the sub-family Milvinae, though 5 ft. in extent, to direct its circling course with scarcely a move- there may be doubt about the last, and some systematists ment that is apparent to the spectator below. Its general colour would thereto add the perns or honey-buzzards, Perninae. is pale reddish-brown or cinnamon, the head being greyish-white, (A. N.) but almost each feather has the shaft dark. The tail feathers are KITE-FLYING, the art of sending up into the air, by means of broad, of a light red, barred with deep brown, and furnish the the wind, light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or salmon fisher with one of the choicest materials of his "flies.” cloth (called kites, after the bird-in German Drache, dragon), The nest, nearly always built in the crotch of a large tree, is which are attached to long cords or wires held in the hand or formed of sticks intermixed with many strange substances wound on a drum. When made in the common diamond form, collected as chance may offer, but among them rags ? seem always or triangular with a semicircular head, kites usually have a to have a place. The eggs, three or four in number, are of a dull pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The tradition white, spotted and blotched with several shades of brown, and is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four often lilac. It is especially mentioned by old authors that in centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use Great Britain the kite was resident throughout the year; whereas among Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New on the Continent it is one of the most regular and marked Zealand from time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been migrants, stretching its wings towards the south in autumn, a national pastime of the Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese, wintering in Africa, and returning in spring to the land of its Annamese, Malays and East Indians. It is less popular among birth. the peoples of Europe. The origin of the sport, although obscure, There is a second European species, not distantly related, the is usually ascribed to religion. With the Maoris it still retains Milvus migrans or M. ater of most authors, smaller in size, with a a distinctly religious character, and the ascent of the kite is general dull blackish-brown plumage and a less forked tail. In accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans some districts this is much commoner than the red kite, and on attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago, one occasion it has appeared in England. Its habits are very like inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached, those of the species already described, but it seems to be more which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of addicted to fishing. Nearly allied to this black kite are the divine succour. Another Korean general is said to have been M. aegyptius of Africa, the M. govinda (the common pariah kite the first to put the kite to mechanical uses by employing one to span a stream with a cord, which was then fastened to a cable "George, third earl of Orford, died in 1791, and Colonel Thornton, and formed the nucleus of a bridge. In Korea, Japan and China, who with him had been the latest follower of this highest branch of and indeed throughout Eastern Asia, even the tradespeople may the art of falconry, broke up, his hawking establishment not many years after. There is no evidence that the pursuit of the kite was be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting for customers. in England or any other country reserved to kings or privileged Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as birds, persons, but the taking of it was quite beyond the powers of the dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as ordinary trained falcons, and in older days, practically became limited to those of the sovereign. Hence the kite had attached to much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bam- it, especially in France, the epithet of "royal," which has still boo strips covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the survived in the specific appellation of regalis applied to it by many ninth day of the ninth month is “ Kites' Day," when men and Ornithologists. The scandalous work of Sir Antony Weldon (Court boys of all classes betake themselves to neighbouring eminences and Character of King James, p. 104) bears witness to the excellence and fly their kites. Kite-fighting is a feature of the pastime in of the kite as a quarry in an amusing story of the" British Solomon, whose master-falconer, Sir Thomas Monson, being determined to Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is usually stiffened with a outdo the performance of the French king's falconer, who, when sent mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain. The kite-flyer to England to show sport, “could not kill one kite, ours being more manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his adversary, magnanimous than the French kite," at last succeeded, after an outlay of £1000, in getting a cast of hawks that took 'nine kites then allows his cord to drift against his enemy's, and by a sudden running-" never missed one." On the strength of this, James was jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays induced to witness a flight at Royston, but the kite went to such possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan à mountee as all the field lost sight of kite and hawke and all, and of Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a neither kite nor hawke were cither seen or heard of to this present." 2. Thus justifying the advice of Shakespeare's Autolycus (Winter's collection of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear Tale, iv. 3)—“When the kite builds, look to lesser linen "--very one or more perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive necessary in the case of the laundresses in olden time, when the sound that can be heard for great distances. The ignorant, bird commonly frequented their drying-grounds. Dr R. Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. i. 322) calls it believing that these kites frighten away evil spirits, often keep M. korschun, but the figure of S. G. Gmelin's Accipiter Korschun, them flying all night over their houses. whence the name is taken, unquestionably represents the moor. - The Brahminy kite of India, Haliastur Indus, seems to be rather buzzard (Circus aeruginosus). a fishing eagle. 840 KIT-FOX-KITTO &6 9) There are various metaphorical uses of the term “kite-flying,' Military Use. A kite forms so extremely simple a method of such as in commercial slang, when “Aying a kite ” means raising liſting anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been money on credit (cf. “ raising the wind ”), or in political slang for suggested as being suitable for various military purposes, such seeing " how the wind blows.” And “flying-kites," in nautical as signalling to a long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or language, are the topmost sails. semaphores. Kites have been used both in the army and in Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the the navy for floating torpedoes on hostile positions. As much 18th century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable as two miles of line have been paid out. For purposes of photo- kite experiment, by which he attracted electricity from the air graphy a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable height and demonstrated the electrical nature of lightning. A more may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a systematic use of kites for scientific purposes may, however, be bird's-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric said to date from the experiments made in the last quarter of the wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs. 19th century. (E. B.) bave been thus obtained in England and America. Meteorological Use.—Many European and American meteoro- The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by logical services employ kites regularly, and obtain information a captive balloon is a still more important one. The chief military not only of the temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity advantages to be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2) of the air above. The kites used are mostly modifications of the they can be used in a strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to so-called box-kites, invented by L. Hargrave. Roughly these damage, either from the enemy's fire or from trees, &c., and are Kites may be said to resemble an ordinary box with the two ends easier to mend; (4) they can be brought into use more quickly; removed, and also the middle part of each of the four sides. The (5) they are very much cheaper, both in construction and in original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a rectangular maintenance, not requiring any costly gas. section; in Russia a semicircular section with the curved part Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June. facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamond- 1894 constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, with shaped section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to which he successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He its simplicity of construction. Stability depends on a multitude afterwards improved the contrivance, using five or six smaller of small details of construction, and long practice and experience kites attached together in preference to one large one. With are required to make a really good kite. The sizes most in use this arrangement he frequently ascended as high as 100 ft. The have from 30 to 80 sq. ft. of sail area. There is no difficulty kites were hexagonal, being 12 ft. high and 12 ft. across. The about raising a kite to a vertical height of one or even two miles apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes into a simple on suitable days, but heights exceeding three miles are seldom roll, weighed in all about i cwt. This appliance was proved to reached. On the 29th of November 1905 at Lindenberg, the be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a train of retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut. six kites attained an altitude of just four miles. The total lifting H.D. Wise made some trials in America in 1897 with some large surface of these six kites was nearly 300 sq. ft., and the length of kites of the Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously him- wire a little over nine miles. The kites are invariably flown on self ascended in Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft. à steel aire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is above the ground. In the Russian army a military kite apparatus not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure has also been tried, and was in evidence at the manquvres in upon it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material 1898. Experiments have also been carried out by most of the that possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the European powers. (B. F. S. B.-P.) smallest possible size. Steel piano wire meets this requirement, KIT-FOX (Canis (Vulpes) velox), a small fox, from north- for a wire of the in. diameter will weigh about 16 lb to the western America, measuring less than a yard in length, with a mile, and stand a strain of some 250-280 lb before it breaks. tail of nearly a third this length. There is a good deal of varia- Some stations prefer to use one long piece of wire of the same tion in the colour of the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A gauge throughout without a join, others prefer to start with specimen in the Zoological Gardens of London had the back and a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker wire as more kites tail dark grey, the tail tipped with black, and a rufous wash on are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows. The first the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer surface of the limbs, with kite is started either with the self-recording instruments secured the under surface white. The specific name was given on in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it.. Wire account of the extraordinary swiftness of the animal. (See is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the CARNIVORA.) strength of the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the per hour. The quantity that one kite will take depends on the son of a mason at Plymouth, where he was born on the 4th of kite and on the wind, but roughly speaking it may be said that December 1804. An accident brought on deafness, and in each 10 sq. ft. of lifting surface on the kite should carry 1000 November 1819 he was sent to the workhouse, where he was ft. of 3's in. wire without difficulty. When as much wire as employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund was raised on his can be carried comfortably has run out another kite is attached behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the guardians, to the line, and the paying out is continued; after a time a third having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of making is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain upon the wire, use of a public library. After preparing a small volume of and moreover adds to the height and makes it more uncertain miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds dentistry with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In 1825 he to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way obtained congenial employment in the printing office of the the risk of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very Church Missionary Society at Islington, and in 1827 was trans- uncertain and is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an ferred to the same society's establishment at Malta. There exceptional height the wire must be strained nearly to its break- he remained for eighteen months, but shortly after his return ing point, and under such conditions 'a small increase in the to England he accompanied Groves and other friends on a private strength of the wind will break the wire, it follows that great missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained personal heights can only be attained by those who are willing to risk the knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards applied trouble and expense of frequently having their wire and train with tact and skill in the illustration of biblical scenes and of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor in kite- incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was flying. In the S. E. of England in winter it is possible on about broken up, and in 1832 Kitto returned to England. On arriving two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of in London he was engaged in the preparation of various serial three. The usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, a few days when the wind is too strong. (For meteorological the most important of which were the Pictorial History of Palestine results, &c., see METEOROLOGY.) (W. H. Dı.) and the Pictorial Bible. The Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, KITTUR-KIWI 841 edited under his superintendence, appeared in two volumes in trade of the port amounted in 1902 to £2,854,704, and in 1904 1843–1845 and passed through three editions. His Daily Bible to £3,489,816, of which £1,726,506 were imports and £1,763,310 Illustrations (8 vols. 1849-1853) received an appreciation which exports. In 1904 322,266 lb. of opium were imported. is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of £too from KIUSTENDIL, the chief town of a department in Bulgaria, the civil list. In August 1854 he went to Germany for the waters situated in a mountainous country, on a small affluent of the of Cannstatt on the Neckar. where on the 25th of November Struma, 43 m. S.W. of Sofia by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,353. he died. The streets are narrow and uneven, and the majority of the See Kitto's own work, The Lost Senses (1845): J. E. Ryland's houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly notable for its Memoirs of Kitto (1856); and John Eadie's Life of Kitto (1857). hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are nine KITTUR, a village of British India, in the Belgaum district bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver of Bombay; pop. (1901), 4922. It contains a ruined fort, are obtained from mines near Kiustendil , and vines, tobacco formerly the residence of a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a and fruit are largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the disputed succession to this chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray, Roman period, when the town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia an uncle of the novelist, was killed when approaching the fort Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurelii. In the roth century it became under a flag of truce; and a nephew of Sir Thomas Munro, the seat of a bishopric, being then and during the later middle governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort was stormed. ages known by the Slavonic name of Velbuzhd. After the KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession on the Main, 95 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the of Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who junction of the main-lines to Passau, Würzburg and Schweinfurt. ruled over northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 300 yards long, connects it with killed by the Turks in 1394. In the 15th century Kiustendil its suburb Étwashausen on the left bank of the river. A railway Konstantinova Banya (Constantine's Bath), from which has was known as Velbushka Banya, and more commonly as bridge also spans the Main at this point. Kitzingen is still surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical developed the Turkish name Kiustendil. and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a KIVU, a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or town-hall, a grammar school, a richly endowed hospital and Albertine) rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into two old convents. Its chief industries are brewing, cask which it discharges its waters by the Rusizi River. On the making and the manufacture of cement and colours. Con north it is separated from the basin of the Nile by a line of siderable trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is carried on by volcanic peaks., The length of the lake is about 55 m., and its boats on the Main. Kitzingen possessed a Benedictine abbey greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including islands, of about 1100 sq. m. in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and is Würzburg. roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west. The coast-line is much broken, especially on the south-east, See F. Bernbeck, Kitzinger Chronik 745-1565 (Kitzingen, 1899). where the indentations present a fjord-like character. The * KIU-KIANG FU, a prefecture and prefectural city in the lake is deep, and the shores are everywhere high, rising in places province of Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on in bold precipitous cliffs of volcanic rock. A large island, the south bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, 15 m. above the point Kwijwi or Kwichwi, oblong in shape and traversed by a hilly where the Kan Kiang flows into that river from the Po-yang ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of the lake, south- lake, stands in 29° 42' N. and 116° 8' E. The north face of the west of the centre, and there are many smaller islands. The city is separated from the river by only the width of a roadway, lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South and two large lakes lie on its west and south fronts. The walls of Kivu the riſt-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than usually the Rusizi now breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges, strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in emerging from the lake in a foaming torrent, and descending China, Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under 2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at the head of Tanganyika. the Tsin dynasty (A.D. 265-420), it was known as Sin-Yang, The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one, presenting no under the Liang dynasty (502-557) as Kiang Chow, under the affinities with the marine or“ halolimnic" fauna of Tanganyika Suy dynasty (589-618) as Kiu-Kiang, under the Sung dynasty and other Central African lakes, but is similar to that shown (960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming dynasty (1368- by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the 1644). it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang has rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction played its part in the history of the empire, and has been re- seems to have been blocked in recent geological times by the peatedly besieged and sometimes taken, the last time being elevation of the volcanic peaks which dammed back the water, in February 1853, when the T'ai-p’ing rebels gained possession causing it finally to overflow to the south. This volcanic region of the city. After their manner they looted and utterly de- is of great interest and has various names, that most used being stroyed it, leaving only the remains of a single street to repre- Mfumbiro (q.v.), though this name is sometimes restricted to a sent the once flourishing town. The position of Kiu-Kiang on single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first heard of by J. H. the Yangtsze-kiang and its proximity to the channels of internal Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until 1894, when communication through the Po-yang lake, more especially to Count von Götzen passed through the country on his journey those leading to the green-tea-producing districts of the provinces across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were sub- of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as sequently explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bethe, E. S. one of the treaty ports to be opened under the terms of his Grogan, J. E. S. Moore, and Major St Hill Gibbons. The treaty (1861). Unfortunately, however, it stands above instead ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood was claimed by the of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has proved to Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being settled be a decided drawback to its success as a commerical port. in 1910, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The The immediate effect of opening the town to foreign trade was frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and to raise the population in one year from 10,000 to 40,000. The the west shore of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to population in 1908, exclusive of foreigners, was officially esti- Belgium. mated at 36,000. The foreign settlement extends westward from See R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904), and Karte des Kivusees, the city, along the bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded 1: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902); E. S. on its extreme west by the P’un river, which there runs into Grogan and A. H. Sharpe, From the Cape to Cairo (London, 1900); the Yangtsze. The bund, which is 500 yards long, was erected E: Moore, To the Mountains of the Moon (London, 1901); by the foreign community. The climate is good, and though A. St H. Gibbons, Africa from South to North, it. (London, 1904). hot in the summer months is invariably cold and bracing in the KIWI, or KIWI-KIWI, the Maori name-first apparently winter. According to the customs returns the value of the I introduced to zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (Mon. ) 842 KIWI d'Ornithologie, ii. 210, or Voy. de la “ Coquille," zoologie, p. 418), Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and the author called and now very generally adopted in English--of one of the most upon all interested in zoology to aid in further research as to this characteristic forms of New Zealand birds, the Apteryx of singular form. In consequence of this appeal a legless skin was scientific writers. This remarkable bird was unknown till within two years sent to the society (Proceedings, 1835, p: 61) George Shaw described and figured it in 1813 (Nal. Miscellany, obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second pls. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from the he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a southern coast of that country by Captain Barcley of the ship fortnight, while in less than another couple of years additional “Providence.” At Shaw's death, in the same year, it passed information (op. cit., 1837, p. 24) came from T. K. Short to the effect that he had seen two living, and that all Yarrell had said was substantially correct, except underrating its progressive powers. Not long afterwards Lord Derby received and in March 1838 transmitted to the same society the trunk and viscera of an A pleryx, which, being entrusted to Sir R. Owen, furnished that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other specimens of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett, with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the society in instalments, and ultimately printed in its Transactions (ii. 257; ii. 277). From this time the whole structure of the kiwi has certainly been far better known than that of nearly any other bird, and by degrees other examples found their way to England, some of which were distributed to the various museums of the Continent and of America.3 In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery of another species of the genus (Proceedings, 1847, p. 51), and though the story was not confirmed, a second species was really soon after made known by John Gould (tom. cit., p. 93; Transac- tions, vol. iii. p. 379, pl. 57) under the name of Apteryx oweni-a just tribute to the great master who had so minutely explained Kiwi. the anatomy of the group. Three years later A. D. Bartlett drew attention to the manifest difference existing among into the possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th earl of certain examples, all of which had hitherto been regarded as Derby, and president of the Zoological Society, and it is now specimens of A. australis, and the examination of a large series with the rest of his collection in the Liverpool Museum. Con- sidering the state of systematic ornithology at the time, Shaw's led him to conclude that under that name two distinct species were confounded. To the second of these, the third of the assignment of a position to this new and strange bird, of which he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said it seemed (Proceedings, 1850, p. 274), and it soon turned out that to this genus (according to his views), he gave the name of A. mantelli to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous new form the majority of the specimens already obtained tribes than to any other.” And his credit is still greater when belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to have reached England we find the venerable John Latham, who is said to have alive was presented to the Zoological Society by Eyre, then examined the specimen with Shaw, placing it some years later lieutenant-governor of New Zealand. This was found to among the penguins (Gen. Hist . Birds, x. 394), being appar; belong to the newly described A. mantelli, and some careful ently led to that conclusion through its functionless wings and observations on its habits in captivity were published by John the backward situation of its legs. In this false allocation, James Wolley and another (Zoologist, pp. 3409, 3605). Subsequently Francis Stephens also in 1826 acquiesced (Gen. Zoology, xiii . the society has received several other live examples of this form, 70). Meanwhile in 1820 K. J. Temminck, who had never seen a specimen, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which besides one of the real A. australis (Proceedings, 1872, p. 861), he applied the name of Inerles (Man. d'Ornithologie, i. cxiv.). Characterized in 1871 by Potts (Ibis, 1872, p. 35; Trans. N. Zeal. some of A. oweni, and one of a supposed fourth species, A. haasti, In 1831 R. P. Lesson, who had previously (loc. cit.) made some Institute, iy. 204; v. 195).5 blunders about it, placed it (Traité d'Ornithologie, p. 12), though The kiwis form a group of the subclass Ratitae to which the only, as he says, par analogie et a priori,” in his first division rank of an order may fitly be assigned, as they differ in many of birds, “ Oiseaux Anomaux,” which is equivalent to what we important particulars from any of the other existing forms of now call Ratitae, making of it a separate family “ Nullipennes.” Ratite birds. The most obvious feature the Apteryges afford, At that time no second example was known, and some doubt is the presence of a back toe, while the extremely aborted was felt, especially on the Continent, as to the very existence condition of the wings, the position of the nostrils—almost at of such a bird '--though Lesson had himself when in the Bay the tip of the maxilla—and the absence of an after-shaft in of Islands in April 1824 (Voy." Coquille," ut supra) heard of it; the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, and others not and a few years later J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville had seen its less determinative, though more recondite, will be found on skin, which the naturalists of his expedition procured, worn as a examination. The kiwis are peculiar to New Zealand, and it tippet by a Maori chief at Tolaga Bay (Houa-houa), and in 1830 gave what proves to be on the whole very accurate in- : In 1842, according to Broderip (Penny Cyclopaedia, xxiii. 146), formation concerning it (Voy.“ Astrolabe,” ii . 107). To put all Company, and two more obtained by Lord Derby, one of which he two had been presented to the Zoological Society by the New Zealand suspicion at rest, Lord Derby, sent his unique specimen for had given to Gould. In 1844 the British Museum possessed three, exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological Society, on the 12th of and the sale catalogue of the Rivoli Collection, which passed in 1846 February 1833 (Proc. Zool. Society, 1833, p. 24), and a few months to the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, includes a later (tom. cit., p. 80) William Yarrell communicated to that body single specimen probably the first taken to America. • This bird in 1859 laid an egg, and afterwards continued to lay one a complete description of it, which was afterwards published in or two more every year. male of the same species was full with an excellent portrait (Trans. Zool. Society, vol. i. p. 71, introduced, but though a strong disposition to breed was shown pl. 10). Herein the systematic place of the species, as akin to the on the part of both, and the eggs, after the custom of the Ratitae, were incubated by him, no progeny was hatched (Proceedings, 1868, ? Cuvier in the second edition of his Règne Animal only referred to P. 329), it in a footnote (i. 498). A fine series of figures of all these supposed species is given by ? Cruise in 1822 (Journ. Residence in New Zealand, p. 313) had Rowley (Or. Miscellany, vol. i. pls. 1-6). Some others, as A. spoken of an "emeu found in that island, which must of course maxima, A. mollis, and A. fusca have also been indicated, but have been an Apteryx. proof of their validity has yet to be adduced. 6 In 2 KIZILBASHES-KLADNO 843 is believed that A. mantelli is the representative in the North two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to flood- Island of the southern A. australis, both being of a dark reddish- ing. The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has brown, longitudinally striped with light yellowish-brown, while Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings A. oweni, of a light greyish-brown transversely barred with include the Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery, black, is said to occur in both islands. About the size of a founded by the Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian large domestic fowl, they are birds of nocturnal habit, sleeping, church of SS Peter and Paul, remarkable for its size and wealth: or at least inactive, by day, feeding mostly on earth-worms, The population is mainly supported by the gardens and vine- but occasionally swallowing berries, though in captivity they yards irrigated by canals from the river. A government will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Briller writes (B. of vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 31 m. from the New Zealand, p. 362); town. About 1,200,000 gallons of Kizlyar wine are sold “The kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of annually at the fair of Nizhniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are wings by its swiftness of foot. When running it makes wide strides woven. Kizlyar is mentioned as early as 1616, but the most and carries the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched notable accession of inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and to its full extent and inclined forwards. In the twilight it moves Persians) took place in 1715. Its importance as a fortress about cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at this time it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer kept in repair. posture, the body generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance; KIZYL-KUM, a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the and it sometimes, but only rarely, supports itself by resting the point Aral Lake between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the river of its bill on the ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the Amu-darya on the S.W. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is daytime, gaping its mandibles in a very grotesque manner, When provoked it erects the body, and, raising the foot to the breast, in part covered with drift-sand or dunes, many of which are strikes downwards with considerable force and rapidity, thus using advancing slowly but steadily towards the S.W. In character its sharp and powerful claws as weapons of defence. While they resemble those of the neighbouring Kara-kum desert (see hunting for its food the bird makes a continual sniffing sound through KARA-KUM). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W. towards the nostrils, which are placed at the extremity of the upper mandible. Whether it is guided as much by touch as by smell I cannot safely the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as com. say; but it appears to me that both senses are used in the action. pared with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the That the sense of touch is highly developed seems quite certain, surface is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E., because the bird, although it may not be audibly sniffing, will always first touch an object with the point of its bill, whether in as it ascends towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it the act of feeding, or of surveying the ground; and when shut up in a is braided with deep accumulations of fertile loess. cage or confiired in a room it may be heard, all through the night, KJERULF, HALFDAN (1815-1868), Norwegian musical com- tapping softly at the walls. It is interesting to watch the poser, the son of a high government official, was born at Chris. bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for worms, which constitute tiania on the 15th of September 1815. His early education was its principal food: it moves about with a slow action of the body; and the long, flexible bill is driven into the soft ground, generally at Christiania University, for a legal career, and not till he was home to the very root, and is either immediately withdrawn with a nearly 26-on the death of his father--was he able to devote him. worm held at the extreme tip of the mandibles, or it is gently moved self entirely to music. As a fact, he actually started on his career to and fro, by an action of the head and neck, the body of the bird as a music teacher and composer of songs before ever having being perfectly steady.,. It is amusing to observe the extreme care and deliberation with which the bird draws the worm from its hiding seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years did he attract place, coaxing it out as it were by degrees, instead of pulling roughly any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid or breaking it. On getting the worm fairly out of the ground, it for a year's instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years throws up its head with a jerk, and swallows it whole.” after his return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial The foregoing extract refers to A. mantelli, but there is little classical concerts, while he himself was working with Björnson doubt of the remarks being equally applicable to A. australis, and other writers at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame and probably also to A. oweni, though the different proportion rests almost entirely on his beautiful and manly national part- of the bill in the last points to some diversity in the mode of songs and solos; but his pianoforte music is equally charming and feeding. (A. N.) simple. Kjerulf died at Grefsen, on the 11th of August 1868. KIZILBASHES (Turkish, “Red-Heads "), the nickname given KJERULF, THEODOR (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was by the Orthodox Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants born at Christiania on the 30th of March 1825. He was educated from Persia, who are found chiefly in the plains from Kara- in the university at Christiania, and subsequently studied at Hissar along Tokat and Amasia to Angora. During the wars Heidelberg, working in Bunsen's laboratory. In 1858 he became with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these districts. professor of geology in the university of his native city, and he They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure was afterwards placed in charge of the geological survey of the Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their country, then established mainly through his influence. His immigration dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737). contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous and im- They are an industrious honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and portant, especially in reference to the southern portion of the as physicians, scribes, and so on. They form the bulk of the country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and amir's cavalry. Their name seems to have been first used in Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps. results were embodied in his work Udsigt over det sydlige Norges See Ernest Chantre, Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Asie occi- died at Christiania on the 25th of October 1888. *Geologi (1879). He was author also of some poetical works. He dentale (Lyons, 1895). KLADNO, a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W. KIZIL IRMAK, i.e. “Red River” (anc. Halys), the largest of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is river in Asia Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of situated in a region very rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and 6500 ft., and running south-west past Zara to Sivas. Below possesses some of the largest iron and steel works in Bohemia. Sivas it flows south to the latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves Near it is the mining town of Buschtěhrad (pop. 3510), situated gradually round to the north. Finally, after a course of about in the centre of very extensive coal-fields. Buschtěhrad was 600 m., it discharges its waters into the Black Sea between originally the name of the castle only. This was from the 15th Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta. The only century to 1630 the property of the lords of Kolovrat, and came important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of Tuscany, Geuk Irmak on the left bank. to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buschtěhrad was KIZLYAR (KIZLIAR, or Kizlar), a town of Russia, in first given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been Caucasia, in the province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz, called Buckow since its foundation in 1700. There is another in the low-lying delta of the river Terek, about 35 m. from the castle of Buschtěhrad near Hořic. Kladno, which for centuries Caspian. The population decreased from 8309 in 1861 to 7353 had been a village of no importance, was sold in 1905 by the in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main stream between grand-duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany to the cloister in 844 KLAFSKY-KLAPROTH Břewnow, to which it still belongs. The mining industry began | he had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapólna, Isaszeg, in 1842. Waitzen, Nagy Sarlo and Komárom. Then, as the fortune of KLAFSKY, KATHARINA (1855–1896), Hungarian operatic war turned against the Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a singer, was born at Szt János, Wieselburg, of humble parents. short time as minister of war, took command at Komárom, from Being employed at Vienna as a nurserymaid, her fine soprano which fortress he conducted a number of successful expeditions voice led to her being engaged as a chorus singer, and she was until the capitulation of Világos in August put an end to the war given good lessons in music. By 1882 she became well-known in the open field. He then brilliantly defended Komárom for two in Wagnerian rôles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased her months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms. Klapka reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years appeared in London, and had a great success in Wagner's operas, in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland. notably as Brünnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as He continued by every means in his power to work for the inde- vocal gifts being of an exceptional order. She sang in America pendence of Hungary, especially at moments of European war, in 1895, but died of brain disease in 1896. such as 1854, 1859 and 1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed A Life, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig). to him to promise success. After the war of 1866 (in which as a KLAGENFURT (Slovene, Celovec), the capital of the Austrian Prussian major-general he organized a Hungarian corps in duchy of Carinthia, 212 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian government to 24,314. It is picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a member of in communication with the Wörther-see by the 3 m. long Lend the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the canal. Among the more noteworthy buildings are the parish Deák party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the church of St Ægidius (1709), with a tower 298 ft. in height; the Turkish army in view of the war with Russia. General Klapka cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (1582–1593, burnt 1723, restored died at Budapest on the 17th of May 1892. A memorial was 1725); the churches of the Benedictines (1613), of the Capuchins erected to his memory at Komárom in 1896. (1646), and of the order of St Elizabeth (1710). To these must He wrote Memoiren (Leipzig, 1850); Der Nationalkrieg in Ungarn, be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the burg or &c. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, Der Krieg im Orient castle, existing in its present form since 1777; and the Landhaus bis Ende Juli 1855. (Geneva, 1855); and Aus meinen or house of assembly, dating from the end of the 14th century, Erinnerungen (translated from the Hungarian, Zürich, 1887). and containing a museum of natural history, and collection of KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783–1835), German Orient- minerals, antiquities, seals, paintings and sculptures. The most alist and traveller, was born in Berlin on the 11th of October interesting public monument is the great Lindwurm or Dragon, 1783, the son of the chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth (9.v.). standing in the principal square (1590). The industrial establish- He devoted his energies in-quite early life to the study of Asiatic ments comprise white lead factories, machine and iron foundries, languages, and published in 1802 his Asiatisches Magazin and commerce is active, especially in the mineral products of the (Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called to St Peters- region. burg and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805 Upon the Zollfeld tothenorth of the city once stood the ancient he was a member of Count Golovkin's embassy to China. On Roman town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt his return he was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on became the property of the crown, but by a patent of Maxi- an ethnographical and linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and milian I. of the 24th of April 1518, it was conceded to the Carin was afterwards employed for several years in connexion with the thian estates, and has since then taken the place of St Veit as academy's Oriental publications. In 1812 he moved to Berlin; capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723 and 1796 Klagenfurt but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816 Humboldt procured suffered from destructive fires, and in 1690 from the effects of him from the king of Prussia-the title and salary of professor of an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain in the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works. as his headquarters. He died in that city on the 28th of August 1835. KLAJ (latinized CLAJUS), JOHANN (1616-1656), German poet, the field which it embraced. His great work Asia polyglotta (Paris; The principal feature of Klaproth's erudition was the vastness of was born at Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at 1823 and 1831, with Sprachallas) not only served as a résumé of all Wittenberg he went to Nuremberg as a “candidate for holy that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the orders," and there, in conjunction with Georg Philipp Hars- classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the dörffer, founded in 1644 the literary society known as the Pegnitz Russian Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now super- order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master in the seded. The Itinerary.of a Chinese Traveller (1821), a series of documents in the military archives of St Petersburg, purporting Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at to be the travels of George Ludwig von, and a similar series Kitzingen, where he died in 1656. Klaj's poems consist of dramas, obtained from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as written in stilted language and redundant with adventures, spurious. among which are Höllen- und Himmelfahrt Christi (Nuremberg, Klaproth's other works include: Reise in den Kaukasus und 1644), and Herodes, der Kindermörder (Nuremberg, 1645), and Georgien in den Jahren 1807 und 1808 (Halle, 1812–1814: French translation, Paris, 1823); Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des a poem, written jointly with Harsdörffer, Pegnesische Schäfer östlichen Kaukasus (Weimar, 1814); Tableaux historiques de l'Asie gedicht (1644), which gives in allegorical form the story of his 1 (Paris, 1826); Mémoires relatifs à l'Asie (Paris, 1824-1828); Tableau settlement in Nuremberg. historique, geographique, ethnographique et politique de Caucase (Paris, See Tittmann, Die Nürnberger Dichterschule (Göttingen, 1847). 1827); and Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue géorgienne (Paris, 1827). KLAMATH, a small tribe of North American Indians of Lutua. KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817), German mian stock. They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes, chemist, was born at Wernigerode on the ist of December 1743. and are now on the Klamath reservation, southern Oregon. During a large portion of his life he followed the profession of an See A. S. Gatschet, “ Klamath Indians of Oregon,” Contributions apothecary. After acting as assistant in pharmacies at Quedlin- 10 North American Ethnology, vol. ii. (Washington, 1890). burg, Hanover, Berlin and Danzig successively he came to KLAPKA, GEORG (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder in 1771 as manager at Temesvár on the 7th of April 1820, and entered the Austrian of his business, and in 1780 he started an establishment on his own army in 1838. He was still a subaltern when the Hungarian account in the same city, where from 1782 he was pharmaceutical revolution of 1848 broke out, and he offered his services to the assessor of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 he was patriot party. He served in important staff appointments appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when during the earlier part of the war which followed; then, early in the university was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the 1849, he was ordered to replace General Mészáros, who had been professor of chemistry. He died in Berlin on the ist of January defeated at Kaschau, and as general commanding an army corps | 1817. Klaproth was the leading chemist of his time in Germany. KLÉBER-KLEIST, B. H. W. VON 845 An exact and conscientious worker, he did much to improve comniand he was not excelled by any general of his time. His and systematize the processes of analytical chemistry and conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when the treasury was mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value of quantitative empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, shows methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of the that his powers as an administrator were little-if at all- Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to dis- inierior to those he possessed as a general. cover uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan's chief of staff, published in them as distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of 1867 a valuable biography of Kléber. See also Reynaud, Life of them in the pure metallic state; and he elucidated the com- Merlin de Thionville; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, Souvenirs; Las position of numerous substances till then imperfectly known, Casas, Memorial de Ste Hélène; J. Charavaray, Les Généraux morts including compounds of the then newly recognized elements:. pour la patrie; General Pajol, Kléber; lives of Marceau and Desaix: M. F. Rousseau, Kléber el Menou en Egypte (Paris, 1900). tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium. His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810–1876), German writer of Beiträge zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkörper (5 vols., 1795- Jewish origin, was born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was 1810) and Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts (1815); He educated at the gymnasium in Pest, and studied medicine in also published a Chemisches Wörterbuch (1807-1810), and edited a revised edition of F. A. C. Gren's Handbuch der Chemie (1806). Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and Greece, he settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained until his KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1753-1800), French general, was death on the end of August 1876. He was the auihor of many born on the 9th of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies Maria was a builder. He was trained, partly at Paris, for the profession von Medici (1841); Luines (1842); Zenobia (1847); Morelo (1859); of architect, but his opportune assistance to two German nobles Maria (1860); Strafford (1862) and Heliodora (1867); and the in a tavern brawl obtained for him a nomination to the mili- comedies Die Herzogin (1848); Ein Schützling (1850); and Voltaire tary school of Munich. Thence he obtained a commission in the (1862). The tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his humble bombastic and obscure, but many of his characters are vigorously birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he conceived, and in nearly all his tragedies there are passages of was appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he brilliant rhetoric. He is chiefly known as the author of the studied fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in elaborate though uncompleted Geschichte des Dramas (1865-1876), the Haut-Rhin volunteers, and was from his military knowledge in which he undertook to record the history of the drama from at once elected adjutant and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel. the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the Eliza- At the defence of Mainz he so distinguished himself that though bethan period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward disgraced along with the rest of the garrison and imprisoned, he as the chief part of his task. The work, which is in thirteen was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793 promoted general bulky volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the Vendéan by eccentricities of style and judgment. war, and two months later was made a general of division. In Klein's Dramatische Werke were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1872).. these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he defeated the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1777–1811), expressing his opinion that lenient measures ought to be pursued German poet, dramatist and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on- towards the Vendéans he was recalled; but in April 1794 he Oder on the 18th of October 1777. After a scanty education, he was once more reinstated and sent to the Army of the Sambre-entered the Prussian army in 1792, served in the Rhine campaign and-Meuse. He displayed his skill and bravery in the numerous of 1796 and retired from the service in 1799 with the rank of actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning victory lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the university of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1794-95 he besieged of Frankfort-on-Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post in Mainz. In 1795 and again in 1796 he held the chief command of the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his an army temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as roving, restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a commander-in-chief. On the 13th of October 1795 he fought a lengthened leave of absence he visited Paris and then settled in brilliant rearguard action at the bridge of Neuwied, and in the Switzerland. Here he found congenial friends in Heinrich offensive campaign of 1796 he was Jourdan's most active and Zschokke (q.v.) and Ludwig Friedrich August Wieland (1777- successful lieutenant. Having, after the retreat to the Rhine 1819), son of the poet; and to them he read his first drama, a (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars), declined the chief com gloomy tragedy, Die Familie Schroffenstein (1803), originally mand, he withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted entitled Die Familie Ghonorcz. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist a division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in was wounded in the head at Alexandria in the first engage-Weimar, stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again pro- ment, which prevented his taking any further part in the ceeded to Paris, and returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him to be appointed transferred to the Domänenkammer (department for the adminis- governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799, tration of crown lands) at Königsberg. On a journey to Dresden however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the French as a spy, and being sent and Jaffa, and won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the to France was kept for six months a close prisoner at Châlons- 15th of April 1799. When Napoleon returned to France sur-Marne. On regaining his liberty he proceeded to Dresden, towards the end of 1799 he left Kléber in command of the where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Müller (1779-1829) he French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of bringing published in 1808 the journal Phöbus. In 1809 he went to Prague, his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests, and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-1811) the he made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith, Berliner Abendblätter. Captivated by the intellectual and musical the British admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he attacked accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist,who the Turks at Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against was himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed 60,000, and utterly defeated them on the 20th of March 1800. to do her bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution He then retook Cairo, which had revolted from the French. by first shooting the lady and then himself on the shore of the Shortly after these victories he was assassinated at Cairo by a Wannsee near Potsdam, on the 21st of November 1811. Kleist's fanatic on the 14th of June 1800, the same day on which his whole life was filled by a restless striving after ideal and friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kléber was un illusory happiness, and this is largely reflected in his work. He doubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary was by far the most important North German dramatist of epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the respon- the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists sibility of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic show that he would have been unequal to it. As a second in | indignation. 846 KLEIST, E. C. VON-KLINGER, F. M. a March 1715. His first tragedy, Die Familie Schroffenslein, has been already re- KLESL (or KHLESL), MELCHIOR (1552-1630), Austrian states. ferred to; the material for the second, Penihesilea (1808), queen of the man and ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic born in Vienna. Under the influence of the Jesuits he was con- play, Das Käthchen von Heilbronn, oder Die Feuerprobe (1808), a poetic verted to Roman Catholicism, and having finished his education drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which has retained its at the universities of Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chan- popularity. In comedy, Kleist made a name with Der zerbrochene cellor of the university of Vienna; and as official and vicar- Krug (1811), while Amphitryon (1808), an adaptation of Molière's comedy, is of less importance.of Kleist's other dramas, Die general of the bishop of Passau he exhibited the zeal of a convert Hermannschlacht (1809) is a dramatic treatment of an historical in forwarding the progress of the counter-reformation in Austria. subject and is full of references to the political conditions of his own He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but more important was times. In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country's oppressors. his association with the archduke Matthias which began about This, together with the drama Prinz Friedrich von Homburg, the latter accounted Kleist's best work, was first published by Ludwig the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias Tieck in Kleists hinterlassene Schriften (1821). Robert Guiskard, å succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klcsl was the drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment. Kleist was originator and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed also a master in the art of narrative, and of his Gesammelte Erzähl- the concessions to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. He assisted ungen (1810-1811), Michael Kohlhaas, in which the famous Branden- burg horse dealer in Luther's day (sce KOHLHASE) is immortalized, to secure the election of Matthias to the imperial throne, and is one of the best German stories of its time. He also wrote some sought, but without success, to strengthen the new emperor's patriotic lyrics. His Gesammelte Schriften were, published by position by making peace between the Catholics and the Proles- Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new cd. 1874); tants. When during the short reign of Matthias the question of also by F. Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by. T. Zolling (4 vols. 1885); by K. Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by E. Schmidt the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the bishop, (5 vols. 1904-1905). His Ausgewählte Dramen were published by although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire K. Siegen (Leipzig, 1877); and his letters were first published in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the by E. von Bülow, Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe (1848). Roman Catholic Church, advised that this question should be See further A. Wilbrandt, Heinrich von Kleist (1863); 0. Brahm, Heinrich von Kleist (1884); 'R. Bonafous, Henri de Kleist, sa vie et shelved until some arrangement with the Protestant princes had ses auvres (1894); H. Conrad, Heinrich von Kleist als Mensch und been reached. This counsel was displeasing to the archduke Maxi- Dichter (1896); G. Minde-Pouet, Heinrich von Kleist, seine Sprache milian and to Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II. und sein Stil (1897); R. Steig, Heinrich von Kleists Berliner Kämpfe who believed that Klesl was hostile to the candidature of the (1901); F. Servaes, Heinrich von Kleist (1902); S. Wukadinowic, Kleist-Studien (1904); S. Rahmer, H. von Kleist als Mensch und latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake his influence Dichter (1909). with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before the KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON (1715-1759), German death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and poet, was born at Zeblin, near Köslin in Pomerania, on the 7th of imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a After attending the Jesuit school in Deutschkrona Gregory XV., and was released from imprisonment. In 1627 cardinal since 1615, was transferred to Rome by crder of Pope and the gymnasium in Danzig, he proceeded in 1731 to the uni- Ferdinand II. allowed him to return to his episcopal duties in versity of Königsberg, where he studied law and mathematics. Vienna, where he died on the 18th of September 1630. On the completion of his studies, he entered the Danish army, in which he became an officer in 1736. Recalled to Prussia by 1847-1851); A. Kerschbaumer, Kardinal Klesl (Vienna, 1865); and See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, Khlesls Leben (Vienna, Frederick II. in 1740, he was appointed lieutenant in a regiment Klesls Briefe an Rudolfs 11. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von Dietrich- stationed at Potsdam, where he became acquainted with stein, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900). J. W. L. Gleim (q.v.), who interested him in poetry. After dis- tinguishing himself at the battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) German dramatist and novelist, was born of humble parentage KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (1752-1831), and the siege of Neisse (1741), he was promoted captain in 1749 at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 17th of February 1752. His and major in 1756. Quartered during the winter of 1757-1758 in Leipzig, he found relief from his irksome military duties in the father died when he was a child, and his early years were a hard society of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (q.v.). Shortly afterwards struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter the univer- in the battle of Kunersdorf, on the 12th of August 1759, he sity of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom he had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways. was mortally wounded while leading the attack, and died at In 1775 Klinger gained with his tragedy Die Zwillinge a prize Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th of August following. Kleist's chief work is a poem in hexameters, Der Frühling offered by the Hamburg thcatre, under the auspices of the actress (1749), for which Thomson's Seasons largely supplied ideas. Sophie Charlotte Ackermann (1714-1792) and her son the famous actor and playwright, Friedrich Ludwig Schröder (1744-1816). In his description of the beauties of nature Kleist shows real poetical genius, an almost modern sentiment and fine taste; Schauspiel-Gesellschaft” and held this post for two years. In In 1776 Klinger was appointed Theaterdichter to the “ Seylersche He also wrote some charming odes, idylls and elegies, and a small epic poem Cissides und Paches (1759), the subject being 1778 he entered the Austrian military service and took part in the two Thessalian friends who die an heroic death for their country became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled and attached Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went to St Petersburg, in a battle against the Athenians. to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his Gedichte, which Italy and France. In 1785 he was appointed director of the corps was followed by a second in 1758. After his death his friend Karl Wilhelm Ramler (q.v.) published an edition of Kleists sämtliche Werke of cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition was published by A. Sauer, in Catharine, was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799. 3 vols. (1880-1882). Cf. further, A. Chuquet, De Ewaldi Kleistii vita In 1803 Klinger was nominated by the emperor Alexander et scripiis (Paris, 1887), and H. Pröhle, Friedrich der Grosse und die curator of the university of Dorpat, an office he held until deutsche Literatur (1872). 1817; in 1811 he became lieutenant-general. He then gradually KLERKSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 118 m. S.W. of gave up his official posts, and after living for many years in Johannesburg and 192 m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop. honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 25th of February (1904), 4276 of whom 2203 were whites. The town, built on 1831. the banks of the Schoonspruit 10 m. above its junction with Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine the Vaal, possesses several fine public buildings. In the neigh- feeling, though the bitter experiences and deprivations of bourhood are gold-mines, the reef appearing to form the western his youth are largely reflected in his dramas. It was one of his boundary of the Witwatersrand basin. Diamonds (green in earliest works, Sturm und Drang (1770), which gave its name to colour) and coal are also found in the district. Klerksdorp was this literary epoch. In addition to this tragedy and Die Zwillinge one of the villages founded by the first Boers who crossed the (1776), the chief plays of his early period of passionate fervour Vaal, dating from 1838. The modern town, which is on the side and restless“ storm and stress are Die neue Arria (1776), of the spruit opposite the old village, was founded in 1888. Simsone Grisaldo (1776) and Stilpo und seine Kinder (1780). To 9) KLINGER, M.-KLOPSTOCK 847 (G » « "" Eve ܐ a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of Medea in Korinth Rich gravel was discovered on Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild and Medea auf dem Kaukasos (1791). In Russia he devoted rush to this almost inaccessible region followed, a population himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of of 30,000 coming in within the next three or four years with a which the best known are Fausts Leben, Taten und Höllenfahrt rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900 the climax (1791), Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden (1792) and Geschichte of $22,000,000. Since then the production has steadily declined, Raphaels de Aquillas (1793). This series was closed in 1803 until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000. The richest gravels were with Betrachtungen und Gedanken über verschiedene Gegenstände worked out before 1910, and most of the population had left the der Welt und der Literatur. In these works Klinger gives Klondike for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which calm and dignified expression to the leading ideas which the for a time was a bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled period of Sturm und Drang had bequeathed to German classical to about 3000 inhabitants. As the ground was almost all frozen, literature. the mines were worked by a thawing process, first by setting Klinger's works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815), fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods. being introduced also 1832-1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and hydraulic (1878-1880); but none of these is complete. A selection will be found mining were resorted to with success. in A. Sauer, Stürmer und Dränger, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt, Lenz und Klinger (1878): M. Rieger, Klinger in der Sturm- und get her miners and adventurers from all parts of the world, and The Klondike, in spite of its isolated position, brought to- Drangperiode (1880); and Klinger in seiner Reife (1896). it is greatly to the credit of the Canadian government and of the KLINGER, MAX (1857– ), German painter, etcher and mounted police, who were entrusted with the keeping of order, sculptor, was born at Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the that life and property were as safe as elsewhere and that no classes at the Carlsruhe art school in 1874, and went in the follow-lawless methods were adopted by the miners as in placer mining ing year to Berlin, where in 1878 he created a sensation at the camps in the western United States. The region was at first Academy exhibition with two series of pen-and-ink drawings~ difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort the" Series upon the Theme of Christ "and“ Fantasies upon the in summer, travelling by well-appointed steamers on the Pacific Finding of a Glove.” The daring originality of these imaginative and the Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil, and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and the summer roads were excessively bad in earlier days, but good artist was voted insane; nevertheless the Glove" series was wagon roads have since been constructed to all the important bought by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of “ The mining centres. Dawson itself has all the resources of a civilized Judgment of Paris ” caused a similar storm of indignant protest city in spite of being founded on a frozen peat-bog; and is sup. in 1887, owing to its rejection of all conventional attributes and plied with ordinary market vegetables from farms just across the the naïve directness of the conception. His vivid and somewhat river. During the winter, when for some time the sun does not morbid imagination, with its leaning towards the gruesome and appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually without disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his mind, found their wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably best expression in his “cycles" of etchings: "Deliverances of warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid,” “ A Brahms Phantasy,' are generally made use of, except on the stage route south to and the Future," "A Life," and "Of Death"; but in his use of the White Horse, where horses are used. A tclegraph line connects needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of the great Dawson with British Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping masters; it supplies him merely with means of expressing his it in order are so great over the long intervening wilderness that ideas. After 1886 Klinger devoted himself more exclusively 10 communication is often broken. Gold is practially the only painting and sculpture. In his painting he aims neither at classic economic product of the Klondike, though small amounts of tin beauty nor modern truth, but at grim impressiveness not without ore occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on the a touch of mysticism. His“ Pietà" at the Dresden Gallery, the Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the" Christ in Olympus," stringers of quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which at the Modern Gallery in Vienna, are characteristic examples of form the bed rock of much of the region, and no important his art. The Leipzig Muscum contains his sculptured "Salome” quartz veins have been discovered; so that unlike most other Cassandra.” In sculpture he favours the use of vari- placer regions the Klondike has not developed lode mines to coloured materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine continue the production of gold when the gravels are exhausted. sculpture. His “Beethoven" is a notable instance of his work KLOPP, ONNO (1822-1903), German historian, was born at in this direction. Leer on the 9th of October 1822, and was educated at the univer- KLIPSPRINGER, the Boer name of a small African mountain- sities of Bonn, Berlin and Göttingen. For a few years he was antelope (Oreotragus saltator), ranging from the Cape through a teacher at Leer and at Osnabrück; but in 1858 he settled at East Africa to Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by Hanover, where he became intimate with King George V., who its blunt rounded hoofs, thick pithy hair and gold-spangled made him his Archivrat. Thoroughly disliking Prussia, he was colouring. The klipspringer represents a genus by itself, the in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive policy; various local forms not being worthy of more than racial dis- and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied tinction. The activity of these antelopes is marvellous. the exiled king to Hietzing. He became a Roman Catholic in KLONDIKE, a district in Yukon Territory, north-western 1874. He died at Penzing, near Vienna, on the 9th of August Canada, approximately in 64° N. and 140° W. The limits are 1903. Klopp is best known as the author of Der Fall des Hauses rather indefinite, but the district includes the country to the south Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888), the fullest existing account of the of the Klondike River, which comes into the Yukon from the east later Stuarts. and has several tributaries, as well as Indian River, à second His Der König Friedrich 11. und seine Politik (Schaffhausen, 1867) branch of the Yukon, flowing into it some distance above the and Geschichte Ostfrieslands (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike Klondike. The richer gold-bearing gravels are found along the of Prussia. His other works include Der dreissigjährige Krieg bis zum Tode Gustav Adolfs (Paderborn, 1891-1896); a revised edition creeks tributary to these two rivers within an area of about of his Tilly im dreissigjährigen Kriege (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of 800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a dissected peneplain with George V., König Georg v. (Hanover, 1878); Phillipp Melanchthon low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft, above the sea at (Berlin, 1897). He edited Corrispondenza epistolare lra Leopoldo I the Dome which forms its centre. All of the gold-bearing creeks imperatore ed il ?. Marco l'Aviano capuccino (Gratz, 1888). Klopp also wrote much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover, rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various directions including the Offizieller Bericht über die Kriegsereignisse zwischen toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive Hannover und Preussen im Juni 1866 (Vienna, 1867), and he being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion edited the works of Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884). and Gold Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles See W. Klopp, Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf (Wehberg, 1907). in which it was gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (1724-1803), German length probably surpassed any other known placer deposit. I poet, was born at Quedlinburg, on the 2nd of July 1724, the eldest and « 1 a 848 KLOSTERNEUBURG son of a lawyer, a man of sterling character and of a deeply only occasionally relieved by association with his most intimate religious mind. Both in his birthplace and on the estate of friends, busied with philological studies, and hardly interesting Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, young himself in the new developments of German literature. The Klopstock passed a happy childhood; and more attention having American War of Independence and the Revolution in France been given to his physical than to his mental development he aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman sent him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of Quedlinburg where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739 liberty, he returned it. When 67 years of age he contracted a proceeded to the famous classical school of Schulpforta. Here second marriage with Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow he soon became an adept in Greek and Latin versification, and and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. His original his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg on the 14th of intention of making the emperor Henry I. (“The Fowler ") the March 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried with great hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton's Paradise Lost, pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's translation, of the village of Ottensen. abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at school, he had already drafted the plan of Der Messias, upon which his his deep, noble character found its truest expression. He was less Klopstock's nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and in it fame mainly rests. On the 21st of September 1745 he delivered suited for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt up in himself, on quitting school a remarkable “ leaving oration ” on epic a stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without poetry, Abschiedsrede über die epische Poesie, kultur- und literar. even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art geschichtlich erläutert-and next proceeded to Jena as a student Messias, despite the magnificent passages which especially the of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the of theology, where he elaborated the first three cantos of the earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a theme Messias in prose. The life at this university being uncongenial must necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption. to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here presented serious difficulties to adequate ,opic treatment. The joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to Gospel story was too scanty, and what might have been imported from without and interwoven with it was rejected by th author as the Bremer Beiträge. In this periodical the first three cantos profane. He had accordingly to resort to Christian mythology, and of the Messias in hexameters were anonymously published in here again, circumscribed by the dogmas of the Church, he was in 1748. A new era in German literature had commenced, and the danger of trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Christian name of the author soon became known. In Leipzig he also individual form, still less could angels and devils--and in the case faith. The personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in an wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An meine of God Himself it was impossible. The result was that, despite Freunde (1747), afterwards recast as Wingolf (1767). He left the groundwork-the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Revelation the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of Si John, and the model ready to hand in Milton's Paradıse Lost of a relative at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin Divine and human, lack plastic form. That the poem took twenty-five material elements are largely wanting and the actors in the pocm, (the“ Fanny ” of his odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly years to complete could not but be detrimental to its unity of design; therefore he accepted in 1750 an invitation from Jakob Bodmer the original enthusiasm was not sustained until the end, and the carlier (q.v.), the translator of Paradise Lost, to visit him in Zürich. cantos are far superior to the later. Thus the intense public interest the work aroused in its commencement had almost vanished before Here Klopstock was at first treated with every kindness and its completion. It was translated into seventeen languages and lcd respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, however, to numerous imitations. In his odes Klopstock had more scope was disappointed to find in the young poet of the Messias a man for his peculiar talent. Among the best are An Fanny;: Der of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between Zurthersee: Die tole Klarissa; Ăn Cidli; Die berden Musen; Der Rheinwein; Die fruhen Graber; Mein Vaterland. His religious odes the two friends. mostly take the form of hymns, of which the most bcautiful is Die At this juncture Klopstock receịved from Frederick V. of Frühlingsferer. His dramas, in some of which, notably Hermanns Denmark, on the recommendation of his minister Count von Schlachi (1769) and Hermann und die Fursten (1784), he celebrated Bernstorff (1712-1772), an invitation to settle at Copenhagen, Tod Adams (1757) and Salomo (1764), took his materials from the the deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, Der with an annuity of 400 talers, with a view to the completion of Old Testament, are essentially lyrical in character and deficient in the Messias. The offer was accepted, on his way to the Danish action. In addition to Die Gelehrtenrepublik, he was also the author capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in 1754 became of Fragmente über Sprache und Dichtkunst (1779) and Grammatische his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the “ Cidli ” of his odes), an Gesprache (1794), works in which he made important contributions enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short, to philology and to the history of German poetry. Klopstock's Werke first appeared in seven quarto volumes (1798- she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief 1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo at her loss finds pathetic expression in the 15th canto of the volumes was published (1798-1817), to which six additional volumes Messias. The poet subsequently published his wife's writings, 1845,1854-1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (cd. by R. Hamel were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844- Hinterlassene Werke von Margarela Klopslock (1759), which give and 1893 (a selection edited by F Muncker)A critical edition of evidence of a tender, sensitive and decply religious spirit. the Odes was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889, a Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy; new ideas failed him, commentary on these by H. Duntzer (1860, 2nd ed., 1878) For and his poetry became more and more vague and unintelligible! | Klopstock's correspondence see K., Schmidt, Klopstock und seine He still continued to live and work at Copenhagen, and next, Lappenberg, Briefe von und an Klopstock (1867). Ci, further K. F. Freunde (1810); C. A H. Clodius, Klopstocks Nachlass (1821). J. M following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (9.v), turned his Cramer, Klopstock, er und über ihn (1780-1792); J. G. Gruber, attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should Klopstocks Leben (1832), R. Hamel, Klopstock-Studien (1879-1880): replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In F Muncker, F. G. Klopstock, the most authoritative biography, (1888); E. Bailly, Étude sur la vie et les æuvres de Klopslock (París, 1770, on the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bern- 1888). storff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg, but retained his pension together with the rank of councillor of KLOSTERNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the last five cantos of the sim. N.W.of Vienra by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,595. It is situated Messias. In the following year he published his strange scheme on the right bank of the Danube, at the foot of the Kahlenberg, for the regeneration of German letters, Die Gelehrtenrepublik and is divided by a small stream into an upper and a lower town. (1774). In 1775 he travelled south, and making the acquaint. As an important pioneer station Klosterneuburg has various ance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the military buildings and stores, and among the schools it possesses margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title an academy of wine and fruit cultivation. of Hofrat and a pension from the margrave, which he retained On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand together with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to the magnificent buildings (erected 1730-1834) of the Augustine Hamburg where he spent the remainder of his life. His latter canonry, founded in 1106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This years he passed, as had always been his inclination, in retirement, foundation is the oldest and richest of the kind in Austria; it KLOTZ-KNEE 849 owns much of the land upon which the north-western suburbs | without issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt, of Vienna stand. Among the points of interest within it are the duke of Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy old chapel of 1318, with Leopold's tomb and the altar of Verdun, of Lancaster. In 1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the dating from the 12th century, the treasury and relic-chamber, castle of Knaresburgh for Thomas duke of Lancaster against the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the picture the king, surrendered under conditions to William de Ros of gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the wine- Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to destroy all cellar, containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The the records of the liberties and privileges of the town which were inhabitants of Klosterneuburg are mainly occupied in making kept in the castle. In 1368 an inquisition was taken to ascertain wine, of excellent quality. There is a large cement factory out these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held" all side the town. In Roman times the castle of Citium stood in the the soil of their borough yielding 75. 4d. yearly and doing suit at region of Klosterneuburg. The town was founded by Charle- the king's court.” In the reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough magne, and received its charter as a town in 1298. is said by Leland to be " no great thing and meanely builded but KLOTZ, REINHOLD (1807-1870), German classical scholar, the market there is quik.” During the civil wars Knaresborough was born near Chemnitz in Saxony on the 13th of March 1807. was held for some time by the Royalists, but they were obliged In 1849 he was appointed professor in the university of Leipzig to surrender, and the castle was among those ordered to be in succession to Gottfried Hermann, and held this post till his destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on Wednesday and death on the roth of August 1870. Klotz was a man of unwearied a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St Mark to industry, and devoted special attention to Latin literature. that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II. con- He was the author of editions of several classical authors, of firming earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on which the most important were: the complete works of Cicero (2nd Knaresborough Common in the 16th century. From 1555 to ed., 1869-1874); Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides 1867 the town returned two members to parliament, but in the (1841-1867), in continuation of Pflugk's edition, but unfinished; Terence (1838–1840), with the commentaries of Donatus and latter year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the Eugraphius. Mention should also be made of: Handwörterbuch der representation was merged in that of the West Riding. lateinischen Sprache (5th ed., 1874); Römische Litteraturgeschichte KNAVE (O.E. cnafa, cognate with Ger. Knabe, boy), originally (1847), of which only the introductory volume appeared; an edition of the treatise De Graecae linguae particulis (1835-1842) of Mato a male child, a boy (Chaucer, Canterbury Tales: “ Clerk's Tale," thaeus Deverius (Devares), a learned Corfiote (c. 1500-1570), and I. 388). Like Lat. puer, the word was early used as a name for corrector of the Greek MSS. in the Vatican; the posthumous Index any boy or lad employed as a servant, and so of male servants in Ciceronianus (1872) and Handbuch der lateinischen Stilistik (1874). general (Chaucer: “ Pardoner's Tale," 1. 204). The current use From 1831-1855 Klotz was editor of the Neue Jahrbücher für of the word for a man who is dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was Philologie (Leipzig). During the troubled times of 1848 and the however an early usage, and is found in Layamon (c. :205); following years he showed himself a strong conservative. A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the Jahrbücher for In playing-cards the lowest court card of each suit, the “ jack," 1871, pp. 154-163, representing a medieval servant, is called the “knave.” (See KNARESBOROUGH, a market town in the Ripon parliament- also VALET.) ary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 161 m. KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON (1744-1834), German poet W. by N. from York by a branch of the North Eastern railway. and translator, was born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia Pop. of urban district (1991), 4979. Its situation is most on the 30th of November 1744. After having studied law for picturesque, on the steep left bank of the river Nidd, which here a short while at Halle, he entered the regiment of the crown follows a well-wooded valley, hemmed in by limestone cliffs. The prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached to it as officer church of St John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous for ten years. Disappointed in his military career, owing to the Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting the post containing several interesting monuments. Knaresborough of tutor to Prince Konstantin of Weimar, accompanied him and Castle was probably founded in 1070 by Serlo de Burgh. Its his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On remains, however, are of the 14th century, and include a massive this journey he visited Goethe in Frankfort-on-Main, and intro- keep rising finely from a cliff above the Nidd. After the battle duced him to the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This of Marston Moor it was taken by Fairfax, and in 1648 it was meeting is memorable as being the immediate cause of Goethe's ordered to be dismantled. To the south of the castle is St later intimate connexion with the Weimar court. After Knebel's Robert's chapel, an excavation in the rock constructed into an return and the premature death of his pupil he was pensioned. ecclesiastical edifice in the reign of Richard I. Several of the receiving the rank of major. In 1798 he married the singer excavations in the limestone, which is extensively quarried, are Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little farther down the river removed to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd is St Robert's cave, which is supposed to have been the residence of February 1834. Knebel's Sammlung kleiner Gedichte (1815), of the hermit, and in 1744 was the scene of the murder of Daniel issued anonymously, and Distichen (1827) contain many graceful Clarke by Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton's well- sonnets, but it is as a translator that he is best known. His known novel . Opposite the castle is the Dropping Well, the translation of the elegies of Propertius, Elegien des Properz waters of which are impregnated with lime and have petrifying (1798), and.that of Lucretius' De rerum natura (2 vols., 1831) are power, this action causing the curious and beautiful incrusta deservedly praised. Since their first acquaintance Knebel and tions formed where the water falls over a slight cliff. The Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least interesting of Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. There Knebel's writings is his correspondence with the eminent poet, is a large agricultural trade, and linen and leather manufactures Briefwechsel mit Goethe (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851). and the quarries also employ a considerable number of persons. Knebel's Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel was edited by Knaresborough (Canardesburg, Cnarreburc, Cknareburg), which K. A. Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed., belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of 1840). See Hugo von Knebel-Döberitz, Karl Ludwig von Knebel William the Conqueror's grant to his follower Serlo de Burgh. (1890). Being forfeited by his grandson Eustace Fitz John in the reign of KNEE (O. E. cnéow, a word common to Indo-European Stephen, Knaresborough was granted to Robert de Stuteville, languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo; Lat. genu, Gr. from whose descendants it passed through marriage to Hugh yovu, Sansk. janu), in human anatomy, the articulation of the de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas Becket, who with upper and lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle for a whole and the tibia (see JOINTS). The word is also used of articulation year. During the 13th and 14th centuries the castle and lordship resembling the knee-joint in shape or position in other animals; changed hands very frequently; they were granted successively it thus is applied to the carpal articulation of the fore leg of a to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of horse, answering to the ankle in man, or to the tarsal articulation Evesham, to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died or heel of a bird's foot. 850 KNELLER-KNIGHT, C. KNELLER, SIR GODFREY (1648-1723), a portrait painter | Harmensen's son Johannes (1723-1802), a colonel in the Con. whose celebrity belongs chiefly to England, was born in Lübeck tinental Army in the War of Independence, and by his son in the duchy of Holstein, of an ancient family, on the 8th of Harmen (1779-1855), a lawyer, a Federalist representative in August 1648. He was at first intended for the army, and was Congress in 1809-1811, a'member of the New York Assembly sent to Leyden to learn mathematics and fortification. Showing, in 1816, and a famous gentleman of the old school, who for his however, a marked preference for the fine arts, he studied in the courtly hospitality in his manor was called “the prince of school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in Amsterdam. Schaghticoke” and whose name was borrowed by Washington In 1672 he removed to Italy, directing his chief attention to Irving for use in his (Diedrich) Knickerbocker's History of New Titian and the Caracci; Carlo Maratta gave him some guidance York (1809). Largely owing to this book, the name “ Knicker. and encouragement. In Rome, and more especially in Venice, bockers ” has passed into current use as a designation of the Kneller earned considerable reputation by historical paintings early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The as well as portraits. He next went to Hamburg, painting with son of Johannes, David Buel Knickerbacker (1833-1894), who still increasing success. In 1674 he came to England at the invi- returned to the earlier spelling of the family name, graduated tation of the duke of Monmouth, was introduced to Charles II., at Trinity College in 1853 and at the General Theological and painted that sovereign, much to his satisfaction, several Seminary in 1856, was a rector for many years at Minneapolis, times. Charles also sent him to Paris, to take the portrait of Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated Protestant Episcopal Louis XIV. When Sir Peter Lely died in 1680, Kneller, who pro- bishop of Indiana. duced in England little or nothing in the historical department, See the series of articles by W. B. Van Alstyne on "The Knicker- remained without a rival in the ranks of portrait painting; there bocker, Family,”, beginning in vol. xxix., No. (Jap. 1908) of the was no native-born competition worth speaking of. Charles New York Genealogical and Biographical Record. appointed him court painter; and he continued to hold the same KNIFE (O. E. cnif, a word appearing in different forms in post into the days of George 1. Under William III. (1692) he many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijſ, Ger. Kneiſ, a shoe- was made a knight, under George I. (1715) a baronet, and by maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; order of the emperor Leopold I. a knight of the Roman Empire. Skeat finds the origin in the root of “nip,” formerly “knip "; Not only his court favour but his general fame likewise was large: Fr. canif is also of Teutonic origin), a small cutting instrument, he was lauded by Dryden, Addison, Steele, Prior, Tickell and with the blade either fixed to the handle or fastened with a hinge Pope. Kneller's gains also were very considerable; aided by so as to clasp into the handle (see CUTLERY). For the knives habits of frugality which approached stinginess, he left property chipped from flint by. prehistoric man see ARCHAEOLOGY and yielding an annual income of £2000. His industry was main- FLINT IMPLEMENTS. tained till the last. His studio had at first been in Covent KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1752- Garden, but in his closing years he lived in Kneller Hall, Twicken- 1796), German author, was born on the family estate of Breden- ham. He died of fever, the date being generally given as the 7th beck near Hanover on the 16th of October 1752. After studying of November 1723, though some accounts say 1726. He was law at Göttingen he was attached successively to the courts of buried in Twickenham church, and has a monument in West- Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring minster Abbey. An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an from court service in 1777, he lived a private life with his family ornamental painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and Hanover until had died in 1702. The style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait 1791, when he was appointed Oberhauptmann (civil adminis- painter represented the decline of that art as practised by Vandyck; trator) in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1796. Lely marks the first grade of descent, and Kneller the second. Knigge, under the name “Philo," was one of the most active His works have much freedom, and are well drawn and coloured; members of the Illuminati, a mutual moral and intellectual but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a great extent improvement society founded by Adam Weishaupt (1748–1830) monotonous, this arising partly from the habit which he had of at Ingolstadt, and which later became affiliated to the Free. lengthening the oval of all his heads. The colouring may be called masons. Knigge is known as the author of several novels, among brilliant rather than true. He indulged much in the common- which Der Roman meines Lebens (1781-1787; new ed., 1805) places of allegory; and, though he had a quality of dignified and Die Reise nach Braunschweig (1792), the latter a rather elegance not unallied with simplicity, genuine simple nature is coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary seldom to be traced in his works. His fame has greatly declined, achievement was, however, Über den Umgang mit Menschen and could not but do so after the advent of Reynolds. Among (1788), in which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful, Kneller's principal paintings are the “Forty-three Celebrities happy and useful life; it has been often reprinted. of the Kit-Cat Club," and the “ Ten Beauties of the Court of Knigge's Schriften were published in 12 volumes (1804-1806). William III.,” now at Hampton Court; these were painted by See K. Goedeke, Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge (1844); and H. Klencké, order of the queen; they match, but match unequally, the Aus einer alten Kiste (Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem Beauties of the Court of Charles II.," painted by Lely. He Nachlasse Knigges) (1853). executed altogether the likenesses of ten sovereigns, and fourteen KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873), English publisher and of his works appear in the National Portrait Gallery. It is said author, the son of a bookseller and printer at Windsor, was that Kneller's own favourite performance was the portrait of the born on the 15th of March 1791. He was apprenticed to his “ Converted Chinese ” in Windsor Castle.' His later works are father, but on the completion of his indentures he took up confined almost entirely to England, not more than two or three journalism and interested himself in several newspaper specu- specimens having gone abroad after he had settled here. lations. In 1823; in conjunction with friends he had made (W. M. R.) as publisher (1820-1821) of The Etonian, he started Knight's KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN (c. 1650-c. 1720), Quarterly Magazine, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge Dutch colonist of New Netherland (New York), was a native of and Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to Wyhe (Wie), Overyssel, Holland. Before 1683 he settled near a close with its sixth number, but it initiated for Knight a what is now Albany, New York, and there in 1704 he bought career as publisher and author which extended over forty through Harme Gansevoort one-fourth of the land in Dutchess years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up his publish- county near Red Hook, which had been patented in 1688 to ing business, and became the superintendent of the publications Peter Schuyler, who in 1722 deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for upper fourth of his patent to the seven children of Knickerbocker. which he projected and edited The British Almanack and The eldest of these children, Johannes Harmensen, received from Companion, begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business the common council of the city of Albany, a grant of 50 acres of on his own account with the publication of The Library of mcadow and 10 acres of upland on the south side of Schaghti- Entertaining Knowledge, writing several volumes of the series coke Creek. This Schaghticoke estate was held by Johannes himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started The Penny Magazine and " KNIGHT, D. R.-KNIGHTHOOD 851 14 success. The Penny Cyclopaedia, both of which had a large circulation. I the primary signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of The Penny Cyclopaedia, however, on account of the heavy the second that period of life which intervenes between child- excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary hood and manhood. But some time before the middle of the 12th sacrifice. Besides many illustrated editions of standard works, century they had acquired the meaning they still retain of the including in 1842 The Pictorial Shakespeare, which had appeared French chevalier and chevalerie. In a secondary sense cniht in parts (1838–1841), Knight published a variety of illustrated meant a servant or attendant answering to the German Knecht, works, such as Old England and The Land we Live in. He also and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is described as a undertook the series known as Weekly Volumes. He himself leorning cniht. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been contributed the first volume, a biography of William Caxton. occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin miles—usually Many famous books, Miss Martineau's Tales, Mrs Jameson's translated by thegn--which in the earlier middle ages was used Early Italian Painters and G. H. Lewes's Biographical History as the designation of the domestic as well as of the martial of Philosophy, appeared for the first time in this series. In officers or retainers of sovereigns and princes or great person- 1853 he became editor of The English Cyclopaedia, which was ages. Sharon Turner suggests that cniht from meaning an practically only a revision of The Penny Cyclopaedia, and at attendant simply may have come to mean more especially a about the same time he began his Popular History of England military attendant, and that in this sense it may have gradually (8 vols., 1856-1862). In 1864 he withdrew from the business of superseded the word thegn.3 But the word thegn itself, that is, publisher, but he continued to write nearly to the close of his when it was used as the description of an attendant of the long life, publishing The Shadows of the Old Booksellers (1865), king, appears to have meant more especially a military atten- an autobiography under the title Passages of a Working Life dant. As Stubbs says the thegn seems to be primarily the during Half a Century (2 vols., 1864-1865), and an historical warrior gesith”-the gesithas forming the chosen band of com- novel, Begg'd at Couri (1867). He died at Addlestone, Surrey, panions (comites) of the German chiefs (principes) noticed by on the oth of March 1873. Tacitus," he is probably the gesith who had a particular mili- See A. A. Clowes, Knight, a Sketch (1892); and F. Espinasse, in tary duty in his master's service "; and he adds that from the The Critic (May 1860). reign of Athelstan “the gesith is lost sight of except very occa- KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845- ), American artist, sionally, the more important class having become thegns, and the was born at Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of the king.” ! Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could never have in the private studio of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military attendant, France, having a house and studio at Poissy on the Seine. at all events of the king. But besides the king, the ealdormen, He painted peasant women out of doors with great popular bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and to He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the these it is more than probable that the name of cniht was applied. Legion of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of made a knight of the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria, retainers and dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is Munich, 1893, receiving ihe gold medal of honour from the evidence enough to show that among them were some called Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1893. His cnihtas who were not always the humblest or least considerable son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape painter. of their number. The testimony of Domesday also establishes KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843-1908), English landscape the existence in the reign of Edward the Confessor of what painter, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a school- Stubbs describes as a “large class” of landholders who had master, but painting was his hobby, and he subsequently de- commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubt- voted himself to it. In 1861 he had his first picture hung at the ful whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal Academy. He was essentially an open-air painter, constantly character. But in any event it is manifest that their condition going on sketching tours in the most picturesque spots of Eng- was in many respects similar to that of a vast number of unques- land, and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He died tionably feudal and military tenants who made their appearance at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees after the Norman Conquest. If consequently the former were bought his “ December's Bareness Everywhere " for the nation in called cnihtas under the Anglo-Saxon régime, it seems sufficiently the following month. Most of his best pictures had passed into probable that the appellation should have been continued to the the collection of Mr Iceton of Putney (including “ White Walls latter-practically their successors-under the Anglo-Norman of Old England” and “Hereford Cathedral”), Mr Walter Briggs régime. And if the designation of knights was first applied to of Burley in Wharfedale (especially “ Pinner"), and Mr S. M. the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons--who Phillips of Wrotham (especially two water-colours of Richmond although they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services Bridge). to the king—the extension of that designation to the whole body KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY. These two words, which are of military tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged nearly but not quite synonymous, designate a single subject process. Assuming, however, that knight was originally used of inquiry, which presents itself under three different although to describe the military tenant of a noble person, as cniht had connected and in a measure intermingled aspects. It may be sometimes been used to describe the thegn of a noble person, it regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of feudal tenure, would, to begin with, have defined rather his social status than in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity, and in the the nature of his services. But those whom the English called third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements. knights the Normans called chevaliers, by which term the nature The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings Feus of their services was defined, while their social status was left DALISM and KNIGHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with out of consideration. And at first chevalier in its general and the second and third. For the more important religious as honorary signification seems to have been rendered not by knight distinguished from the military orders of knighthood or chivalry but by rider, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the reader is referred to the headings ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the KNIGHTS OF; TEUTONIC KNIGHTS; and TEMPLARS. Conqueror “dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere.”& But, as E. A. “The growth of knighthood ” (writes Stubbs) “is a subject Freeman says, “no such title is heard of in the earlier days of on which the greatest obscurity prevails ": and, though J. H. England. The thegn, the caldorman, the king himself, fought on Round has done much to explain the introduction of the system foot; the horse might bear him to the field, but when the fighting into England, its actual origin on the continent of Europe is still obscure in many of its most important details. ? Du Cange, Gloss., s.3. Miles." The words knight and knighthood are merely the modern forms 3 History of England, iii. 12. * Stubbs, Constitutional History, i. 156. of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English cniht and cnihthád. Of these s Ibid. i. 156, 366; Turner, iii. 125–129. 1 Feudal England, pp. 225 sqq. 6 Ingram's edition, p. 290,, 6 852 KNIGHTHOOD 1 itself came he stood on his native earth to receive the onslaught (now Peterborough), was accepted from Selden tó Hallam as of her enemies.". In this perhaps we may behold one of the an historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not only to most ancient of British insular prejudices, for on the Continent have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to Kaighthood the importance of cavalry in warfare was already abundantly have had a distinctively religious character. which in England, understood. It was by means of their horsemen that the was contemned by the Norman invaders. The Austrasian Franks established their superiority over their neigh- genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to support bours, and in time created the Western Empire anew, while from this view. When William of Malmesbury describes the knighting the word caballarius, which occurs in the Capilularies in the reign of Athelstan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, his of Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance investiture“ with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon languages. In Germany the chevalier was called Riller, but sword with a golden sheath," there is no hint of any religious neither rider nor chevalier prevailed against knight in England. observance. In spite of the silence of our records, Dr Stubbs And it was long after knighthood had acquired its present meaning thinks that kings so well acquainted with foreign usages as with us that chivalry was incorporated into our language. It Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could hardly have may be remarked too in passing that in official Latin, not only failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry in England but all over Europe, the word miles held its own then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is sup- against both eques and caballarius. ported in this opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed mentioned as a Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold in the middle ages-implying as it did a formal assumption of received knighthood from William of Normandy makes it clear Origin of and initiation into the profession of arms-nothing either that Harold was not yet a knight, which in the case of so Medieval beyond more or less probable conjecture is possible. tried a warrior would imply that“ dubbing to knighthood" was Knighthood. The medieval knights had nothing to do in the way of not yet known in England even under Edward the Confessor, or, derivation with the “equites” of Rome, the knights of King as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the 11th century the Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But custom had grown in Normandy into “ something of a more there are grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of special meaning " than it bore in England. chivalry are to be detected in early Teutonic customs, and that Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal they may have made some advance among the Franks of Gaul. system of tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes We know from Tacitus that the German tribes in his day were of defensive than of offensive warfare. Against invasion it wont to celebrate the admission of their young men into the furnished a permanent provision both in men-at-arms and strong, ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and ceremony. holds; nor was it unsuited for the campaigns of neighbouring The people of the district to which the candidate belonged were counts and barons which lasted for only a few weeks, and ex- called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be tended over only a few leagues. But when kings and kingdoms conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became fitted and worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted re- his near kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance. sources of feudalism were altogether inadequate. It became Again, among the Franks we find Charlemagne girding his son therefore the manifest interest of both parties that personal Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious girding his son Charles the services should be commuted into pecuniary payments. Then Bald with the sword, when they arrived at manhood. It seems there grew up all over Europe a system of fining the knights who certain here that some ceremony was observed which was deemed failed to respond to the sovereign's call or to stay their full time worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of recognized in the field, and in England this fine developed, from the reign importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony of Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a regular war-tax called extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and escuage or scutage (q.v.). In this way funds for war were placed at emperors. But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the feudatories and in the first instance to the mounted warriors who formed the their retainers still formed the most considerable portion of their most formidable portion of the warlike array of the Franks. armies, the conditions under' which they served were altogether It was among the Franks indeed, and possibly through their changed. Their military service was now far more the result experiences in war with the Saracens, that cavalry first acquired of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in every enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas, European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid this alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist Scotland and Wales were subjugated by what was in the main, of the noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman if not exclusively, a feudal militia raised as of old by writ to the observes,“ will be the same. Since then we discover in the earls and barons and the sheriffs. But the armies of Edward III., Capitularies of Charlemagne actual mention of " caballarii” Henry V. and Henry VI. during the century of intermittent war- a class of warriors, it may reasonably be concluded that formal fare between England and France were recruited and sustained investiture with arms applied to the" caballarii "if it was a usage to a very great extent on the principle of contract. On the extending beyond the sovereign and his heir-apparent. “But,” Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries was both as Hallam says, “ he who fought on horseback and had been an early and a common practice. invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted nothing Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns more to render him a knight;” and so he concludes, in view of and their feudatories, there were other causes which materially the verbal identity of " chevalier” and “ caballarius," that “we contributed towards bringing about those changes in The may refer chivalry in a general sense to the age of Charlemagne."'s the military system of Europe which were finally Crusades. Yet, if the “caballarii ” of the Capitularies are really the pre- accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During the cursors of the later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights name for a knight is "miles," although " caballarius " became in 6 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 278; also compare Grosse, Military various forms the vernacular designation. Antiquities, i. 65 seq. Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of the armies of Edward III. were raised by compulsory levies even after ? There has been a general tendency to ignore the extent to which Croyland is really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century the the system of raising troops by free contract had begun. Luce knighting of Heward or Hereward by Brand, abbot of Burgh (ch. vi.) points out how much England relied at this time on what would now be called conscription: and his remarks are entirely * Comparative Politics, p. 74. borne out by the Norwich documents published by Mr W. Hudson : Baluze, Capitularia Regum Francorum, ii. 794, 1069. (Norf. and Norwich Archaeological Soc. xiv, 263 sqq.), by a Lynn • Du Cange. Gloss., s.v. Arma." corporation document of 18th Edw. III. (Hist. MSS. Commission • Freeman, Comparative Politics, p. 73. Report XI. Appendix pt. iii. p. 189), and by Smyth's Lives of the 5 Hallam, Middle Ages, iii. 392. Berkeleys, i. 312, 319, 320. ) KNIGHTHOOD 853 of Feudal- Ism. and obligations had no place, and it was seen that the volun- | created between two or more monks by voluntary agreement, teers who flocked to the standards of the various commanders which was regarded as of far more intimacy and stringency than were not less but even more efficient in the field than the any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied. Brothers vassals they had hitherto been accustomed to lead. It was thus in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the affec- established that pay, the love of enterprise and the prospect of tions of their “ lady-loves.” They shared in every danger and plunder-if we leave zeal for the sacred cause which they had in every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour espoused for the moment out of sight-were quite as useful for of another as promptly and zealously as his own. The plot of the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as the medieval romance of Amis and Amiles is built entirely on the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty. such a brotherhood. Their engagements usually lasted through Moreover, the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers life, but sometimes only for a specified period or during the of an expedition to Palestine were seasoned, and experienced continuance of specified circumstances, and they were always although frequently impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing in the shape of a hire themselves to the highest bidder, and well worth the wages solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of the they received. Again, it was owing to the crusades that the Eucharist together. Romance and tradition speak of strange church took the profession of arms under her peculiar protection, rites the mingling and even the drinking of blood—as having and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation into it assumed a in remote and rude ages marked the inception of these martial religious as well as a martial character. and fraternal associations. But in later and less barbarous To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits times they were generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal of knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they and reciprocal exchange of weapons and armour. In warfare Knighthood did not possess a sufficient property qualification- it was customary for knights who were thus allied to appear Independent of which perhaps , they had denuded themselves in similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or cognisances, order to their equipment for the Holy War. And to the end that their enemies might not know with which of them thus the conception of knighthood as of something they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to distinct from feudalism both as a social condition and a accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in personal dignity arose and rapidly gained ground. It was the field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow then that the analogy was first detected between the order of up bodies of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity, knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an actual although free from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establish- livery, and naming themselves after some special symbol or ment of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars some patron saint of their adoption. And such bodies placed and the Knights Hospitallers were the most eminent examples. under the command of a sovereign or grand master, regulated by As comprehensive in their polity as the Benedictines or statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical endowments would have Franciscans, they gathered their members from, and soon been precisely what in after times such orders as the Garter scattered their possessions over, every country in Europe. And in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in in their indifference to the distinctions of race and nationality Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had were. become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat the church, as a universal institution which knit together the earlier and later, the general arrangements of a European army whole warrior caste of Christendom into one great fraternity were always and everywhere pretty much the same. irrespective alike of feudal subordination and territorial boun- Under the sovereign the constable and the marshal Koighthood. daries. Somewhat later the adoption of hereditary surnames or marshals held the chief commands, their authority and armorial bearings marked the existence of a large and noble being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them class who either from the subdivision of fiefs or from the effects were the heralds, who were the officers of their military court, of the custom of primogeniture were very insufficiently provided wherein offences committed in the camp and field were tried for. To them only two callings were generally open, that of the and adjudged, and among whose duties it was to carry orders churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a rule offered and messages, to deliver challenges and call truces, and to greater attractions than the former in an era of much licence and identify and number the wounded and the slain. The main little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of birth, divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an ade some of the greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller quate maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the divisions still under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction shape of booty or of ransom. It is probably to this period and from knights banneret they came to be called, knights bachelors. these circumstances that we must look for at all events the rudi- All knights whether bachelors or bannerets were escorted by mentary beginnings of the military as well as the religious orders their squires. But the banner of the banneret always implied of chivalry. Of the existence of any regularly constituted a more or less extensive command, while every knight was en- companionships of the first kind there is no trustworthy evidence titled to bear a pennon and every squire a pencel. All three flags until between two and three centuries after fraternities of the were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and carried second kind had been organized. Soon after the greater crusad- on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion ing societies had been formed similar orders, such as those of of the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was St James of Compostella, Calatrava and Alcantara, were estab- square the pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was lished to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the either pointed or forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks was considerably less than the others, always terminated in a than knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister, single tail or streamer.6 and they were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy, If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination-from poverty and obedience. From a very early stage in the develop- another point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into ment of chivalry, however, we meet with the singular institution four than into three stages, of which two may be called provisional of brotherhood in arms; and from it the ultimate origin if not of and two final. The bachelor and the banneret were both equally the religious fraternities at any rate of the military companion- knights, only the one was of greater distinction and authority ships is usually derived. By this institution a relation was • Du Cange, Dissertation, xxi., and Lancelot du Lac, among other ? J. B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, Mémoires sur l'Ancienne romances. Chevalerie, i. 363, 364 (ed. 1781). * Anstis, Register of the Order of the Garter, i. 63. 2 Du Cange, Dissertation sur Joinville, xxi.; Sainte Palaye, Grose, Military Antiq. i. 207 seq.; Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 276 Mémoires, i. 272; G. F. Beltz, Memorials of the Order of the Garter seq., and iii. 278 seq. (1841,7 p. xxvii. Grose's Military Antiquities, ii. 256. Grades of 854 KNIGHTHOOD a than the other. In like manner the squire and the page were | knight of his own selection. He now became a "squire of the both in training for knighthood, but the first had advanced body,” and truly an “armiger” or “scutifer," for he bore the further in the process than the second. It is true that the squire shield and armour of his leader to the field, and, what was a task was a combatant while the page was not, and that many squires of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and secured him in his voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the insuffi- panoply of war before assisting him to mount his courser or ciency of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of charger. It was his function also to display and guard in battle knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous educa- the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight tion the successive conditions of page and squire were passed he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to through in boyhood and youth, and the condition of knighthood supply him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or was reached in early manhood. Every feudal court and castle killed, to receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight was in fact a school of chivalry, and although princes and great by his side if he was unequally matched, to rescue him if cap- personages were rarely actually pages or squires, the moral and tured, to bear him to a place of safety if wounded, and to bury physical discipline through which they passed was not in any him honourably when dead. And after he had worthily and important particular different from that to which less exalted bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a squire, the time candidates for knighthood were subjected. The page, or, as he came when it was fitting that he should be made a knight. This, was more anciently and more correctly called, the “ valet” or at least, was the current theory; but it is specially dangerous “ damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he in medieval history to assume too much correspondence between was between seven and eight years old, and the initial phase theory and fact. In many castles, and perha s in most, the continued for seven or eight years longer. He acted as the con- discipline followed simply a natural and unwritten code of stant personal attendant of both his master and mistress. He fagging" and seniority, as in public schools or on board waited on them in their hall and accompanied them in the chase, men-of-war some hundred years or so ago. served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to the camp.? Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he learnt from a very early period in all countries where chivalry was the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love," from his known. In both of them the essential portion seems Modes of master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a. to have been the accolade or stroke of the sword. conferring spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured But while in the one the accolade constituted the Koighthood. tread of a soldier; and from his master and his hunismen whole or nearly the whole of the ceremony, in the other it and falconers the “ mysteries of the woods and rivers," or in was surrounded with many additional observances. The former other words the rules and practices of hunting and hawking. and simpler of these modes was naturally that used in war: When he was between fifteen and sixteen he became a squire. the candidate knelt before "the chief of the army or some But no sudden or great alteration was made in his mode of life. valiant knight," who struck him thrice with the flat of a sword, He continued to wait at dinner with the pages, although in a pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation manner more dignified according to the notions of the age. which varied at the creator's will.5 He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered In this form a number of knights were made before and after the first or principal cup of wine to his master and his guests, almost every battle between the ith and the 16th centuries, and carried to them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed and its advantages on the score of both convenience and economy their hands before and after meat. He assisted in clearing the gradually led to its general adoption both in time of peace and hall for dancing or minstrelsy, and laid the tables for chess or time of war. On extraordinary occasions indeed the more draughts, and he also shared in the pastimes for which he had elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But recourse was made preparation. · He brought his master the “ vin de coucher" had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of the at night, and made his early refection ready for him in the 15th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied king of knighthood. When Segar, garter king of arms, wrote in an always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself the reign of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with to ride the “great horse,” to tilt at the quintain, to wield the such completeness that he does not even mention that there sword and battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and were two ways of creating knights bachelors. “He that is to to bear the weight and overcome the embarrassments of armour. be made a knight,” he says, “is striken by the prince with a He inured himself to the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and volun- sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the prince saying, tarily sufiered the pains or inconveniences of hunger and thirst, Soys Chevalier,' and in times past was added 'Saint George.' fatigue and sleeplessness. It was then too that he chose his And when the knight rises the prince sayeth ‘Avencez. This is lady-love,” whom he was expected to regard with an adoration the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious if concealed. 'dubbing' was the old term in this point, not 'creating. This And when it was considered that he had made sufficient advance- sort of knights are by the heralds called knights bachelors." In ment in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the our days when a knight is personally made he kneels before the priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to him.' sovereign, who lays a sword drawn, ordinarily the sword of state, Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating on either of his shoulders and says, “ Rise," calling him by his most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he Christian name with the addition of “Sir” before it. entered the service of some valiant and adventurous lord or 6. There are several obscure points as to the relation of the longer · Sainte Palaye, Mémoires, i. 36; Froissart, bk. iii. ch. 9. and shorter ceremonies, as well as the origin and original relation of 2 Sainte Palaye, Mémoires, pt. i. and Mills, History of Chivalry, their several parts. There is nothing to show whence came * dub- vol. i. ch. 2. bing or the “ accolade." It seems certain that the word 3 See the long sermon in the romance of Petit Jehan de Saintre, means to strike, and the usage is as old as the knighting of Henry by pt. i. ch. v., and compare the theory there set forth with the actual William the Conqueror (șupra, pp. 851, 852). So, too, in the Empire behaviour of the chief personages. Even Gautier, while he contends a dubbed knight is “ritter geschlagen." The accolade may that chivalry did much to refine morality, is compelled to admit etymologically refer to the embrace, accompanied by a blow with the the prevailing immorality, to which medieval romances testify, hand, characteristic of the longer form of knighting. The derivation and the extraordinary, free behaviour of the unmarried ladies. No of "adouber," corresponding to " dub," from adoptare," which doubt these romances, taken alone, might give as unfair an idea as is given by Du Cange, and would connect the ceremony with modern French novels give of Parisian morals, but we have abundant adoptio per arma," is certainly inaccurate. The investiture with other evidence for placing the moral standard of the age of chivalry arms, which formed a part of the longer form of knighting, and definitely below that of educated society in the present day, which we have seen to rest on very ancient usage, may originally · Sainte Palaye, Mémoires, i. Il seg.: “C'est peut-être à cette have had a distinct meaning. We have observed that Lanfranc cérémonie et non à celles de la chevalerie qu'on doit rapporter ce invested Henry I. with arms, while William "dubbed him to qui se lit dans nos historiens de la première et de la seconde race au rider." If th:re was a difference in the meaning of the two cere sujet des premières armes que les Rois et les Princes remettoient avec monies, the difficulty as to the knighting of Earl Harold (sufra, solemnité au jeunes Princes leurs enfans." p. 852) is at least partly removed. 1) dub" KNIGHTHOOD 855 " th 60 Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation “ If you do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God forbid), I shall hack the spurs from your heels." 3 of a knight when the complete procedure was observed. “The ceremonies and circumstances at the giving this dignity,” says The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have Selden,“ in the elder time were of two kinds especially, which we been so largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing or giving the accolade alone that in England it became at last may call courtly and sacred. The courtly were the feasts held at the creation, giving of robes, arms, spurs and the like. The restricted to such knights as were made at coronations and some other occasions of state. And to them the particular sacred were the holy devotions and what else was used in the church at or before the receiving of the dignity. But the leading in the ordinary way were called in distinction from them knights name of Knights of the Bath was assigned, while knights made authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in French, by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English the first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation which will be found at length either in the original or translated of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in dis- tinction from knights banneret. It is usually supposed that writers. Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, “tant à cause du detail que de la naïveté du stile et encore plus de la was at the coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort the Bath as a companionship or capitular body was instituted the last creation of them was at the coronation of Charles II. sérieusement," while he adds that these ceremonies were essen- But all knights were also knights of the spur or“ equites aurati," tially identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy. because their spurs were golden or gilt,--the spers of squires The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the being of silver or white metal,-and these became their peculiar placing of the candidate under the care of two" eşquires of honour badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech. In the grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the chivalry," who were to be “ governors in all things relating to him." Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut spurs together with the sword were always employed as the his hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber, leading and most characteristic ensigns of knighthood.5 where a bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been covered with rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him he entered. While he was entertained as to both the nature of their dignity and the bath two" ancient and grave knights" attended him “ to inform, instruct and counsel him touch-qualifications they were required to possess for receiving it at ing the order and feats of chivalry," and when they had fulfilled different periods and in different countries. On the Continent their mission they poured some of the water of the bath over his the distinction which is commonly but incorrectly made between shoulders, signing the left shoulder with the cross, and retired. He was then taken from the bath and put into a plain bed without the nobility and the gentry has never arisen, and it was unknown hangings, in which he remained until his body was dry, when the here while chivalry existed and heraldry was understood. two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that a robe of Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a gentleman russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto that of an meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain con- hermit." Then the“ two ancient and grave knights" returned and led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them sporting and ditions of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence dancing " with “ the minstrels making melody." And when they Du Cange divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain had been served with wines and spices they went away leaving into three classes: first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly, only the candidate, the esquires," the priest, the chandler and the chevaliers or caballeros; and thirdly, écuyers or infanzons; watch," who kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate pass. and to the first, who with their several special titles constituted ing the night bestowing himself in orisons and prayers. At daybreak he confessed to the priest, heard matins, and communicated the greater nobility of either country, he limits the designation in the mass, offering a aper and a piece of money stuck in it as near of banneret and the right of leading their followers to war under the lighted end as possible, the first to the honour of God" and the a banner, otherwise a “ drapeau quarré” or square flag.6 Selden second " to the honour of the person that makes him a knight." shows especially from the parliament rolls that the term banneret Afterwards he was taken back to his chamber, and remained in bed until the knights, esquires and minstrels went to him and aroused has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to him. The knights then dressed him in distinctive garments, and they baron.? In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI., then mounted their horses and rode to the hall where the candidate lords of parliament were always created bannerets as well as was to receive knighthood; his future squire was to ride before him barons at their investiture, “part of the ceremony consisting bareheaded bearing his sword by the point in its scabbard with his in the display of a banner, and such 'barones majores' were spurs hanging from its hilt. And when everything was prepared the prince or subject who was to knight him came into the hall, and, thereby entitled to the privilege of having one borne by a the candidate's sword and spurs having been presented to him, he retainer before them to the field of a quadrilateral form." 8 In delivered the right spur to the "most noble and gentle" knight present, and directed him to fasten it on the candidate's right heel ; called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in England Scotland, too, lords of parliament and bannerets were also which he kneeling on one knee and putting the candidate's right foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the candidate's knee with banneret was often corrupted to baronet. Even in a patent the cross, and in like manner by another " noble and gentle " knight passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And then he who was to called "baronettus' forbannerettus.'"9 In this manner create the knight took the sword and girded him with it, and then embracing him he liſted his right hand and smote him on the neck it is not improbable that the title of baronet may have been or shoulder, saying, “ Be thou a good knight," and kissed him. suggested to the advisers of James I. when the order of Baronets When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music, and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to 3 As may be gathered from Selden, Favyn, La Colombiers, Mene- support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it strier and Sainte Palaye, there were several differences of detail on the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook in the ceremony at different times and in different places. But in awaited him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee, and said, the main it was everywhere the same both in its military and its ecclesiastical elements. In the Pontificale Romanum, the old Ordo 1 Selden, Titles of Honor, 639. Romanus and the manual or Common Prayer Book in use in England 2 Daniel, Histoire de la Milice Françoise, i. 99-104; Byshe's Upton, before the Reformation forms for the blessing or consecration of De Studio Militari, pp: 21-24; Dugdale, Warwickshire, ii. 708-710; new knights are included, and of these the first and the last are Segar, Honor Civil and Military, pp. 69 seq. and Nicolas, Orders of quoted by Selden. Knighthood, vol. ii. (Order of the Bath) pp. 19. seq...It is given as“ the Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 678; Ashmole, Order of the Garter, order and manner of creating Knights of the Bath in time of peace p. 15; Favyn, Théâtre d'Honneur, ii. 1035. according to the custom of England," and consequently dates from a 5. If we sum up the principal ensigns of knighthood, ancient and period when the full ceremony of creating knights bachelors generally modern, we shall find they have been or are a horse, gold ring, shield har gone out of fashion. But as Ashmole, speaking of Knights of the and lance, a belt and sword, gilt spurs and a gold chain or collar.” .. if the ceremonies and circumstances of their creation -Ashmole, Order of the Garter, pp. 12, 13. be well considered, it will appear that this king (Henry IV.) did not On the banner see Grose, Military Antiquities, ü. 257; and institute but rather restore the ancient manner of making knights, Nicolas. British Orders of Knighthood, vol. i. p. xxxvii. and consequently that the Knights of the Bath are in truth no other ? Tilles of Honor, pp. 356 and 608. See also Hallam, Middle Ages, than knights bachelors, that is to say, such as are created with those iii. 126 seq. and Stubbs, Const. Hist. iii. 440 seq. ceremonies wherewith knights bachelors were formerly created." 8 Riddell's Law and Practice in Scottish Peerages, p. 578; also (Ashmole, Order of the Garter, p. 15). See also Selden, Tilles of Nisbet's System of Heraldry, ii. 49 and Selden's Titles of Honor, p. 702. Honor, p. 678, and the Archæological Journal, v. 258 seq. 9 Selden, Tiiles of Honor, pp. 608 and 657. ) «G Bath, says, 856 KNIGHTHOOD was originally created by him, for it was a question whether the baronets and the crown early in the 17th century respecting recipients of the new dignity should be designated by that or their precedence, it was alleged without contradiction in an some other name. But there is no doubt that as previously argument on behalf of the baronets before the privy council used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not the that “there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there never shall be.”8 Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir are several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary Ralph Sadler were created bannerets by the Lord Protector claim to that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground Somerset after the battle of Pinkie in 1547, and the better of the nature of their feudal tenure. And generally, at any rate opinion is that this was the last occasion on which the dignity to commence with, it seems probable that bannerets were in was conferred. It has been stated indeed that Charles I. every country merely the more important class of feudatories, created Sir John Smith a banneret after the battle of Edgehill the “ricos hombres ” in contrast to the knights bachelors, who in 1642 for having rescued the royal standard from the enemy. in France in the time of St Louis were known as “pauvres But of this there is no sufficient proof. It was also supposed hommes." In England all the barons or greater nobility were that George III. had created several naval officers bannerets entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange's observations towards the end of the last century, because he knighted them would apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility on board ship under the royal standard displayed. This, of France and Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively however, is unquestionably an error. early period bannerets whose claims were founded on personal On the continent of Europe the degree of knight bachelor distinction rather than on feudal tenure gradually came to the disappeared with the military system which had given rise to it. front, and much the same process of substitution appears to It is now therefore peculiar to the British Empire, Existing have gone on in their case as that which we have marked in the where, although very frequently conferred by letters Orders of case of simple knights. According to the Sallade and the patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still even Kaighthood. Division du Monde, as cited by Selden, bannerets were clearly occasionally created—as every dignity was formerly created-by in the beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject importance and nothing more, and different forms for their personally take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade creation are given in time of peace and in time of war. But seems to have become obsolete, and no other species of knight- in the French Gesta Romanorum the warlike form alone is given, hood, if knighthood it can be called, is known except that which and it is quoted by both Selden and Du Cange. From the latter is dependent on admission to some particular order. It is a a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as the only one common error to suppose that baronets are hereditary knights. generally in force. Baronets are not knights unless they are knighted like anybody The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions else; and, so far from being knights because they are baronets, entitled him to promotion would apply formally to the com- one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the institution mander in the field for the title of banneret. If this were of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their granted, the heralds were called to cut publicly the tails from successors and their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when his pennon: or the commander, as a special honour, might cut they attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive them off with his own hands. The earliest contemporary knighthood.10 It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke mention of knights banneret is in France, Daniel says, in the says, “the knight is by creation and not by descent,” and, reign of Philip Augustus, and in England, Selden says in the although we hear of such designations as the “ knight of Kerry reign of Edward I. But in neither case is reference made to or the “knight of Glin,” they are no more than traditional them in such a manner as to suggest that the dignity was then nicknames, and do not by any means imply that the persons regarded as new or even uncommon, and it seems pretty certain to whom they are applied are knights in a legitimate sense. that its existence on one side could not have long preceded Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone its existence on the other side of the Channel. Sir Alan Plokenet, out of use abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, com- Sir Ralph Daubeney and Sir Philip Daubeney are entered as manders and companions of a formidable assortment of orders bannerets on the roll of the garrison of Caermarthen Castle in in almost every part of the world." (See the section on " Orders 1282, and the roll of Carlaverock records the names and arms of Knighthood " below.) of eighty-five bannerets who accompanied Edward I. in his The United Kingdom has eight orders of knighthood-the expedition into Scotland in 1300. Garter, the Thistle, St Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India, What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected St Michael and St George, the Indian Empire and the Royal to supply to the royal host is doubtful. But, however this may Victorian Order; and, while the first is undoubtedly the oldest be, in the reign of Edward III, and afterwards bannerets appear as well as the most illustrious anywhere existing, a fictitious as the commanders of a military force raised by themselves and antiquity has been claimed and is even still frequently conceded marshalled under their banners: their tatus and their relations both to the crown and to their followers were mainly the con- 8 State Papers, Domestic Series, James the First, Ixvii. 119. sequences of voluntary contract not of feudal tenure. It is from 9 "Thursday, June 24th: His Majesty was pleased to confer the honour of knights banneret on the following fag officers and com- the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. also that the two manders under the royal standard, who kneeling kissed hands on best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a banneret the occasion: Admirals Pye and Sprye; Captains Knight, Bickerton have been transmitted to us. Sir Thomas Smith, writing and Vernon," Gentleman's Magazine (1773) xliii. 299. Sir Harris towards the end of the 16th century, says, after noticing the Nicolas remarks on these and the other cases (British Orders of conditions to be observed in the creation of bannerets, “ but mously a pamphlet on the subject, A Short Inquiry into the Nalure Knighthood, vol. xliii.) and Sir William Fitzherbert published anony. this order is almost grown out of use in England”;' and, of the Titles conferred at Portsmouth, &c., which is very scarce, but during the controversy which arose between the new order of is to be found under the name of Fitzherbert " in the catalogue of the British Museum Library. ? See " Project concerninge the conferinge of the title of vidom," 10." Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet, was indicted by the name of wherein it is said that "the title of vidom (vicedominus) was an Sir Henry Ferrers, Knight, for the murther of one Stone whom one ancient title used in this kingdom of England both before and since Nightingale feloniously murthered, and that the said Sir Henry the Norman Conquest (State Papers, James I. Domestic Series, was present aiding and abetting, &c. Upon this indictment Sir lxii. 150 B, probable date April 1611). Henry Ferrers being arraigned said he never was knighted, which 2 Selden, Titles of Honor, pp. 452 seq. being confessed, the indictment was held not to be sufficient, where, 3 Ibid. pp. 449 seq. fore he was indicted de novo by the name of Sir Henry Ferrers, • Du Cange, Dissertation, ix.; Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 452; Baronet." Brydall, Jus Imaginis apud Anglos, or the Law of Eng. Daniel, Milice Françoise, i. 86 (Paris, 1721). land relating to the Nobility and Gentry (London, 1675), p. 20. Ci. Selden, Tilles of Ilonor, p. 656; Grose, Military Antiquities, ii. 206. Patent Rolls, 10 Jac. I., pt. x. No. 18; Selden, Tilles of Honor, p. 687, • Froissart, Bk. I. ch. 241 and Bk. II. ch. 53. The recipients were !! Louis XIV. introduced the practice of dividing the members of Sir John Chandos and Sir Thos. Trivet. military orders into several degrees when he established the order * Commonwealth of England (ed. 1640), p. 48. of St Louis in 1693. a 1) KNIGHTHOOD 857 to the second and fourth, although the third, fifth, sixth, seventh, | France in 1346. And he further observes that" a great variety and eighth appear to be as contentedly as they are unquestion of devices and mottoes were used by Edward III.; they were ably recent. chosen from the most trivial causes and were of an amorous It is, however, certain that the “most noble” Order of the rather than of a military character. Nothing,” he adds, " is Garter at least was instituted in the middle of the 14th century, more likely than that in a crowded assembly a lady should when English chivalry was outwardly brightest and accidentally have dropped her garter; that the circumstance Ordeç of the Garter, the court most magnificent. But in what particular should have caused a smile in the bystanders; and that on its year this event occurred is and has been the subject being taken up by Edward he should have reproved the levity of of much difference of opinion. All the original records of the bis courtiers by so happy and chivalrous an exclamation, placing order until after 1416 have perished, and consequently the ques- the garter at the same time on his own knee, as ‘Dishonoured be tion depends for its settlement not on direct testimony but on he who thinks ill of it.' Such a circumstance occurring at a time inference from circumstances. The dates which have been of general festivity, when devices, mottoes and conceits of all selected vary from 1344 (given by Froissart, but almost cer- kinds were adopted as ornaments or badges of the habits worn at tainly mistaken) to 1351. The evidence may be examined at jousts and tournaments, would naturally have been commemo- length in Nicolas and Beltz; it is indisputable that in the rated as other royal expressions seem to have been by its con- wardrobe account from September 1347 to January 1349, version into a device and motto for the dresses at an approaching the 21st and 23rd Edward III., the issue of certain habits hastilude.” Moreover, Sir Harris Nicolas contends that the with garters and the motto embroidered on them is marked order had no loftier immediate origin than a joust or tour- for St George's Day; that the letters patent relating to nament. It consisted of the king and the Black Prince, and the preparation of the royal chapel of Windsor are dated in 24 knights divided into two bands of 12 like the tilters in a August 1348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince hastilude-at the head of the one being the first, and of the other of Wales there is an entry in November 1348 of the gift by the second; and to the companions belonging to each, when the him of "twenty-four garters to the knights of the Society order had superseded the Round Table and had become a per- of the Garter.”i But that the order, although from this mani- manent institution, were assigned stalls either the sovereign's fêstly already fully constituted in the autumn of 1348, was or the prince's side of St George's Chapel. That Sir Harris not in existence before the summer of 1346 Sir Harris Nicolas Nicolas is accurate in this conjecture seems probable from the proves pretty conclusively by pointing out that nobody who was selection which, was made of the “ founder knights.” As Beltz not a knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it, observes, the fame of Sir Reginald Cobham, Sir Walter Manny and that neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the and the earls of Northampton, Hereford and Suffolk was already original companions were knighted until the middle of that established by their warlike exploits, and they would certainly year. have been among the original companions had the order been Regarding the occasion there has been almost as much con- then regarded as the reward of military merit only. But, troversy as regarding the date of its foundation. The “ vulgar although these eminent warriors were subsequently elected as and more general story," as Ashmole calls it, is that of the vacancies occurred, their admission was postponed to that of countess of Salisbury's garter. But commentators are not at several very young and in actual warfare comparatively unknown one as to which countess of Salisbury was the heroine of the knights, whose claims to the honour may be most rationally adventure, whether she was Katherine Montacute or Joan the explained on the assumption that they had excelled in the Fair Maid of Kent, while Heylyn rejects the legend as “a vain particular feats of arms which preceded the institution of the and idle romance derogatory both to the founder and the order, order. The original companionship had consisted of the sove- first published by Polydor Vergil, a stranger to the affairs of reign and 25 knights, and no change was made in this respect England, and by him taken upon no better ground than fama until 1786, when the sons of George III. and his successors vulgi, the tradition of the common people, too trifling a founda- were made eligible notwithstanding that the chapter might be tion for so great a building.”? complete. In 1805 another alteration was effected by the pro- Another legend is that contained in the preface to the Register or vision that the lineal descendants of George II. should be Black Book of the order, compiled in the reign of Henry VIII., eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of Wales for the by what authority supported is unknown, that Richard I., time being, who was declared to be “a constituent part of the while his forces were employed against Cyprus and Acre, had original institution"; and again in 1831 it was further ordained been inspired through the instrumentality of St George with that the privilege accorded to the lineal descendants of George II. renewed courage and the means of animating his fatigued should extend to the lineal descendants of George I. Although, soldiers by the device of tying about the legs of a chosen number as Sir Harris Nicolas observes, nothing is now known of the of knights a leathern thong or garter, to the end that being form of admitting ladies into the order, the description applied thereby reminded of the honour of their enterprise. they might be to them in the records during the 14th and 15th centuries leaves encouraged to redoubled efforts for victory. This was supposed no doubt that they were regularly received into it. The queen to have been in the mind of Edward III. when he fixed on the consort, the wives and daughters of knights, and some other garter as the emblem of the order, and it was stated so to have women of exalted position, were designated. “ Dames de la been by Taylor, master of the rolls, in his address to Francis I. of Fraternité de St George," and entries of the delivery of robes France on his investiture in 1527.3 According to Ashmole the and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe true account of the matter is that “King Edward having Accounts from the soth Edward III. (1376) to the roth of given forth his own garter as the signal for a battle which Henry VII. (1495), the first being Isabel, countess of Bedford, sped fortunately (which with Du Chesne we conceive to be that the daughter of the one king, and the last being Margaret and of Crécy), the victory, we say, being happily gained, he thence Elizabeth, the daughters of the other king. The effigies of took occasion to institute this order, and gave the garter Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton (assumed by him for the symbol of unity and society) pre- Harcourt, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of William de la Pole, eminence among the ensigns of it. But, as Sir Harris duke of Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from the reigns Nicolas points out-although Ashmole is not open to the of Henry VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms. correction—this hypothesis rests for its plausibility on the (See further under “ Orders of Knighthood ” below.) assumption that the order was established before the invasion of It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye and Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer 1G.F. Beltz, Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (1841), knighthood. But it may be questioned whether the privilege ? Heylyn, Cosmographie and History of the Whole World, bk. i. * Orders of Knighthood, vol. i. p. 1xxxiii. 5 Mémoires, i. 67, i. 22; History of Chivalry; Gibbon, Decline and 3 Beltz, Memorials; p. xlvi. Fall, vii. 200, P. 385. p. 286. 858 KNIGHTHOOD to coofer " was thus indiscriminately enjoyed even in the earlier days says that only three were on record in the College of Arms when of chivalry. It is true that as much might be inferred from he wrote in 1793. The last case was that of Sir Francis Michell Persons the testimony of the romance writers; historical in 1621, whose spurs were hacked from his heels, his sword-belt empowered evidence, however, tends to limit the proposition, and cut, and his sword broken over his head by the heralds in the sounder conclusion appears to be, as Sir Harris Westminster Hall.S Knighthood. Nicolas says, that the right was always restricted Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may in operation to sovereign princes, to those acting under their be said to have extended from the beginning of the crusades to authority or sanction, and to a few other personages of exalted the end of the Wars of the Roses. Even in the way of pageantry rank and station. In several of the writs for distraint of knight- and martial exercise it did not long survive the middle ages. hood from Henry III. to Edward III. a distinction is drawn In England tilts and tourneys, in which her father had so much between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or excelled, were patronized to the last by Queen Elizabeth, and by the sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots were even occasionally held until after the death of Henry, could make knights in the 11th and 12th centuries.? At all prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were discredited periods the commanders of the royal armies had the power of by the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 1559. conferring knighthood; as late as the reign of Elizabeth it was The golden age of chivalry has been variously located. Most exercised among others by Sir Henry Sidney in 1583, and Robert, writers would place it in the early 13th century, but Gautier earl of Essex, in 1595, while under James I. an ordinance of would remove it two or three generations further back. It may 1622, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for the registration be true that, in the comparative scarcity of historical evidence, of knights in the college of arms, is rendered applicable to all 12th-century romances present a more favourable picture of who should receive knighthood from either the king or any of chivalry at that earlier time; but even such historical evidence as his lieutenants. Many sovereigns, too, both of England and we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough to dispel the of France, have been knighted after their accession to the illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in which the throne by their own subjects, as, for instance, Edward III. by unselfish championship of “God and the ladies was anything Henry, earl of Lancaster, Edward VI. by the lord protector but a rare exception. Somerset, Louis XI. by Philip, duke of Burgundy, and Francis I. It is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral influ. by the Chevalier Bayard. But when in 1543 Henry VIII. ence of knighthood, if only because the ages in which it appointed Sir John Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was flourished differed so widely from our own. At its very considered necessary that he should be authorized in express best, it was always hampered by the limitations of medieval terms to confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI. society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts of the knightly in his own case when he received knighthood from the duke of code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived the Somerset. But at present the only subject to whom the right decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory of conferring knighthood belongs is the lord-lieutenant of human institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the Ireland, and to him it belongs merely by long usage and race. Indeed, the most important of these precepts did not established custom. But, by whomsoever conferred, knight- even attain to their highest development in the middle ages.' hood at one time endowed the recipient with the same status As a conscious effort to bring religion into daily life, chivalry and attributes in every country wherein chivalry was recognized. was less successful than later puritanism; while the educated In the middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and classes of our own day far surpass the average medieval knight princes to dub each other knights much as they were after- in discipline, self-control and outward or inward refinement. wards, and are now, in the habit of exchanging the stars and Freeman's estimate comes far nearer to the historical facts than ribbons of their orders. Henry II. was knighted by his great- Burke's: “ The chivalrous spirit is above all things a class spirit. uncle David I. of Scotland, Alexander III. of Scotland by The good knight is bound to endless fantastic courtesies towards Henry III., Edward I. when he was prince by Alphonso X. of men and still more towards women of a certain rank; he may Castile, and Ferdinand of Portugal by Edmund of Langley, treat all below that rank with any decree of scorn and cruelty. earl of Cambridge. And, long after the military importance The spirit of chivalry implies the arbitrary choice of one or two of knighthood had practically disappeared, what may be called virtues to be practised in such an exaggerated degree as to its cosmopolitan character was maintained: a knight's title was become vices, while the ordinary laws of right and wrong are recognized in all European countries, and not only in that forgotten. The false code of honour supplants the laws of the country in which he had received it. In modern times, how- commonwealth, the law of God and the eternal principles of ever, by certain regulations, made in 1823, and repeated and right. Chivalry again in its military aspect not only encourages enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the sovereign's the love of war for its own sake without regard to the cause for permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the reception which war is waged, it encourages also an extravagant regard by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but for a fantastic show of personal daring which cannot in any way further that such permission shall not authorize“ the assump- advance the objects of the siege or campaign which is going on. tion of any style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege Chivalry in short is in morals very much what feudalism is in appertaining to a knight bachelor of the United Kingdom.” law: each substitutes purely personal obligations devised in the Since knighthood was accorded either by actual investiture interests of an exclusive class, for the more homely duties of an or its equivalent, a counter process of degradation was regarded honest man and a good citizen” (Norman Conquest, v. 482). Degrada. · as necessary for the purpose of depriving anybody | The chivalry from which Burke drew his ideas was, so far as it tlon. who had once received it of the rank and condition existed at all, the product of a far later age. In its own age, it implied. The cases in which a knight has been formally chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilization of degraded in England are exceedingly few, so few indeed that ancient Greece and Romé, on slave labour;' and if many of its two only are mentioned by Segar, writing in 1602, and Dallaway Dallaway's Heraldry, p. 303. 1 Orders of Knighthood, vol. i. p. xi. 9 Even in 13th century England more than half the population 2 Selden, "Titles of Honor, p. 638. were serfs, and as such had no claim to the privileges of Magna 3 Harleian MS. 6063; Hargrave MS. 325. Carta; disputes between a serf and his lord were decided in the * Patent Rolls, 35th Hen. VIII., pt. xvi., No. 24; Burnet, Hist. latter's court, although the king's courts attempted to protect the of Reformation, i. 15. serf's life and limb and necessary implements of work. By French 5 Spelman, De milite dissertatio,” Posthumous Works, p. 181. feudal law, the villein had no appeal from his lord save to God 6 London Gazette, December 6, 1823, and May 15, 1855. (Pierre de Fontaines, Conseil, ch. xxi. art. 8); and, though common 7 On the Continent very elaborate ceremonies, partly heraldic sense and natural good feeling set bounds in most cases to the and partly religious, were observed in the degradation of a knight, tyranny of the nobles, yet there was scarcely any injustice too gross which are described by Sainte Palaye, Mémoires, i. 316 seq., and to be possible. .“ How mad are they who exult when sons are born after him by Mills, History of Chivalry, i. 60 seq. Cr. Titles of Honor, to their lords !" wrote Cardinal Jacques de Vitry early in the 13th p. 653 century (Exempla, p. 64, Folk Lore Soc. 1890). "6 KNIGHTHOOD 859 most brilliant outward attractions have now faded for ever, | knighthood. In the same Berkeley family, the lord Maurice IV. this is only because modern civilization tends so strongly to was knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible remove social barriers. The knightly ages will always enjoy the evils of wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476 glory of having formulated a code of honour which aimed at at the age of five. Smyth's record of this great family shows rendering the upper classes worthy of their exceptional privileges; that, from the middle of the 13th century onwards, the lords yet we must judge chivalry not only by its formal code but also were not only statesmen and warriors, but still more distinguished by its practical fruits. The ideal is well summed up by F. W. as gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even selling fruit from Cornish: “ Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble service the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round on tours willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in obedi- of inspection from dairy to dairy. The lord Thomas III. ence to rule, it consecrated military prowess to the service of the (1326-1361), who was noted as a special lover of tournaments, Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfish- spent in two years only £90, or an average of about £15 per ness and courtesy, and above all, courtesy to women. Against tournament; yet he was then laying money by at the rate of these may be set the vices of pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed, £450 a year, and, a few years later, at the rate of £1150, or contempt of inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an im- nearly half his income ! Indeed, economic causes contributed perfect discipline, but it was a discipline, and one fit for the much to the decay of romantic chivalry. The old families had times. It may have existed in the world too long: it did not lost heavily from generation to generation, partly by personal come into existence too early; and with all its shortcomings it extravagances, but also by gradual alienations of land to the exercised a great and wholesome influence in raising the medieval Church and by the enormous expenses of the crusades. Already, world from barbarism to civilization” (p. 27). This was the in the 13th century, they were hard pressed by the growing ideal, but to give the reader a clear view of the actual features wealth of the burghers, and even the greatest nobles could of knightly society in their contrast with that of our own day, scarcely keep up their state without careful business manage- it is necessary to bring out one or two very significant ment. It is not surprising therefore, to find that at least as shadows. early as the middle of the 13th century the commercial side F too much has been made of the extent to which the of knighthood became very prominent. Although by the code knightly code, and the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary, of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before the age of raised the position of women (e.g. Gautier, P: 360). As Gautier twenty-one, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys himself admits, the feudal system made it difficult to separate obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid the woman's person from her fief: instead of the freedom of possible pecuniary loss; and French writers of the 14th century Christian marriage on which the Church in theory insisted, complained of this knighting of infants as a common and serious lands and women were handed over together, as a business abuse. Moreover, after the knight's liability to personal service bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was in war had been modified in the 12th century by the scutage the defender of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships system, it became necessary in the first quarter of the 13th to and marriages were bought and sold as a matter of everyday compel landowners to take up the knighthood which in theory routine like stocks and shares in the modern market. Lord they should have coveted as an honour-a compulsion which Thomas de Berkeley (1245-1321) counted on this as a regular was soon systematically enforced (Distraint of Knighthood, 1278), and considerable source of income (Smyth, Lives, i. 157). and became a recognized source of royal income. An indirect Late in the 15th century, in spite of the somewhat greater effect of this system? was to break down another rule of the liberty of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to chivalrous code--that none could be dubbed who was not of a familiar correspondent "for very need (of poverty), I was gentle birth.3 This rule, however, had often been broken fain to sell a little daughter I have for much less than I should before; even the romances of chivalry speak not infrequently have done by possibility,” i.e. than the fair market price of the knighting of serfs or jongleurs;4 and other causes besides (Gairdner, Paston Lellers, Introduction, p. clxxvi; cf. ccclxxi). distraint of knighthood tended to level the old distinctions. Startling as such words are, it is perhaps still more startling to While knighthood was avoided by poor nobles, it was coveted find how frequently and naturally, in the highest society, ladies by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1298 as “an immemorial were degraded by personal violence. The proofs of this which custom ” in Provence that rich burghers enjoyed the honour Schultz and Gautier adduce from the Chansons de Geste might of knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry complaining that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however (1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a disreputable his antecedents. Similar causes contributed to lady who so irritated her husband by scolding him in company, the decay of knightly ideas in warfare. Even in the 12th century, that he struck her to the earth with his fist and kicked her in when war was still rather the pastime of kings and knights than the face, breaking her nose. Upon this the good knight moralizes: 1 Sainte Palaye, ii. 90. "And this she had for her euelle and gret langage, that she was Medley, English Constitutional History (2nd ed., pp. 291, 466), wont to saie to her husbonde. And therfor the wiff aught to suggests that Edward might have deliberately calculated this degrada. suffre and lete her husbonde haue the wordes, and to be maister, tion of the older feudal ideal. 3 Being made to "ride the barriers " was the penalty for anybody for that is her worshippe; for it is shame to here striff betwene who attempted to take part in a tournament without the qualification hem, and in especial before folke. But y saie not but whanne of name and arms. Guillim (Display of Heraldry, p. 66) and Nisbet thei be allone, but she may tolle hym with goodly wordes, and (System of Heraldry, ii. 147) speak of this subject as concerning counsaile hym to amende yef he do amys” (La Tour, chap. p. 284. But in England knighthood has always been conferred to England and Scotland. See also Ashmole's Order of the Garter, xviii.; cf. xvii. and xix.). The right of wife-beating was a great extent independently of these considerations. At almost formally recognized by more than one code of laws, and it every period there have been men of obscure and illegitimate birth was already a forward step when, in the 13th century, the who have been knighted. Ashmole cites authorities for the con- Coutumes du Bcauvoisis provided “ que le mari ne doit battre knight it necessarily follows that he is also a gentleman; for, when tention that knighthood ennobles, insomuch that whosoever is a sa femme que raisonnablement” (Gauticr, p. 349). This was a a king gives the dignity to an ignoble person whose merit he would natural consequence not only of the want of self-control which thereby recompense, he is understood to have conferred whatsoever we see everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom is requisite for the completing of that which he bestows." By the of contracting child-marriages for unsentimental considerations. common law, if a villein were made a knight he was thereby enfran. chised and accounted a gentleman, and if a person under age and Between 1288 and 1500 five marriages are recorded in the direct in wardship were knighted both his minority and wardship termi- line of the Berkeley family in which the ten contracting parties nated. (Order of the Garter, p. 43; Nicolas, British Orders of Knight, averaged less than eleven years of age: the marriage contract hood, i. 5.) + Gautier, pp. 21, 249. of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before he was six years old. Moreover, the same business considerations which dictated cliii. All the medieval orders of knighthood, however, insisted in 5 Du Cange, s.v. miles (ed. Didot, t. iv. p. 402); Sacchetti, Novella, those early marriages clashed equally with the strict theory of their statutes on the noble birth of the candidate. 2 860 JORDERS KNIGHTHOOD 66 com- a national effort, the strict code of chivalry was more honoured services to the Crown and country, the term "orders” became in the breach than in the observance." But when the Hundred loosely applied to the insignia and decorations themselves. Years' War brought a real national conflict between England | Thus “orders,” irrespective of the title or other specific desig- and France, when archery became of supreme importance, and nation they confer, fall in Great Britain generally into three a large proportion even of the cavalry were mercenary soldiers, main categories, according as the recipients are made “knights then the exigencies of serious warfare swept away much of that grand cross,” “knights commander,” or “companions.” In outward display and those class-conventions on which chivalry some orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal had always rested. Siméon Luce (chap. vi.) has shown how Victorian, for instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders much the English successes in this war were due to strict business a like number, some six, while the Chinese “ Dragon” boasts no methods. Several of the best commanders (e.g. Sir Robert less than eleven degrees. Generally speaking, the insignia of the Knolles and Sir Thomas Dagworth) were of obscure birth, while “knights grand cross” consist of a star worn on the left breast on the French side even Du Guesclin had to wait long for his and a badge, usually some form either of the cross palée or of knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility. The the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon over the tournament again, which for two centuries had been under the shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial ban of the Church, was often almost as definitely discouraged from a collar. The “ commanders wear the badge from a by Edward III. as it was encouraged by John of France; and ribbon round the neck, and the star on the breast; the while John's father opened the Crécy campaign by sending panions” have no star and wear the badge from a narrow Edward a challenge in due form of chivalry, Edward took ribbon at the button-hole. advantage of this formal delay to amuse the French king with Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (1) PRIME negotiations while he withdrew his army by a rapid march from ORDERS OF CHRISTENDOM, conferred upon an exclusive class an almost hopeless position. A couple of quotations from only. Here belong, inter alia, the well-known orders of the Froissart will illustrate the extent to which war had now become Garter (England), Golden Fleece (Austria and Spain), Annunziata a mere business. Much as he admired the French chivalry, he (Italy), Black Eagle (Prussia), St Andrew (Russia), Elephant recognized their impotence at Crécy. “ The sharp arrows (Denmark) and Seraphim (Sweden). Of these the first three ran into the men of arms and into their horses, and many fell, only, which are usually held to rank inter se in the order given, horse and men. ... And also among the Englishmen there are historically identified with chivalry. (2) FAMILY ORDERS, were certain rascals that went afoot with great knives, and they bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon went in among the men of arms, and slew and murdered many humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of “ per. as they lay on the ground, both earls, barons, knights and sonal ” services rendered to the family. To this category belong squires, whereof the king of England was after displeased, such orders as the Royal Victorian and the Hohenzollern for he had rather they had been taken prisoners.” How far (Prussia). (3) ORDERS OF MERIT, whether military, civil Edward's solicitude was disinterested may be gauged from or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least three, oftener Froissart's parallel remark about the battle of Aljubarrota, five classes, and here belong such as the Order of the Bath where, as at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a (British), Red Eagle (Prussia), Legion of Honour (France). sudden panic to slay their prisoners. “Lo, behold the great There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted evil adventure that fell that Saturday. For they slew as many Order of Merit (British), and the Pour le Mérite (Prussia), which good prisoners as would well have been worth, one with another, have but one class, all members being on an equality of rank four hundred thousand franks." In 1402 Lord Thomas de within the order. Berkeley bought, as a speculation, 24 Scottish prisoners, Of the three great military and religious, orders, branches Similar practical considerations forced the nobles of other survive of two, the Teutonic Order (Der hohe deutsche Riller Orden European countries either to conform to less sentimental or Marianen Orden) and the Knights of St John of Jerusalem methods of warfare and to growing conceptions of nationality, (Johanniter Orden, Malteser Orden), for the history of which and or to become mere Ishmaels of the type which outlived the the present state see TEUTONIC Order and ST JOHN OF JERU. middle ages in Götz von Berlichingen and his compeers. SALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF. Great Britain.--The history and constitution of the “most BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Froissart is perhaps the source from which we may gather most of chivalry in its double aspect, good and bad. noble ” Order of the Garter has been treated above. The officers The brilliant side comes out most clearly in Joinville, the Chronique of the order are five-the prelate, chancellor, registrar, king of de Du Guesclin, and the Histoire de Bayart; the darker side appears arms and usher-the first, third and fifth having been attached in the earlier chronicles of the crusades, and is especially emphasized by preachers and moralists like Jacques de Vitry, Étienne de to it from the commencement, while the fourth was added by Bourbon, Nicole Bozon and John Gower. John Smyth's Lives of Henry V. and the second by Edward IV. The prelate has the Berkeleys (Bristol and Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc., 2 vols.) and the always been the bishop of Winchester; the chancellor was Book of the Knight of our-Landry (ed. de Montaiglon, or in formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop of the old English trans. published by the Early English Text Soc.) Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of Windsor have' throw a very vivid light on the inner life of noble families. Of been united since the reign of Charles I.; the king of arms, modern books, besides those quoted by their full titles in the notes, the best are A. Schultz, Höfisches Leben z. Zeit der Minnesänger whose duties were in the beginning discharged by Windsor (Leipzig, 1879); S. Luce, Hist. de Du Guesclin et de son Époque (2nd herald, is Garter Principal King of Arms; and the usher is the ed., 'Paris, 1882), masterly but unfortunately unfinished at the gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel of the order author's death; Léon Gautier, La Chevalerie (Paris, 1883), written is St George's Chapel, Windsor. The insignia of the order are with a strong apologetic bias, but full and correct in its references; and F. W. Cornish, Chivalry (London, 1901), too little reference to illustrated on Plate I. the more prosaic historical documents, but candid and without The “most ancient Order of the Thistle was founded by intentional partiality. (G. G. Co.) James II. in 1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD of the sovereign and eight knights companions, and fell into abeyance at the Revolution of 1688. In 1703 it was revived When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to consist of the more marks of favour and a means of recognizing meritorious sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being in- Lecoy de la Marche (Chaire française au moyen âge, 2nd ed., p. 387) creased to 16 by statute in 1827. The officers of the order gives many instances to prove that "al chevalerie, au xiii. siècle, are the dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the est déjà sur son déclin." But already about 1160 Peter of Blois gentleman usher of the Green Rod. The chapel, in St Giles's, had written, "The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays mere Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The star, badge and ribbon of disorder " (ordo militum nunc est, ordinem non tenere. Ep. xciv.: 5 the whole letter should be read); and, half a century earlier stili, the order are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 5 and 6. The collar Guibert of Nogent gives an equally unflattering picture of con- is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of rue, and the temporary chivalry in his De vita sua (Migne, Pal. Lai., tom. clvi.). motto is Nemo me impune lacessil. ORDERS) 861 KNIGHTHOOD The “ The“ The “most illustrious " Order of St Patrick was instituted commemoration of Queen Victoria's assumption of the imperial by George III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord style and title of the Empress of India. The badges, stars and lieutenant of Ireland as grand master and 15 knights companions, ribbons of the knights grand commanders of the two orders are enlarged to 22 in 1833. The chancellor of the order is the chief illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6. The collar of the secretary to the lord licutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms Star of India is composed of alternate links of the lotus flower, is Ulster King of Arms; Black Rod is the usher. The chapel red and white roses and palm branches enamelled on gold, with is in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. The star, badge and an imperial crown in the centre; that of the Indian Empire is ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8. The collar is composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses. formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, and gold The Royal Victorian Order was instituted by Queen Victoria harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from a on the 25th of April 1896, and conferred for personal services harp surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto rendered to her majesty and her successors on the throne. It is Quis separabit ? consists of the sovereign, chancellor, secretary and five classes most honourable " Order of the Bath was established knights grand commanders, knights commanders, commanders by George I. in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master and members of the fourth and fifth classes, the distinction and 36 knights companions. This was a pretended revival of between these last divisions lying in the badge and in the an order supposed to have been created by Henry IV. at his precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this coronation in 1399. But, as has been shown in the preceding order rank in their respective classes immediately after those section, no such order existed. Knights of the Bath, although of the Indian Empire, and its numbers are unlimited. The they were allowed precedence before knights bachelors, were badge, star and ribbon of the knights grand cross are illustrated merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate on Plate III., figs. I and 2. ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In To the class of orders without the titular appellation“ knight 1815 the order was instituted, in three classes, “ to commemorate belongs the Order of Merit, founded by King Edward VII. on the the auspicious termination of the long and arduous contest in occasion of his coronation. The order is founded on the lines which the Empire has been engaged "; and in 1847 the civil of the Prussian Ordre pour le mérite (see below), yet more com- knights commanders and companions were added. Exclusive prehensive, including those who have gained distinction in the of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished foreigners, the military and naval services of the Empire, and such as have order is limited to 55 military and 27 civil knights grand cross, made themselves a great name in the fields of science, art and 145 military and 108 civil knights commanders, and 705 military | literature. The number of British members has been fixed at and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the dean (the dean of Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the regis- sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients trar, and the usher of the Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and were: Earl Roberts, Viscount Wolseley, Viscount Kitchener, badges of the knights grand cross (civil and military) and the Sir Henry Keppel, Sir Edward Seymour, Lord Lister, Lord stars are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, John Morley, W. E. H. Lecky, G. F. most distinguished” Order of St Michael and St George Watts and Sir William Huggins. The only foreign recipients was founded by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in up to 1910 were Field Marshals Yamagata and Oyama and 1818, in commemoration of the British protectorate of the Admiral Togo. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received the Ionian Islands, " for natives of the Ionian Islands and of the order in 1907. The badge is a cross of red and blue enamel sur- island of Malta and its dependencies, and for such other subjects mounted by an imperial crown; the central blue medallion bears of his majesty as may hold high and confidential situations in the inscription “ For Merit " in gold, and is surrounded by a the Mediterranean.” By statute of 1832 the lord high commis- wreath of laurel. The badge of the military and naval mem- sioner of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and bers bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The the order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses, ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck. 20 knights commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After The Distinguished Service Order, an order of military merit, was the repudiation of the British protectorate of the Ionian founded on the 6th of September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its object Islands, the order was placed on a new basis, and by letters being to recognize the special services of officers in the army and patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and provided for such navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the letters D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence imme- of “the natural born subjects of the Crown of the United diately after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential is a white and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial offices within her majesty's colonial possessions, and in reward crown surrounded by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged for services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs the 26th of June 1902, and finally revised in 1908, to commemorate with blue. The Imperial Service Order was likewise instituted on of the Empire.” It is now (by the enlargement of 1902) limited to King Edward's coronation, and is specially designed as a recognition 100 knights grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand of faithful and meritorious services rendered to the British Crown by master, exclusive of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights the administrative members of the civil service in various parts of commanders and 600 companions. The officers are the prelate, limited to 475, of whom 250 belong to the home and 225 to the civil the Empire, and is to consist of companions only. The numbers are chancellor, registrar, secretary and officer of arms. The chapel services of the colonies and protectorates (Royal Warrant, June 1909). of the order, in St Paul's Cathedral, was dedicated in 1906. Women as well as men are eligible. The members of the order The badge of the knights grand cross and the ribbon are illus- have the distinction of adding the letters I.S.O. after their names. trated on Plate II., figs. 9 and 10. The star of the knights The badge is a gold medallion bearing the royal cipher and the words In precedence the order ranks after the Distinguished Service Order. grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with a small ray of “For Faithful Service " in blue; for men it rests on a silver star, for gold between each, in the centre is a red St George's cross women it is surrounded by a silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue bearing a medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, sur- between two crimson stripes. rounded by a blue fillet with the motto Auspicium melioris In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to ladies. The Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, which was instituted Qevi. in 1862, is a purely court distinction. It consists of four classes, The Order of St Michael and St George ranks between the and hit has a designation the letters.W.A. The Imperial Corder of the Order of Crown of conferred for like purposes as the eminent ” Order of the Indian Empire, of both of which the ladies connected with the court of India. Indian Empire. Its primary object is to recognize the services of The letters C.I. are its viceroy of India for the time being is ex officio grand master. designation. Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and enlarged in 1876. The sovereign's permission by royal warrant is necessary before 1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand commanders, a British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For other decorations, see under MEDALS. knights commanders and companions, and the second was established (for “companions” only) in 1878 and enlarged in The Golden Fleece (La Toison d'Or) ranks historically and in 1887, 1892, 1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, in I distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It is 862 KNIGHTHOOD (ORDERS in 1907 now divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was exhibition of relics, portraits of knights and other objects con- founded on the roth of January, 1429/30 by Philip the Good, nected with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges duke of Burgundy, on the day of his marriage with Isabella of Portugal at Bruges, in her honour and dedicated to the Virgin and The chief history of the order is Baron de Reiffenberg's Histoire St Andrew. No certain origin can be given for the name. It de l'Ordre de la Toison d'Or (1830); see also an article by Sir J. seems to have been in dispute oven in the early history of the Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the Scottish Historical Review order. Four different sources have been suggested; the (July 1908); classical myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts for than that of the Golden Fleece (supra). The Order of St Stephen of Austria-Hungary.--The following are the principal orders other the golden fleece, the scriptural story of Gideon, the staple trade Hungary, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress of Flanders in wool, and the fleece of golden hair of Marie de Maria Theresa, consists of the grand master (the sovereign), 20 Rambrugge, the duke's mistress. Motley (Rise of Dutch Rep., knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 50 knights . The i. 48) says: “What could be more practical and more devout the Hungarian crown, the red enamelled medallion in the centre of badge is a green enamelled cross with gold borders, suspended from than the conception? Did not the Lamb of God, suspended the cross bears a white patriarchal cross issuing from a coroneted at each knight's heart, symbolize at once the woollen fabrics green mound; on either side of the cross are the letters M.T. in gold, to which so much of Flemish wealth and Burgundian power was and the whole is surrounded by a white fillet with the legend Publicum Meritorum Praemium. owing, and the gentle humility of Christ which was ever to The ribbon is green with a crimson characterize the order?” At its constitution the number of gold, and consists of Hungarian crowns linked together alternately central stripe. The collar,only worn by the knights grand cross, is of the knights was limited to 24, exclusive of the grand master, by the monograms of St Stephen, S.S., and the foundress, M.T.; the the sovereign. The members were to be gentilshommes de centre of the collar is formed by a flying lark encircled by the motto An illustration of the star of the grand cross is nom et d'armes et sans reproche, not knights of any other Stringit amore. given on Plate V. fig. 4. The Order of Leopold, for civil and military order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the defence of the service, was founded in 1808 by the emperor Francis I. in memory Catholic faith, the protection of Holy Church, and the upholding of his father Leopold Il. The three classes take precedence next of virtue and good morals. The sovereign undertook to consult after the corresponding classes of the order of St Stephen. The the knights before embarking on a war, all disputes between badge is a red enamelled cross bordered with white and gold and the knights were to be settled by the order, at each chapter the bears the letters F.I.A., and on the encircling white fillet is the surmounted by the imperial crown; the red medallion in the centre deeds of each knight were held in review, and punishments and inscription Integritati et Merito. When conferred for service in war admonitions were dealt out to offenders; to this the sovereign the cross rests on a green laurel wreath. The ribbon is scarlet with was expressly subject. Thus we find that the emperor Charles V. two white stripes. The collar consists of imperial crowns, the initials F. and L. and oak wreaths. · The Order of the Iron Crown, accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the Fleece on i.e. of Lombardy, was founded by Napoleon as king of Italy in 1809, his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful and reſounded as an Austrian order of civil and military merit in personal attention to details (E. A. Armstrong, Charles V., 1902, 1816 by the emperor Francis I.; the number of knights is limited fi. 373). The knights could claim as of right to be tried by consists of the double-headed imperial eagle with sword and orb; to 100—20 grand cross, 30 commanders, 50 knights. The badge their fellows on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and below it is the jewelled iron crown of Lombardy, and above the Charles V. conferred on the order exclusive jurisdiction over all imperial crown; on the breast of the eagle is a gold-bordered blue crimes committed by the knights. The arrest of the offender shield with the letter F. in gold. The military decoration for war The ribbon is yellow had to be by warrant signed by at least six knights, and during service also. bears two green laurel branches. the process of charge and trial he remained not in prison but edged with narrow blue stripes. The collar is formed of Lombard crowns, oak wreaths and the monogram F.P. (Franciscus Primus). dans l'aimable compagnie du dit ordre. It was in defiance of The Order of Francis Joseph, for personal merit of every kind, was this right that Alva refused the claim of Counts Egmont and founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph I. It is of the three Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During usual classes and is unlimited in numbers. The badge is a black the 16th century the order frequently acted as a consultative eagle bears a red cross with a white medallion, containing the letters and gold imperial eagle surmounted by the imperial crown. The body in the state; thus in 1539 and 1540 Charles summons the F. J., and to the beaks of the two heads of the eagle is attached a knights with the council of state and the privy council to decide chain on which is the legend Viribus Unitis. The ribbon is deep red. what steps should be taken in face of the revolt of Ghent (Arm- The Order of Maria Theresa, was founded by the empress Maria Theresa in 1757. strong, op. cit., i. 302), in 1562 Margaret of Parma, the regent, for personal distinguished conduct in the field. It is a purely military order and is given to officers There are three summons them to Brussels to debate the dangerous condition classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and knights. of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were present at The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders' class in 1765. The the abdication of Charles in the great hall at Brussels in 1555. badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion The history of the order and its subscquent division into the with a white gold-edged fesse, surrounded by a fillet with the inscrip- tion Fortitudini. The ribbon is red with a white central stripe. two branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized. The Order of Elizabeth Theresa, also a military order for officers, was By the marriage of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of founded in 1750 by the will of Elizabeth Christina, widow of the Burgundy to Maximilian, archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand emperor Charles VI. It was renovat in 1771 by her daughter, mastership of the order came to the house of Habsburg and, the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to 21 knights in three divisions. The badge is an oval star with eight points, with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 on the accession enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial crown. of Philip, Maximilian's son, to Castile. On the extinction of The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with the the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles II. in encircling inscription M. Theresa parentis gratiam perennem voluit. 1700 the grand-mastership, which had been filled by the kings ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to good The ribbon is black. The Order of the Starry Cross, for high-born of Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the works, spiritual and temporal, was founded in 1668 by the empress emperor Charles VI., and he instituted the order in Vienna Eleanor, widow of the emperor Ferdinand III. and mother of in 1713. Protests were made at various times by Philip V., Leopold I., to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross but the question has never been finally decided by treaty, and from a dangerous fire in the imperial palace at Vienna. The relic the Austrian and Spanish branches have continued as indepen- Maximilian I. and the emperor Frederick III. The patroness of the was supposed to have been peculiarly, treasured by the emperor dent orders ever since as the principal order of knighthood in order must be a princess of the imperial Austrian house. The badge the respective states. It may be noticed that while the Austrian is the black double-headed eagle surrounded by a blue-enamelled branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the ornamented border, with the inscription Salus et Gloria on a white fillet; the cagle bears a red Greek cross with gold and blue borders. order, the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The The Order of Elizabeth, also for ladies, was founded in 1898. badges of the two branches vary slightly in detail, more par- Belgium.-The Order of Leopold, for civil and military merit, was ticularly in the attachment of fire-stones (fusils or furisons) and founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added steels by which the fleece is attached to the ribbon of the collar. in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders The Spanish form is given on Plate IV., fig. 2. The collar is and balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green laurel and oak wreath. In the centre a medallion, surrounded by a composed of alternate links of furisons and double steels red fillet with the motto of the order, L'union fait la force, bears a interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. A magnificent | golden Belgian lion on a black field. The ribbon is watered red. ORDERS) KNIGHTHOOD 863 fig. 5. The Order of the Iron Cross, the badge of which is a black cross with | order when on the active list, viz. 3000 francs for grand cross, gold borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by 2000 francs for grand officers, 1000 francs for commanders, 250 Leopold II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross was instituted in 1885. There are also the following orders insti- francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order tuted by Leopold II. for service in the Congo State: the Order of the sans traitement are limited through all classes. In ordinary African Star (1888), the Royal Order of the Lion (1891) and the circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service Congo Star (1889). must have been performed before a candidate can be eligible for Bulgaria.-The_Order of SS Cyril and Methodius was instituted in 1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the elevation of the the rank of chevalier, and promotions can only be made after principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now definite service in the lower rank. Extraordinary service in takes precedence of the Order of St Alexander, which was founded by time of war and extraordinary services in civil life admit to any Prince Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince Ferdinand rank. Women have been decorated, notably Rosa Bonheur, in 1888. There are six classes. The plain white cross, suspended from the Bulgarian crown, bears the name of the patron saint in Madame Curie and Madame Bartet.' The Napoleonic form of old Cyrillic letters in the centre. the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6; the Denmark.---The Order of the Elephant, one of the chief European cross from which the drawing was made was given to King orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by Christian I. in 1462; Edward VII. when prince of Wales in 1863. In the present a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its regular institution was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order, exclusive of the sove- order of the French Republic the symbolical head of the Republic ! reign and his sons, is limited to 30 knights, who must be of the appears in the centre, and a laurel wreath replaces the imperial Protestant religion. The badge of the order is illustrated on Plate IV. crown; the inscription round the medallion is République fran- The ribbon is light watered blue, the collar of alternate gold çaise. Since 1805 there has existed an institution, Maison elephants with blue housings and towers, the star of silver with a purple medallion bearing a silver or brilliant cross surrounded by d'éducation de la Legion d'Honneur, for the education of the a silver laurel wreath. The motto is Magnanime pretium. The daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of members of Order of the Dannebrog is, according to Danish tradition, of miracu. the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint Denis, at lous origin, and was founded by Valdemar II. in 1219 as a memorial Ecouen and Les Loges (see Dictionnaire de l'administration fran- of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the appearance in the sky Decorations ”). of a red banner bearing a white cross. Historically the order dates çaise, by M. Block and E. Magnéro, 1905, s.v. from the foundation in 167! by Christian V. at the birth of his son Frederick, the statutes being published in 1693. Originally re- Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, restored stricted to 50 knights and granted as a family or court decoration, in part at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the revolution of it was reconstituted as an unlimited order of merit in 1808 by July 1830 were the following: The Order of St Michael was founded Frederick VI.; alterations have been made in 1811 and 1864. It by Louis XI. in 1469 for a limited number of knights of noble birth. now consists of three classes--grand cross, commander (two grades), Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles IX. that In 1816 the order was knight, and of one rank of ordinary members (Dannebrogs maender). it became known as Le Collier à toutes bêtes. In view of the low esteem The badge of the order is, with variations for the different classes, granted ſor services in art and science. a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing into which the Order of St Michael had fallen, Henry III. founded in the certre the letter W (V) and on the fourarms the inscription Gud in 1578 the Order of the Holy Ghost (St Esprit). The badge of the og Kongen (For God and King). The ribbon is white with red order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold edging. lilies of France at the angles, in the centre a white dove with wings France.—The Legion of Honour, the only order of France, and the order was Duce et auspice. The Order of St Louis was founded outstretched, the ribbon was sky blue (cordon bleu). The motto of one which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the Order of Military European orders, was instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte on the Merit by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers. 19th of May 1802 (29 Floreal of the year X.) as a general mili- Germany,--. Anhalt. The Order of Albert the Bear, a family tary and civil order of merit. All soldiers on whom "swords of order or Hausorden, was founded in 1836 by the dukes Henry of Anhalt-Köthen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Alexander honour” had been already conferred were declared legionaries Charles of Anhalt-Bernburg. Changes in the constitution have ipso facto, and all citizens after 25 years' service were declared been made at various dates. It now consists of five classes, grand eligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion. On admission cross, commander (2 classes) and knights (2 classes). The badge is all were to swear to co-operate so far as in them lay for the lated wall; below the ring by which the badge is attached to the a gold oval bearing in gold a crowned and collared bear on a crenel. assertion of the principles of liberty and equality. The organiza- ribbon is a shield with the arms of the house of Anhalt, on the tion as laid down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon reverse those of the house of Ascania. Round the oval is the motto was grand master; a grand council of 7 grand officers ad- Fürchte Gott und folge seine Befehle. The ribbon is green with two ministered the order; the order was divided into 15 “cohorts red stripes. The grand master alone wears a collar. ii. Baden. The Order of Fidelity or Loyalty (Hausorden der of 7 grand officers, 20 commanders, 30 officers and 350 legion-Treue) was instituted by William, margrave of Baden-Durlach in aries, and at the headquarters of the cohorts, for which the 1715, and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederick. territory of France was separated into 15 divisions, were main- There is now only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign tained hospitals for the support of the sick and infirm legionaries. enamelled cross with gold borders and double C's interlaced in the sovereigns and eminent men of the state. The badge is a red Salaries (traitements) varying in cach rank were attached to the angles; in the centre å white medallion with red monogram over a order. In 1805 the rank of "Grand Eagle” (now Grand Cross, green mound surmounted by word Fidelitas in black; th cross or Grand Cordon) was instituted, taking precedence of the grand is suspended from a ducal crown. The ribbon is orange with silver officers. At the Restoration many changes were made, the old edging. The military Order of Charles Frederick was founded in military and religious orders were restored, and the Legion of on a green laurel wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe 1807. There are three classes. The badge is a white cross resting Honour, now Ordre Royale de la Legion d'Honneur, took the lowest bordered with white. The order is conferred for long and meritori. rank. The revolution of July 1830 restored the order to its ous military service. The Order of the Zähringen Lion was founded unique place. The constitution of the order now rests on the in 1812 in commemoration of the descent of the reigning house of decrees of the 16th of March and 24th of November 1852, the law 1840 and 1877. It now consists of five classes. The badge is a green Baden from the dukes of Zähringen. It has been reconstituted in of the 25th of July 1873, the decree of the 29th of December 1892, enamel cross with gold clasps in the angles; in the central medallion and the laws of the 16th of April 1895 and the 28th of January an enamelled representation of the ruined castle of Zähringen. The 1897, and a decree of the 26th of June 1900. The president of ribbon is green with two orange stripes. Since 1896 the Order of Berthold I. has been a distinct order; it was founded in 1877 as a the republic is the grand master of the order; the administration higher class of the Zähringen Lion. is in the hands of a grand chancellor, who has a council of the iii. Bavaria. The Order of St Hubert, one of the oldest and order nominated by the grand master. The chancellery is most distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke housed in the Palais de la Legion de l'Honneur, which, burnt Gerhard V. of Jülich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count Arnold of Egmont at Ravensberg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert's day. during the Commune, was rebuilt in 1878. The order consists of The knights wore a collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order the five classes of grand cross (limited to 80), grand officer (200), was also known as the Order of the Horn. Statutes were granted in commander (1000), officers (4000), and chevalier or knight, in 1476, but the order fell into abeyance at the extinction of the which the number is unlimited. These limitations in number dynasty in 1609, It was revived in 1708 by the elector palatine, do not affect the foreign recipients of the order. Salaries (traite- liimes, its final form being given by the elector Maximilian Joseph, John William of Neuberg, and its constitution was altered at various ments) are attached to the military and naval recipients of the first king of Bavaria, in 1808. Exclusive of the sovereign and 864 KNIGHTHOOD (ORDERS cross. princes of the blood, and foreign sovereigns and princes, it those who have received the Order of the Red Eagle are eligible. An consists of twelve capitular knights of the rank of count or illustration of the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV. Freiherr.,, The badge of the order and the ribbon are illustrated fig. 3. The star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground in Plate V. fig. 3. The central medallion represents the conversion surrounded by a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order of St Hubert. The collar is composed of gold and blue enamel Suum Cuique. The collar is formed of alternate black eagles and figures of the conversion linked by the Gothic monogram I.T.V., a circular medallion with the motto on a white centre surrounded by In Trau Vast, the motto of the order, alternately, red and green. the initials F.R. repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with The Order of St George, said to have been founded in the 12th cen- four gold crowns on the exterior rim. The Order of the Red Eagle, tury as a crusading order and revived by the emperor Maximilian I. the second of the Prussian orders, was founded originally as the in 1494, dates historically from its institution in 1729 by the Order of Sincerity (L'Ordre de la Sincerité) in 1705 by George William, elector Charles Albert, afterwards the emperor Charles VII. It was hereditary prince of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The original constitu- confirmed by the elector Charles Theodore in 1778 and by the tion and insignia are now entirely changed, with the exception of the elector Maximilian Joseph. IV. as the second Bavarian order. red eagle which formed the centre of the oss of the badge. The Various new statutes have been granted from 1827 to 1875. The order had almost fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734 order is divided into two branches, " of German and foreign lan- by the margrave George Frederick Charles as the Order of the Bran- guages," and it also has a "spiritual class." The members of the denburg Red Eagle. It consisted of 30 nobly born knights. The order must be Roman Catholics. The badge is a blue enamelled numbers were increased and a grand cross class added in 1759. On cross with white and gold edging suspended from the mouth of a gold the cession of the principality to Prussia in 1791 the order was lion's head; in the angles of the cross are blue lozenges containing transferred and King, Frederick William raised it to that place in the letters V.I.B.I., Virgini Immaculatae Bavaria Immaculata. The Prussian orders which it has since maintained. The order was central medallion contains a figure of the Immaculate Conception. divided into four classes in 1810 and there are now five classes with The medallion on the reverse contains a figure of St George and the numerous sub-divisions. It is an order of civil and military merit. Dragon and the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., Juştus ut Palma | The grand cross resembles the badge of the Black Eagle, but is white Florebit, the motto of the order. Besides the above Bavaria and the eagles in the corners red, the central medallion bearing the possesses the Military Order of Maximilian Joseph, 1806, and the initials W. Ř. (those of William I.) surrounded by a blue fillet with Civil Orders of Merit of St Michael, 1693, and of the Bavarian Crown, the motto Sincere et Constanter. The numerous classes and sub- 1808, and other minor orders and decorations, civil and military: divisions have exceedingly complicated distinguishing marks, some There are also the two illustrious orders for ladies, the Order of bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an oak-lcaf surmounting the Elizabeth, founded in 1766, and the Order of Theresa, in 1827. The The ribbon is white with two orange 'stripes. foundations of St Anne of Munich and of St Anne of Würzburg for The Order for Merit (Ordre pour le Mérite), one of the most highly ladies are not properly orders. iv. Brunswick. The Order of Henry the Lion, for military and prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military civil merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. There are five prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral classes, and a cross of merit of two classes. The badge is a blue | Order of Generosity; it was given its present name and granted for enamelled cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. In crown; the angles of the cross are filled by crowned W's and the 1810 the order was made one for military merit against the enemy centre bears the arms of Brunswick, a crowned pillar and a white horse, between two sickles. The ribbon is deep red bordered with in the field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for science yellow. and art, or peace class (Friedensklasse) was founded by Frederick tuted by King Ernest Augustus 1. in 1839 as the family order of the limited to 30 German and 30 foreign members .v. Hanover. The Order of St George (one class only) was insti. William IV. for those who have gained an illustrious name by wide recognition in the spheres of science and art. The number is The Academy. house of Hanover; the Royal Guelphic Order (three classes) by George, of Sciences and Arts on a vacancy nominates three candidates, from prince regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and the Order of Ernest Augustus by George V. of Hanover in 1865. which one is selected by the king. It is interesting to note that this These orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover badge of the military order is a blue cross with gold uncrowned eagles was the only distinction which Thomas Carlyle would accept. The ceased to be a kingdom, and the Royal Guelphic Order, which from its institution was more British than Hanoverian, not since the the other arms the inscription Pour le Mérite. The ribbon is black in the angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a crown; on death of William IV. in 1837. The last British grand cross was the late duke of Cambridge. with a silver stripe at the edges. In 1866 a special grand cross was vi. Hesse. Of the various orders founded by the houses of Hesse instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick 111.) and Prince Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count von Moltke Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt the following are still bestowed in the grand duchy of Hesse. The Order of Louis, founded by the grand is a circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle.in the centre sur- as a special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; there are five classes; rounded by a blue border with the inscription Pour le Mérile; on the the black, red and gold bordered cross bears the initial L. in the centre, the ribbon is black with red borders; the Order of Philip the in gold projecting from the rim. The ribbon is the same as for the white field the letters F. II. four times repeated, and four crowns Magnanimous, founded by the grand duke Louis 11. in 1840 has five military class. The Order of the Crown, founded by William I. in classes; the white cross of the badge bears the effigy of Philip sur- 1861, ranks with the Red Eagle. There are four classes, with many rounded by the moito Si Deus vobiscum quis contra nos. Order of the Golden Lion was founded in 1770 by the landgrave instituted by William 11. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights subdivisions. Other Prussian orders are the Order of William, Frederick II. of Hesse-Cassel, the knights are 41 in number and take of St John of Jerusalem, Johanniter Orden, in its present form dating precedence of the members of the two former orders. The badge from 1893; and the family Order of the House of Hohenzollern, founded is an open oval of gold with the Hessian lion in the centre. in 1851 by Frederick William IV. There are two divisions, military ribbon is crimson. vii. Mecklenburg: The grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and civil divided into four classes. The military badge is a white cross with black and gold edging, resting on a green oak and laurel and Mecklenburg-Strelitz possess jointly the Order of the Wendish Crown, founded in 1864 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis 11. of wreath; the central medallion bears the Prussian Eagle with the Schwerin and Frederick William of Strelitz; there are four classes: motto Vom Fels zum Meer; the civil badge is a black eagle, with arms of Hohenzollern, and is surrounded by a blue fillet with the with two divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of the head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are also merit; the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a for ladies the Order of Service, founded in 1814 by Frederick William white cross bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded by the motto, for the Schwerin knights, Per aspera ad astra, for the 11I., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration of merit for ladies (Verdienst-kreuz), founded in 1870, was raised to Strelitz knights, Avito viret honore. The Order of the Griffin, founded in 1884 by Frederick Francis III. of Schwerin, was made common to an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the Iron the duchies in 1904. Cross, see MEDALS. viii. Oldenberg. The Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis, a X. Saxony. - The Order of the Crown of Rue (Rauten Krone) was family order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It is Paul Frederick Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has of one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign are born two divisions, each of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary, knights of the order. It is granted to foreign ruling princes and members. The badge is a white gold bordered cross suspended subjects of high rank. The badge is a pale green enamelled cross from a crown, in the centre the crowned monogram P.F.L. sur. resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre is white rounded by the motto Ein Gott, Ein Recht, Eine Wahrheit; the ribbon with the crowned monogram of the founder surrounded by green is dark blue bordered with red. circlet of rue; the star bears in its centre the motto Providentiae ix. Prussia. The Order of the Black Eagle, one of the most Memor. The ribbon is green. Other Saxon orders are the military distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector Order of St Henry, for distinguished service in the field, founded in of Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king 1736 in one class; since 1829 it has had four classes; the ribbon is of Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the original sky blue with two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears in the centre statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal the effigy of the emperor, Henry II.; the Order of Albert, for civil house and foreign members, to 30. But the number has been and military merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Augustus II, in exceeded. It is only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon memory of Duke Albert the Bold, the founder of the Albertine line high officers of state. It conſers the nobiliary particle von. Only of Saxony, has six classes; the Order of Civil Merit, was founded in The KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY PLATE I. SOLO 5 HONICS G HONI 1. IV: III. THE ORDER OF THE GARTER. (i.) THE GARTER; (ii.) The COLLAR AND GEORGE; THE ORDER OF THE GARTER. (iii.) THE LESSER GEORGE AND RIBBON; (iv.) STAR.. II. Drawn by William Gibb Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OP KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION PROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY PLATE II. THE BATH. GRAND CROSS (Mil.) THE BATH. THE BATH. Star; (Mil.) STAR; (Civ.) 70 dham The bath. GRAND CROSS (Civ.) THE ST MICHAEL AND ST GEORGE. BADGE. STAR. THE THISTLE. STAR. THE THISTLE. THE ST MICHAEL AND ST GEORGE. THE ST PATRICK. BADGE GRAND Cross S-SP ARARI outs PUCCI THE ST PATRICK. STAR Drawn by William Gibb Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY PLATE III. I. III. II. AUS GERA VI. IV. V. CRICKS LOOD IC 10 Drawn by William Gibb Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. ROYAL VICTORIAN ORDER. (i.) GRAND CROSS; (ii.) STAR. ORDER OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (iii.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER; (iv.) STAR. THE STAR OF INDIA. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER. INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY PLATE IV. I. II. III. IV. VI. V. ANTO RINO DIE W LOR: CODEM DES FRANCE Cars 1 VII. (i.) THE ST ANDREW (Russia). (ii.) THE GOLDEN FLEECE (Spain). (iii.) THE BLACK EAGLE (Prussia). (iv.) THE TOWER AND SWORD (Portugal.) (v.) THE ELEPHANT (Denmark). (vi.) THE LEGION OF HONOUR (France-Napoleonic). (vii.) THE ANNUNZIATA (Italy). Drawn by William Gibb. Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. 1 | | KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY PLATE II. THE BATH. GRAND CROSS (Mil.) THE BATH. STAR; (Mil.) THE BATH. ON STAR; (Civ.) THE BATH. GRAND CROSS (Civ.) THE ST MICHAEL AND ST GEORGE. THE THISTLE BADGE. STAR. THE THISTLE. STAR. THE ST PATRICK. BADGE MDCC RA THE ST PATRICK. STAR THE ST MICHAEL AND ST GEORGE. GRAND CROSS MORK Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. Drawn by William Gibb KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY PLATE III. V. RIA I. HEA VI. II. IMPERATR TRICIS RICIS IV. AUS CHIS Drawn by William Gibb Niagara Litho. Co.. Buffalo, N. Y. ROYAL VICTORIAN ORDER. (i.) GRAND CROSS; (ii.) STAR. ORDER OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (iii.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER; (iv.) STAR. THE STAR OF INDIA. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER. INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. III. S KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY PLATE IV. I. IV. MERMO ALOR II. V. VII. VI. EMPER OLEON AN DES III. ST FRANCAIS (i.) THE ST ANDREW (Russia). (ii.) THE GOLDEN FLEECE (Spain). (iii.) THE BLACK EAGLE (Prussia). (iv.) THE TOWER AND SWORD (Portugal.) (v.) THE ELEPHANT (Denmark). (vi.) THE LEGION OF HONOUR (France-Napoleonic). (vii.) THE ANNUNZIATA (Italy). Drawn, by William Gibb. Niagara Litho. Co.. Buffalo, N. Y. INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY Plate V. I. III. ACLO. AVRUPTE II. CTAL EN V. VI. IV. Drawn by William Gibb Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. (i.) THE REDEEMER (Greece). (ii.) THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM (English Branch. Badge of the Sovereign and Patron). (iii.) THE ST HUBERT (Bavaria). (iv.) The ST STEPHEN (Hungary). (v.) THE ST. OLAF (Norway). (vi.) THESERAPHIM (Sweden) INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND. ORDERS) KNIGHTHOOD 865 Two years 1815. For ladies there are the Order of Sidonia, 1870, in memory abuses. With the advance of the Saracens the knights of St Lazarus, of the wife of Albert the Bold, the mother (Stamm-Mutter) of the when driven from the Holy Land and Egypt, migrated to France Albertine line; and the Maria Anna Order, 1906. (1291) and Naples (1311), where they founded leper hospitals. The xi. The duchies of Saxe Altenburg, Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe order in Naples, which alone was afterwards recognized as the legiti- Meiningen have in common the family. Order of Ernest, founded in mate descendant of the Jerusalem community, was empowered to 1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a seize and confine anyone suspected of leprosy, a permission which led revival of the Order of German Integrity (Orden der deutschen Redlich- to the establishment of a regular inquisitorial system of blackmail. keit) founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen In the 15th and 16th centuries dissensions broke out among the have also separate crosses of merit in science and art. knights, and the order declined in credit and wealth, until finally . xii. Saxe Weimar.-The Order of the White Falcon or of Vigilance the grand master, Giannotto Castiglioni, resigned his position in was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815. favour of Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. xiii. Württemberg:- The Order of the Crown of Württemberg was later the orders of St Lazarus and St Maurice were incorporated into founded in 1818, uniting the former Order of the Golden Eagle and an one community, the members of which were to devote themselves order of civil merit. It has five classes. The badge is a white cross to the defence of the Holy See and to fight its enemies as well as to surmounted by the royal crown, in the centre the initial F surrounded continue assisting lepers... The galleys of the order subsequently by a crimson fillet on which is the motto Furchtlos und Treu; in the took part in various expeditions against the Turks and the Barbary angles of the cross are four golden leopards; the ribbon is crimson pirates. Leprosy, which had almost disappeared in the 17th cen- with two black stripes. Besides the military Order of Merit founded iury, broke out once more in the 18th, and in 1773 a hospital was in 1759, and the silver cross of merit, 1900, Württemberg has also established by the order at Aosta, made famous by Xavier de the Order of Frederick, 1830, and the Order of Olga, 1871, which is Maistre's tale, Le Lépreux de la cité d'Aoste. The statutes were granted to ladies as well as men. published in 1816, by which date the order had lost its military Greece.-The Order of the Redeemer was founded as such in 1833 character; it was reformed first by Charles Albert (1831), and later by King Otto, being a conversion of a decoration of honour instituted by Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy. (1868). The knighthood of in 1829 by the National Assembly at Argos. There are five classes, St Maurice and St Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king the numbers being regulated for each. An illustration of the badge of Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public and ribbon of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. I. service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable Holland.- The Order of William, for military merit, was founded works, to which its income is devoted. There are five classes. The in 1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge is a white badge of the combined order is composed of the white cross with cross resting on a green laurel Burgundian cross, in the centre the trefoil termination of St Lazarus resting on the green cross of St Burgundian Aint-stcel, as in the order of the Golden Fleece. The Mau both crosses are bordered gold. The first four classes motto Voer Moed, Brlied, Trouw (For Valour, Devotion, Loyalty), wear the badge suspended from a royal crown. The ribbon is dark appears on the arms of the cross. The cross is surmounted by a green. jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging. The See L. Cibrario, Descrizione storica degli Ordini Cavallereschi, vol. i. Order of the Netherlands Lion, for civil merit, was founded in 1818; (Turin, 1846); Calendario Reale, an annual publication issued in there are four classes. The family Order of the Golden Lion of Rome. Nassau passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under Luxemburg). In 1892 Queen Wilhelmina instituted the Order of The military Order of Savoy was founded in 1815 by Victor Orange-Nassau with five classes. The Teutonic Order (q.v.), surviving Emmanuel of Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. It has now in the Ballarde (Bailiwick) of Utrecht, was officially established in five classes. The badge is a white cross, the arms of which expand the Netherlands by the States General in 1580. It was abolished and terminate in an obtuse angle; round the cross is a green laurel by Napoleon in 1811 and was restored in 1815. and oak wreath; the central medallion is red, bearing in gold two Italy:--The Order of the Annunziata, the highest order of knight crossed swords, the initials of the founder and the date 1855. The hood of the Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus VI., ribbon is red with a central stripe of blue. The Civil Order of Savoy, count of Savoy, as the Order of the Collare or Collar, from the silver founded in 1831 by Charles Albert of Sardinia, is of one class, and collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in in statutes of 1868 is limited to 60 members. The badge is the plain honour of the fifteen joys of the Virgin; hence the number of the Savoy cross in blue, with silver medallion. the ribbon is blue with knights was restricted to fifteen, the fifteen chaplains recited fifteen white borders. The Order of the Crown of Italy was founded in 1868 masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of the order by Victor Emmanuel II. in commemoration of the union of Italy were fifteen (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434). Charles III. into a kingdom. There are five classes. decreed that the order should be called the Annunziata, and made Luxemburg.—The Order of the Golden Lion was founded as a family some other alterations in 1518. His son and successor, Emmanuel order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the Netherlands and Philibcrt, made further modifications in the statute and the costume. Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of William in 1890 it The church of the order was originally the Carthusian monastery of passed to the grand duke of Luxemburg; it has only one class, Pierre-châtel in the district of Bugey, but after Charles Emmanuel I. The Order of Adolphus of Nassau, for civil and military merit, in four had given Bugey and Bresse to France in 1601 the church of the classes, was founded in 1858, and the Order of the Oak Crown as a order was transferred to the Camaldolese monastery near Turin. general order of merit, in five classes, in 1841, modified 1858. That religious order having been suppressed at the time of the Monaco.-The Order of St Charles, five classes, was founded in French Revolution, King Charles Albert decreed in 1840 that the 1858 by Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general Carthusian church of Collegno should be the chapel of the order. order of merit. The knights of the Annunziata have the title of “cousins of the Montenegro.-The Order of St Peter, founded in 1852, is a family king," and enjoy precedence over all the other officials of the state. order, in one class, and only given to members of the princely family: The costume of the order is of white satin embroidered in silk, with the Order of Danilo, or of the Independence of Montenegro, is a general a purple velvet cloak adorned with roses and gold embroidery, but order of merit, in four classes, with subdivisions, also founded in 1852. it is now never worn; in the collar the motto Fert is inserted, on the Norway.-The Order of Și Olaf was founded in 1847 by Oscar I. meaning of which there is great uncertainty, and from it hangs a in honour of St Olaf, the founder of Christianity in Norway, as a pendant enclosing a medallion representing the Annunciation (see general order of merit, military and civil. . There are three classes, Plate IV. fig. 7). An account of the order is given in Count Luigi the last two being: in 1873 and 1890, subdivided into two grades each. Cibrario's Ordini Cavallereschi (Turin, 1846) with coloured plates of The badge and ribbon is illustrated on Plate V, fig. 5. The reverse the costume and badges. bcars the motto Ret og Sandhed (Right and Truth). The Order of the The Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus (SS Maurizio e Lazzaro), Norwegian Lion, founded in 1904 by Oscar II., has only one class; is a combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St Maurice foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or heads was originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434, of states or members of reigning houses. when he retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a group Papal.---The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders of half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such affairs was remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905. The Order of Christ, of state as he continued to control. When he became pope as Felix V. the supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history of the order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the this ancient order see Portugal (infra). The badge and ribbon is instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope Pius V. in 1572 as a military the same as the older Portuguese form. The Order of Pius was and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of founded in 1847 by Pius IX.; there are now three classes; the badge St Lazarus by Gregory XIII. The latter order had been founded as a is an eight-pointed blue star with golden flames between the rays, military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom a white centre bears the founder's naine; the ribbon is blue with two of Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom red stripes at each border. The Order of St Gregory lhe Great, founded were among its members. Popes, princes and nobles endowed it in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military, each having three with estates and privileges, including that of administering and classes. The Order of St Sylvester was originally founded as the succeeding to the property of lepers, which eventually led to grave though tradition assigns it to Constantine the Great and Pope Order of the Golden Spur by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military, body, Sylvester. It was reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI. 1 It has been taken as the Latin word meaning " he bears" or as in 1841. In 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a representing the initials of the legend Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum Tenuit, separate order, that of the Golden Spur or Golden Legion (Mililia with an allusion to a defence of the island of Rhodes by an ancient Aurata) was established, in one class, with the numbers limited to a count of Savoy. hundred. The cross Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice, instituted by Leo XIII. XV. 19 866 KNIGHTHOOD (ORDERS in 1888 is a decoration, not an order. There remains the Servia.-The Order of the While Eagle, the principal order, was venerable Order of the Holy Sepulchre. of which tradition assigns founded by Milan 1. in 1882, statutes 1883, in five classes; the ribbon the foundation to Godfrey de Bouillon. It was, however, probably is blue and red; the Order of Și Savo, founded 1883, also in five classes, founded as a military order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre is an order of merit for science and art; the Order of the Star of by Alexander VI. in 1496. The right to nominate to the order was Karageorgevitch, four classes, was founded by Peter' !. in 1904. shared with the pope as grand master by the guardian of the Patres The orders of Milosch the Great, founded by Alexander I. in 1898 and Minores in Jerusalem, later by the Franciscans, and then by the of Takovo, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in 1863, Latin patriarch in Jerusalem. In 1905 the latter was nominated reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 no grand master, but the pope reserves the joint right of nomination. longer bestowed. The Order of Si Lazarus is not a general order, the The badge of the order is a red Jerusalem cross with red Latin crosses cross and collar being only worn by the king. in the angles. Spain.-The Spanish branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece Portugal.-The Order of Christ was founded on the abolition of the has been treated above. The three most ancient orders of Spain- Templars by Dionysius or Diniz of Portugal and in 1318 in conjunc. of St James of Compostella, or St James of the Sword, of Alcantara and tion with Pope John XXII., both having the right to nominate to the of Calatrava—still exist as orders of merit, the first in three classes, order. The papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it the last two as orders of military merit in one class. They were all was formed as a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership originally founded as military religious orders, like the crusading vested in the crown of Portugal. In 1789. its original religious Templars and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true faith against aspect was abandoned, and with the exception that its members the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders represent the must be of the Roman Catholic faith, it is entirely secularized. crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of St James of There are three classes. . The original badge of the order was a long Compostella isthe red lily-hilted sword of St James; the ribbon is also red cross with expanded flat ends bearing a small cross in white; red. The other two orders wear the cross fleury-Alcantara red, the ribbon is red. The modern badge is a blue enarnelled cross Calatrava green, with corresponding ribbons. A short history of these resting on a green laurel wreath; the central medallion, in white, con- orders may be here given. Tradition gives the foundation of the tains the old red and white cross. The older form is worn with the Order of Knights of Št James of Compostello to Ramiro II., king of collar by the grand-crosses. The Order of the Tower and Sword was Leon, in the roth century, to commemorate a victory over the Moors, founded in 1808 in Brazil by the regent, afterwards king John VI. but, historically, the order dates from the confirmation in 1175 by of Portugal, as a revival of the old Order of the Sword, said to have Pope Alexander III. It gained great reputation in the wars against been founded by Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832 the Moors and became very wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership under its present name and constitution as a general order of military was annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic, and was vested permanently and civil merit. There are five classes. The badge of the order and in the crown of Spain by Pope Adrian VI. in 1522. ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV. fig 4. The Order of St Benedict of The Order of Knights of Alcantara, instituted about 1156 by the Aviz (earlier of Evora), founded in 1162 as a religious military brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for protection order, was secularized in 1789 as an order of military merit, in four against the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order classes. The badge is a green cross fleury; the ribbon is green. of knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until The Order of St James of the Sword, or James of Compostella, is about 1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del a branch of the Spanish order of that name (see under Spain). It Pereyro; but when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from also wag secularized in 1789, and in 1862 was constituted an order the Moors by Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they of merit for science, literature and art, in five classes. The badge is took their name from that city. For a considerable time they were the lily-hilted sword of St James, enamelled red with gold borders; in some degree subject to the grand master of the kindred order the ribbon is violet. In 1789 these three orders were granted a of Calatrava. Ultimately, however, they asserted their indepen. common badge uniting the three separate crosses in a gold medallion: dence by electing a grand master of their own, the first holder of the the joint ribbon is red, green and violet, and to the separate crosses office being Don Diego Sanche. During the rule of thirty-seven was added a red sacred heart and small white cross. There are also successive grand masters, similarly chosen, the influence and wealth the Order of Our Lady of Villa Viçosa (1819), for both sexes, and the of the order gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were Order of si Isabella, 1801, for ladics. almost as powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-1495 Juan de Zuñiga Rumania: -The Order of the Star of Rumania was founded in 1877, was prevailed upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand, and the Order of the Crown of Rumania in 1881, both in five classes, who thereupon vested it in his own person as king; and this arrange: for civil and military merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue ment was ratified by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared borders, of the second light blue with two silver stripes. permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. The yearly income of Russia.-The Order of St Andrew was founded in 1698 by Peter Zuñiga at the time of his resignation amounted to 150,000 ducats. the Great. It is the chief order of the empire, and admission carries In 1540 Pope Paul III. released the knights from the strictness of with it according to the statutes of 1720 the orders of St Anne, Benedictine rule by giving them permission to marry, though second Alexander Nevsky, and the White Eagle; there is only one class. marriage was forbidden. The three vows were henceforth obedientia, The badge and ribbon is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is castitas conjugalis and conversio morum. In modern times the his- composed of three members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing tory of the order has been somewhat chequered. When Joseph on a red medallion a figure of St George slaying the Dragon, the badge Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808, he deprived the knights of of the grand duchy of Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul 1. their revenues, which were only partially recovered on the restora- in gold on a blue ground, surmounted by the imperial crown, and tion of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a surrounded by a trophy of weapons and green and white flags, and a spiritual body in 1835. circular red and gold star with a blue St Andrew's cross. The Order The Order of Knights of Calatrava was founded in 1158 by Don of St Catherine, for ladies, ranks next to the St Andrew. It was Sancho III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava, newly founded under the name of the Order of Rescue by Peter the Great wrested from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexan- in 1714 in honour of the empress Catherine and the part she had der III. granted confirmation as a religious military order under taken in rescuing him at the battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are Cistercian rule. In 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the two classes, The grand cross is only for members of the imperial Moors and the order removed to the castle of Salvatierra, but house and ladies of the highest nobility. The second class was added recovered their town in 1212. In 1489 Ferdinand seized the grand- in 1797: The badge of the order is a cross of diamonds bearing in a mastership, and it was finally vested in the crown of Spain in 1523. medallion the effigy of St Catherine. The ribbon is red with the The order became a military order of merit in 1808 and was reorga. motto For Love and Fatherland in silver letters. The Order of St nized in 1874. The Royal and Illustrious Order of Charles Ill. Alexander Nevsky was founded in 1725 by the empress Catherine I. was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two classes; altered in 1804, There is only one class. The badge is a red enamelled cross with it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, together with all the gold cagles in the angles, bearing in a medallion the mounted effigy Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, and the Royal Order of the of St Alexander Nevsky. The ribbon is red. The Order of the Knights of Spain was established. In 1814 Ferdinand VII. revived White Eagle was founded in 1713 by Augustus 11. of Poland and was the order, and in 1847 it received its present constitution, viz. of adopted as a Russian order in 1831; there is one clasș. The Order three classes (the commanders in two divisions). The badge of the O St Anne was founded by, Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein; order is a blue and white cross suspended from a green laurel wreath; Gottorp in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna, daughter of in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval centre bears a figure of Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order in 1797 by their the Virgin in a golden glory. The ribbon is blue and white. The grandson, the emperor Paul. There are four classes. Other orders Order of Isabella the Catholic was founded in 1815 under the patronage are those of Si Vladimir, founded by Catherine 11., 1782, four classes of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; originally instituted io and of St Stan founded originally as a Polish order by Stanis- reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish possessions in America, laus Augustus Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a Russian it is now a general order of merit, in three classes. The badge is a order in 1831. red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles, in the centre a repre. The military Order of St George was founded by the empress sentation of the pillars of Hercules; the cross is attached to the Catherine II. in 1769 for military service on land and sea, with four yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath. Other Spanish classes; a fifth class for non-commissioned officers and men, the orders are the Maria Louisa, 1792, for noble ladies; the military and St. George's Cross, was added in 1807. The badge is a white cross naval orders of merit of St Ferdinand, founded by the Cortes in 1811, with gold borders, with a red central medallion on which is the figure five classes; of St Ermenegild (Ilermenegildo), 1814. three classes, of of St George slaying the dragon. The ribbon is orange with Military Merit and Naval Merit, 1866, and of Maria Christina, three black stripes. 1890; the Order of Beneficencia for civil merit, 1856; that of a KNIGHT-SERVICE 867 Alfonso XII. for merit in science, literature and art, 1902, and the ground, the jewel is a cut coral; the grades differ in the colour, shape, Civil Order of Alfonso XII., 1902. &c., of the borders and indentations; in the third class the dragons Sweden.-The Order of the Seraphim (the “Blue Ribbon"). Tradi- are gold, the ground green, the jewel a sapphire; in the fourth the tion attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knight- silver dragons are on a blue ground, the jewel a lapis lazuli: in the hood to Magnus I. in 1280, more certainty attaches to the fact that fifth green dragons on a silver ground, the jewel a pearl. The the order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order ribbons, decorated with embroidered dragons, differ for the various dates from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I., modified by grades and classes. statutes of 1798 and 1814. Exclusive of the sovereign and the Japan.-The Japanese orders have all been instituted by the princes of the blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and 8 foreigr. emperor Mutsu Hito. In design and workmanship the insignia of members. The native members must be already members of the the orders are beautiful examples of the art of the native cnamellers. Order of the Sword or the Pole Star. There is a prelate of the order The Order of the Chrysanthemum (Kikkwa Daijasho), founded in which is administered by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in 1877, has only one class. It is but rarely conferred on others than the Riddar Holmskyrka at Stockholm. The badge and ribbon of members of the royal house or foreign rulers or princes. The badge the grand cross is illustrated on Plate V. fig. 6. The collar is formed of the order may be described as follows: From a centre of red of alternate gold seraphim and blue enamelled patriarchal crosses. enamel representing the sun issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in The motto is Iesus Hominum Salvator. The Order of the Sword four sharply projecting groups, between the angles of which are four (the Yellow Ribbon "), the principal Swedish military order, was yellow conventional chrysanthemum flowers with green Icaves founded, it is said, by Gustavus I. Vasa in 1522, and was re-estab-forming a circle on which the rays rest; the whole is suspended lished by Frederick I., with the Seraphim and the Pole Star in 1748; from a larger yellow chrysanthemum. The ribbon is deep red modifications have been made in 1798, 1814 and 1889. There are bordered with purple. The collar, which may be granted with the five classes, with subdivisions. The badge is a white cross, in the order or later, is composed of four members repeated, two gold angles gold crowns, the points of the cross joined by gold swords chrysanthemums, one with green leaves, the other surrounded by a entwined with gold and blue belts, in the blue centre an upright wreath of palm, and two elaborate arabesque designs. The Order sword with the three crowns in gold, the whole surmounted by the of the Paulownia Sun (Tokwa Daijasho), founded in 1888, in one class, royal crown The ribbon is yellow with blue edging; The Order may be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the Rising Sun of the Pole Star (Polar Star, North Star, the Black Ribbon"), (Kiokujitsasho) founded in eight classes, in 1875. The badge of founded in 1748 for civil merit, has since 1844 three classes. The both orders is essentially the same, viz. the red sun with white and white cross bears a five-pointed silver star on a blue medallion. gold rays; in the former the lilac flowers of the Paulownia tree, the The ribbon is black. The Order of Vasa (the “Green Ribbon "), flower of the Tycoon's arms, take a prominent part. The ribbon founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for services of the first order is deep red with white edging, of the second scarlet rendered to the national industries and manufactures, has three with white central stripe. The last two classes of the Rising Sun classes, with subdivisions. The white cross badge bears on a blue wear a decoration formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The centre the charge of the house of Vasa, a gold sheaf shaped like a Order of the Mirror or Happy Sacred Treasure (Zaihosho) was founded vase with two handles. The ribbon is green. The Order of Charles in 1888, with eight classes. The cross of white and gold clustered XIII., founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree. rays bears in a blue centre a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon It is thus quite unique. iş pale blue with orange stripes. There is also an order for ladies, Turkey: --The Nischan-i-Imtiaz, or Order of Privilege, was founded that of the Crown, founded in five classes in 1888. The military order by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of merit in one class; of Japan is the Order of the Golden Kite, founded in 1890, in seven the Nischan-el-Iftikhar, or Order of Glory, also one class, founded classes. The badge has an elaborate design; it consists of a star of 1831 by Mahmoud 11.; the Nischan-i-Mejidi, the Mejidieh, was purple, red, yellow, gold and silver rays, on which are displayed old founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul Japanese weapons, banners and shields in various coloured enamels, Medjid. There are five classes; the badge is a silver sun of seven the whole surmounted by a golden kite with outstretched wings. clustered rays, with crescent and star between each cluster; on a gold The ribbon is green with white stripes. centre is the sultan's name in black Turkish lettering, surrounded by Shin in 1808, has five classes. There is also the Nischan-i-Aftab, Persia. -The Order of the Sun and (Lion, founded by Fath 'Ali a red fillet inscribed with the words Zeal, Devotion, Loyalty; it is suspended from a red crescent and star; the ribbon is red with green for ladies, founded in 1873. borders. The khedive of Egypt has authority, delegated by the Siam.---The Sacred Order, or the Nine Precious Stones, was founded sultan, to grant this order. The Nischan-z-Osmanie, the Osmanieh, in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the royal house. for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862; The Order of the White Elephant, founded in 1861, is in five classes, it has four classes. The badge is a gold sun with seven gold-bordered This is the principal general order. The badge is a striking example green rays; the red centre bears the crescent, and it is also suspended of Oriental design adapted to a European conventional form. The from a gold crescent and star; the ribbon is green bordered with circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves in gold, red. The Nischan-z-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence, was red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly caparisoned instituted for ladies, in three classes, in 1878 by the sultan in honour white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by the of the work done for the non-combatant victims of the Russo-Turkish jewelled gold pagoda crown of Siam; the collar is formed of alternate war of 1877, in connexion with the Turkish Compassionate Fund white elephants, red, blue and white royal monograms and gold started by the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. She was one of the pagoda crowns. The ribbon is red with green borders and small first to receive the order. There are also the family order, for Turkish blue and white stripes. Other orders are the Siamese Crown (Mong. princes, the Hanédani-Ali-Osman, founded in 1893, and the Ertogroul, kut Siam), five classes, founded 1869; the family Order of Chulah- in 1903. Chon-Clao, three classes, 1873; and the Maha Charkrkri, 1884, only Non-European Orders. Of the various states of Central and for princes and princesses of the reigning family. (C. We.) South America, Nicaragua has the American Order of San Juan or KNIGHT-SERVICE, the dominant and distinctive tenure of Grey Town, founded in 1857, in three classes; and Venezuela that of the Bust of Bolivar, 1854, five classes; the ribbon is yellow, blue and land under the feudal system. It is associated in its origin with red. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the Mexican Eagle, that development in warfare which made the mailed horseman, 1865, and Our Lady of Guadalupe, 1853; as has Brazil those of the armed with lance and sword, the most important factor in battle. Southern Cross, 1822, Dom Pedro I., 1826, the Rose, 1829, and the Till within recent years it was believed that knight-service was Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of Christ, St Benedict of Aviz and St James. The republican Order of Columbus, founded developed out of the liability, under the English system, of every in 1890, was abolished in 1891. five hides to provide one soldier in war. It is now held that, on China.-There are no orders for natives, and such distinctions as are conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins: the Conquest by the Normans, who relied essentially on their the contrary, it was a novel system which was introduced after the grades indicated by the number of peacocks' feathers, the gift of the yellow jacket and the like, are rather insignia of rank or per- mounted knights, while the English fought on foot. They were sonal marks of honour than orders, whether of knighthood or merit, already familiar with the principle of knight-service, the knight's in the European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in fec, as it came to be termed in England, being represented in 1882 established the sole order, that of the Imperial Double Dragon, in five classes, the first three of which are further divided into three Normandy by the fief du haubert, so termed from the hauberk grades each, making cleven grades in all. The recipients eligible or coat of mail (lorica) which was worn by the knight. Allusion for the various classes are graded, from the first grade of the first is made to this in the coronation charter of Henry I. (1100), class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants which speaks of those holding by knight-service as mililes qui per and manufacturers. The insignia of the order are unique in shape loricam terras suas descrviunt. and decoration. Of the three grades of the first class the badge is a rectangular gold and yellow enamel plaque, decorated with two The Conqueror, it is now held, divided the lay lands of England upright blue dragons, with details in green and white, between the among his followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number heads for the first grade a pearl, for the second a ruby, for the third of knights in his host, and imposed the same service on most of a coral, set in green, white and gold circles. The size of the plaque the great ecclesiastical bodies which retained their landed endow- varies for the different classes. The badges of the other four classes are round plaques, the first three with indented edges, the last plain; Inents. No record evidence exists of this action on his part, and in the second class the dragons are in silver on a yellow and gold the quota of knight-service exacted was not determined by the 868 KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE (6 area or value of the lands granted (or retained), but was based | which is still obscure, the nominal quotas of knight-service due upon the unit of the feudal host, the constabularia of ten knights. from each had, by the time of Edward I., been largely reduced. Of the tenants-in-chief or barons (i.e. those who held directly The knight's fee, however, remained a knight's ſce, and the of the crown), the principal were called on to find one or more of pecuniary incidents of military tenure, especially wardship, these units, while of the lesser ones some were called on for five marriage, and fines on alienation, long continued to be a source knights, that is, half a constabularia. The same system was of revenue to the crown. But at the Restoration (1660) tenure adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered under by knight-service was abolished by law (12 Car. II. C. 24), Henry II. The baron who had been enfeofſed by his sovereign and with it these vexatious exactions were abolished. on these terms could provide the knights required either by hiring BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The returns of 1166 are preserved in the Liber them for pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly Niger (13th cent.), edited by Hearne, and the Liber Rubeus or Red represented by land, by a process of subenfcoffment, analogous Book of the Exchequer (13 cent.), edited by H. Hall for the Rolls to that by which he himself had been enſcoffed. That is to say; Commission, 1807) and in the Record Office volumes of Feudal Aids, Scries in 1896. The later returns are in Testa de Nevill (Record he could assign to an under-tenant a certain portion of his fief arranged under countics. For the financial side of knight-service to be held by the service of finding one or more knights. The the early pipe rolls have been printed by the Record Commission land so held would then be described as consisting of one or more and the Pipe Roll Society, and abstracts of later ones will be found knights' fees, but the knight's ſee had not, as was formerly in The Red Book of the Exchequer, which may be studied on the whole supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther checked by J. H. Round's Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer question; but the editor's view must be received with caution and till there was a chain of mesne lords between the tenant-in-chicf (for private circulation). The Baronia Anglica of Madox may also and the actual holder of the land; but the liability for perform- be consulted. The existing theory on knight-service was enunciated ance of the knight-service was always carefully defined. by Mr Round in English Historical Review, vi., vii., and reissued by The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service Maitland (Ilistory of English Law), who discuss the question at him in his Feudal England (1895). It is accepted by Pollock and in the field, when called upon, for forty days a year, with specified length; by Mr J. F. Baldwin in his Sculage and Knight-service in armour and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as England (University of Chicago Press, 1897), a valuable monograph to whether he could be called upon to perform this service outside with bibliography; and by Petit-Dutaillis, in his Studies supplement. ary lo Stubbs' Constitutional History (Manchester University Series, the realm, nor was the question of his expenses free from diffi- 1908). (J. H. R.) culty. In addition to this primary duty he had, in numerous cases at least, to perform that of “castle ward at his lord's KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE, a semi-military secret chief castle for a fixed number of days in the year. On certain society in the United States in the Middle West, 1861–1864, the baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing knights for purpose of which was to bring the Civil War to a close and restore the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and the Union as it was.” There is some evidence that before the Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service Civil War there was a Democratic secret organization of the same had also the same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his name, with its principal membership in the Southern States. lord to the king. These consisted of (1) “ relief,” which he paid After the outbreak of the Civil War many of the Democrats of on succeeding to his lands; (2) “ wardship,” that is, the profits the Middle West, who were opposed to the war policy of the from his lands during a minority; (3) “ marriage," that is, the Republicans, organized the Knights of the Golden Circle, pledging right of giving in marriage, unless bought off, his heiress, his heir themselves to exert their influence to bring about peace. In (if a minor) and his widow; and also of the three “aids” (see 1863, owing to the disclosure of some of its secrets, the organiza- AIDs). tion took the name of Order of American Knights, and in 1864 The chief sources of information for the extent and develop this became the Sons of Liberty. The total membership of this ment of knight-service are the returns (cartae) of the barons (ie. order probably reached 250,000 to 300,000, principally in Ohio. the tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at his request, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Kentucky and south-western of the names of their tenants by knight-service with the number Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems to have of fees they held, supplemented by the payments for “scutage been the chief officer and in 1864 Clement L. Vallandigham (see SCUTAGE) recorded on the pipe rolls, by the later returns became the second in command. The great importance of the printed in the Testa de Nevill, and by the still later ones collected Knights of the Golden Circle and its successors was due to its in Feudal Aids. In the returns made in 1166 some of the barons opposition to the war policy of the Republican administration. appear as having enfeoffed more and some less than the number The plan was to overthrow the Lincoln government in the of knights they had to find. In the latter case they described elections and give to the Democrats the control of the state and the balance as being chargeable on their “ demesne," that is, on Federal governments, which would then make peace and invite the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands. the Southern States to come back into the Union on the old foot. These returns further prove that lands had already been granted ing. In order to obstruct and embarrass the Republican adminis- for the service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in tration the members of the held peace meetings to influence practice already commuted for a proportionate money payment; public opinion against the continuance of the war; purchased and they show that the total number of knights with which land arms to be used in uprisings, which were to place the peace party held by military service was charged was not, as was formerly in control of the Federal government, or failing in that to establish supposed, sixty thousand, but, probably, somewhere between a north-western confederacy; and took measures to set free the five and six thousand. Similar returns were made for Normandy, Confederate prisoners in the north and bring the war to a forced and are valuable for the light they throw on its system of knight-close. All these plans failed at the critical moment, and the most service. effective work done by the order was in encouraging desertion The principle of commuting for money the obligation of. from the Federal armies, preventing enlistments, and resisting military service struck at the root of the whole system, and so the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and numerous seizures complete was the change of conception that “tenure by knight- of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a general service of a mesne lord becomes, first in fact and then in law, collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were tenure by escuage (i.e. scutage).” By the time of Henry III., as sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was Bracton states, tlie test of tenure was scutage; liability, however suspended until 1866, when they were released under the decision small, to scutage payment made the tenure military. of the United States Supreme Court in the famous case Ex parle The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the Milligan. latter half of the 13th century as a consequence of changes in AUTHORITIES.- An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the warfare, which were increasing the importance of foot soldiers Golden Circle (Indianapolis, 1863); J. F. Rhodes, History of the United and making the service of a knight for forty days of less value Stales from the Compromise of 1850 (New York, 1905) vol. v.: to the king. The barons, instead of paying scutage, compounded and W. D. Foulke, Life of 0. P. Morlon (2 vols., New York, 1899). E. McPherson, Political History of the Rebellion (Washington, 1876); for their service by the payment of lump sums, and, by a process (W. L. F.) KNIPPERDOLLINCK-KNOLLES 869 66 KNIPPERDOLLINCK (or KNIPPERDOLLING), BERNT (BEREND (see HOSIERY). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or needles used or BERNHARDT) (c. 1490–1536), German divine, was a prosperous are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class of work cloth-merchant at Münster when in 1524 he joined Melchior wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or Rinck and Melchior Hofman in a business journey to Stockholm, ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping which developed into an abortive religious errand. Knipper-over the ends. Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on doliinck, a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his them. Others are pointed at both ends, and by employing three youth for eccentricity, had the ear of the Münster populace when or more a circular or circular-shaped fabric can be made. In in 1527 he helped to break the prison of Tonies Kruse, in the teeth hand knitting each loop is formed and thrown off individually of the bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his and in rotation and is left hanging on the new loop formed. The peace with the latter; but, venturing on another business cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal materials from which journey, he was arrested, imprisoned for a year, and released knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the most important on payment of a high fine-in regard of which treatment he and most largely used. “ Lamb's-wool,” “ wheeling," "finger- began an action before the Imperial Chamber. Though his ing" and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but aims were political rather than religious, he attached himself may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once used in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is (1529) chaplain of St Mauritz, outside Münster, now (1532) to-day principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of pastor of the city church of St Lamberti. A new bishop the remote parts of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an directed a mandate (April 17, 1532) against Rothmann, which industry to some extent. In the Shetland Islands the wool of the had the effect of alienating the moderates in Münster from the native sheep is spun, and used in its natural colour, being manu- democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the latter in the factured into shawls, scarfs, ladies' jackets, &c. The principal surprise (December 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the negoti- trade of other districts is hose and half-hose, made from the ating nobles at Telgte, in the territory of Münster. In the end, wool of the sheep native to the district. The formation of the Münster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (February 14, 1533) stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many ways, by constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a purling” (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib burgomaster in February 1534. Anabaptism had already (Sep- form),“ slipping"loops, taking up and casting off and working in tember 8, 1533) been proclaimed at Münster by a journeyman various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &c. The articles smith; and, before this, Heinrich Roll, a refugee, had brought may be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and Rothmann (May 1533) to a rejection of infant baptism. From yarns are manipulated. the ist of January 1534 Roll preached Anabaptist doctrines KNOBKERRIE (from the Taal or South African Dutch, knop- in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of Jan kirie, derived from Du. knop, a knob or button, and kerrie, a Matthysz, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist Bushman or Hottentot word for stick), a strong, short stick with prophet of Haarlem, came on a mission to Münster. They were a rounded knob or head used by the natives of South Africa in followed (January 13) by Jan Beukelsz (or Bockelszoon, or warfare and the chase. It is employed at close quarters, or as a Buchholdt), better known as John of Leiden. It was his second missile, and in time of peace serves as a walking-stick. The name visit to Münster; he came now as an apostle of Matthysz. He was has been extended to similar weapons used by the natives of twenty-five, with a winning personality, great gifts as an organizer, Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places. and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter Clara KNOLLES, RICHARD (c. 1545-1610), English historian, was was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leiden, a native of Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln came under his influence. Matthysz himself came to Münster College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and at some (1534) and lived in Knipperdollinck's house, which became the date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford to become master of a school centre of the new movement to substitute Münster for Strassburg at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610. In 1603 Knolles (Melchior Hofmann's choice) as the New Jerusalem. On the published his Generall Historie of the Turkes, of which several death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5, 1534), John became editions subscquently appeared, among them a good one edited supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt, when he by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman, 1699. It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed wheedling the Münster democracy into subjection to the fantastic himself largely of Jean Jacques Boissard's Vilae et Icones Sulian- rule of the “ king of the earth.” He was made second in com- orum Turcicorum (Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely mand, and executioner of the refractory. He fell in with the superseded, it has considerable merits as regards style and polygamy innovation, the protest of his wife being visited with a arrangement. Knolles published a translation of J. Bodin's penance. In the military measures for resisting the siege of De Republica in 1606, but the Grammatica Latina, Graeca el Münster he took no leading part. On the fall of the city (June 25, Hebraica, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the 1535) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was betrayed work the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (c. 1599-1691), a Baptist by his landlady. After six months' incarceration, his trial, along minister. with his comrades, took place on the 19th of January, and his See the Athenaeum, August 6, 1881. execution, with fearful tortures, on the 22nd of January 1536. KNOLLES (or KNOLLYS), SIR ROBERT (c. 1325-1407), English Knipperdollinck attempted to strangle himself, but was forced soldier, belonged to a Cheshire family. In 'early life he served to endure the worst. His body, like those of the others, was in Brittany, and he was one of the English survivors who were hung in a cage on the tower of St Lamberti, where the cages taken prisoners by the French after the famous" combat of the are still to be seen. An alleged portrait, from an engraving thirty” in March 1351. He was, however, quickly released and of 1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross's Pansebeia, was among the soldiers of fortune who took advantage of the 1655. distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of a savage See L. Kelier, Geschichte der Wiederläufer und ihres Reichs zu civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the wretched Münster (1880); C. A. Cornelius, Historische Arbeiten (1899); E. inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to Belfort Bax, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists (1903). (A. Go.*) Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England KNITTING (from O.E. cnyttan, to knit; cf. Ger. Knütten; the and of Charles II. of Navarre. He led the "great company”in root is seen in “knot "), the art of forming a single thread or their work of devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting strand of yarn into a texture or fabric of a loop structụre, by at this time for his own hand and for booty, and winning a terrible employing needles or wires. “ Crochet” work is an analogous reputation by his ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty art in its simplest form. It consists of forming a single thread of Brétigny in 1360 Knolles returned to Brittany and took part into a single chain of loops. All warp knit fabrics are built on in the struggle for the possession of the duchy between John of this structure. Knitting may be said to be divided into two Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, gaining great principles, viz. (1) hand knitting and (2) frame-work knitting | fame, by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September 1364), where " 870 KNOLLYS Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain. In earl of Leicester; she was the mother of Elizabeth's favourite, 1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at the 2nd earl of Essex. the battle of Nájera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine. Some of Knollys's letters are in T. Wright's Queen Elizabeth and In 1370 he was placed by Edward III. at the head of an expe- her Times (1838) and the Burghley Papers, edited by S. Haynes dition which invaded France and marched on Paris, but after (1740); and a few of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech exacting large sums of money as ransom a mutiny broke up the which Knollys delivered in parliament against some claims made by army, and its leader was forced to take refuge in his Breton castle for True and Christian Church Policie (London, 1642). the bishops was printed in 1608 and again in W. Stoughton's Assertion of Derval and to appease the disappointed English king with a large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat Knolles again Sir Francis Knollys's second son William (c. 1547-1632) assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as John's served as a member of parliament and a soldier during the reign representative; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was one of Queen Elizabeth, being knighted in 1586. His eldest brother of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In Henry, having died without sons in 1583, William inherited his 1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, after- father's estates in Oxfordshire, becoming in 1596 a privy council- wards duke of Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at lor and comptroller of the royal household; in 1602 he was made the siege of Nantes; and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to treasurer of the household. Sir William enjoyed the favour of the meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk new king James I., whom he had visited in Scotland in 1585, and on the 15th of August 1407. Sir Robert devoted much of his was made Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount Wallingford in great wealth to charitable objects. He built a college and an 1616. But in this latter year his fortunes suffered a tem- almshouse at Pontefract, his wife's birthplace, where the alms- porary reverse. Through his second wife Elizabeth (1586–1658), house still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, Knollys was related Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome. to Frances, countess of Somerset, and when this lady was tried for Knolles won an immense reputation by his skill and valour in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury her relatives were regarded the field, and ranks as one of the foremost captains of his age. with suspicion; consequently Lord Wallingford resigned the French writers call him Canolles, or Canole. treasurership of the household and two years later the mastership KNOLLYS, the name of an English family descended from of the court of wards, an office which he had held since 1614. Sir Thomas Knollys (d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first However, he regained the royal favour, and was created earl of distinguished member of the family was Sir Francis Knollys Banbury in 1626. He died in London on the 25th of May 1632. (c. 1514-1596), English statesman, son of Robert Knollys, or His wife, who was nearly forty years her husband's junior, Knolles (d. 1521), a courtier in the service and favour of was the mother of two sons, Edward (1627-1645) and Nicholas Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Robert had also a younger (1631-1674), whose paternity has given rise to much dispute. son, Henry, who took part in public life during the reign of Neither is mentioned in the earl's will, but in 1641 the law courts Elizabeth and who died in 1583. decided that Edward was earl of Banbury, and when he was killed Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII. in June 1645 his brother Nicholas took the title. In the Con- before 1540, became a member of parliament in 1542 and was vention Parliament of 1660 some objection was taken to the earl knighted in 1547 while serving with the English army in Scotland. sitting in the House of Lords, and in 1661 he was not summoned A strong and somewhat aggressive supporter of the reformed to parliament; he had not succeeded in obtaining his writ of doctrines, he retired to Germany soon after Mary became queen, summons when he died on the 14th of March 1674. returning to England to become a privy councillor, vice-chamber- Nicholas's son Charles (1662--1740), the 4th earl, had not been lain of the royal household and a member of parliament under summoned to parliament when in 1692 he killed Captain Philip Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569), daughter Lawson in a duel. This raised the question of his rank in a new of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. After form. Was he, or was he not, entitled to trial by the peers? serving as governor of Plymouth, Knollys was sent in 1566 to The House of Lords declared that he was not a peer and therefore Ireland, his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential not so entitled, but the court of king's bench released him from reports about the conduct of the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney. his imprisonment on the ground that he was the earl of Banbury Approving of Sidney's actions he came back to England, and in and not Charles Knollys a commoner. Nevertheless the House 1568 was sent to Carlisle to take charge of Mary Queen of Scots, of Lords refused to move from its position, and Knollys had not who had just fled from Scotland; afterwards he was in charge of received a writ of summons when he died in April 1740. the queen at Bolton Castle and then at Tutbury Castle. He dis-Charles (1703-1771), vicar of Burford, Oxfordshire, and his cussed religious questions with his prisoner, although the extreme grandsons, William (1726–1776) and Thomas Woods (1727-1793), Protestant views which he put before her did not meet with were successively titular earls of Banbury, but they took no steps Elizabeth's approval, and he gave up the position of guardian to prove their title. However, in 1806 Thomas Woods's son just after his wife's death in January 1569. In 1584 he introduced William (1763-1824), who attained the rank of general in the into the House of Commons, where since 1572 he had represented British army, asked for a writ of summons as earl of Banbury, Oxfordshire, the bill legalizing the national association for but in 1813 the House of Lords decided against the claim. Elizabeth's defence, and he was treasurer of the royal household Several peers, including the great Lord Erskine, protested against from 1572 until his death on the 19th of July 1596. His monu- this decision, but General Knollys himself accepted it and ceased ment may still be seen in the church of Rotherfield Grays, to call himself earl of Banbury. He died in Paris on the 20th of Oxfordshire. Knollys was repeatedly free and frank in his March 1834. His eldest son, Sir William Thomas Knollys (1797- objections to Elizabeth's tortuous foreign policy; but, possibly 1883), entered the army and served with the Guards during the owing to his relationship to the queen, he did not lose her favour, Peninsular War. Remaining in the army after the conclusion and he was one of her commissioners on such important occasions of the peace of 1815 he won a good reputation and rose high in his as the trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of profession. From 1855 to 1860 he was in charge of the military Arundel, and of Anthony Babington. An active and lifelong camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made Puritan, his attacks on the bishops were not lacking in vigour, president of the council of military education. From 1862 to and he was also very hostile to heretics. He received many 1877 he was comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales grants of land from the queen, and was chief steward of the city afterwards King Edward VII. From 1877 until his death on of Oxford and a knight of the garter. the 23rd of June 1883 he was gentleman usher of the black rod; Sir Francis's eldest son Henry (d 1583), and his sons Edward he was also a privy councillor and colonel of the Scots Guards. (d. c. 1580), Robert (d. 1625), Richard (d. 1596), Francis (d. His son Francis (b. 1837), private secretary to Edward VII. and C. 1648), and Thomas, were all courtiers and served the queen in George V., was created Baron Knollys in 1902; another son, parliament or in the field. His daughter Lettice (1540-1634) Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), became private secretary to King married Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, and then Robert Dudley, Edward's daughter Maud, queen of Norway. His son KNOT 871 a See Sir N. H. Nicolas, Treatise on the Law of Adulterine Bastardy | esteemed a great delicacy, as witness the entries in the Northum- 1833); and G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887), vol. i. berland and Le Strange Household Books; and the British KNOT, a Limicoline bird very abundant at certain seasons Museum contains an old treatise on the subject: “The maner of on the shores of Britain and many countries of the northern kepyng of knotts, after Sir William Askew and my Lady, given hemisphere. Camden in the edition of his Britannia published to my Lord Darcy, 25 Hen. VIII.” (MSS. Sloané, 1592, 8 cat. in 1607 (p. 408) inserted a passage not found in the earlier issues 663). (A. N.) of that work, connecting the name with that of King Canute, KNOT (O.E. cnotta, from a Teutonic stem knutt; cf. “ knit,” and this account of its origin has been usually received. But no and Ger. knoten), an intertwined loop of rope, cord, string or other evidence in its favour is forthcoming, and Camden's state-other flexible material, used to fasten two such ropes, &c., to one ment is merely the expression of an opinion, so that there is another, or to another object. (For the various forms which perhaps ground for believing him to have been mistaken, and such “knots may take see below.) The word is also used for that the clue afforded by Sir Thomas Browne, who (c. 1672) the distance-marks on a log-line, and hence as the equivalent of wrote the name “ Gnatts or Knots,” may be the true one. Still a nautical mile (see LOG), and for any hard mass, resembling a the statement was so determinedly repeated by successive knot drawn tight, especially one formed in the trunk of a tree authors that Linnaeus followed them in calling the species at the place of insertion of a branch. Knots in wood are the Tringa canutus, and so it remains with nearly all modern ornitho- remains of dead branches which have become buried in the wood logists. Rather larger than a snipe, but with a shorter bill of the trunk or branch on which they were borne. When a and legs, the knot visits the coasts of some parts of Europe, Asia branch dies down or is broken off, the dead stump becomes grown and North America at times in vast flocks; and, though in tem- over by a healing tissue, and, as the stem which bears it increases perate climates a good many remain throughout the winter, in thickness, gradually buried in the newer wood. When a sec- these are nothing in proportion to those that arrive towards the tion is made of the stem the dead stump appears in the section end of spring, in England generally about the 15th of May, and as a knot; thus in a board it forms a circular piece of wood, after staying a few days pass northward to their summer quar- liable to fall out and leave a "knot-hole." Knot " or“ knob " ters, while early in autumn the young of the year throng to the is an architectural term for a bunch of flowers, leaves or other same places in still greater numbers, being followed a little later ornamentation carved on a corbel or on a boss. The word is by their parents. In winter the plumage is ashy-grey above also applied figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to dis- (save the rump, which is white) and white beneath. In summer entangle, a use stereotyped in the proverbial “ Gordian knot,” the feathers of the back are black, broadly margined with light which, according to the tradition, was cut by Alexander the orange-red, mixed with white, those of the rump white, more or Great (see GORDIUM). less tinged with red, and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform Knots, Bends, Hitches, Splices and Seizings are all ways of deep bay or chestnut. The birds which winter in temperate fastening cords or ropes, either to some other object such as a climates seldom attain the brilliancy of colour exhibited by those spar, or a ring, or to one another. The “knot” is formed to which arrive from the south; the luxuriance generated by the make a knob on a rope, generally at the extremity, and by un- heat of a tropical sun seems needed to develop the full richness of twisting the strands at the end and weaving them together. hue. The young when they come from their birthplace are But it may be made by turning the rope on itself through a loop, clothed in ashy-grey above, each feather banded with dull as for instance, the “overhand knot” (fig. 1). A “bend " black and ochreous, while the breast is more or less deeply tinged (from the same root as“ bind ”), and a "hitch” (an O.E. word), with warm buff. Much curiosity has long existed among zoolo- are ways of fastening or tying ropes together, as in the " Carrick gists as to the egg of the knot, of which not a single identified bend” (fig. 21), or round spars as the Studding Sail Halyard or authenticated specimen is known to exist in collections. The Bend (fig. 19), and the Timber Hitch (fig. 20). A “splice' species was found breeding abundantly on the North Georgian (now commonly called the Parry) Islands by Parry's Arctic expedition, as well as soon after on Melville Peninsula by Captain Lyons, and again during the voyage of Sir George Nares on the northern coast of Grinnell Land and the shores of Smith Sound, where Major Feilden obtained examples of the newly hatched young (Ibis, 1877, p. 407), and observed that the parents fed largely on the buds of Saxifraga oppositifolia. These are the only localities in which this species is known to breed, for on FIG. 2. none of the arctic lands lying to the north of Europe or Asia has (from the same root as “split '') is made by untwisting two rope it been unquestionably observed. In winter its wanderings ends and weaving them together. A “ seizing ” (Fr. saisir) is are very extensive, as it is rded from Surinam, Brazil, made by fastening two spars to one another by a rope, or two Walfisch Bay in South Africa, China, Queensland and New ropes by a third, or by using one rope to make a loop on another Zealand. Formerly this species was extensively netted in -as for example the Racking Seizing (fig. 41), the Round Seizing England, and the birds fattened for the table, where they were (fig. 40), and the Midshipman's Hitch (fig. 29). The use of the His words are simply." Knolts, i. Canuti aues, vt opinor e Dania words is often arbitrary. There is, for instance, no difference in enim aduolare creduntur.". In the margin the name is spelt“ Cnotts,” and he possibly thought it had to do with a well-known story of that principle between the Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18) and the Timber king. Knots undoubtedly frequent the sea-shore, where Canute is Hitch (fig. 20). Speaking generally, the Knot and the Seizing said on one occasion to have taken up his station, but they generally are meant to be permanent, and must be unwoven in order to be retreat, and that nimbly, before the advancing surf, which he is said unfastened, while the Bend and Hitch can be undone at orice by in the story not to have done. * In this connexion we may compare the French maringouin, pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from that in which they ordinarily a gnat or mosquito, but also, among the French Creoles are meant to hold. Yet the Reef Knot (figs. 3 and 4) can be cast of America, a small shore-bird, either a Tringa or an Aegialitis, loose with ease, and is wholly different in principle, for instance, according to. Descourtilz (Voyage, ii. 249). See also Littré's from the Diamond Knot (figs. 42 and 43). These various forms Dictionnaire, s.o. * There are few of the Limicolae, to which group the knot belongs, of fastening are employed in many kinds of industry, as for that present greater changes of plumage according to age or season, example in scaffolding, as well as in seamanship. The governing and hence before these phases were understood the species became principle is that the strain which pulls against them shall draw encumbered with many synonyms, as Tringa cinerea, ferruginea, them tighter. The ordinary “ knots and splices” are described grisea, islandica, naevio and so forth. The confusion thus caused was mainly cleared away by Montagu and Temminck. in every book on seamanship. * The Trirga canutus of Payer's expedition seems more likely to Overhard Knot (fig. 1).--Used at the end of ropes to prevent their have been T. maritima, which species is not named among the birds unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Take the end of Franz Josef Land, though it can hardly fail to occur there. a round the end b. u FIG. 1. 872 KNOT Figure-of-Eight Knol (fig. 2).-Used only to prevent ropes from Double Blackwall Hilch (fig. 15).- Pass the end e twice round the unreeving; it forms a large knob. hook and under the standing part b at the last cross. Reef Knot (figs. 3, 4). -Form an overhand knot as above. Then Cat's-paw (hg. 16).-Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite take the end a over the end b and through the bight. If the end a directions and hook the tackle in the eyes i, i. A piece of wood 6 eask FIG. 3 FIG. 4. were taken under the end b, a granny would be formed. This knot is so named from being used in tying the reef-points of a sail. Bowline (figs. 5-7).-Lay the end a of a rope over the standing part b. Form with b a bight c over a. Take a round behind b and FIG. 15. FIG. 17. Fig. 14. FIG. 16. should be placed between the parts at g. A large lanyard should be clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round it below the toggle. Marling-spike Hitch (fig. 17).-Lay the end a over c; fold the loop over on the standing part b; then pass the marline-spike through, over both parts of the bight and under the part 6. Used for tighten- ing each turn of a seizing. °Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18).-Take two turns round a spar, then a FIG. 5. Fig. 7. FIG. 6. down through the bight c. This is a most useful knot employed to form a loop which will not slip. Running bowlines are formed by 甚么​车 ​FIG. 19. FIG.9. FIG. 18. FIG. 20. half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the turns, lastly a half-hitch round the standing, part. Studding-sail Halyard Bend (fig. 19).-Similar to the above, except that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more snug: FIG. 8. FIG. 10. A magnus hitch has two round turns and one on the other side of making a bowline round its own standing part above 6. It is the the standing part with the end through the bight. most common and convenient temporary running noose. Timber Hilch (fig. 20).- Take the end a of a rope round a spar, Bowline on a Bight (figs. 8, 9): - The first part is made similar to then round the standing part b, then several times round its own the above with the double part of the rope; then the bight a is pulled part c, against the lay of the rope. through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past d and come up Carrick Bend (fig. 21).-Lay the end of one hawser over its own in the position shown in fig. 9. It makes a more comfortable sling part to form a bight as e', b; pass the end of another hawser up through for a man than a single bight. that bight near b, going out over the first end at c, cross- Half-Hitch (fig. 10).- Pass the end a of the rope round the standing ing under the first long part and over its end at d, then part 6 and through the bight. under both long parts, forming the loops, and above Two Half-Hitches, (fig. 11):- The half-hitch repeated; this is the first short part at b, terminating at the end e", in commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of the opposite direction vertically and horizontally to the the rope. A stop from a to the standing part will prevent it jam other end. The ends should be securely stopped to ming. their respective standing parts, and also a stop put on Clove Hitch (figs. 12, 13).-Pass the end a round a spar and cross the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe or chock; in that form this is the best quick means of uniting two large hawsers, since they cannot jam. When large hawsers have to work through. small pipes, good security may be obtained either by passing ten or twelve taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking half as many round turns taut, crossing the ends between the hawsers over the seizing and reel-knotting the ends. This should be repeated in three places and the extreme ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by bowline knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the knots jam. Sheet Bend (fig. 22).-Pass the end of one rope through Fig. 21. FIG. II. FIG. 12. the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and under its own standing part. Used for bending small sheets to the it over b. Pass it round the spar again and put the end e through clews of sails, which present bights ready for the hitch. An the second bight. ordinary net is composed of a series of sheet bends. A weaver's knot Blackwell Hitch (fig. 14).-Form a bight at the end of a rope, and is made like a sheet bend. put the hook of a tackle through the bight so that the end of the rope Single Wall Knot (fig. 23). -- Unlay the end of a rope, and with may be jammed between the standing part and the back of the hook. the strand a form a bight. Take the next strand b round the end ofa. & FIG. 13. KNOT 873 Take the last strand c round the end of b and through the bight made two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to by a. Haul the ends taut. sling lower yards. For boat's yards it should be a grummet with a Single Wall Crowned (fig. 24).-Form a single wall, and lay one thimble seized in at y. As the tendency of all yards is to cant of the ends, a, over the knot. Lay b over a, and cover b and through forward with the weight of the sail , the part marked by an arrow the bight of a. Haul the ends.taut. should be the fore-side-easily illustrated by a round ruler and a piece of twine.com SIS DE 6 Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot (fig. 33).--This knot consists of a double wall and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed at s and a lanyard round the head at lave Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion (fig. 34).-A bend is made in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together inisiator Breinu Hoon 9 Q הצפעה1,55 ma FIG. 23. 80 ino FIG. 33 FIG. 34 FIG. 35 FIG. 25 FIG. 27. 15115 135415 ab FIG. 22. FIG. 24. Dal 099 neobvo TS 15 A Double Wall and Double Crown (fig. 25).-Form a single wall.no Dit an Labie darzonkioldt crowned; then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the nood Ca sại ba 51 parts appear double. Put the ends down through the knot. It was a grooma is be Matthew Walker (figs. 26, 27).—Uņlay the end of a rope. Take od anbefale the first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the ab Gold - Da second strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, andet s hope 112 through its own bight; the third through all three bights. Haul the 503) by ends taut. suo EG WO Inside Clinch (fig. 28).—The end is bent close round the standing ensit on dor part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at a, b et que les od and c, thus making a running eye; when taut round anything it... jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors, with a bar and strand; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one C round and one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug, the end being at the side of the fellow part. The dead-eye is put in and the eye driven down with a commander. Turning in a Dead-Eye end up (fig. 35). –The shroud is measured round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on; the dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first. The end beyond a is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing: higher still the end is secured by another seizing. As it is important that the lay should always be kept in the rope as much as possible, these eyes should be formed conformably, either right-handed or left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally kink by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead- eye is turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent FIG. 26. FIG. 28. on the seizings; the under turns of the throat are the first to break and the others the first to slip. With the cutter-stay fashion the the standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes. A rope will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye. If the eye were formed outside the bight an outside clinch would large thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient number of flat be made, depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for or racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objection- slipping; Midshipman's Hilch (fig. 29):—Take two round turns inside the hastening decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admis- able on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus bight, the same as a hall-hitch repeated; stop up the end or let sible on the score of neatness; in that case a round seizing is placed another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. " Used for hooking a between the dead-eye and the splice. The dead-eyes should be in tackle for a temporary purpose. Turk's Head (Hg. 30).-With fine line (very dry) make a clove diameter 1} times the circumference of a hemp shroud and thrice that of wire; the lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp hitch round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the re- verse way (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole spread flat, dead-eye 18 in., lanyard 6 in. and the same size as wire: thus, hemp-shroud 12 in., wire 6 in., gaib Short Splice (fig. 36).- The most common description of splice is when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so, Ftr. 36 represents a splice of this kind the strands have been unlaid, married and more passed through with the assist- ance of a marling-spike, over one strand and under the next, twice each way. The ends are then cut off close.. To render the splice neater the strands should have been halved before turning them in a second time, the upper d noiello half of each strand only being turned in; then all are cut off smooth. Eye Splice.-Unlay the strands and place them upon the same rope FIG. 32. spread at such a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter the centre strand (unlaid) under a strand of the rope (as above), and the let each end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight other two in a similar manner on their respective sides of the first; to receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes taper each end and pass them through again. If neatness is desired, and foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends, reduce the ends and pass them through once more; cut off smooth two formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line. Uses one single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end too numerous to mention. Cut Splice.--Made in a similar manner crossed over its neighbour follows its own part as above. to an eye splice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two splices. Spanish Windlass (fig. 3!):-An iron bar and two marling-spikes Used for mast-head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and even are taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat's-paw (fig. 16), odd shrouds, to keep the eyes of the rigging lower by one part, passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In It is not so strong as two separate eyes. Horseshoe Splice.- Made heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken similar to the above, but one part much shorter than the other, or with a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horseshoe between the parts of a long lashing or frapping and hove round, with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, back we have what is also called a Spanish windlass. stays (one on each side) and cutter's runner pendants. Long Splice. Slings (fig. 32).—This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over The strands must be unlaid about three times as much as for a its own part; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up) short splice and married-care being taken to preserve the lay or takes the place of the bight at s and another at y, connecting the shape of each. Unlay one of the strands still further and follow up QN FIG. 36. tit FIG. 29. FIG. 30. Fig. 31. 874 KNOT Fig. 39. FIG. 40. similares Fig. 37 turns. the vacant space with the corresponding strand of the other part, , hitch on the other side of the hauling part. This is very useful, as it fitting it firmly into the rope till only a few inches remain. Treat can be put on and off quickly. the other side in a similar manner. There will then appear two long Round Seizing (fig. 40). So named when the rope it secures does strands in the centre and a long and a short onc.on each side. The not cross another and there are three sets of turns. The size of the splice is practically divided into three distinct parts; at each the strands are divided and the corresponding halves knotted (as shown on the top of fig. 38) and turned in twice. The half strand may, if desired, be still further reduced before the halves are turned in for the second time. This and all other splices should be well stretched and hammered into shape before the ends are cut off. The long splice alone is adapted to running ropes. Shroud Knot (fig. 37).-Pass a stop at such distance from each end the ken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when it is unlaid, to form a single wall seizing line is about one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes to be knot on each side alter the secured, but varies according to the number of turns to be taken. An parts have been married; it will eye is spliced in the line and the end rove through it, embracing both then appear as represented in parts. If either part is to be spread open, commence farthest from the figure, the strands having that part; place tarred canvas under the seizing; pass the line round been well tarred and hove taut as many times (with much slack) as it is intended to have under- separately. The part a provides turns; and pass the end back through them all and through the eye. the knot on the opposite side and the ends b, b; the part c pro- Secure the eye from rendering round by the ends of its splice; heave vides the knot and the ends d, d. After the knot has been the turns on with a marling-spike (see fig. 17), perhaps seven or nine; well' stretched the ends are tapered, laid smoothly between the haul the end through taut, and commence again the riding turns strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This knot is used when in the hollows of the first. If the end is not taken back through the shrouds or stays are broken. French Shroud Knot.--Marry the parts eye, but pushed up between the last two turns (as is sometimes with a similar amount of end as before; stop one set of strands taut recommended), the riders must be passed the opposite way in order up on the shroud (to keep the parts together), and turn the ends to follow the direction of the under-turns, which are always one niore back on their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot in number than the riders. When the riders are complete, the end is with the other three strands round the said bights and shroud; forced between the last lower turns and two cross turns are taken, the haul the knot taut fir stret vhole; then heave down the end coming up where it went down, when a wall knot is made with bights close: it will look like the ordinary shroud knot. It is very the strands and the ends cut close; or the end may be taken once liable to slip. If the ends by which the wall knot is made after round the shroud. Throat Seizing.-Two ropes or parts of ropes being hove' were passed through the bights, it would make the are laid on each other parallel and receive a seizing similar to that knot stronger. The ends would be tapered and served. shown in figure 35—that is with upper and riding but no cross Flemish Eye (fig. 38). -Secure a spar or toggle twice the circum- turns. As the two parts of rope are intended to turn up at right ference of the rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay the angles to the direction in which they were secured, the seizing should rope which is to form the eye about be of stouter line and short, not exceeding seven lower and six riding three times its circumference, at which turns. The end is better secured with a turn round the standing part. part place a strong whipping Point Used for turning in dead-eyes and variously. Flat Seizing. - Com. the rope vertically under the eye,, and menced similarly to the above, but it has neither riding nor cross bind it taut up by the core if it is four stranded rope, otherwise by a few yarns. Racking Seizing (fig. 41).-A running eye having been spliced round While doing so arrange six or twelve one part of the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other part, pieces of spun-yarn at equal distances on the wood and exactly halve the number of yarns that have been unlaid. If it is a small rope, select two three yarns from each side near the centre; FIG. 38. cross them over the top at a, and half- knot them tightly. So continue till all are expended and drawn down tightly on the opposite side to that from which they came, being thoroughly intermixed. Tie the pieces of spun-yarn which were placed under the eye tightly round various parts, to keep the eye in shape when taken off the spar, till they are replaced by turns of marline hove on as taut as possible, the hitches forming a central line outside the eye. Heave on a good seizing of spun-yarn close below the spar, and another between six and twelve inches below the first; it may then be parcelled and served; the eye Bathi is served over twice, and well tarred each time. As large ropes are crossed back round the first part, and so on for ten to twenty, turns, composed of so many yarns, a greater number must be knotted over according to the expected strain, every turn being hove as tight as the toggle each time; a 4-in. rope has 132 yarns, which would require possible; after which round turns are passed to fill the spaces at 22 knottings of six each time; a 10-in. rope has 834 yarns, therefore, the back of each rope, by taking the end a over both parts into the if ten are taken from each side every time, about twice that number hollow at b, returning at c, and going over to d. When it reaches e of hitches will be required; sometimes only half the yarns are hitched, a turn may be taken round that rope only, the end rove under it, the others being merely passed over. The chief use of these eyes has and a half-hitch taken, which will form a clove-hitch; knot the end been to form the collars of stays, the whole stay in each case having and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire (which is half the size to be rove through it-a very inconvenient device. It is almost of hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any kind, wire superseded for that purpose by a leg spliced in the stay and lashing seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire eyes abaſt the mast, for which it is commonly used at present. rigging combined with plates or screws for setting it up, as in case This eye is not always called by the same name, but the weight of of accident-such as that of the mast going over the side, a shot or evidence is in favour of calling it a Flemish eye. Ropemaker's Eye, collision breaking the ironwork-the seamen are powerless. which also has alternative names, is formed by taking out of a rope Diamond Knot (figs. 42, 43). -The rope must be unlaid as far as the one strand longer by 6 in. or a foot than the required eye, then placing centre if the knot is required there, and the strands handled with the ends of the two strands a similar distance below the disturbance great care to keep the lay in them. Three bights are turned up as in of the one strand, that is, at the size of the cye; the single strand is fig. 42, and the end of a is taken over b and up the bight c. The end led back through the vacant space it left till it arrives at the neck of of b is taken over c and up through a. The end c is taken over a the eye, with a similar length of spare end to the other two strands. and through b. When hauled taut and the strands are laid up again They are all seized together, scraped, tapered, marled and served. it will appear as in fig. 43. Any number of knots may be made on the The principal merit is neatness. Mouse on a Stay.-Formed by same rope. They were used on man-ropes, the foot-ropes on the jib. turns of coarse spun-yarn hove taut round the stay, over parcelling boom, and similar places, where it was necessary to give a good hold at the requisite distance from the eye to form the collar; assistance for the hands or feet. Turk's heads are now generally used. Double is given by a padding of short yarns distributed equally round the Diamond.-Made by the ends of a single diamond following their rope, which, after being firmly secured, especially at what is to be own part till the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end of a side the under part, are turned back over the first layer and seized down rope as an ornamental stopper-knot, again, thus making a shoulder; sometimes it is formed with parcelling Siropping-Blocks.-There are various modes of securing blocks to only. In either case it is finished by marling, followed by serving ropes; the most simple is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a or grafting. The use is to prevent the Flemish eye in the end of the little longer than the block and pass a round scizing to keep it in stay from slipping up any farther. place; such is the case with jih-pendants. As a general rule, the Rolling Hitch (hg. 39). -Two round turns are taken round a spar parts of a strop combined should possess greater strength than the or large rope in the direction in which it is to be hauled and one hall- parts of the fall which act against it. The shell of an ordinary block FIG. 41. FIG. 42. Fig. 43 langt547 KNOT 875 o 에 ​FIG. 44. FIG. 45. should be about three times the circumference of the rope which is produce 112 parts in the neck, equal to a breaking strain of 280 tons, to reeve through it, as a 9-in. block for a 3.in. ropę; but small ropes which is more than four parts of a 19-in cable. The estimated require larger blocks in proportion, as a 4-in. block for a 1-in. rope. strain it bore was 80 tons. When the work to be done is very important the blocks are much Stoppers for ordinary running ropes are made by splicing a piece larger: brace-blocks are more than five times the nominal size of the of rope to a bolt or to a hook and thímble, unlaying 3 or 4 ft., tapering brace. Leading blocks and sheaves in racks are generally smaller it by cutting away some of the yarns, and marling it down securely, than the blocks through which the ropes pass farther away, which with a good whipping also on the end. It is used by taking a half. appears to be a mistake, as more power is lost by friction. A clump- hitch round the rope which is to be hauled upon, dogging the end block should be double the nominal size of the rope. A single strop up in the lay and holding it by hand. The rope can come through may be made by joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go it when hauled, but cannot go back. round the block and thimble by a common short splice, which rests Whipping and Pointing.–The end of every working rope should on the crown of the block (the opposite end to the thimble) and is at least be whipped to prevent it fagging, out; in ships of war and stretched into place by a jigger; a strand is then passed twice round yacht they are invariably pointed. Whipping is done by placing the end of a piece of twine or knittle-stuff on a rope about an inch from the end, taking three or four turns taut over it (working towards the end); the twine is then laid on the rope again lengthways con- trary to the first, leaving a slack bight of twine; and taut turns are repeatedly passed round the rope, over the first end and over the bight, till there are in all six to ten turns; then haul the bight taut through between the turns and cut it close. To point a rope, place a good whipping a few inches from the end, according to size; open out the end entirely; select all the outer yarns and twist them into knittles either singly or two or three together; scrape down and ta per the central part, marling it firmly. Turn every alternate knittle and secure the remainder down by a turn of twine or a smooth yarn hitched close up, which acts as the weſt in weaving. The knittles are then reversed and another turn of the weſt taken, and this is continued till far enough to look well. At the last turn the ends of the knittles which are laid back are led forward over and under the weſt and hauled through tightly, making it present a circle of small bights, level with which the core is cut off smoothly. Hawsers and large ropes have a becket formed in their ends during the process of pointing. A piece of 1 to i in. rope about it to 2 ft. long is spliced into the core by each end while it is open: from four to seven yarns (equal to a strand) are taken at a time and twisted up; open the ends of the becket only sufficient to marry them close in; turn in the the space between the block and the thimble and hove taut by a twisted yarns between the strands (as splicing) three times, and stop Spanish windlass to cramp the parts together ready for the reception it above and below. Both ends are treated alike; when the pointing of a small round seizing.. The cramping or pinching into shape is is completed a loop a few inches in length will protrude from the end sometimes done by machinery invented by a rigger in Portsmouth of the rope, which is very useful for reeving it. A hauling line or dockyard. The strop may be made the required length by a long reeving line should only be rove through the becket as a fair lead. splice, but it would not possess any advantage. Grafting is very similar to pointing, and frequently done the whole Grummet-Strop (fig: 44).—Made by unlaying a piece of rope of the length of a rope, as a side-rope. "Pieces of white line more than desired size about a foot more than three times the length required double the length of the rope, sufficient in number to encircle it, for the strop. Place the centre of the rope round the block and thimble; mark with chalk where the parts cross; take one strand out of the rope; bring the two chalk marks together; and cross the strand in the lay on both sides, continuing round and round till the two ends meet the third time; they are then halved, and the upper halves half-knotted and passed over and under the next strands, exactly 6 FIG. 46. as one part of a long splice. A piece of worn or well-stretched rope will better retain its shape, upon which success entirely depends are made up in hanks called foxes; the centre of each is made fast The object is neatness, and if three or multiples of three strops are by twine and the weaving process continued as in pointing. Block- to be made it is economical. strops are sometimes so covered; but, as it causes decay, a small wove Double Strop (fig. 45).-Made with one piece of rope, the splice mat which can be taken off occasionally is preferable. being brought as usual to the crown of the block i, the bights fitting Sheep-Shank (fig. 46).--Formed by making a long bight in a top- into scores some inches apart, converging to the upper part, above gallant back-stay, or any rope which it is desirable to shorten, which the thimble receives the bights a, a; and the four parts of the and taking a half-hitch near each bend, as at a, a. Rope-yarn stops strop are secured at s, s by a round seizing doubly crossed. If the at b, b are desirable to keep it in place till the strain is brought on it. block be not then on the right slew (the shell horizontal or vertical) Wire rope cannot be so treated, and it is injurious to hemp rope that a union thimble is used with another strop, which produces the de- is large and stiff. sired effect; thus the fore and main brace-blocks, being very large Knotting Yarns (fig. 47).---This operation becomes necessary when and thin, are required (for appearance) to lie horizontally; a single a comparatively short piece of junk is to be made into spun-yarn, strop round the yard vertically has a union thimble between it and or large rope into small, which is called twice laid. The end of each the double strop round the block. The double strop is used for large yarn is divided, rubbed smooth and married (as for splicing). blocks; it gives more support to the shell than the single strop and Two of the divided parts, as c, c and d, d, are passed in opposite admits of smaller rope being used. Wire rope is much used for directions round all the other parts and knotted." The ends e and f block-strops; the fitting is similar. Metal blocks are also used in remain passive. The figure is drawn open, but the forks of A and fixed positions; durability is their chief recommendation. Great B should be pressed close together, the knot hauled taut and the care should be taken that they do not chaſe the ropes which pass ends cut off. by them as well as those which reeve through. Butt Slings (fig. 48).-Made of 4-in. rope, each pair being 26 ſt. Selvagee Strop:-Twine, rope-yarn or rope is warped round two in length, with an eye spliced in one end, through which the other or more pegs placed at the desired distance apart, till it assumes the requisite size and strength; the two ends are then knotted or spliced. Temporary firm seizings are applied in several places to bind the parts together before the rope or twine is removed from the pegs, after which it is marled with suitable material. A large strop, should be warped round four or six pegs in order to give it the shape in which it is to be used. This description of strop is inuch stronger and more supple than rope of similar size. Twine strops FIG. 48. (covered with duck) are used for boats' blocks and in similar places requiring neatness. Rope-yarn and spun-yarn strops are used is rove before being placed over one end of the cask; the rope is then for attaching luff-tackles to shrouds and for many similar purposes. passed round the opposite side of the cask and two half-hitches made To bring to a shroud or hawser, the centre of the strop is passed round with the end, forming another running eye, both of which are beaten the rope and each part crossed three or four times before hooking down taut as the tackle receives the weight. Slings for smaller the “luff"; a spun-yarn stop above the centre will prevent slipping casks requiring care should be of this description, though of smaller and is very necessary with wire rope. As an instance of a large rope, as the cask cannot possibly slip out. Bale Slings are made by selvagee block-strop being used-when the “ Melville" was hove splicing the ends of about 3 fathoms of 3-in. rope together, which then down at Chusan (China), the main purchase-block was double looks like a long strop, similar to the double strop represented in stropped with a selvagee containing 28 parts of 3-in. rope; that would I fig. 45—the bights i being placed under the cask or bale and one of the 00 FIG. 47 876 KNOUT-KNOWLES, SIR J. FIG. 53 FIG. 34. bights a, e rove through the other and attached to the whip or can be fully represented by three closed plane curves, none of which tackle. has double points and no two nf which intersect. It may be stated For a complete treatise on the subject the reader may be referred here that the notion of beknottedness is founded on a remark of to The Book of Knots, being a Complete Treatise on the Art of Cordage, Gauss, who in 1833 considered the problem of the number of inter- illustraſed by 172 Diagrams, showing the Manner of making every Knot, linkings of two closed circuits, and expressed it by the electro- Tie and Splice, by Tom Bowling (London, 1890). dynamic measure of the work required to carry a unit magnetic pole round one of the interlinked curves, while a unit electric current is Mathematical Theory of Knols. In the scientific sense a knot is an endless physical line which cannot be deformed into a circle. A physical line is flexible and inextensible, and cannot be cut so that no lap. of it can be drawn through another. The founder of the theory of knots is undoubtedly Johann Benedict Listing (1808–1882). In his “ Vorstudien zur Topo- logie” (Göttinger Studien, 1847), a work in many respects of startling originality, a few pages only are devoted to the subject.' He treats knots from the elementary notion of twisting one physical line (or thread) round another, and shows that from the projection of a knot on a surface we can thus obtain a notion kept circulating in the other. This original suggestion has been of the relative situation of its coils. He distinguishes “ reduced” developed at considerable length by Otto Boeddicker (Erweiterung from “ reducible” forms, the number of crossings in the reduced author treats also of the connexion of knots with Riemann's surfaces. der Gauss'schen Theorie der Verschlingungen (Stuttgart, 1876). This knot being the smallest possible. The simplest form of reduced It is to be noticed that, although every knot in which the crossings knot is of two species, as in figs. 49 and 50. Listing points out are alternately over and under is irreducible, the converse is not that these are formed, the first by right-handed the second by generally true. This is obvious at once from fig. 54, which is merely the three-crossing knot with a doubled string—what Listing calls left-handed twisting. In fact, if three half-twists be given to a “paradromic.". long strip of paper, and the ends be then pasted together, the Christian Felix Klein, in the Mathematische Annalen, ix. 478, has two edges become one line, which is the knot in question. We proved the remarkable proposition that knots cannot exist in space may free it by slitting the paper along its middle line; and then 'of four dimensions. (P. G. T.) we have the juggler's trick of putting a knot on an endless un- KNOUT (from the French transliteration of a Russian word of knotted band. One of the above forms cannot be deformed into Scandinavian origin; cf. A.-S. cnotla, Eng. knot), the whip used the other. The one is, in Listing's language, the “perversion” in Russia for flogging criminals and political offenders. It is of the other, i.e. its image in a plane mirror. He gives a method said to have been introduced under Ivan III. (1462–1505). The of symbolizing reduced knots, but shows that in this method the knout had different forms. One was a lash of raw hide, 16 in. same knot may, in certain cases, be represented by different long, attached to a wooden handle, 9 in. long. The lash ended symbols. It is clear that the brief notice he published contains in a metal ring, to which was attached a second lash as a mere sketch of his investigations. long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few The most extensive dissertation on the properties of knots is inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind that of Peter Guthrie Tait (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxviii. 145, consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with where the substance of a number of papers in the Proceedings wire, ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o’-nine tails. The of the same society is reproduced). It was for the most part victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, written in ignorance of the work of Listing, and was suggested receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sen- by an inquiry concerning vortex atoms. tence of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence; Tait starts with the almost self-evident proposition that, if any but few lived to receive so many. The executioner was usually plane closed curve bave double points only, in passing continuously a criminal who had to pass through a probation and regular along the curve from one of these to the same again an even number training; being let off his own penalties in return for his services. of double points has been passed through. Hence the crossings Peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son may be taken alternately over and under. On this he bases a scheme Alexis to death, and there is little doubt that the boy was for the representation of knots of every kind, and employs it to find all the distinct forms of knots which have, in their simplest projec- actually beaten till he died, whoever was the executioner. The emperor Nicholas I. abolished the earlier forms of knout and substituted the pleti, a three-thonged lash. Ostensibly the knout has been abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements. KNOWLES, SIR JAMES (1831-1908), English architect and editor, was born in London in 1831, and was educated, with a view to following his father's profession, as an architect at tions, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 crossings only. Their numbers are shown to him at an early age into the field of authorship. In 1860 he University College and in Italy. His literary tastes also brought be 1, 1, 2, 4 and 8. The unique knot of three crossings has been already given as drawn by Listing. The unique knot of four cross-published The Story of King Arthur. In 1867 be was introduced ings merits a few words, because its properties lead to a very singular to Tennyson, whose house, Aldworth, on Blackdown, he conclusion. It can be deformed into any of the four forms—figs: 51 designed; this led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting and 52 and their perversions. Knots which can be deformed into their own perversion Tait calls “amphicheiral" (from the Greek Tennyson in business matters, and among other things helping auoi, on both sides, around, xelp, hand), and he has shown that to design scenery for The Cup, when Irving produced that play there is at least one knot of this kind for every even number of in 1889. Knowles became intimate with a number of the most crossings. He shows also that "links" (in which two endless interesting men of the day, and in 1869, with Tennyson's co- physical lines are linked together) possess a similar he then points out that there is a third mode of making a complex operation, he started the Metaphysical Society, the object of figure of endless physical lines, without either knotting or linking: which was to attempt some intellectual rapprochement between This may be called “ lacing. " locking." Its nature is obvious religion and science by getting the leading representatives of from fig. 53, in which it will be seen that no one of the three lines faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views. is knotted, no two are linked, and yet the three are inseparably fastened together. The members from first to last were as follows: Dean Stanley. The rest of Tait's paper deals chiefly with numerical character Seeley, Roden Noel, Marțineau, W. B. Carpenter, Hinton, Huxley istics of knots, such as their "knottiness,' " " beknottedness" and Pritchard, Hutton, Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tyndall “ knotfulness. He also shows that any knot, however complex, Lord Avebury. Dean Alford, Alex. Grant, Bishop Thirlwall , Alfred Barry, Lord Arthur Russell, Gladstone, Manning, Knowles. See P. G. Tait “ On Listing's Topologie," Phil. Mag., xvii. 30. F. Harrison, Father Dalgairns, Sir G. Grove, Shadworth Hodgson. ☺ FIG. 49. Fig. 50. FIG. 51. Fig. 52. " or KNOWLES, J. S.-KNOW NOTHING PARTY 877 H. Sidgwick, E. Lushington. Bishop Ellicott, Mark Pattison, duke Love Chase in 1837. In his later years he forsook the stage for of Argyll. Ruskın. Robert Lowe, Grant Duff, Greg. A. C Fraser, the pulpit, and as a Baptist preacher attracted large audiences Henry Acland. Maurice, Archbishop Thomson, Mozley, Dean Church, Bishop Magee. Croom Robertson, FitzJames Stephen, Sylvester, at Exeter Hall and elsewhere. He published two polemical J. C. Bucknill, Andrew Clark, W K Clifford. St George Mivart, works-the Rock of Rome and the Idol Demolished by its own M. Boulton, Lord Selborne, John Morley, Leslie Stephen, F. Pollock, Priests-in both of which he combated the special doctrines of Gasquet, C. B. Upton, William Gull, Robert Clarke, A. J. Balfour, the Roman Catholic Church. Knowles was for some years in the James Sully and A. Barratt, Papers were read and discussed at the various meetings on reccipt of an annual pension of £200, bestowed by Sir Robert such subjects as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective Peel. He died at Torquay on the 30th of November 1862. A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of and moral sciences, the immortality of the soul, &c. An interest him will be found in the Life (1872), privately printed by his son, ing description of one of the meetings was given by Magee (then Richard Brinsley Knowles (1820-1882), who was well known as a bishop of Peterborough) in a letter of 13th of February 1873:— journalist. Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant KNOW NOTHING (or AMERICAN) PARTY, in United States bishops right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the history, a political party of great importance in the decade Spectator, an Arian; then came father Dalgairns, a very able Roman before 1860. Its principle was political proscription of natural- Catholic priest: opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two ized citizens and of Roman Catholics. Distrust of alien immi. Scotch metaphysical writers, Freethinkers, then Knowles, the very broad editor of the Contemporary: then, dressed as a layman and grants, because of presumptive attachment to European insti. looking like a country squire, was Ward, formerly Rev Ward, and tutions, has always been more or less widely diffused, and race earliest of the perverts to Rome; then Greg, author of The Creed of antagonisms have been recurrently of political moment; while Christendom, a Deist, then Froude, the historian, once a deacon in anti-Catholic sentiment went back to colonial sectarianism. our Church, now a Deist; then Roden Noel, an actual Atheist and red republican, and looking very like one! Lastly Ruskin, who read | These were the clements of the political “ nativism "-i.e. a paper on miracles, which we discussed for an hour and a half hostility to foreign influence in politics-of 1830-1860. In Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or even, on the whole, more reverent these years Irish immigration became increasingly preponderant; then the discussion In my opinion, wc, the Christians, had much the best of it Dalgairns, the priest. was very masterly: Manning, and that of Catholics was even more so. The geographical clever and precise and weighty; Froude, very acute, and so was segregation and the clannishness of forcign voters in the cities Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Mahommedan to make our gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike (the latter Religious Museum complete" (Life, i. 284). more successfully) strove to control, to the great aggravation The last meeting of the society was held on 16th May 1880. of naturalization and election frauds. “No one can deny that Huxley said that it died “ of too much love "; Tennyson, “ be ignorant foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of immense cause after ten years of strenuous effort no one had succeeded in proportions (J. F. Rhodes). In labour disputes, political even defining metaphysics.” According to Dean Stanley, “We feuds and social clannishness, the alien elements-especially all meant the same thing if we only knew it.” The society the Irish and German-displayed their power, and at times gave formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of contributors who offence by their hostile criticism of American institutions. In supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor. In 1870 he immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and New York, became editor of the Contemporary Review, but left it in 1877 the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and and founded the Nineteenth Century (to the title of which, in 1901, proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really were added the words And Aſter) Both periodicals became “the symbol and strength of foreign influence " (Scisco); many very influential under him, and formed the type of the new sort regarded it as a transplanted foreign institution, un-American of monthly review which came to occupy the place formerly in organization and ideas.? Thus it became involved in politics. held by the quarterlies. In 1904 he received the honour of The decade 1830-1840 was marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish) knighthood. He died at Brighton on the 13th of February riots in various cities and by party organization of nativists in 1908. many places in local elections. Thus arose the American- KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN (1784-1862), Irish dramatist Republican (later the Native American) Party, whose national and actor, was born in Cork, on the 12th of May 1784. His father career begun practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in 1841 was the lexicographer, James Knowles (1759-1840), cousin- first received a state organization. New York City in 1844 and german of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. The family removed to Boston in 1845 were carried by the nativists, but their success London in 1793, and at the age of fourteen Knowles published was due to Whig support, which was not continued, and the a ballad entitled The Welsh Harper, which, set to music, was very national organization was by 1847-in which year it endorsed popular. The boy's talents secured him the friendship of the Whig nominee for the presidency-practically dead. Though Hazlitt, who introduced him to Lamb and Coleridge. He served some Whig leaders had strong nativist leanings, and though the for some time in the Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower party secured a few representatives in Congress, it accomplished Hamlets militia, leaving the service to become pupil of Dr little at this time in national politics. In the early 'fifties nativism Robert Willan (1757-1812). He obtained the degree of M.D., and was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of aliens. Catholics, was appointed vaccinatur to the Jennerian Society. Although, moreover, had combated the Native Americans defiantly. In however, Dr Willan generously offered him a share in his 1852 both Whigs and Democrats were forced to defend their practice, he resolved to forsake medicine for the stage, making presidential nominees against charges of anti-Catholic sentiment. his first appearance probably at Bath, and playing Hamlet at the In 1853–1854 there was a wide-spread “anti-popery propa- Crow Theatre, Dublin. At Wexford he married, in October 1809, ganda and riots against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile Maria Charteris, an actress from the Edinburgh Theatre. In the Know Nothing Party had sprung from nativist secret societies, 1810 he wrote Leo, in which Edmund Kean acted with great whose relations remain obscure. Its organization was secret; success; another play, Brian Boroilme, written for the Belfast and hence its name-for a member, when interrogated, always Theatre in the next year, also drew crowded houses, but his •E.g. for some extraordinary reform earnings were so small that he was obliged to become assistant German immigrants see Schmeckebier (as below), pp. 48-50. programmes among to his father at the Belfast Academical Institution. In 1817 he ?" The actual offence of the Catholic Church was its non-con- removed from Belfast to Glasgow, where, besides conducting a formity to American methods of church administration and popular flourishing school, he continued to write for the stage. His education" (Scisco). 3 The Whigs bargained aid in New York city for “American " first important success was Caius Gracchus, produced at Belfast support in the state, and charged that the latter was not given. in 1815; and his Virginius, written for Edmund Kean, was first Millard Fillmore attributed the Whig loss of the state (see LIBERTY performed in 1820 at Covent Garden. In William Tell (1825) PARTY) to the disaffection of Catholic Whigs angered by the alliance with the nativists. Macready found one of his favourite parts. His best-known • The Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star play, The Hunchback, was produced at Covent Garden in 1832: Spangled Banner, established in New York respectively in 1845 and The Wife was brought out at the same theatre in 1833; and The 1850, were the most important sources of its membership. t 60 . 878 KNOX, H.-KNOX, JOHN ") " " answered that he knew nothing about it. Selecting candidates | national politics it really had no excuse. Race antipathies gave secretly from among those nominated by the other parties, and it local cohesive power in the North; various causes, already giving them no public endorsement, the Know Nothings, as soon mentioned, advanced it in the South; and as a device to win as they gained the balance of power, could shatter at will Whig offices it was of wide-spread attraction. Its only real contribu- and Democratic calculations. Their power was evident by tion to government was the proof that nativism is not American. 1852--from which time, accordingly, “ Know-Nothingism is ism. Public opinion has never accepted its estimate of the alien most properly dated. The charges they brought against nor of Catholic citizens. Some of its anti-Church principles, naturalization abuses were only too well founded; and those however--as the non-support of denominational schools-have against election frauds not less so—though, unfortunately, the been generally accepted, others-as the refusal to exclude the Know Nothings themselves followed scandalous election methods (Protestant) Bible from public schools have been generally in some cities. The proposed proscription of the foreign-born rejected, others—as the taxation of all Church property-remain knew no exceptions: many wished never to concede to them all disputed. the rights of natives, nor to their children unless educated in See L. D. Scisco, Political Nativism in New York Slate (doctoral the public schools. As for Catholics, the real animus of Know thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1901), L. F. Schmeckebier, Nothingism was against political Romanism; therefore, secon- Know Nothing Parly in Maryland (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1899); G, H, Haynes, “ A Know Nothing Legislature darily, against papal allegiance and episcopal church adminis- (Mass., 1855), in American Historical Assoc. Report, pt. 1 (1896); tration (in place of administration by lay trustees, as was earlier J. B. McMaster, With the Fathers, including “ The Riocous Career of common practice in the United States); and, primarily, against the Know Nothings.". (New York, 1896); H. F. Desmond, The Know public aid to Catholic schools, and the alleged greed (.e. the Nothing Party (Washington, 1905). power and success) of the Irish in politics. The times were pro- KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806), American general, was born in pitious for the success of an aggressive third party, for the Whigs Boston, Massachusetts, of Scottish-Irish parentage, on the 25th were broken by the death of Clay and Webster and the crushing of July 1750. He was prominent in the colonial militia and tried defeat of 1852, and both the Whig and Democratic parties were to keep the Boston crowd and the British soldiers from the disintegrating on the slavery issue. But the Know Nothings clash known as the Boston massacre (1770). In 1771 he opened lacked aggression. entering national politics the party the “ London Book-Store" in Boston. He had read much of abandoned its mysteries, without making compensatory gains; tactics and strategy, joined the American army at the outbreak when it was compelled to publish a platform of principles, of the War of Independence, and fought at Bunker Hill, planned factions arose in its ranks; moreover, to draw recruits the faster the defences of the camps of the army before Boston, and brought from Whigs and Democrats, it “ straddled " the slavery question, from Lake George and border forts much-needed artillery. At and this, although a temporary success, ultimately meant ruin. Trenton he crossed the river before the main body, and in the In 1854, however, Know Nothing gains were remarkable.' | attack rendered such good service that he was made brigadier- Thereafter the organization spread like wildfire in the South, in general and chief of artillery in the Continental army on the which section there were almost no aliens, and the Whig dissolu-following day. He was present at Princeton, was chiefly respon- tion was far advanced. The Virginia election of May 1855 sible for the mistake in attacking the“ Chew House "at German- proved conclusively, however, that Know Nothingism was no town, urged New York as the objective of the campaign of 1778; stronger against the Democrats than was the Whig party it had served with efficiency at Monmouth and at Yorktown; and after absorbed; it was the same organization under a new name. In the surrender of Cornwallis was promoicd major-general, and the North it was even clearer that slavery must be faced. Know served as a commissioner on the exchange of prisoners. His Nothing evasion probably helped the South, but neither Repub- services throughout the war were of great value to the American licans nor Democrats would endure the evasion; Douglas and cause, he was one of General Washington's most trusted advisers, Seward, and later (1855-1856) their parties, denounced it. In and he brought the artillery to a high degree of efficiency. From the North-West the Know Nothings were swept into the anti- | December 1783 until June 1784 he was the senior officer of the slavery movement in 1854 without retaining their organization. United States army. In April 1783 he had drafted a scheme In the state campaigns of 1855 professions were measured to the of a society to be formed by the American officers and the French latitude. The national platform of 1856 (adopted by a secret officers who had served in America during the war, and to be grand council), besides including anti-alien and anti-Catholic called the“ Cincinnati "'; of this society he was the first secretary. planks, offered sops to the North, the South and the “ dough- general (1783-1799) and in 1805 became vice-president-general faces on the slavery issue. Millard Fillmore was nominated In 1785-1794 Knox was secretary of war, being the first man to for the presidency. The anti-slavery delegates of eight Northern hold this position after the organization of the Federal govern. states bolted the convention, and eight months later the Repub- ment in 1789. He urged ineffectually a national militia system, lican wave swept the Know Nothings out of the North. The to enroll all citizens over 18 and under 60 in the “advanced national field being thus lost, the state councils became supreme, corps," the “main corps or the reserve," and for this and his and local opportunism fostered variation and weakness. By close friendship with Washington was bitterly assailed by the 1859 the party was confined almost entirely to the border states. Republicans. In 1793 he had begun to build his house, Moni. The Constitutional Union-the “Do Nothing”-Party of 1860 pelier, at Thomaston, Maine, where he speculated unsuccess. was mainly composed of Know Nothing remnants.* The year fully in the holdings of the Eastern Land Association; and he 1860 practically marked, also, the disappearance of the party as a lived there until his death on the 25th of October 1806. local power. See F. S. Drake, Memoir of General Henry Knox (Boston, 1873); Except in city politics nativism had no vitality; in state and and Noah Brooks, Henry Knox (New York, 1900) in the " American Men of Energy" series. "American Party" became the official name. KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505-1572), Scottish reformer and historian. strength in Congress was almost thirty-fold that of 1852. It elected governors, legislatures, or both, in four New England states, and in Of his early life very little is certainly known, in spite of the Maryland, Kentucky and California ; minor officers elsewhere; and fact that his History of the Reformation and his private letters, almost won six Southern states. especially the latter, are often vividly autobiographical. Even ? For it delayed anti-slavery organization in the North, and the year of his birth, usually given as 1505, is matter of dispute. presumably discouraged immuigration, which was a source of strength Beza, in his Icones, published in 1589, makes it 1515; Sir Peter to the North rather than to the South. * They carried only Maryland. The popular vote in the North Young (tutor to James VI. of Scotland), writing to Beza from was under one-seventh, in the South above three-sevenths, of the Edinburgh in 1579, says 1513; and a strong case has been made total vote cast. . Note the presidential vote. Seward's loss of the Republican out for holding that the generally accepted date is due to an nomination was partly due to Know Nothing hostility: error in iranscription (see Dr Hay Fleming in the Bookman, Its firmest hold was in Maryland. Its rule in Baltimore (1854- Sept. 1905). But Knox seems to have been reticeni about his 1860) was marked by disgraceful riots and abuses. early life, even to his contemporaries. What is known is that he ܙܙ 1 This year Its KNOX, JOHN 879 60 gentle " re- 9) was a son of William Knox, who lived in or near the town of John Rough, who spoke it, died a few years after in the flames Haddington, that his mother's name was Sinclair, and that his at Smithfield. But it was a call which many in that ardent forefathers on both sides had fought under the banner of the dawn were ready to accept, and it had now at length found, or Bothwells. William Knox was simple," not made, a statesman and leader of men. For what to the others perhaps a prosperous East Lothian peasant. But he sent his was chiefly a promise of personal salvation became for the son John to school (no doubt the well-known grammar school | indomitable will of Knox an assurance also of victory, even in of Haddington), and thereafter to the university, where, like his this world, over embattled forces of ancient wrong. It is certain contemporary George Buchanan, he sat " at the feet” of John at least that from this date he never changed and scarcely even Major. Major was a native of Haddington, who had recently re- varied his public course. “And looking back upon that course turned to Scotland from Paris with a great academical reputation. afterwards, he records with much complacency how his earliest He retained to the last, as his History of Greater Britain shows, St Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive Protes- the repugnance characteristic of the university of Paris to the tantism upon Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers mut. tyranny of kings and nobles; but like it, he was now alarmed by tercd, “ Others sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes the revolt of Luther, and ceased to urge its ancient protest at the root.” against the supremacy of the pope. He exchanged his “ Meantime the system attacked was safe for other thirteen gency or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of years. In June 1547 St Andrews yielded to the French fleet, and St Andrews in 1523. If Knox's college time was later than that the prisoners, including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on date (as it must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no the Loire, to remain in irons and under the lash for at least doubt spent, as Beza narrates; at St Andrews, and probably nineteen months. Released at last (apparently through the exclusively there. But in Major's last Glasgow session a influence of the young English king, Edward VI.), Knox was Joannes Knox ” (not an uncommon name, however, at that appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith for time in the west of Scotland) matriculated there; and if this were | England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed his afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made master to St Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to a royal chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English Haddington. But till twenty years after that date his career bishopric, which he declined; and during most of this year he has not been again traced. Then he reappears in his native used his influence, as preacher at court and in London, to make district as a priest without a university degree (Sir John Knox) the new English settlement more Protestant. To him at least and a notary of the diocese of St Andrews. In 1543 he certainly is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains that, when kneeling signed himself “minister of the sacred altar" under the arch- at the sacrament is ordered, “no adoration is intended or ought bishop of St Andrews. But in 1546 he was carrying a two- to be done." While in Northumberland Knox had been handed sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart, on the betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop's order. Richard Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother, Knox would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal Elizabeth, co-heiress of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of superior, Lord Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his that little band of women-friends whose correspondence with submission, with the words “One is sufficient for a sacrifice,” Knox on religious matters throws an unexpected light on his and was handed over for trial at St Andrews. And next year discriminating tenderness of heart. But now Mary Tudor the archbishop himself had been murdered, and Knox was succ :eded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into preaching in St Andrews a fully developed Protestantism. five years' exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change “ Affliction," and sending back to England two editions of a in himself was brought about.. During those twenty years more acrid “Faithful Admonition” on the crisis there. He Scotland had been slowly tending to freedom in religious pro- first drifted to Frankfort, where the English congregation fession, and to friendship with England rather than with France. divided as English Protestants have always done, and the party The Scottish hierarchy, by this time corrupt and even profligate, opposed to Knox got rid of him at last by a complaint to the saw the twofold danger and met it firmly. James V., the authorities of treason against the emperor Charles V. as well "" Commons' King” had put himself into the hands of the as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial Beatons, who in 1528 burned Patrick Hamilton. On James's pastorate. Christopher Goodman (c. 1520-1603) and he, with death there was a slight reaction, but the cardinal-archbishop Other exiles, began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared took possession of the weak regent Arran, and in 1546 burned the earlier English version of the Bible, “the household book of George Wishart. England had by this time rejected the pope's the English-speaking nations " during the great age of Elizabeth. supremacy. In Scotland by a recent statute it was death even Here, and afterwards at Dieppe (where he preached in French), to argue against it; and Knox alter Wishart's execution was Knox kept in communication with the other Reformers, studied fleeing from place to place, when, hearing that certain gentlemen Greek and Hebrew in the interest of theology, and having of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his castle brought his wife and her mother from England in 1555 lived of St Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St Andrews for years a peaceful life. he taught “ John's Gospel” and a certain catechism-probably But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing that which Wishart had got from "Helvetia " and translated; the difficulties of the future, theoretical as well as practical. In but his teaching was supposed to be private and tutorial and for his first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bullinger as to the the benefit of his friends' " bairns." The men about him how- right of the civil “ authority" to prescribe religion to his sub: ever-among them Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, “ Lyon jects-in particular, whether the godly should obey "a magis- King" and poet-saw his capacity for greater things, and, on trate who enforces idolatry and condemns true religion," and his at first refusing “to run where God had not called him," whom should they join “in the case of a religious nobility planned a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept resisting an idolatrous sovereign.” In August 1555 he visited "the public office and charge of preaching." At the close of it his native country and found the queen-mother, Mary of Lorraine, the speaker (in Knox's own narrative) " said to those that were acting as 'regent in place of the real “ sovereign," the youthful present, 'Was not this your charge to me? And do ye not and better-known Mary, now being brought up at the court of approve this vocation?' They answered, 'It was, and we France. Scripture-reading and the new views had spread approve it.' Whereat the said Johnne, abashed, burst forth widely, and the regent was disposed to wink at this in the case of in most abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber," the "religious nobility." Knox was accordingly allowed to remaining there in “ heaviness” for days, until he came forth preach privately for six months throughout the south of Scotland, resolved and prepared. Knox is probably not wrong in regarding and was listened to with an enthusiasm which made him break this strange incident as the spring of his own public life. The out, “O sweet were the death which should follow such forty St Andrews invitation was really one to danger and death; 1 days in Edinburgh as here I have had three!” Before leaving he « 44 880 KNOX, JOHN " or 14 was 6 May 1559 even addressed a letter to the regent, urging her to favour the sermon by their great preacher roused the despairing multitude Evangel. She accepted it jocularly as a pasquil," and Knox into new hope. Their leaders renounced allegiance to the regent; on his departure was condemned and burned in effigy. But he she ended her not unkindly, but as Knox calls it “unhappy,” left behind him a “ Wholesome Counsel” to Scottish heads of life in the castle of Edinburgh; the English troops, after the usual families, reminding them that within their own houses they Elizabethan delays and evasions, joined their Scots allies; and were “bishop and kings,” and recommending the institution the French embarked from Leith. On the 6th of July 1560 a of something like the early apostolic worship in private congre-treaty was at last made, nominally between Elizabeth and gations. Of the Protestant barons Knox, though in exile, the queen of France and Scotland; while Cecil instructed his mis- seems to have been henceforward the chief adviser; and before tress's plenipotentiaries to agree that the government of Scol- the end of 1557 they, under the name of the “Lords of the Con- land be granted to the nation of the land." The revolution was in gregation,” had entered into the first of the religious “bands” the meantime complete; and Knox, who takes credit for having covenants afterwards famous in Scotland. In 1558 he done much to end the enmity with England which was so long published his “ Appellation " to the nobles, estates and common- thought necessary for Scotland's independence, was strangely alty against the sentence of death recently pronounced upon him, enough destined, beyond all other men, to leave the stamp of a and along with it a stirring appeal “ To his beloved brethren, more inward independence upon his country and its history. the Commonalty of Scotland,” urging that the care of religion At the first meeting of the Estates, in August 1560, the Protes- fell to them also as being “ God's creatures, created and formed tants were invited to present a confession of their iaith. Knox in His own image,” and having a right to defend their conscience and three others drafted it, and were present when it was against persecution. About this time, indeed, there was in offered and read to the parliament. The statute-book says it Scotland a remarkable approximation to that solution of the “by the estates of Scotland ratified and approved, as toleration difficulty which later ages have approved; for the wholesome and sound doctrine grounded upon the infallible regent was understood to favour the demand of the “ congrega- truth of God's word.” The Scots conſession, though of course tion" that at least the penal statutes against heretics“ be drawn up independently, is in substantial accord with the others suspended and abrogated," and “that it be lawful to us to use then springing up in the countries of the Reformation, but is ourselves in matters of religion and conscience as we must answer Calvinist rather than Lutheran. It remained for two centuries to God.” It was a consummation too ideal for that early date; the authorized Scottish creed, though in the first instance the and next year the regent, whose daughter was now queen of faith of only a fragment of the people. Yet its approval became France and there mixed up with the persecuting policy of the the basis for three acts passed a-week later; the first of which, Guises, forbade the reformed preaching in Scotland. A rupture abolishing the pope's authority and jurisdiction in Scotland, may ensued at once, and Knox appeared in Edinburgh on the 2nd of perhaps have been consistent with toleration, as the second, even in the brunt of the battle.” He was promptly rescinding old statutes which had established and enforced that blown to the horn” at the Cross there as an outlaw, but and other catholic tenets, undoubtedly was. But the third, escaped to Dundee, and commenced public preaching in the inflicting heavy penalties, with death on a third conviction, on chief towns of central Scotland. At Perth and at St Andrews those who should celebrate mass or even be present at it, showed his sermons were followed by the destruction of the monasteries, that the reformer and his friends had crossed the line, and that institutions disliked in that age in Scotland alike by the devout their position could no longer be described as, in Knox's words, and the profane. But while he notes that in Perth the act was requiring nothing but the liberty of conscience, and our reli- that of “the rascal multitude,” he was glad to claim in Stgion and fact to be tried by the word of God ” He was prepared Andrews the support of the civic“ authority”; and indeed the indeed to fall back upon that, in the event of the Estates at any burghs, which were throughout Europe generally in favour of time refusing sanction to either church or creed, as their sover- freedom, soon became in Scotland a main support of the Reforeign in Paris promptly refused it. But the parliament of 1560 mation. Edinburgh was still doubtful, and the queen regent gave no express sanction to the Reformed Church, and Knox did held the castle; but a truce between her and the lords for six not wait until it should do so. Already“ in our towns and places months to the ist of January 1560 was arranged on the footing reformed,” as the Confession puts it, there were local or “par- that every man there“ may have freedom to use his own con- ticular kirks," and these grew and spread and were provincially science to the day foresaid "-a freedom interpreted to let Knox united, till, in the last month of this memorable year, the first and his brethren preach publicly and incessantly. General Assembly of their representatives met, and became the Scotland, like its capital, was divided. Both parties lapsed “universal kirk,” or “the whole church convened.” It had from the freedom-of-conscience solution to which each when before it the plan for church government and maintenance, unsuccessful appealed; both betook themselves to arms; and drafted in August at the same time with the Confession, under the immediate future of the little kingdom was to be decided by the name of The Book of Discipline, and by the same framers. its external alliances. Knox now took a leading part in the Knox was even more clearly in this case the chief author, and he great transaction by which the friendship of France was ex- had by this time come to desire a much more rigid Presbyterian. changed for that of England. He had one serious difficulty. ism than he had sketched in his “Wholesome Counsel ” of 1555. Before Elizabeth's accession to the English crown, and after In planning it he seems to have used his acquaintance with the the queen mother in Scotland had disappointed his hopes, he “Ordonnances” of the Genevan Church under Calvin, and with had published a treatise against what he called “ The Monstrous the Forma ” of the German Church in London under John Regiment (regimen or government) of Women"; though the Laski (or A. Lasco). Starting with "truth” contained in despotism of that despotic age was scarcely appreciably worse Scripture as the church's foundation, and the Word and Sacra. when it happened to be in female hands. Elizabeth never for- ments as means of building it up, it provides ministers and elders gave him, but Cecil corresponded with the Scottish lords, and to be elected by the congregations, with a subordinate class of their answer in July 1559, in Knox's handwriting, assures readers,” and by their means sermons and prayers each England not only of their own constancy, but of “a charge and Sunday in every parish. In large towns these were to be commandment to our posterity, that the amity and league also on other days, with a weekly meeting for conference or between you and us, contracted and begun in Christ Jesus, may “prophesying.” The “plantation ” of new churches is to go on by them be kept inviolated for ever.” The league was promised everywhere under the guidance of higher church officers called by England, but the army of France was first in the field, and superintendents. All are to help their brethren, "for no man may towards the end of the year drove the forces of the “congre- be permitted to live as best pleaseth him within the Church of gation” from Leith into Edinburgh, and then out of it in a God.” And above all things the young and the ignorant are to be midnight rout to Stirling—"that dark and dolorous night,” as instructed, the former by a regular gradation or ladder of parish Knox long afterwards said, "wherein all ye, my lords, with or elementary schools, secondary schools and universities. shame and fear left this town,” and from which only a memorable / Even the poor were to be fed by the Church's hands; and behind 9) ( 99 ) KNOX, JOHN 881 its moral influence, and a discipline over both poor and rich, was his more fundamental principle, that " right religion took to be not only the coercive authority of the civil power but its neither original nor authority from worldly princes, but from money. Knox had from the first proclaimed that “the teinds the Eternal God alone.” All through this dialogue too, as in (tithes of yearly fruits) by God's law do not appertain of necessity another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven to the kirkmen." And this book now demands that out of to axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which them must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the Buchanan and he may have learned from their teacher Major, poor and schools.” But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim but which were not to be accepted till a later age. “ Think ye, also the property which had been really gifted to the Church by quoth she, 'that subjects, having power, may resist their princes and nobles-given by them indeed, as he held, without princes?' 'If their princes exceed their bounds, Madam, they any moral right and to the injury of the people, yet so as to may be resisted and even deposed,'” Knox replied. But these be Church patrimony. From all such property, whether land dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon the or the sheaves and fruits of land, and also from the personal general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that the Moray and Maitland of Lethington gradually withdrew their state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the minis- support. The court and parliament, guided by them, declined to ters, and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities, press the queen or to pass the Book of Discipline; and meantime but above all, the relief of the poor-not only of the absolutely the negotiations as to the queen's marriage with a Spanish, a “ indigent” but of your poor brethren, the labourers and French or an Austrian prince revealed the real difficulty and peril handworkers of the ground.” For the danger now was that of the situation. Her marriage to a great Catholic prince would some gentlemen were already cruel in exactions of their tenants, be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England, and perhaps "requiring of them whatever before they paid to the Church, to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally so that the papistical tyranny shall only be changed into the broken with the carl of Moray, “ committing you to your own tyranny of the lords or of the laird.” The danger foreseen alike wit, and to the conducting of those who better please you "; to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began to be and now, in one of his greatest sermons before the assembled fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom had already lords, he drove at the heart of the situation—the risk of a Catho- acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church lic marriage. The queen sent for him for the last time and burst property, declined to make any of it over for Knox's magnificent into passionate tears as she asked, “ What have you to do with scheme. It was, they said, “a devout imagination." Seven my marriage? Or what are you within this commonwealth?” years afterwards, however, when the contest with the Crown was “A subject born within the same," was the answer of the son ended, the kirk was expressly acknowledged as the only Church of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, while in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it over all who should attempt thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime, to be outsiders; while the preaching of the Evangel and the plant- even when, later on, he had “convocated the lieges to Edin- ing of congregations went on in all the accessible parts of Scot-burgh to meet a crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came. land. Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes were Mary had wearicd of her guiding statesmen, Moray and the assigned to the ministers out of the yearly teinds; and the Church more pliant Maitland; the Italian secretary David Rizzio, received--what it retained even down lo recent times-the ad- through whom she had corresponded with the pope, now more ministration both of the public schools and of the Poor Law of and more usurped their place; and a weak fancy for her handsome Scotland. But the victorious rush of 1560 was already some-cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565 what stayed, and the very ext year raised the question whether and swept the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley, the transfer of intolerance to the side of the new faith was as though a Catholic, thought it well to go to Knox's preaching; but wise as it had at first seemed to be successful. was so unfortunate as to hear a very long sermon, with allusions Mary Queen of Scots had been for a short time also queen of not only to“ babes and women as rulers, but to Ahab who did France, and in 1561 returned to her native land, a young widow not control his strong-minded wiſe. Mary and the lords still on whom the eyes of Europe were fixed. Knox's objections to in her council ordered Knox not to preach while she was in the “regiment of women ” were theoretical, and in the present Edinburgh, and he was absent or silent during the weeks in case he hoped at first for the best, favouring rather his queen's which the queen's growing distaste for her husband, and advance- marriage with the heir of the house of Hamilton. Mary had ment of Rizzio over the nobility remaining in Edinburgh, put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord James brought about the conspiracy by Darnley, Morton and Ruthven. Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps Knox does not seem to have known beforehand of Rizzio's have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the slaughter,” which had been intended to be a semi-judicial act; state of religion " begun the previous year; but mass was but soon after it he records that “that vile knave Davie was celebrated in the queen's household, and Lord James himself justly punished, for abusing of the commonwealth, and for other defended it with his sword against Protestant intrusion. Knox villainy which we list not to express.' T'he immediate effect how- publicly protested; and Moray, who probably understood and ever of what Knox thus approved was to bring his cause to its liked both parties, brought the preacher to the presence of his lowest ebb, and on the very day when Mary rode from Holy- queen. There is nothing revealed to us by “the broad clear rood to her army, he sat down and penned the prayer, “Lord light of that wonderful book,"\. The History of the Reformation Jesus, put an end to this my miserable life, for justice and truth in Scotland, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or inter- are not to be found among the sons of men!” He added a views, which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest short autobiographic fragment, whose mingled self-abasement stamp of truth, and do almost more justice to his opponent than and exultation are not unworthy of its striking title—“ John to himself. Mary took the aggressive and very soon raised the Knox, with deliberate mind, to his God.” During the rest of real question. “ Ye have taught the people to receive another the year he was hidden in Ayrshire or elsewhere, and throughout religion than their princes can allow; and how can that doctrine 1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court was in Edin- be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to obey their burgh. But he was influential at the December Assembly in princes?” The point was made keener by the fact that the capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for Knox's own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in Mary's infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assem- which an unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held bly's request, however, Knox undertook a long visit to England, kings to be appointed " for maintenance of the true religion,” where his two sons by his first wife were being educated, and were and suppression of the false; and the reformer now fell back on afterwards to be Fellows of St John's, Cambridge, the younger John Hill Burton (Hist. of Scotland, iii. 339). Mr Burton's view becoming a parish clergyman. It was thus during the reformer's (differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the dialogues absence that the murder of Darnley, the abduction and sub- --the earlier of them at least-must have been spoken in the French sequent marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and the im- tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year. prisonment in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled themselves >> 66 882 KNOX, P. C. before the eyes of Scotland. Knox returned in time to guide | dogmatic; and his transformation in middle life, while it im- the Assembly which sat on the 25th of June 1567 in dealing mensely enriched his sympathies as well as his energies, left him with this unparalleled crisis, and to wind up the revolution | unable to put himself in the place of those who retained the views by preaching at Stirling on the 9th of July 1567, after Mary's which he had himself held. All his training too, university, abdication, at the coronation of the infant king. priestly and in foreign parts, tended to make him logical over- His main work was now really done; for the parliament of much. But this was mitigated by a strong sense of humour 1567 made Moray regent, and Knox was only too glad to have (not always sarcastic, though sometimes savagely so), and by his old friend back in power, though they seem to have differed tenderness, best seen in his epistolary friendships with women; on the question whether the queen should be allowed to pass and it was quite overborne by an instinct and passion for great into retirement without trial for her husband's death, as they practical affairs. Hence it was that Knox as a statesman su had differed all along on the question of tolerating her private often struck successfully at the centre of the complex motives religion. Knox's victory had not come too early, for his physical of his time, leaving it to later critics to reconcile his theories of strength soon began to fail. But Mary's escape in 1568 resulted action. But hence too he more than once took doubtful short- only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and cuts to some of his most important ends; giving the ministry death in England. In Scotland the regent's assassination in within the new Church more power over laymen than Protestant 1570 opened a miserable civil war, but it made no permanent principles would suggest, and binding the masses outside who change. The massacre of St Bartholomew rather united were not members of it, equally with their countrym:en who were, English and Scottish Protestantism; and Knox in St Giles' to join in its worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and contribute pulpit, challenging the French ambassador to report his words, to its support. And hence also his style (which contemporaries denounced God's vengeance on the crowned murderer and his called anglicized and modern), though it occasionally rises into posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh liturgical beauty, and often flashes into vivid historical por- Castle, held by Mary's friends, and the town, held for her son, traiture, is generally kept close to the harsh necessities of the both parties agreed that the reformer, who had already had a few years in which he had to work for the future. That work stroke of paralysis, should remove to St Andrews. While there was indeed chiefly done by the living voice; and in speaking, he wrote his will, and published his last book, in the preface to this “one man,” as Elizabeth's very critical ambassador wrote which he says, “I heartily take my.good-night of the faithful from Edinburgh, was “able in one hour to put more life in us of both realms ... for as the world is weary of me, so am I of than five hundred trumpets continually blustering in our ears." it.” And when he now merely signs his name, it is “ John But even his eloquence was constraining and constructivema Knox, with my dead hand and glad heart.” In the autumn of personal call for immediate and universal co-operation; and that 1572 he returned to Edinburgh to die, probably in the picturesque personal influence survives to this day in the institutions of his house in the “throat of the Bow,” which for generations has people, and perhaps still more in their character. His country. been called by his name. With him were his wife and three men indeed have always believed that to Knox more than to any young daughters; for though he had lost Margaret Bowes at the other man Scotland owes her political and religious individuality. close of his year of triumph 1560, he had four years after married And since his 19th century biography by Dr Thomas McCrie, Margaret Stewart, a daughter of his friend Lord Ochiltree. or at least since his recognition in the following generation by She was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal Thomas Carlyle, the same view has taken its place in literature. house; yet, as his Catholic biographer put it, “ by sorcery and witchcraft he did so allure that poor gentlewoman that she could and letters are collected into the great edition in six volumes of BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Knox's books, pamphlets, public documents not live without him." But lords, ladies and burghers also Knox's Works, by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1846-1864), with crowded around his bed, and his colleague and his servant | introductions, appendices and notes. of his books the chief are have severally transmitted to us the words in which his weakness the following: i.-The History of the Reformation in Scotland, daily strove with pain, rising on the day before his death into a by Knox as a party manifesto in 1560, it was continued and revised incorporating the Confession and the Book of Discipline. Begun solemn exultation-yet characteristically, not so much on his by himself in 1566 as so to form four books, with a fifth book appar. own account as for“ the troubled Church of God.” He died on ently written after his death from materials left by him. It was the 24th of November 1572, and at his funeral in St Giles' partly printed in London in 1986 by Vautrollier, but was suppressed Churchyard the new Regent Morton, speaking under the hostile by authority and published by David Buchanan, with a Life, in 1664. 2.-On Predestination: an Answer to an Anabaptist (London, guns of the castle, expressed the first surprise of those around as 1591). 3.-On Prayer (1554). 4-On Affliction (1556). 5.- Epistles, they looked back on that stormy life, that one who had “neither and Admonition, both to English Brethren in 1554. 6.- The Firsi flattered nor feared any flesh ” had now “ended his days in Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women peace and honour.' Knox himself had a short time before put (1558), 1,7: An Answer to a Scottish Jesuit (1572). Knox's life is more or less touched upon by all the Scottish in writing a larger claim for the historic future, “What I have histories and Church histories which include his period, as well as been to my country, though this unthankful age will not know, in the mass of literature as to Queen Mary: Dr Laing's edition of yet the ages to come will be compelled to bear witness to the the Works contains important biographical material. But among the many express biographies two especially should be consulted- those by Thomas McČrie (Edinburgh, 1811; revised and enlarged in Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body; he had a 1813, the later editions containing valuable notes by the author); powerful face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow, and by P. Hume Brown (Edinburgh, 1895). John Knox and the high cheek-bones, and a long black beard which latterly turned Reformation, by Andrew Lang (London, 1905), is not so much a grey. This description, taken from a letter in 1579 by his biography as a collection of materials, bearing upon many parts of the life, but nearly all on the unfavourable side. (A. T. I.) junior contemporary Sir Peter Young, is very like Beza's fine engraving of him in the Icones-an engraving probably founded KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853- ), American lawyer on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza along with and political leader, was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania, the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by on the 4th of May 1853. He graduated from Mount Union Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar years in the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered perma- in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he continued in private nently from gravel and dyspepsia, and he confesses that his practice, with thc exception of two years' service (1876-1877) nature was for the most part oppressed with melancholy.” | as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a large Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole minister of Edinburgh practice as a corporation lawyer. In April 1901 he became studying for two sermons on Sunday and three during the week, attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President besides having innumerable cares of churches at home and abroad. McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most dis- President Roosevelt until June 1904, when he was appointed interested in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen. by Governor Pennypacker of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpired But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and I term of Matthew S. Quay in the United States Senate; in 1905 he ." truth.” 66 KNOXVILLE-KNUCKLEBONES 883 was re-elected to the Senate for the full term. In March 1909 | authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as he became secretary of state in the cabinet of President Taft. Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between KNOXVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, the Confederates of the East and West through this region. Tennessee, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of As the Confederates had erected only slight defences for the pro- Nashville, and about 190 m. S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the tection of the city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily right bank of the Tennessee river, 4 m. below the point where gained possession on the 2nd of September 1863. Fortifications it is formed by the junction of the French Broad and Holston were immediately begun for its defence, and on the 4th of Novem. Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1890), 22,535; (1900), 32,637, of ber, Bragg, thinking his position at Chattanooga impregnable whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (1910 cen- against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker, despatched a force sus), 36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside. Longstreet of the Louisville & Nashville and the Southern railways, by the arrived in the vicinity on the 16th of November, and on the Knoxville & Bristol railway (Morristown to Knoxville, 58 m.), following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous by the short Knoxville & Augusta railroad (Knoxville to assaults until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack Walland, 26 m.), and by passenger and freight steamboat lines was made on Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable for the greater force under Sherman, Longstreet withdrew on the night of the part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge crosses 4th of December. The Confederate losses during the siege were ihe Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated 182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or missing; the Union at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured or missing. Smoky Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville of the healthiest cities in the United States. There are several (incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898. - beautiful parks, of which Chilhowie and Fountain City are the See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in Historic Towns of the largest, and among the public buildings are a city-hall, Federal Southern States, edited by L: P. Powell (New York, 1900); and building, court-house, the Knoxville general hospital, the W. Rule, G. F. Mellen and J. Wooldridge, Standard History of Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung industrial Knoxville (Chicago, 1900). home, a Young Men's Christian Association building and the KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for “ bone," Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier found in Ger. Knochen), the joint of a finger, which, when the stands on the site of the blockhouse first built there. Knox- hand is shut, is brought into prominence. In mechanical use ville is the seat of Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875) the word is applied to the round projecting part of a hinge for negroes, East Tennessee institute, a secondary school for through which the pin is run, and in ship-building to an acute girls, the Baker-Himel school for boys, Tennessee Medical angle on some of the timbers. A“ knuckle-duster," said to have College (1889), two commercial schools and the university of originally come from the criminal slang of the United States, Tennessee. The last, a state co-educational institution, was is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the hand across the chartered as Blount College in 1794 and as East Tennessee knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting a brutal College in 1807, but not opened until 1820--the present name was blow. adopted in 1879. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors, 755 KNUCKLEBONES (HUCKLEBONES, DIBS, JACKSTONES, CHUCK- students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000 STONES, FIVE-STONES), a game of very ancient origin, played volumes With the university is combined the state college with five small objects, originally the knucklebones of a sheep, of agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for which are thrown up and caught in various ways. Modern teachers is maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State knucklebones" consist of six points, or knobs, proceeding insane asylum, state asylums for the deaf and dumb (for both from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is he white and negro), and a national cemetery in which more than who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws, 3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an important commercial which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail. and industrial centre and does a large jobbing business. It is The simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the jack, and near hardwood forests and is an important market for hardwood picking up one or more from the table while it is in the air; mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000 and so on until all five stones have been picked up. Another tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous consists in tossing up first one stone, then two, then three and Tennessee marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building so on, and catching them on the back of the hand. Different and pottery clays are found near Knoxville. Among the city's throws have received distinctive names, such as riding the industrial establishments are flour and grist mills, cotton and elephant,' peas in the pod," and " horses in the stable.” woollen mills, furniture, desk, office supplies and sash, door, and The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of blind factories, meat-packing establishments, clothing factories, dice, of which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless iron, steel and boiler works, foundries and machine shops, stove Asiatic. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of works and brick and cement works. The value of the factory draughts and knucklebones (astragaloi) to Palamedes, who product increased from $6,201,840 in 1900 to $12,432,880 taught them to his Greek countrymen during the Trojan War. in 1905, or 100.5 %, in 1905 the value of the flour and grist Both the Iliad and the Odyssey contain allusions to games simi- mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the lar in character to knucklebones, and the Palamedes tradition, as Southern railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knox-flattering to the national pride, was generally accepted through- ville was settled in 1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North out Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and plastic Carolina pioneer, and was first known as “White's Fort”; it evidences. Thus Pausanias (Corinth xx.) mentions a temple was laid out as a town in 1791, and named in honour of General of Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington's cabinet. invented game. According to a still more ancient tradition, In 1791 the Knoxville Gazelte, the first newspaper in Tennessee Zeus, perceiving that Ganymede longed for his playmates upon (the early issue, printed at Rogersville) began publication. From Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a companion and golden dibs 1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the “ Territory South- with which to play, and even condescended sometimes to join of the Ohio," and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however, that both of the state. In 1796 the convention which framed the constitu- Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin. tion of the new state of Tennessee met here, and here later in Plato (Phaedrus) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor, the same year the first state legislature was convened. Knox. while Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during a period of ville was chartered as a city in 1815. In its early years it was famine in the days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed several times attacked by the Indians, but was never captured. almost all other games except chess. There were two methods of During the Civil War there was considerable Union sentiment playing in ancient times. The first, and probably thc primitive in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal | method, consisted in tossing up and catching the bones on the 66 06 1966 " 886 KOENIG-KOHLHASE ) KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD (1774-1851), the north side the defile commences at 41 m. S.W. of Fort German palaeontologist, was born at Brunswick in 1774, and was Mackeson, whence it is about 12 or 13 m. to the Kohat educated at Göttingen. In 1807 he became assistant keeper, entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to i m. in width, and in 1813 he was appointed keeper, of the department of natural and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is history in the British Museum, and afterwards of geology and inhabited by the Adam Khel Afridis, and nearly all British mineralogy, retaining the post until the close of his life. He relations with that tribe have been concerned with this pass, described many fossils in the British Museum in a classic work which is the only connexion between two British districts entitled Icones fossilium sectiles (1820–1825). He died in London without crossing and recrossing the Indus (see Afridi). It is on the 6th of September 1851. now traversed by a cart-road. KOESFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of KOHISTAN, a tract of country on the Peshawar border of Westphalia, on the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund. the North-West Frontier Province of India. Kohistan means Pop. (1905), 8449. It has three Roman Catholic churches, one the “country of the hills" and corresponds to the English word of which-the Gymnasial Kirche-is used by the Protestant highlands; but it is specially applied to a district, which is very community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri Castle, formerly little known, to the south and west of Chilas, between the Kagan the residence of the bishops of Münster, and also the castle valley and the river Indus. It comprises an area of over of Varlar, the residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar. 1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river Indus, The leading industries include the making of linen goods and on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Chor machinery. Glen and Allai. It consists roughly of two main valleys running KOHAT, a town and district of British India, in the Peshawar east and west, and separated from each other by a mountain division of the North-West Frontier Province. The town is range over 16,000 ft. high. Like the mountains of Chilas, those 37 m. south of Peshawar by the Kohat Pass, along which a in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky wastes from their crests military road was opened in 1901. The population in 1901 downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills are covered with was 30,762, including 12,670 in the cantonment, which is garri- fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 ft., and in the valleys, soned by artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah cam- especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under cultivation. paign of 1897-98 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pathan race, and Lockhart's expedition against the Orakzais and Afridis. It is appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built, the military base for the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British for the northern frontier of the same tribe, and it lies in the heart districts, and have never given the government much trouble. of the Pathan country. There is little doubt that the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs of The DISTRICT OF Kohat has an area of 2973 sq. m. It consists Kafiristan, the remnants of old races driven by Mahommedan chiefly of a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus, invasions from the valleys and plains into the higher mountains. deeply scored with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few The majority have been converted to Islam within the last 200 scattered patches of cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak years. The total population is about 16,000. country especially comprises a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north fall, however, into two principal groups, to the north and south of of Kabul in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The the Teri Toi river. The Miranzai valley, in the extreme west, Kohistani Tajiks proved to be the most powerful and the best appears by comparison a rich and fertile tract. In its small but organized clans that opposed the British occupation of Kabul carefully tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and many orchard trees in 1879-80. Part of their country is highly cultivated, abound- flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild olive, mimosa and ing in fruit, and includes many important villages. It is here other thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon the upper that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered slopes. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form favourite by the amir's officials, which may prove to be the great city pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Teri Toi, rising on the of Alexander's founding, known to be to the north of Kabul, eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus, but which had hitherto escaped identification. which it joins 12 m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barren main portions. The drainage from the northern half flows south- and hilly country on the east border of Karachi district, ward into the Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel Sind. stream of the Kohat Toi. That of the southern tract falls north- KOHL. (1) The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest wards also into the Teri Toi, and southwards towards the Kurram times in the East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to and the Indus. The frontier mountains, continuations of the Safed increase the lustre of the eyes. It is usually composed of finely Koh system, attain in places a considerable elevation, the two powdered antimony, but smoke black obtained from burnt principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond the British almond-shells or frankincense is also used. The Arabic word frontier, being 8260 and 7940 ft. above the sea respectively. koủl, from which has been derived “ alcohol,” is derived from The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge between the kaḥala, to stain. (2)“ Kohl ” or kohl-rabi" (cole-rape, from boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of less Lat. caulis, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (q.v.), with a turnip- than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills shaped top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle. crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both KOHLHASE, HANS, a German historical figure about whose banks of that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a personality some controversy exists. He is chiefly known as mile, with a thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft. the hero of Heinrich von Kleist's novel, Michael Kohlhaas. He in height, almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may was a merchant, and not, as some have supposed, a horsedealer, probably rank as one of the largest veins of its kind in the world. and he lived at Kölln in Brandenburg. In October 1532, so the The most extensive exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at Leipzig, he was south bank of the Teri Toi. The annual output is about 16,000 attacked and his horses were taken from him by the servants of tons, yielding a revenue of £40,000. Petroleum springs exude a Saxon nobleman, one Günter von Zaschwitz. In consequence from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and sulphur abounds of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the in the northern range. In 1901 the population was 217,865, fair and on his return he refused to pay the small sum which showing an increase of 11 % in the decade. The frontier tribes Zaschwitz demanded as a condition of returning the horses. on the Kohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and instead Kohlhase asked for a substantial amount of money as Turis. All these are described under their separate names. A compensation for his loss, and failing to secure this he invoked railway runs from Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thal, and the the aid of his sovereign, the elector of Brandenburg. Finding river Indus has been bridged at Kushalgarh. however that it was impossible to recover his horses, he paid KOHAT PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier Zaschwitz the sum required for them, but reserved to himself Province of India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain redress C KOKOMO-KOLAR 887 in the courts of law, the merchant, in' a Fehdebrief, threw down | Pondoland and the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town a challenge, not only to his aggressor, but to the whole of Saxony. | is named after the Griqua chief Adam Kok, who founded it in Acts of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an 1869. In 1879 it came into the possession of Cape Colony and attempt to settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John was granted municipal government in 1893. It is the residence Frederick I., set a price upon the head of the angry merchant. of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See KAFFRARIA and Kohlhase now sought revenge in earnest. Gathering around him GRIQUÀLAND.) ; a band of criminals and of desperadoes he spread terror throughout KOLA, à peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the the whole of Saxony; travellers were robbed, villages were burned Arctic Ocean on the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms and towns were plundered. For some time the authorities were part of the region of Lapland and belongs administratively to practically powerless to stop these outrages, but in March 1540 the government of Archangel. The Arctic coast, known as the Kohlhase and his principal associate, Georg Nagelschmidt, were Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of Norman), is 260 m. seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken on the long, and being subject to the influence of the North Atlantic wheel in Berlin. drift, is free from ice all the year round. It is a rocky coast, The life and rate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas. built of granite, and rising to 650 ft., and is broken by several See Burkhardt, Der historische Hans Kohlhase und H. von Kleists excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian govern. Michael Kohlhaas (Leipzig, 1864). ment founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alexandrovsk. KOKOMO, a city and the county-seat of Howard county, From May to August a productive fishery is carried on along this Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indiana- coast. Inland the peninsula rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft. in polis. Pop. (1890), 8261; (1900), 10,669 of whom 499 were general elevation, and crossed by several ranges of low moun- foreign-born and 359 negroes; (1910 census), 17,010. It is tains, which go up to over 3000 ft. in altitude. The lower slopes served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Pittsburg Cincinnati of these mountains are clothed with forest up to 1300 ft., and Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis & Western railways, in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of very con- and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of siderable extent, e.g. Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur, Nuorti- trade in agricultural products, and has ious manufactures, järvi, Guolle-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue including flint, plate and opalescent glass, &c. The total value streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voronya, of the factory product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to Yovkyok or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and $3,651,105 in 1905, or 77.1 %; and in 1905 the glass product the Varsuga and Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the was valued at $864,567, or 23.7 % of the total. Kokomo was peninsula is estimated at 50,000 sq. m. settled about 1840 and became a city (under a state law) See A. O. Kihlmann and Palmén, Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel in 1865. Kola (1887-1892) (Helsingfors); A. O. Kihlmann, Bericht einer natur. KOKO-NOR (or KUKU-Nor) (Tsing-hai of the Chinese, and wissenschaftlichen Reise durch Russisch-Lappland (Helsingfors, 1890); Tsongombo of the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at and W. Ramsay, Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel Kola (Helsingfors, 1899). an altitude of 9975 ft., in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from the W. frontier of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, in 100° E. KOLABA (or COLABA), a district of British India, in the and 37° N. It lies amongst the eastern ranges of the Kuen-lun, southern division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901), having the Nan-shan Mountains to the north, and the southern 605,566, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. The head. Kokonor range (10,000 ft.) on the south. It measures 66 m. by quarters are at Alibagh. Lying between the Western Ghats 40 m., and contains half a dozen islands, on one of which is a and the sea, Kolaba district abounds in hills, some being spurs Buddhist (i.e. Lamaist) monastery, to which pilgrims resort. running at right angles to the main range, while others are The water is salt, though an abundance of fish live in it, and it isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of often remains frozen for three months together in winter. The about 20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed surface is at times subject to considerable variations of level. by a belt of coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt The lake is entered on the west by the river Buhain-gol. The lies a stretch of flat country devoted to rice cultivation. In nomads who dwell round its shores are Tanguts. many places along the banks of the salt-water creeks there are KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH VON (1818-1893), extensive tracts of salt marshland, some of them reclaimed, Russian mineralogist and major-general in the Russian army, some still subject to tidal inundation, and others set apart for was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk, on the 5th of December the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a few 1818 (0.s.). He was educated at the military school of mines small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was selected to Nagothna on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the accompany R. I. Murchison and De Verneuil, and afterwards Bankot creek in the south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming De Keyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire. highways for a brisk trade in rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish. Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of Near the coast especially, the district is well supplied with mineralogy and mining, and was appointed director of the reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two remarkable peaks- Institute of Mines. In 1865 he became director of the Imperial Raigarh, where Sivaji built his capital, and Miradongar. There Mineralogical Society of St Petersburg. He contributed numer- are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value of which ous papers on euclase, zircon, epidote, orthite, monazite and other is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg and Vienna academies Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication of science, to Poggendorf's Annalen, Leonhard and Brown's with Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its Jahrbuch, &c. He also issued as separate works Materialen zur nearness to that city, the district has suffered severely from Mineralogie Russlanas (10 vols., 1853–1891), and Vorlesungen plague. Kolaba district takes its name from a little island off über Mineralogie (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the Alibagh, which was one of the strongholds of Angria, the Mah- 3rd of January 1893 (0.s.) ratta pirate of the 18th century. The same island has given KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, the capital of Griqualand its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island running East, 236 m. by rail S.W. of Durban, 110 m. N. by W. of Port south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba Shepstone, and 150 m. N. of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop. Point are the terminus of the Bombay & Baroda railway, (1904), 2903, of whom a third were Griquas. The town is built barracks for a European regiment, lunatic asylum and on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is 4270 ſt. above the observatory. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297 ft. An KOLAR, a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore. excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town The town is 43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,210. is well laid out, and possesses several handsome public buildings. Although of ancient foundation, it has been almost completely It is the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a con- modernized. Industries include the weaving of blankets and siderable trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutoland, I the breeding of turkeys for export. sea. 888 KOLBE-KOLDING The DISTRICT OF KOLAR has an area of 3180 sq. m. It (Rathaus), erected after the plans of Ernst F. Zwirner; and the occupies the portion of the Mysore table-land immediately citadel. Kolberg also possesses four other churches, a theatre, bordering the Eastern Ghats. The principal watershed lies a gymnasium, a school of navigation, and an exchange. Its in the north - west, around the hill of Nandidrug (4810 ft.), bathing establishments are largely frequented and attract a from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole considerable number of summer visitors. It has a harbour at country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers the mouth of the Persante, where there is a lighthouse. Woollen are the Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini, cloth, machinery and spirits are manufactured; there is an and the Papagani, which are industriously utilized for irrigation extensive salt-mine in the neighbouring Zillenberg; the salmon by means of anicuts and tanks. The rocks of the district are and lamprey fisheries are important; and a fair amount of mostly syenite or granite, with a small admixture of mica and commercial activity is maintained. In 1903 a monument was feldspar. The soil in the valleys consists of a fertile loam; and erected to the memory of Gneisenau and the patriot, Joachim in the higher levels sand and gravel are found. The hills are Christian Nettelbeck (1738-1824), through whose efforts the covered with scrub, jungle and brushwood. In 1901 the town was saved from the French in 1806–7. population was 723,600, showing an increase of 22 % in the Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the oldest places decade. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of of Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat of a bishop, the Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the and although it soon lost this distinction it obtained municipal Kolar Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region privileges in 1255. From about 1276 it ranked as the most began in 1876, and the industry is now settled on a secure important place in the episcopal principality of Kamin, and basis. Here are situated the mines of the Mysore, Champion from 1284 it was a member of the Hanseatic League. During Reef, Ooregum, and Nandidrug companies. To the end of the Thirty Years' War it was captured by the Swedes in 1631, 1904 the total value of gold produced was 21 millions sterling, passing by the treaty of Westphalia to the elector of Branden- and there had been paid in dividends 9 millions, and in royalty burg, Frederick William I., who strengthened its fortifications. to the Mysore state one million. The municipality called the The town was a centre of conflict during the Seven Years' War. Kolar Gold Fields had in 1901 a population of 38,204; it has In 1758 and again in 1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg in suffered severely from plague. Electricity from the falls of vain, but in 1762 they succeeded in capturing it. Soon restored the Cauvery (93 m. distant) is utilized as the motive power to Brandenburg, it was vigorously attacked by the French in in the mines. Sugar manufacture and silk and cotton weaving 1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long resistance of its are the other principal industries in the district. The chief inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of the town were razed, historical interest of modern times centres round the hill fort and it has since become a fashionable watering-place, receiving of Nandidrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791, after annually nearly 15,000 visitors. a bombardment of 21 days. See Riemann, Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg (Kolberg, 1873); KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818-1884), Stoewer, Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg (Kolberg, 1897); Schönlein, German chemist, was born on the 27th of September 1818 at Geschichte der Belagerungen Kolbergs in den Jahren 1758, 1700, 1701 Elliehausen, near Göttingen, where in 1838 he began to study und 1807 (Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, Führer durch Bad Kolberg (Kolberg, 1899). chemistry under F. Wöhler. In 1842 he became assistant to R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ (1790–1838), Hungarian poet, critic and Playfair at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at orator, was born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on the 8th of Brunswick in editing the Dictionary of Chemistry started by August 1790. In his fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of Liebig, but in the latter year he went to Marburg as successor Kazinczy and zealously adopted his linguistic reforms. In 1809 to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In 1865 he was called to Kölcsey went to Pest and became a notary to the royal board.” Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that city on the Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in Szatmár county he 25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the devoted his time to aesthetical study, poetry, criticism, and the great development of chemical theory that occurred about defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kölcsey's early metrical the middle of the 19th century, especially in regard to the con- pieces contributed to the Transylvanian Museum did not attract stitution of organic compounds, which he viewed as derivatives much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of Csokonai, Kis, of inorganic ones, formed from the latter-in some cases directly and especially Berzsenyi, published in 1817, rendered him very - by simple processes of substitution. Unable to accept unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separate Berzelius's doctrine of the unalterability of organic radicals, poems of great beauty in the Aurora, Hebe, Aspasia, and other he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae magazines of polite literature. He joined Paul Szemere in a new under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland's periodical, styled Élet és literatura (“ Life and Literature"), conception of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus which appeared from 1826 to 1829, in 4 vols., and gained for contributed in an important degree to the subsequent establish- Kölcsey the highest reputation as a critical writer. From 1832 ment of the structure theory. Kolbe was a very successful to 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his extreme liberal teacher, a ready and vigorous writer, and a brilliant experi- views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him famous as a mentalist whose work revealed the nature of many compounds parliamentary leader. Elected on the 17th of November 1830 the composition of which had not previously been understood. a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he took He published a Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie in 1854, smaller part in its first grand meeting; in 1832, he delivered his textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and famous oration on Kazinczy, and in 1836 that on his former Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Theoretischen Chemie in 1881. opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron Wesselényi From 1870 he was editor of the Journal für praktische Chemie, was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treason, in which many trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists Kölcsey eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence; and their doctrines appeared from his pen. and he died about a week afterwards (August 24) from internal KOLBERG (or COLBERG), a town of Germany, and seaport inflammation. His collected works, in 6 vols., were published of the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the right bank of at Pest, 1840-1848, and his journal of the diet of 1832-1836 the Persante, which falls into the Baltic about a mile below appeared in 1848. A monument erected to the memory of the town, and at the junction of the railway lines to Belgard Kölcsey was unveiled at Szatmár-Németi on the 25th of and Gollnow. Pop. (1905), 22,804. It has a handsome market. September 1864. place with a statue of Frederick William III.; and there are See G. Steinacker, Ungarische Lyriker (Leipzig, and Pest, 1874); extensive suburbs, of which the most important is Münde. F. Toldy, Magyar Költök élete (2 vols., Pest, 1871); J. Ferenczy and The principal buildings are the huge red-brick church of St J. Danielik, Magyar Irók (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858). Mary, with five aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in KOLDING, a town of Denmark in the aml (county) of Vejle, on Pomerania, dating from the 14th century; the council-house the east coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the 66 KOLGUEV–KÖLLIKER 889 Little Belt, 9 m. N. of the German frontfer. Pop. (1901), 12,516. The town of KOLHAPUR, or KẠRVIR, is the terminus of a branch It is on the Eastern railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout of the Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line. has a depth of over 20 ft. A little to the north-west is the Fop. (1901), 54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern splendid remnant of the royal castle Koldinghuus, formerly public buildings, the town has many evidences of antiquity. called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by Duke Abel in Originally it appears to have been an important religious centre, 1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was built and numerous Buddhist remains have been discovered in the by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal neighbourhood. statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an anti- KOLIN, or Neu-KOLIN (also Kollin; Czech, Nový Kolin), a quarian and historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding town of Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. occurs in the roth century, but its earliest known town-rights (1900), 15,025, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and date from 1321. In 1644 it was the scene of a Danish victory amongst its noteworthy buildings may be specially mentioned over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of April 1849 of a Danish the beautiful early Gothic church of St Bartholomew, erected defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A comprehensive during the latter half of the 14th century. The industries of the view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the mainland, town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing, and the manu- is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8} m. facture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vege- preserve the Danish language in Schleswig. tables. Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here KOLGUEV, KOLGUEFF or KALGUYEV, an island off the north on the 18th of June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick west of Russia in Europe, belonging to the government of Arch- the Great were defeated by the Austrians under Daun (see SEVEN angel. It lies about 50 m. from the nearest point of the mainland, YEARS' WAR). The result was the raising of the siege of Prague and is of roughly oval form, 54 m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W. and the evacuation of Bohemia by the Prussians. Kolin was and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies in a shallow sea, and is colonized in the 13th century by German settlers and made a quite low, the highest point being 250 ft. above the sea. Peat- royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the surface; there the German inhabitants who refused to accept“ the four articles are several considerable streams and a large number of small lakes, were expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was The island is of recent geological formation; it consists almost besieged by Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon con- wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the ditions at the close of the year. north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin, of granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other possibly the name is derived from the Turki kuleh a slave; and, Arctic animals, geese, swans, &c., provide means of livelihood for according to one theory, this name has been passed on to the a few Samoyed hunters. familiar word “cooly" for an agricultural labourer. They form KOLHAPUR, a native state of India, within the Deccan the main part of the inferior agricultural population of Gujarat, division of Bombay. It is the fourth in importance of the Mah- where they were formerly notorious as robbers; but they also ratta principalities, the other three being Baroda, Gwalior and extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901 the number Indore; and it is the principal state under the political control of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 31 millions; but this of the government of Bombay. Together with its jagirs or total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901 the popula-northern India. tion was 910,011. The estimated revenue is £300,000. Kolhapur KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905), Swiss stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the anatomist and physiologist, was born at Zürich on the 6th of plain of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the July 1817. His father and his mother were both Zürich people, Ghats lie wild and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing and he in due time married a lady from Aargau, so that Switzer- little but timber, and till recently covered with rich forests. land can claim him as wholly her own, though he lived the The centre of the state is crossed by several lines of low hills run- greater part of his life in Germany. His early education was ning at right angles from the main range. In the east the carried on in Zürich, and he entered the university there in 1836. country becomes more open and presents the unpicturesque uni- After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn, formity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken only by an and later to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient Mah- of Johannes Müller and of F. G. J. Henle. He graduated in philo- ratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna.sophy at Zürich in 1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1842. The rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons The first academic post which he held was that of prosector of burthen, are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is anatomy under Henle; but his tenure of this office was brief, for found in the hills, and smelting was formerly carried on to a con- in 1844 his native city called him back to its university to occupy siderable extent; but now the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete a chair as professor extraordinary of physiology and comparative with that imported from Europe. There are several good stone anatomy. His stay here too, however, was brief, for in 1847 the quarries. The principal agricultural products are rice, millets, university of Würzburg, attracted by his rising fame, offered him sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and vegetables. the post of professor of physiology and of microscopical and The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and at younger son of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta Würzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting power. The prevalence of piracy caused the British government him to leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where to send expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in he died on the 2nd of November 1905. the early years of the 19th century the misgovernment of the Kölliker's name will ever be associated with that of the tool chief compelled the British to resort to military operations, and with which during his long life he so.assiduously and successfully ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the state. In worked, the microscope. The time at which he began his studies recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed, on coincided with that of the revival of the microscopic investigation the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatra- of living beings. Two centuries earlier the great Italian Mal- pati, G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in pighi had started, and with his own hand had carried far the 1874, and ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption.study by the help of the microscope of the minute structure of The principal institutions are the Rajaram college, the high animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of knowledge, school, a technical school, an agricultural school, and training-though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds for- schools for both masters and mistresses. The state railway from ward until the second quarter of the 19th century, when the Miraj junction to Kolhapur town is worked by the Southern improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and Mahratta company. In recent years the state has suffered from the promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden both famine and plague. of the " cell theory on the other, inaugurated a new era of 890 KOLLONTAJ microscopic investigation. Into this new learning Kölliker threw to be put forward, and which had such a great influence on the himself with all the zeal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his progress of physiology. By the above discovery Kölliker com- great teacher Henle, whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went pleted that basis. far at the time to give the new learning a right direction and to Even to enumerate, certainly to dwell on, all his contributions counteract the somewhat fantastic views which, under the name to histology would be impossible here: smooth muscle, striated of the cell theory, were tending to be prominent. Henle's muscle, skin, bone, teeth, blood vessels and viscera were all labours were for the most part limited to the microscopic in- investigated by him; and he touched none of them without vestigation of the minute structure of the tissues of man and of striking out some new truths. The results at which he arrived the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with were recorded partly in separate memoirs, partly in his great the view of illustrating the former. But Kölliker had another textbook on microscopical anatomy, which first saw the light teacher besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Müller, whose in 1850, and by which he advanced histology no less than by active mind was sweeping over the whole animal kingdom, his own researches. In the case of almost every tissue our striving to pierce the secrets of the structure of living creatures present knowledge contains something great or small' which of all sorts, and keeping steadily in view the wide biological we owe to Kölliker; but it is on the nervous system that his problems of function and of origin, which the facts of structure name is written in largest letters. So early as 1845, while still might serve to solve. We may probably trace to the influence at Zürich, he supplied what was as yet still lacking, the clear of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of the proof that nerve-fibres are continuous with nerve-cells, and so times, the threefold character of Kölliker's long-continued and furnished the absolutely necessary basis for all sound specula- varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the tions as to the actions of the central nervous system. From that microscope was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be time onward he continually laboured, and always fruitfully, solved by means of the instrument belonged now to one branch at the histology of the nervous system, and more especially at the of biology, now to another. difficult problems presented by the intricate patterns in which At Zürich, and afterwards at Würzburg, the title of the chair fibres and cells are woven together in the brain and spinal cord. which he held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative In his old age, at a time when he had fully earned the right to anatomy, and very many of the numerous memoirs which he fold his arms, and to rest and be thankful, he still enriched neuro- published, including the very first paper which he wrote, and logical science with results of the highest value. From his early which appeared in. 1841 before he graduated, “ On the Nature of days a master of method, he saw at a glance the value of the new the so-called Seminal Animalcules,” were directerl towards Golgi method for the investigation of the central nervous system, elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure of animals and, to the great benefit of science, took up once more in his old of the most varied kinds—that is to say, were zoological in char- age, with the aid of a new means, the studies for which he had acter. Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae done so much in his youth. It may truly be said that much of and allied creatures. His activity in this direction led him to that exact knowledge of the inner structure of the brain, which make zoological excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to is rendering possible new and faithful conceptions of its working, the coasts of Scotland, as well as to undertake, conjointly with came from his hands. his friend C. T. E. von Siebold, the editorship of the Zeitschrift für Lastly, Kölliker was in his earlier years professor of physiology Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, which, founded in 1848, continued as well as of anatomy; and not only did his histological labours under his hands to be one of the most important zoological almost always carry physiological lessons, but he also enriched periodicals. physiology with the results of direct researches of an experimental At the time when Kölliker was beginning his career the in- kind, notably those on curare and some other poisons. In fact, fluence of Karl Ernst von Baer's embryological teaching was we have to go back to the science of centuries ago to tind a man already being widely felt, men were learning to recognize of science of so many-sided an activity as he. His life constituted the importance to morphological and zoological studies of in a certain sense a protest against that specialized differentiation a knowledge of the development of animals; and Kölliker which, however much it may under certain aspects be regretted, plunged with enthusiasm into the relatively new line of inquiry. seems to be one of the necessities of modern development. In His earlier efforts were directed to the invertebrata, and his Johannes Müller's days no one thought of parting anatomy and memoir on the development of cephalopods, which appeared in physiology; nowadays no one thinks of joining them together. 1844, is a classical work; but he soon passed on to the vertebrata, Kölliker did in his work join them together, and indeed said and studied not only the amphibian embryo and the chick, but himself that he thought they ought never to be kept apart. also the mammalian embryo. He was among the first, if not the Naturally a man of so much accomplishment was not left with- very first, to introduce into this branch of biological inquiry the out honours. Formerly known simply as Kölliker, the title newer microscopic technique--the methods of hardening, section- “ von " was added to his name. He was made a member of the cutting and staining. By doing so, not only was he enabled to learned societies of many countries; in England, which he visited make rapid progress himself, but he also placed in the hands of more than once, and where he became well known, the Royal others the means of a like advance. The remarkable strides for- Society made him a fellow in 1860, and in 1897 gave him its ward which embryology made during the middle and during the highest token of esteem, the Copley medal. (M. F.) latter half of the 19th century will always be associated with his KOLLONTAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), Polish politician and writer, His Lectures on Development, published in 1861, at once was born in 1750 at Niecislawice in Sandomir, and educated at became a standard work. Pinczow and Cracow. After taking orders he went (1770) to But neither zoology nor embryology furnished Kölliker's chief Rome, where he obtained the degree of doctor of theology and claim to fame. If he did much for these branches of science, he common law, and devoted himself enthusiastically to the study did still more for histology, the knowledge of the minute structure of the fine arts, especially of architecture and painting. At of the animal tissues. This he made emphatically his own. It Rome too he obtained a canonry attached to Cracow cathedral, may indeed be said that there is no fragment of the body of and on his return to Poland in 1755 threw himself heart and soul man and of the higher animals on which he did not leave his mark, into the question of educational reform. His efforts were impeded and in more places than one his mark was a mark of fundamental by the obstruction of the clergy of Cracow, who regarded him as importance. Among his earlier results may be mentioned the an adventurer; but he succeeded in reforming the university after demonstration in 1847 that smooth or unstriated muscle is made his own mind, and was its rector for three years (1782-1785). up of distinct units, of nucleated muscle-cells. In this work he Kollontaj next turned his attention to politics. In 1786 he was followed in the footsteps of his master Henle. A few years before appointed referendarius of Lithuania, and during the Four Years' this men were doubting whether arteries were muscular, and Diet (1788–1792) displayed an amazing and many-sided activity no solid histological basis as yet existed for those views as to the as one of the reformers of the constitution. He grouped around action of the nervous system on the circulation, which were soon him all the leading writers, publicists and progressive young men name. KOLOMEA-KOLYVAN 891 of the day; declaimed against prejudices; stimulated the timid; | With the exception of the old quarter, Kolozsvár is generally inspired the lukewarm with enthusiasm; and never rested till the well laid out, and contains many broad and fine streets, several constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 had been carried through. In of which diverge at right angles from the principal square. June 1791 Kollontaj was appointed vice-chancellor. On the In this square is situated the Gothic church of St Michael (1396– triumph of the reactionaries and the fall of the national party, 1432); in front is a bronze equestrian statue of King Matthias he secretly placed in the king's hands his adhesion to the tri-Corvinus by the Hungarian sculptor Fadrusz (1902). Other umphant Confederation of Targowica, a false step, much blamed noteworthy buildings are the Reformed church, built by Matthias at the time, but due not to personal ambition but to a desire to Corvinus in 1486 and ceded to the Calvinists by Bethlen Gabor in save something from the wreck of the constitution. He then 1622; the house in which Matthias Corvinus was born (1443), emigrated to Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko's in- which contains an ethnographical museum; the county and town surrection he returned to Poland, and as member of the national halls, a museum, and the university buildings. A feature of government and minister of finance took a leading part in affairs. Kolozsvár is the large number of handsome mansions belonging But his radicalism had now become of a disruptive quality pand to the Transylvanian nobles, who reside here during the winter. he quarrelled with and even thwarted Kosciuszko because the It is the seat of a Unitarian bishop, and of the superintendent dictator would not admit that the Polish republic could only be of the Calvinists for the Transylvanian circle. Kolozsvár is the saved by the methods of Jacobinism. On the other hand, the literary and scientific centre of Transylvania, and is the seat of more conservative section of the Poles regarded Kollontaj as a numerous literary and scientific associations. ît contains a second Robespierre," and he is even suspected of complicity in university (founded in 1872), with four faculties—theology, phi- the outrages of the 17th and 18th of June 1794, when the Warsaw losophy, law and medicine-frequented by about 1900 students mob massacred the political prisoners. On the collapse of the in 1905; and amongst its other educational establishments are insurrection Kollontaj emigrated to Austria, where from 1795 a seminary for Unitarian priests, an agricultural college, two to 1802 he was detained as a prisoner. He was finally released training schools for teachers, a commercial academy, and several through the mediation of Prince Adam Czartoryski, and returned secondary schools for boys and girls. The industry comprises to Poland utterly discredited. The remainder of his life was a establishments for the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth, ceaseless struggle against privation and prejudice. He died at paper, sugar, candles, soap, earthenwares, as well as breweries Warsaw on the 28th of February 1812. and distilleries. Of his numerous works the most notable are: Political Speeches Kolozsvár is believed to occupy the site of a Roman settlement as Vice-Chancellor (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); On the Erection named Napoca. Colonized by Saxons in 1178, it then received and Fall of the Constitution of May (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris, its German name of Klausenburg, from the old word Klause, 1868 ); Correspondence with T. Czacki (Pol) Cracow, 1854); Letters signifying a “ mountain pass.” Between the years 1545 and written during Emigration, 1792-1794 (Pol.) (Posen, 1872). See Ignacz Badeni, Necrology of Hugo Kollontaj (Pol.) (Cracow, 1570 large numbers of the Saxon population left the town in con- 1819); Henryk Schmitt, Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj sequence of the introduction of Unitarian doctrines. In 1798 the (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1860); Wojciek Grochowski, "Life of Kollontaj (Pol.) in Tygod Illus. (Warsaw, 1861). (R. N. B.) town was to a great extent destroyed by fire. As capital of Transylvania and the seat of the Transylvanian diets, Kolozsvár KOLOMEA (Polish, Kolomyja), a town of Austria, in Galicia, from 1830 to 1848 became the centre of the Hungarian national 122 m. S. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half movement in the grand principality; and in December 1848 it were Jews. It is situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade was taken and garrisoned by the Hungarians under General Bem. in agricultural products. To the N.E. of Kolomea, nea the KOLPINO, one of the chief iron-works of the crown in Russia, Dniester, lies the village of Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly in the government of St Petersburg, 16 m. S.E. of the city of St fortified castle, which served as the residence of John Sobieski Petersburg, on the railway to Moscow, and on the Izhora river. during his campaigns against the Turks. Kolomea is a very old Pop. (1897); 8076. A sacred image of St Nicholas in the Trinity town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the assertion that church is visited by numerous pilgrims on the 22nd of May it was a Roman settlement under the name of Colonia is not every year, Here is an iron-foundry of the Russian admiralty. proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of KOLS, a generic name applied by Hindus to the Munda, Ho Pokutia, and it suffered severely during the 15th and 6th and Oraon tribes of Bengal. The Mundas are an aboriginal tribe centuries from the attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars. of Dravidian physical type, inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division, KOLOMNA, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow, and numbering 438,000 in 1901. The majority of them are ani- situated on the railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. S.E. mists in religion, but Christianity is making rapid strides among of Moscow, at the confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolo- them. The village community in its primitive form still exists menka. Pop. (1897), 20,970. It is an old town, mentioned in among the Mundas; the discontent due to the oppression of their the annals in 1177, and until the 14th century was the capital landlords led to the Munda rising of 1899, and to the remedy of of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly from the invasions the alleged grievances by a new settlement of the district. The of the Tatars in the 13th century, who destroyed it four times, as Hos, who are closely akin to the Mundas, also inhabit the Chota well as from the wars of the 17th century; but it always recovered Nagpur division; in 1901 they numbered 386,000. They were and has never lost its commercial importance. During the 19th formerly a very pugnacious race, who successfully defended their century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons, territory against all comers until they were subdued by the ropes and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where British in the early part of the 19th century, being known as the locomotives and wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an Larką (or fighting) Kols. They are still great sportsmen, using active trade in grain, catile, tallow, skins, salt and timber, It the bow and arrow. Like the Mundas they are animists, but they has several old churches of great archaeologicalinterest, including show little inclination for Christianity. Both Mundas and Hos two of the 14th century, one being the cathedral. One gate speak dialects of the obscure linguistic family known as Munda or (restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the Kreml still survives. Kol. KOLOZSVÁR (Ger. Klausenburg; Rum. Cluj), a town of See Imp. Gazetteer of India, vols. xiii., xviii. (Oxford, 1908). Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of Kolozs, and formerly the capital of the whole of Transylvania, 248 m. KOLYVAN. (1) A town of West Siberia, in the government E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 46,670. It is of Tomsk, on the Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob and 120 m. situated in a picturesque valley on the banks of the Little S.S.W. of the city of Tomsk, It is a wealthy town, the merchants Szamos, and comprises the inner town (formerly surrounded carrying on a considerable export trade in cattle, hides, tallow, with walls) and five suburbs. The greater part of the town corn and fish. It was founded in 1713 under the name of Chausky lies on the right bank of the river, while on the other side is the Ostrog, and has grown rapidly. Pop. (1897), 11,703. (2) so-called Bridge Suburb and the citadel (erected in 1715). KOLYVANSKIY ZAVOD, another town of the same government, Upon the slopes of the citadel hill there is a gipsy quarter. I in the district of Biysk, Altai region, on the Byelaya river, 192 m. 892 KOMÁROM-KONGSBERG S.E. of Barnaul; altitude, 1290 ft. It is renowned for its stone- KOMOTAU (Czech, Chomulov), a town of Bohemia, Austria cutting factory, where marble, jasper, various porphyries and 79 m. N.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,925, almost breccias are worked into vases, columns, &c. Pop., 5000. (3) exclusively German. It has an old Gothic church, and its town. Old name of Reval (q.v.). hall was formerly a commandery of the Teutonic knights. The in- KOMÁROM (Ger., Komorn), the capital of the county of dustrial establishments comprise manufactories of woollen cloth, Komárom, Hungary, 65 m. W.N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. linen and paper, dyeing houses, breweries, distilleries, vinegar (1900), 16,816. It is situated at the eastern extremity of the works and the central workshops of the Buschtěhrad railway. island Csallóköz or Grosse Schütt, at the confluence of the Waag Lignite is worked in the neighbourhood. Komotau was origin- with the Danube. Just below Komárom the two arms into ally a Czech market-place, but in 1252 it came into the possession which the Danube separates below Pressburg, forming the Grosse of the Teutonic Order and was completely Germanized. In 1396 Schütt island, unite again. Since 1896 the market-town of it received a town charter; and in 1416 the knights sold both Uj-Szöny, which lies on the opposite bank of the Danube, has town and lordship to Wenceslaus IV. On the 16th of, March been incorporated with Komárom. The town is celebrated 1427, the town was stormed by the Taborites, sacked and burned. chiefly for its fortifications, which form the centre of the inland After several changes of ownership, Komotau came in 1588 to fortifications of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A brisk Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits here, which led trade in cereals, timber, wine and fish is carried on. Komárom to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the over-lord. is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, having received its charter In 1594 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town in 1265. The fortifications were begun by Matthias Corvinus, purchased its freedom and was created a royal city. and were enlarged and strengthened during the Turkish wars KOMURA, JUTARO, COUNT (1855– ), Japanese states- (1526-64). New forts were constructed in 1663 and were greatly man, was born in Hiuga. He graduated at Harvard in 1877, and enlarged between 1805 and 1809. In 1543, 1594, 1598 and entered the foreign office in Tokyo in 1884. He served as chargé 1663 it was beleaguered by the Turks. It was raised to the d'affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister in Scoul, in Washing- dignity of a royal free town in 1751. During the revolutionary ton, in St Petersburg, and in Peking (during the Boxer trouble), war of 1848-49 Komárom was a principal point of mili earning in every post a reputation for diplomatic ability. operations, and was long unsuccessfully besieged by the Austrians, In 1901 he received the portfolio of foreign affairs, and held it who on the rith of July 1849 were defeated there by General throughout the course of the negotiations with Russia and the Görgei, and on the 3rd of August by General Klapka. On the subsequent war (1904-5), being finally appointed by his sovereign 27th of September the fortress capitulated to the Austrians upon to meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and subse- honourable terms, and on the 3rd and 4th of October was evacu- quently the Chinese representatives in Peking, on which occasions ated by the Hungarian troops. The treasure of the Austrian the Portsmouth treaty of September 1905 and the Peking treaty national bank was removed here from Vienna in 1866, when that of November in the same year were concluded. For these city was threatened by the Prussians. services, and for negotiating the second Anglo-Japanese alliance, KOMATI, a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an ele- he received the Japanese title of count and was made a K.C.B. vation of about 5000 ft. in the Ermelo district of the Transvaal, by King Edward VII. He resigned his portfolio in 1906 and II m. W. of the source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N. became privy councillor, from which post he was transferred to and E. direction reaches the Indian Ocean at Delagoa Bay, after the embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1908 and a course of some 500 miles. In its upper valley near Steynsdorp resumed the portfolio of foreign affairs in the second Katsura are gold-fields, but the reefs are almost entirely of low grade ore. cabinet. The river descends the Drakensberg by a pass 30 m. S. of Barber- KONARAK or KANARAK, a ruined temple in India, in the ton, and at the eastern border of Swaziland is deflected north- Puri district of Orissa, which has been described as for its size ward, keeping a course parallel to the Lebombo mountains. “the most richly ornamented building-externally at least-in Just W. of 32° E. and in 25° 25' S. it is joined by one of the many the whole world.” It was erected in the middle of the 13th rivers of South Africa named Crocodile. This tributary rises, as century, and was dedicated to the sun-god. It consisted of a the Elands river, in the Bergendal (6437 ft.) near the upper tower, probably once over 180 ft. high, with a porch in front waters of the Komati, and flows E. across the high veld, being 140 ft. high, sculptured with figures of lions, elephants, horses, &c. turned northward as it reaches the Drakensberg escarpment. KONG, the name of a town, district and range of hills in the The fall to the low veld is over 2000 ft. in 30 m., and across the N.W. of the Ivory Coast colony, French West Africa. The hills country between the Drakensberg and the Lebombo (100 m.) are part of the band of high ground separating the inner plains there is a further fall of 3000 ft. A mile below the junction of of West Africa from the coast regions. In maps of the first half the Crocodile and Komati, the united stream, which from this of the 19th century the range is shown as part of a great moun- point is also known as the Manhissa, passes to the coast plain tain chain supposed to run east and west across Africa, and is through a cleft 626 ft. high in the Lebombo known as Komati thus made to appear a continuation of the Mountains of the Poort, where are some picturesque falls. At Komati Poort, which Moon, or the snow-clad heights of Ruwenzori. The culminating marks the frontier between British and Portuguese territory, point of the Kong system is the Pic des Kommono, 4757 ft. high. the river is less than 60 m. from its mouth in a direct line, in general the summits of the hills are below 2000 ft. and not but in crossing the plain it makes a wide sweep of 200 m., more than 700 ft. above the level of the country. The “circle first N. and then S., forming lagoon-like expanses and back- of Kong," one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory Coast waters and receiving from the north several tributaries. In colony, covers 46,000 sq. m. and has a population of some flood time there is a connexion northward through the swamps 400,000. The inhabitants are negroes, chiefly Bambara and with the basin of the Limpopo. The Komati enters the sea Mandingo. 'About a fourth of the population profess Mahom- 15 m. N. of Lourenço Marques. It is navigable from its mouth, medanism; the remainder are spirit worshippers. The town of where the water is from 12 to 18 ft. deep, to the foot of the Kong, situated in 9° N., 4°20' W., is not now of great importance. Lebombo. Probably René Caillié, who spent some time in the western part The railway from Lourenço Marques to Pretoria traverses the of the country in 1827, was the first European to visit Kong. plain in a direct line, and at mile 45 reaches the Komati. It In 1888 Captain L. G. Binger induced the native chiefs to place follows the south bank of the river and enters the high country themselves under the protection of France, and in 1893 the at Komati Poort. At a small town with the same name, 2 m. protectorate was attached to the Ivory Coast colony. For a W. of the Poort, on the 23rd of September 1900, during the war time kong was overrun by the armies of Samory (see SENEGAL), with England, 3000 Boers crossed the frontier and surrendered but the capture of that chief in 1898 was followed by the peaceful to the Portuguese authorities. From the Poort westward the development of the district by France (see Ivory Coast). railway skirts the south bank of the Crocodile river throughout KONGSBERG, a mining town of Norway in Buskerud amb its length. (county), on the Laagen, 500 ft. above the sea, and 61 m. W.S.W. KONIA-KÖNIG 893 of Christiania by rail. Pop. (1900), 5585. With the exception great Jan Chodkiewicz, whom he accompanied on his Muscovite of the church and the town-house, the buildings are mostly of campaigns, and under the equally great Stanislaus Zolkiewski, wood. The origin and whole industry of the town are connected whose daughter Catherine he married. On the death of his first with the government silver-mines in the neighbourhood. Their wife he wedded, in 1619, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he first discovery was made by a peasant in 1623, since which time took part in the expedition against the Turks which terminated they have been worked with varying success. During the 18th so disastrously at Cecora, and after a valiant resistance was century Kongsberg was more important than now, and contained captured and sent to Constantinople, where he remained a close double its present population. Within the town are situated prisoner for three years. On his return he was appointed com- the smelting-works, the mint, and a Government weapon factory. mander of all the forces of the Republic, and at the head of an Three miles below the Laagen forms a fine fall of 140 ft. army of 25,000 men routed 60,000 Tatars at Martynow, follow- (Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2950 ft.) commands ing up this success with fresh victories, for which he received the extensive views of the Telemark. A driving-road from thanks of the diet and the palatinate of Sandomeria from the Kongsberg follows a favourite route for travellers through this king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of the Ukraine district, connecting with routes to Sand and Odde on the west against the Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred to Prussia to coast. check the victorious advance of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish KONIA. (1) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes the historians have too often ignored the fact that Koniecpolski's whole, or parts of, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, superior strategy neutralized all the efforts of the Swedish king, Cilicia and Cappadocia. It was formed in 1864 by adding to the whom he defeated again and again, notably at Homerstein old eyalet of Karamania the western half of Adana, and part of (April 1627) and at Trzciand (April 1629). But for the most south-eastern Anadoli. It is divided into five sanjaks: Adalia, part the fatal parsimony of his country compelled Koniecpolski Buldur, Hamid-abad, Konia and Nigdeh. The population to confine himself to the harassing guerrilla warfare in which he (990,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians) is for the most part was an expert. In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant agricultural and pastoral. The only industries are carpet- post of hetman wielki koronny, or commander in chief of Poland, weaving and the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. There and in that capacity routed the Tatars at Sasowy Rogi (April are mines of chrome, mercury, cinnabar, argentiferous lead and 1633) and at Paniawce (April and October 1633), and the Turks, rock salt. The principal exports are salt, minerals, opium, with terrific loss, at Abazd Basha. To keep the Cossacks of the cotton, cereals, wool and live stock; and the imports cloth-goods, Ukraine in order he also built the fortress of Kudak. As one coffee, rice and petroleum. The vilayet is now traversed by the of the largest proprietors in the Ukraine he suffered severely Anatolian railway, and contains the railhead of the Ottoman line from Cossack depredations and offered many concessions to from Smyrna. them. Only after years of conflict, however, did he succeed in (2) The chief town (anc. Iconium (q.0.)), altitude 3320 ft., reducing these unruly desperadoes to something like obedience. situated at the S.W. edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor, In 1644 he once more routed the Tatars at Ockmatow, and again amidst luxuriant orchards famous in the middle ages for their in 1646 at Brody. This was his last exploit, for he died the same yellow plums and apricots and watered by streams from the hills. year, to the great grief of Wladislaus IV., who had already con- Pop. 45,000, including 5000 Christians. There are interesting certed with him the plan for a campaign on a grand scale against remains of Seljuk buildings, all showing strong traces of Persian the Turks, and relied principally upon the Grand Hetman for its influence in their decorative details. The principal ruin is that success. Though less famous than his contemporaries Zolkiehwski of the palace of Kilij Arslan II., which contained a famous hall. and Chodkiewicz, Koniecpolski was fully their equal as a general, The most important mosques are the great Tekke, which contains and his inexorable severity made him an ideal lord-marcher. the tomb of the poet Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi, a mystic (sufi) See an unfinished biography in the Tyg: Illus. of Warsaw for poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling) dervishes, and 1863; Stanislaw Przylenski, Memorials of the Koniecpolskis (Pol.) those of his successors, the “ Golden ” mosque and those of Ala (Lemberg, 1842). (R. N. B.) ed-Din and Sultan Selim. The walls, largely the work of Ala KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832–1901), German physicist, ed-Din I., are preserved in great part and notable for the number was born at Königsberg (Prussia) on the 26th of November 1832, of ancient inscriptions built into them. They once had twelve and studied at the university of his native town, taking the degree gates and were 30 ells in height. The climate is good-hot in of Ph.D. About 1852 he went to Paris, and became apprentice summer and cold, with snow, in winter. Konia is connected to the famous violin-maker, J. B. Vuillaume, and some six years by railway with Constantinople and is the starting-point of the later he started business on his own account. He called himself extension towards Bagdad. After the capture of Nicaea by the a “maker of musical instruments,” but the instruments for Crusaders (1097), Konia became the capital of the Seljuk Sultans which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which speedily of Rum (see SELJUKS and TURKS). It was temporarily occupied gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy by Godfrey, and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely and general excellence. From this business König derived his affected its prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I. livelihood for the rest of his life. He was, however, very far (1219–1236) the city was thronged with artists, poets, historians, from being a mere tradesman, and even as a manufacturer he jurists and dervishes, driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara regarded the quality of the articles that left his workshop as a by the advance of the Mongols, and there was a brief period of matter of greater solicitude than the profits they yielded. Acous- great splendour. After the break up of the empire of Rum, tical research was his real interest, and to that he devoted all the Konia became a secondary city of the amirate of Karamania time and money he could spare from his business. An exhibit and in part fell to ruin. In 1472 it was annexed to the Osmanli which he sent to the London Exhibition of 1862 gained a gold empire by Mahommed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim medal, and at the Philadelphia Exposition at 1876 great admira- Pasha who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid tion was expressed for a tonometric apparatus of his manufacture. Pasha, not far from the walls. It had come to fill only part of This consisted of about 670 tuning-forks, of as many different its ancient circuit, but of recent years it has revived considerably, pitches, extending over four octaves, and it afforded a perfect and, since the railway reached it, has acquired a semi-European means for testing, by enumeration of the beats, the number of quarter, with a German hotel, cafés and Greek shops, &c. vibrations producing any given note and for accurately tuning See W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890); any musical instrument. An attempt was made to secure this Șt Paul the Traveller (1895); G. Le Strange, Lands of the E. Caliphate apparatus for the university of Pennsylvania, and König was (1905). (D. G. H.) induced to leave it behind him in America on the assurance that KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS (1591-1646), Polish soldier, it would be purchased; but, ultimately, the money not being was the most illustrious member of an ancient Polish family forthcoming, the arrangement fell through, to his great dis- which rendered great services to the Republic. Educated at appointment and pecuniary loss. Some of the forks he disposed the academy of Cracow, he learned the science of war under the l of to the university of Toronto and the remainder he used as a 894 KÖNIGGRÄTZ-KÖNIGSBERG а. a 6 nucleus for the construction of a still more elaborate tonometer. The discussion of the authenticity of the MS. of Dvut Kralove While the range of the old apparatus was only between 128 and lasted with short interruptions about seventy years, and the 4096 vibrations a second, the lowest fork of the new one made library. Count Lutzow's History of Bohemian Literature gives a Bohemian works written on the subject would fill a considerable only 16 vibrations a second, while the highest gave a sound too brief account of the controversy. shrill to be perceptible by the human ear. König will also be KÖNIGSBERG (Polish Krolewiec), a town of Germany, capital remembered as the inventor and constructor of many other of the province of East Prussia and a fortress of the first rank. beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of acoustical Pop. (1880), 140,800; (1890), 161,666; (1905), 219,862 (including problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the the incorporated suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, on first of which was shown at Philadelphia in 1876. His original both sides of the Pregel, 41 m. from its mouth in the Frische work dealt, among other things, with Wheatstone's sound-figures, Haff, 397 m. N. E. of Berlin, on the railway to Eydtkuhnen and the characteristic notes of the different vowels, manometric at the junction of lines to Pillau, Tilsit and Kranz. It consists flames, &c.; but perhaps the most important of his researches of three parts, which were formerly independent administrative are those devoted to the phenomena produced by the interference units, the Altstadt (old town), to the west, Löbenicht to the of two tones, in which he controverted the views of H. von Helm-east, and the island Kneiphof, together with numerous suburbs, holtz as to the existence of summation and difference tones. He all embraced in a circuit of 91 miles. The Pregel, spanned by died in Paris on the end of October 1901. many bridges, flows through the town in two branches, which KÖNIGGRÄTZ (Czech, Hradec Králové), a town and episcopal unite below the Grüne Brücke. Its greatest breadih within the see of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. town is from 80 to 90 yards, and it is usually frozen from Novem- (1900), 9773, mostly Czech. It is situated in the centre of a very ber to March. Königsberg does not retain many marks of fertile region called the “Golden Road,” and contains many antiquity. The Altstadt has long and narrow streets, but the buildings of historical and architectural interest. The cathedral Kneiphof quarter is roomier. Of the seven market-places only was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, wife of Wenceslaus II; and the that in the Altstadt retains something of its former appearance. church of St John, built in 1710, stands on the ruins of the old Among the more interesting buildings are the Schloss, a long castle. The industries include the manufacture of musical rectangle begun in 1255 and added to later, with a Gothic instruments, machinery, colours, and carton-pierre, as well as tower 277 ft. high and a chapel built in 1592, in which Frederick gloves and wax candles. The original name of Königgrätz, I. in 1701 and William I. in 1861 crowned themselves kings of one of the oldest settlements in Bohemia, was Chlumec Dobros- Prussia; and the cathedral, begun in 1333 and restored in 1856, lavský; the name Hradec, or“ the Castle,” was given to it when it a Gothic building with a tower 164 ft. high, adjoining which is became the seat of a count, and Kralove, “ of the queen” (Ger. the tomb of Kant. The Schloss was originally the residence of Königin), was prefixed when it became one of the dower towns the Grand Masters of the Teutonic order and later of the dukes of the queen of Wenceslaus II., Elizabeth of Poland, who lived of Prussia. Behind is the parade-ground, with the statues of here for thirty years. It remained a dower town till 1620. Albert I. and of Frederick William III. by August Kiss, and the Königgrätz was the first of the towns to declare for the national grounds also contain monuments to Frederick I. and William I. cause during the Hussite wars. After the battle of the White To the east is the Schlossteich, a long narrow ornamental lake Mountain (1620) a large part of the Protestant population left covering 12 acres. The north-west side of the parade-ground is the place. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by occupied by the new university buildings, completed in 1865; the Swedes. Several churches and convents were pulled down these and the new exchange on the south side of the Pregel are to make way for the fortifications erected under Joseph II. The the finest architectural features of the town. The university fortress was finally dismantled in 1884. Near Königgrätz took(Collegium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert I., duke place, on the 3rd of July 1866, the decisive battle (formerly of Prussia, as a "purely Lutheran ” place of learning. It is called Sadowa) of the Austro-Prussian war (see SEVEN WEEKS' chiefly distinguished for its mathematical and philosophical WAR). studies, and possesses a famous observatory, established in KÖNIGINHOF (Dvur Kralove in Czech), the seat of a provincial 1811 by Frederick William Bessel, a library of about 240,000 district and of a provincial law-court, is situated in north-eastern volumes, a zoological museum, a botanical garden, laboratories Bohemia on the left bank of the Elbe, about 160 kilometres from and valuable mathematical and other scientific collections, Prague. Brewing, corn-milling and cotton-weaving are the among its famous professors have been Kant (who was born principal industries. Pop. about 11,000. The city is of very here in 1724 and to whom a monument was erected in 1864), ancient origin. Founded by King Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia J. G. von Herder, Bessel, F. Neumann and J. F. Herbart. (1278-1305), it was given by him to his wife Elizabeth, and thus It is attended by about 1000 students and has a teaching received the name of Dvur Kralove (the court of the queen). staff of over 100. Among other educational establishments, During the Hussite wars, Dvur Kralove was several times taken Königsberg numbers four classical schools (gymnasia) and three and retaken by the contending parties. In a battle fought partly commercial schools, an academy of painting and a school of within the streets of the town, the Austrian army was totally music. The hospitals and benevolent institutions are numerous. defeated by the Prussians on the 29th of June 1866. In the 19th The town is less well equipped with museums and similar insti- century Dvur Kralove became widely known as the spot where a tutions, the most noteworthy being the Prussia museum of MS. was found that was long believed to be one of the oldest antiquities, which is especially rich in East Prussian finds written documents in the Czech language. In 1817 Wenceslas from the Stone age to the Viking period. Besides the cathedral Hanka, afterwards for a long period librarian of the Bohemian the town has fourteen churches. museum, declared that he had found in the church tower in the Königsberg is a naval and military fortress of the first order. town of Dvur Kralove when on a visit there, a very ancient MS. The fortifications were begun in 1843 and were only completed containing epic and lyric poems. Though Dobrovsky, the in 1905, although the place was surrounded by walls in early greatest Czech philologist of the time, from the first expressed times. The works consist of an inner wall, brought into con. suspicions, the MS. known as the Kralodvorsky Rukopis manu- nexion with an outlying system of works, and of twelve detached script of Königinhof was long accepted as genuine, frequently forts, of which six are on the right and six on the left bank of the printed and translated into most European languages. Doubts Pregel. Between them lie two great forts, that of Friedrichsburg as to the genuineness of the document never, however, ceased, on an island in the Pregel and that of the Kaserne Kronprinz on and they became stronger when Hanka was convicted of having the east of the town, both within the environing ramparts. The fabricated other false Bohemian documents. A series of works protected position of its harbour has made Königsberg one of the and articles written by Professors Goll, Gebauer, Masoryk, and most important commercial cities of Germany. A new channel others have recently proved that the MS. is a forgery, and hardly has recently been made between it and its port, Pillau, 29 miles any Bohemian scholars of the present day believe in its genuine- distant, on the outer side of the Frische Haff, so as to admit vessels drawing 20 feet of water right up to the quays of ness. KÖNIGSBORN–KÖNIGSSEE 895 66 Königsberg, and the result has been to stimulate the trade of KÖNIGSLUTTER, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Bruns- the city. It is protected for a long distance by moles, in which a wick, on the Lutter 36 m. E. of Brunswick by the railway to break has been left in the Fischhauser Wiek, to permit of freer Eisleben and Magdeburg. Pop. (1905), 3260. It possesses an circulation of the water and to prevent damage to the mainland. Evangelical church, a castle and some interesting old houses. The industries of Königsberg have made great advances Its chief manufactures are sugar, machinery, paper and beer. within recent years, notable among them are printing-works and Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey founded in manufactures of machinery, locomotives, carriages, chemicals, 1135. In its beautiful church, which has not been destroyed, toys, sugar, cellulose, beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and are the tombs of the emperor Lothair II., his wife Richenza, and amber wares. The principal exports are cereals and flour, of his son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud of Saxony and Bavaria. cattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar and oilcake. There are. KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA, COUNTESS OF (1662–1728), two pretty public parks, one in the Hufen, with a zoological mistress of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of garden attached, another the Luisenwahl which commemorates Poland, belonged to a noble Swedish family, and was born on the sojourn of Queen Louisa of Prussia in the town in the the 8th of May 1662. Having passed some years at Hamburg, disastrous year 1806. where she attracted attention both by her beauty and her talents, The Altstadt of Königsberg grew up around the castle built Aurora went in 1694 to Dresden to make inquiries about her in 1255 by the Teutonic Order, on the advice of Ottaker II. brother Philipp Christoph, count of Königsmark, who had King of Bohemia, after whom the place was named. Its first suddenly and mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Here site was near the fishing village of Steindamm, but after its she was noticed by Augustus, who made her his mistress; and destruction by the Prussians in 1263 it was rebuilt in its present in October 1696 she gave birth to a son Maurice, afterwards the position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the two other famous marshal de Saxe. The elector however quickly tired parts of the present town-Löbenicht and Kneiphof-receiving of Aurora, who then spent her time in efforts to secure the them a few years later. In 1340 Königsberg entered the position of abbess of Quedlinburg, an office which carried with Hanseatic League. From 1457 it was the residence of the grand it the dignity of a princess of the Empire, and to recover the master of the Teutonic Order, and from 1525 till 1618 of the lost inheritance of her family in Sweden. She was made dukes of Prussia. The trade of Königsberg was much hindered coadjutor abbess and lady-provost (Pröpstin) of Quedlinburg, by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels leading but lived mainly in Berlin, Dresden and Hamburg. In 1702 to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense she went on a diplomatic errand to Charles XII. of Sweden on harm, but before the end of the 17th century it had almost behalf of Augustus, but her adventurous journey ended in recovered. failure. The countess, who was described by Voltaire as the In 1724 the three independent parts were united into a single most famous woman of two centuries,” died at Quedlinburg on town by Frederick William I. the 16th of February 1728. Königsberg suffered severely during the war of liberation See F. Cramer, Denkwürdigkeiten der Gräfin M. A. Königsmark and was occupied by the French in 1807. In 1813 the town was (Leipzig, 1836); and Biographische Nachrichten von der Gräfin M. A. the scene of the deliberations which led to the successful uprising Königsmark (Quedlinburg, 1833); W. F. Palmblad, Aurora Königs- of Prussia .against Napoleon. During the 19th century the mark und ihre Verwandte (Leipzig, 1848-1853); C. L. de Pöllnitz, La Saxe galante (Amsterdam, 1734); and 8. J. B. von Corvin: opening of a railway system in East Prussia and Russia gave a Wiersbitzki, Maria Aurora, Gräfin von Königsmark. (Rudolstadt, new impetus to its commerce, making it the principal outlet 1902). for the Russian staples--grain, 'seeds, flax and hemp. It has KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH, COUNT OF (1665- now regular steamcommunication with Memel, Stettin, Kiel, 1694), was a member of a noble Swedish family, and is chiefly Amsterdam and Hull. known as the lover of Sophia Dorothea, wife of the English king See Faber, Die Haupt- und Residenzstadt Königsberg in Preussen George I. then electoral prince of Hanover. Born on the 14th of (Königsberg, 1840); Schubert, Zur 000-jährigen Jubelfeier Königsbergs (Königsberg. 1855); Beckherrn, Geschichte der Befestigungen Königs- | March 1665, Königsmark was a brother of the countess noticed bergs (Königsberg, 1890); H. G. Prutz, Die königliche Albertus. above. After wandering and fighting in various parts of Europe Universität zu Königsberg im 19. Jahrhundert (Königsberg, 1894); he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover. Armstedt, Geschichte der königlichen Haupt- und Residenzstadt Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted Königsberg (Stuttgart, 1899); M.Schultze, Königsberg und Ostpreussen zu Anfang 1813. (Berlin, 1901); and 'Gordak, Wegweiser durch her in one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover. Königsberg (Königsberg, 1904). Regarded, rightly or wrongly, as the lover of the princess, he KÖNIGSBORN, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian province was seized, and disappeared from history, probably by assas- of Westphalia, immediately to the N. of the town of Unna, of sination, on the ist of July 1694. One authority states that which it practically forms a suburb. It has large saltworks, George I. was accustomed to boast about this deed; but this statement is producing annually over 15,000 tons. The brine springs, in opposed all efforts to clear up the mystery. It is not absolutely bted, and the Hanoverian court resolutely connexion with which there is a hydropathic establishment, certain that Sophia Dorothea was guilty of a criminal intrigue have a temperature of 93° F., and are efficacious in skin with Königsmark, as it is probable that the letters which diseases, rheumatism and scrofula. purport to have passed between the pair are forgeries. The See Wegele, Bad Königsborn und seine Heilmittel (Essen, 1902). question of her guilt or innocence, however, has been and still KÖNIGSHÜTTE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province remains a fruitful and popular subject for romance and of Silesia, situated in the middle of the Upper Silesian coal and speculation. iron district, 3 m. S. of Beuthen and 122 m. by rail S.E. of See Briefwechsel des Grafen Königsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie Breslau. Pop. (1852), 4495; (1875), 26,040; (1900), 57,919. Dorothea von Celle, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847); In 1869 it was incorporated with various neighbouring villages, schrift (Munich, 1882); and W. H. Wilkins, The Love of an A. Köcher, “ Die Prinzessin von Ahlden," in the Historische Zeit- and raised to the dignity of a town. It has two Protestant Uncrowned Queen (London, 1900). and three Roman Catholic churches and several schools and KÖNIGSSEE, or Lake of St Bartholomew, a lake of Germany, Lenevolent institutions. The largest iron-works in Silesia is in the kingdom of Bavaria, province of Upper Bavaria, about situated at Königshütte, and includes puddling works, rolling-zim. S. from Berchtesgaden, 1850 ft. above sea-level. It has a mills, and zinc-works. Founded in 1797, it was formerly in length of 5 m., and a breadth varying from 500 yards to a little the hands of government, but is now carried on by a company. over a mile, and attains a maximum depth of 600 ft. The There are also manufactures of bricks and glass and a trade in Königssee is the most beautiful of all the lakes in the German wood and coal. Nearly one-half of the population of the town Alps, pent in by limestone mountains rising to an altitude of consists of Poles. 6500 ft., the flanks of which descend precipitously to the green See Mohr, Geschichte der Stadt Königshütte (Königshütte, 1890). waters below. The lake abounds in trout, and the surrounding 896 KÖNIGSTEIN-KONKAN S с Uuw be o f N a a t t t t country is rich in game. On a promontory by the side of the the palaeontology of the Palaeozoic rocks, and especially for his lake is a chapel to which pilgrimages are made on St Bar. descriptions of the mollusca, brachiopods, crustacea and crinoids tholomew's Day. Separated by a narrow strip of land from of the Carboniferous limestone of Belgium. In recognition of the Königssee is the Obersee, a smaller lake, this work the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1875 by KÖNIGSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, the Geological Society of London, and in 1876 he was appointed situated in a deep valley on the left bank of the Elbe, at the professor of palaeontology at Liége. He died at Liége on the influx of the Biela, in the centre of Saxon Switzerland, 25 m. 16th of July 1887. S.E. of Dresden by the railway to Bodenbach and Testchen. PUBLICATIONS. --Éléments de chimie inorganique (1839); Descrip. It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a monu- tion des animaux.fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain Carbonifère ment to the composer Julius Otto, and has some small manu- fossiles (1847, 1873). See Notice sur L. G. de Koninck, by E. Dupont; de Belgique (1842-1844, supp. 1851); Recherches sur les animaux factures of machinery, celluloid, paper, vinegar and buttons. Annuaire de l'Acad. roy. de Belgique (1891), with portrait and It is chiefly remarkable for the huge fortress, lying immediately bibliography. to the north-west of the town, which crowns a sandstone rock KONINCK, PHILIP DE (de Coninck, de Koningh, van Koening) rising abruptly from the Elbe to a height of 750 ft. Across the (1619-1688), Dutch landscape painter, was born in Amsterdam Elbe lies the Lilienstein, a similar formation, but unfortified. in 1619. Little is known of his history, except that he was a The fortress of Königstein was probably a Slav stronghold as pupil of Rembrandt, whose influence is to be seen in all his early as the 12th century, but it is not mentioned in chronicles work. He painted chiefly broad sunny landscapes, full of before the year 1241, when it was a fief of Bohemia. In 1401 it space, light and atmosphere. Portraits by him, somewhat in passed to the margraves of Meissen and by the treaty of Eger the manner of Rembrandt, also exist; there are examples of in 1459 it was formally ceded by Bohemia to Saxony. About these in the galleries at Copenhagen and Christiania. Of his 1540 the works were strengthened, and the place was used as landscapes the principal are “ Vue de l'embouchure d'une a point d'appui against inroads from Bohemia. Hence the rivière,” at the Hague; a slightly larger replica is in the National phrase frequently employed by historians that Königstein is Gallery, London; “ Lisière d'un bois,” and “ Paysage " (with the key to Bohemia.” As a fact, the main road from Dresden figures by Vandevelde) at Amsterdam; and landscapes in into that country lies across the hills several miles to the south- Brussels, Florence (Uffizi), Berlin and Cologne. west, and the fortress has exercised little, if any, influence in Several of his works have been falsely attributed to strategic operations, either during the middle ages or in modern Rembrandt, and many more to his namesake and fellow- times. It was further strengthened under the electors Christian townsman SALOMON DE KONINCK (1609-1656), who was also a I., John George I. and Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, the disciple of Rembrandt; his paintings and etchings consist last of whom completed it in its present form. During the mainly of portraits and biblical scenes. Prussian invasion of Saxony in 1756 it served as a place of Both these painters are to be distinguished from DAVID DE refuge for the King of Poland, Augustus III., as it did also in KONINCK (1636-71687), who is also known as Rammelaar." 1849, during the Dresden insurrection of May in that year, to He was born in Antwerp. He studied there under Jan Fyt, and the King of Saxony, Frederick Augustus II. and his ministers. later settled in Rome, where he is stated to have died in 1687; It was occupied by the Prussians in 1867, who retained posses- this is, however, doubtful. His pictures are chiefly landscapes sion of it until the peace of 1871. It is garrisoned by detach- with animals, and still-life. ments of several Saxon infantry regiments, and serves as a KONITZ, a town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, treasure house for th state and also as a place of detention for at the junction of railways to Schneidemühl and Gnesen, 68 m. officers sentenced to fortress imprisonment. A remarkable S.W. of Danzig. Pop. (1905), 11,014. It is still surrounded feature of the place is a well, hewn out of the solid rock to a by its old fortifications, has two Evangelical and two Roman depth of 470 ſt. Catholic churches, a new town-hall, handsome public offices, See Klemm, Der Königstein in alter und neuer Zeit (Leipzig, 1905); and a prison. It has iron-foundries, saw-mills, electrical works, and Gautsch, Aelteste Geschichte der sächsischen Schweiz (Dresden, and manufactures of bricks. Konitz was the first fortified post 1880). established in Prussia by Hermann Balk, who in 1230 had been KÖNIGSWINTER, a town and summer resort of Germany, in commissioned as Landmeister, by the grand-master of the the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, Teutonic order, to reduce the heathen Prussians. For a long 24 m. S.S.E. of Cologne by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main, time it continued to be a place of military importance. at the foot of the Siebengebirge. Pop. (1905), 3944. The romantic Drachenfels (1010 ft.), crowned by the ruins of a castle built See Uppenkamp, Geschichte der Stadt Konitz (Konitz, 1873). early in the 12th century by the archbishop of Cologne, rises KONKAN, or CONCAN, a maritime tract of Western India, behind the town. From the summit, to which there is a funi. situated within the limits of the Presidency of Bombay, and cular railway, there is a magnificent view, celebrated by Byron extending from the Portuguese settlement of Goa on the S. in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. A cave in the hill is said to to the territory of Daman, belonging to the same nation, on have sheltered the dragon which was slain by the hero Siegfried. the N. On the E. it is bounded by the Western Ghats, and on The mountain is quarried, and from 1267 onward supplied stone the W. by the Indian Ocean. . This tract comprises the three (trachyte) for the building of Cologne cathedral. The castle of British districts of Thana, Ratnagiri and Kolaba, and the native Drachenburg, built in 1883, is on the north side of the hill. states of Janjira and Sawantwari. It may be estimated at Königswinter has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, 300 m. in length, with an average breadth of about 40. From some small manufactures and a little shipping. It has a monu- the mountains on its eastern frontier, which in one place attain ment to the poet, Wolfgang Müller. Near the town are the a height of 4700 ft., the surface, marked by a succession of ruins of the abbey of Heisterbach. irregular hilly spurs from the Ghats, slopes to the westward, KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE (1809-1887), Belgian where the mean elevation of the coast is not more than 100 ft. palaeontologist and chemist, was born at Louvain on the 3rd of above the level of the sea. Several mountain streams, but none. May 1809. He studied medicine in the university of his native of any magnitude, traverse the country in the same direction. town, and in 1831 he became assistant in the chemical schools. One of the most striking characteristics of the climate is the vio- He pursued the study of chemistry in Paris, Berlin and Giessen, lence of the monsoon rains-the mean annual fall at Mahabalesh. and was subsequently engaged in teaching the science at Ghent war amounting to 239 in. The coast has a straight general and Liége. In 1856 he was appointed professor of chemistry in outline, but is much broken into small bays and harbours. the Liége University, and he retained this post until the close This, with the uninterrupted view along the shore, and the of his life. About the year 1835 he began to devote his leisure land and sea breezes, which force vessels steering along the to the investigation of the Carboniſerous fossils around Liége, coast to be always within sight of it, rendered this country and ultimately he became distinguished for his researches on from time immemorial the seat of piracy; and so formidable a a a 1 OP al KONTAGORA–KOPRÜLÜ 897 11 had the pirates become in the 18th century, that all ships his apparent rank deceived, took the mayor prisoner, on a suffered which did not receive a pass from their chiefs. The fictitious charge of having falsified accounts and absconded with Great Mogul maintained a fleet for the express purpose of a considerable sum of municipal money. The “captain of checking them, and they were frequently attacked by the Köpenick was arrested, tried, and sentenced to a term of Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional imprisonment. expeditions from Bombay; but the piratical system was not See Graf zu Dohna, Kurfürstliche Schlösser in der Mark Branden- finally extinguished until 1812. The southern Konkan has burg (Berlin, 1890). given its name to a dialect of Marathi, which is the vernacular KOPISCH, AUGUST (1799-1853), German poet, was born at of the Roman Catholics of Goa. KONTAGORA, a province in the British protectorate of of painting at the Prague aca Breslau on the 26th of May 1799. In 1815 he began the study but an injury to his hand Northern Nigeria, on the east bank of the Niger to the north precluded the prospects of any great success in this profession, of Nupe and opposite Borgu. It is bounded W. by the Niger, and he turned to literature. After a residence in Dresden S. by the province of Nupe, E. by that of Zaria, and N. by that Kopisch proceeded, in 1822, to Italy, where, at Naples, he of Sokoto. It has an area of 14,500 sq. m. and a population formed an intimate friendship with the poet August, count of estimated at about 80,000. At the time of the British occupa- Platen Hallermund. He was an expert swimmer, a quality tion of Northern Nigeria the province formed a Fula emirate. which enabled him in company with Ernst Fries to discover the Before the Fula domination, which was established in 1864, blue grotto of Capri . In 1828 he settled at Berlin and was the ancient pagan kingdom of Yauri was the most important granted a pension by Frederick William IV., who in 1838 con- of the lesser kingdoms which occupied this territory. The ferred upon him the title of professor. He died at Berlin on the Fula conquest was made from Nupe on the south and a tribe 3rd of February 1853. Kopisch produced some very original of independent and warlike pagans continued to hold the country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The poetry, light in language and in form. He especially treated legends and popular subjects, and among his Gedichte (Berlin, province was brought under British domination in 1901 as the 1836) are some naive and humorous little pieces such as Dic result of a military expedition sent to prevent audacious slave- Historie von Noah, Die Heinzelmännchen, Das grüne Tier and raiding in British protected territory and of threats directed Der Scheiderjunge von Krippstedt, which became widely against the British military station of Jebba on the Niger. The popular. He also published a translation of Dante's Divine town of Kontagora was taken in January of 1901. The emir | Comedy (Berlin, 1840), and under the title Agrumi (Berlin, 1838) Ibrahim fled, and was not captured till early in 1902. The a collection of translations of Italian folk songs. province, after having been held for a time in military occupa- tion, was organized for administration on the same system as Kopisch's collected works were published in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1856.) the rest of the protectorate. In 1903 Ibrahim, after agreeing KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (1819–1892), German to take the oath of allegiance to the British crown and to accept chemist, was born on the 30th of October 1817 at Hanau, where the usual conditions of appointment, which include the abolition his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp (1777-1858), a physician, was of the slave trade within the province, was reinstated as emir professor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the and the British garrison was withdrawn. Since then the de- Lyceum. velopment of the province has progressed favourably. Roads After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied have been opened and Kontagora connected by telegraph with at Marburg and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the fame of headquarters at Zungeru. British courts of justice have been Liebig, went in 1839 to Giessen, where he became a privatdozent established at the British headquarters, and native courts in in 1841, and professor of chemistry twelve years later. In 1864 every district. In 1904 an expedition reduced to submission he was called to Heidelberg in the same capacity, and he re- the hitherto independent tribes in the northern belt, who had mained there till his death on the 20th of February 1892. Kopp up to that time blocked the road to Sokoto. Their arms were devoted himself especially to physico-chemical inquiries, and in confiscated and their country organized as a district of the the history of chemical theory his name is associated with several province under a chief and a British assistant resident. of the most important correlations of the physical properties of KOORINGA (BURRA), a town of Burra county, South Australia substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his work on Burra Creek, 101 m. by rail N. by E.of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), was concerned with specific volumes, the conception of which he 1994. It is the centre of a mining and agricultural district in set forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two which large areas are devoted to wheat-growing. The famous years of age; and the principles he established have formed the Burra Burra copper mine, discovered by a shepherd in 1844, is basis of subsequent investigations in that subject, although his close to the town, while silver and lead ore is also found in the results have in some cases undergone modification. Another vicinity. question to which he gave much attention was the connexion of KÖPENICK (CÖPENICK), a town of Germany, in the Prussian the boiling-point of compounds, organic ones in particular, with province of Brandenburg, on an island in the Spree, 9 m. S.E. their composition. In addition to these and other laborious from Berlin by the railway to Fürstenwalde. Pop. (1905), 27,721. researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843–1847 he published It contains a royal residence, which was built on the site of a a comprehensive History of Chemistry, in four volumes, to which palace which belonged to the great elector, Frederick William. three supplements were added in 1869-1875. The Development This is surrounded by gardens and contains a fine banqueting of Chemistry in Recent Times appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886 hall and a chapel. Other buildings are a Roman Catholic and a he published a work in two volumes on Alchemy in Ancient and Protestant church and a teachers' seminary. The varied in- Modern Times. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and dustries embrace the manufacture of glass, linoleum, sealing-wax physical chemistry for the Graham-Otto Lehrbuch der Chemie, and ink. In the vicinity is Spindlersfeld, with important dye- and for many years assisted Liebig in editing the Annalen der works. Chemie and the Jahresbericht. Köpenick, which dates from the 12th century, received He must not be confused with EMIL KOPP (1817-1875), who, municipal rights in 1225. Shortly afterwards, it became the born at Warselnheim, Alsace, became in 1847 professor of bone of contention between Brandenburg and Meissen, but, at toxicology and chemistry at the École supérieure de Pharmacie the issue of the feud, remained with the former, becoming a at Strasburg, in 1849 professor of physics and chemistry at favourite residence of the electors of Brandenburg. In the Lausanne, in 1852 chemist to a Turkey-red factory near Man- palace the famous court martial was held in 1730, which con- chester, in 1868 professor of technology at Turin, and finally, in demned the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the 1871, professor of technical chemistry at the Polytechnic of Great, to death. In 1906 the place derived ephemeral fame, Zürich, where he died in 1875. from the daring feat of a cobbler, one Wilhelm Voigt, who, KOPRÜLÜ, or KUPRILI (Bulgarian Valésa, Greek Vélissa), a attired as a captain in the army, accompanied by soldiers, whom I town of Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica, 2a XV 16 898 KORA-KORAN ) situated 600 ft. above sea-level, on the river Vardar, and on the , which are actually found in the Koran. It is to be observed, at Salonica-Mitrovitza railway, 25 m. S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905), all events, that Mahomet’s transcendental idea of God, as a Being about 22,000. Koprülü has a flourishing trade in silk; maize exalted altogether above the world, excludes the thought of and mulberries are cultivated in the neighbourhood. The Greek direct intercourse between the Prophet and God. and Bulgarian names of the town may be corrupt forms of the It is an explicit statemer of the Koran that the sacred book ancient Bylazora, described by Polybius as the chief city of was revealed (“sent down ") by God, not all at once, but piece- Paeonia. meal and gradually (xxv. 34). This is evident Component KORA, or Cora, an ancient town of Northern India, in the from the actual composition of the book, and is parts of the Fatehpur district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 2806. confirmed by Moslem tradition. That is to say, Koraa. As the capital of a Mahommedan province, it gave its name to Mahomet issued his revelations in fly-leaves of greater or less part of the tract (with Allahabad) granted by Lord Clive to the extent. A single piece of this kind was called either, like the titular Mogul emperor, Shah Alam, in 1765. entire collection, kor'ân, i.e.“ recitation," " reading," or, better KORAN. The Koran (Kor'án) is the sacred Book of Islam. still , is the equivalent of Aramaic geryānā “ lectionary ”; or kitab, on which the religion of more than two hundred millions of “writing ”; or sūra, which is perhaps the late-Hebrew shūrā, Mahommedans is founded, being regarded by them as the and means literally “series.” The last became, in the lifetime immediate word of God. And since the use of the Koran in of Mahomet, the 'regular designation of the individual sections public worship, in schools and otherwise, is much more extensive as distinguished from the whole collection; and accordingly it is than, for example, the reading of the Bible in most Christian the name given to the separate chapters of the existing Koran. countries, it has been truly described as the most widely-read These chapters are of very unequal length. Since many of the book in existence. This circumstance alone is sufficient to give shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in themselves, it is natural it an urgent claim on our attention, whether it suit our taste and to assume that the longer, which are sometimes very compre- fall in with our religious and philosophical views or not. Besides, hensive, have arisen from the amalgamation of various originally it is the work of Mahomet, and as such is fitted to afford a clue distinct revelations. This supposition is favoured by the numer- to the spiritual development of that most successful of all pro- ous traditions which give us the circumstances under which this phets and religious personalities. It must be owned that the or that short piece, now incorporated in a larger section, was first perusal leaves on a European an impression of chaotic revealed; and also by the fact that the connexion of thought in confusion-not that the book is so very extensive, for it is not the present sūras often seems to be interrupted. And in reality quite as large as the New Testament. This impression can in many pieces of the long sūras have to be severed out as'originally some degree be modified only by the application of a critical independent; even in the short ones parts are often found which analysis with the assistance of Arabian tradition. cannot have been there at first. At the same time we must To the faith of the Moslems, as has been said, the Koran is the beware of carrying this sifting operation too far,-as Nöldeke word of God, and such also is the claim which the book itself now believes himself to have done in his earlier works, and as advances. For except in sur. i.---which is a prayer for men and Sprenger also sometimes seems to do. That some sūras were of some few passages where Mahomet (vi. 104, 114; xxvii. 93; xlii.8) considerable length from the first is seen, for example, from xii., or the angels (xix. 65; xxxvii. 164 sqq.) speak in the first person which contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph, without the intervention of the usual imperative “say ” (sing. or and then a few concluding observations, and is therefore per- pl.), the speaker throughout is God, either in the first person fectly homogeneous. In like manner, xx., which is mainly singular or more commonly the plural of majesty “ we.” The occupied with the history of Moses, forms a complete whole. same mode of address is familiar to us from the prophets of the The same is true of xviii., which at first sight seems to fall into Old Testament; the human personality disappears, in the moment several pieces; the history of the seven sleepers, the grotesque of inspiration, behind the God by whom it is filled. But all the narrative about Moses, and that about Alexander“ the Horned," greatest of the Hebrew prophets fall back speedily upon the are all connected together, and the same rhyme through the unassuming human “I”; while in the Koran the divine “I” is whole sūra. Even in the separate narrations we may observe the stereotyped form of address. Mahomet, however, really felt how readily the Koran passes from one subject to another, how Mahomet's himself to be the instrument of God; this con- little care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, and sciousness was no doubt brighter at his first appear- how frequently clauses are omitted, which are almost indispens- Revelatioa. ance than it afterwards became, but it never able. We are not at liberty, therefore, in every case where the entirely forsook him. Nevertheless we cannot doubt his good-connexion in the Koran is obscure, to say that it is really broken, faith, not even in the cases in which the moral quality of his and set it down as the clumsy patchwork of a later hand. Even actions leaves most to be desired. In spite of all, the dominant in the old Arabic poetry such abrupt transitions are of very fact remains, that to the end he was zealous for his God and for frequent occurrence. It is not uncommon for the Koran, after the salvation of his people, nay, of the whole of humanity, and a new subject has been entered on, to return gradually or sud- that he never lost the unconquerable certainty of his divine denly to the former theme,--a proof that there at least separa- mission. tion is not to be thought of. In short, however imperfectly the The rationale of revelation is explained in the Koran itself as Koran may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the follows: In heaven is the original text (“the mother of the present sūras are identical with the originals. book,” xliii. 3; a concealed book," lv. 77; a well-guarded How these revelations actually arose in Mahomet's mind is a tablet,” lxxxv. 22). By the process of " sending down ” (tanzil), question which it is almost as idle to discuss as it would be to one piece after another was communicated to the Prophet. The analyse the workings of the mind of a poet. In his early career, mediator was an angel, who is called sometimes the “Spirit ” sometimes perhaps in its later stages also, many revelations must (xxvi. 193), sometimes the “holy Spirit " (xvi. 104), and at a later have burst from him in uncontrollable excitement, so that he time “ Gabriel” (only in ii. 91, 92; lxvi. 4). This angel dictates could not possibly regard them otherwise than as divine inspira- the revelation to the Prophet, who repeats it after him, and after- tions. We must bear in mind that he was no cold systematic wards proclaims it to the world (lxxxvii. 6, &c.). It is plain that thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in crass supersti- we have here a somewhat crude attempt of the Prophet to repre- tion, and without intellectual discipline; a man whose nervous sent to himself the more or less unconscious process by which his temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic austeri- ideas arose and gradually took shape in his mind. It is no ties, and who was all the more irritated by the opposition he wonder if in such confused imagery the details are not always encountered, because he had little of the heroic in his nature. self-consistent. When, for example, this heavenly archetype is filled with his religious ideas and visions, he might well 'fancy said to be in the hands of “exalted scribes" (lxxx. 13 sqq.), he heard the angel bidding him recite what was said to him. this seems a transition to a quite different set of ideas, namely, There may have been many a revelation of this kind which no one the books of fate, or the record of all human actions-conceptions I ever heard but himself, as he repeated it to himself in the silence 6 View of 3 " 6 a KORAN 899 Laws. The Koraa Writtea. “ Omar of the night (lxxiiia 4). Indeed the Koran itself admits that he | in a moment of weakness, in order that by such a promise, which forgot some revelations (lxxxvii. 7). But by far the greatest yet left Allah in his lofty position, he might gain over his fellow- part of the book is undoubtedly the result of deliberation, touched countrymen. This object he achieved, but soon his conscience more or less with emotion, and animated by a certain rhetorical smote him, and he declared these words to have been an inspira- rather than poetical glow. Many passages are based upon purely tion of Satan. intellectual reflection. It is said that Mahomet occasionally So much for abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different uttered such a passage immediately after one of those epileptic when we come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least) he him- Moslems, which often occurs in the Koran. There self also, regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher powers. is nothing in this at variance with Mahomet's idea Abrogated If that is the case, it is impossible to say whether the trick was of God. God is to him an absolute despot, who in the utterance of the revelation or in the fit itself. declares a thing right or wrong from no inherent necessity but How the various pieces of the Koran took literary form is by his arbitrary fiat. This God varies his commands at pleasure, uncertain. Mahomet himself, so far as we can discover, never prescribes one law for the Christians, another for the Jews, and wrote down anything. The question whether he a third for the Moslems; nay, he even changes his instructions could read and write has been much debated to the Moslems when it pleases him. Thus, for example, the among Moslems, unfortunately more with dog- Koran contains very different directions, suited to varying matic arguments and spurious traditions than authentic proofs. circumstances, as to the treatment which idolaters are to receive At present one is inclined to say that he was not altogether at the hands of believers. But Mahomet showed no anxiety to ignorant of these arts, but that from want of practice he found have these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could it convenient to employ some one else whenever he had anything be in no uncertainty as to which of two contradictory passages to write. After the migration to Medina (A.D. 622) we are told remained in force; and they might still find edification in that that short pieces-chiefly legal decisions—were taken down which had become obsolete. That later generations might not immediately after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he so easily distinguish the “ abrogated ” from the “ abrogating summoned for the purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of did not occur to Mahomet, whose vision, naturally enough, their publication. Hence it is probable that in Mecca, where seldom extended to the future of his religious community. the art of writing was commoner than in Medina, he had already Current events were invariably kept in view in the revelations. begun to have his oracles committed to writing. That even long In Medina it called forth the admiration of the Faithful to observe portions of the Koran existed in written form from an early date how often God gave them the answer to a question whose settle- may be pretty safely inferred from various indications; especially ment was urgently required at the moment. The same näiveté from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions appears in a remark of the Caliph Othman about a doubtful to be made, and pieces to be erased in his previous revelations. case:“ If the Apostle of God were still alive, methinks there had For we cannot suppose that he knew the longer sūras by heart so been a Koran passage revealed on this point.” Not unfrequently perfectly that he was able after a time to lay his finger upon any the divine word was found to coincide with the advice which particular passage. In some instances, indeed, he may have Mahomet had received from his most intimate disciples. relied too much on his memory. For example, he seems to have was many a time of a certain opinion,” says one tradition," and occasionally dictated the same sūra to different persons in slightly the Koran was then revealed accordingly." different terms. In such cases, no doubt, he may have partly The contents of the different parts of the Koran are extremely intended to introduce improvements; and so long as the differ- varied. Many passages consist of theological or moral reflec- ence was merely in expression, without affecting the sense, it tions. We are reminded of the greatness, the Contents could occasion no perplexity to his followers. None of them had goodness, the righteousness of God as manifested Koran. literary pedantry enough to question the consistency of the divine in Nature, in history, and in revelation through revelation on that ground. In particular instances, however, the prophets, especially through Mahomet. God is magnified the difference of reading was too important to be overlooked. as the One, the All-powerful. Idolatry and all deification of Thus the Koran itself confesses that the unbelievers cast it up created beings, such as the worship of Christ as the Son of as a reproach to the Prophet that God sometimes substituted one God, are unsparingly condemned. The joys of licaven and verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion, when a dispute the pains of hell are depicted in vivid sensuous imagery, as is also arose between two of his own followers as to the true reading of the terror of the whole creation at the advent of the last day and a passage which both had received from the Prophet himself , the judgment of the world. Believers receive general moral Mahomet is said to have explained that the Koran was revealed instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The in seven forms. In this apparently genuine dictum seven stands, lukewarm are rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible of course, as in many other cases, for an indefinite but limited punishment, both temporal and eternal. To the sceptical the number. But one may imagine what a world of trouble it has truth of Islam is held forth; and a certain, not very cogent, cost the Moslem theologians to explain the saying in accordance method of demonstration predominates. In many passages the with their dogmatic beliefs. A great number of explanations sacred book falls into a diffuse preaching style, others seem more are current, some of which claim the authority of the Prophet like proclamations or general orders. A great number contain himself; as, indeed, fictitious utterances of Mahomet play ceremonial or civil laws, or even special commands to individuals throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Koran. down to such matters as the regulation of Mahomet's harem. One very favourite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that In not a few definite questions are answered which had actually the “ seven forms," are seven different Arabic dialects. been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels. When such discrepancies came to the cognizance of Mahomet Mahomet himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions, it was doubtless his desire that only one of the conflicting texts and does not escape an occasional rebuke. One sūra (i.) is a should be considered authentic; only he never gave prayer, two (cxiii. cxiv.) are magical formulas. Many sūras treat Abrogated Readings. himself much trouble to have his wish carried into of a single topic, others embrace several. effect. Although in theory he was an upholder From the mass of material comprised in the Koran-and the of verbal inspiration, he did not push the doctrine to its extreme account we have given is far from exhaustive--we should select consequences; his practical good sense did not take these things the histories of the ancient prophets and saints Narratives. so strictly as the theologians of later centuries. Sometimes, as possessing a peculiar interest. The purpose of however, he did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining Mahomet is to show from these histories how God in former his followers to efface or forget them, and declaring them to be times had rewarded the righteous and punished their enemies. "abrogated.” A very remarkable case is that of the two verses For the most part the old prophets only serve to introduce in liii., when he had 'recognized three heathen 'goddesses as a little variety in point of form, for they are almost in every exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This had occurred | case facsimiles of Mahomet himself. They preach exactly like of the 900 KORAN 1 the Old and New a him, they have to bring the very same charges against their word with Mishna Sanhedrin iv. s; compare also ii. 183 with opponents, who on their part behave exactly as the unbeliev. Mishna Berak'hoth i. 2. That these are only cases of oral com- ing inhabitants of Mecca. The Koran even goes so far as to make munication will be admitted by any one with the slightest know- Noah contend against the worship of certain false gods, mentioned ledge of the circumstances. Otherwise we might even conclude by name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Mahomet's time. that Mahomet had studied the Talmud; e.g. the regulation as to In an address which is put in the mouth of Abraham (xxvi. 75 sqq), ablution by rubbing with sand, where water cannot be obtained the reader quite forgets that it is Abraham, and not Mahomet (iv. 46), corresponds to a talmudic ordinance (Berak'hoth 15 a). (or God himself), who is speaking. Other narratives are intended Of Christianity he can have been able to learn very little, even rather for amusement, although they are always well seasoned in Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the institu- with edifying phrases. It is no wonder that the godless Kor- tion of the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is highly rishites thought these stories of the Koran not nearly so enter- improbable that before the Koran any real literary production taining as those of Rostam and Ispandiār, related by Naţr the -anything that could be strictly called a book existed in the son of Harith, who had learned in the course of his trade journeys Arabic language. on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the the Prophet was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Nadr Koran are of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and critical fell into his power after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be reader will certainly find very few passages where executed; although in all other cases he readily pardoned his his aesthetic susceptibilities are thoroughly satis- Style. fellow-countrymen. fied. But he will often be struck, especially in the older pieces, These histories are chiefly about Scripture characters, espe- by a wild force of passion, and a vigorous, if not rich, imagination. cially those of the Old Testament. But the deviations from the Descriptions of heaven and hell, and allusions to God's working Relation to Biblical narratives are very marked. Many of the in Nature, not unfrequently show a certain amount of poetic alterations are found in the legendary anecdotes power. In other places also the style is sometimes lively and of the Jewish Haggada and the New Testament impressive; though it is rarely indeed that we come across such Testaments. "Apocrypha; but many more are due perhaps to strains of touching simplicity as in the middle of xciii. The misconceptions such as only a listener (not the reader of a book) greater part of the Koran is decidedly prosaic; much of it indeed could fall into. One would suppose that the most ignorant Jew is stiff in style. Of course, with such a variety of material, we could never have mistaken Haman, the minister of Ahasuerus, cannot expect every part to be equally vivacious, or imaginative, for the minister of Pharaoh, as happens in the Koran, or identified or poetic. A decree about the right of inheritance, or a point Miriam, the sister of Moses, with Mary ( = Mariām), the mother of ritual, must necessarily be expressed in prose, if it is to be of Christ. So long, however, as we have no closer acquaintance intelligible. No one complains of the civil laws in Exodus or the with Arab Judaism and Christianity, we must always reckon sacrificial ritual in Leviticus, because they want the fire of Isaiah with the possibility that many of these mistakes were due to or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. But Mahomet's mistake adherents of these religions who were his authorities, or were a consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the semi-poctic naive reproduction of versions already widely accepted by his form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his own contemporaries. In addition to his misconceptions there are taste and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, due in dealing with the most prosaic subjects, and thus produces to Mahomet himself. For instance, in his ignorance of every- the disagreeable effect of incongruity between style and matter. thing out of Arabia, he makes the fertility of Egypt--where rain It has to be considered, however, that many of those sermonizing is almost never seen and never missed-depend on rain instead pieces which are so tedious to us, especially when we read two of the inundations of the Nile (xii. 49). or three in succession (perhaps in a very inadequate translation), It is uncertain whether his account of Alexander was borrowed must have had a quite different effect when recited under the from Jews or Christians, since the romance of Alexander be burning sky and on the barren soil of Mecca. There, thoughts longed to the stereotyped literature of that age. The description about God's greatness and man's duty, which are familiar to us of Alexander as the Horned " in the Koran is, however, in from childhood, were all new to the hearers-it is hearers we accordaniu with the result of recent researches, to be traced to a have to think of in the first instance, not readers—to whom, at Syrian legend dating from A.D. 514-515 (Th. Nöldeke,“ Beiträge | the same time, every allusion had a meaning which often escapes zur Gesch. des Alexanderromanes ” in Denkschriften Akad. Wien, our notice. When Mahomet spoke of the goodness of the Lord vol. xxxviii. No. 5, p. 27, &c.). According to this, God caused in creating the clouds, and bringing them across the cheerless horns to grow on Alexander's head to enable him to overthrow desert, and pouring them out on the earth to restore its rich all things. This detail of the legend is ultimately traceable, as vegetation, that must have been a picture of thrilling interest Hottinger long ago supposed, to the numerous coins on which to the Arabs, who are accusto to see from three to five Alexander is represented with the ram's horns of Ammon.' years elapse before a copious shower comes to clothe the wilder- Besides Jewish and Christian histories there are a few about old ness once more with luxuriant pastures. It requires an effort Arabian prophets. In these he seems to have handled his for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some degree the materials even more freely than in the others. intensity of that impression. The opinion has already been expressed that Mahomet did The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are specially not make use of written sources. Coincidences and divergences numerous in the earlier sūras, enables us to understand why the alike can always be accounted for by oral communications from prosaic mercantile community of Mecca regarded Rhetorical Jews who knew a little and Christians who knew next to nothing. their eccentric townsman as a “poet,” or even a Form and Even in the rare passages where we can trace direct resemblances possessed poet.” Mahomet himself had to the text of the Old Testament (cf. xxi. 105 with Ps. xxxvii. 29; disclaim such titles, because he felt himself to be a divinely 1. 5 with Ps. xxvii. 1) or the New (cf. vii. 48 with Luke inspired prophet; but we too, from our standpoint, shall fully xvi. 24; xlvi. 19 with Luke xvi. 25), there is nothing more than acquit him of poetic genius. Like many other predominantly might readily have been picked up in conversation with any Jew religious characters, he had no appreciation of poetic beauty; or Christian. In Medina, where he had the opportunity of be- and if we may believe one anecdote related of him, at a time when coming acquainted with Jews of some culture, he learned some every one made verses, he affected ignorance of the most element. things out of the Mishna, e.g. v. 35 corresponds almost word for ary rules of prosody. Hence the style of the Koran is not poetical but rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions pro- 1 Reproductions of such Ptolemaic and Lysimachan coins are to duce on us is gained by rhetorical means. Accordingly the be found in J: J. Bernouilli, Die erhaltenen Darstellungen Alexanders d. Gr. (Munich, 1905), Tab. VIII.; also in Theodor Schreiber, sacred book has not even the artistic form of poetry; which, “Studien über das Bildniss Alexanders des Gr." in the Abh. Sachs: among the Arabs, includes a stringent metre, as well as rhyme. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Bd. xxi: (1903), Tab. XIII. The Koran is never metrical, and only a few exceptionally 66 " 66 to Rhyme. KORAN 901 nesses. eloquent portions fall into a sort of spontaneous rhythm. On y produce without making himself a laughing-stock. However the other hand, the rhyme is regularly maintained; although, little real originality there is in Mahomet's doctrines, as against especially in the later pieces, after a very slovenly fashion. his own countrymen he was thoroughly original, even in the form Rhymed prose was a favourite form of composition among the of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was beyond Arabs of that day, and Mahomet adopted it; but if it imparts a the power of the most expert literary artist; it would have certain sprightliness to some passages, it proves on the whole required either a prophet or a shameless impostor. And if such a burdensome yoke. The Moslems themselves have observed a character appeared after Mahomet, still he could never be that the tyranny of the rhyme often makes itself apparent in anything but an imitator, like the false prophets who arose about derangement of the order of words, and in the choice of verbal the time of his death and afterwards. That the adversaries forms which would not otherwise have been employed; e.g. an should produce any sample whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric imperfect instead of a perfect. In one place, to save the rhyme, equal to the Koran is not at all what the Prophet demands. In he calls Mount Sinai Šinin (xcv. 2) instead of Sinā (xxiii. 20); that case he would have been put to shame, even in the eyes of in another Elijah is called Ilyasin (xxxvii. 130) instead of Ilyas many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to hand. (vi. 85; xxxvii. 123). The substance even is modified to suit Nevertheless, it is on a false interpretation of this challenge that exigencies of rhyme. Thus the Prophet would scarcely have the dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction fixed on the unusual number of eight angels round the throne of of the Koran is based. The rest has been accomplished by God (lxix. 17) if the word thamāniyah,“ eight,” had not happened dogmatic prejudice, which is quite capable of working other to fall in so well with the rhyme. And when lv. speaks of two miracles besides turning a defective literary production into an heavenly gardens, each with two fountains and two kinds of unrivalled masterpiece in the eyes of believers. This view once fruit, and again of two similar gardens, all this is simply accepted, the next step was to find everywhere evidence of the because the dual termination (ân) corresponds to the syllable perfection of the style and language. And if here and there, as that controls the rhyme in that whole sūra. In the later one can scarcely doubt, there was among the old Moslems a lover pieces, Mahomet often inserts edifying remarks, entirely out of of poetry who had his difficulties about this dogma, he had to keeping with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In beware of uttering an opinion which might have cost him his Arabic it is such an easy thing to accumulate masses of words head. We know of at least one rationalistic theologian who de- with the same termination, that the gross negligence of the fined the dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe rhyme in the Koran is doubly remarkable. One may say that it (Shahrastānī, p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a this is another mark of the Prophet's want of mental training, miracle indeed if the style of the Koran had been perfect. For and incapacity for introspective criticism. although there was at that time a recognized poetical style, On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly already degenerating to mannerism, a developed prose style did have considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and it can never be Stylistic reader, the book, aesthetically considered, is by esteemed a serious charge against Mahomet that his book, the Weak- no means a first-rate performance. To begin with first prose work of a high order in the language, testifies to the what we are most competent to criticize, let us look awkwardness of the beginner. And further, we must always at some of the more extended narratives. It has already been remember that entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most noticed how vehement and abrupt they are where they ought to subsidiary objects. The great aim was persuasion and conver- be characterized by epic repose. Indispensable links, both in sion; and, say what we will, that aim has been realized on the expression and in the sequence of events, are often omitted, so most imposing scale. that to understand these histories is sometimes far easier for us Mahomet repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Koran than for those who heard them first, because we know most of is not written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but them from better sources. Along with this, there is a great deal in Arabic, and therefore is intelligible to all. At Foreiga of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we find a steady advance that time, along with foreign ideas, many foreign in the narration. Contrast in these respects the history of words had crept into the language; especially Joseph (xii.) and its glaring improprieties with the admirably Aramaic terms for religious conceptions of Jewish or Christian conceived and admirably executed story in Genesis. 'Similar origin. Some of these had already passed into general use, faults are found in the non-narrative portions of the Koran. while others were confined to a more limited circle. Mahomet, The connexion ºf ideas is extremely loose, and even the syntax who could not fully express his new ideas in the common language betrays great awkwardness. Anacolutha are of frequent occur- of his countrymen, but had frequently to find out new terms for rence, and cannot be explained as conscious literary devices. himself, made free use of such Jewish and Christian words, as was Many sentences begin with a “when on the day when" done, though perhaps to a smaller extent, by certain thinkers which seems to hover in the air, so that the commentators are and poets of that age who had more or less risen above the level driven to supply a “think of this " or some such ellipsis. Again, of heathenism. In Mahomet's case this is the less wonderful there is no great literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and Christians; harping on the same words and phrases; in xviii., for example, "till whose Arabic-as the Koran pretty clearly intimates with regard that ” (hattā idhā) occurs no fewer than eight times. Mahomet, to one of them-was very defective. On the other hand, it is in short, not in any sense a master of style. This opinion will yet more remarkable that several of such borrowed words in the be endorsed by any European who reads through the book with Koran have a sense which they do not possess in the original an impartial spirit and some knowledge of the language, without language. It is not necessary that this phenomenon should in taking into account the tiresome effect of its endless iterations. every case be due to the same cause. Just as the prophet often But in the ears of every pious Moslem such a judgment will sound misunderstood traditional traits of the sacred history, he may, almost as shocking as downright atheism or polytheism. Among as an unlearned man, likewise have often employed foreign the Moslems, the Koran has always been looked on expressions wrongly. Other remarkable senses of words were Dogma of the Stylistic as the most perfect model of style and language. This possibly already acclimatized in the language of Arabian Jews Perfection feature of it is in their dogmatic the greatest of all or Christians. Thus, forgān means really “ redemption," but miracles, the incontestable proof of its divine origin. Mahomet uses it for“ revelation.” The widespread opinion that Koran. Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic this sense first asserted itself in reference to the Arab root Qui infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist (faraqa), sever, decide," is open to considerable doubt. will ever do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly There is, for instance, no difficulty in deriving the Arab meaning challenged its opponents to produce ten sūras, or even a single of “revelation ” from the common Aramaic “salvation," and one, like those of the sacred book, and they never did so. That, this transference must have taken place in a community for to be sure, on calm reflection, is not so very surprising. Revela- which salvation formed the central object of faith, i.e. either tions of the kind which Mahomet uttered, no unbeliever could I amongst those Jews who looked to the coming of a Messiah or, Words. € or a of the or » 902 KORAN 60 2 66 " more probably, among Christians, since Christianity is in a very Meccan sūras, interpolated in Medina revelations, arose (e.g. peculiar sense the religion of salvation. Milla is properly Sür. xvi. 124, vi. 162) is provided by the Ibrāhīm legend, the * word” (= Aramaic melltha), but in the Koran “ religion.” It great importance of which, as throwing light on the evolution is actually used of the religion of the Jews and Christians (once), of Mahomet's doctrine in its relation to older revealed religions, of the heathen (5 times), but mostly (8 times) of the religion has been convincingly set forth by Dr Snouck Hurgronje in his of Abraham, which Mahomet in the Medina period places on the dissertation for the doctor's degree and in later essays.? Accord- same level with Islam. Although of the Aramaic dialects none ing to this, Ibrahim, after the controversy with the Jews, first employs the term Melliha in the sense of religion, it appears that of all became Mahomet's special forerunner in Medina, then the the prophet found such a use. Illiyūn, which Mahomet uses of first Moslem, and finally the founder of the Ka'ba. But at all a heavenly book (Sūra 83; 18, 19), is clearly the Hebrew elyon, events it is far easier to arrange in some sort of chronological order high” or “ exalted.” It is, however, doubtſul in what sense the Medina sūras than those composed in Mecca. There is, this word appeared to him, either as a name of God. as in the Old indeed, one tradition which professes to furnish a chronological Testament it often occurs and regularly without the article, or list of all the sūras. But not to mention that it occurs in several actually as the epithet of a heavenly book, although this use divergent forms, and that it takes no account of the fact that our cannot be substantiated from Jewish literature. So again the present sūras are partly composed of pieces of different dates, it word mathāni is, as Geiger has conjectured, the regular plural contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements, of the Aramaic mathnitha, which is the same as the Hebrew that it is impossible to attach any great importance to it. Be- Mishnah, and denotes in Jewish usage a legal decision of some sides, it is a priori unlikely that a contemporary of Mahomet of the ancient Rabbins. But in the Koran Mahomet appears should have drawn up such a list; and if any one had made the to have understood it in the sense of “ saying" or sentence attempt he would have found it almost impossible to obtain (cf. xxxix. 24). On the other hand, it is by no means certain reliable information as to the order of the earlier Meccan sūras. that by“ the Seven Mathani ” (xv. 87) the seven verses of Sūra i. We have in this list no genuine tradition, but rather the lucubra- are meant. Words of undoubtedly Christian origin are less tions of an undoubtedly conscientious Moslem critic, who may frequent in the Koran. It is an interesting fact that of these a have lived about a century after the Flight. few have come over from the Abyssinian; such as hawāriyūn Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a consider- “ apostles," māida “table,” munāfig“ doubter, sceptic," ragūn able number of (for the most part) short sūras, which strike every cursed,” mihrab “ temple "; the first three of these make their attentive reader as being the oldest. They are in The Meccan first appearance in sūras of the Medina period. The word an altogether different strain from many others, Söras. shaitān “Satan,” which was likewise borrowed, at least in the and in their whole composition they show least first instance, from the Abyssinian, had probably been already resemblance to the Medina pieces. It is no doubt conceivable introduced into the language. Sprenger has rightly observed as Sprenger supposes-that Mahomet might have returned at that Mahomet makes a certain parade of these foreign terms, as intervals to his earlier manner; but since this group possesses of other peculiarly constructed expressions; in this he followed a remarkable similarity of style, and since the gradual formation a favourite practice of contemporary poets. It is the tendency of a different style is on the whole an unmistakable fact, the of the imperfectly educated to delight in out-of-the-way expres- assumption has little probability; and we shall therefore abide sions, and on such minds they readily produce a remarkably by the opinion that these form a distinct group. At the opposite solemn and mysterious impression. This was exactly the kind extreme from them stands another cluster, showing quite obvious. of effect that Mahomet desired, and to secure it he seems even affinities with the style of the Medina sūras, which must therefore to have invented a few odd vocables, as ghislin (lxix. 36), sijjin be assigned to the later part of the Prophet's work in Mecca. (lxxxiii. 7, 8), tasnim (lxxxiii. 27), and salsabil (lxxvi. 18). But, Between these two groups stand a number of other Meccan sūras, of course, the necessity of enabling his hearers to understand which in every respect mark the transition from the first period ideas which they must have found sufficiently novel in them to the third. It need hardly be said that the three periods selves, imposed tolerably narrow limits on such eccentricities. which were first distinguished by Professor Weil-are not The constituents of our present Koran belong partly to the separated by sharp lines of division. With regard to some sūras, Mecca period(before A.D. 622), partly to the period commencing it may be doubtful whether they ought to be reckoned amongst Date of the with the migration to Medina (from the autumn the middle group, or with one or other of the extremes. And it of 622 to 8th June 632). Mahomet's position in is altogether impossible, within these groups, to establish even Medina was entirely different from that which he a probable chronological arrangement of the individual revela- had occupied in his native town. In the former he was from the tions. In default of clear allusions to well-known events, or first the leader of a powerful party, and gradually became the events whose date can be determined, we might indeed endeavour autocratic ruler of Arabia; in the latter he was only the despised to trace the psychological development of the Prophet by means preacher of a small congregation. This difference, as was to be of the Koran, and arrange its parts accordingly. But in such expected, appears in the Koran. The Medina pieces, whether an undertaking one is always apt to take subjective assumptions entire sūras or isolated passages interpolated in Meccan sūras, or mere fancies for established data. Good traditions about the are accordingly pretty broadly distinct, as to their contents, origin of the Meccan revelations are not very numerous. In fact from those issued in Mecca. In the great majority of cases there the whole history of Mahomet previous to the Flight is so can be no doubt whatever whether a piece first saw the light in imperfectly related that we are not even sure in what year he Mecca or in Medina; and for the most part the internal evidence appeared as a prophet. Probably it was in A.D. 610; it may have is borne out by Moslem tradition. And since the revelations been somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one tradition given in Medina frequently take notice of events about which we says, xxx. I seq. (“ The Romans are overcome in the nearest have fairly accurate information, and whose dates are at least neighbouring land ") refers to the defeat of the Byzantines by approximately known, we are often in a position to fix their date the Persians, not far from Damascus, about the spring of 614, it with at any rate considerable certainty; here again tradition would follow that the third group, to which this passage belongs, renders valuable assistance. Even with regard to the Medina covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And it is not in passages, however, a great deal remains uncertain, partly because itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which characterizes the allusions to historical events and circumstances are generally the first group was of short duration. Nor is the assumption rather obscure, partly because traditions about the occasion of contradicted by the tolerably well attested, though far from the revelation of the various pieces are often fluctuating, and incontestable statement, that when Omar was converted (A.D. often rest on misunderstanding or arbitrary conjecture. An 615 or 616), xx., which belongs to the second group, already important criterion for judging the period during which individual existed in writing. But the reference of xxx. I seq. to this par. 1 For the schemes of Nöldeke and Grimm see MAHOMMEDAN ticular battle is by no means so certain that positive conclusions RELIGION. 2 See Bibliography at end. a Several Parts. KORAN 903 Süras. a can be drawn from it. It is the same with other allusions are now related, sometimes at great length. On the whole, the in the Meccan sûras to occurrences whose chronology can be charm of the style is passing away. partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to rest satisfied There is one piece of the Koran, belonging to the beginning of with a merely relative determination of the order of even the this period, if not to the close of the former, which claims par. three great clusters of Meccan revelations. ticular notice. This is Sūra i., the Lord's Prayer of The Pâtiņa. In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of the Moslems, a vigorous hymn of praise to God, the Prophet often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence. the Lord of both worlds, which ends in a petition for aid and Oldest He is so carried away by his emotion that he cannot true guidance (hudā). The words of this sūra, which is known Meccan choose his words; they seem rather to burst from as al-fatiha (" the opening one"), are as follows:- him. Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles (!) in the name of God, the compassionate compassioner. (2) of the old heathen soothsayers, whose style is known to us from Praise be (literally “is '') to God, the Lord of the worlds, (3) the imitations, although we have perhaps not a single genuine compassionate compassioner, (4), the Sovereign of the day of specimen. Like those other oracles, the sūras of this period, judgment; (5) Thee do we worship and of Thee do we beg-assist- ance. (6) Direct us in the right way; (7) in the way of those to which are never very long, are composed of short sentences with whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom there is no wrath, and tolerably pure but rapidly changing rhymes. The oaths, too, who go not astray. with which many of them begin were largely used by the sooth- The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet sayers. Some of these oaths are very uncouth and hard to the prayer is full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be under- stood, for indeed all sorts of strange things are met with in these original idea of Mahomet's in it. Of the seven verses of the sūra chapters. Here and there Mahomet speaks of visions, and appears relationship with the stereotyped formulae of Jewish and Chris- no less than five (verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 6) have an extremely suspicious even to see angels before him in bodily form. There are some tian liturgies. Verse 6 agrees, word for word, with Ps. xxvii. intensely vivid descriptions of the resurrection and the last day 11. On the other hand, the question must remain open whether which must have exercised a demonic power over men who were Mahomet only gave free renderings of the several borrowed quite unfamiliar with such pictures. Other pieces paint in glowing colours the joys of heaven and the pains of hell. How-formulae, or whether in actually composing them he kept ever, the sūras of this period are not all so wild as these; and those sioner," Raḥmān, is simply the Jewish Raḥmānā, which was a existing models. The designation of God as the “ Compas- which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to be the oldest. favourite name for God in the Talmudic period. The word had Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make out any long before Mahomet's time been used for God in southern strict chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means certain whether the beginning of xcvi. is really, what a widely Arabia (cf. e.8. the Sabaean Inscriptions, Glaser, 554, line 32; 618, line 2). circulated tradition calls it, the oldest part of the whole Koran. That tradition goes back to the Prophet's favourite wife Ayesha; adopting al-Raḥmān as a proper name of God, in place of Allah, Mahomet seems for a while to have entertained the thought of but as she was not born at the time when the revelation is said which was already used by the heathens. This purpose he to have been made, it can only contain at the best what Mahomet ultimately relinquished, but it is just in the sūras, of the second told her years afterwards, from his own not very clear recollec- period that the use of Raḥmān is specially frequent. If, for this tion, with or without fictitious additions, and this woman is little trustworthy. Moreover, there are other pieces mentioned by reason, it is to a certain extent certain that Sûra i. belongs to this others as the oldest. In any case xcvi. 1 sqq. is certainly very period, yet we can neither prove that it belongs to the beginning of the Mecca period nor that the present introductory formula early. According to the traditional view, which appears to be correct, it treats of a vision in which the Prophet receives an “In the name of God," &c., belonged to it from the first. It may injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by the angel . I therefore even be doubted whether Mahomet at the outset looked upon the latter as revealed. Tradition, of course, knows in It is interesting to observe that here already two things are this connexion no doubt, and looks upon the Fātiha precisely brought forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of God: as the most exalted portion of the Koran. Every Moslem who one is the creation of man out of a seminal drop-an idea to which Mahomet often recurs; the other is the then recently it not less than twenty times a day. says his five prayers regularly—as the most of them do-repeats introduced art of writing, which the Prophet instinctively seizes The sūras of the third Meccan period, which form a fairly large on as a means of propagating his doctrines. It was only after Some Mahomet encountered obstinate resistance that the tone of the part of our present Koran, are almost entirely prosaic. of the revelations are of considerable extent, and the revelations became thoroughly passionate. In such cases he was not slow to utter terrible threats against those who ridiculed the single verses also are much longer than in the older sūras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power preaching of the unity of God, of the resurrection, and of the flashes out. A sermonizing tone predominates. The sūras are judgment. His own uncle Abū Lahab had rudely repelled him and very edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import, in a brief special sūra (cxi.) he and his wife are consigned to hell. but to us at least they do not seem very well fitted to carry con- The sūras of ihis period form almost exclusively the concluding viction to the minds of unbelievers. That impression, however, portions of the present text. One is disposed to assume, how- is not correct, for in reality the demonstrations of these longer ever, that they were at one time more numerous, and that many Meccan sūras appear to have been peculiarly influential for the of them were lost at an early period. Since Mahomet's strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery propagation of Islam. Mahomet's mission was not to Euro- imagination rather than in the wealth of ideas and clearness of peans, but to a people who, though quick-witted and receptive, were not accustomed to logical thinking, while they had out- abstract thought on which exact reasoning depends, it follows that the older sūras, in which the former qualities have free grown their ancient religion. When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been scope, must be more attractive to us than the later. In the indicated, much easier to understand the revelations in their sūras of the second period the imaginative glow perceptibly historical relations, since our knowledge of the history of diminishes; there is still fire and animation, but the tone becomes gradually more prosaic. As the feverish restlessness subsides, 1 Şince in Arabic also the root cosy signifies“ to have pity," the the periods are drawn out, and the revelations as a whole become Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new name. longer. The truth of the new doctrine is proved by accumulated everywhere in the Koran to be understood as “ Merciful,” there is While the foreign word Raḥmān is, in accordance with its origin, instances of God's working in nature and in history; the objec- some doubt as to Raḥīm. The close connexion of the two expres. tions of opponents, whether advanced in good faith or in jest, sions, it is true, makes it probable that Mahomet only added the are controverted by arguments; but the demonstration is often adjective Raḥīm to the substantive Raḥmān in order to strengthen confused or even weak. The histories of the earlier prophets, the conception. But the genuine Arab meaning of Rahim is gracious," and thus, the old Mahommedan Arab papyri render this which had occasionally been briefly touched on in the first period, ' word by pidávê pwros. Latest Meccan Sūras. 904 KORAN Süras. 4 Mahomet in Medina is tolerably complete. In many cases the significant than to us who have been initiated into the mysteries historical occasion is perfectly clear, in others we can at least of this art from our childhood. The Prophet himself can hardly Mediaan recognize the general situation from which they their purpose if they conveyed an impression of solemnity and have attached any particular mcaning to these symbols: they served arose, and thus approximately fix their time. There enigmatical obscurity. In fact, the Koran admits that it contains still remains, however; a remnant, of which we can only say that many things which neither can be, nor were intended to be, under- it belongs to Medina. stood (iii. 5). To regard these letters as ciphers is a precarious The style of this period bears a fairly close resemblance to hypothesis, for the simple reason that cryptography is not to be looked for in the very inlancy of Arabic writing. If they are actually that of the latest Meccan period. It is for the most part pure ciphers, the multiplícity of possible explanations at once precludes prose, enriched by occasional rhetorical embellishments. Yet the hope of a plausible interpretation.' None of the efforts in this even here there are many bright and impressive passages, direction, whether by Moslem scholars or by Europeans, has led especially in those sections which may be regarded as proclama-conjecture of Sprenger, that the letters warys (Kaf He Yē A in Sad) to convincing results. This remark applies even to the ingenious tions to the army of the faithful. For the Moslems Mahomet before xix. (which treats of John and Jesus, and, according to tradi- has many different messages. At one time it is a summons to do tion, was sent to the Christian king of Abyssinia) stand for Jesus battle for the faith; at another, a series of reflections on recently Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum. Sprenger arrives at this explanation by a experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke, for their weak very artificial method; and besides, Mahomet was not so simple as faith; or an exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses read a piece of the Arabic Koran. It need hardly be said that the the Moslem traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssinians could himself to the “ doubters," some of whom vacillate between Moslems have from of old applied themselves with great assiduity faith and unbelief, others make a pretence of faith, while others to the decipherment of these initials, and have sometimes found the scarcely take the trouble even to do that. They are no con- deepest mysteries in them. Generally, however, they are content solidated party, but to Mahomet they are all equally vexatious, with the prudent conclusion that God alone knows the meaning of these because, as soon as danger has to be encountered, or a contribu- tion is levied, they all alike fall away. There are frequent out- It is probable (see above) that Mahomet had already caused bursts, ever increasing in bitterness, against the Jews, who were revelations to be written down at Mecca, and that this began very numerous in Medina and its neighbourhood when Mahomet from the moment when he felt certain that he was the trans- arrived. He has much less to say against the Christians, with mitter of the actual text of a heavenly book to mankind. It is whom he never came closely in contact; and as for the idolaters, even true that he may at some time or another have formed the there was little occasion in Medina to have many words with intention of collecting these revelations. The idea of a heavenly them. A part of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws model would in itself have suggested such a course and, only belonging to the ceremonial, civil and criminal codes; or direc- in an inferior degree to this, the necessity of setting a new and tions about certain temporary complications. The most objec-uncorrupted document of the divine will over against the sacred tionable parts of the whole Koran are those which treat of scriptures of the Jews and Christians, the people of the Book, Mahomet's relations with women. The laws and regulations as the Koran calls them. In any case, when Mahomet died, the were generally very concise revelations, but most of them have separate pieces of the Koran, not withstanding their theoretical been amalgamated with other pieces of similar. or dissimilar sacredness, existed only in scattered copies; they Trans- import, and are now found in very long sūras. were consequently in great danger of being partially mission of Such is an imperfect sketch of the composition and the or entirely destroyed. Many Moslems knew large the Koran. internal history of the Koran, but it is probably sufficient to show portions by heart, but certainly no one knew the whole; that the book is a very heterogeneous collection. If only those and a merely oral propagation would have left the door passages had been preserved which had a permanent value for open to all kinds of deliberate and inadvertent alterations. But the theology, the ethics, or the jurisprudence of the Moslems, a now, after the death of the Prophet, most of the Arabs revolted few fragments would have been amply sufficient. Fortunately against his successor, and had to be reduced to submission by for knowledge, respect for the sacredness of the letter has led to force. Especially sanguinary was the struggle against the pro- the collection of all the revelations that could possibly be phet Maslama (Mubarrad, Kāmil 443, 5), commonly known by collected—the "abrogating ” along with the “abrogated," the derisive diminutive Mosailima. At that time (A.D. 633) passages referring to passing circumstances as well as those of many of the most devoted Moslems fell, the very men who knew lasting importance. Every one who takes up the book in the most Koran pieces by heart. Omar then began to fear that the proper religious frame of mind, like most of the Moslems, reads Koran might be entirely forgotten, and he induced the Caliph pieces directed against long-obsolete absurd customs of Mecca Abū Bekr to undertake the collection of all its parts. The just as devoutly as the weightiest moral precepts-perhaps Caliph laid the duty on Zaid ibn Thābit, a native of Medina, even more devoutly, because he does not understand them so then about twenty-two years of age, who had often well. acted as amanuensis to the Prophet, in whose service Когад. At the head of twenty-nine of the sūras stand certain initial he is even said to have learned the Jewish letters. letters, from which no clear sense can be obtained. Thus, before The account of this collection of the Koran has reached us in ii. iii. xxxi. xxxii. we find all (Alif Lam Mim), before several substantially identical forms, and goes back to Zaid him- Mysterious xl.-xlvi. oo (ļļā Mīm). Nöldeke at one time suggested self. According to it, he collected the revelations from copies Letters. that these initials did not belong to Mahomet's text, written on flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves but might be the monograms of possessors of codices, which, through (not palm-leaves themselves), and such-like material, but chiefly negligence on the part of the editors, were incorporated in the final form of the Koran; he now deems it more probable that they are " from the breasts of men,” i.e. from their memory. From these to be traced to the Prophet himself, as Sprenger, Loth and others he wrote a fair copy, which he gave to Abū Bekr, from whom it suppose. One cannot indeed admit the truth of Loth's statement came to his successor Omar, who again bequeathed it to his that in the proper opening words of these sūras we may generally daughter Hafşa, one of the widows of the Prophet. This redac- find an allusion to the accompanying initials; but it can scarcely tion, commonly called al-șoủof (“the leaves "), had from the be accidental that the first verse of the great majority of them in first' no canonical authority; and its internal arrangement can iii. it is the second verse) contains the word "book,' revelation, or some equivalent. They usually begin with: “This is the book," only be conjectured. "Revelation (' down sending, ?) of the book," or something similar. The Moslems were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text Of sūras which commence in ihis way only a few (xviii. xxiv. xxv. of the Koran. The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew xxxix.) want the initials, while only xxix. and xxx. have the initials and begin differently. These few exceptions may easily have pro- deplorably little about it; distinction on that field they cheerfully ceeded from ancient corruptions: at all events they cannot neutralize accorded to pious men like Ibn Mas'ūd. It was inevitable, how- the evidence of the greater number. Mahomet seems to have meant ever, that discrepancies should emerge between the texts of pro- these letters for a mystic reference to the archetypal text in heaven. To a man who regarded the art of writing, of which at the best he had fessed scholars, and as these men in their several localities were but a slight knowledge, as something supernatural, and who lived authorities on the reading of the Koran, quarrels began to break amongst illiterate people, an A B C may well have seemed more out between the levies from different districts about the true form Zald's First or KORAN 905 of the sacred book. During a campaign in A.H. 30 (A.D. 650-651), fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything which he Hodhaifa, the victor in the great and decisive battle of believed to belong to the Koran is very unlikely. It has been con- Nebăveand (see CALIPHATE; and PERSIA: History) perceived jectured that in deference to his superiors he kept out of the book that such disputes might become dangerous, and therefore the names of Mahomet's enemies, if they or their families came urged on the caliph Othmān the necessity for a universally afterwards to be respected. But it must be remembered that it binding text. The matter was entrusted to Zaid, was never Mahomet's practice to refer explicitly to contemporary Othman's Koran. who had made the former collection, with three lead persons and affairs in the Koran. Only a single friend, his ing Koreishites. These brought together as many adopted son Zaid (xxxii. 37), and a single enemy, his uncle Abū copics as they could lay their hands on, and prepared an edition Lahab (cxi.)--and these for very special reasons-are mentioned which was to be canonical for ail Moslems. To prevent any by name; and the name of the latter has been left in the Koran further disputes, they burned all the other codices except that of with a fearful curse annexed to it, although his son had embraced Hafşa, which, however, was soon afterwards destroyed by Merwān Islam before the death of Mahomet, and his descendants be- the governor of Medina. The destruction of the earlier codices longed to the noblest families. So, on the other hand, there is no was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the essentially single verse or clause which can be plausibly made out to be an political object of putting an end to controversies by admitting interpolation by Zaid at the instance of Abū Bekr, Omar, or only one form of the common book of religion and of law, this Othmān. Slight clerical errors there may have been, but the measure was necessary. Koran of Othmān contains none but genuine elements—though The result of these labours is in our hands; as to how they were sometimes in very strange order. All efforts of European scholars conducted we have no trustworthy information, tradition being to prove the existence of later interpolations in the Koran have here too much under the influence of dogmatic presuppositions. failed. The critical methods of a modern scientific commission will not Of the four exemplars of Othmān's Koran, one was kept in be expected of an age when the highest literary education for an Medina, and one was sent to each of the three metropolitan cities, Arab consisted in ability to read and write. It now appears Kufa, Başra, and Damascus. It can still be pretty clearly shown highly probable that this second redaction took this simple form: in detail that these four codices deviated from one another in Zaid read off from the codex which he had previously written, points of orthography, in the insertion or omission of a wa("and") and his associates, simultaneously or successively, wrote one copy and such-like minutiae; but these variations nowhere affect the each to his dictation. These three manuscripts will therefore be sense. All later manuscripts are derived from these four originals, those which the caliph, according to trustworthy tradition, sent At the same time, the other forms of the Koran did not at in the first instance as standard copies to Damascus, Basra and once become extinct. In particular we have some information Kufa to the warriors of the provinces of which these were the about the codex of Ubay ibn Ka'b. If the list which Other capitals, while he retained one at Medina. Be that as it may, it is gives the order of its sūras is correct, it must have Editions. impossible now to distinguish in the present form of the book contained substantially the same materials as our what belongs to the first redaction from what is due to the second. text; in that case Ubay ibn Ka'b must have used the original In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification collection of Zaid. The same is true of the codex of Ibn Mas'ud, according to contents was impracticable because of the variety of of which we have also a catalogue. It appears that the principle subjects often dealt with in one sūra. A chronological arrange- of putting the longer sūras before the shorter was more con- ment was out of the question, because the chronology of the older sistently carried out by him than by Zaid. He omits i. and the pieces must have been imperfectly known, and because in some magical formulae of cxiii., cxiv. Ubay, on the other hand, had cases passages of different dates had been joined together. embodied two additional short prayers, which we may regard Indeed, systematic principles of this kind were altogether dis- as Mahomet's. One can easily understand that differences of regarded at that period. The pieces were accordingly arranged opinion may have existed as to whether and how far formularies in indiscriminate order, the only rule observed being to place the of this kind belonged to the Koran. Some of the divergent long sūras first and the shorter towards the end, and even that readings of both these texts have been preserved as well as a was far from strictly adhered to. The two magic formulae, considerable number of other ancient variants. Most of them sūras cxiii., cxiv. owe their position at the end of the collection are decidedly inferior to the received readings, but some are quite to their peculiar contents, which differ from all the other sūras; as good, and a few deserve preference. they are protecting spells for the faithful. Similarly it is by The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the reason of its contents that sūra i. stands at the beginning: not general introduction of Othmān's text is Ibn Mas'ūd. He was only because it is in praise of Allah, as Psalm i. is in praise of the one of the oldest disciples of the Prophet, and had often rendered righteous man, but because it gives classical expression to im- him personal service; but he was a man of contracted portant articles of the faith. These are the only special traces of views, although he is one of the pillars of Moslem design. The combination of pieces of different origin may pro- theology. His opposition had no effect. Now when ceed partly from the possessors of the codices from which Zaid we consider that at that time there were many Moslems who had compiled his first complete copy, partly from Zaid himself. The heard the Koran from the mouth of the Prophet, that other individual sūras are separated simply by the superscription: measures of the imbecile Othmān met with the most vehement “ In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner," which resistance on the part of the bigoted champions of the faith, is wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in that these were still further incited against him by some of his our texts (the name of the sūras, the number of verses, &c.) ambitious old comrades until at last they murdered him, and were not in the original codices, and form no integral part of the finally that in the civil wars after his death the several parties Koran. were glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as infidels; It is said that Othman directed Zaid and his associates, in -when we consider all this, we must regard it as a strong cases of disagreement, to follow the Ķoreish dialect; but, though testimony in favour of Othmān's Koran that no party found well attested, this account can scarcely be correct. The extremely fault with his conduct in this matter, or repudiated the text primitive writing of those days was quite incapable of rendering formed by Zaid, who was one of the most devoted adherents such minut lifferences as can have existed between the pro- of Othmān and his family, and that even among the Shiites nunciation of Mecca and that of Medina, criticism of the caliph's action is only met with as a rare Othmān's Korań was not complete. Some passages are exception. evidently fragmentary; and a few detached pieces are still extant But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the The Koran which were originally parts of the Koran, although Koran. The ancient Arabic alphabet was very imperfect; it not they have been omitted by Zaid. Amongst these are only wanted marks for the short and in part even for the long plete. some which there is no reason to suppose Mahomet vowels, but it often expressed several consonants by the same sign, e.g. one and the same character could mean B, T, Th at the begin. desired to suppress. Zaid may easily have overlooked a few stray I ning and N and J (I) in the middle of words. Hence there were Iba Mas'ud. not com- 906 KORAT Later the Text. many words which could be read in very different ways. This i itself, has yanished in the course of thirteen centuries. According variety of possible readings was at first very great, and many to the dominant view, bowever, the ritual use of the Koran is not in readers seem to have actually made it their object to the least concerned with the sacred words being understood, but discover pronunciations which were new, provided they solely with their being quite properly recited. Nevertheless, a great History of were at all appropriate to the ambiguous text. There deal remains to be accomplished by European scholarship for the was also a dialectic licence in grammatical forms, which. correct interpretation of the Koran. We want, for example, an had not as yet been greatly restricted. An effort was made by many exhaustive classification and discussion of all the Jewish elements to establish a more refined pronunciation for the Koran than was in the Koran; a praise worthy beginning was made in Geiger's youth usual in common life or in secular literature. The various schools ful essay Was hat Mohamed aus dem Judenthum aufgenommen ? of " readers " differed very widely from one another; although for (Bonn, 1833; the "second revised edition," Leipzig, 1902, is only a the most part there was no important divergence as to the sense of reprint). We want especially a thorough commentary. executed words. A few of them gradually rose to special authority, and the with the methods and resources of modern science. No Trans- rest disappeared. Seven readers are generally reckoned chief European language, it would seem, can even boast of a latloos. authorities, but for practical purposes this number was continually translation which completely satisfies modern require. reduced in process of time; so that at present only two “ reading; ments. The best are in English; where we have the extremely styles " are in actual use, the common style of Haſș, and that of paraphrastic, but for its time admirable translation of George Sale Náfi'; which prevails in Africa to the west of Egypt. There is, (repeatedly, printed), that of Rodwell (1861), which seeks to give however, a very comprehensive massoretic literature in which a the pieces in chronological order, and that of Palmer (1880), who number of other styles are indicated. The invention of vowel-signs wisely follows the traditional arrangements. The introduction of diacritic points to distinguish similarly formed consonants, and which accompanies Palmer's translation is not in all respects of other orthographic signs, soon put a stop to arbitrary conjectures abreast of the most recent scholarship. Considerable extracts on the part of the readers. Many zealots objected to the introduc- from the Koran are well translated in E. W. Lane's Selections tion of these innovations in the sacred text, but theological consis-from the Kur-an. Not much can be said in praise of the com- tency had to yield to practical necessity. In accurate codices, plete translations into the German language, neither of that of indeed, all such additions, as well as the titles of the sūra, &c., are Ullmann, which has appeared in several editions, nor of that of written in coloured ink, while the black characters profess to repre- Henning (Leipzig) and Grigull (Halle), all of them shallow amateurs sent exactly the original of Othmān. But there is probably no copy who have no notion of the difficulties to be met with in the task, and quite faithful in this respect. Moreover, the right recitation of the are almost entirely dependent on Sale. Friedrich Rückert's excel- Koran is an art which even people of Arab tongue can only learn with lent version (published by August Müller, Frankfort-on-Maine, great difficulty. In addition to the nuances of pronunciation already 1888) gives only selections. M. Klamroth's translation of the fifty alluded to, there is a semi-musical modulation. In these matters oldest sūras, Die fünfzig ältesten Suren (Hamburg, 1890) attempts also the various schools differ. successfully to reproduce the rhymed form of the originals. The In European libraries, besides innumerable modern manuscripts of publication of the translation of the Koran by the great Leipzig the Koran, there are also codices, or fragments, of high antiquity, Arabic scholar, H. L. Fleischer (d. 1888) has so far unfortunately Manu- some of them probably dating from the ist century of been delayed. (For modern editions, commentaries, &c., see the Flight. For the restoration of the text, however, MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: Bibliography). scripts. the works of ancient scholars on its readings and modes Besides commentaries on the whole Koran, or on special parts of writing are more important than the manuscripts; which, however and topics, the Moslems possess a whole literature bearing on their elegantly they may be written and ornamented, proceed from irre- sacred book. There are works on the spelling and right pronun- sponsible copyists. The original, written by Othman himself, has ciation of the Koran, works on the beauty of its language, on the indeed been exhibited in various parts of the Mahommedan world. number of its verses, words and letters, &c.; nay, there are even The library of the India Office contains one such manuscript, works which would nowadays be called historical and critical bearing the subscription: “ Written by 'Othmān the son of 'Allān.' introductions." Morcover, the origin of Arabic philology is inti- These, of course, are barefaced forgeries, although of very ancient mately connected with the recitation and exegesis of the Koran. date; 'so are those which profess to be from the hand of Ali, one of To exhibit the importance of the sacred book for the whole mental which is preserved in the same library. In recent times the Koran life of the Moslems would be simply to write the history of that has been often printed and lithographed, both in the East and the life itself; for there is no department in which its all-pervading, West. In Mahommedan countries lithography alone is employed. but unfortunately not always salutary, influence has not been felt. Shortly after Mahomet's death certain individuals applied them- The unbounded reverence of the Moslems for the Koran reaches selves to the exposition of the Koran. Much of it was obscure from its climax in the dogma that this book, as the divine word, i.e. the beginning, other sections were unintelligible apart thought, is immanent in God, and consequently eternal Commeg. from a knowledge of the circumstances of their origin. and uncreated. This dogma, which was doubtless due Eternity of Unfortunately, those who took possession of this field to the influence of the Christian doctrine of the eternal the Koraa. were not very honourable. Ibn 'Abbās, a cousin of Mahomet, and Word of God, has been accepted by almost all Mahommedans since the chief source of the traditional exegesis of the Koran, has,on theolo- the beginning of the 3rd century. Some theologians did indeed gical and other grounds, given currency to a number of falsehoods; protest against it with great energy; it was in fact too pre- and at least some of his pupils have emulated his example. These posterous to declare that a book composed of unstable words and earliest expositions dealt more with the sense and connexion of whole letters, and full of variants, was absolutely divine. But what verses than with the separate words. Afterwards, as the knowledge would not remove such contradictions, and convict their opponents were the distinctions and sophisms of the theologians for, if they of the old language declined, and the study of philology arose, more attention began to be paid to the explanation of vocables. A good of heresy? many fragments of this older theological and philological exegesis BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works may be especially con- have survived from the first two centuries of the Flight, although sulted: Weil, Einleitung in den Korān (2nd ed., 1878); Th. Noldeke, we have no complete commentary of this period. The great com- Geschichte des Qorān's (Göttingen, 1860; 2nd ed. by Friedrich mentary of Tabari, A.D. 839-923, of which for the last few years we Schwally, 1908); the Lives of Mahomet by William Muir and Aloys have possessed an Oriental edition in 30 parts (Cairo A.H. 1321 = Sprenger (vols. i.-iii., Berlin, 1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1869); C. Snouck A.D. 1903), is very full when it comes to speak of canonical law, Hurgronje, Het mekkaansche Feest (Leiden, 1880), De Islam (de Gids, as well as in its accounts of the occasions of the several revelations; 1886, ii. 257-273, 454-498, iii. 90-134;" Une nouvelle biographie de for, as in his great historical work, he faithfully records a large number Mohammed," Revue de l'histoire des religions, tome 29, p. 48 f., of traditions with the channels by which they have come down to 149 sqq.; Leone Caetani, Annali dell'Islam,i. (Milan, 1905), i1. (Milan, us (genealogical trees, isnäd). In other respects the hopes based 1907); Frants Buhl, Muhammeds Liv (Copenhagen, 1903). upon this commentary have not been fulfilled. (Th. N.; Fr. Sv.) Another very famous commentary is that of Zamakhshari (A.D. 1075-1144), edited by Nassau-Lees, Calcutta, 1859; but this scholar, KORAT, the capital of the provincial division (Monton) of with his great insight and still greater subtlety, is too apt to read his Nakawn Racha Sema, or “the frontier country,” in Siam; in own scholastic ideas into the Koran. The favourite commentary 102° 5' E., 14° 59' N. Pop. about 7000, mixed Cambodian and of Baidāwi (d. A.D. 1286), edited by Fleischer (Leipzig: 1846-1848), Siamese. It is the headquarters of a high commissioner and of is little more than an abridgment of Zamakhshari's. Thousands of commentaries on the Koran, some of them of prodigious size, have an army division. It is the terminus of a railway from Bangkok, been written by Moslems; and even the number of those still extant 170 m. distant, and the distributing centre for the whole of the in manuscript is by no means small. Although these works all con plateau district hich forms the eastern part of Siam. There tain much that is useless or false, yet they are invaluable aids to are copper mines of reputed wealth in the neighbourhood. It our understanding of the sacred book. An unbiased European can, no doubt, see many things at a glance more clearly than a good is the centre of a silk-growing district and is the headquarters Moslem who is under the influence of religious prejudice; but we of the government sericultural department, instituted in 1904 should still be helpless without the exegetical literature of the with the assistance of Japanese experts for the purpose of im. Mahommedans. Even the Arabian Moslems would only understand the Koran very dimly and imperfectly if they did not give special proving the quality of Siamese silk. The government is that of attention to the study of its interpretation. The advantage of being an ordinary provincial division of Siam. A French vice-consul in a language commonly understood, which the holy book claims for resides here. Since the founding of Ayuthia in the 14th century, tators. KORDOFAN 907 Korat has been tributary to, or part of, Siam, with occasional | N.W. of Kordofan, date, dom and other palms grow. The basbab lapses into independence or temporary subjection to Cambodia. locally Home, is fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees or calabash tree, known in the eastern Sudan as the tebeldi and Before that period it was probably part of Cambodia, as appears collect water, which the natives regularly tap. Another common from the nature of the ruins still to be seen in its neighbour- source of water supply is a small kind of water melon which grows hood. In 1896 the last vestige of its tributary condition wild and is also cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are vanished with the introduction of the present system of Siamese immense creepers, some of them rubber-vines. The cotton plant is also found. The fauna includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, rural administration. giraffe, lion, leopard, cheetah, róan-antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and KORDOFAN, a country of north-east Africa, forming a many other kinds of antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge, mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies jungle-fowl, bustard and guinea-fowl. Nearly all the kinds of mainly between 12º and 16° W. and 29° and 321° E., and has game mentioned are found chiefly in the western and southern an area of about 130,000 sq. m., being bounded W. by Darfur, fan are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan. Reptiles, districts. The ril or addra gazelle found in N. and N.W. Kordo- N. by the Bayuda steppes, E. by the White Nile mudiria and sand-flies and mosquitoes are common. Ostriches are found in the $. by the country of the Shilluks and other negro tribes, forming northern steppes. The chief wealth of the people consists in the part of the Upper Nile mudiria. gum obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains, the Baggara being trained to the saddle and to carry burdens. feathers. The finest cattle are of the humped variety, the bulls of riverless, barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of There are large herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually 1500 ft." Thickets and small acacias dot the steppes, which, owning also large numbers of sheep and goats. Dukhn, a species green during the kharif or rainy season, at other times present of millet which can grow, in the arid northern districts is there the à dull brown burnt-up aspect. In the west, isolated peaks, is, however, the only crop cultivated in Dar Homr. From this chief grain crop, its place in the south being taken by durra. Dukhn such as Jebel Abu Senum and Jebel Kordofan, rise from 150 grain a beer called merissa is brewed. Barley and cotton are culti- to 600 ft. above the plain. North-west are the mountain vated in some districts. A little gold dust is obtained, but the old groups of Kaja and Katul (2000 to 3000 ft.), in the east are gold and other mines in the Tagale country have been, apparently, worked out. the Jebel Daier and Jebel Tagale (Togale), ragged granitic few places. In the absence of fuel the industry is necessarily a small Iron is found in many districts and is smelted in a ranges with precipitous sides. In the south are flat, fertile one. There are large beds of hematite some 60 m. N.W. and the and thickly wooded plains, which give place to jungle at the same distance N.E. of El Obeid. foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district forming the south- Inhabitants. The population of Kordofan was officially east part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the scenery estimated in 1903 to be 550,000. The inhabitants are roughly is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast to that divisible into two types--Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed hills. Many of the villagers of the plains are however of very 3000 ft. in height. The south-western part of the country, a mixed blood-Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, Levantinc and Negro. vast and almost level plain, is known as Dar Homr. A granitic It is said that some village communities are descended from the sand with abundance of mica and feldspar forms the upper original negro inhabitants. They all speak Arabic. The most stratum throughout the greater part of Kordofan; but an important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the admixture of clay, which is observable in the north, becomes gum-producing country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid strongly marked in the south, where there are also stretches and the Bederia--the last-named living round El Obeid. The of black vegetable mould. Beneath there appears to be an nomad Arabs are of two classes, camel owners (Siat El Ilbil) and unbroken surface of mica schist. Though there are no perennial cattle owners (Baggara), the first-named dwelling in the dry rivers, there are watercourses (khors or wadis) in the rainy season; northern regions, the Baggara in southern Kordofan. Of the the chief being the Khor Abu Habl, which traverses the south- camel-owning tribes the chief are the Hamar and the Kabba- central region. In Dar Homr the Wadi el Ghalla and the Khor bish. Many of the Hamar have settled down in villages. The Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent of the Bahr el Ghazal. Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave During the rainy season there is a considerable body of water in raiders. They possess many horses, but when journeying these channels, but owing partly to rapid evaporation and partly place their baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear, to the porous character of the soil the surface of the country dries small throwing spears, and a broad-bladed short sword. Some rapidly. The water which has found its way through the of the richer men possess suits of chain armour. The principal granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist and Baggara tribes are the Hawazma, Meseria, Kenana, Habbania, settles in the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock a and Homr. The Homr are said to have entered Kordofan supply of water can generally be obtained. It is estimated that from Wadai about the end of the 18th century and to bave (apart from those in a few areas where the saud stratum is thin come from North Africa. They speak a purer Arabic than the and water is reached at the depth of a few feet) there are about riverain tribes. The Nubas are split into many tribes, each 900 of these wells. They are narrow shafts going down usually under a mek or king, who is not uncommonly of Arab descent. 30 to 50 ft., but some are over 200 ft. deep. The water is raised The Nubas have their own language, though the inhabitants of by rope and bucket at the cost of enormous labour, and in few each hill have usually a different dialect. They are a primitive cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are trained race, very black, of small build but distinctive negro features. to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate They have feuds with one another and with the Baggara. During after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well. the mahdia they maintained their independence. The Nubas In a few localities the surface depressions hold water for the appear to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country greater part of the year but there is only one permanent lake and are believed to be the original stock of the Nubians of the Keilat, which is some four miles by two. As there is no highland. Nile Valley (see NUBIA). In the northern hills are communities area draining into Kordofan, the underground reservoirs are of black people with woolly hair but of non-negro features. dependent on the local rainfall, and a large number of the wells. They speak Arabic and are called Nuba Arabs. Some of the are dry during many months. The rainy season lasts from mid-southern hills are occupied by Arab-speaking negroes, escaped June to the end of September, rain usually falling every three slaves and their descendants, who called themselves after the or four days in brief but violent showers. In general the climate tribe they formerly served and who have little intercourse with is healthy except in the rainy season, when large tracts are the Nubas. converted into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the The capital, El Obeid (q.v.), is centrally situated. On it shita or cold weather (October to February inclusive) there is a converge various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from cold wind from the north. The seif or hot weather lasts from Dueim, a town on the White Nile 125 m. above Khartum, March to mid-June; the temperature rarely exceeds 105° F. which served as port for the province. Thence was despatched The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern the gum for the Omdurman market. But the railway from part of the country is the grey gum acacia (hashob). In the south Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in 1909-1911, crosses the red gum acacias (talh) are abundant. - In Dar Hamid, in the I the Nile some 60 m. farther south above Abba Island. Nabud a a 908 KOREA (pop. about 10,000), 165 m. W.S.W. of El Obeid, is a commercial | end of Quelpart, possesses the deep, well-sheltered and roomy centre which has sprung into importance since the fall of the harbour of Port Hamilton, which lies between the north points dervishes. All the trade with Darfur passes through the town, of the large and well-cultivated islands of Sun-ho-dan and So- the chief commerce being in cattle, feathers, ivory and cotton dan, which have a population of 2000. Ailan, between their goods. Trade is largely in the hands of Greeks, Syrians, Danagla south-east points, completes this noble harbour. The east coast and Jaalin. Taiara, on the route between El Obeid and the Nile, of Korea is steep and rock-bound, with deep water and a tidal rise was destroyed by the dervishes but has been rebuilt and is a and fall of 1 to 2 ſt. The west coast is often low and shelving, thriving mart for the gum trade. El Odoaiya or Eddaiya is the and abounds in mud-banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from headquarters of the Homr country. It and Baraka in the 20 to 36 ft. Korean harbours, except two or three which are Muglad district are on the trade road between Nahud and closed by drift ice for some weeks in winter, are ice-free. Among Shakka in Darfur. them are Port Shestakov, Port Lazarev, and Wön-san (Gensan) Bara is a small town some 50 m. N.N.E. of Obeid. Talodi in Broughton Bay;' Fusan, Ma-san-po, at the mouth of the and Tendek are government stations in the Nuba country. Nak-tong, on the south coast; Mok-po, Chin-nampo, near the The Nubas have no large towns. They live in villages on the mouth of the Tai-dong; and Cheniulpo, near the mouth of the hillsides or summits. The usual habitation built both by Arabs Han, the port of the capital and the sea terminus of the first and Nubas is the lukl, a conical-shaped hut made of stone, 'mud, Korean railway on the west coast. wattle and daub or straw. The Nuba tukls are the better built. Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving In the chief towns houses are built of mud bricks with flat roofs. the name. In the north there are mountain groups with definite History. Of the early history of Kordofan there is little centres, the most notable being Paik-tu San or Pei-shan (8700 ſt.) record. It never formed an independent state. About the which contains the sources of the Yalu and Tumen. From these beginning of the 16th century Funi from Sennar settled in the groups a lofty range runs southwards, dividing the empire into country; towards the end of that century Kordofan was con- two unequal parts. On its east, between it and the coast, which quered by Suleiman Solon, sultan of Darfur. About 1775 it it follows at a moderate distance, is a fertile strip difficult of was conquered by the Funj, and there followed a considerable access, and on the west it throws off so many lateral ranges and immigration of Arab tribes into the country. The Sennari spurs as to break up the country into a chaos of corrugated however suffered a decisive defeat in 1784 and thereafter under and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a rapid Darfur viceroys the country enjoyed prosperity. In 1821 perennial stream. Farther south this axial range, which in- Kordofan was conquered by Mahommed Bey the defterdar, cludes the Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea son-in-law of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt. It remained under in treeless spurs and small and often infertile levels. The Egyptian rule till 1882 when Mabommed Ahmed, the mahdi, northern groups and the Diamond Mountain are heavily raised the country to revolt. It was in Kordofan that Hicks timbered, but the hills are covered mainly with coarse, sour grass Pasha and his army, sent to crush the revolt, were annihilated and oak and chestnut scrub. The rivers are shallow and rocky, (Nov, 1883). The Baggara of Kordofan from that time onward and are usually only navigable for a few miles from the sea. were the chief supporters of the mahdi, and his successor, the Among the exceptions are the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong, khalifa Abdullah, was a Baggara. In Kordofan in 1899 the Naktong, Mok-po, and Han. The last, rising in Kang-won-do, khalifa met his death, the country having already passed into 30 m. from the east coast, cuts Korea nearly in half, reaching the the hands of the new Sudan government. The chief difficulty sea on the west coast near Chemulpo; and, in spite of many serious experienced by the administration was to habituate the Arabs rapids, is a valuable highway for commerce for over 150 miles. and Nubas, both naturally warlike, to a state of peace. In consequence of the anti-slave raiding measures adopted, the Crystalline schists occupy a large part of the country, forming all Geology.—The geology of Korea is very imperfectly known. Arabs of Talodi in May 1906 treacherously massacred the the higher mountain ranges. They are always strongly folded and mamur of that place and 40 men of the Sudanese regiment. it is in them that the mineral wealth of Korea is situated. Towards The promptness with which this disturbance was suppressed the Manchurian frontier they are covered unconformably by some averted what otherwise might have been a serious rising. (See Cambrian fossils and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian 1600 ft. of sandstones, clay-slates and limestones, which contain SUDAN: Anglo-Egyptian, & “ History.") system of China. Carboniferous beds, consisting chiefly of slates, See The Anglo-Egyplian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, sandstones and conglomerates, are found in the south-castern 1905); H. A. MacMichael, Noles on the History of Kordofan before the provinces. They contain a few seams of coal, but the most impor- Egyptian Conquest (Cairo, 1907): John Petherick, Egypt, the Sudan, tant coal-bearing deposits of the country belong to the Tertiary and Central Africa (London, 1861); Ignaz Pallme, Beschreibung von period. Recent eruptive and volcanic rocks are met with in the Kordofan (Stuttgart, 1843; trans. Travels in Kordofan, London, interior of Korea and also in the island of Quelpart. The principal 1844); Major H. G. Prout, General Report on Province of Kordofan mountain in the latter, Hal-la-san (or Mount Auckland), according (Cairo, 1877); Ernst Marno, Reise in der egypi. Equat. Provinz to Chinese stories, was in eruption in the year 1007. With this (Vienna, 1879); papers (with maps) by Capt. W. Lloyd in the Geog. possible exception there are no active volcanoes in Korea, and the Journ. (June 1907 and March 1910); and the bibliography given region has also been remarkably free from earthquakes throughout under SUDAN: Anglo-Egyptian. historic times. Climate.-The climate is superb for nine months of the year, and KOREA, or COREA (Cu’AO HSIEN, DAI HAN). Its mainland the three months of rain, heat and damp are not injurious to health. portion consists of a peninsula stretching southwards from Koreans suffer from malaria, but Europeans and their children are Manchuria, with an estimated length of about 600 m., an ex- fairly free from climatic maladies, and enjoy robust health. The treme breadth of 135 m., and a coast-line of 1740 m. It extends about 33°; the average rainfall, 36.3 in. in the year, and of the rainy summer mean temperature of Seoul is about 75° F., that of winter from 34° 18' to 43° N., and from 124° 36' to 130° 47' E. Its season 21.86 in. The rains come in July and August on the west northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and Yalu rivers; and north-east coasts, and from April to July on the south coast, the eastern boundary by the Sea of Japan; the southern the approximate mean annual rainfall of these localities being 30, boundary by Korea Strait; and the western boundary by the 35 and 42 in, respectively. These averages are based on the observations of seven years only. Yalu and the Yellow Sea. For ii m. along the Tumen river Flora.--The plants and animals await study and classification. the north frontier is conterminous with Russia (Siberia); Among the indigenous trees are the Abies excelsa, Abies micro- otherwise Korea has China (Manchuria) on its land frontier. sperma, Pinus sinensis, Pinus pinea, three species of oak, five of Nearly the whole surface of the country is mountainous. (For maple, lime, birch, juniper, mountain ash, walnut, Spanish chestnut, hazel, willow, hornbeam, hawthorn, plum, pear, peach, Rhus verni. map, see JAPAN.) cifera, (?) Rhus semipinnata, Acanthopanax ricinifolia, Zelkawa, Thuja The south and west coasts are fringed by about 200 islands orientalis, Elaeagnus, Sophora Japonica, &c. Azaleas and rhcdo. (exclusive of islets), two-thirds of which are inhabited; 100 of dendrons are widely distributed, as well as other flowering shrubs them are from 100 to 2000 ft. in height, and many consist of bold and creepers, Ampelopsis Veitchii being universal. Liliaceous plants bare masses of volcanic rock. The most important are Quelpart Named after William Robert Broughton (1762-1821), an English and the Nan Hau group. The latter, 36 m. from the eastern navigator who explored these seas in 1795-1798. KOREA 909 and cruciferae are numerous. The native fruits, except walnuts and cheek-bones are high; the nose inclined to fatness; the mouth chestnuts, are worthless. The persimmon attains perfection, thin-lipped and refined among patricians, and wide and full- and experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many foreign fruits. The indigenous economic plants are few, and are lipped among plebeians; the ears are small , and the brow fairly of no commercial value, excepting wild ginseng, bamboo, which is well developed. The expression indicates quick intelligence applied to countless uses, and “tak-pul* (Hibiscus Manihot), used rather than force and mental calibre. The male height averages in the manufacture of paper, Fauna.--The tiger takes the first place among wild animals. He 5 ft. 44 in. The hands and feet are small and well-formed. is of great size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed The physique is good, and porters carry on journeys from as to be a peril to man and beast. Tiger-hunting is a profession 100 to 200 ib. Men marry at from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16, with special privileges. Leopards are numerous, and have even and have large families, in which a strumous taint is nearly been shot within the walls of Seoul. There are deer (at least five universal. Women are secluded and occupy a very inferior species), boars, bears, antelopes, beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-cats, marten, an inferior sable, striped squirrels, &c. Among birds there position. The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but concubinage are black eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially has a recognized status. protected by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants, Production and Industries. i. Minerals.-Extensive coal- swans, geese, common and spectacled teal, mallards, mandarin ducks fields, producing coal of fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur white and pink ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons, doves, nightjars, common and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles, in Hwang-hai Do and elsewhere. Iron is abundant, especially halcyon and blue kingfishers, jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey | in Phyöng-an Do, and rich copper ore, silver and galena are shrikes, hawks, kites, &c. But, pending further observations, it is found. Crystal is a noted product of Korea, and talc of good not possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea quality is also present. In 1885 the rudest process of “placer and which only make it a halting-place in their annual migrations. washing produced an export of gold dust amounting to £120,000; Area and Population. The estimated area is 82,000 sq. m. quartz-mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the somewhat under that of Great Britain. The first complete annual declared value of gold produced rose to about £450,000; census was taken in 1897, and returned the population in round but much is believed to have been sent out of the country numbers at 17,000,000, females being in the majority. It was clandestinely. The reefs were left untouched till 1897, when subsequently, however, estimated at a maximum of 12,000,000. an American company, which had obtained a concession in There is a foreign population of about 65,000, of whom 60,000 Phyöng-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest mining appliances, are Japanese. It is estimated that little more than half the and raised the declared export of 1898 to £240,047, believed to arable land is under cultivation, and that the soil could support represent a yield for that year of £600,000. Russian, German, an additional 7,000,000. The native population is absolutely English, French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained homogeneous. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly concessions. The concessionnaires regard Korean labour as docile peopled, while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west and intelligent. The privilege of owning mines in Korea was are populous. A large majority of the people are engaged in extended to aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906. agriculture. There is little emigration, except into Russian ii. Agriculture.-Korean soil consists largely of light sandy and Chinese territory, but some Koreans have emigrated to loam, disintegrated lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to Hawaii and Mexico. 10 ft. deep. The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous The capital is the inland city of Seoul, with a population of months of the year, facilities for the irrigation of the rice crop nearly 200,000. Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisöng), the are ample, and drought and floods are seldom known. Land is capital from about 910 to 1392, is a walled city of the first rank, held from the proprietors on the terms of receiving seed from 25 m. N.W. of Seoul, with a population of 60,000. It possesses them and returning half the produce, the landlord paying the the stately remains of the palace of the Korean kings of the taxes. Any Korean can become a landowner by reclaiming Wang dynasty, is a great centre of the grain trade and the sole and cultivating unoccupied crown land for three years free of centre of the ginseng manufacture, makes wooden shoes, coarse taxation, after which he pays, taxes annually. Good land pottery and fine matting, and manufactures with sesamum oil produces two crops a year. The implements used are two the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous. Phyöng-yang, makes of iron-shod wooden ploughs; a large shovel, worked by a city on the Tai-dong, had a population of 60,000 before the war three or five men, one working the handle, the others jerking of 1894, in which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained the blade by ropes attached to it; a short sharp-pointed hoe, its population. It lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless a bamboo rake, and a wooden barrow, all of rude construction. alluvium on the east, and with the largest and richest plain in Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a log; other grains, with Korea on the west. It has five coal-mines within ten miles, and fails on mud threshing-floors. Winnowing is performed by the district is rich in iron, silk, cotton, and grain. It has easy throwing up the grain on windy days. Rice is hulled and grain communication with the sea (its port being Chin-nampo), and coarsely ground in stone querns or by water pestles. There is important historically and commercially. Auriferous quartz are provincial horse-breeding stations, where pony stallions, is worked by a foreign company in its neighbourhood. Near from to 12 hands high, are bred for carrying burdens Mag- the city is the illustrated standard of land measurement cut by nificent red bulls are bred by the farmers for ploughing and Ki-tze in 1124 B.C. other farming operations, and for the transport of goods. Sheep With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chöng-ju, Tung-nai, and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but only for sacrifice. Fusan, and Wön-san, it is very doubtful if any other Korean Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal. The culti- towns reach a population of 15,000. The provincial capitals vation does not compare in neatness and thoroughness with and many other cities are walled. Most of the larger towns are that of China and Japan. There are no trustworthy estimates in the warm and fertile southern provinces. One is very much of the yield of any given measurement of land. The farmers like another, and nearly all their streets are replicas of the better put the average yield of rice at thirty-fold, and of other grain alleys of Seoul. The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens, at twenty-fold. Korea produces all cereals and root crops sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications. except the tropical, along with cotton, tobacco, a species of the Race.—The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are Rhea plant used for making grass-cloth, and the Brousonettia of the Mongol family; their language belongs to the so-called papyrifera. The articles chiefly cultivated are rice, millet, Turanian group, is polysyllabic, possesses an alphabet of 11 beans, ginseng (at Songdo), cotton, hemp, oil-seeds, bearded vowels and 14 consonants, and a script named En-mun. Lite wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes. rature of the higher class and official and upper class corre Korean agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of spondence are exclusively in Chinese characters, but since 1895 the exchange of seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour. official documents have contained an admixture of En-mun. It occupies about three-fourths of the population. The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in ü. Other Industries. The industries of Korea, apart from physiognomy, though dark straight hain dark oblique eyes, supplying the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few and a tinge of bronze in the skin are always present. The I and rarely collective. They consist chiefly in the manufacture 919 KOREA of sea-salt, of varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk, Korea agreed that her future foreign treaties should be con- horse-hair crinoline for hats,, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and cluded through the medium of Japan. A resident-general rep- mats, coarse pottery, hemp cloth for mourners, brass bowls resented Japan at Seoul, to direct diplomatic affairs, the first and grass-cloth. Won-san and Fusan are large fishing centres, being the Marquis Ito. Under a further convention of July 1907, and salt fish and fish manure are important exports; but the the resident-general's powers were enormously increased. In ad- prolific fishing-grounds are worked chiefly by Japanese labour ministrative reforms the Korean government followed his guid- and capital. Paper and ginseng are the only manufactured ance; laws could not be enacted nor administrative measures articles on the list of Korean exports. The arts are nil. undertaken without his consent; the appointment and dis- Commerce.-A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan missal of high officials, and the engagement of foreigners in in 1876, and treaties with the European countries and the government employ, were subject to his pleasure. Each depart- United States of America were concluded subsequently. Anment of state has a Japanese vice-minister, and a large propor- imperial edict of the 20th of May 1904 annulled all Korean tion of Japanese officials were introduced into these departments treaties with Russia. After the opening of certain Korean ports as well as Japanese chiefs of the bureaus of police and customs, to foreign trade, the customs were placed under the management By a treaty dated August 22nd 1910, which came into effect of European commissioners nominated by Sir Robert Hart from seven days later the emperor of Korea made“ complete and per- Peking. The ports and other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo, manent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of sover- Fusan, Wön-san, Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po, eignty over the whole of Korea.” The entire direction of the Song-chin, Wiju, Yong-ampo, and Phyöng-yang. The value administration was then taken over by the Japanese resident- of foreign trade of the open ports has fluctuated considerably, general, who was given the title of governor-general . The but has shown a tendency to increase on the whole. For jurisdiction of the consular courts was abolished but Japan example, in 1884 imports were valued at £170,113 and exports guaranteed the continuance of the existing Korean tariff for at £95,377. By 1890 imports had risen to £790, 261, and there- ten years. after luctuated greatly, 'standing at only £473,598 in 1893, but at £1,017,238 in 1897, and £1,382,352 in 1901, but under ab- Local Administration.-Korea for administrative purposes is divided into provinces and prefectures or magistracies. Japanese normal conditions in 1904 this last amount was nearly doubled. reforms in this department have been complete. Each provincial Exports in 1890 were valued at £591,746; they also fluctuated government has a Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks. greatly, falling to £316, 072 in 1893, but standing at £863,828 in The secretary may represent the governor in his absence. 1901, and having a further increase in some subsequent years. Law.-A criminal code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, though These figures exclude the value of gold dust. The principal twice mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force in its main provisions till 1895. Subsequently, a mixed commission of imports are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies revision carried out some good work. Élaborate legal machinery and metals, tobacco, kerosene, timber, and clothing. Japanese was devised, though its provisions were constantly violated by the cotton yarns are imported to be woven into a strong cloth on imperial will and the gross corruption of officials. Five classes of law courts were established, and provision was made for appeals in Korean hand-looms. Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and both civil and criminal cascs. Abuses in legal administration and in ginseng are the chief exports, apart from gold. tax-collecting were the chief grievances which led to local insurrec- Communications.-Under Japanese auspices a railway from Che- tions.. Oppression by the throne and the official and noble classes mulpo to Seoul was completed in 1900. This became a branch of the prevailed extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the longer line from Fusan to Seoul (286 m.), the concession for which use of the Kyei, or principle of association, which developed among was granted in 1898. This line was pushed forward rapidly on the Korcans into powerful trading, gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefit outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, and the whole was opened associations, money-lending gilds, &c. Nearly all traders, porters early in 1905. A railway from Seoul to Wiju was planned under and artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together and French engineers, but the work was started by the Korean govern- strong by combined action and mutual helpfulness in time of need. ment. This line also, however, was taken over by the Japanese Under the Japanese régime the judiciary and the executive were military authorities, and the first trains ran through early in 1905, rigidly separated. The law courts, including the court of cassation, in which year Japan obtained control of the whole of the Korean three courts of appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district courts, internal communications. The main roads centring in Seoul are were put under Japanese judges, and the codification of the laws seldom fit even for the passage of ox-carts, and the secondary roads was undertaken. The prison system was also reformed. are bad bridle-tracks, frequently degenerating into “rock ladders.' Finance and Money.--Until 1904 the finances of Korea were Some improvements, however, have been effected under Japanese completely disorganized; the currency was chaotic, and the budget direction. The inland transit of goods is almost entirely on the was an official formality making little or no attempt at accuracy. backs of bulls carrying from 450 to 600 lb, on ponies carrying 200 lb, By agreement of the 22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese and on men carrying from 100 to 150 lb, bringing the average cost financial adviser, and valuable reforms were quickly entered upon up to a fraction over 8d. per mile per ton. The corvée exists, with under the direction of the first Japanese official, Mr T. Megata. He its usual hardships. Bridges are made of posts, carrying a framework had to contend against corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate expendi- either covered with timber or with pine branches and earth. They ture, and absence of organization in the collection of revenue, a part from the confusion with regard to the currency. This last was are removed at the beginning of the rainy season, and are not replaced for three months. The larger rivers are unbridged, but nominally on a silver standard. The coins chiefly in use were (i) there are numerous government ferries. The infamous roads and copper cash, which were strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and, the risks during the bridgeless season greatly hamper trade. Japanese cumbrous, but were nevertheless valued at their face value; (ii) as about glb weight was equal to one shilling, were excessively steamers ply on the Han between Chemulpo and Seoul. A postal system, established in 1894-1895, has been gradually nickel coins, which, being profitable to mint, were issued in enormous extended. There are postage stamps of four values. The Japanese, quantities, quickly depreciated, and were moreover extensively under the agreement of 1905, took over the postal, telegraphic and forged.. The Dai Ichi Ginko. (First Bank of Japan), which has a telephone services. Korea is connected with the Chinese and branch in Seoul and agencies in other towns, was made the govern. Japanese telegraph systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via ment central treasury, and its notes were recognized as legal tender Seoul to Fusan, and by a line acquired by the empire between Seoul in Korea. The currency of Korea being thus fixed, the first step and Wiju. The state has also lines from Seoul to the open ports, was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From the 1st of August 1905 &c. Korea has regular steam communication with ports in Japan; issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, which was retained the old nickels paid into the treasury were remitted and the the Gulf of Pechili, Shanghai, &c. Her own mercantile marine is considerable. as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary coinage was issued of silver 10-sen pieces and bronze 1-sen and half-sen pieces. To aid Government.–From 1895, when China renounced her claims the free circulation of money and facilitate trade, the government to suzerainty, to 1910 the king (since 1897 emperor) was in grants subsidies for the establishment of co-operative warehouse theory an independent sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing companies with bonded warehouses. Regulations have also been the welfare and dignity of the imperial house. Under a treaty existed in Korea. They took the form of a piece of paper about promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which have long signed at Seoul on the 17th of November 1905, Japan directed an inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was written the external relations of Korea, and Japanese diplomatic and the sum, the date of payment and the name of the payer and payee, consular representatives took charge of Korcan subjects and with their seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and one half given to each party. The debtor was obliged to pay the amount interests in foreign countries. Japan undertook the maintenance of the debt to any person who presented the missing half of the bill. of existing treaties between Korea and foreign powers; and The readiness with which they were accepted led to over-issue, and, KOREA 911 consequently, financial crises. The new regulations require the pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws and Chinese amount of the notes to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old nickel coins or cash. The notes can only be issued by members of etiquette and polity. Korean ancient history is far from satisfy- a note association, a body constituted under government regulations, ing the rigid demands of modern criticism, but it appears that whose members must uphold the credit and validity of their notes. Ki-tze's dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th century B.C., The notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require from which period until the roth century A.D. civil wars and endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking. Adminis- trative reform was also taken in hand; the large number of super foreign aggressions are prominent. Nevertheless, Hiaksai, Auous and badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the which with Korai and Shinra then constituted Korea, was a status and salary of all existing government officials considerably centre of literary culture in the 4th century, through which the improved. An endeavour was made to publish an annual budget, Chinese classics and the art of writing reached the other two in which the revenue and expenditure should accurately represent kingdoms. Buddism, a forceful civilizing element, reached the sums actually rec and expended. Regulations were framed for the purpose of establishing adequate supervision over the Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern revenue and expenditure for the abolition of irregular taxation and Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and extortions, as well as the practice of farming out the collection of ethics. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang the revenue to individuals, and, generally, to adapt the whole the Founder, who unified the peninsula under the name Korai, collection and expenditure of the national revenue to modern ideas made Song-do its capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state of public finance. by Korean reforms was estimated to approach fifteen millions sterling. religion. In the lith century Korea was stripped of her Among reforms not specifically referred to may be mentioned the territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde oi Tungus stock, improvement of coast wise navigation, the provision of posts, roads, since which time her frontiers have been stationary. The Wang railways, public buildings, hospitals and sanitary works, and the dynasty perished in 1392, an important epoch in the peninsula, official advancement of industries. Religion.--Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the oth to the when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty, 14th century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its ascended the throne, after his country had suffered severely from priests are ignorant, immoral and despised. Confucianism is the He tendered his homage to the official cult, and all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated Jenghiz and Khublai Khan. seasons in the Confucian temples. Confucian ethics are the basis first Ming emperor of China, received from him his investiture as of morality and social order. “Ancestor-worship is universal. The sovereign, and accepted from him the Chinese calendar and popular cult is, however, the propitiation of demons, a modification chronology, in itself a declaration of fealty. Herevived the name of the Shamanism of northern Asia. The belief in demons, mostly Ch'ao-Hsien, changed the capital from Song-do to Seoul, organ- malignant, keeps the Koreans in constant terror, and much of their substance is spent on propitiations. Sorceresses and blind sorcerersized an administrative system, which with some modifications are the intermediaries. At the close of the 19th century the fees continued till 1895, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous annually paid to these persons were estimated at £150,000; there reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary were in Seoul 1000 sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the examinations the basis of appointment to office, made Confucian- male sorcerers and geomancers. Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain ism the state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the to the Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594 during the burying of old men alive, and introduced that Confucian system Japanese invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who of education, polity, and social order which has dominated Korea received the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 1792, and for five centuries. Either this king or an immediate successor had made 4000 converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt at the conversion of Korea was made by the French Société des introduced the present national costume, the dress worn by the Missions Étrangères in 1835. In spite of frequent persecutions, Chinese before the Manchu conquest. The early heirs of this there were 16,500 converts in 1857 and 20,000 in 1866, in which vigorous and capable monarch used their power, like him, for year the French bishops and priests were yred by order of the the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese emperor's father, and several thousand native Christians were beheaded, banished or imprisoned. This mission in 1900 had about buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under 30 missionaries and 40,000 converts. In 1884 and 1885, toleration Chinese protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion. being established, Protestant missionaries of the American Presby- In 1592 occurred the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a terian and Methodist Episcopal Churches entered Korea, and were .Japanese army of 300,000 men, by order of the great regent followed by a large number of agents of other denominations. An Hideyoshi. China came to the rescue with 60,000 men, and six English bishop, clergy, doctors and nursing sisters arrived in 1890. Hospitals, orphanages, schools and an admirable college in Seoul years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in which Japan have been founded, along with tri-lingual (Chinese, Korean and used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe. Seoul and English) printing-presses; religious, historical and scientific works several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some instances and much of the Bible have been translated into En-mun, and periodicals of an enlightened nature in the Korean script are also destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures and circulated. The progress of Protestant missions was very slow for the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were some years, but from 1895 converts multiplied. recalled in 1598 at Hideyoshi's death. The port and fishing Education. -The "Royal Examinations" in Chinese literature privileges of Fusan remained in Japanese possession, a heavy held in Seoul up to 1894. which were the entrance to official position, tribute was exacted, and until 1790 the Korean king stood in being abolished, the desire for a purely Chinese education diminished. In Seoul there were established an imperial English school with two humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea never recovered foreign teachers, a reorganized Conſucian college, a normal college from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to all under a very efficient foreign principal, Japanese, Chinese, Russian Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese. and French schools, chiefly linguistic, several Korean primary schools, mission boarding schools, and the Pai Clai College connected In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive with the American Methodist Episcopal Church, under imperia! expeditions attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries patronage, and subsidized by government, in which a liberal and American adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted education of a high class was given and En-mun receives much much loss of life, but retired without securing any diplomatic attention. The Korcans are expert linguists, and the government made liberal grants to the linguistic schools. In the primary schools successes, and Korea continued to preserve her complete boys learn arithmetic, and geography and Korean history are taught, isolation. The first indirect step towards breaking it down had with the outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized been taken in 1860, when Russia obtained from China the cession countries. The education department has been entirely reorganized of the Usuri province, thus bringing a European power down under the Japanese régime, Japanese models being followed to the Tumen. A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans History.-By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tzema and persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed. The councillor of the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage, emigrants were very kindly received, and many of them became and the reputed author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the thrifty and prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent Shu-King--is represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.C. with of China, wrung a treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully several thousand Chinese emigrants, who made him their king. opened to Japanese settlement and trade, and Won-san (Gensan) The peninsula was then peopled by savages living in caves and and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to her in 1880. In 1882 subterranean holes. By both learned and popular belief in Korea China promulgated her “Trade and Frontier Regulations," Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean social order, and is and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by greatly reverenced. He called the new kingdom Ch'ao-Hsien, Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884. 912 KOREA France in 1886, and Austria in 1892. A “Trade Conventione” | Great Han. By 1898 the imperial will, working under partially was also concluded with Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to new conditions, produced continual chaos, and by 1900 suc- foreign residence, and the provinces to foreign travel, and the ceeded in practically overriding all constitutional restraints. diplomatic agents of the contracting powers obtained a recognized Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly active. At last status at the capital. These treaties terminated the absolute Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia in the isolation which Korea had effectually preserved. During the war of 1904-5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea. negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was on the 23rd of February 1904 an agreement was determined treated with as an independent state. Between 1897 and whereby Japan resumed her position as administrative adviser 1899, under diplomatic pressure, a number of ports were opened to Korca, guaranteed the integrity of the country, and bound to foreign trade and residence. From 1882 to 1894 the chief herself to maintain the imperial house in its position. Her eveni in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the Tai-won- interests were recognized by Russia in the treaty of peace Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which (September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the Anglo- led to an attack on the Japanese legation, the members of Japanese agreement of the 12th of August 1905. The Korcans which were compelled to fight their way, and that not blood. did not accept the restoration of Japanese influence without lessly, to the sea. Japan secured ample compensation; and demur. In August 1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, deported the by some merchants to obtain special assistance from the trea- Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. In 1884 at an official banquet the sury on the pretext of embarrassment caused by Japanese leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some of the statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to sub- of force. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the com- side. In spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between pletion of the treaty of the 17th of November 1905, whereby the queen and the returned Tai-won-Kun, the next decade Japan obtained the control of Korea's foreign affairs and was one of quiet. China, always esteemed in Korea, con relations, and the confirmation of previous agreements, the solidated her influence under the new conditions through a far-reaching results of which have been indicated. Nor was powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular demon- were projected by foreign “advisers." In May 1894 a more stration. In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong, important insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask a member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before armed aid from China. She landed 2000 troops on the roth of the Hague conference of that year, and before all the principal June, having previously, in accordance with treaty provisions, governments, a protest against the treatment of Korea by notified Japan of her intention. Soon after this Japan had Japan. While this was of course fruitless from the Korean 12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital and the treaty point of view, it indicated that the Japanese must take strong ports." Then Japan made three sensible proposals for Korean measures to suppress the intrigues of the Korean court. reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdi- replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the cated on the 19th of July 1907, handing over the crown to his withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations. son. Somewhat serious émeules followed in Seoul and else- Japan rejected this suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked where, and the Japanese proposals for a new convention, and occupied the royal palace. After some further negotia- increasing the powers of the resident general, had to be pre- tions and fights by land and sea between Japan and China war sented to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convention was declared formally by Japan, and Korea was for some time was signed on the 25th of July. One of the reforms imme- the battle-ground of the belligerents. The Japanese victories diately undertaken was the disbanding of the Korean standing resulted for Korea in the solemn renunciation of Chinese suze- army, which led to an insurrection and an intermittent guerrilla rainty by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for warfare which, owing to the nature of the country, was not Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms easy to subdue. Under the direction of Prince Ito (9.v.) the under Japanese advisers, and of checks on the absolutism of work of reform was vigorously prosecuted. In July 1909, General the throne. Everything promised well. The finances flour. Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became resident-general, ished under the capable control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M‘Leavy with the mission to bring about annexation. This was effected Brown, C.M.G. Large and judicious retrenchments were car- peacefully in August 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal ried out in most of the government departments. A measure treaty surrendering his country and crown. (See JAPAN.) of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed AUTHORITIES.—The first Asiatic notice of Korea is by Khordad- on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was beh, an Arab geographer of the qih century A.D., in his Book of Roads relaxed. Postal and educational systems were introduced. and Provinces, quoted by Baron Richthofen in his great work on An approach to a constitution was made. The distinction China, P: 575: The earliest European source of information is a narra- between patrician and plebeian, domestic slavery, and beating tive by H. Hamel , a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on the coast and slicing to death were abolished. The age for marriage of The amount of papers on Korea scattered through English, German, of Quelpart in 1654, and held in captivity in Korea for thirteen years. both sexes was raised. Chinese literary examinations ceased French and Russian magazines, and the proceedings of geographical to be a passport to office. Classes previously degraded were societies, is very great, and for the last three centuries Japanese enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt writers have contributed largely to the sum of general knowledge systems of government was severed. For about eighteen recent works which illustrate the history, manners and customs, and of the peninsula. The list which follows includes some of the more months all the departments were practically under Japanese awakening of Korca: British Foreign Office Reports on Korean Trade, control. On the 8th of October 1895 the Tai-won-Kun, with Annual Series, (London); Bibliographie korčanne (3 vols., Paris, Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the orders of 1897); Mrs. I. L. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (2 vols., London, Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace, Cavendish and H. E. Goold Adams, Korea, and the Sacred White 1897): M. von Brandt, Ostasiatische Fragen (Leipzig, 1897); A. E, J. assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who, Mountain (London, 1894); Stewart Culin, Korean Gomes (Philadel. however, four months later, escaped to the Russian legation, phia, 1895); Curzon, Problems of the Far East (London, 1896); where he remained till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence Dallet, Histoire de l'église de Korée (2 vols., Paris, 1874); J. S. Gale, waned. The engagements of the advisers were not renewed. Nation (8th and revised edition, New York, 1907); H. Hamel , Korean Sketches (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Griffis, The Hermil A strong retrograde movement set in. Reforms were dropped. Relation du naufrage d'un vaisseau Halindois, &c., traduite du The king, with the checks upon his absolutism removed, reverted Flamond par M. Minuloli (Paris, 1670); Okoji Hidemoto, Der 10 lhe worst traditions of his dynasty, and the control and Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea im Jahre 1597: translated from Japanese by Professor von Pfizmaier (2 vols., Vienna, 1875); M. arrangements of finance were upset by Russia. At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor, Jametel, La Korée: ses ressources, son avenir commercial," L'Econo- miste française (Paris, July 1881); Percival Lowell, Chosön: The and changed the official designation of the empire to Dai Han- Land of the Morning Calm (London, Boston, 1886); L. J. Mila, KOREA-KOROCHA 913 a Quaint Korea (Harper, New York, 1895); V. de Laguerie, La Korés | in documents in 1317, and became a royal free town in 1328, indépendante, russe ou japonaise? (Paris, 1898), ) Ross, Korea: Its History, Manners and Customs (Paisley, 1860); W H. Wilkinson; being therefore one of the oldest free towns in Hungary. The Korean Government. Constitutional Changes in Korea during the KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR (1791-1813), German poet and period 23rd July 1894—30th June 1896 (Shanghai, 1896); A. Hamil- patriot, often called the German “ Tyrtaeus," was born at ton, Korea (London, 1903), C. J. D. Taylor, Koreans at Home (Lon- Dresden on the 23rd of September 1791. His father, Christian don, 1904): E. Boudaret, En Corée (Paris, 1904), Laurent Crémazy: Gottfried Körner (1756-1831), a distinguished Saxon jurist, was Le Code pénal de la Corée (Paris, 1904); G. T. Ladd, In Korea with Marquis Ito (London, 1908): Dictionaries and vocabularies by W. F Schiller's most intimate friend. He was educated at the Kreuz- Myers (English secretary of Legation at Peking), the French mission- schule in Dresden and entered at the age of seventeen the min. aries, and others, were superseded in 1898 by a large and learned ing academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where he remained two years. volume by the Rev J. S. Gale, a Presbyterian missionary, who devoted some years to the work. On geology, see C: Gottsche collection of which appeared under the title Knospen in 1810. Here he occupied himself less with science than with verse, a “Geologische Skizze von Korea," Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss. (Berlin, Jahrg. 1886, pp. 857-873, Pl. viii.). A summary of this paper, with a In this year he went to the university of Leipzig, in order to reproduction of the map, is given by L. Pervinquière in Rev. scr. study law; but he became involved in a serious conflict with the Paris, 5th series, vol. i. (1904). pp. 545-552. (I. L. B.;0. J. R. H.) police and was obliged to continue his studies in Berlin. In KOREA, a tributary state of India, transferred from Bengal | August 1811 Körner went to Vienna, where he devoted himself to the Central Provinces in 1905; area, 1631 sq. m.; pop (1901), entirely to literary pursuits; he became engaged to the actress 35,113, or only 22 persons per sq. m.; estimated revenue, £_200. Antonie Adamberger, and, after the success of sever al plays pro- It consists of an elevated table-land, with hills rising to above duced in 1812, he was appointed poet to the Hofburgtheater. 3000 ft Such traffic as there is is carried by means of pack- When the German nation rose against the French yoke, in 1813, bullocks Körner gave up all his prospects at Vienna and joined Lützow's KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE, or CHURCH ARCHTRIUMPHANT, famous corps of volunteers at Breslau. On his march to Leipzig a communistic body, founded by Cyrus R. Teed, a medical he passed through Dresden, where he issued his spirited Aufruf practitioner, who was born at Utica, New York, in 1839. Teed an die Sachsen, in which he called upon his countrymen to rise was regarded by his adherents as “the new Messiah now in the against their oppressors. He became lieutenant towards the World," and many other extravagant views both in science and end of April, and took part in a skirmish at Kitzen near Leipzig economics are held by them. Two communities were founded: on the 7th of June, when he was severely wounded. After being in Chicago (1886) and at Estero, in Lee county, Florida (1894), nursed by friends at Leipzig and Carlsbad, he rejoined his corps where in 1903 the Chicago community removed. Their name is and fell in an engagement outside a wood near Gadebusch in derived from Koresh, the Hebrew form of Cyrus, and they have Mecklenburg on the 26th of August 1813. He was buried by his a journal, The Flaming Sword. comrades under an oak close to the village of Wöbbelin, where KÕRIN, OGATA (c. 1657–1716), Japanese painter and lac- there is a monument to him. querer, was born at Kötő, the son of a wealthy merchant who The abiding interest in Körner is patriotic and political rather had a taste for the arts and is said to have given his son some than literary. His fame as a poet rests upon his patriotic lyrics, elementary instruction therein. Kõrin also studied under which were published by his father under the title Leier und Soken Yamamoto, Kano, Tsunenobu and Gukei Sumiyoshi; Schwert in 1814. These songs, which fired the poet's comrades and he was greatly influenced by his predecessors "Köyetsu to deeds of heroism in 1813, bear eloquent testimony to the and Sötatsu. On arriving at maturity, however, he broke intensity of the national feeling against Napoleon, but judged away from all tradition, and developed a very original and as literature they contain more bombast than poetry. Among quite distinctive style of his own, both in painting and in the the best known are " Lützow's wilde verwegene Jagd,” “ Gebet decoration of lacquer. The characteristic of this is a bold während der Schlacht " (set to music by Weber) and Das impressionism, which is expressed in few and simple highly Schwertlied." This last was written immediately before his idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or death, and the last stanza added on the fatal morning. As a of the usual conventions. In lacquer Körin's use of white dramatist Körner was remarkably prolific, but his comedies metals and of mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed hardly touch the level of Kotzebue's and his tragedies, of which Köyetsu. Korin died on the 2nd of June 1716, at the age of the best is Zriny (1814), are rhetorical imitations of Schiller's. fifty-nine. His chief pupils wêre Kagei Tatebashi and Shiko His works have passed through many editions. Among the more recent are: Sämtliche Werke (Stuttgart, 1890), edited by Adolf Watanable; but the present knowledge and appreciation of Stern; by H. Zimmer (2 vols., Leipzig. 1893) and by E. Goetze his work are largely due to the efforts of Hõitsu Sakai, who (Berlin, 1900). The most valuable contributions to our knowledge brought about a revival of Kõrin's style. of the poet have been furnished by E. Peschel, the founder and direc- tor of the Körner Museum in Dresden, in Theodor Körners Tagebuch See A. Morrison, The Painters of Japan (1902); S. Tajima, Master- und Kriegslieder, aus dem Jahre 1813, (Freiburg, 1893) and, in pieces selected from the Kõrin School (1903); S. Hõitsu, The 100 conjunction with E. Wildenow, Theodor Körner und die Seinen Designs by Kõrin |(1815) and More Designs by Körin (1826). (Leipzig, 1898). (E. F. S.) KORNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 9 m. KORKUS, an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Satpura N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 8298. It is situated on hills in the Central Provinces. They are of interest as being the the left bank of the Danube, opposite Klosterneuburg. It is a westernmost representatives of the Munda family of speech. steamship station and an important emporium of the salt and They are rapidly becoming hinduized, as may be gathered from corn trade. The industry comprises the manufacture of coarse the figures of the census of 1901, which show 140,000 Korkus by textiles, pasteboard, &c. Its charter as a town dates from 1298, race, but only 88,000 speakers of the Korku language. and it was a much frequented market in the preceding century. KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA (German, Kremnitz), an old mining town, at the beginning of the 15th century it was surrounded by walls, in the county of Bars, in Hungary, 158 m. N. of Budapest by and in 1450 a fortress was erected. It was frequently involved rail. Pop. (1900), 4299. It is situated in a deep valley in the in the conflict between the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus Hungarian Ore Mountains region. Among its principal build and the emperor Frederick William III., and also during the ings are the castle, several Roman Catholic (from the 13th and Thirty Years' War. 14th centuries) and Lutheran churches, a Franciscan monastery KOROCHA, a town of central Russia, in the government of (founded 1634), the town-hall, and the mint where the celebrated Kursk, 75 m. S.S.E. of the city of Kursk, on the Korocha river. Kremnitz gold ducats were formerly struck. The bulk of the Pop. (1897), 14,405. Its inhabitants live by gardening, export- inhabitants find employment in connexion with the gold and ing large quantities of dried cherries, by making candles and silver mines. By means of a tunnel 9 m. in length, con leather, and by trade; the merchants purchase cattle, grain and structed in 1851-1852, the water is drained off from the mines salt in the south and send them to Moscow. Founded in 1638, into the river Gran. According to tradition, Körmöczbánya was Korocha was formerly a small fort intended to check the Tatar founded in the 8th century by Saxons. The place is mentioned invasions. « 914 KORSÖR-KOSCIUSZKO KORSÖR, a seaport of Denmark, in the amt (county) of the island of Zealand, 69 m. by rail W.S.W. of Copenhagen, on the east shore of the Great Belt. Pop. (1901), 6054. The harbour, which is formed by a bay of the Baltic, has a depth throughout of 20 ft. It is the point of departure and arrival of the steam ferry to Nyborg on Fünen, lying on the Hamburg, Schleswig, Fredericia and Copenhagen route. There is also regular com- munication by water with Kiel. The chief exports are fish, cereals, bacon; imports, petroleum and coal. A market town since the 14th century, Korsör has ruins of an old fortified castle, on the south side of the channel, dating from the 14th and 17th centuries. KORTCHA (Slavonic, Goritza or Koritza), a city of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina, in a wide plain watered by the Devol and Dunavitza rivers, and surrounded by mountains on every side except the north, where Lake Malik constitutes the boundary. Pop. (1905), about 10,000, including Greeks, Albanians and Slavs. Kortcha is the see of an Orthodox Greek metropolitan, whose large cathedral is richly decorated in the interior with paintings and statues. The Kortcha school for girls, conducted by American missionaries, is the only educa- tional establishment in which the Turkish government permits the use of Albanian as the language of instruction. The local trade is chiefly agricultural. was sent abroad at the expense of the state to complete his military education. In Germany, Italy and France he studied diligently, completing his course at Brest, where he learnt fortification and naval tactics, returning to Poland in 1774 with the rank of captain of artillery. While engaged in teaching the daughters of the Grand Hetman, Sosnowski of Sosnowica, drawing and mathe- matics, he fell in love with the youngest of them, Ludwika, and not venturing to hope for the consent of her father, the lovers resolved to fly and be married privately. Before they could accomplish their design, however, the wooer was attacked by Sosnowski's retainers, but defended himself valiantly till, covered with wounds, he was ejected from the house. This was in 1776. Equally unfortunate was Kosciuszko's wooing of Tekla Zurowska in 1791, the father of the lady in this case also refusing his consent. In the interval between these amorous episodes Kosciuszko won his spurs in the New World. In 1776 he entered the army of the United States as a volunteer, and brilliantly distinguished himself, especially during the operations about New York and at Yorktown. Washington promoted Kosciuszko to the rank of a col- onel of artillery and made him his adjutant. His humanity and charm of manner made him moreover one the most popular of the American officers. In 1783 Kosciuszko was rewarded for his services and his devotion to the cause of American independence with the thanks of Congress, the privilege of American citizenship, a considerable annual pension with landed estates, and the rank of brigadier-general, which he retained in the Polish service. In the war following upon the proclamation of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 and the formation of the reactionary Con- federation of Targowica (see POLAND: History), Kosciuszko took a leading part. As the commander of a division under Prince Joseph Poniatowski he distinguished himself at the battle of Zielence in 1792, and at Dubienka (July 18) with 4000 men and IO guns defended the line of the Bug for five days against the Russians with 18,000 men and 60 guns, subsequently retiring upon Warsaw unmolested. When the king acceded to the Targo- wicians, Kosciuszko with many other Polish generals threw up his commission and retired to Leipzig, which speedily became the centre of the Polish emigration. In January 1793, provided with letters of introduction from the French agent Perandier, Kosciu- szko went on a political mission to Paris to induce the revolution- ary government to espouse the cause of Poland. In return for assistance he promised to make the future government of Poland as close a copy of the French government as possible; but the Jacobins, already intent on detaching Prussia from the anti- KORYAKS, a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, in- habiting the coast-lands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the Chukchis, whom they closely resemble in physique and in manner of life. Thus they are divided into the settled fishing tribes and the nomad reindeer breeders and hunters. The former are described as being more morally and physically degraded even than the Chukchis, and hopelessly poor. The Koryaks of the interior, on the other hand, still own enormous reindeer herds, to which they are so attached that they refuse to part with an animal to a stranger at any price. They are in disposition brave, intelligent and self-reliant, and recognize no master. They have ever tenaciously resisted Russian aggression, and in their fights with the Cossacks have proved themselves recklessly brave. When outnumbered they would kill their women and children, set fire to their homes, and die fighting. Families usually gather in groups of sixes or sevens, forming miniature states, in which the nominal chief has no predominating authority, but all are equal. The Koryaks are polygamous, earning their wives by working for their fathers-in-French coalition, had no serious intention of fighting Poland's law. The women and children are treated well, and Koryak courtesy and hospitality are proverbial. The chief wedding ceremony is a forcible abduction of the bride. They kill the aged and infirm, in the belief that thus to save them from pro- tracted sufferings is the highest proof of affection. The victims choose their mode of death, and young Koryaks practise the art of giving the fatal blow quickly and mercifully. Infanticide was formerly common, and one of twins was always sacrificed. They burn their dead. The prevailing religion is Shamanism; sacrifices are made to evil spirits, the heads of the victims being placed on stones facing east. See G. Kennan, Tent Life in Siberia (1871); "Über die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe verwandten Tchouktchen," in Bul. Acad. Sc. St. Petersburg, xii. 99. | | battles. The fact that Kosciuszko's visit synchronized with the execution of Louis XVI. subsequently gave the enemies of Poland a plausible pretext for accusing her of Jacobinism, and thus pre- judicing Europe against her. On his return to Leipzig Kosciu- szko was invited by the Polish insurgents to take the command of the national armies, with dictatorial power. He hesitated at first, well aware that a rising in the circumstances was premature. "I will have nothing to do with Cossack raiding," he replied; " if war we have, it must be a regular war." He also insisted that the war must be conducted on the model of the American War of Independence, and settled down in the neighbourhood of Cracow to await events. When, however, he heard that the insurrection had already broken out, and that the Russian armies were con- centrating to crush it, Kosciuszko hesitated no longer, but hastened to Cracow, which he reached on the 23rd of March 1794. On the following day his arms were consecrated according to ancient custom at the church of the Capucins, by way of giving the insurrection a religious sanction incompatible with Jacobin- ism. The same day, amidst a vast concourse of people in the market-place, Kosciuszko took an oath of fidelity to the Polish KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA | nation; swore to wage war against the enemies of his country; (1746-1817), Polish soldier and statesman, the son of Ludwik | but protested at the same time that he would fight only for the Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the palatinate of Brzesc, and Tekla | independence and territorial integrity of Poland. Ratomska, was born in the village of Mereczowszczyno. After being educated at home he entered the corps of cadets at Warsaw, where his unusual ability and energy attracted the notice of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, by whose influence in 1769 he❘ KOSCIUSCO, the highest mountain in Australia, in the range of the Australian Alps, towards the south-eastern extremity of New South Wales. Its height is 7328 ft. An adjacent peak to the south, Mueller's Peak, long considered the highest in the con- tinent, is 7268 ft. high. A meteorological station was established on Kosciusco in 1897. The insurrection had from the first a purely popular character. We find none of the great historic names of Poland in the lists of the original confederates. For the most part the confederates of Kosciuszko were small squires, traders, peasants and men of KÖSEN 915 low degree generally. Yet the comparatively few gentlemen | Kosciuszko, who was now in his element, frustrated all the efforts who joined the movement sacrificed everything to it. Thus, to of the enemy. Two unsuccessful assaults were made upon the take but a single instance, Karol Prozor sold the whole of his Polish positions on the 26th of August and the 1st of September, ancestral estates and thus contributed 1,000,000 thalers to the and on the 6th the Prussians, alarmed by the progress of the Polish cause. From the 24th of March to the 1st of April Kosciuszko arms in Great Poland, where Jan Henryk Dabrowski captured remained at Cracow organizing his forces. On the 3rd of April the Prussian fortress of Bydogoszcz and compelled General | at Raclawice, with 4000 regulars, and 2000 peasants armed only Schwerin with his 20,000 men to retire upon Kalisz, raised the with scythes and pikes, and next to no artillery, he defeated the siege. Elsewhere, indeed, after a brief triumph the Poles were Russians, who had 5000 veterans and 30 guns. This victory had everywhere worsted, and Suvarov, after driving them before him an immense moral effect, and brought into the Polish camp crowds out of Lithuania was advancing by forced marches upon Warsaw. of waverers to what had at first seemed a desperate cause. For | Even now, however, the situation was not desperate, for the the next two months Kosciuszko remained on the defensive near Polish forces were still numerically superior to the Russian. Sandomir. He durst not risk another engagement with the only But the Polish generals proved unequal to carrying out the plans army which Poland so far possessed, and he had neither money, of the dictator; they allowed themselves to be beaten in detail, officers nor artillery. The country, harried incessantly during and could not prevent the junction of Suvarov and Fersen. the last two years, was in a pitiable condition. There was nothing Kosciuszko himself, relying on the support of Poninski's division to feed the troops in the very provinces they occupied, and pro-4 m. away, attacked Fersen at Maciejowice on the 10th of visions had to be imported from Galicia. Money could only be October. But Poninski never appeared, and after a bloody obtained by such desperate expedients as the melting of the plate encounter the Polish army of 7000 was almost annihilated by of the churches and monasteries, which was brought in to Kos- the 16,000 Russians; and Kosciuszko, seriously wounded and ciuszko's camp at Pinczow and subsequently coined at Warsaw, insensible, was made a prisoner on the field of battle. The long minus the royal effigy, with the inscription: " Freedom, Integrity credited story that he cried "Finis Poloniae!" as he fell is a and Independence of the Republic, 1794." Moreover, Poland fiction. was unprepared. Most of the regular troops were incorporated in the Russian army, from which it was very difficult to break away, and until these soldiers came in Kosciuszko had principally | to depend on the valour of his scythemen. But in the month of April the whole situation improved. On the 17th of that month the 2000 Polish troops in Warsaw expelled the Russian garrison after days of street fighting, chiefly through the ability of General Mokronowski, and a provisional government was formed. Five days later Jakob Jasinski drove the Russians from Wilna. By this time Kosciuszko's forces had risen to 14,000, of whom 10,000 were regulars, and he was thus able to resume the offensive. He had carefully avoided doing anything to provoke Austria or Prussia. The former was described in his manifestoes as a potential friend; the latter he never alluded to as an enemy. "Remember," he wrote, "that the only war we have upon our hands is war to the death against the Muscovite tyranny." Nevertheless Austria remained suspicious and obstructive; and the Prussians, while professing neutrality, very speedily effected a junction with the Russian forces. This Kosciuszko, misled by the treacherous assurances of Frederick William's ministers, never anticipated, when on the 4th of June he marched against General Denisov. He encountered the enemy on the 5th of June at Szczekociny, and then discovered that his 14,000 men had to do not merely with a Russian division but | with the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, numbering 25,000 men. Nevertheless, the Poles acquitted themselves man- fully, and at dusk retreated in perfect order upon Warsaw un- pursued. Yet their losses had been terrible, and of the six Polish generals present three, whose loss proved to be irreparable, were slain, and two of the others were seriously wounded. A week later another Polish division was defeated at Kholm; Cracow was taken by the Prussians on the 22nd of June; and the mob at Warsaw broke upon the gaols and murdered the political prisoners in cold blood. Kosciuszko summarily punished the ringleaders of the massacres and had 10,000 of the rank and file drafted into his camp, which measures had a quieting effect. But now dissensions broke out among the members of the Polish government, and it required all the tact of Kosciuszko to restore order amidst this chaos of suspicions and recriminations. At this very time too he had need of all his ability and resource to meet the external foes of Poland. On the 9th of July Warsaw was invested by Frederick William of Prussia with an army of 25,000 men and 179 guns, and the Russian general Fersen with 16,000 men and 74 guns, while a third force of 11,000 occupied the right bank of the Vistula. Kosciuszko for the defence of the city and its outlying fortifica- tions could dispose of 35,000 men, of whom 10,000 were regulars. But the position, defended by 200 inferior guns, was a strong one, and the valour of the Poles and the engineering skill of | Kosciuszko was conveyed to Russia, where he remained till the accession of Paul in 1796. On his return on the 19th of December 1796 he paid a second visit to America, and lived at Philadelphia till May 1798, when he went to Paris, where the First Consul earnestly invited his co-operation against the Allies. But he refused to draw his sword unless Napoleon undertook to give the restoration of Poland a leading place in his plans; and to this, as he no doubt foresaw, Bonaparte would not consent. Again and again he received offers of high commands in the French army, but he kept aloof from public life in his house at Berville, near Paris, where the emperor Alexander visited him in 1814. At the Congress of Vienna his importunities on behalf of Poland finally wearied Alexander, who preferred to follow the counsels of Czartoryski; and Kosciuszko retired to Solothurn, where he lived with his friend Zeltner. Shortly before his death, on the 2nd of April 1817, he emancipated his serfs, insisting only on the maintenance of schools on the liberated estates. His remains were carried to Cracow and buried in the cathedral; while the people, reviving an ancient custom, raised a huge mound to his memory near the city. Kosciuszko was essentially a democrat, but a democrat of the school of Jefferson and Lafayette. He maintained that the republic could only be regenerated on the basis of absolute liberty and equality before the law; but in this respect he was far in advance of his age, and the aristocratic prejudices of his country- men compelled him to resort to half measures. He wrote Manœuvres of Horse Artillery (New York, 1808) and a descrip- tion of the campaign of 1792 (in vol. xvi. of E. Raczynski's Sketch of the Poles and Poland (Posen, 1843). See Jozef Zajaczek, History of the Revolution of 1794 (Pol.) (Lem. berg, 1881); Leonard Jakob Borejko Chodzko, Biographie du général Kosciuszko (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1834; French ed., Paris, 1839); Antoni Kosciuszko (Fontainebleau. 1837); Karol Falkenstein, Thaddäus Choloniewski, Tadeusz Kosciuszko (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1902); Franciszek Rychlicki, T. Kosciuszko and the Partition of Poland (Pol.) (Cracow, 1875). (R. N. B.) KÖSEN, a village and summer resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 33 m. by rail S. by W. of Halle, on the Saale. Pop. (1905), 2990. The town has a mineral spring, which is used for bathing, being efficacious for rheumatism and other complaints. Kösen, which became a town in 1869, has large mill-works; it has a trade in wood and wine. On the adjacent Rudelsburg, where there is a ruined castle, the German students have erected a monument to their comrades who fell in the Franco-German War of 1870-71 Hereon are also memorials to Bismarck and to the emperor William I. The town is famous as the central meeting-place of the German students' corps, which hold an annual congress here every Whitsuntide. See Techow, Führer durch Kösen und Umgegend (Kösen, 1889), and Rosenberg, Kosen (Naumburg, 1877). 916 KOSHER--KOSSUTH, L. KOSHER, or KASHER (Hebrew clean, right, or fit), the Servia (Slora Srbiya). The plain of Kossovo (Kossovopolje, Jewish term for any food or vessels for food made ritually fit. “ Field of Blackbirds "), a long valley lying west of Prishtina for use, in contradistinction to those pasul, unfit, and terefah, and watered by the Sibnitza, a tributary of the Servian Ibar, is forbidden. Thus the vessels used at the Passover are“ kosher," famous in Balkan history and legend as the scene of the battle of as are also new metal vessels bought from a Gentile after they Kossovo (1389), in which the power of Servia was destroyed by have been washed in a ritual bath. But the term is specially the Turks. (See Servia: History.) used of meat slaughtered in accordance with the law of Moses. KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS (1841- ), Hungarian The schochot or butcher must be a devout Jew and of high moral statesman, the son of Lajos Kossuth, was born on the 16th of character, and be duly licensed by the chief rabbi. The slaughter-November 1841, and educated at the Paris Polytechnic and the ing—the object of which is to insure the complete bleeding of the London University, where in 1859 he won a prize for political body, the Jews being forbidden to eat blood-is done by severing economy. After working as a civil engineer on the Dean Forest the windpipe with a long and razor-sharp knife by one continuous railway he went (1861) to Italy, where he resided for the next stroke backwards and forwards. No unnecessary force is per- thirty-three years, taking a considerable part in the railway con- mitted, and no stoppage must occur during the operation. The struction of the peninsula, and at the same time keeping alive knife is then carefully examined, and if there be the slightest flaw the Hungarian independence question by a whole series of in its blade the meat cannot be eaten, as the cut would not have pamphlets and newspaper articles. At Cesena in 1876 he married been clean, the uneven blade causing a thrill to pass through the Emily Hoggins. In 1885 he was decorated for his services by the beast and thus driving the blood again through the arteries. Italian government. His last great engineering work was the After this every portion of the animal is thoroughly examined, construction of the steel bridges for the Nile. In 1894 he escorted for if there is any organic disease the devout Jew cannot taste his father's remains to Hungary, and the following year resolved the meat. In order to soften meat before it is salted, so as to to settle in his native land and took the oath of allegiance. As allow the salt to extract the blood more freely, the meat is soaked early as 1867 he had been twice elected a member of the Hun. in water for about half an hour. It is then covered with salt garian diet, but on both occasions refused to accept the mandate. for about an hour and afterwards washed three times. Kosher On the oth of April 1895 he was returned for Tapolca and in 1896 meat is labelled with the name of the slaughterer and the date of for Cegléd, and from that time took an active part in Hungarian killing. politics. In the autumn of 1898 he became the leader of the KÖSLIN, or Cöslin, a town of Germany, in the Prussian obstructionists or "Independence Party,” against the successive province of Pomerania, at the foot of the Gollenberg (450 ft.), Szell, Khuen-Haderváry, Szápáry and Stephen Tisza adminis- 5 m. from the Baltic, and 105 m. N.E. of Stettin by rail. Pop. trations (1898–1904), exercising great influence not only in (1905), 21,474. The town has two Evangelical and a Roman parliament but upon the public at large through his articles in Catholic church, a gymnasium, a cadet academy and a deaf and the Egyetértés. The elections of 1905 having sent his party back dumb asylum. In the large market place is the statue of the with a large majority, he was received in audience by the king Prussian king Frederick William I., erected in 1824, and there is and helped to construct the Wekerle ministry, of which he was a war memorial on the Friedrich Wilhelm Platz. The industries one of the most distinguished members. include the manufacture of soap, tobacco, machinery, paper, See Sturm, The Almanack of the Hungarian Diet (1905-19:0), art. bricks and tiles, beer and other goods. Köslin was built about “Kossuth” (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905). 1188 by the Saxons, and raised to the rank of a town in 1266. KOSSUTH, LAJOS (Louis) (1802-1894), Hungarian patriot, In 1532 it accepted the doctrines of the Reformation. It was was born at Monok, a small town in the county of Zemplin, on severely tried in the Thirty Years' War and in the Seven Years' the 19th of September 1802. His father, who was descended War, and in 1720 it was burned down. On the Gollenberg from an old untitled noble family and possessed a small estate, stands a monument to the memory of the Pomeranians who fell was by profession an advocále. Louis, who was the eldest of in the war of 1813-15. four children, received from his mother a strict religious training. KOSSOVO, or Kosovo, a vilayet of European Turkey, com- His education was completed at the Calvinist college of Sárospatak prising the sanjak of Uskub in Macedonia, and the sanjaks of and at the university of Budapest. At the age of nineteen he Prizren and Novibazar (q.v.) in northern Albania. Pop. (1905), returned home and began practice with his father. His talents about 1,100,000; area, :2,700 sq. m. For an account of the and amiability soon won him great popularity, especially among physical features of Kossovo, see ALBANIA and MACEDONIA. the peasants. He was also appointed steward to the countess The inhabitants are chiefly Albanians and Slavs, with smaller Szápáry, a widow with large estates, and as her representative communities of Greeks, Turks, Vlachs and gipsies. A few good had a seat in the county assembly. This position he lost owing roads traverse the vilayet (see USKÜB), and the railway from to a quarrel with his patroness, and he was accused of appro- Salonica northward bifurcates at Usküb, the capital, one branch priating money to pay a gambling debt. His fault cannot have going to Mitrovitza in Albania, the other to Nish in Servia. been very serious, for he was shortly afterwards (he had in the Despite the undoubted mineral wealth of the vilayet, the only meantime settled in Pesth) appointed by Count Hunyady to be his mines working in 1907 were two chrome mines, at Orasha and deputy at the National Diet in Pressburg (1825-1827, and again Verbeshtitza. In the volume of its agricultural trade, however, in 1832). It was a time when, under able leaders, a great Kossovo is unsurpassed by any Turkish province. The exports, national party was beginning the struggle for reform against the worth about £950,000, include livestock, large quantities of stagnant Austrian government. As deputy he had no vote, and grain and fruit, tobacco, vegetables, opium, hemp and skins. he naturally took little share in the debates, but it was part of Rice is cultivated for local consumption, and sericulture is a his duty to send written reports of the proceedings to his patron, growing industry, encouraged by the Administration of the since the governinent, with a well-grounded fear of all that might Ottoman Debt. The yearly value of the imports is approximately stir popular feeling, refused to allow any published reports. £1,200,000; these include machinery and other manufactured Kossuth's letters were so excellent that they were circulated in goods, metals, groceries, chemical products and petroleum, which MS. among the Liberal magnates, and soon developed into an is used in the flour-mills and factories on account of the pro-organized parliamentary gazette (Orszagyulesi ludositasok), of hibitive price of coal. There is practically no trade with which he was editor. At once his name and influence spread. Adriatic ports; two-thirds of both exports and imports pass In order to increase the circulation, he ventured on lithographing through Salonica, the remainder going by rail into Servia. The the letters. This brought them under the official censure, and chief towns, Usküb (32,000), Prizren (30,000), Koprülü (22,000), was forbidden. He continued the paper in MS., and when the Ishtib (Slav. Slip) (21,000), Novibazar (12,000) and Prishtina government refused to allow it to be circulated through the post (11,000) are described in separate articles. sent it out by hand. In 1836 the Diet was dissolved. Kossuth In the middle ages the vilayet formed part of the Servian continued the agitation by reporting in letter form the debates Empire, ils northern districts are still known to the Serbs as Old I of the county assemblies, to which he thereby gave a political KOSSUTH, L. 917 importance which they had not had when each was ignorant of in Paris hád arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded the proceedings of the others. The fact that he embellished with parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional þis own great literary ability the speeches of the Liberals and government for the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of Reformers only added to the influence of his news-letters. The the Habsburgs, “our beloved Archduke Francis Joseph,” to government in vain attempted to suppress the letters, and other perpetuate the ancient glory of the dynasty by meeting half-way means having failed, he was in May 1837, with Weszelenyi and the aspirations of a free people. He at once became the leader several others, arrested on a charge of high treason. After of the European revolution; his speech was read aloud in the spending a year in prison at Ofen, he was tried and condemned streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown to four more years' imprisonment. His confinement was strict (March 13), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna and injured his health, but he was allowed the use of books. , He to receive the assent of the emperor to their petition it was greatly increased his political information, and also acquired, Kossuth who received the chief ovation. Batthyany, who formed from the study of the Bible and Shakespeare, a wonderful know- the first responsible ministry, could not refuse to admit Kossuth, ledge of English. His arrest had caused great indignation. The but he gave him the ministry of finance, probably because that Diet, which met in 1839, supported the agitation for the release of seemed to open to him fewest prospects of engrossing popularity. the prisoners, and refused to pass any government measures; If that was the object, it was in vain. With wonderful energy Metternich long remained obdurate, but the danger of war in he began developing the internal resources of the country: he 1840 obliged him to give way. Immediately after his release established a separate Hungarian coinage--as always, using every Kossuth married Teresa Meszleny, a Catholic, who during his means to increase the national self-consciousness; and it was prison days had shown great interest in him. Henceforward characteristic that on the new Hungarian notes which he issued she strongly urged him on in his political career; and it was the his own name was the most prominent inscription; hence the name refusal of the Roman priests to bless their union that of Kossuth Notes, which was long celebrated. A new paper was first prompted Kossuth to take up the defence of mixed started, to which was given the name of Kossuth Hirlapia, so that marriages. from the first it was Kossuth rather than the Palatine or the He had now become a popular leader. As soon as his president of the ministry whose name was in the minds of the health was restored he was appointed (January 1841) editor of the people associated with the new government. Much more was Pesti Hirlap, the newly founded organ of the party. Strangely this the case when, in the summer, the dangers from the Croats, enough, the government did not refuse its consent. The success Serbs and the reaction at Vienna increased. In a great speech of the paper was unprecedented. The circulation soon reached of 11th July he asked that the nation should arm in self-defence, what was then the immense figure of 7000. The attempts of and demanded 200,000 men; amid a scene of wild enthusiasm the government to counteract his influence by founding a rival this was granted by acclamation. When Jellachich was march- paper, the Vilag, only increased his importance and added to ing on Pesth he went from town to town rousing the people to the the political excitement. The warning of the great reformer defence of the country, and the popular force of the Honved was Szechenyi that by his appeal to the passions of the people he his creation. When Batthyany resigned he was appointed with was leading the nation to revolution was neglected. Kossuth, Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, and at the indeed, was not content with advocating those reforms-the end of September he was made President of the Committee of abolition of entail, the abolition of feudal burdens, taxation of National Defence. From this time he was in fact, if not in name, the nobles--which were demanded by all the Liberals. By in the dictator. With marvellous energy he kept in his own hands sisting on the superiority of the Magyars to the Slavonic inhabi- the direction of the whole government. Not a soldier himself, tants of Hungary, by his violent attacks on Austria (he already he had to control and direct the movements of armies; can we discussed the possibility of a breach with Austria), he raised the be surprised if he failed, or if he was unable to keep control over national pride to a dangerous pitch. At last, in 1844, the gov- the generals or to establish that military co-operation so essential ernment succeeded in breaking his connexion with the paper. to success? Especially it was Görgei (q.v.) whose great abilities The proprietor, in obedience to orders from Vienna (this seems he was the first to recognize, who refused obedience; the two men the most probable account), took advantage of a dispute about were in truth the very opposite to one another: the one all feeling, salary to dismiss him. He then applied for permission to start enthusiasm, sensibility; the other cold, stoical, reckless of life. a paper of his own. In a personal interview Metternich offered Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he had to to take him into the government service. The offer was refused, restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had some- and for three years he was without a regular position. He con- thing more of Görgei's calculated ruthlessness, for, às has been tinued the agitation with the object of attaining both the political truly said, the revolutionary power he had seized could only be and commercial independence of Hungary. He adopted the held by revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted economic principles of List, and founded a society, the “ Vede- and always merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision gylet,” the members of which were to consume none but home in dealing with men. It has been said that he showed a want of produce. He advocated the creation of a Hungarian port at personal courage; this is not improbable, the excess of feeling Fiume. With the autumn of 1847 the great opportunity of his which made him so great an orator could hardly be combined with life came. Supported by the influence of Louis Batthyany, the coolness in danger required of a soldier; but no one was after a keenly fought struggle he was elected member for Buda-able, as he was, to infuse courage into others. During all the pest in the new Diet. “Now that I am a deputy, I will ccase terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit never failed to be an agitator," he said. He at once became chief leader of him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to the Extreme Liberals. Deak was absent. Batthyany, Szechenyi, march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat of Schwechat, Szemere, Eotvos, his rivals, saw how his intense personal ambition at which he was present, he sent Bem to carry on the war in and egoism led him always to assume the chief place, and to use Transylvania. At the end of the year, when the Austrians were his parliamentary position to establish himself as leader of the approaching Pesth, he asked for the mediation of Mr Stiles, the nation; but before his eloquence and energy all apprehensions American envoy. Windischgrätz, however, refused all terms, were useless. His eloquence was of that nature, in its im- and the Diet and government filed to Debrecszin, Kossuth taking passioned appeals to the strongest otions, that it required for with him the regalia of St Stephen, the sacred Palladium of the its full effect the highest themes and the most dramatic situations. Hungarian nation. Immediately after the accession of the In a time of rest, though he could never have been obscure, Emperor Francis Joseph all the concessions of March had been he would never have attained the bigbest power It was there- revoked and Kossuth with his colleagues outlawed. In April fore a necessity of his nature, perhaps unconsciously, always 1849, when the Hungarians had won many successes, after sound- to drive things to a crisis. The crisis came, and be used it to ing the army, he issued the celebrated declaration of Hungarian the full. independence, in which he declared that“ the house of Habsburg- On the 3rd of March 1848, as soon as the news of the revolution | Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had forfeited a 918 KOSTER-KOSTROMA the Hungarian throne.” It was a step characteristic of his love | all Hungarians who had voluntarily been absent ten years, was a for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions bitter blow to him. between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the He died in Turin on the 20th of March 1894; his body was taken old dynasty, and his enemies did not scruple to accuse him of to Pesth, where he was buried amid the mourning of the whole aiming at the crown himself. For the time the future form of nation, Maurus Jokai delivering the funeral oration. A bronze government was left undecided, but Kossuth was appointed statue, erected by public subscription, in the Kerepes cemetery, responsible governor. The hopes of ultimate success were frus- commemorates Hungary's purest patriot and greatest orator. trated by the intervention of Russia; all appeals to the western Many points in Kossuth's career and character will probably always powers were vain, and on the 11th of August Kossuth abdicated remain the subject of controversy. His complete works were pub- in favour of Görgei, on the ground that in the last extremity the lished in Hungarian at Budapest in 1880-1895. The fullest account general alone could save the nation. How Görgei used his 1869, &c.), representing the Austrian view, which may be compared the Revolution is given in Helfert, Geschichte Oesterreichs (Leipzig, authority to surrender is well known; the capitulation was indeed with that of C. Gracza, History of the Hungarian War of Indepen. inevitable, but a greater man than Kossuth would not have dence, 1848-1849 (in Hungarian) (Budapest, 1894). See also E. O. S., avoided the last duty of conducting the negotiations so as to get Hungary and its Revolutions, with a Memoir of Louis Kossuth (Bohn the best terms. 1854); Horvath, 25 Jahre aus der Geschichte Ungarns, 1823-1848 With the capitulation of Villagos Kossuth's career was at an (Leipzig,1867)Maurice, Revolutions of 1848-1849; W.H.Stiles, Austria in 1848-1849 (New York, 1852); Szemere, Politische Charakterskizzen: end. A solitary fugitive, he crossed the Turkish frontier. He was III. Kossuth (Hamburg, 1853); Louis Kossuth, Memoirs of my hospitably received by the Turkish authorities, who, supported Exile (London, 1880); Pulszky, Meine Zeit, mein Leben (Pressburg, by Great Britain, refused, notwithstanding the threats of the 1880); A. Somogyi, Ludwig Kossuth (Berlin, 1894). (J. W. He.) allied emperors, to surrender him and the other fugitives to the KOSTER (or Coster), LAURENS (C. 1370-1440), Dutch printer, merciless vengeance of the Austrians. In January 1849 he was whose claims to be considered at least one of the inventors of removed from Widdin, where he had been kept in honourable the art (see TYPOGRAPHY) have been recognized by many investi- confinement, to Shumla, and thence to Katahia in Asia Minor. gators. His real name was Laurens Janssoen-Koster (i.e. Here he was joined by his children, who had been confined at sacristan) being merely the title which he bore as an official of Pressburg, his wife (a price had been set on her head) had joined the great parish church of Haarlem. We find him mentioned him earlier, having escaped in disguise. In September 1851 he several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of the great was liberated and embarked on an American man-of-war. He council, as an assessor (scabinus), and as the city treasurer first landed at Marseilles, where he received an enthusiastic He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in welcome from the people, but the prince-president refused to 1439-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His allow him to cross France. On the 23rd of October he landed at descendants, through his daughter Lucia, can be traced down Southampton and spent three weeks in England, where he was to 1724. the object of extraordinary enthusiasm, equalled only by that See Peter Scriver, Beschryvinge der Stad Harlem (Haarlem, 1628); with which Garibaldi was received ten years later. Addresses Scheltema, Levensschets van Laurens d. Koster (Haarlem, 1834): were presented to him at Southampton, Birmingham and other Van der Linde, De Haarlemsche Costerlegende (Hague, 1870). towns; he was officially entertained by the lord mayor of KOSTROMA, a government of central Russia, surrounded by London; at each place he pleaded the cause of his unhappy those of Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and country. Speaking in English, he displayed an eloquence and Yaroslav, lying mostly on the left bank of the upper Volga. command of the language scarcely excelled by the greatest It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its surface is generally undula- orators in their own tongue. The agitation had no immediate ting, with hilly tracts on the right bank of the Volga, and exten- effect, but the indignation which he aroused against Russian sive flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of the Permian policy had much to do with the strong anti-Russian feeling which system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the Jurassic, made the Crimean War possible. and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary clays. From England he went to the United States of America: The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy clay; there his reception was equally enthusiastic, if less dignified; an a few patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yield- element of charlatanism appeared in his words and acts which ing excellent timber for ship-building, and in many cases still soon destroyed his real influence. Other Hungarian exiles pro- untouched, occupy 61% of the area of the government. The tested against the claim he appeared to make that he was the export of timber is greatly facilitated by the navigable tributaries one national hero of the revolution. Count Casimir Batthyany of the Volga, e.g. the Kostroma, Unzha, Neya, Vioksa and attacked him in The Times, and Szemere, who had been prime Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts of -22° F. are common minister under him, published a bitter criticism of his acts and in January, and the mean temperature of the year is only 3°:1 character, accusing him of arrogance, cowardice and duplicity. (summer, 64°:5; winter, -13°:3). The population, which num- He soon returned to England, where he lived for eight years in bered 1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is almost entirely close connexion with Mazzini, by whom, with some misgiving, he Russian. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,596,700. Out was persuaded to join the Revolutionary Committee. Quarrels of of 20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners, a kind only too common among exiles followed; the Hungarians 6,379,500 to the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crown, were especially offended by his claim still to be called governor. and 1,243,000 to the imperial family. Agriculture is at a low He watched with anxiety every opportunity of once more freeing ebb; only 4,000,000 acres are under crops (rye, oats, wheat and his country from Austria. An attempt to organize a Hungarian barley), and the yield of corn is insufficient for the wants of the legion during the Crimean Warwas stopped; but in 1859 he entered population. Flax and hops are cultivated to an increasing into negotiations with Napoleon, left England for Italy, and extent. But market-gardening is of some importance. Bee- began the organization of a Hungarian legion, which was to make keeping was formerly an important industry. The chief articles a descent on the coast of Dalmatia. The Peace of Villafranca of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and made this impossible. From that time he resided in Italy; he wooden wares for building and household purposes, which are refused to follow the other Hungarian patriots, who, under the largely manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the lead of Deak, accepted the composition of 1867; for him there steppe governments of the lower Volga and the Don. Boat- could be no reconciliation with the house of Habsburg, nor would building is also carried on. Some other small industries, such he accept less than full independence and a republic. He would as the manufacture of silver and copper wares, leather goods, not avail himself of the amnesty, and, though elected to the Diet bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are carried on in the of 1867, never took his seat. He never lost the affections of his villages; but the trade in linen and towelling, formerly the staple, countrymen, but he refrained from an attempt to give practical is declining. There are cotton, fax and linen mills, engineering effect to his opinions, nor did he allow his name to become a new and chemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper mills. The cause of dissension. A law of 1879, which deprived of citizenship I government of Kostroma is divided into twelve districts, the KOSTROMA--KOTZEBUE, A. F. F. VON 919 chief towns of which, with populations in 1897, are Kostroma | born in 1873, and succeeded in 1889. He was educated at the (q.v.), Bui (2626), Chukhloma (2200), Galich (6182), Kineshma Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army. (7564), Kologriv (2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002), A continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland rail- Soligalich (3420), Varnavin (1140), Vetluga (5200) and way from Goona to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also Yurievets (4778). traversed by a new line, opened in 1909. The state suffered from KOSTROMA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of drought in 1896–1897, and again more severely in 1899–1900. the same name, 230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E. The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the Chambal. from Yaroslav, on the left bank of the Volga, at the mouth of the Pop. (1901), 33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on the opposite side of the parts by massive walls, and contains an old and a new palace Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,268. Its glittering gilded cupolas make of the maharao and a number of fine temples. Muslins are the it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it climbs up the chief articles of manufacture, but the town has no great trade, terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of Russia, and this and the unhealthiness of the site may account for the having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge decrease in population. of the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered KOTAS (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal more than once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1239 tribe of the Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people, and rebuilt in 1773, is situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a of good features, tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of fine monument of old Russian architecture. In the centre of the them are among the fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize town is a monument to the peasant Ivan Susanin and the tsar no caste among themselves, but are divided into keris (streets), Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own life in 1669 by and a man must marry outside his keri. Their villages (of leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save the life of which there are seven) are large, averaging from thirty to his own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of the sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the only Volga, close to the water's edge, stands the monastery of Ipati- one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being excellent yev, founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associ- as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do ated with the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They been renowned since the 16th century for its linen, which was worship ideal gods, which are not represented by any images. exported to Holland, and the manufacture of linen and linen- Their language is an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901 yarn is still kept up to some extent. The town has also cotton- they numbered 1267. mills, tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a machine KOTKA, a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg, factory. It carries on an active trade-importing grain, and 35 m. by rail from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway, exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and on an island of the same name at the mouth of the Kymmene wooden wares. river. Pop. (1904), 7628. It is the chief port for exports from KÖSZEG (Ger. Güns), a town in the county of Vas, in Hungary, and imports to east Finland and a centre of the timber trade. 173 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 7422. It is KOTRI, a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, pleasantly situated in the valley of the Güns, and is dominated situated on the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 7617. towards the west by the peaks of Altenhaus (2000 ft.) and of the Kotri is the junction of branches of the North-Western railway, Geschriebene Stein (2900 ft.). It possesses a castle of Count serving each bank of the Indus, which is here crossed by a railway Esterhazy, a modern Roman Catholic Church in Gothic style and bridge. It was formerly the station for Hyderabad, which lies two convents It has important cloth factories and a lively trade across the Indus, and the headquarters the Indus steam in fruit and wine. The town has a special historical interest flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of for the heroic and successful defence of the fortress by Nicolas railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre, Jurisics against a large army of Sultan Soliman, in July-August however, Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by 1532, which frustrated the advance of the Turks to Vienna for river. KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON To the south-east of Köszeg, at the confluence of the Güns with (1761-1819), German dramatist, was born on the 3rd of May, the Raab, is situated the town of Sárvár (pop. 3158), formerly 1761, at Weimar. After attending the gymnasium of his native fortified, where in 1526 the first printing press in Hungary was town, he went in his sixteenth year to the university of Jena, established. and afterwards studied about a year in Duisburg. In 1780 he KOTAH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, completed his legal course and was admitted an advocate. with an area of 5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently north- Through the influence of Graf Görtz, Prussian ambassador at wards from the high table-land of Malwa, and is drained by the Russian court, he became secretary of the governor-general the Chambal with its tributaries, all flowing in a northerly or of St Petersburg, In 1783 he received the appointment of north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra range, from 1200 assessor to the high court of appeal in Reval, where he married to 16oo ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to north-west. the daughter of a Russian lieutenant-general. He was ennobled The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the neighbourhood in 1785, and became president of the magistracy of the province of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered memorable by of Esthonia. In Reval he acquired considerable reputation by the passage of Colonel Monson's army on its disastrous retreat his novels, Die Leiden der Ortenbergischen Familie (1785) and in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered Geschichte meines Vaters (1788), and still more by the plays svith grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat, Adelheid von Wulfingen (1789), Menschenhass und Reue (1790) cotton, poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated. and Die Indianer in England (1790). The good impression The manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven, produced by these works was, however, almost effaced by a but are being rapidly superseded by the cheap products of cynical dramatic satire, Doktor Bahrdt mit der eisernen Stirn, Bombay, and Manchaster. Articles of wooden furniture are also which appeared in 1790 with the name of Knigge on the title- constructed. The chief articles of export are opium and grain; page. After the death of his first wife Kotzebue retired from salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported. the Russian service, and lived for a time in Paris and Mainz; Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed he then settled in 1795 on an estate which he had acquired near upon a younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan Reval and gave himself up to literary work. Within a few years in return for services rendered him when the latter was in rebel- he published six volumes of miscellaneous sketches and stories lion against his father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion (Die jüngsten Kinder meiner Laune, 1793-1796) and more than of the area taken to form Jhalawar (q.v.) in 1838 was restored to twenty plays, the majority of which were translated into several Kotah. In 1901 the population was 544,879, showing a decrease European languages. In 1798 he accepted the office of drama- of 24% due to the results of famine. The estimated revenue tist to the court theatre in Vienna, but owing to differences with is £200,000; tribute, £28,000. The maharao Umad Singh, was the actors he was soon obliged to resign. He now returned to that year. a a 920 KOTZEBUE, O. VONKOUMOUNDOUROS his native town, but as he was not on good terms with Goethe, | by Cape Horn, he discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusen. and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in stern Islands, then made for Kamchatka, and in the middle of Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning July proceeded northward, coasting along the north-west coast of to St Petersburg, and on his journey thither he was, for some America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue Gulf or Sound unknown reason, arrested at the frontier and transported to and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he Siberia. Fortunately he had written a comedy which flattered again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sand. the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he was consequently speedily wich Islands, and on the ist of January 1817 discovered New brought back, presented with an estate from the crown lands Year Island. After some further cruising in the Pacific he again of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in proceeded north, but a severe attack of illness compelling him to St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the em- return to Europe, he reached the Neva on the 3rd of August peror Paul died, and again settled in Weimar; he found 1818, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown it, however, as impossible as ever to gain a footing in plants and much new ethnological information. In 1823 Kot- literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin, where in zebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the command of an association with Garlieb Merkel (1769-1850) he edited Der expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which was to Freimütige (1803-1807) and began his Almanach dramatischer take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a Spiele (1803-1820). Towards the end of 1806 he was once staff of scientists on board, who collected much valuable in- more in Russia, and in the security of his estate in Esthonia formation and material in geography, ethnography and natural wrote many satirical articles against Napoleon in his journals history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Die Biene and Die Grille. As councillor of state he was atlached Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July in 1816 to the department for foreign affairs in St Petersburg, 1824. Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Naviga- and in 1817 went to Germany as a kind of spy in the service of tor islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expe. Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a weekly journal dition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia (Literarisches Wochenblatt) which he published in Weimar he and Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the roth of July scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free 1826. There are English translations of both Kotzebue's institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that narratives: A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and he was obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially de-Beering's Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North-East tested by the young enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815-1818 (3 vols. 1821), and Ludwig Sand, a theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim, A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823-1826 (1830). on the 23rd of March 1819. Sand was executed, and the govern. Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue ment made his crime an excuse for placing the universities under died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846. strict supervision. KOUMISS, milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alco- Besides his plays, Kotzebue wrote several historical works, holic beverage prepared from milk. It is of very ancient which, however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much origin, and according to Herodotus was known to the Scythians. value. Of more interest are his autobiographical writings, The name is said to be derived from an ancient Asiatic tribe, Meine Flucht nach Paris im Winter 1790 (1791), Über meinen the Kumanes or Komans. It is one of the staple articles of diet Aufenthalt in Wien (1799), Das merkwürdigste Jahr meines of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late years it has also Lebens (1801), Erinnerungen aus Paris (1804), and Erinnerungen been manufactured on a considerable scale in western Europe, von meiner Reise aus Liefland nach Rom und Neapel (1805). on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It is generally As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific, his plays number- made from mares' or camels' milk by a process of fermentation ing over 200; his popularity, not merely on the German, but on set up by the addition to the fresh milk of a small quantity of the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however, the finished article. This fermentation, which appears to be was due less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than of a symbiotic nature, being dependent on the action of two dis- to an extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situa- tinct types of organisms, the one a fission fungus, the other a tions; he possessed, as few German playwrights before or since, true yeast, eventuates in the conversion of a part of the milk the unerring instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the sugar into lactic acid and alcohol. Koumiss generally contains technique of the modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from I to 2% of alcohol, 0.5 to 1.5% of lactic acid, 2 to 4% of milk Bauernfeld to Sudermann is unmistakable. Kotzebue is to be sugar and 1 to 2% of fat. Kefir is similar to koumiss, but is seen to best advantage in his comedies, such as Der Wildfang, usually prepared from cows' milk, and the fermentation is brought Die beiden Klingsberg and Die deutschen Kleinstädter, which about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant). contain admirable genre pictures of German life. These plays KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS (1814-1883), Greek held the stage in Germany long after the once famous Menschen- statesman, whose name is commonly spelt Coumoundouros, SS Reue (known in England as The Stran Graf Ben- was born in 14. His studies at the university of Athens were jowsky, or ambitious exotic tragedies like Die Sonnenjungfrau repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and he began to earn and Die Spanier in Peru (which Sheridan adapted as Pizarro) his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan insurrection were forgotten. of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843, by which the Greek Two collections of Kotzebue's dramas were published during constitution was obtained from King Otto, he was secretary to his lifetime: Schauspiele (5 vols., 1797); Neue Schauspiele (23 vols., General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at 1798-1820). His Sämtliche dramatische Werke appeared in 44 vols., in 1827–1829, and again, under the title Theater, in 4o vols., in 1840-1841. Kalamata in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to A selection of his plays in 10 vols. appeared at Leipzig in 1867-1868. the Mavromichalis family. He was elected to the chamber in Cp. H. Döring, A. von Kotzebues Leben (1830); W. von Kotzebue, 1851, and four years later his eloquence and ability had secured A. von Kotzebue (1881); Ch. Rabany, Kotzebue, sa vie et son temps the president's chair for him. He became minister of finance (1893); W. Sellier, Kotzebue in England (1901). in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1859. He adhered to the moder- KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846), Russian navigator, ate wing of the Liberal party until the revolution of 1862 and second son of the foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of justice December 1787. After being educated at the St Petersburg in the provincial government. He was twice minister of the school of cadets, he accompanied Krusenstern on his voyage of interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March 1865 he 1803-1806. After his promotion to lieutenant Kotzebue was became prime minister, and he formed several subsequent admini- placed in command of an expedition, fitted out at the expense of strations in the intervals of the ascendancy of Tricoupi. During the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff, in the brig“ Rurick." the Cretan insurrection of 1866-68 he made active warlike In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out preparations against Turkey, but was dismissed by King George, on the 30th of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic who recognized that Greece could not act without the support of Ocean and explore the less-known paris of Oceania. Proceeding the Powers. He was again premier at the time of the outbreak 2 KOUSSO-KOVNO 921 of the insurrection in Thessaly in January 1878, and supported G. Mittag Leffler in the Acta malhemalica, vol. xvi.; and J.C. Poggen. by Delyanni as minister of foreign affairs he sent an army of dorff, Biographisch-literarisches Handwörterbuch. 10,000 men to help the insurgents against Turkey. The troops KOVNO (in Lithuanian Kauna), a government of north- were recalled on the understanding that Greece should be repre- western Russia, bounded N. by the governments of Courland sented at the Congress of Berlin. In October 1880 the fall of and Vitebsk, S.E. by that of Vilna, and S. and S.W. by Suwalki the Tricoupi ministry restored him to power, when he resumed and the province of East Prussia, a narrow strip touching the his warlike policy, but repeated appeals to the courts of Europe Baltic near Memel. It has an area of 15,687 sq. m. The level yielded little practical result, and Koumoundouros was obliged to uniformity of its surface is broken only by two low ridges which reduce his territorial demands and to accept the limited cessions nowhere rise above 800 ft. The geological character is varied, in Thessaly and Epirus, which were carried out in July 1881. the Silurian, Devonian: Jurassic and Tertiary systems being all His ministry was overturned in 1882 by the votes of the new represented; the Devonian is that which occurs most frequently, Thessalian deputies, who were dissatisfied with the administra- and all are covered with Quaternary boulder-clays. The soil tive arrangements of the new province, and he died at Athens on is either a sandy clay or a more fertile kind of black earth. The the 9th of March 1883. government is drained by the Niemen, Windau, Courland Aa and KOUSSO (Kosso or Cusso), a drug which consists of the Dvina, which have navigable tributaries. In the flat depressions panicles of the pistillate flowers of Brayera anthelmintica, a covered with boulder-clays there are many lakes and marshes, handsome rosaceous tree 60 ft. high, growing throughout the while forests occupy about 251 % of the surface. The climate is table-land of Abyssinia, at an elevation of 3000 to 8000 ft. comparatively mild, the mean temperature at the city of Kovno above the sea-level. The drug as imported is in the form of being 44° F. The population was 1,156,040 in 1870, and 1,553,244 cylindrical rolls, about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in diameter, in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,683,600. and comprises the entire inflorescence or panicle kept in form by It is varied, consisting of Lithuanians proper and Zhmuds a band wound transversely round it. The active principle is (together 74%), Jews (14%), Germans (21%), Poles (9%), with koussin or kosin, C31 H38010, which is soluble in alcohol and Letts and Russians; 76.6% are Roman Catholics, 13.7 Jews, alkalis, and may be given in doses of thirty grains. Kousso 4:5 Protestants, and 5% belong to the Greek Church. Of the is also used in the form of an unstrained infusion of | to oz. total 788,102 were women in 1897 and 147,878 were classed as of the coarsely powdered flowers, which are swallowed with the urban. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is agricul- liquid. It is considered to be an effectual vermifuge for Taenia ture, 63% of the surface being under crops; both grain (wheat, solium. In its anthelmintic action it is nearly allied to male rye, oats and barley) and potatoes are exported. Flax is culti- fern, but it is much inferior to that drug and is very rarely used vated and the linseed exported. Dairying flourishes, and horse in Great Britain. and cattle breeding are attracting attention. Fishing is impor- KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE (1850-1891), Russian mathemati- tant, and the navigation on the rivers is brisk. A variety of cian, daughter of General Corvin-Krukovsky, was born at Mos- petty domestic industries are carried on by the Jews, but only cow on the 15th of January 1850. As a young girl she was fired to a slight extent in the villages. As many as 18,000 to 24,000 by the aspiration after intellectual liberty that animated so men are compelled every year to migrate in search of work. many young Russian women at that period, and drove them to The factories consist principally of distilleries, tobacco and steam study at foreign universities, since their own were closed to them. flour-mills, and hardware manufactories., Trade, especially the This led her, in 1868, to contract one of those conventional transit trade, is brisk, from the situation of the government marriages in vogue at the time, with a young student, Walde- on the Prussian frontier, the custom-houses of Yerburg and Tau- mar Kovalevsky, and the two went together to Germany to roggen being amongst the most important in Russia. The chief continue their studies. In 1869 she went to Heidelberg, where towns of the seven districts into which the government is divided, she studied under H. von Helmholtz, G.R. Kirchhoff, L. Königs with their populations in 1897, are Kovno (9.7.), (Novo-Alexan- berger and P. du Bois-Reymond, and from 1871-1874 read pri- drovsk (6370), Ponevyezh (13,044), Rosieny (7455), Shavli vately with Karl Weierstrass at Berlin, as the public lectures (15,914), Telshi (6215) and Vilkomir (13,509). were not then open to women. In 1874 the university of The territory which now constitutes the government of Kovno Göttingen granted her a degree in absentia, excusing her from was formerly known as Şamogitia and formed part of Lithuania. the oral examination on account of the remarkable excellence During the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries the Livonian and Teu. of the three dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory tonic Knights continually invaded and plundered it, especially of partial differential equations, is one of her most remarkable the western part, which was peopled with Zhmuds. works. Another was an elucidation of P.S. Laplace's mathe- it was annexed, along with the rest of the principality of Lithu- matical theory of the form of Saturn's rings. Soon after this ania, to Poland; and it suffered very much from the wars of she returned to Russia with her husband, who was appointed Russia with Sweden and Poland, and from the invasion of professor of palaeontology at Moscow, where he died in 1883. Charles XII. in 1701. In 1795 the principality of Lithuania At this time Madame Kovalevsky was at Stockholm, where was annexed to Russia, and until 1872, when the government of Gustaf Mittag Leffler, also a pupil of Weierstrass, who had been Kovno was constituted, the territory now forming it was a part recently appointed to the chair of mathematics at the newly of the government of Vilna. founded university, had procured for her a post as lecturer. KOVNO, a town and fortress of Russia, capital of the govern- She discharged her duties so successfully that in 1884 she was ment of the same name, stands at the confluence of the Niemen appointed full professor. This post she held till her death on with the Viliya, 550 m. S.W. of St Petersburg by rail, and 55 m. the roth of February 1891. In 1888 she achieved the greatest from the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1863), 23,937; (1903), 73,743, of her successes, gaining the Prix Bordin offered by the Paris nearly one-half being Jews. It consists of a cramped Old Town Academy. The problem set was “to perfect in one important and a New Town stretching up the side of the Niemen. It is a point the theory of the movement of a solid body round an im- first-class fortress, being surrounded at a mean distance of 2į m. movable point,” and her solution added a result of the highest by a girdle of forts, eleven in number. The town lies for the most interest to those transmitted to us by Leonhard Euler and J. L. part in the fork and is guarded by three forts in the direction Lagrange. So remarkable was this work that the value of the of Vilna, one covers the Vilna bridge, while the southern ap- prize was doubled as a recognition of unusual merit. Unſor- proaches are protected by seven. Kovno commands and bars tunately Madame Kovalevsky did not live to reap the full reward the railway Vilna-Eydtkuhnen. Its factories produce nails, of her labours, for she died just as she had attained the height of wire-work and other metal goods, mead and bone-meal. It is her fame and had won recognition even in her own country by an important entrepôt for timber, cereals, flax; flour, spirits. election to membership of the St Petersburg Academy of Science. bone-meal, fish, coal and building-stone passing from and to See E. de Kerbedz., Sophie de Kowalevski,” Benidiconti del Prussia. The city possesses some 15th-century churches. It circolo mathematico di Palermo (1891); the obituary notice by was founded in the uith century; and from 1384 to 1398 belonged In 1569 00 922 KOVROV-KRAKATOA to the Teutonic Knights. Tsar Alexis of Russia plundered | Kraguyevats itself is the main arsenal of Servia, and possesses and burnt it in 1655. Here the Russians defeated the Poles on an iron-foundry and a steam flour-mill. It is the seat of the the 26th of June 1831. district prefecture, of a tribunal, of a fine library, and of a KOVROV, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, large garrison. It boasts the finest college building and the 40 m. N.E. of the city of Vladimir by the railway from Moscow to finest modern cathedral (in Byzantine style) in Servia. In Nizhniy-Novgorod, and on the Klyazma River. It has railway- the first years of Servia's autonomy under Prince Milosh, it carriage works, cotton mills, steam flour mills, tallow works was the residence of the prince and the seat of government and quarries of limestone, and carries on an active trade in the (1818-1839). Even later, between 1868 and 1880, the national export of wooden wares and in the import of grain, salt and assembly (Narodna Skupshtina) usually met there. In 1885 it fish, brought from the Volga governments. Pop. (1890), 6600; was connected by a branch line (Kraguyevats-Lapovo) with (1900), 16,806. the principal railway (Belgrade-Nish), and thenceforward the KOWTOW, or Kotou, the Chinese ceremonial act of prostra- prosperity of the town steadily increased. Pop. (1900), 14,160. tion as a sign of homage, submission, or worship. The word is KRAKATOA (KRAKATAO, KRAKATAU), a small volcanic island ſormed from ko, knock, and tou, head. To the emperor, the in Sunda Strait, between the islands of Java and Sumatra, kowtow ” is performed by kneeling three times, each act celebrated for its eruption in 1883, one of the most stupendous accompanied by touching the ground with the forehead. ever recorded. At some early period a large volcano rose in the KOZLOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, on centre of the tract where the Sunda Strait now runs. Long the Lyesnoi Voronezh River,45 m.W.N.W.of the city of Tambov before any European had visited these waters an explosion took by rail. Pop. (1900), 41,555. Kozlov had its origin in a small place by which the mountain was so completely blown away monastery, founded in the forest in 1627; nine years later, an that only the outer portions of its base were left as a broken ring earthwork was raised close by, for the protection of the Russian of islands. Subsequent eruptions gradually built up a new frontier against the Tatars. Situated in a very fertile country, series of small cones within the great crater ring. Of these on the highway to Astrakhan and at the head of water com- the most important rose to a height of 2623 ft. above the sea and munication with the Don, the town soon became a centre formed the peak of the volcanic island of Krakatoa. But com- of trade; as the junction of the railways leading to the Sea of pared with the great neighbouring volcanoes of Java and Suma- Azov, to Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga, to Saratov and to Orel, tra, the islets of the Sunda Strait were comparatively unknown, its importance has recently been still further increased. Its Krakatoa was uninhabited, and no satisfactory map or chart of export of cattle, grain, meat, eggs (22,000,000), tallow, hides, &c., it had been made. In 1680 it appears to have been in eruption, is steadily growing, and it possesses factories, flour mills, tallow when great earthquakes took place and large quantities of pumice works, distilleries, tanneries and glue works. were ejected. But the effects of this disturbance had been só KRAAL, also spelt craal, kraul, &c. (South African Dutch, concealed by the subsequent spread of tropical vegetation that derived possibly from a native African word, but probably from the very occurrence of the eruption had sometimes been called the Spanish corral, Portuguese curral, an enclosure for horses, in question. At last, about 1877, earthquakes began to occur cattle and the like), in South and Central Africa, a native frequently in the Sunda Strait and continued for the next few village surrounded by a palisade, mud wall or other fencing years. In 1883 the manifestations of subterranean commotion roughly circular in form; by transference, the community living became more decided, for in May Krakatoa broke out in erup- within the enclosure. Folds for animals and enclosures made tion. For some time the efforts of the volcano appear to have specially for defensive purposes are also called kraals. consisted mainly in the discharge of pumice and dust, with the KRAFFT (or KRAFT), ADAM (c. 1455-1507), German sculptor, usual accompaniment of detonations and earthquakes. But of the Nuremberg school, was born, probably at Nuremberg, on the 26th of August a succession of paroxysmal explosions about the middle of the 15th century, and died, some say in the began which lasted till the morning of the 28th. The four most hospital, at Schwabach, about 1507. He seems to have emerged violent took place on the morning of the 27th. The whole of as sculptor about 1490, the date of the seven reliefs of scenes the northern and lower portion of the island of Krakaloa, lying from the life of Christ, which, like almost every other specimen within the original crater ring of prehistoric times, was blown of his work, are at Nuremberg. The date of his last work, an away; the northern part of the cone of Rakata almost entirely Entombment, with fifteen life-size figures, in the Holzschuher disappeared, leaving a vertical cliff which laid bare the inner chapel of the St John's cemetery, is 1507. Besides these, structure of that volcano. Instead of the volcanic island which Krafft's chief works are several monumental reliefs in the various had previously existed, and rose from 300 10 1400 ft. above the churches of Nuremberg; he produced the great Schreyer monu- sea, there was now left a submarine cavity, the bottom of which ment (1492) for St Sebald's at Nuremberg, a skilful though was here and there more than 1000 fl. below the sea-level. mannered piece of sculpture opposite the Rathaus, with realistic This prodigious evisceration was the result of successive violent figures in the costume of the time, carved in a way more suited explosions of the superheated vapour absorbed in the molten to wood than stone, and too pictorial in effect; Christ bearing magma within the crust of the earth. The vigour and repetition the Cross, above the altar of the same church; and various works of these explosions, it has been suggested, may have been caused made for public and private buildings, as the relief over the door by sudden inrushes of the water of the ocean as the throat of of the Wagehaus, a St George and the Dragon, several Madonnas, the volcano was cleared and the crater ring was lowered and and some purely decorative pieces, as coats of arms. His master- ruptured. The access of large bodies of cold water to the top piece is perhaps the magnificent tabernacle, 62 ft. high, in the of the column of molten lava would probably give rise at once church of St Laurence (1493–1500). He also made the great to some minor explosions, and then to a chilling of the surface tabernacle for the Host, 80 ft. high, covered with statuettes, in of the lava and a consequent temporary diminution or even Ulm Cathedral, and the very spirited“ Stations of the Cross "on cessation of the volcanic eructations. But until the pent-up the road to the Nuremberg cemetery. water-vapour in the lava below had found relief it would only Şee Adam Krafft und seine Schule, by Friedrich Wanderer (1869); gather strength until it was able to burst through the chilled Adam Krafft und die Künstler seiner Zeit, by Berthold Daun (1897); crust and overlying water, and to hurl a vast mass of cooled Albert Gümbel in Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft, Bd. xxv. Heſt 5, lava, pumice and dust into the air. 1902. The amount of material discharged during the two days of KRAGUYEVATS (also written KRAGULEVATZ and KRAGU- paroxysmal energy was enormous, though there are no satis- JEVAC), the capital of the Kraguyevats department of Servia; factory data for even approximately estimating it. A large situated 59 m. S.S.W. of Belgrade, in a valley of the Shumadia, cavity was formed where the island had previously stood, and or “forest-land,” and on the Lepenitsa, a small stream flowing the sea-bottom around this crater was covered with a wide and north-east to join the Morava. On the opposite bank stands the thick sheet of fragmentary materials. Some of the surrounding piciuresque hamlet of Obilichevo, with a large powder factory. I islands received such a thick accumulation of ejected stones and KRAKEN-KRASNOVODSK 923 dust as to bury their forests and greatly to increase the area of around it by an excretion suggests that the myth was based on the land. So much was the sea filled up that a number of new the appearance of some gigantic cuttle-fish. islands rose above its level. But a vast body of the fine dust See J. Gibson, Monsters of the Sea (1887); A. S. Packard, “ Colossal was carried far and wide by aerial currents, while the floating Cuttle-fishes," American Naturalisi (Salem, 1873), vol. vii.; A. E. pumice was transported for many hundreds of miles on the sur- Verrill, “ The Colossat Cephalopods of the Western Atlantic," in face of the ocean. At Batavia, 100 m. from the centre of erup- American Naturalist (Salem, 1875), vol. ix.; and " Gigantic Squids," in Trans. of Connecticul Academy (1879), vol. v. tion, the sky was darkened by the quantity of ashes borne across it, and lamps had to be used in the houses at midday. The KRALYEVO (sometimes written KRALJEVO or KRALIEVO), a darkness even reached as far as Bandong, a distance of nearly city of Servia, and capital of a department bearing the same 150 miles. It was computed that the column of stones, dust name. Kralyevo is built beside the river Ibar, 4 m. W. of its con- and ashes projected from the volcano shot up into the air for a fluence with the Servian Morava; and in the midst of an upland height of 17 m. or more. The finer particles coming into the valley, between the Kotlenik Mountains, on the north, and the higher layers of the atmosphere were diffused over a large part Stolovi Mountains, on the south. Formerly known as Karano- of the surface of the earth, and showed their presence by the vats, Kralyevo received its present name, signifying“ the King's brilliant sunset glows to which they gave rise. Within the Town," from King Milan (1868-1889), who also made it a bishop- tropics they were at first borne along by air-currents at ric, instead of Chachak, 22 m. W. by N. Kralyevo is a garrison an estimated rate of about 73 m. an hour from east to town, with a prefecture, court of first instance, and an agricultural west, until within a period of six weeks they were diffused over school. But by far its most interesting feature is the Coronation nearly the whole space between the latitudes 30° N. and 45° S. church belonging to Jicha monastery. Here six or seven kings Eventually they spread northwards and southwards and were are said to have been crowned. The church is Byzantine in carried over North and South America, Europe, Asia, South style, and has been partially restored; but the main tower dates Africa and Australasia. In the Old World they spread from the from the year 1210, when it was founded by St Sava, the patron north of Scandinavia to the Cape of Good Hope. saint of Servia. Pop. (1900), about 3600. Another remarkable result of this eruption was the world-wide The famous monastery of Studenitsa, 24 m. S. by W. of Kral- disturbance of the atmosphere. The culminating paroxysm yevo, stands high up among the south-western mountains, on the morning of the 27th of August gave rise to an atmospheric overlooking the Studenitsa, a tributary of the Ibar. It consists wave or oscillation, which, travelling outwards from the vol- of a group of old-fashioned timber and plaster buildings, a tall cano as a centre, became a great circle at 180° from its point belfry, and a diminutive church of white marble, founded in of origin, whence it continued travelling onwards and contracting 1190 by King Stephen Nemanya, who himself turned monk and till it reached a node at the antipodes to Krakatoa. It was then was canonized as St Simeon. The carvings round the north, reflected or reproduced, travelling backwards again to the south and west doors have been partially defaced by the Turks. volcano, whence it once more returned in its original direction. The inner walls are decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among "In this manner its repetition was observed not fewer than which only a painting of the Last Supper, and the portraits of seven times at many of the stations, four passages having been five saints, remain unrestored. The dome and narthex are those of the wave travelling from Krakatoa, and three those modern additions. Besides the silver shrine of St Simeon, many of the wave travelling from its antipodes, subsequently to which gold and silver ornaments, church vessels and old manuscripts, its traces were lost ” (Sir R. Strachey). there are a set of vestments and a reliquary, believed by the The actual sounds of the volcanic explosions were heard over a monks to have been the property of St Sava. vast area, especially towards the west. Thus they were noticed KRANTZ (or CRANTZ), ALBERT (c. 1450–1517), German his- at Rodriguez, nearly 3000 English miles away, at Bangkok torian, was a native of Hamburg. He studied law, theology and (1413 m.), in the Philippine Islands (about 1450 m.), in Ceylon history at Rostock and Cologne, and after travelling through (2058 m.) and in West and South Australia (from 1300 to western and southern Europe was appointed professor, first of 2250 m.). On no other occasion have sound-waves ever been philosophy and subsequently of theology, in the university of perceived at anything like the extreme distances to which the Rostock, of which he was rector in 1482. In 1493 he returned detonations of Krakatoa reached. to Hamburg as theological lecturer, canon and prebendary in Not less manifest and far more serious were the effects of the the cathedral. By the senate of Hamburg he was employed on successive explosions of the volcano upon the waters of the more than one diplomatic mission abroad, and in 1500 he was ocean, A succession of waves was generated which appear to chosen by the king of Denmark and the duke of Holstein as have been of two kinds, long waves with periods of more than an arbiter in their dispute regarding the province of Dithmarschen. hour, and shorter but higher waves, with irregular and much As dean of the cathedral chapter, to which office he was appointed briefer intervals. The greatest disturbance, probably resulting in 1508, Krantz applied himself with zeal to the reform of eccle- from a combination of both kinds of waves, reached a height of siastical abuses, but, though opposed to various corruptions about 50 ft. The destruction caused by the rush of such a body connected with church discipline, he had little sympathy with of sea-water along the coasts and low islands was enormous. the drastic measures of Wycliffe or Huss. With Luther's pro- All vessels lying in harbour or near the shore were stranded, test against the abuse of Indulgences he was in general sympaihy, the towns, villages and settlements close to the sea were either but with the reformer's later attitude he could not agree. When, at once, or by successive inundations, entirely destroyed, and on his death-bed, he heard of the ninety-five theses, he is said, on more than 36,000 human beings perished. The sea-waves good authority, to have exclaimed: “ Brother, Brother, go into travelled to vast distances from the centre of propagation. The thy cell and say, God have mercy upon me!” Krantz died long wave reached Cape Horn (7818 geographical miles) and on the 7th of December 1517. possibly the English Channel (11,040 m.). The shorter waves Krantz was the author of a number of historical works which for reached Ceylon and perhaps Mauritius (2900 m.). the period when they were written are characterized by exceptional impartiality and research. The principal of these are Chronica See R. D. M. Verbeek, Krakatau (Batavia, 1886);“ The Eruption regnorum aquilonarium Danije, Şieciae, et Norvagiae (Strassburg, of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena," Report of the Krakatoa 1546); Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera origine, &c. Committee of the Royal Society (London, 1888). (Cologne, 1518); Saxonia (1520); and Metropolis, sive Historia de ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxonia (Basel, 1548). See life by KRAKEN, in Norwegian folk-lore, a sea-monster, believed to N. Wilckens (Hamburg, 1722). haunt the coasts of Norway. It was described in 1752 by the KRASNOVODSK, a seaport of Russian Transcaspia, on the Norwegian bishop Pontoppidan as having a back about a mile N. shore of Balkhan or Krasnovodsk Bay, on the S. side of the and a half round and a body which showed above the sea like Caspian Sea, opposite to Baku, and at 69 ft. below sea-level an island, and its arms were long enough to enclose the largest Pop. (1897), 6359. It is defended by a fort. Here begins the ship. The further assertion that the kraken darkened the water | Transcaspian railway to Merv and Bokhara. There is a fishing 924 KRASNOYARSK- a -KRAWANG industry, and salt and sulphur are obtained. Krasnovodsk, | lack of pupils compelled him to move to Rudolstadt and later to which is the capital of the Transcaspian province, was founded Dresden, where he gave lessons in music. In 180s his ideal of a in 1869. universal world-society led him to join the Freemasons, whose KRASNOYARSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the principles seemed to tend in the direction he desired. He government of Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River, published two books on Freemasonry, Die drei ällesten Kunst- at its confluence with the Kacha, and on the highway from Mos- urkunden der Freimaurerbriderschufl'and Hohere Vergeisligung cow to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail N.W. from the latter. Pop. (1900), der echt überlieferten Grundsymbole der Freimaurerei, but his 33,337. It has a municipal museum and a railway technical opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He school. It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and during the lived for a time in Berlin and became a privatdozent, but was early years of its existence it was more tharı once besieged by the unable to obtain a professorship. He therefore proceeded to Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends Göttingen and afterwards to Munich, where he died of apoplexy entirely upon the gold-washings of the Yeniseisk district. at the very moment when the influence of Franz von Baader Brick-making, soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are had at last obtained a position for him. carried on. The climate is very cold, but dry. The Yenisei One of the so-called “ Philosophers of Identity,” Krause en- River is frozen here for 160 days in the year. deavoured to reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS (1812–1887), Polish Conscience and the world as known to sense. God, intuitively novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the known by Conscience, is not a personality (which inplies limita. 28th of July 1812, of an aristocratic family. He showed a tions), but an all-inclusive essence (Wesen), which contains the precocious talent for authorship, beginning his literary carcer Universe within itself. This system he called Panentheism, a com- with a volume of sketches from society as early as 1829, and for bination of Theism and Pantheism. His theory of the world a'ud more than half a century scarcely ever intermitting his literary of humanity is universal and idealistic. The world itself and man- production, except during a period of imprisonment upon a kind, its highest component, constitute an organism (Gliedbau), charge of complicity in the insurrection of 1831. He narrowly and the universe is therefore a divine organism (Wesengliedbau). escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession The process of development is the formation of higher unities, of powerful friends, he settled upon landed property near and the last stage is the identification of the world with God. Grodno, and devoted himself to literature with such industry The form which this development takes, according 10 Krause, that a mere selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg is Right or the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the condi- from 1871 to 1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most tions of external liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces all conspicuous literary figure of his day in Poland. His extreme the existence of nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or fertility was suggestive of haste and carelessness, but he declared rationale, of all progress from the lower to the highest unity or that the contrivance of his plot gave him three times as much identification. By its operation the reality of nature and reason trouble as the composition of his novel. Apart from his gifts rises into the reality of humanity. God is the reality which as a story-teller, he did not possess extraordinary mental powers; transcends and includes both nature and humanity. Right is, the“ profound thoughts" culled from his writings by his admir- therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard of progress. ing biographer Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms. Idcal society results from the widening of the organic operation His copious invention is nevertheless combined with real truth of this principle from the individual man to small groups of men, to nature, especially evinced in the beautiful little story of and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear Jermola the Poller (1857), from which George Eliot appears to as the inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever. have derived the idea of Silas Marner, though she can only have increasing degree, and in the final unity Man is merged in known it at second hand. Compared with the exquisite art of God. Silas Marner, Jermola appears rude and unskilful, but it is not The comparatively small area of Krause's influence was due on this account the less touching in its fidelity to the tenderest partly to the overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly lo elements of human nature. Kraszewski's literary activity falls two intrinsic defects. The spirit of his thought is mystical and into two well-marked epochs, the earlier when, residing upon his by no means casy to follow, and this difficulty is accentuated, estate, he produced romances like Jermola, Ulana (1843), even to German readers, by the use of artificial terminology. Kordecki (1852), devoid of any special tendency, and that after He makes use of germianized foreign terms which are unintelli- 1863, when the suspicions of the Russian government compelled gible to the ordinary man. His principal works are (beside those him to settle in Dresden. To this period belong several political quoted above): Entwurf des Systems der Philosophie (1804); novels published under the pseudonym of Boleslawita, historical System der Sillenlehre (1810); Das Urbild der Menschheit (1811); fictions such as Countess Cosel, and the “culture” romances and Vorlesungen über das System der Philosophie (1828). He left Moriluri (1874-1875) and Resurrecturi (1876), by which he is behind him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of perhaps best known out of his own country. In 1884 he was which has been collected and published by his disciples, accused of plotting against the German government and H. Ahrens (1808-1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghien and others. sentenced to seven years' imprisonment in a fortress, but was See H. S. Lindemann, Uebersichtliche Darstellung des Lebens ... released in 1886, and withdrew to Geneva, where he died on the Krauses (1839); P. Hohlfeld, Die Krausesche Philosophie (1879); 19th of March 1887. His remains were brought to Poland and A. Procksch, Krause, ein Lebensbild nach seinen Briefen (1880); interred at Cracow. Kraszewski was also a poet and dramatist; R. Eucken, Zur Erinnerung an Krause (1881); B. Martin, Krauses his most celebrated poem is his epic Anafielas (3 vols., 1840-1843) | Leben und Bedeutung, (1881), and Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, Windelband and Höffding. on the history of Lithuania. He was indefatigable, as literary critic, editor and translator, wrote several historical works, and KRAWANG, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East was conspicuous as a restorer of the study of national archaeo- Indies, bounded E. and S. by Charibon and the Proanger, W. by logy in Poland. Among his most valuable works were Litwa Batavia, and N. by the Java Sea, and comprising a few insig- (Warsaw, 2 vols., 1847-1850), a collection of Lithuanian anti-nificant islands. The natives are Sundanese, but contain a quities; and an aesthetic history of Poland (Posen, 3 vols., large admixture of Middle Javanese and Bantamers in the north, 1873-1875). (R. G.) where they established colonies in the 17th century. Like the KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781-1832), residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is flat and German philosopher, was born at Eisenberg on the 4th of May occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous 1781, and died at Munich on the 27th of September 1832. and volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs Educated at first at Eisenberg, he proceeded to Jena, where he occur in the hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though studied philosophy under Hegel and Fichte and became prival- in smaller quantities now than formerly. The principal products dozent in 1802. In the same year, with characteristic impru. are rice, coffee, sugar, vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing is dence, he married a wiſe without dowry. Two years after, I practised along the coast and forest culture in the hills, while ihe KRAY VON KRAJOVA-KREUTZER, R. 925 industries also include the manufacture of coarse linen, sacks is concentrated here, as also the trade in linseed between the and leather tanning. Gold and silver were formerly thought to districts situated on the left affluents of the Dnieper and the be hidden in the Parang mountain in the Gandasoli district southern ports. Other articles of commerce are rye, rye-flous south-west of Purwakarta, and mining was begun by the Dutch wheat, oats and buckwheat, which are sent partly up the Dnieper East India Company in 1722. The largest part of the residency to Pinsk, partly by land to Odessa and Berislav, but principally consists of private lands, and only the Purwakarta and Krawang to Ekaterinoslav, on light boats floated down during the spring divisions forming the middle and north-west sections come floods. The Dnieper is crossed at Kremenchug by a tubular directly under government control. The remainder of the bridge 1081 yds. long; there is also a bridge of boats. The residency is divided between the Pamanukan-Chiasem lands manufactures consist of carriages, agricultural machinery, occupying the whole eastern half of the residency and the tobacco, steam flour-mills, steam saw-mills and forges. Tegalwaru lands in the south-western corner. The former is KREMENETS (Polish, Krzemieniec), a town of south-west owned by a company and forms the largest estate in Java. Russia, in the government of Volhynia, 130 m. W. of Zhitomir, The Tegalwaru is chiefly owned by Chinese proprietors. and 25 m. E. of Brody railway station (Austrian Galicia). Pop. Purwakarta is the capital of the residency. Subang and (1900), 16,534. It is situated in a gorge of the Kremenets Hills Pamanukan both lie at the junction of several roads near the The Jews, who are numerous, carry on a brisk trade in tobacco borders of Cheribon and are the chief centres of activity in the and grain exported to Galicia and Odessa. The picturesque east of the residency: ruins of an old castle on a crag close by the town are usually KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL, FREIHERR (1735-1804), known as the castle of Queen Bona, i.e. Bona Sforza (wife of Austrian soldier. Entering the Austrian army at the age of Sigismund I. of Poland); it was built, however, in the 8th or 9th nineteen, he arrived somewhat rapidly at the grade of major, century. The Mongols vainly besieged it in 1241 and 1255. but it was many years before he had any opportunity of distin- From that time Kremenets was under the dominion alternately guishing himself. In 1784 he suppressed a rising in Transyl- of Lithuania and Poland, till 1648, when it was taken by the vania, and in the Turkish wars he took an active part at Porczeny Zaporogian Cossacks. From 1805 to 1832 its Polish lyceum yas and the Vulcan Pass. Made major-general in 1790, three years the centre of superior instruction for the western provinces later he commanded the advanced guard of the Allies operating of Little Russia; but after the Polish insurrection of 1831 the in France. He distinguished himself at Famars, Charleroi, lyceum was transferred to Kiev, and is now the university of Fleurus, Weissenberg, and indeed at almost every encounter with that town. the troops of the French Republic. In the celebrated campaign KREMS, a town of Austria, in lower Austria, 40 m. W.N.W. of 1796 on the Rhine and Danube he did conspicuous service as of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 12,657. It is situated at the a corps commander. At Wetzlar he defcated Kléber, and at confluence of the Krems with the Danube. The manufactures Amberg and Würzburg he was largely responsible for the victory comprise steel goods, mustard and vinegar, and a special kind of of the archduke Charles. In the following year he was less white lead (Kremser Weiss) is prepared from deposits in the successful, being twice defeated on the Lahn and the Main. neighbourhood. The trade is mainly in these products and in Kray commanded in Italy in 1799, and reconquered from the wine and saffron. The Danube harbour of Krems is at the French the plain of Lombardy. For his victories of Verona, adjoining town of Stein (pop., 4299). Mantua, Legnago and Magnano he was promoted Feldzeugmeister, KREMSIER, (Czech, Kroměříž), a town of Austria, in Moravia, and he ended the campaign by further victories at Novi and 37 m. E. by N. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,991, mostly Fossano. Next year he commanded on the Rhine against Czech. It is situated on the March, in the fertile region of the Moreau. (For the events of this memorable campaign see Hanna, and not far from the confluence of these two rivers. It FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars.) As a consequence of the is the summer residence of the bishop of Olmütz, whose palace, defeats he underwent at Biberach, Messkirch, &c., Kray was surrounded by a fine park and gardens, and containing a picture driven into Ulm, but by a skilful march round Moreau's flank gallery, library and various collections, forms the chief object succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. He was relieved of his of interest. Its industries include the manufacture of machi- command by the Austrian government, and passed his remaining nery and iron-founding, brewing and corn-milling, and there is a years in retirement. He died in 1804. Kray was one of the considerable trade in corn, cattle, fruit and manufactures. In best representatives of the old Austrian army. Tied to an 1131 Kremsier was the seat of a bishopric. It suffered con- obsolete system and unable from habit to realize the changed siderably during the Hussite war; and in 1643 it was taken and conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies held him in the burned by the Swedes. After the rising of 1848 the Austrian highest respect as a brave, skilful and chivalrous opponent. It parliament met in the palace at Kremsier from November 1848 was he who at Altenkirchen cared for the dying Marceau, and till March 1849. In August 1885 a meeting took place here the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue between the Austrian and the Russian emperors. of the French in the funeral procession of the young general of KREUTZER, KONRADIN (1780–1849), German musical he Republic. composer, was born on the 22nd of November 1780 in Messkirch KREMENCHUG, a town of south-west Russia, in the govern- in Baden, and died on the 14th of December 1849 in Riga. He ment of Poltava, on the left bank of the Dnieper (which periodi- owes his fame almost exclusively to one opera, Das Nachtlager cally overflows its banks), 73 m. S.W. of the city of Poltava, on von Granada (1834), which kept the stage for balf a century in the Kharkov-Nikolayev railway. Pop. (1887), 31,000; (1897, spite of the changes in musical taste. It was written in the style with Kryukov suburb), 58,648. The most notable public of Weber, and is remarkable especially for its flow of genuine buildings are the cathedral (built in 1808), the arsenal and melody and depth of feeling. The same qualities are found in the town-hall. The town is supposed to have been founded in Kreutzer's part-songs for men's voices, which at one time were 1571. From its situation at the southern terminus of the extremely popular in Germany, and are still listened to, with navigable course of the Dnieper, and on the highway from pleasure. Amongst these “ Der Tag des Herrn ” (“ The Lord's Moscow to Odessa, it early acquired great commercial importance, Day”) may be named as the most excellent. Kreutzer was a and by 1655 it was a wealthy town. From 1765 to 1789 it was prolific composer, and wrote a number of operas for the theatre the capital of “ New Russia." It has a suburb, Kryukov, on the at Vienna, which have disappeared from the stage and are not right bank of the Dnieper, united with the town by a railway likely to be revived. He was from 1812 to 1816 Kapellmeister bridge. Nearly all commercial transactions in salt with White to the king of Württemberg, and in 1840 became conductor of Russia are effected at Kremenchug. The town is also the centre the opera at Cologne. His daughter, Cecilia Kreutzer, was a of the tallow trade with Warsaw; considerable quantities of singer of some renown. timber are floated down to this place. Nearly all the trade in KREUTZER, RUDOLPH (1766-1831), French violinist, of the brandy manufactured in the government of Kharkov, and German extraction, was born at Versailles, his father being destined for the governments of Ekaterinoslav and Taurida, I musician in the royal chapel. Rudolph gradually became 926 KREUZBURG-KRILOFF famous as a violinist, playing with great success at varicus had perished by the hand of a woman in revenge for her relations continental capitals. It was to him that in 1803 Beethoven slain by him; according to some (e.g. Saxo Poeta and the Qued. dedicated his famous violin sonata (op. 47) known as the linburg chronicle) it was her father whom she revenged, but “ Kreutzer." Apart, however, from his fame as a violinist, when the treacherous overthrow of the Burgundians by Attila Kreutzer was also a prolific composer; he wrote twenty-nine had become a theme for epic poets, she figured as a Burgundian operas, many of which were successfully produced, besides princess, and her act as done in revenge for her brothers. Now nineteen violin concertos and chamber music. He died at the name Hildikó is the diminutive of Hilda or Hild, which again Geneva in 1831. -in accordance with a custom common enough-may have KREUZBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province been used as an abbreviation of Grimhild (cf. Hildr for Bryn- of Silesia, on the Stober, 24 m. N.N.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905), hildr). It has been suggested (Symons, Heldensage, p. 55) that 10,919. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a when the legend of the overthrow of the Burgundians, which gymnasium and a teacher's seminary. Here are four-mills, took place in 437, became attached to that of the death of Attila distilleries, iron-works, breweries, and manufactories of sugar and (453), Hild, the supposed sister of the Burgundian kings, was of machinery. Kreuzburg, which became a town in 1252, was identified with the daemonic Grimhild, the sister of the mythical the birthplace of the novelist Gustav Freytag. Nibelung brothers, and thus helped the process by which the KREUZNACH (CREUZNACH), a town and watering-place of Nibelung myth became fused with the historical story of the Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Nahe, fall of the Burgundian kingdom. The older story, according to a tributary of the Rhine, 9 m. by rail S. of Bingerbrück. Pop. which Grîmhild slays her husband Attila in revenge for her (1900), 21,321. It consists of the old town on the right bank of brothers, is preserved in the Norse tradition, though Grimhild's the river, the new town on the left, and the Bade Insel (bath part is played by Gudrun, a change probably due to the fact, island), connected by a fine stone bridge. The town has two mentioned above, that the name Grimhild still retained in the Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, north its sinister significance. The name of Grimhild is trans- a commercial school and a hospital. There is a collection of ferred to Gudrun's mother, the “wise wife," a semi-daemonic Roman and medieval antiquities, among which is preserved a figure, who brews the potion that makes Sigurd forget his love fine Roman mosaic discovered in 1893. On the Bade Insel for Brunhild and his plighted troth. In the Nibelungenlied, is the Kurhaus (1872) and also the chief spring, the Elisabeth- however, the primitive supremacy of the blood-tie has given quelle, impregnated with iodine and bromine, and prescribed place to the more modern idea of the supremacy of the passion of for scrofulous, bronchial and rheumatic disorders. The chief love, and Kriemhild marries Attila (Etzel) in order to compass industries are marble-polishing and the manufacture of leather, the death of her brothers, in revenge for the murder of Siegfried. glass and tobacco. Vines are cultivated on the neighbouring Theodor Abeling, who is disposed to reject or minimize the hills, and there is a trade in wine and corn. mythical origins, further suggests a confusion of the story of The earliest mention of the springs of Kreuznach occurs in Attila's wife Ildico with that of the murder of Sigimund the 1478, but it was only in the early part of the 19th century that Burgundian by the sons of Chrothildis, wife of Clovis. (See Dr Prieger, to whom there is a statue in the town, brought them NIBELUNGENLIED.) into prominence. Now the annual number of visitors amounts See B. Symons, Germanische Heldensage (Strassburg, 1905); F. to several thousands. Kreuznach was evidently a Roman town, Zarnke, Das Nibelungenlied, p. ii. (Leipzig, 1875); T. Abeling, as the ruins of a Roman fortification, the Heidenmauer, and Einleitung in das Nibelungenlied (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1909). various antiquities have been found in its immediate neighbour- (W. A. P.) hood. In the 9th century it was known as Cruciniacum, and it KRILOFF (or KRUILOV), IVAN ANDREEVICH (1768-1844), had a palace of the Carolingian kings. In 1065 the emperor the great national fabulist of Russia, was born on the 14th of Henry IV. presented it to the bishopric of Spires; in the 13th February 1768, at Moscow, but his early years were spent at Oren- century it obtained civic privileges and passed to the counts of burg and Tver. His father, a distinguished military officer, died Sponheim; in 1416 it became part of the Palatinate. The town in 1779; and young Kriloff was left with no richer patrimony than was ceded to Prussia in 1814. In 1689 the French reduced the a chest of old books, to be brought up by the exertions of a heroic strong castle of Kauzenberg to the ruin which now stands on a mother. In the course of a few years his mother removed to bill above Kreuznach. St Petersburg, in the hope of securing a government pension; and See Schneegans, Historisch-topographische Beschreibung Kreuz. there Kriioff obtained a post in the civil service, but he gave it nachs und seiner Umgebung (7th ed., 1904); Engelmann, Kreuznach up immediately after his mother's death in 1788. Already in und seine Heilquellen (8th ed., 1890); and Stabel, Das Solbad 1783 he had sold to a bookseller a comedy of his own composition, Kreuznach für Ärzte dargestellt (Kreuznach, 1887). and by this means had procured for himself the works of Molière, KRIEGSPIEL (KRIEGSSPIEL), the original German name, Racine, Boileau; and now, probably under the influence of these still used to some extent in England, for the War Game (q.v.). writers, he produced Philomela and Cleopatra, which gave him KRIEMHILD (GRÍMHILD), the heroine of the Nibelungenlied access to the dramatic circle of Knyazhin. Several attempts and wife of the hero Siegfried. The name (from O.H. Ger.grima, he made to start a literary magazine met with little success; à mask or helm, and hiltja or hilta, war) means “the masked but, together with his plays, they served to make the author warrior woman,” and has been taken to prove her to have been known in society. For about four years (1797-1801) Kriloff originally a mythical, daemonic figure, an impersonation of the lived at the country seats of Prince Sergius Galitzin, and when powers of darkness and of death. In the north, indeed, the name the prince was appointed military governor of Livonia he accom. Grimhildr continued to have a purely mythical character and panied him as official secretary. Of the years which follow his to be applied only to daemonic beings; but in Germany, the resignation of this post little is known, thc common opinion original home of the Nibelungen myth, it certainly lost all trace being that he wandered from town to town under the influence of this significance, and in the Nibelungenlied Kriemhild is no of a passion for card-playing. Before long he found his place more than a beautiful princess, the daughter of King Dancrât as a fabulist, the first collection of his Fables, 23 in number, and Queen Uote, and sister of the Burgundian kings Gunther, appearing in 1809. From 1812 to 1841 he held a congenial Giselhêr and Gêrnôt, the masters of the Nibelungen hoard. As appointment in the Imperial Public Library-first as assistant, she appears in the Nibelungen legend, however, Kriemhild and then as head of the Russian books department. He died would seem to have an historical origin, as the wife of Attila, on the 21st of November 1844. His statue in the Summer king of the Huns, as well as sister of the Nibelung kings. Accord Garden is one of the finest monuments in St Petersburg. ing to Jordanes (c. 49), who takes his information from the con- Honours were showered upon Kriloff while he yet lived: the temporary and trustworthy account of Priscus, Attila died of Academy of Sciences admitted him a member in 1811, and be- a violent hemorrhage at night, as he lay beside a girl named stowed upon him its gold medal; in 1838 a great festival was held Ildico (i.e. O. H. Ger. Hildikó). The story got abroad that he under imperial sanction to celebrate the jubilee of his first KRISHNA-KRONSTADT 927 ( appearance as an author; and the emperor assigned him a hand- and fortified in 1614 by Christian IV. of Denmark, who built the some pension. Before his death about 77,000 copies of his Fables fine ornate church. The town was ceded to Sweden in 1658, had found sale in Russia; and his wisdom and humour had retaken by Christian V. in 1676, and again acquired by Sweden become the common possession of the many. He was at once in 1678. poet and sage. His fables for the most part struck root in some KRIVOY ROG, a town of south Russia, in the government of actual event, and they told at once by their grip and by their Kherson, on the Ingulets River, near the station of the same beauty. Though he began as a translator and imitator he soon name on the Ekaterinoslav railway, 113 m. S.W. of the city of showed himself a master of invention, who found abundant Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900), about 10,000. It is the centre of a material in the life of his native land. To the Russian ear his district very rich in minerals, obtained from a narrow stretch of verse is of matchless quality; while word and phrase are direct, crystalline schists underlying the Tertiary deposits. Iron ores simple and eminently idiomatic, colour and cadence vary with (60 to 70% of iron), copper ores, colours, brown coal, graphite, the theme. slate, and lithographic stone are obtained-nearly 2,000,000 A collected edition of Kriloff's works appeared at St Petersburg, tons of iron ore annually. 1844. Of the numerous editions of his Fables, which have been KROCHMAL, NAHMAN (1785-1840), Jewish scholar, was born often translated, may be mentioned that illustrated by, Trutovski, at Brody in Galicia in 1785. He was one of the pioneers in the 1872. The author's life has been written in Russian by.Pletneff, revival of Jewish learning which followed on the age of Moses by Lebanoff and by. Grot, Liter. zhizn Kruilova. “Materials " for his life are published in vol. vi. of the Sbornik Slatei of the literary Mendelssohn. His chief work was the Moreh Nebuche ha- department of the Academy of Sciences. W. R. S. Ralston prefixed zeman (“ Guide for the Perplexed of the Age "), a title imitated an excellent sketch to his English prose version of the Fables (1868; from that of the 12th-century “ Guide for the Perplexed ” of 2nd ed. 1871). Another translation, by T. H. Harrison, appeared Maimonides (g.v.). This book was not published till after the in 1883. author's death, when it was edited by Zunz (1851). The book KRISHNA (the Dark One), an incarnation of Vishnu, or is a philosophy of Jewish history, and has a double importance. rather the form in which Vishnu himself is the most popular On the one side it was a critical examination of the Rabbinic objeci of worship throughout northern India. In origin, literature and much influenced subsequent investigators. On Krishna, like Rama, was undoubtedly a deified hero of the the other side, Krochmal, in the words of N. Slouschz, “ was the Kshatriya caste. In the older framework of the Mahābhārata he first Jewish scholar who views Judaism, not as a distinct and appears as a great chieftain and ally of the Pandava brothers; independent entity, but as a part of the whole of civilization.” and it is only in the interpolated episode of the Bhagavad-gita Krochmal, under Hegelian influences, regarded the nationality that he is identified with Vishnu and becomes the revealer of the of Israel as consisting in its religious genius, its spiritual gifts. doctrine of bhakti or religious devotion. Of still later date are Thus Krochmal may be called the originator of the idea of the the popular developments of the modern cult of Krishna mission of the Jewish people, "cultural Zionism ” as it has more associated with Radha, as found in the Vishnu Purana. Here recently been termed. He died at Tarnopol in 1840. he is represented as the son of a king saved from a slaughter of See S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism (1896), pp. 56 seg.; N. the innocents, brought up by a cowherd, sporting with the milk- Slouschz, Renascence of Hebrew Literature (1909), pp. 63 seq. maids, and performing miraculous feats in his childhood. The (I. A.) scene is laid in the neighbourhood of Muttra, on the right bank KRONENBERG, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine of the Jumna, where the whole country to the present day is Province, 6 m. S.W. from Elberfeld, with which it is connected holy ground. Another place associated with incidents of his by railway and by an electric tramway line. Pop. (1905), 11,340. later life is Dwarka, the westernmost point in the peninsula of It is a scattered community, consisting of an agglomeration of Kathia war. The two most famous preachers of Krishna-worship seventy-three different hanılets. It has a Roman Catholic and and founders of sects in his honour were Vallabha and two Protestant churches, a handsome modern town-hall and Chaitanya, both born towards the close of the 15th century. considerable industries, consisting mainly of steel and iron The followers of the former are now found chiefly in Rajputana manufactures. and Gujarat. They are known as Vallabhacharyas, and their KRONSTADT or CRONSTADT, a strongly fortified seaport gosains or high priests as maharajas, to whom semi-divine town of Russia, the chief naval station of the Russian fleet in honours are paid. The licentious practices of this sect were the northern seas, and the seat of the Russian admiralty. Pop. exposed in a lawsuit before the high court at Bombay in 1862. (1867), 45,115; (1897), 59,539. It is situated on the island of Chaitanya was the Vaishnav reformer of Bengal, with his home Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 20 m. W. of at Nadiya. A third influential Krishna-preacher of the 19th St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in 59° 59' 30" N. and century was Swami Narayan, who was encountered by Bishop 29° 46' 30" E. Kronstadt, always strong, has been thoroughly Heber in Gujarat, where his followers at this day are numerous refortified on modern principles. The old “three-decker ” and wealthy. Among the names of Krishna are Gopal, the cow- forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal herd; Gopinath, the lord of the milkmaids; and Mathuranath, defences of the place, and defied the Anglo-French ficets during the lord of Muttra. His legitimate consort was Rukmini, the Crimean War, are now of secondary importance. From the daughter of the king of Berar; but Radha is always associated plans of Todleben a new fort, Constantine, and four batteries with him in his temples. (See HINDUISM.) were constructed (1856–1871) to defend the principal approach, KRISHNAGAR, a town of British India, headquarters of and seven batterics to cover the shallower northern channel. Nadia district in Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river All these modern fortifications are low and thickly armoured Jalangi and connected with Ranaghat, on the Eastern Bengal earthworks, powerfully armed with heavy Krupp guns in railway, by a light railway. Pop. (1901), 24,547. It is the turrets. The town itself is surrounded with an enceinte. The residence of the raja of Nadia and contains a government island of Kotlin, or Kettle (Finn., Retusari, or Rat Island) in college. Coloured clay figures are manufactured. general outline forms an elongated triangle, 74 m. in length by KRISTIANSTAD (CHRISTIANSTAD), a port of Sweden, chief about 1 in breadth, with its base towards St Petersburg. The town of the district (län) of Kristianstad, on a peninsula in Lake eastern or broad end is occupied by the town of Kronstadt, and Sjövik, an expansion of the river Helge, 10 m. from the Baltic. shoals extend for a mile and a half from the western point of Pop. (1900), 10,318. Its harbour, custom-house, &c., are at the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is Åhus at the mouth of the river. It is among the first twelve built. The island thus divides the seaward approach to manufacturing towns of Sweden as regards value of output, St Petersburg into two channels; that on the northern side having engineering works, flour-mills, distilleries, weaving mills is obstructed by shoals which extend across it from Kotlin to and sugar factories. Granite and wood-pulp are exported, and Lisynos on the Finnish mainland, and is only passable by vessels coal and grain imported. The town is the seat of the court of drawing less than 15 ft. of water; the southern channel, the high- appeal for the provinces of Skane and Blekinge. It was founded | way to the capital, is narrowed by a spit which projects from 928 KROONSTAD KROTOSCHIN opposite Oranienbaum on the Russian mainland, and, lying would be attached. Kropotkin had never wished for a military close to Kronstadt, has been strongly guarded by batteries. career, but, as he had not the means to enter the St Petersburg The approach to the capital has been greatly facilitated by the University, he elected to join a Siberian Cossack regiment in the construction in 1875-1885 of a canal, 23 ft. deep, through the recently annexed Amur district, where there were prospects of shallows. The town of Kronstadt is built on level ground, administrative work. For some time he was aide de camp and is thus exposed to inundations, from one of which it to the governor of Transbaikalia at Chita, subsequently being suffered in 1824. On the south side of the town there are appointed attaché for Cossack affairs to the governor-general of three harbours—the large western or merchant harbour, the East Siberia at Irkutsk. Opportunities for administrative work, western flank of which is formed by a great mole joining the however, were scanty, and in 1864 Kropotkin accepted charge fortifications which traverse the breadth of the island on this of a geographical survey expedition, crossing North Manchuria side; the middle harbour, used chiefly for fitting out and repairing from Transbaikalia to the Amur, and shortly afterwards was vessels; and the eastern or war harbour for vessels of the attached to another expedition which proceeded up the Sungari Russian navy. The Peter and Catherine canals, communi- River into the heart of Manchuria. Both these expeditions cating with the merchant and middle harbours, traverse the yielded most valuable geographical results. The impossibility town. Between them stood the old Italian palace of Prince of obtaining any real administrative reforms in Siberia now Menshikov, the site of which is now occupied by the pilot school. induced Kropotkin to devote himself almost entirely to scientific Among other public buildings are the naval hospital, the British exploration, in which he continued to be highly successful. In seaman's hospital (established in 1867), the civic hospital, 1867 he quitted the army and returned to St Petersburg, where admiralty (founded 1785), arsenal, dockyards and foundries, he entered the university, becoming at the same time secretary school of marine engineering, the cathedral of St Andrew, and to the physical geography section of the Russian Geographical the English church. The port is ice-bound for 140 to 160 days Society. In 1873 he published an important contribution to in the year, from the beginning of December till April. A very science, a map and paper in which he proved that the existing large proportion of the inhabitants are sailors, and large num- maps of Asia entirely misrepresented the physical formation of bers of artisans are employed in the dockyards. Kronstadt the country, the main structural lines being in fact from was founded in 1710 by Peter the Great, who took the island south-west to north-east, not from north to south, or from east of Kotlin from the Swedes in 1703, when the first fortifications to west as had been previously supposed. In 1871 he explored were constructed. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the Russian KROONSTAD, a town of Orange River Colony, 127 m. by Geographical Society, and while engaged in this work was ofiered rail N.E. of Bloemfontein and 130 m. S.W. of Johannesburg. the secretaryship of that society. But by this time he had Pop. (1904), 7191, of whom 3708 were whites. Kroonstad lies determined that it was his duty not to work at fresh discoveries 4489 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Valsch but to aid in diffusing existing knowledge among the people at River, a perennial tributary of the Vaal. It is a busy town, large, and he accordingly refused the offer, and returned to being the centre of a rich agricultural district and of the St Petersburg, where he joined the revolutionary party. In 1872 diamond and coal-mining industry of the north-western parts he visited Switzerland, and became a member of the Inter- of the colony. It is also a favourite residential place and national Workingmen's Association at Geneva. The socialism resort of visitors from Johannesburg. It enjoys a healthy of this body was not, however, advanced enough for his views, climate, affords opportunities for boating rare in South Africa, and after studying the programme of the more violent Jura and boasts a golf-links. The principal building is the Dutch Federation at Neuchâtel and spending some time in the com- Reformed church in the centre of the market square. pany of the leading members, he definitely adopted the creed of On the capture of Bloemfontein by the British during the anarchism (9.0.) and, on returning to Russia, took an active part Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 Kroonstad was chosen by the in spreading the nihilist propaganda. In 1874 he was arrested Orange Free State Boers as the capital of the state, a dignity it and imprisoned, but escaped in 1876 and went to England, held from the 13th of March to the oth of May 1900. On the removing after a short stay to Switzerland, where he joined the following day the town was occupied by Lord Roberts. The Jura Federation. In 1877 he went to Paris, where he helped to linking of the town in 1906 with the Natal system made the route start the socialist movement, returning to Switzerland in 1878, via Kioonstad the shortest railway connexion between Cape where he edited for the Jura Federation a revolutionary news- Town and Durban. Another line goes N.W. from Kroonstad paper, Le Révolté, subsequently also publishing various revolu- to Klerksdorp, passing (17 miles) the Lace diamond mine and tionary pamphlets. Shortly after the assassination of the tsar (45 miles) the coal mines at Vierfontein. Alexander II. (1881) Kropotkin was expelled from Switzerland by KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH, PRINCE (1842– ), the Swiss government, and after a short stay at Thonon (Savoy) Russian geographer, author and revolutionary, was born at went to London, where he remained for nearly a year, returning Moscow in 1842. His father, Prince Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin, to Thonon towards the end of 1882. Shortly afterwards he was belonged to the old Russian nobility; his mother, the daughter arrested by the French government, and, after a trial at Lyons, of a general in the Russian army, had remarkable literary and sentenced by a police-court magistrate (under a special law passed liberal tastes. At the age of fifteen Prince Peter Kropotkin, who on the fall of the Commune) to five years' imprisonment, on the had been designed by his father for the army, entered the Corps ground that he had belonged to the International Workingmen's of Pages at St Petersburg (1857). Only a hundred and fifty Association (1883). In 1886 however, as the result of repeated boys--mostly children of the nobility belonging to the court- agitation on his behalf in the French Chamber, he was released, were educated in this privileged corps, which combined the and settled near London. character of a military school endowed with special rights and Prince Kropotkin's authority as a writer on Russia is univer. of a Court institution attached to the imperial household. Here sally acknowledged, and he has contributed largely to the he remained till 1862, reading widely on his own account, and Encyclopaedia Britannica. Among his other works may be giving special attention to the works of the French encyclo- named Paroles d'un révollé (1884); La Conquête du pain (1888); paedists and to modern French history. Before he left Moscow L'Anarchie: sa philosophie, son idéal (1896); The State, its Part Prince Kropotkin had developed an interest in the condition of in History (1898); Fields, Factories and Workshops (1899); the Russian peasantry, and ihis interest increased as he grew Memoirs of u Revolutionist (1900); Mutval Aid, a Factor of Evo- older. The years 1857-1861 witnessed a rich growth in the in- lution (1902); Modern Science and Anarchism (Philadelphia, tellectual forces of Russia, and Kropotkin came under the influence 1903); The Desiccation of Asia (1904); The Orography of Asia of the new Liberal-revolutionary literature, which indeed largely (1904); and Russian Lilcrature (1905). expressed his own aspirations. In 1862 he was promoted from KROTOSCHIN (in Polish, Kroloszyn), a town of Germany, in the Corps of Pages to the army. The members of the corps had the Prussian province of Poser, 32 m. S.E.of Posen. Pop. (1900), the prescriptive right of choosing the regiment to which they 12,373. It has three churches, a synagogue, steam saw-mills, KRÜDENER 929 and a steam brewery, and carries on trade in grain and seeds. and she was ordered by her doctor to the baths of Wiesbaden. At The castle of Krotoschin is the chief place of a mediatized prin- Königsberg she had an interview with Queen, Louise, and, more cipality which was formed in 1819 out of the domains of the important still, with one Adam Müller, a rough peasant, to whom Prussian crown and was granted to the prince of Thurn and Taxis the Lord had revealed a prophetic mission to King Frederick in compensation for the relinquishment by him of the monopoly William III. “ Chiliasm" was in the air. Napoleon was of the Prussian postal system, formerly held by his family. evidently Antichrist; and the “ latter days were about to be KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA, BARONESS VON (1764- accomplished. Under the influence of the pietistic movement the 1824), Russian religious mystic and author, was born at Riga belief was widely spread, in royal courts, in country parsonages, in Livonia on the uth of November 1764. Her father, Otto in peasants' hovels: a man would be raised up“ from the north Hermann von Vietinghoff, who had fought as a colonel in from the rising of the sun ” (Isa. xli. 25); Antichrist would Catherine II.'s wars, was one of the two councillors for Livonia be overthrown, and Christ would come to reign a thousand years and a man of immense wealth; her mother, née Countess Anna upon the earth. The interview determined the direction of Ulrica von Münnich, was a grand-daughter of the celebrated the baroness's religious development. A short visit to the field marshal. Juliana, as she was usually called, was one of a Moravians at Herrenhut followed; then she went, via Dresden, numerous family. Her education, according to her own account, to Karlsruhe, to sit at the feet of Heinrich Jung-Stilling (9.0.), consisted of lessons in French spelling, deportment and sewing; the high priest of occultist pietism, whose influencé was supreme and at the age of eighteen (Sept. 29, 1782) she was married to at the court of Baden and infected those of Stockholm and Baron Burckhard Alexis Constantin von Krüdener, a widower six- St Petersburg: By him she was instructed in the chiliastic faith teen years her senior. The baron, a diplomatist of distinction, was and in the mysteries of the supernatural world. Then, hearing cold and reserved; the baroness was frivolous, pleasure-loving, that a certain pastor in the Vosges, Jean Frédéric Fontaines, was and possessed of an insatiable thirst for attention and flattery; prophesying and working miracles, she determined to go to and the strained relations due to this incompatibility of temper him. On the 5th of June 1801, accordingly, she arrived at the were embittered by her limitless extravagance, which constantly Protestant parsonage of Sainte Marie-aux-Mines, accompanied involved herself and her husband in financial difficulties. At by her daughter Juliette, her step-daughter Sophie and a Russian first indeed all went well. On the 31st of January 1784.a son valet. was born to them, named Paul after the grand-duke Paul (after- This remained for two years her headquarters. Fontaines, wards emperor), who acted as god-father. The same year Baron half-charlatan, half-dupe, had introduced into his household a Krüdener became ambassador at Venice,' where he remained until prophetess named Marie Gottliebin Kummer, whose visions, transferred to Copenhagen in 1786. carefully calculated for her own purposes, became the oracle of In 1787 the birth of a daughter (Juliette) aggravated the the divine mysteries for the baroness. Under this influence she nervous disorders from which the baroness had for some time believed more firmly than ever in the approaching millennium been suffering, and it was decided that she must go to the south and her own mission to proclaim it. Her rank, her reckless for her health; she accordingly left, with her infant daughter and charities, and her exuberant eloquence produced a great effect her step-daughter Sophie. In 1789 she was at Paris when the on the simple country folk; and when, in 1809, it was decided to states general met; a year later, at Montpellier, she met a young found a colony of the “ elect” in order to wait for “ the coming of cavalry captain, Charles Louis de Frégeville, and a passionate the Lord,” many wretched peasants sold or distributed all they attachment sprang up between them. They returned together possessed and followed the baroness and Fontaines into Würt- to Copenhagen, where the baroness told her husband that her lemberg, where the settlement was established at Catharinen- heart could no longer be his. The baron was coldly kind; he plaisir and the château of Bönnigheim, only to be dispersed refused to hear of a divorce and attempted to arrange a modus (May 1) by an unsympathetic government. Further wanderings vivendi, which was facilitated by the departure of De Frégeville followed: to Lichtenthal near Baden; to Karlsruhe and the for the war. All was useless; Juliana refused to remain at Copen-congenial society of pictistic princesses; to Riga, where she hagen, and, setting out on her travels, visited Riga, St Peters- was present at the deathbed of her mother (Jan. 24, 1811); burg-where her father had become a senator2-Berlin, Leipzig then back to Karlsruhe. The influence of Fontaines, to whom and Switzerland. In 1798 her husband became ambassador at she had been “spiritually married ” (Madame Fontaines being Berlin, and she joined him there. But the stiff court society of content with the part of Martha in the household, so long as the Prussia was irksome to her; money difficulties continued; and baroness's funds lasted), had now waned, and she had fallen under by way of climax, the murder of the tsar Paul, in whose favour that of Johann Kaspar Wegelin (1766-1833), a pious linen-draper Baron Krudener had stood high, made the position of the ambas- of Strassburg, who taught her the sweetness of “ complete anni- sador extremely precarious. The baroness seized the occasion hilation of the will and mystic death." Her preaching and her to leave for the baths of Teplitz, whence she wrote to her husband indiscriminate charities now began to attract curious crowds from that the doctors had ordered her to winter in the south. He died afar; and her appearance everywhere was accompanied by an on the 14th of June 1802, without ever having seen her again. epidemic of visions and prophesyings, which culminated in the Meanwhile the baroness had been revelling in the intellectual appearance in 1811 of the comet, a sure sign of the approaching society of Coppet and of Paris. She was now thirty-six; her end. In 1812 she was at Strassburg, whence she paid more than charms were fading, but her passion for admiration survived. one visit to J. F. Oberlin (q.v.), the famous pastor of Waldbach in She had tried the effect of the shawl dance, in imitation of Emma, Steinthal (Ban de la Roche), and where she had the glory of con- Lady Hamilton; she now sought fame in literature, and in verting her host, Adrien de Lazay-Marnesia, the prefect. In 1803, after consulting Chateaubriand and other writers of dis- 1813 she was at Geneva, where she established the faith of a tinction, published her Valérie, a sentimental romance, of which band of young pietists in revolt against the Calvinist Church under a thin veil of anonymity she herself was the heroine. In authorities-notably Henri Louis Empeytaz, afterwards destined January 1804 she returned to Livonia. to be the companion of her crowning evangelistic triumph. In At Riga occurred her “conversion.” A gentleman of her September 1814 she was again at Waldbach, where Empeytaz acquaintance when about to salute her fell dying at her feet. had preceded her; and at Strassburg, where the party was The shock overset her not too well balanced mind; she sought for joined by Franz Karl von Berckheim, who afterwards married consolation, and found it in the ministrations of her shoemaker, : The consorts of Alexander I. of Russia and of Gustavus Adolphus an ardent disciple of the Moravian Brethren. Though she had IV. of Sweden were princesses of Baden. "ſound peace,” however, the disorder of her nerves continued, She had been condemned some years previously in Württemberg to the pillory and three years' imprisonment as a "swindler "A portrait of Madame de Krüdener and her son as " Venus (Betrügerin), on her own confession. Her curious history is given disarming Cupid," by Angelica Kauffmann, of this period, is in the in detail by M. Muhlenbeck, Louvre. s In 1809 it was obviously inconvenient to have people proclaiming ? He died while she was there in 1792. Napoleon as the Beast. 6 XV. 16* 930 KRUG, W. T. Juliette. At the end of the year she returned with her | Rev. xii. 1. She wandered with Kellner from place to place, daughters and Empeytaz to Baden, a fateful migration. proclaiming her mission, working miracles, persuading her con- The empress Elizabeth of Russia was now at Karlsruhe; and verts to sell all and follow her. Crowds of beggars and rapscal- she and the pietist ladies of her entourage hoped that the emperor lions of every description gathered wherever she went, supported Alexander might find at the hands of Madame de Krüdener the by the charities squandered from the common fund. She became peace which an interview with Jung-Stilling had failed to bring a nuisance to the authorities and a menace to the peace; him. The baroness herself wrote urgent letters to Roxane de Württemberg had expelled her, and the example was followed Stourdza, sister of the tsar's Rumanian secretary, begging her by every Swiss canton she entered in turn. At last, in August to procure an interview. There seemed to be no result; but the 1817, she set out for her estate in Livonia, accompanied by correspondence paved the way for the opportunity which a Kellner and a remnant of the elect. strange chance was to give her of realizing her ambition. In The emperor Alexander having opened the Crimea to German the spring of 1815 the baroness was settled at Schlüchtern, a piece and Swiss chiliasts in search of a land of promise, the baroness's of Baden territory enclavé in Württemberg, busy persuading the son-in-law Berckheim and his wife now proceeded thither to help peasants to sell all and fly from the wrath to come. Near this, establish the new colonies. In November 1820 the baroness at Heilbronn, the emperor Alexander established his head- at last went herself to St Petersburg, where Berckheim was quarters on the 4th of June. That very night the baroness lying ill. She was there when the news arrived of Ypsilanti's sought and obtained an interview. To the tsar, who had been invasion of the Danubian principalities, which opened the war brooding alone over an open Bible, her sudden arrival seemed an of Greek independence. She at once proclaimed the divine answer to his prayers; for three hours the prophetess preached mission of the tsar to take up arms on behalf of Christendom. her strange gospel, while the most powerful man in Europe sat, his Alexander, however, had long since exchanged her influence face buried in his hands, sobbing like a child; until at last he for that of Metternich, and he was far from anxious to be forced declared that he had “ found peace.” At the tsar's request she into even a holy war. To the baroness's overtures he replied followed him to Heidelberg and later to Paris, where she was in a long and polite letter, the gist of which was that she must lodged at the Hôtel Montchenu, next door to the imperial head- leave St Petersburg at once. In 1823 the death of Kellner, quarters in the Elysée Palace. A private door connected the whom to the last she regarded as a saint, was a severe blow to establishments, and every evening the emperor went to take her. Her health was failing, but she allowed herself to be part in the prayer-mcetings conducted by the baroness and persuaded by Princess Galitzin to accompany her to the Crimea, Empeytaz. · Chiliasm seemed to have found an entrance into where she had established a Swiss colony. Here, at Karasu the high councils of Europe, and the baroness von Krüdener had Bazar, she died on the 25th of December 1824. become a political force to be reckoned with. Admission to her Sainte-Beuve said of Madame de Krüdener? “ Elle avait un religious gatherings was sought by a crowd of people celebráted immense besoin que le monde s'occupât d'elle ; l'amour in the intellectual and social world; Châteaubriand came, and propre, toujours l'amour propre ..!" A kindlier epitaph Benjamin Constant, Madame Récamier, the duchesse de Bourbon, might, perhaps, be written in her own words, uttered after and Madame de Duras, The fame of the wonderful con- the revelation of the misery of the Crimean colonists had at version, moreover, attracted other members of the chiliastic last opened her eyes: “ The good that I have done will endure; fraternity, among them Fontaines, who brought with him the the evil that I have done (for how often have I not imistaken for prophetess Marie Kummer. the voice of God that which was no more than the result of my In this religious forcing-house the idea of the Holy Alliance imagination and my pride) the mercy of God will blot out.”. germinated and grew to rapid maturity. On the 26th of Septem- Much information about Madame de Krüdener, coloured by the ber the portentous proclamation, which was to herald the opening author's views, is to be found in H. L. Empeytaz's Notice sur of a new age of peace and goodwill on earth, was signed by the Alexandre, empereur de Russie (2nd ed., Paris, 1840). The Vie de sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia (see HOLY ALLIANCE; Madame de Krudener (2 vols., Paris, 1849), by the Swiss banker and EUROPE: History). Its authorship has ever been a matter and Philhellene J. G. Eynard, was long the standard life and con. tains much material, but is far from authoritative. In English of dispute. Madame de Krüdener herself claimed that she had appeared the Life and Letters of Madame de Krüdener, by Clarence suggested the idea, and thai Alexander had submitted the draft Ford (London, 1893). The most authoritative study, based on a for her approval. This is probably 'correct, though the tsar wealth of original research, is E. Muhlenbeck's Étude sur les origines later, when he had recovered his mental equilibrium, reproved her de la Sainte-Alliance (Paris, 1909), in which numerous references are given. (W. A. P.) for her indiscretion in talking of the matter. His eyes, indeed, had begun to be opened before he left Paris, and Marie Kummer KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT (1770-1842), German philo- was the unintentional cause. At the very first séance the sopher and author, was born at Radis in Prussia on the 22nd of prophetess, whose revelations had been praised by the baroness June 1770, and died at Leipzig on the 12th of January 1842. in extravagant terms, had the evil inspiration to announce in her He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and Jehnichen, at trance to the emperor that it was God's will that he should Jena under Reinhold, and at Göttingen. From 1801 to 1804 he endow the religious colony to which she belonged! Alexander was professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, after merely remarked that he had received too many such revelations which he succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metaphysics before to be impressed. The baroness's influence was shaken at the university of Königsberg. From 1809 till his death he but not destroyed, and before he left Paris Alexander gave her was profcssor of philosophy at Leipzig. He was a prolific writer a passport to Russia. She was not, however, destined to see on a great variety of subjects, in all of which he excelled as a him again. popularizer rather than as an original thinker. In philosophy She left Paris on the 22nd of October 1815, intending to travel his method was psychological; he attempted to explain the to St Petersburg by way of Switzerland. The tsar, however, Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the facts of offended by her indiscretions and sensible of the ridicule which consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presen- his relations with her had brought upon him, showed little dis- taiion in consciousness; consciousness only in its relation to position to hurry her arrival. She remained in Switzerland, Being. Both Being and Consciousness, however, are immediately where she presently fell under the influence of an unscrupulous known to us, as also the relation existing between them. By this adventurer named J. G. Kellner. For months Empeytaz, an Transcendental Synthesis he proposed to reconcile Realism honest enthusiast, struggled to save her from this man's clutches, and Idealisni, and to destroy the traditional difficulty between but in vain. Kellner too well knew how to flatter the baroness's transcendental, or pure, thought and“ things in themselves." inordinate vanity: the author of the Holy Alliance could Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it is admitted that be none other than the woman clothed with the sun" of it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy and of Berckheim had been French commissioner of police in Mainz and stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. His had abandoned his post in 1813. principal works are: Briefe über den neuesten Idealismus 66 KRUGER 931 (1801); Versuch über die Principien der philosophischen Erkennt- engaged in distant hunting excursions which took him as far niss (1801); Fundamental philosophie (1803); System der north as the Zambezi. În 1852 the Transvaal secured the theoretischen Philosophie (1806-1810), System der praktischen recognition of its independence from Great Britain in the Sand Philosophie (1817-1819); Handbuch der Philosophie (1820; River convention. For many years after this date the con- 3rd ed., 1828); Logik oder Denklehre (1827); Geschichte dition of the country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into der Philos. aller Zeit (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); Allgemoines the faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely Handwörterbuch der philoscphischen Wissenschaften (1827-1834; entered. In 1856-1857 he joined M.W.Pretorius in his attempt 2nd ed., 1832-1838); Universal-philosophische Vorlesungen für to abolish the district governments in the Transvaal and to Gebildete beiderlei Geschlechts. His work Beiträge zur Geschichte overthrow the Orange Free State government and compel a der Philos. des XIX. Jahrh. (1835-1837) contains interesting federation between the two countries. The raid into the Free criticisms of Hegel and Schelling. State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with it was See also his autobiography, Meine Lebensreise (Leipzig, 2nd ed., the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the 1840). Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS (1825-1904), attacking them in front. president of the Transvaal Republic, was born in Colesberg, From this time forward Kruger's life is so intimately bound Cape Colony, on the ioth of October 1825. His father was up with the history of his country, and even in later years of Caspar Jan Hendrick Kruger, who was born in 1796, and whose South Africa, that a study of that history is essential to an wife bore the name of Steyn. In his ancestry on both sides occur understanding of it (see TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA). In Huguenot names. The founder of the Kruger family appears 1864, when the faction fighting ended and Pretorius was presi- to have been a German named Jacob Kruger, who in 1713 was dent, Kruger was elected commandant-general of the forces of sent with others by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape. the Transvaal. In 1870 a boundary dispute arose with the At the age of ten Paul Kruger-as he afterwards came to be British government, which was settled by the Keate award known-accompanied his parents in the migration, known as the (1871). The decision caused so much discontent in the Trans- Great Trek, from the Cape Colony to the territories north of the vaal that it brought about the downfall of President Pretorius Orange in the years 1835–1840. From boyhood his life was one and his party; and Thomas François Burgers, an educated of adventure. Brought up on the borderland between civiliza- Dutch minister, resident in Cape Colony, was elected to succeed tion and barbarism, constantly trekking, fighting and hunting, him. During the term of Burgers' presidency Kruger appeared his education was necessarily of the most primitive character. to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the He learnt to read and to write, and was taught the narrowest president in the difficult task of building up a stable state, form of Dutch Presbyterianism. His literature was almost he did everything in his power to undermine his authority, confined to the Bible, and the Old Testament was preferred to going so far as to urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers the New. It is related of Kruger, as indeed it has been said was in office. The faction of which he was a prominent member of Piet Retief and others of the early Boer leaders, that he was chiefly responsible for bringing about that impasse in the believed himself the object of special Divine guidance. At government of the country which drew such bitter protest from about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared Burgers and terminated in the annexation by the British in into the veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under April 1877. At this period of Transvaal history it is impossible the influence of deep religious fervour. During this sojourn into trace any true patriotism in the action of the majority of the the wilderness Kruger stated that he had been especially favoured | inhabitants. The one idea of Kruger and his faction was to by God, who had communed with and inspired him. Through oust Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put out his life he professed this faith in God's will and guidance, Kruger in his place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured and much of his influence over his followers is attributable to and annexation offered itself as the alternative resulting from their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of Divine favour. his downfall, it is true that Kruger opposed it. But matters The Dutch Reformed Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a had gone too far. Annexation became an accomplished fact, spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the Cove- and Kruger accepted paid office under the British government. nanters, was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the retrocession the narrowest, most puritanical, and most bigoted was the of the country, being a member of two deputations which went Dopper sect, to which Kruger belonged. His Dopper following to England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that was always unswerving in its support, and at all critical times in 1878 Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British administrator, in the internal quarrels of the state rallied round him. The dismissed him 'from his service. In 1880 the Boer rebellion charge of hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger-if by occurred, and Kruger was one of the famous triumvirate, of this charge is meant the mere juggling with religion for purely which General Piet Joubert and Pretorius were the other political ends-does not appear entirely just. The subordina-members, who, after Majuba, negotiated the terms of peace on tion of reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote which the Pretoria convention of August 1881 was drafted. In of his character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where 1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving 3431 faith is so profound as to believe the Divine guidance all, and votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert. the individual intelligence nil, a man is able to persuade himself In November 1883 President Kruger again visited England, that any course he chooses to take is the one he is directed to this time for the purpose of getting another convention. The take. Where bigotry is so blind, reason is but dust in the visit was successful, the London convention, which for years was balance. At the same time there were incidents in Kruger's a subject of controversy, being granted by Lord Derby in 1884 life which but ill conform to any Biblical standard he might on behalf of the British government. The government of the choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even van Oordt, his Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers, the country eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact. rapidly drifted towards that state of national bankruptcy from When the lad, who had already taken part in fights with the which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the Matabele and the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north year in which the Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger of the Vaal and were among the founders of the Transvaal state. was by no means a popular man even among his own followers; At the age of seventeen Paul found himself an assistant field as an administrator of internal affairs he had shown himself cornet, at twenty he was field cornet, and at twenty-seven held grossly incompetent, and it was only the specious success of a command in an expedition against the Bechuana chief Sechele his negotiations with the British government which had retained the expedition in which David Livingstone's mission-house him any measure of support. In 1888 he was elected president was destroyed. for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a young Hol- In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa. lander, was appointed state secretary, and the system of state When not fighting natives in those early days Kruger was I monopolies around which so much corruption grew up was soon 932 KRUGERSDORP in full course of development. The principle of government without the Free State itself receiving anything in return. monopoly in trade being thus established, President Kruger now Kruger thus achieved one of the objects of his life. With such turned his attention to the further securing of Boer political a history of apparent success, it is not to be wondered at that monopoly. The Uitlanders were increasing in numbers, as well the Transvaal president came to Bloemfontein to meet Sir as providing the state with a revenue. In 1890, 1891, 1892, and Alfred Milner in no mood for concession. It is true that he 1894 the franchise laws (which at the time of the convention were made an ostensible offer on the franchise question, but that on a liberal basis) were so modified that all Uitlanders were proposal was made dependent on so many conditions that it practically excluded altogether. In 1893 Kruger had to face a was a palpable sham. Every proposition which Sir Alfred third presidential election, and on this occasion the opposition Milner made was met by the objection that it threatened the he had raised among the burgers, largely by the favouritism independence of the Transvaal. This retort was President he displayed to the Hollander party, was so strong that it was Kruger's rallying cry whenever he found himself in the least fully anticipated that his more liberal opponent, General Joubert, degree pressed, either from within or without the state. Το would be elected. Before the election was decided Kruger admit Uitlanders to the franchise, to no matter how moderate took care to conciliate the volksraad members, as well as to a degree, would destroy the independence of the state. In see that at all the volksraad elections, which occurred shortly October 1899, after a long and fruitless correspondence with before the presidential election, his supporters were returned, or, the British government, war with Great Britain was ushered if not returned, that his opponents were objected to on some in by an ultimatum from the Transvaal. Immediately after trivial pretext, and by this means prevented from actually sitting the ultimatum Natal and the Cape Colony were invaded by the in the volksraad until the presidential election was over. The Boers both of the Transvaal and the Free State. Yet one of Hollander and concessionnaire influence, which had become a the most memorable utterances made by Kruger at the Bloem- strong power in the state, was all in favour of President Kruger.fontein conference was couched in the following terms: “We In spite of these facts Kruger's position was insecure. “ General follow out what God says; “ Accursed be he that removeth his Joubert was, without any doubt whatever, elected by a very neighbour's landmark.' As long as your Excellency lives you considerable majority.”ı But the figures as announced gave will see that we shall never be the attacking party on another Kruger a majority of about 700 votes. General Joubert accused man's land.” The course of he war that followed is described the government of tampering with the returns, and appealed under TRANSVAAL. In 1900, Bloemfontein and Pretoria having to the volksraad. The appeal, however, was fruitless, and been occupied by British troops, Kruger, too old to go on Kruger retained office. The action taken by President Kruger commando, with the consent of his executive proceeded to at this election, and his previous actions in ousting President Europe, where he endeavoured to induce the European powers Burgers and in absolutely excluding the Uitlanders from the to intervene on his behalf, but without success. franchise, all show that at any cost, in his opinion, the govern- From this time he ceased to have any political influence. ment must remain a close corporation, and that while he lived He took up his residence at Utrecht, where he dictated a record he must remain at the head of it. of his career, published in 1902 under the title of The Memoirs From 1877 onward Kruger's external policy was consistently of Paul Kruger. He died on the 14th of July 1904 at Clarens, anti-British, and on every side-in Bechuanaland, in Rhodesia, near Vevey, on the shores of the Lake of Geneva, whither he in Zululand-he attempted to enlarge the frontiers of the had gone for the sake of his health. He was buried at Pretoria Transvaal at the expense of Great Britain. In these disputes on the following 16th of December, Dingaan's Day, the anni- he usually gained something, and it was not until 1895 that he versary of the day in 1838 when the Boers crushed the Zulu was definitely defeated in his endeavours to obtain a seaport.king Dingaan-a fight in which Kruger, then a lad of thirteen, His internal policy was blind, reckless and unscrupulous, and had taken part. Kruger was thrice married, and had a large inevitably led to disaster. It may be summed up in his own family. His second wife died in 1891. When he went to words when replying to a deputation of Villanders, who desired Europe he left his third wife in Lord Roberts's custody at Pre- to obtain the legalization of the use of the English language intoria, but she gradually failed, and died there (July 1901). It the Transvaal. This,” said Kruger, “ is my country; these are was in her grave that the body of her husband was laid. It is my laws. Those who do not like to obey my laws can leave my recorded that when a statue to President Kruger at Pretoria country.” This rejection of the advances of the Uitlanders—was erected, it was by Mrs. Kruger's wish that the hat was left by whose aid he could have built up a free and stable republic-open at the top, in order that the rain-water might collect there led to his downfall, though the failure of the Jameson Raid in for the birds to drink. the first days of 1896 gave him a signal opportunity to secure See J. F. van Oordt, P. Kruger en de opkomst d. Zuid-Afrikaansche the safety of his country by the grant of real reforms. But the Republiek (Amsterdam, 1898); the Memoirs already mentioned; Raid taught him no lesson of this kind, and despite the inter- F. R. Statham, Paul Kruger and his Times (1898); and, among vention of the British government the Uitlanders? grievances (for events down to 1872 only); Sir J. P. Fitzpatrick, The Transvaal works with a wider scope, G. M. Thcal, History of South Africa were not remedied. from Within (1899); The Times llistory of the War in South Africa In 1898 Kruger was elected president of the Transvaal for (1900-9); and A. P. Hillier, South African Studies (1900). the fourth and last time. In 1899 relations between the Trans- KRUGERSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of vaal and Great Britain had become so strained, by reason of the Johannesburg by rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were oppression of the foreign population, that a conference was whites. It is built on the Witwatersrand at an elevation of arranged at Bloemfontein between Sir Alfred (afterwards Lord) 5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining centre of some importance. Milner, the high commissioner, and President Kruger. Kruger It is also the starting-point of a railway to Zeerust and Mafeking, was true to his principles. At every juncture in his life his Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the discovery object had been to gain for himself and his own narrow policy of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger. everything that he could, while conceding nothing in return. Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected It was for this reason that he invariably failed to come to any to commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andries arrangement with Sir John Brand while the latter was president Pretorius in 1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th of the Free State. In 1889, the very year following President of December each year, kept as a public holiday, large numbers Brand's death, he was able to make a treaty with President Reitz, of Boers assemble at the monument to celebrate the event. his successor, which bound each of the Boer republics to assist Here in December 1880 a great meeting of Boers resolved again the other in case its independence was menaced, unless the to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal. The formal quarrel could be shown to be an unjust one on the part of the proclamation was made on Dingaan's Day, and after the defeat state so menaced. In effect it bound the Free State to share all of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also the hazardous risk of the reckless anti-British Transvaal policy, commemorated at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The * Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, in The Transvaal from Within, ch. iii. monument, which was damaged during the war of 1899-1902, 66 KRUMAUKRUMMACHER 933 was restored by the British authorities. It was at Doornkop, from the interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his “raiders" and daring fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broad- surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January chested race, probably the most robust of African peoples. 1896 (see TRANSVAAL: History).. At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W. They have true negro features-skin of a blue-black hue and of Krugersdorp, are · limestone caves containing beautiful woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter shade stalactites. than negro women generally, and in several respects come KRUMAU (in Czech, Krunilov), is a town in Bohemia situated much nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as on the banks of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000 physically the Krumen are one of the most remarkable races inhabitants, partly of Czech, partly of German nationality. in Africa. They are honest, brave, proud, so passionately fond Krumau is principally celebrated because its ancient castle of freedom that they will starve or drown themselves to escape was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family, known also capture, and have never trafficked in slaves. Politically the as pani 3 ruze, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of Rosenberg Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an (d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at Krumau. hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a city. their dealings with strangers. The real government is vested The last two members of the family were two brothers, William, in the elders, who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs. created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter Their president, the head fetish-man, guards the national Vok, who played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their symbols, and his house is sanctuary for offenders till their guilt librarian was Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on is proved. Personal property is held in common by each family. the annals of the Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a Land also is communal, but the rights of the actual cultivator strong adherent of the Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly cease only when he fails to farm it. before his death (1611), because the Jesuits had established At 14 or 15 the Kru“ boys " eagerly contract themselves for themselves in the neighbourhood. voyages of twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was work near at home, and are to be found on almost every ship bought by the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius trading on the Guinea coast. As soon as they have saved of Austria. In 1622 the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the enough to buy a wife they return home and settle down. lordship to his minister, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks-black or blue 1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary duchy in his favour. lines on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to Prince arms and mutilate the incisor teeth. As a race they are Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke singularly intelligent, and exhibit their enterprise in numerous of Krumau in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family settlements along the coast. Sierra Leone, Grand Bassa and bears the title of duke of Krumau. The castle, one of the Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek classifies the Kru largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves much of its ancient language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is followed character. by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr Kölle, who published a Kru grammar See W. Brezan, Zivot Vilema 2 Rosenberka (Life of William of (1854), considers it as distinct. Rosenberg), 1847; also Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka (I ife of Peter Vok of Rosenberg), 1880. See A. de Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, Crania ethnica, ix. 363 (1878-1879); Schlagintweit-Sakunlunski, in the Sitzungsberichte of KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856–1909), German Byzantine the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in Bull. de lå Soc. d'An- scholar, was born at Kürnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of Sep-throp:. (Paris , 1872); J. Büttikofer, Reisebilder aus Liberia (Leiden, tember 1856. He was educated at the universities of Munich 1890); Sir H. H. Johnston, Liberia (London, 1906). and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the middle age and KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767—1845), German modern Greek language and literature in the former from 1897 theologian, was born on the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg, to his death. His greatest work is his Geschichte der byzantini-Westphalia. Having studied theology at Lingen and Halle, schen Lilleratur (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern he became successively rector of the grammar school at Mörs Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897, (1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800), preacher at with the collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, Consistorialrath and super- H. Gelzer (general sketch of Byzantine history, A.D. 395–1453). intendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the The value of the work is greatly enhanced by the elaborate university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen bibliographies contained in the body of the work and in a (1824). He died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the Byzantini- was the author of many religious works, but is best known sche Zeitschrift (1892) and the Byzantinisches Archiv (1898). by his Parabeln (1805; 9th ed. 1876; Eng. trans. 1844). He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece A. W. Möller published his life and letters in 1849. appeared in his Griechische Reise (1886). Other works by him are: Casia (1897), a treatise on a gth-century Byzantine His brother GOTTFRIED DANIEL KRUMMACHER (1774-1837), poetess, with the fragments; Michael Glykas (1894); “ Die who studied theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively griechische Litteratur des Mittelalters” in P. Hinneberg's, in Bärl (1798), Wülfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8 (1905); Das Problem der neu- leader of the “pietists” of Wupperthal, and published several griechischen Schriftsprache (1902), in which he strongly opposed volumes of sermons, including one entitled Die Wanderungen the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical style into Israels durch d. Wüste nach Kanaan (1834). modern Greek literature, and Populäre Aufsätzc (1909). FRIEDRICH WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1796–1868), son of Fried- KRUMEN (KROOMEN, KROOBOYs, Krus, or Croos), a negro rich Adolf, studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became people of the West Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages pastor successively at Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke, scattered along the coast of Liberia from below Monrovia near Barmen in the Wupperthal (1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been wrongly derived 1847 he received an appointment to the Trinity Church in from the English word “ crew," with reference to the fact that Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at Potsdam. He Krumen were the first West African people to take service in was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive best-known works are Elias der Thisbiter (1828–1833; 6th ed. name of one of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped 1874; Eng. trans. 1838); Elisa (1837) and Das Passionsbuch, der many kindred tribes, the Grebo, Basa, Nifu, &c., who collec-leidende Christus (1854, in English The Suffering Saviour, 1870). tively number some 40,000. The Krus proper live in the narrow His Autobiography was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871) strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape Palmas, where EMIL WILHELÁ KRUMMACHER (1798-1886), another son, was are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra Kru, horn at Mörs in 1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg. Nana Kru and King William's Town. They are traditionally | He wrote, amongst other works, Herzensmanna aus Luthers 934 KRUPP-KUBAÑ Werken (1852). His son Hermann (1828–1890), who was ap- useful work. He was also a member of the scientific committee pointed Consistorialrath in Stettin in 1877, was the author of of the marine department, and his contrivance for counter, Deutsches Leben in Nordamerika (1874). acting the influence of the iron in vessels on the compass was KRUPP, ALFRED (1812–1887), German metallurgist, was adopted in the navy. He died at Reval on the 24th of August born at Essen on the 26th of April 1812. His father, Friedrich | 1846. Krupp (1787–1826), had purchased a small forge in that town Krusenstern's Voyage Round the World in 1803-1806 was published about 1810, and devoted himself to the problem of manufactur- at St Petersburg in 1810-1814, in 3 vols., with folio atlas of 104 ing cast steel; but though that product was put on the market plates and maps (Eng. ed., 2 vols. 1813; French ed., 2 vols., by him in 1815, it commanded but little sale, and the firm was important discoveries and rectifications, especially in the region of and atlas of 30 plates, 1820). His narrative contains a good many far from prosperous. After his death the works were carried Japan, and the contributions made by the various savants were of on by his widow, and Alfred, as the eldest son, found himself | much scientific importance. A valuable work is his Atlas de céan obliged, a boy of fourteen, to leave school and undertake their Pacifique, with its accompanying Recueil des mémoires hydrogra. direction. For many years his efforts met with little success, phiques (St Petersburg, 1824-1827). See Memoir by his daughter, Madame Charlotte Bernhardi, translated by Sir John Ross (1856). and the concern, which in 1845 employed only 122 workmen, did scarcely more than pay its way. But in 1847 Krupp made a KRUSHEVATS (or Kruševac), a town of Servia, lying in a 3 pdr. muzzle-loading gun of cast steel, and at the Great Exhi- fertile region of hills and dales near the right bank of the Servian bition of London in 1851 he exhibited a solid flawless ingot of Morava. Pop. (1900), about 10,000. Krushevats is the capital cast steel weighing 2 tons. This exhibit caused a sensation in of a department bearing the same name, and has an active trade the industrial world, and the Essen works sprang into fame. in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and livestock, for the sale of which Another successful invention, the manufacture of weldless steel it possesses about a dozen markets. It was in Krushevats that tires for railway vehicles, was introduced soon afterwards. the last Servian tsar, Lazar, assembled his army to march The profits derived from these and other steel manufactures against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo, in 1389. were devoted to the expansion of the works and to the develop-The site of his palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing ment of the artillery with which the name of Krupp is especially a fragment of the tower of Queen Militsa, whither, according to associated (see ORDNANCE). The model settlement, which is legend, tidings of the defeat were brought her by crows from the one of the best-known features of the Krupp works, was started battlefield. Within the enclosure stands a church, dating from in the 'sixties, when difficulty began to be found in housing the the reign of Stephen Dushan (1336-1356), with beautiful rose increasing number of workmen; and now there are various windows and with imperial peacocks, dragons and eagles “colonies,” practically separate villages, dotted about to the sculptured on the walls. Several old Turkish houses were left south and south-west of the town, with schools, libraries, recrea- at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an ancient Turkish tion grounds, clubs, stores, &c. The policy also was adopted fountain and bath. of acquiring iron and coal mincs, so that the firm might have KSHATTRIYA, one of the four original Indian castes, the command of supplies of the raw material required for its opera- other three being the Brahman, the Vaisya and the Sudra. The tions. Alfred Krupp, who was known as the “ Cannon King," Kshattriya was the warrior caste, and their function was to died at Essen on the 14th of July 1887, and was succeeded by protect the people and abstain from sensual pleasures. On his only son, Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), who was born the rise of Brahmin ascendancy the Kshattriyas were repressed, at Essen on the 17th of February 1854. The latter devoted and their consequent revolt gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism, himself to the financial rather than to the technical side of the the founders of both these religions belonging to the Kshattriya business, and under him it again underwent enormous expansion. caste. Though, according to tradition, the Kshattriyas were Among other things he in 1896 leased the “ Germania ” ship- all exterminated by Parasurama, the rank is now conceded to building yard at Kiel, and in 1902 it passed into the complete the modern Rajputs, and also to the ruling families of native ownership of the firm. In the latter year, which was also the states. (See CastE.) year of his death, on the 22nd of November, the total number KUBAN, a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. slope of of men employed at Essen and its associated works was over the Elbruz, in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,930 ft., races 40,000. His elder daughter Bertha, who succeeded him, was down the N. face of the Caucasus as a mountain torrent, but married in October 1906 to Dr Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach, upon getting down to the lower-lying steppe country S. of who on that occasion received the right to bear the name Stavropol it turns, at 1075 ft. altitude, towards the N.W., Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The enormous increase in the and eventually, assuming a westerly course, enters the Gulf German navy involved further expansion in the operations of of Kyzyl-tash, on the Black Sea, in the vicinity of the Straits of the Krupp firm as manufacturers of the armour plates and guns Kerch. Its lower course lies for some distance through marshes, required for the new ships, and in 1908 its capital, then standing where in times of overflow its breadth increases from the normal at £9,000,000, was augmented by £2,500,000. 700 ft. to over half a mile. Its total length is 500 m., the area KRUSENSTERN, ADAM. IVAN (1770-1846), Russian navi- of its basin 21,480 sq. m. It is navigable for steamers for 73 m., gator, hydrographer and admiral, was born at Haggud in as far as the confluence of its tributary, the Laba (200 m. long). Esthonia on the 19th of November 1770. In 1785 he entered the This, like its other affluents, the Byelaya (155 m.), Urup, and corps of naval cadets, after leaving which, in 1788, with the Great and Little Zelenchuk, joins it from the left. The Kuban grade of midshipman, he served in the war against Sweden. is the ancient Hypanis and Vardanes and the Pshishche of the Having been appointed to serve in the British fleet for several Circassians. years (1793-1799), he visited America, India and China. After KUBAÑ, a province of Russian Caucasia, having the Sea of publishing a paper pointing out the advantages of direct com- Azov on the W., the territory of Don Cossacks on the N., the munication between Russia and China by Cape Horn and the government of Stavropol and the province of Terek on the E., Cape of Good Hope, he was appointed by the emperor Alexander I. and the government of Kutais and the Black Sea district on the to make a voyage to the east coast of Asia to endeavour to S. and S.W. It thus contains the low and marshy lowlands carry out the project. Two English ships were bought, in which on the Sea of Azov, the western portion of the fertile steppes the expedition left Kronstadt in August 1803 and proceeded by of northern Caucasia, and the northern slopes of the Caucasus Cape Horn and the Sandwich Islands to Kamchatka, and thence range from its north-west extremity to the Elbruz. The area to Japan. Returning to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, is 36,370 sq. m. On the south the province includes the parallel after an extended series of explorations, Krusenstern reached ranges of the Black Mountains (Kara-dagh), 3000 to 6ooo ft. Kronstadt in August 1806, his being the first Russian ex- high, which are intersected by gorges that grow deeper and wider pedition to circumnavigate the world. The emperor conferred as the main range is approached. Owing to a relatively wet several honours upon him, and he ultimately became admiral. climate and numerous streams, these mountains are densely As director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much I clothed with woods, under the shadow of which a thick KUBELIK-KUBLAI KHAN 935 undergrowth of rhododendrons," Caucasian palms" (Buxus | the bloody struggle with the Circassians, which continued for sempervirens), ivy, clematis, &c., develops, so as to render the more than half a century. Not only domestic, but even field. forests almost impassable. These cover altogether nearly 20% work, is conducted mostly by the women, who are remarkable of the aggregate area. Wide, treeless plains, from 1000 to for their physical strength and endurance. The native moun- 2000 ft. high, stretch north of the Kubañ, and are profusely taineers, known under the general name of Circassians, but watered by that river and its many tributaries—the Little and locally distinguished as the Karachai, Abadsikh, Khakuchy, Great Zelenchuk, Urup, Laba, Byelaya, Pshish--mountain Shapsugh, have greatly altered their mode of life since the torrents that rush through narrow gorges from the Caucasus pacification of the Caucasus, still, however, maintaining Mahom- range. In its lower course the Kubañ forms a wide, low delta, medanism, speaking their vernacular, and strictly observing the covered with rushes, haunted by wild boar, and very unhealthy. customs of their ancestors. Exports include wheat, tobacco, The same characteristics mark the low plains on the east of the leather, wool, petroleum, timber, fish, salt and live cattle; Sea of Azov, dotted over with numerous semi-stagnant lakes. imports, dry goods, grocery and hardware. Local industry is Malaria is the enemy of these regions, and is especially deadly limited to a few tanneries, petroleum refineries and spirit on the Taman Peninsula, as also along the left bank of the lower distilleries. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) and middle Kubañ. KUBELIK, JAN (1880- ), Bohemian violinist, was born There is considerable mineral wealth. Coal is found on the near Prague, of humble parentage. He learnt the violin from Kubañ and its tributaries, but its extraction is still insignificant childhood, and appeared in publicat Praguein 1888, subsequently (less than 10,000 tons per annum). Petroleum wells exist in the being trained at the Conservatorium by the famous teacher district of Maikop, but the best are in the Taman Peninsula, Ottakar Sevčik. From him he learnt an extraordinary tech- where they range over 570 sq. m. Iron ores, silver and zinc nique, and from 1898 onwards his genius was acclaimed at are found; alabaster is extracted, as also some salt, soda and concerts throughout Europe. He first appeared in London in Epsom salts. The best mineral waters are at Psekup and 1900, and in America in 1901, creating a furore everywhere. Tamañ, where there are also numbers of mud volcanoes, ranging In 1903 he married the Countess Czaky Szell. from small hillocks to hills 365 ft. high and more. The soil KUBERA (or KUVERA), in Hindu mythology, the god of wealth. is very fertile in the plains, parts of which consist of black earth Originally he appears as king of the powers of evil, a kind of and are being rapidly populated. Pluto. His home is Alaka in Mount Kailasa, and his garden, The population reached 1,928,419 in 1897. of whom 1,788,622 | the world's treasure-house, is Chaitraratha, on Mount Mandara. were Russians, 13,926 Armenians, 20,137 Greeks and 20,778 Kubera is half-brother to the demon Ravana, and was driven Germans. There were at the same date 945,873 women, and from Ceylon by the latter. only 156,486 people lived in towns. The estimated population KUBLAI KHAN (or ĶAAN, as the supreme ruler descended in 1906 was 2,275,400. The aborigines were represented by from Jenghizwas usually distinctively termed in the 13th century) 100,000 Circassians, 5000 Nogai Tatars and some Ossetes. (1216–1294), the most eminent of the successors of Jenghiz The Circassians or Adyghe, who formerly occupied the mountain (Chinghiz), and the founder of the Mongol dynasty in China. valleys, were compelled, after the Russian conquest in 1861, He was the second son of Tulē, youngest of the four sons of either to settle on the flat land or to emigrate; those who Jenghiz by his favourite wife. Jenghiz was succeeded in the refused to move voluntarily were driven across the mountains khanship by his third son Okkodai, or Ogdai (1229), he by his to the Black Sea coast. Most of them (nearly 200,000) emigrated son Kuyuk (1246), and Kuyuk by Mangu, eldest son of Tulē to Turkey, where they formed the Bashi-bazouks. · Peasants (1252). Kublai was born in 1216, and, young as he was, took from the interior provinces of Russia occupied the plains of part with his younger brother Hulagu (afterwards conqueror the Kubañ, and they now number over 1,000,000, while the of the caliph and founder of the Mongol dynasty in Persia) Kuban Cossacks in 1897 numbered 804,372 (405,428 women). in the last campaign of Jenghiz (1226–27). The Mongol poetical In point of religion 90% of the population were in 1897 chronicler, Sanang Setzen, records a tradition that Jenghiz members of the Orthodox Greek Church, 4% Raskolniks and himself on his deathbed discerned young Kublai's promise other Christians and 5.4% Mahommedans, the rest being Jews. and predicted his distinction. Wheat is by far the chief crop (nearly three-quarters of the Northern China, Cathay as it was called, had been partially total area under crops are under wheat); rye, oats, barley, conquered by Jenghiz himself, and the conquest had been millet, Indian corn, some flax and potatoes, as also tobacco, are followed up till the Kin or“ golden ”dynasty of Tatars, reigning grown. Agricultural machinery is largely employed, and the at K'ai-fēng Fu on the Yellow River, were completely subju- province is a reserve granary for Russia. Livestock, especially gated (1234). But China south of the Yangtsze-kiang remained sheep, is kept in large numbers on the steppes. Bee-keeping is many years later subject to the native dynasty of Sung, reigning general, and gardening and vine-growing are spreading rapidly. at the great city of Lingan, or Kinsai (King-sz', “capital”), Fishing in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, as also in the Kuban, is now known as Hang-chow Fu. Operations to subdue this important. region had commenced in 1235, but languished till Mangu's Two main lines of railway intersect the province, one running accession. Kublai was then named his brother's lieutenant in N.W. to S.E., from Rostov to Vladikavkaz, and another starting Cathay, and operations were resumed. By what seems a vast from the former south-westwards to Novorossiysk on the north and risky strategy, of which the motives are not quite clear, coast of the Black Sea. The province is divided into seven the first campaign of Kublai was directed to the subjugation districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in of the remote western province of Yunnan. After the capture 1897, are Ekaterinodar, capital of the province (65,697), Anapa of Tali Fu (well known in recent years as the capital of a Mahom- (6676), Labinsk (6388), Batalpashinsk (8100), Maikop (34,191), medan insurgent sultan), Kublai returned north, leaving the Temryuk (14,476) and Yeisk (35,446). war in Yunnan to a trusted general. Some years later (1257) The history of the original settlements of the various native the khan Mangu himself entered on a campaign in west China, tribes, and their language and worship before the introduction and died there, before Ho-chow in Szech’uen (1259). Mahommedanism, remain a blank page in the legends of the Kublai assumed the succession, but it was disputed by his Caucasus. The peninsula of Tamañ, a land teeming with relics brother Arikbugha and by his cousin Kaidu, and wars with of ancient Greek colonists, has been occupied successively by the these retarded the prosecution of the southern conquest. Doubt- Cimmerians, Sarmatians, Khazars, Mongols and other nations. less, however, this was constantly before Kublai as a great task The Genoese, who established an extensive trade in the 13th to be accomplished, and its fulfilment was in his mind when century, were expelled by the Turks in 1484, and in 1784 Russia he selected as the future capital of his empire the Chinese city obtained by treaty the entire peninsula and the territory on that we now know as Peking. Here, in 1264, to the north-east the right bank of the Kuban, the latter being granted by Cathe- of the old city, which under the name of Yenking had been an rine II. in 1792 to the Cossacks of the Dnieper. Then commenced l occasional residence of the Kin sovereigns, he founded his new " 936 KUBUS-KUCHĀN " capital, a great rectangular plot of 18 m. in circuit. The (so- to procure European priests for the instruction of his people, called) “ Tatar city" of modern Peking is the city of Kublai, of which we know through Marco Polo, prospered, the Roman with about one-third at the north cut off, but Kublai's walls are Catholic church, which gained some ground under his successors, also on this retrenched portion still traceable. might have taken stronger root in China. Failing this momen- The new city, officially termed T'ai-tu (“great court ”), tary effort, Kublai probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan but known among the Mongols and western people as Kaan- Buddhism the readiest instrument in the civilization of his baligh (“city of the khan") was finished in 1267. The next countrymen, and that system received his special countenance. year war against the Sung Empire was resumed, but was long An early act of his reign had been to constitute a young lama of retarded by the strenuous defence of the twin cities of Siang-yang intelligence and learning the head of the Lamaite Church, and and Fan-chêng, on opposite sides of the river Han, and command-eventually also prince of Tibet, an act which may be regarded ing two great lines of approach to the basin of the Yangtsze- as a precursory form of the rule of the “grand lamas " of Lassa. kiang. The siege occupied nearly five years. After this The same ecclesiastic, Mati Dhwaja, was employed by Kublai Bayan, Kublai's best lieutenant, a man of high military genius to devise a special alphabet for use with the Mongol language. and noble character, took command. It was not, however, It was chiefly based on Tibetan forms of Nagari; some coins till 1276 that the Sung capital surrendered, and Bayan rode and inscriptions in it are extant; but it had no great vogue, into the city (then probably the greatest in the world) as its and soon perished. Of the splendour of his court and enter- conqueror. The young emperor, with his mother, was sent tainments, of his palaces, summer and winter, of his great prisoner to Kaan-baligh; but two younger princes had been hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper despatched to the south before the fall of the city, and these currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, an successively were proclaimed emperor by the adherents of the account is given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many native throne. An attempt to maintain their cause was made years in Kublai's service. in Fu-kien, and afterwards in the province of Kwang-tung; We have alluded to his foreign expeditions, which were but in 1279 these efforts were finally extinguished, and the almost all disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering faithful minister who had inspired them terminated the struggle for the nominal extension of his empire by claiming submission by jumping with his young lord into the sea. and tribute. Expeditions against Japan were several times Even under the degenerate Sung dynasty the conquest of repeated; the last, in 1281, on an immense scale, met with southern China had occupied the Mongols during half a century huge discomfiture. Kublai's preparations to avenge. it were of intermittent campaigns. But at last Kublai was ruler of all abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they created. China, and probably the sovereign (at least nominally) of a In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa, an ancient greater population than had ever acknowledged one man's state representing what we now call Cochin China. This supremacy. For, though his rule was disputed by the princes eventually led to an attempt to invade the country through of his house in Turkestan, it was acknowledged by those on the Tongking, and to a war with the latter state, in which the Volga, whose rule reached to the frontier of Poland, and by the Mongols had much the worst of it. War with Burma (or Mien, family of his brother Hulagu, whose dominion extended from as the Chinese called it) was provoked in very similar fashion, but the Oxus to the Arabian desert. For the first time in history the result was more favourable to Kublai's arms. The country the name and character of an emperor of China were familiar was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital, as far west as the Black Sea and not unknown in Europe. Pagān, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal The Chincse seals which . Kublai conferred on his kinsmen dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against reigning at Tabriz are stamped upon their letters to the kings Java, and occurred in the last year of the old khan's reign. of France, and survive in the archives of Paris. Adventurers The envoy whom he had commissioned to claim homage was from Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, Byzantium, even from sent back with ignominy. A great armament was equipped Venice, served him as ministers, generals, governors, envoys, in the ports of Fu-kien to avenge this insult; but after some astronomers or physicians; soldiers from all Asia to the Cau- temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with casus fought his battles in the south of China. Once in his old a loss of 3000 men. The death of Kublai prevented further age (1287) Kublai was compelled to take the field in person action. against a serious revolt, raised by Nayan, a prince of his family, Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified who held a vast domain on the borders of Manchuria. Nayan the khan's vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with was taken and executed. The revolt had been stirred up by presents, and with the curious reports of foreign countries in Kaidu, who survived his imperial rival, and died in 1301. which Kublai delighted. Such ,expeditions extended to the Kublai himself died in 1294, at the age of seventy-eight. states of southern India, to eastern Africa, and even to Mada- Though a great figure in Asiatic history; and far from deserving gascar. a niche in the long gallery of Asiatic tyrants, Kublai misses a Of Kublai's twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, the favourite record in the short list of the good rulers. His historical locus and designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timur, the son was a happy one, for, whilst he was the first of his race to rise of Chingkim, took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty above the innate barbarism of the Mongols, he retained the force after Kublai. He had in all nine successors of his house on the and warlike character of his ancestors, which vanished utterly throne of Kaan-baligh, but the long and imbecile reign of the in the effeminacy of those who came after him. He had great ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in disgrace and expulsion, intelligence and a keen desire for knowledge, with apparently and the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their stead. (H. Y.) a good deal of natural benevolence and magnanimity. But his KUBUS, a tribe inhabiting the central parts of Sumatra. love of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions beyond sea, They are nomadic savages living entirely in the forests in shelters created enormous demands for money, and he shut his eyes of branches and leaves built on platforms. It has been suggested to the character and methods of those whom he employed to that they represent a Sumatran aboriginal race; but Dr J. G. raise it. A remarkable narrative of the oppressions of one' Garson, reporting on Kubu skulls and skeletons submitted to of these, Ahmed of Fenāket, and of the revolt which they pro- him by Mr. H. O. Forbes, declared them decidedly Malay, voked, is given by Marco Polo, in substantial accordance with though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain mixture the Chinese annals. of negrito blood (Jour. Anthrop. Instit., April 1884). They are Kublai patronized Chinese literature and culture generally of a rich olive-brown tint, their hair jet black and inclined to The great astronomical instruments which he caused to be made curl, and, though not dwarfs, are below the average height. were long preserved at Peking, but were carried off to Berlin KUCHĀN, a fertile and populous district of the province in 1900. Though he put hardly any Chinese into the first Khorasan in Persia, bounded N. by the Russian Transcaspian ranks of his administration, he attached many to his confidence, territory, W. by Bujnurd, S. by Isfaraïn, and extending in the and was personally popular among them. Had his endeavour E. to near Radkan. Its area is about 3000 sq. m. and its . KUCH BEHAR-KUENEN 937 3 population, principally composed of Zafaranlu Kurds, descen- | expelled, and forced to sue for peace through the mediation of dants of tribes settled there by Shah Abbas I. in the 17th the lama of Tibet. By the treaty made on this occasion, April century, is estimated at 100,000. About 3000 families are 1773, the raja acknowledged subjection to the Company, and nomads and live in tents. The district produces much grain, made over to it one-half of his annual revenues. In 1863, on the 25,000 to 30,000 tons yearly, and contains two towns, Kuchan death of the raja, leaving a son and heir only ten months old, and Shirvan (pop. 6000), and many villages. a British commissioner was appointed to undertake the direct KUCHAN, the capital of the district, has suffered much from management of affairs during the minority of the prince, and the effects of earthquakes, notably in 1875, 1894 and 1895. many important reforms were successfully introduced. The The last earthquake laid the whole town in ruins and caused maharaja Sir Nripendra Narayan, G.C.I.E., born in 1862, was considerable loss of life. About 8000 of the survivors removed educated under British guardianship at Patna and Calcutta, and to a site 7) m. E. and there built a new town named Nasseriyeh became hon. lieutenant-colonel of the 6th Bengal Cavalry. In after Nasr-ud-din Shah, but known better as Kuchan i jadid, 1897-98 he served in the Tirah campaign on the staff of General i.e. New Kuchan, and about 1000 remained in the ruined city Yeatman-Biggs, and received the distinction of a C.B. He was in order to be near their vineyards and gardens. The geo- present at the Jubilee in 1887, the Diamond Jubilee of 1897, graphical position of the old town is 37° 8' N., 58° 25' E., and King Edward's Coronation in 1902, and became a well-known elevation 4100 ft. The new town has been regularly laid out figure in London society. In 1878 he married a daughter of with broad streets and spacious bazaars, and, situated as it is Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahmo leader. His eldest son was half-way between Meshed and Askabad on the cart-road con- educated in England. necting those two places, has much trade. Its population is The town of Kuch Behar is situated on the river Tursa, and estimated at 10,000. There are telegraph and post offices. has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 10,458. It contains a college KUCH BEHAR, or Cooch BEHAR, a native state of India, affiliated to the Calcutta University. in Bengal, consisting of a submontane tract, not far from KUDU (koodoo), the native name for a large species of African Darjeeling, entirely surrounded by British territory. Area, antelope (9.0.), with large corkscrew-like horns in the male, 1307 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 566,974; estimated revenue, £140,000. The state forms a level plain of triangular shape, intersected :-T 11,92 by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile and well cultivated, but tộacts of jungle are to be seen in the north-east 61.!! jo corner, which abuts upon Assam. The soil is uniform in char- 7.) acter throughout, consisting of a light, friable loam, varying in AL depth from 6 in. to 3 ft., superimposed upon a deep bed of sand. SEM The whole is detritus, washed down by torrents from the neigh- bouring Himalayas. The rivers all pass through the state from north to south, to join the main stream of the Brahmaputra. Some half-dozen are navigable for small trading boats throughout the year, and are nowhere fordable; and there are about twenty minor streams which become navigable only during the rainy season. The streams have a tendency to cut new channels for HDD themselves after every annual food, and they communicate with one another by cross-country watercourses. Rice is TIF 24 grown on three-fourths of the cultivated area. Jute and tobacco are also largely grown for export. The only special industries are the weaving of a strong silk obtained from worms fed on the .31917, castor oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth used for screens 115. Bu and bedding. The external trade is chiefly in the hands of s pitno Marwari immigrants from Rajputana. Among other improve- Male Kudu. I tas ments a railway has been constructed, with the assistance of a and the body marked with narrow vertical white lines in both loan from the British government. The earthquake of the sexes. The female is hornless. Strepsiceros capensis (or S. 12th of June 1897 caused damage to public buildings, roads, &c., strepsiceros) is the scientific name of the true kudu, which ranges in the state to the estimated amount of £100,000. from the Cape to Somaliland; but there is also a much smaller The Koch or Rajbansi, from which the name of the state species (S. imberbis) in East and North-East Africa. is derived, are a widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal KUENEN, ABRAHAM (1828–1891), Dutch Protestant: theo- descent, found throughout all northern Bengal, from Purnealogian, the son of an apothecary, was born on the 16th of Sep- district to the Assam valley. They are akin to the Indo-Chinese tember 1828, at Haarlem, North Holland. On his father's races of the north-east frontier; but they have now become death it became necessary for him to leave school and take a largely hinduized, especially in their own home, where the humble place in the business. By the generosity of friends he appellation “Koch ” has come to be used as a term of reproach. was educated at the gymnasium at Haarlem and afterwards Their total number in all India was returned in 1901 as nearly at the university of Leiden. He studied theology, and won his 2} millions. doctor's degree by an edition of thirty-four chapters of Genesis As in the case of many other small native states, the royal from the Arabic version of the Samaritan Pentateuch. In 1853 family of Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin in order to he became professor extraordinarius of theology at Leiden, conceal an impure aboriginal descent. The greatest monarch and in 1855 full professor. He married a daughter of W. of the dynasty was Nar Narayan, the son of Visu Singh, who Muurling, one of the founders of the Gröningen school, which began to reign about 1550. He conquered the whole of Kamrup, made the first pronounced breach with Calvinistic theology built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist bearing inscrip- in the Reformed Church of Holland. Kuenen himself soon tions with his name, and extended his power southwards over became one of the main supports of the modern theology, of what is now part of the British districts of Rangpur and Purnea. which J. N. Scholten (1811-1885) and Karel Willem Opzoomer His son, Lakshmi Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar, (b. 1821) were the chief founders, and of which Leiden became became tributary to the Mogul Empire. In 1772 a competitor the headquarters. His first great work, an historico-critical for the throne, having been driven out of the country by his introduction to the Old Testament, Historisch-kritisch onder- rivals, applied for assistance to Warren Hastings. A detach- zoek naar het onstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden ment of sepoys was accordingly marched into the state; the Verbonds (3 vols., 1861–1865; 2nd ed., 1885-1893; German by Bhutias, whose interference had led to this intervention, were T. Weber and C. T. Müller, 1885-1894), followed the lines of the AN 1 938 1 KUEN-LUN dominant school of Heinrich Ewald. But before long he kush, and so'on into China. This long range they supposed to came under the influence of J. W. Colenso, and learned to separate the waters which flow N. to the Arctic from those which flow S. to the Indian Ocean. K. Ritter (Asien, ii.) was the first of regard the prophetic narrative of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers modern geographers to recognize the true character of the Kuen-lun as older than what was by the Germans denominated Grundschrift as a border range of the Tibetan plateau; and Baron von Richthofen (“Book of Origins"). In 1869-1870 he published his book on (China, i. 1876) still further defined and accentuated the conception the religion of Israel, De godsdienst van Israël tot den ondergang of the system by representing it as a complex arrangement of several van der Joodschen Staat (Eng. trans., 1874–1875). This was fol paraller ranges, running in wavy lines from the Pamirs (76. E.) eastwards But though von Richthofen's general concep- lowed in 1875 by a study of Hebrew prophecy, De profeten en de tion of the Kuen-lun system was broadly sound and in accordance profelie onder Israel (Eng. trans., 1877), largely polemical in its with facts, the details both of his description and of that of his scope, and specially directed against those who rest theological pupil Wegener require now very considerable revision, and need dogmas on the fulfilment of prophecy. In 1882 Kuenen went investigations made since they wrote by, amongst others, the even to be in part recast, as a consequence of explorations and to England to deliver a course of Hibbert lectures, National Russian explorers N. M. Przhevalsky, M. V. Pyevtsov, V. I. Religions and Universal Religion; in the following year he Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov, K. Bogdanovich, V. A. Obruchev, and presided at the congress of Orientalists held at Leiden. In 1886 (?) Skassi ; by the Englishmen A. P. Carey, A. Dalgleish, St G. R. Littledale, H. Bower, H. H. P. Deasy and M. S. Wellby; by the his, volume on the Hexateuch was published in England. He American W. W. Rockhill; the Frenchmen J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, died at Leiden on the roth of December 1891. F. Grenard, P. G. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans; by the Kuenen was also the author of many articles, papers and reviews; Hungarians L. von Loczy and Count Szechényi; and above all by a series on the Hexateuch, which appeared in the Theologisch the Swede Sven Hedin. Tijdschrift, of which in 1866 he became joint editor, is one of the Western Kuen-lun.-On the east the Pamir highlands are ſenced finest products of modern criticism. His collected works were off from the East Turkestan lowlands by the double border-ridge of translated into German and published by K. Budde in 1894... Several Sarik-kol (the Sarik-kol range and the Muztagh or Kashgar range), of his works have been translated into English by Philip Wicksteed. which has its eastern foot down in the Tarim basin (4000-4500 ft.) See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie. and its western up on the Pamirs at 10,500 to 13,000 ft. above sea- KUEN-LUN, or KWEN-LUN, a term used to designate gener- level, while its own summits, e.g. the Muztagh-ata (25,780 ft.), shoot ally the mountain ranges which run along the northern edge of the ridge is continued east of the meridian of Yarkand or Yarkent up, far above the limits of perpetual snow. This double border- great Tibetan plateau in Central Asia. In a wider application (77* E.) by a succession of twin ranges, all running, though under it means the succession of ranges which extend from the Pamirs different names, from the W.N.W. to the E.S.E. According to on the W. to 113 ° E., until it strikes against or merges in the the investigations of F. Stoliczka and K. Bogdanovich, the same steep escarpments of the S.E. flank of the Mongolian plateau. fossils occur in both sets of border ranges, in the Sarik-kol and in their eastward continuations, e.g. corals, Stromatophorae, Bryozoa, In the narrower acceptation it applies only to those ranges Atrypa reticularis, A. latilinguis and A. aspera, Spirifer verneuili, which part the desert of Takla-makan on the N. from the Tibetan &c., and these the latter geologist assigns to the Devonian epoch. plateau on the S. between the Pamirs and the transverse glen These eastward continuations of the double border-range of the of the Kara-muren, that is, ncarly to the longitude of the Pamirs are the constituent ranges of the Kuen-lun proper. The town of Cherchen (about 851° E.). Although the use of the Keriya Mountains in the more northerly range and the Raskem or names given to them are the Kilian or Kiliang, the Khotan and the name is thus restricted in geographical usage, the mountain Raskan, the Sughet and the Ullugh-tagh Mountains in the more system so designated does, as a fact, extend eastwards as far as southerly range. Although they all decrease in altitude from west to the great depression of Tsaidam (say 95° E.), though it is un- east, they nevertheless reach elevations of 19,000 ft., with individual peaks ascending some 2000-2500 ft. higher. From the East Turke- certain whether its direct orographical continuation eastwards stan lowlands on the north the ascent is very steep, and the passes is to be identified with the. Astin-tagh, or, as F. Grenard and across both sets of ranges lie at great altitudes; for example, the K. Bogdanovich believe—and with them Sven Hedin is inclined pass of Sanju-davan in the lower range is 16,325 ft. above sea-level, to agree-with the parallel ranges of Kalta-alaghan and Arka- and the Kyzyl-davan, farther east, is 16,900 ft., while the Sughet. tagh, which lie S. of the Astin-tagh. At any rate the Astin- from the Karakorum Mountains by the deeply trenched gorge of davan in the higher range is 17,825 ft. The latter range is separated tagh, whether it is the principal continuation of the Kuen-lun the Raskem or Yarkand-darya, while the deep glen of the Kara-kash or only a subsidiary flanking system, is itself the westward or Khotan-darya intervenes between the upper (Sughet Mountains) continuation of the Nan-shan or Southern Mountains, which and the lower (Kilian Mountains) border-ranges. Altogether this western extremity of the Kuen-lun system is a very rugged moun- reach down far into China (to 113° E.). tainous region, a consequence partly of the intricacy of the flanking Taken in its widest meaning, the Kuen-lun Mountains thus ranges and spurs, partly of the powerful lateral compression to stretch in a wavy line for nearly 2500 m. from E. to W., and which they have been subjected, and partly of the great and abrupt while in the W. their constituent ranges are folded and squeezed the bottoms of the deep, narrow, rugged glens between them. In differences in vertical elevation between the crests of the ranges and by lateral compression into a breadth of some 150-200 m., their the broad orographical disposition of the ranges there is considerable summits being forced up to correspondingly higher altitudes, . similarity between north Tibet and west Persia, in that in both cases in the E. they spread out to a breadth of some 600 m., the the ranges are crowded together in the west, but spread out wider as ranges being in that quarter less folded, and consequently they advance towards the east. To the two principal ranges in this both flatter and lower. In the tectonic structure of Asia the Rhins on his journey in 1890–1895, gives the names the Altyn-tagh part of the system F. Grenard, who accompanied J. L. Dutreuil de Kuen-lun-forms, as it were, the backbone of the continent. In and Ustun-tagh, though he names no less than six parallel ranges point of age it is very much older than either the Himalayas altogether. Now as Altyn-tagha is an accepted, though in point to the S. or the Tian-shan to the N. But although the crests of fact erroneous, name for Astin-tagh, it is clear that Grenard considers the main Kuen-lun ranges to be continued directly by the of its component ranges reach altitudes of 21,500 to 22,000 ft., Astin-tagh. they are not as a rule overtopped by individual peaks of com- From the transverse breach of the Keriya-darya (about 811. E.) manding and towering elevation, as the Himalayas are, but run to that of the Kara-muren in the longitude of Cherchen (about on the whole tolerably uniform and relatively at little greater the E.N.E., and here occur in the lower or outer range the passes of 851° E.) the parallel border-ranges of the Tibetan plateau trend to altitude than the lofty valleys which separate them one from Dalai-kurghan-art (14,290 ft.), Choka-davan, i.e. Littledale's Chokur another. It is a strikingly marked characterístic of the northern Pass (9530 ft.) and others at altitudes ranging from 8600 to edge of the Tibetan plateau that its outermost border-range (e.g. Western Kuen-lun and Astin-tagh) is throughout double; and 1 In" Orographie des Kwen-lun," in Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für this “twinning” of the mountain-ranges, as also of the inter- Erdkunde zu Berlin (1891). mont lake-basins among the Kuen-lun ranges, is a peculiar ? It is used, for instance, on the map of “ Inner-Asien" (No. 62) of Stieler's Hand-atlas (ed. 1905) and in the Atlas of the Russian General feature of the Tibetan plateau. Staff. Etymologically the correct form is Astin-tagh or Astun-tagh, The supreme orographic importance of this great Central Asian meaning the Lower or Nearer Mountains. Ustun-tagh, which appears mountain system was recognized in a fashion even by the geographers on Stieler's map as an alternative name for Altyn-tagh, means Higher of ancient Greece. They used to suppose that an immense range or Farther Mountains, and though not used locally of any specific of mountains crossed Asia from west to cast on the parallel of the range, would be appropriately employed to designate the higher island of Rhodes, extending through Asia Minor, the Kurdish high- and more southerly of the twin border-ranges of the Tibetan lands, the N. of Persia, the N. of Bactria (Afghanistan), the Hindu- \ 'plateau. KUEN-LUN 939 11,500 ft., while in the upper range are the At-to-davan (16,600 ft.), | east to west along the intermont latitudinal valleys, the identifica. Yapkak-lik-davan (15,550 ft.), Sarshu-davan (15,680 ft.) and others tions between ranges in the east and ranges in the west are in more not named at 16,590 and 17.300 ft. than one instance more or less doubtful. Middle Kuen-lun.-Between the upper transverse glens of the Kara- The Astin-tagh, although it occupies a similar position to the twin muren (or Mitt River) and the Cherchen-darya stretches the short ranges of the Western Kuen-lun, in that it forms the outermost range of Tokuz-davan. From it, on the east side of the Cher chen- escarpment or border-ridge on the north of the Tibetan plateau,would daryt, in about 86° E., the component ranges of the middle Kuen-lun appear in the opinion of the most competent judges (e.g. Grenard; begin to diverge and radiate outwards (i.e. to north and to south) like Bogdanovich, Sven Hedin, Przhevalsky), to be only a branch or the fingers of the outspread human hand. And here at least four subsidiary range of the main range of the Kuen-lun. It is not principal ranges or groups of ranges admit of being discriminated, however a single, long, continuous chain, as it is shown, for example, namely the Astin-tagh, the Chimen-tagh, the Kalta-alaghan and the on the map of the Russian general staff, but consists of two parallel Arka-tagh, all belonging to the mountainous country which borders main ranges, and in the east of three, and even to the N.E. of Tsaidam on the north the actual plateau region of Tibet. Although these of four, parallel main ranges, farked throughout by several sub- several ranges, or systems of ranges, differ considerably in their sidiary chains, spurs and offshoots. Beyond that it swells out into orographical characteristics, the following description will apply the vast massif of Anambaruin-ula, which is traversed by at least generally to the entire region from the Astin-tagh southwards to three minor parallel chains. But on the east of the Anambaruin-ula the Arka-tagh. The broad features of the surface configuration it once more contracts to two main ranges, the more southerly being are a series of nearly parallel mountain-ranges, running from that which Przhevalsky called the Humboldt Range (crossed by a W.S.W.E.N.E. to W.N.W.E.S.E., and separated by high intermont pass at 13,200 ft.). This branch is probably continued in the range valleys, which are choked with disintegrated material and divided which overhangs the Koko-nor on the south, namely, the south Koko- into a chequered pattern of self-contained, shallow lacustrine basins. nor Range. The northern branch merges eastwards into the Nan. As a Ţule the crests of the ranges are worn down by aerial denudation shan or Southern Mountains. The passes in the Lower Astin-tagh and have the general appearance of rounded domes. Hard rock range from altitudes of 10,150 to 10,700 ſt., and in the Upper Astin. (mostly granite and crystalline schists, with red sandstone in places) tagh at 11,770 to 15,680 ft. (Tash-davan), though one pass beside the appears only in the transverse glens, which are often choked with Charkhlik-su is only 9660 ft. high. And as the relative altitudes their débris in the form either of gravel-and-shingle or loose blocks of crest and pass remain approximately the same as in the Western of stone or both. The flanks of the mountains are so decply buried Kuen-lun, it is evident how greatly the general elevation of the twin in disintegrated material that the difference in vertical altitude border ridge decreases towards the east. But there exists a striking between the floors of the valleys and the summits of the ranges is difference between the crests of the Astin-tagh and those of the comparatively small. But as each successive range, proceeding ranges which give rise to the gigantic ridge and ſurrow arrangement south, represents a higher step in the terraced ascent from the desert on the Tibetan plateau. “Here in the Astin-tagh the mountains, of Gobi to the plateau of Tibet, the ranges when viewed from the like those in the Kuruk-tagh, are indeed severely weathered, but north frequently appear like veritable upstanding mountain ranges, they always consist, from base to summit, of hard rock, bare and and this appearance is accentuated by the general steepness' of the barren, most frequently piled up in eccentric, rugged masses, denti- ascent; whereas, when viewed on the other hand from the south, culated, pinnacled crests and peaks. On the Tibetan plateau, on these several ranges, owing to their long and gentle slope in that the other hand, most of the ranges are distinguished by their direction, have the appearance of comparatively gentle swellings of rounded outlines and soft consistency, and their striking poverty in the earth's service rather than of well-defined mountain ranges. hard rock, which in the best cases only crops out near the summits. As a rule, the streams flow alternately east and west down the inter- There too disintegration has been to a remarkable extent operative. mont latitudinal valleys, until they break through some transverse This gives rise to the great morphological difference, that in the glen in the range on the northern side of the valley. In the western former regions, the Astin-tagh and the Kuruk-tagh, the products parts of the system they mostly go to feed the Kara-muren or the of disintegration are almost always carried away by the wind, and Cherchen-darya, while farther east they flow down into some larger so disappear; no matter how powerful or how active the disintegra- self-contained basin of internal drainage, such as the Achik-kol, tion may be, none of the loosened material ever succeeds either in the two lakes Kara-kol, or the Ghaz-kol, and even yet farther east gathering amongst the mountains or in accumulating at their foot. make their way, some of them into the lakes of the Tsaidam depres. The climate is so arid, and precipitation so extremely rare, that the sion or become lost in its sands or in those of the Kum-tagh desert fine powdery material falls a helpless prey to the winds. On the on the north, or go to feed the headstreams of the great rivers, the other hand, the precipitation on the Tibetan plateau is so copious, Hwang-ho (Yellow River) and the Yangtsze-kiang (Blue River) in and so uniformly distributed, that it is able to retain the loosened the south. It appears to be a rule that the rivers which eventually material in situ, and causes it to heap itself up in rounded masses terminate in the deserts of Gobi and Takla-makan grow increasingly on the flanks of the mountains that are its primitive source of larger in magnitude from east to west. Another law appears to distin- origin, these projecting in grcat part like skeletons from the midst guish the hydrography of at any rate the great latitudinal valleys of their own ruins." : The twin ranges of the Astin-tagh are fairly of the Arka-tagh and the Chimen valley (north of the Chimen-tagh): equivalent in point of magnitude and regularity; but while the Lower the streams flow close under the foot of the range that shuts in each Range, on the north, sensibly decreases in altitude towards the east,the individual valley on the north. But in respect of precipitation there is Upper Range, on the south, maintains its general altitude in a remark- a very marked difference between the valleys of the north and those able way, and is gapped by steep, wild, deeply incised transverse of the south. Whereas both the mountains and valleys of the Astin- glens directed towards the north, and generally fenced in by dark tagh and of the Akato-tagh (the next large range to the Astin-tagh precipitous walls of rock. The great valley between the two is on the south) are arid and desolate in the extreme, smitten as it were cut up into a series of self-contained basins, each serving as the with the desiccating breath of the desert, those of the Arka-tagh and gathering ground of the brooks that run down off the adjacent beyond are supersaturated with moisture, so that, at any rate in mountains. Outside the lower end of each large transverse glen there summer, the surface is in many parts little better than a quaking is a scree of sedimentary matter. These screes are however very flat quagmire. Throughout vegetation is scanty and faunal liłe poor and their lower edges generally reach all the way down to the central in species, though in some respects certain of the species, e.g. wild part of the basin, which is occupied by an expanse of yellow clay, yaks, wild asses (kulans), antelopes (orongo and others), marmots, perfectly fat and fairly hard, as well as dry and barren, often hares and partridges exist locally in large numbers. The wild camel cracked into polygonal cakes and drawn out in the direction of the approaches the north outliers of the Astin-tagh, but rarely, if ever, long axis of the valley ... But though the great morphological ventures to enter their fastnesses. Bears, wolves, foxes, goats features of this latitudinal valley forcibly recall the latitudinal (kökmet), wild sheep (arkharis), lizards, earth-rats, and a small valleys of Tibet, the climatic differences give rise to differences rodent (teshikan), with ravens, eagles, wild ducks and wild geese between the basins corresponding to the differences between the moun- are the other varieties principally encountered. The vegetation tain-ranges themselves. For while the self-contained basins of consists almost entirely of scrubby bushes of several varieties, in- Tibet generally possess a salt lake in the middle, into which brooks cluding tamarisks and wild briers, of' reeds (kamish), and of grass and streams of greater or less magnitude gather, often from very on the yaylaks (pasture-grounds) of the middle ranges. On the considerable distances, these self-contained basins of the Astin- Arka-tagh even the moss, the last surviving representative of the tagh are very small in area, and it is extremely seldom that their fora, disappears entirely. In the eastern Astin-tagh a variety of centra! parts receive any water at all, only in fact after copious wild tea (chay, mountain tea) is used by the Mongols. Gold is rain. These terminal lakes, or more accurately sedimentary plains, obtained in very small quantities in a few places in the Astin-tagh are therefore almost always dry."., and the Kalta-alaghan. The nomenclature of the numerous The next parallel range on the south, the Akato-tagh, and the valley. ranges in this part of the Kuen-lun is extremely confusing, owing which separates it from the Astin-tagh, are equally arid and water- to different travellers having applied the same name to different less. The valley, known by the general name of Kakir, meaning a ranges and to different travellers have applied different names to “hard, dry, sterile expanse of clay," is chequered with shallow self- what is probably often identically the same range. In this article contained basins of the usual type and has remarkably gentle slopes the nomenclature adopted is that employed by the latest, and probably the most thorough, explorer of this part of Central Asia, i The Northern Mountains are the Pe-shan in the desert of Gobi namely, Sven Hedin. Nevertheless, owing to the fact that nearly (see GOBI). all the longer and more important crossings of Tibet and its northern 2 On the opposite or north side of the desert of Lop (desert of Gobi). montane region have been made from north to south, or vice versa, 3 Sven Hedin, Scientific Results, iii. 308. that is, transversely across the ranges, and comparatively few from Ibid. 310-311. 940 KUEN-LUN up to the mountains on both north and south. Its surface slopes from kol lakes it differs from nearly all the other great latitudinal valleys altitudes of 10,100 to 10,600 ft. in the west, where is the lake of Uzun. that run parallel with it, because they slope generally towards the east. shor (9650 ft.) to 9400 ft. in the east, in which direction it continues Not far from the Kum-kol lakes there is a drift-sand area, though as far as the Anambaruin-ula (see below) and the plain or flat basin the dunes are stationary. The upper lake of Kum-kol (Chon-kum- of Särtäng, a north extension of Tsaidam. This range of Akato-tagh, kol) (12,730 ft.), which contains fresh water, is of small area (8 sq.m.) the Altun Range of Carey, is the same as that which on the map of and in depth nowhere exceeds 13 ft.; but the lower lake (Ayak-kum- the Russian general staff bears the name Chimen-tagh. Like the kol) (12,685 ft.), which is salt, is much bigger (283 sq. m.) and goes Astin-tagh it stretches towards the E.N.E., and, like it, appears to down to depths of 64 and 79 ft. Farther west, lying between the be built up of granite and schists, but its crest is greatly denuded, Muzluk-tagh and the Arka-tagh, is the lake of Achik-kol (13,940 ft.), so that it is a mere crumbling skeleton protruding above the deep 161 m. broad and 50 m. in circuit. mantle of disintegrated material which masks its flanks. The slopes The next great parallel range is the lofty and imposing Arka-lagh, on both north and south are extremely gentle, but that on the south the Przhevalsky Range of the Russian geographers, which has its is eight to ten times as long as that on the north. In the east the range eastward continuations in the Marco Polo Range (general altitude is mostly narrow, and dies away on the edge of the Tsaidam depres. 15,750-16,250 ft.) and Gurbu-naiji Mountains of Przhevalsky. The sion; but in the west it swells out into the lofty and imposing mass of Arka-tagh is the true backbone of the Kuen-lun system, and in the Ilve-chimen or Shia-manglay, which is capped with perpetual Central Asia is exceeded in elevation only by the Tang-la, a long way snow. This part of the range is crossed by the pass of Chopur-alik farther south, this last being probably an eastern wing of the Kara- at an altitude of 16,160 ft., but farther east the passes lie at altitudes korum Mountains of the Pamirs region. At the same time the Arka- of 13,380 to 10,520 ft. The latitudinal valley that intervenes tagh is the actual border-range of the Tibetan plateau properly so- between the Akato-tagh and the next great range on the south, the called; to the south of it none of the long succession of lofty parallel Chimen-tagh, slopes for the most part eastwards, from 12,500 ft. down ranges which ridge the Tibetan highlands seems to have any connexion to the shallow salt lake of Ghaz-kol or Chimen-koli (9305 ft.). In with the Kuen-lun system. Of great length, the Arka-tagh, which the western part of this valley occurs the very important transverse is a mountain-system rather than a range, varies greatly in configura. water-divide of Gulcha-davan (14,150 ft.), which separates the basin tion in different parts, sometimes exhibiting a sharply defined main of the Cherchen-darya that goes down into the Tarim basin from the crest, with several lower Aanking ranges, and sometimes consisting area that drains down to the Ghaz-kol, which belongs to the Tsaidam of numerous parallel crests of nearly uniform altitude. Amongst depression. This, the Chimen valley, contains in places a good dea! these it is possible to distinguish in the middle of the system four of 'drift-sand, which however is stationary in the mass and heaped predominant ranges, of which the second from the north is probably up along the northern foot of the Chimen-tagh. Nevertheless the the principal range, though the fourth is the highest. The passes Akato-tagh is only of secondary importance in the general Kuen-lun across the first range (north) lie at altitudes of 15,675, 16,420, 17,320 system, being nothing more than a central ridge running along the and 18,300 ft.; across the second at 16,830, 17,020, 17,070 and broad Kakir valley that separates the Astin-tagh from the Chimen- 17,220 ft.; across the third at 16,800, 16,660, 17,065, 17,830 and tagh. 17,880 ft.; and across the fourth at 16,540, 16,765, 16,780, 18,100 The latter range, the Chimen-tagh, is identical in its western parts and 18,110 ft. The crests of the ranges lie comparatively little with the Piazlik-tagh and in the east must be equated with the Tsai- higher than the valleys which separate them, the altitudes in the dam chain of Przhevalsky; and it is probably continued westwards latter running at 14,940 to 16,700 ft. if not higher, and being only by the range which the Russian explorers call the Moscow Range or 500 to 1000 ſt. lower than the crests of the accompanying ranges. the Achik-tagh, running north of the Achik-kol and, according to The Arka-tagh ranges do not culminate in lofty jagged, pinnacled Przhevalsky, connecting on the west with the Tokuz-davan. The peaks, but in broad rounded, flattened domes, a characteristic Chimen-tagh rises into imposing summits, some rounded, some feature of the system throughout. These Arka-tagh mountains are pyramidal in outline, which are capped with snow, though the snow built up, at all events superficially, of sand and powdery, finely melts in summer. This range acts as a “breakwater" to the sifted disintegrated material. Where the hard rock does crop out clouds, arresting and condensing the moisture which is carried north- on the surface, it is so excessively weathered as to be with difficulty wards by the south winds. Hence its slopes are not so arid as those recognized as rock at all. The culminating summits of the ranges of the Akato-tagh and the Astin-tagh. Snow falls all the year generally present the appearance of a flat, rounded swelling, and round on the Chimen-tagh, even in July, and water is abundant when they are crowned with glaciers, as many of them are, these everywhere. The southern slope of the range is gentle but short, shape themselves into what may be described as a mantle, a breast- the northern slope long and steep. Grass is able to grow, and plate, or a flat cap, from which lappets and fringes project at inter- animal life is more abundant. The range is crossed by passes at vals; nowhere do there exist any of the long, narrow, winding glacier 13,970, 13,230 and 13,760 ſt., and the Piazlik-tagh by a pass at an tongues which are so characteristic of the Alps of Europe. But not altitude of 13,640 ſt. the slightest indication has been discovered that these mountains The next important range, still going south, is the Kalta-alaghan, were ever panoplied with ice. The process of disintegration and Carey's Chimen-tagh Range, Przhevalsky's Columbus Range and levelling down has reached such an advanced stage that, if ever the range which is variously designated (e.g. by Pyevtsov) as the there did exist evidences of former glaciation, they have now become Ambal-ashkan, Kalga-lagan and Ara-tagh. This last is, however, entirely, obliterated, even to the complete pulverization of the properly the name of a short secondary range which rises along the erratic blocks, supposing there were any. The view that meets the middle (ara =middle) of the valley between the Chimen-tagh and eye southwards from the heights of the Kalta-alaghan is the picture the Kalta-alaghan. Not only is it of lower elevation than them of a chaos of mountain chains, ridges, crests, peaks, spurs, detached both, but it dies away towards the west, the valleys on each side of masses, in fact, montane conformations of every possible description it meeting round its extremity to form one broad, open valley, with and in every possible arrangement. Immediately north of the Arka- an altitude of 11,790 to 13.725 ft. The Ara-tagh is crossed by a tagh the country is studded with three or four exceptionally conspic- pass at an altitude of 14.345 ft. In the Kalta-alaghan, which is uous and imposing detached mountain masses, all capped with snow the culminating range of this part of the Kuen-lun, and is over. and some of them carrying small glaciers. Amongst them are topped by towering, snow-clad peaks, the passes climb to consider Shapka Mcnomakha or the Monk's Cap; the Chulak-akkan, which ably higher altitudes, namely, 14,560, 14,470, 14,430 and 14,190 ſt., may however be only Shapka Monomakha seen from a different while the pass of Avraz-davan ascends to 15,700 ft. This range point of view: Tömürlik-tagh? (i.e. the Iron Mountain); and farther appears to be linked on to the Tokuz-davan by the Muzluk-tagh, west, Ullugh-muz-tagh, which, according to Grenard, reaches an in which there are passes at 16,870 and 15,450 ft. It is possible altitude of 24,140 ſt. But the relations in which these detached however that the Muzluk-tagh belongs more intimately to the mountain-masses stand to one another and to the Arka-tagh behind Chimen-tagh system, that is, to the Moscow or Achik-kol ranges. them have not yet been elucidated. In the vicinity of the Ullugh. Indeed Bogdanovich considers that the Tokuz-davan, the Muzluk muz-tagh there exist numerous indications of former volcanic tagh, the Moscow Range and the Chimen-tagh form one single activity, the eminences and summits frequently being capped with closely connected chain, in which he also places Przhevalsky's tuff, and smaller fragınents of tuff are scattered over other parts of isolated peak of Mount Kreml (15,055 ft.). "Sven Hedin, whilst the Arka-tagh ranges. agreeing that this may possibly be the true conception, inclines to The next succeeding parallel range, the Koko-shili, which is the view that the Achik-kol Range dies away towards the E., and continued eastwards by the Bayan-khara-ula, between the upper that the Chimen-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan merge westwards into headstreams of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River and the Yangtsze- the border-ranges that lie north of the Muzluk-tagh and the Tokuz- | kiang, belongs orographically to the plateau of Tibet. davan. Unlike most of the other parallel ranges of N. Tibet, the The succession of ranges which follow one another from the Kalta-alaghan does not decrease, but it increases in elevation deserts of Takla-makan and Gobi up to the plateau proper of Tibet towards the east, where, like the Chimen-tagh, it abuts upon and rise in steps or terraces, each range being higher than the range to the merges in the ranges that border Tsaidam on the south. north of it and lower than the range to the south of it. The difference Immediately south of the Kalta-alaghan comes a relatively deep in altitude between the lowest, most northerly range, the Lower depression, the Kum-kol valley, forming a very well-marked feature in Astin-tagh, and the most southerly of the Arka-tagh ranges amounts the physical conformation of this region. It is crossed transversely to nearly 7500 ft. With one exception, namely the climb out of by a water-divide which separates the basin of the twin-lakes the Kum-kol valley to the Arka-tagh, the first three steps are of Kum-kol (12,700 ſt.) from the basin of Tsaidam, some 3500 ft. lower. The foor of the valley consequently slopes away in both 1 This is the correct form, Arka-tagh meaning the Farther or directions, like the Chimen valley between the Akato-tagh and the Remoter Mountains. The form Akka-tagh is incorrect. Chimen-tagh; and in so far as it slopes westwards towards the Kum- 2 The form Tumenlik-tagh is erroneous. KUFA-KUHN 941 individually the biggest; whereas the Upper Astin-tagh exceeds the streams. The soil is dry gravel and clay, upon which bushes of Lower Astin-tagh by an altitude of some 1350 ft., it is itself exceeded Ephedra, Nitraria and Solsolaceae grow sparsely. In the north- by the Akato-tagh to the extent of 1760 it. There is also a con- eastern Nan-shan, on the contrary, a stream runs through each siderable rise of 880 ft. from the Akato-tagh to the Chimen-tagh.gorge, and both the mountain slopes and the bottoms of the valleys But between the Chimen-tagh, the Ara-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan are covered with vegetation. Forests of conifers (Picea obovata) there is comparatively little difference in point of elevation, namely, and deciduous trees-Przhevalsky's poplar, birch, mountain ash, 730 ft. in all. The biggest ascent is that from the Kalta-alaghan to &c., and a variety of bushes-are common everywhere. Higher up, the Arka-tagh, namely, nearly 1850 ft. The ranges of the Arka- in the picturesque gorges, grow rhododendrons, willows, Potentilla tagh, again, run at pretty nearly the same absolute general altitudes, fruticosa, Spriaese, Lonicereae, &c., and the rains must evidently be namely, 16,470 to 17,260 ft. When the altitudes of the intermont more copious and better distributed. In the central Nan-shan it latitudinal valleys are compared, the significance orographically is only the north-eastern slopes that bear forests. In the south, where of the Chimen valley and of the Kum-kol valley is strikingly empha- the Nan-shan enters Kan-suh province, extensive accumulations of sized. Both are much more deeply excavated than all the other loess make their appearance, and it is only the northern slopes of latitudinal valleys that run parallel to them, the Chimen valley being the hills that are clothed with trees. (P. A. K.) 875 ft. above the valley to the north of it, but no less than 2235 ft. AUTHORITIES.-An enumeration of the works published before below the valley to the south of it. The case of the Kum-kol valley is 1890, and a map of itineraries, will be found in Wegener's Versuch altogether exceptional, for it lies not higher, but 680 ft. lower, than ciner Orographie des Kuen-lun (Marburg, 1891), but his map is only the valley to the north of it, and consequently the climb up out of it approximately correct. Of the books published since 1890 the to the first (on north) of the Arka-tagh valleys amounts to no less than most important are Sven Hedin's Scientific Results of e Journey in 2900 ft. Hence these ten parallel ranges of the middle Kuen-lun Central Asia, 1899-1902 (Stockholm, 1905-1907, 6 vols.), with an system may be grouped in three divisions-(1) the more strictly elaborate atlas and a general map of Tibet on the scale ci 1 : 1,000,000; border ranges of the Upper and Lower Astin-tagh and the Akató H. H. P. Deasy's In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan (London, 1901), tagh; (2) the three ranges of Chimen-tagh, Ara-tagh and Kalta- with a good map; F. Grenard's vol. (ii.) of J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins's alaghan, which may be considered as forming a transitional system Mission scientifique dans la haute Asie, 1890-1895 (n.p., 1897), also between the foregoing and the third division; (3) the Arka-tagh, with a very useful map; W. W. Rockhill's Diary of a Journey through which constitute the elevated rampart of the Tibetan plateau Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892 (Washington, 1894); M. S. proper. (1. T. BE.) Wellby's Through Unknown Tibet (London, 1898); P. G. Bonvalot's The Nan-shan Highlands overlook Tsaidam on the N.E. They De Paris au Tonkin à travers le Tibet inconnu (Paris, 1892); St G. R. embrace a region 380 m. long and 260 m. wide, entirely occupied Littledale's“ A Journey across Tibet," in Geog. Journal (May 1896); with parallel mountain ranges all running from the N. to the H. Bower's Diary of a Journey across Tibet (London, 1894); the S.E. 'Broad, Aat, longitudinal valleys, at altitudes of 12,000 to Izvestio of the Russian Geog. Sóc. and Geog. Journal, both passim. 14,000 ft. (9000 to 10,000 at the south-western border) and dotted with lakes (Koko-nor, 9970 ft.; Khara-nor, 13,285 ft.), fill up the KUFA, a Moslem city, situated on the shore of the Hindieb space between these mountain ranges. In the s.Ě. the Nan-shan canal, about 4 m. E. by N. of Nejef (32° 4' N., 44° 20' E.), highlands abut upon the highlands of the Chinese province of Kan- was founded by the Arabs after the battle of Kadesiya suh, and near the great northward bend of the Hwang-ho they in A.D. 638 as one of the two capitals of the new territory of meet the escarpments by which the Great Khingan and the In-shan Irak, the whole country being divided into the sawads, or ranges are continued, and by which the Mongolian plateau steps down to the lowlands of China. On the N.E. the Nan-shan high districts, of Basra and Kufa. The caliph 'Ali made it his lands have their foot on the Mongolian plateau (average altitude, residence and the capital of his caliphate. After the removal 4000 ft.), i.e. in the Ala-shan. On the N.W. they are fringed by a of the capital to Bagdad, in the middle of the following century, border range, the Da-sue-shan, a continuation of the Astin-tagh, which rises to 12,200-13,000 ft. in its passes, and is pierced by Kufa lost its importance and began to fall into decay. At the several rivers flowing west to Lake Khala-chi or Khara-nor. This beginning of the 19th century, travellers reported extensive border-range, which continues on to the 97th meridian, separates and important ruins as marking the ancient site. Since that the Nan-shan range from the Pe-shan range. time the ruins have served as quarries for bricks for the building On the S.W. the Nan-shan mountains consist of short irregular of Nejef, and at the present time little remains but holes in chains, separated by broad plains, dotted with lakes, which differ but slightly in altitude from Tsaidam, (8800-9000 ft.). Next a the ground, representing excavations for bricks, with broken succession of narrow ranges intervene between this lower border fragments of brick and glass strewn over a considerable area. terrace and the higher terrace (12,000- !3.500 ft.). The first A mosque still stands on the spot where 'Ali is reputed to have mountain range on this higher terrace is Ritter's range, covered in part with extensive snow-fields. The passes at both ends of this worshipped. (For history see CALIPHATE.) snow-clad massif lie at altitudes of 15,990 ft. and 14,680 ft. The KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT (1812–1881), German next range is Humboldt or Ama-surgu range, which runs N.W. to philologist and folklorist, was born at Königsberg in Neumark S.E. from the Astin-tagh to about 38° N., and is perhaps continued on the 19th of November 1812. From 1841 he was connected by the southern Kuku (Koko)-nor range, which strikes the Hwang with the Köllnisches Gymnasium at Berlin, of which he was ho with an elevation of 7440 ft. It includes, in fact, several other parallel ranges-e.g. the Mushketov, Semenov, Suess, Alexander III., appointed director in 1870. He died at Berlin on the 5th of May Bain-sarlyk-the mutual relations of which are, however, not yet 1881. Kuhn was the founder of a new school of comparative definitely settled. Small lateral chains of mountains, rising some 2000 ft. above the Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie, he first devoted himself to German mythology, based upon comparative philology. Inspired by general level of that plateau, connect the central Nan-shan with the next parallel ranges, namely, those of the eastern Nan-shan. The stories and legends, and published Märkische Sagen und Märchen mutual relations of the latter, as well as the names of the several (1842), Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (1848), and constituent chains, are equally unsettled. Thus, one of them is Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (1859). But it named indiscriminately Nan-shan, Richthofen Range and Momo- shan. In fact, the region is dominated by three ranges of nearly Germanic peoples as a whole that his reputation is founded. is on his researches into the language and history of the Indo- equal altitude, all lifting many of their peaks above the snow-line. Finally, there is a range of mountains, about 10,000 ft. high, named His chief works in this connexion are : Zur ältesten Geschichte der Lung-shan by Obruchev, which borders the Kan-chow and Lian-Indogermanischen Völker (1845), in which he endeavoured to chow valley on the N.E., and belongs to the Nan-shan system. give an account of the earliest civilization of the Indo-Germanic But the string of oases in Kan-suh province, which stretches between the towns named, lies on the lower level of the Mongolian plateau peoples before their separation into different families, by (4000 to 5000 ft.), so that the Lung-shan ought possibly to be comparing and analysing the original meaning of the words regarded as a continuation of the Pe-shan mountains of the Gobi, and stems common to the different languages; Die Herabkunſt Generally speaking, the Nan-shan highlands are a region raised des Feuers und des Göttertranks (1859; new ed. by E. Kuhn, under 12,000 to 14,000 ft. above the sea, and intersected by wild, stony title of Mythologische Studien, 1886); and Über Entwicklungs- and partly, snow-clad mountains, towering another 4000 to 7000 ft. above its surface, and a ranged in narrow parallel chains all stufen der Mythenbildung (1873), in which he maintained that running N.W. to S.E. The chains of mountains are severally the origin of myths was to be looked for in the domain of from 8 to 17 m. wide, seldom as much as 35, while the broad; language, and that their most essential factors were polyonymy flat valleys between them attain widths of 20 to 27 m. As a rule the passes are at an altitude of 12,000 to 14,000 ft., and the and homonymy. The Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprach- peaks reach 18,000 to 20,000 ft. in the western portion of the high- forschung auf dem Gebiete der Indogermanischen Sprachen, with The glaciers also attain a greater development in the western portion on the subject. lands, while in the eastern portion they may be about 2000 ft. lower. 'which he was intimately connected, is the standard periodical of the Nan-shan, but the valleys are dry, and the slopes of both the mountains and the valleys, furrowed by deep ravines, are devoid See obituary notice by C. Bruchmann in Bursian's Biographisches of vegetation. Good pasture grounds are only found near the Jahrbuch (1881) and J. Schmidt in the above Zeitschrift, xxvi. n.s. 6. I KÜHNE-KU KLUX KLAN 942 KÜHNE, WILLY (1837-1900), German physiologist, was born the Reconstruction measures of the United States Congress, at Hamburg on the 28th of March 1837. After attending the 1865–1876. The name is generally applied not only to the gymnasium at Lüneburg, he went to Göttingen, where his master order of Ku Klux Klan, but to other similar societies that in chemistry was F. Wöhler and in physiology R. Wagner, existed at the same time, such as the Knights of the White Having graduated in 1856, he studied under various famous Camelia, a larger order than the Klan; the White Brotherhood; physiologists, including E. Du Bois-Reymond at Berlin, Claude the White League; Pale Faces; Constitutional Union Guards; Bernard in Paris, and K. F. W. Ludwig and E. W. Brücke in Black Cavalry; White Rose; The '76 Association; and hundreds Vienna. At the end of 1863 he was put in charge of the chemical of smaller societies that sprang up in the South after the Civil department of the pathological laboratory at Berlin, under War. The object was to protect the whites during the disorders R. von Virchow; in 1868 he was appointed professor of physiology that followed th Civil War, and to oppose the policy of the at Amsterdam; and in 1871 he was chosen to succeed H. von North towards the South, and the result of the whole movement Helmholtz in the same capacity at Heidelberg, where he died on was a more or less successful revolution against the Reconstruc- the roth of June 1900. His original work falls into two main tion and an overthrow of the governments based on negro groups--the physiology of muscle and nerve, which occupied the suffrage. It may be compared in some degree to such Euro- earlier years of his life, and the chemistry of digestion, which pean societies as the Carbonara, Young Italy, the Tugendbund, he began to investigate while at Berlin with Virchow. He was the Confréries of France, the Freemasons in Catholic countries, also known for his researches on vision and the chemical changes and the Vehmgericht. occurring in the retina under the influence of light. The The most important orders were the Ku Klux Klan and the visual purple, described by Franz Boll in 1876, he attempted to Knights of the White Camelia. The former began in 1865 in make the basis of a photochemical theory of vision, but though Pulaski, Tennessee, as a social club of young men. It had an he was able to establish its importance in connexion with vision absurd ritual and a strange uniform. The members accidentally in light of low intensity, its absence from the retinal area of most discovered that the fear of it had a great influence over the distinct vision detracted from the completeness of the theory and lawless but superstitious blacks, and soon the club expanded precluded its general acceptance. into a great federation of regulators, absorbing numerous local KUKA, or KUKAWA, a town of Bornu, a Mahommedan state bodies that had been formed in the absence of civil law and of the central Sudan, incorporated in the British protectorate of partaking of the nature of the old English neighbourhood Nigeria (see BORNU). Kuka is situated in 12° 55' N. and 13° police and the ante-bellum slavé patrol. The White Camelia 34' E., 41 m. from the western shores of Lake Chad, in the midst was formed in 1867 in Louisiana and rapidly spread over the of an extensive plain. It is the headquarters of the British states of the late Confederacy. The period of organization and administration in Bornu, and was formerly the residence of the development of the Ku Klux movement was from 1865 to 1868; native sovereign, who in Bornu bears the title of shehu. the period of greatest activity was from 1868 to 1870, after which The modern town of Kuka was founded c. 1810 by Sheikh came the decline. Mahommed al Amin al Kanemi, the deliverer of Bornu from the The various causes assigned for the origin and development Fula invaders. It is supposed to have received its name from of this movement were: the absence of stable government the kuka or monkey bread tree (Adansonia digitata), of which in the South for several years after the Civil War; the corrupt there are extensive plantations in the neighbourhood. Kuka and tyrannical rule of the alien, renegade and negro, and the or Kaoukaou was a common name in the Sudan in the middle belief that it was supported by the Federal troops which con- ages. The number of towns of this name gave occasion for trolled elections and legislative bodies; the disfranchisement of much geographical confusion, but Idrisi writing in the 12th whites; the spread of ideas of social and political equality century, and Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century, both mention among the negroes; fear of negro insurrections; the arming of two important towns called Kaou Kaou, of which one would negro militia and the disarming of the whites; outrages upon seem to have occupied a position very near to that of the modern white women by black men; the influence of Northern adven- Kuka. Ibn Khaldun speaks of it as the capital of Bornu and as turers in the Freedmen's Bureau (q.v.) and the Union League situated on the meridian of Tripoli. In 1840 the present town (q.v.) in alienating the races; the humiliation of Confederate was laid waste by Mahommed Sherif, the sultan of Wadai; and soldiers after they had been paroled-in general, the insecurity when it was restored by Sheikh Omar he built two towns separ- felt by Southern whites during the decade after the collapse of ated by more than half a mile of open country, each town being the Confederacy. surrounded by walls of white clay. It was probably owing to there In organization the Klan was modelled after the Federal being two towns that the plural Kukawa became the ordinary Union. Its Prescript or constitution, adopted in 1867, and designation of the town in Kano and throughout the Sudan, revised in 1868, provided for the following organization: The though the inhabitants used the singular Kuka. The town became entire South was the Invisible Empire under a Grand Wizard, wealthy and populous (containing some 60,000 inhabitants), being General N. B. Forrest; each state was a Realm under a Grand a centre for caravans to Tripoli and a stopping-place of pilgrims Dragon; several counties formed a Dominion under a Grand from the Hausa countries going across Africa to Mecca. The Titan; each county was a Province under a Grand Giant; the chief building was the great palace of the sheikh. Between 1823 smallest division being a Den under a Grand Cyclops. The and 1872 Kuka was visited by several English and German staff officers bore similar titles, relics of the time when the order travellers. In 1893 Bornu was seized by the ex-slave Rabah existed only for amusement: Genii, Hydras, Furies, Goblins, (q.v.), an adventurer from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, who chose a new Night Hawks, Magi, Monks and Turks. The private members capital, Dikwa, Kuka falling into complete decay. The town were called Ghouls. The Klan was twice reorganized, in 1867 was found in ruins in 1902 by the British expedition which and in 1868, each time being more centralized; in 1869 the replaced on the throne of Bornu a descendant of the ancient central organization was disbanded and the order then gradu- rulers. In the same year the rebuilding of Kuka was begun ally declined. The White Camelia with a similar history had a and the town speedily regained part of its former importance. similar organization, without the queer titles. Its members were It is now one of the principal British stations of eastern Bornu. called Brothers and Knights, and its officials Commanders. Owing, however, to the increasing importance of Maidugari, a The constitutions and rituals of these secret orders have declara- town 80 m. S.S. W. of Kuka, the court of the shehu was removed tions of principles, of which the following are characteristic: to thither in 1908. protect and succour the weak and unfortunate, especially the For an account of Kuka before its destruction by Rabah, see the widows and orphans of Confederate soldiers; to protect members Travels of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890); and Sahara und of the white race in life, honour and property from the encroach- Sudan, by Gustav Nachtigal (Berlin, 1879), i. 581-748. ments of the blacks; to oppose the Radical Republican party KU KLUX KLAN, the name of an American secret association and the Union League; to defend constitutional liberty, to of Southern whites united for self-protection and to oppose I prevent usurpation, emancipate the whites, maintain peace KUKU KHOTO--KULJA 943 << and order, the laws of God, the principles of 1776, and the is the seat of the military governor, and stands in the open political and social supremacy of the white race-in short, to country. In the first or old town more especially there are oppose African influence in government and society, and to strong traces of western Asiatic influence; the houses are not prevent any intermingling of the races. in the Chinese style, being built all round with brick or stone During the Reconstruction the people of the South were and having flat roofs, while a large number of the people are divided thus: nearly all native whites (the most prominent of still Mahommedans and, there is little doubt, descended from whom were disfranchised) on one side irrespective of former western settlers. The town at the same time is a great seat of political faith, and on the other side the ex-slaves organized Buddhism—the lamaseries containing, it is said, no less than and led by a few native and Northern whites called respectively 20,000 persons devoted to a religious life. As the southern scalawags and carpet-baggers, who were supported by the terminus of the routes across the desert of Gobi from Ulyasutai United States gover ent and who controlled the Southern and the Tian Shan, Kuku Khoto is a great mart for the exchan state governments. The Ku Klux movement in its wider of flour, millet and manufactured goods for the raw products aspects was the effort of the first class to destroy the control of Mongolia. A Catholic and a Protestant mission are main- of the second class. To control the negro the Klan played ſtained in the town. Lieut. Watts-Jones, R.E., was murdered upon his superstitious fears by having night patrols, parades at Kwei-hwa during the Boxer outbreak in 1900. and drills of silent horsemen covered with white sheets, carry- ing skulls with coals of fire for eyes, sacks of bones to rattle, and in Du Halde (vol. ii., Eng. ed.), and in Astley's Collection (vol. iv.) Early notices of Kuku Khoto will be found in Gerbillon (1688–1698, wearing hideous masks. In calling upon dangerous blacks at night they pretended to be the spirits of dead Confederates, KULJA (Chinese, Ili-ho), a territory in north-west China; just from Hell," and to quench their thirst would pretend to bounded, according to the treaty of St Petersburg of 1881, on drink gallons of water which was poured into rubber sacks con- the W. by the Semiryechensk province of Russian Turkestan, cealed under their robes. Mysterious signs and warnings were on the N. by the Boro-khoro Mountains, and on the S. by the sent to disorderly negro politicians. The whites who were re- mountains Khan-tengri, Muz-art, Terskei, Eshik-bashi and sponsible for the conduct of the blacks were warned or driven Narat. It comprises the valleys of the Tekez (middle and away by social and business ostracism or by violence. Nearly lower portion), Kunghez, the Ili as far as the Russian frontier all southern whites (except "scalawags”), whether members of and its tributary, the Kash, with the slopes of the mountains the secret societies or not, in some way took part in the Ku Klux turned towards these rivers. Its area occupies about 19,000 movement. As the work of the societies succeeded, they gradu- sq. m. (Grum-Grzimailo). The valley of the Kash is ally passed out of existence. In some communities they fell into about 160 m. long, and is cultivated in its lower parts, while the control of violent men and became simply bands of outlaws, the Boro-khoro Mountains are snow-clad in their eastern dangerous even to the former members; and the anarchical portion, and fall with very steep slopes to the valley. The aspects of the movement excited the North to vigorous con- Avral Mountains, which separate the Kash from the Kunghez, demnation. The United States Congress in 1871-1872 enacted are lower, but rocky, naked and difficult of access. The a series of “Force Laws” intended to break up the secret valley of the Kunghez is about 120 m. long; the river flows societies and to control the Southern elections. Several hundred first in a gorge, then amidst thickets oí rushes, and very small arrests were made, and a few convictions were secured. The portions of its valley are fit for cultivation. The Narat Moun. elections were controlled for a few years, and violence was tains in the south are also very wild, but are covered with checked, but the Ku Klux movement went on until it accom- forests of deciduous trees (apple tree, apricot tree, birch, plished its object by giving protection to the whites, reducing poplar, &c.) and pine trees. The Tekez flows in the mountains, the blacks to order, replacing the whites in control of society and pierces narrow gorges. The mountains which separate and state, expelling the worst of the carpet-baggers and scala- it from the Kunghez are also snow-clad, while those to the wags, and nullifying those laws of Congress which had resulted south of it reach 24,000 ft. of altitude in Khan-tengri, and are in placing the Southern whites under the control of a party covered with snow and glaciers-the only pass through them composed principally of ex-slaves. being the Muzart. Forests and alpine meadows cover their AUTHORITIES.-J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, Ku Klux Klan northern slopes. Agriculture was formerly developed on the (New York, 1905); W. L. Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Tekez,'as is testified by old irrigation canals. The Ili is formed Alabama (New York, 1905), and Documentary History of Recon- | by the junction of the Kunghez with the Tekez, and for 120 m. struction (Cleveland, 1906); J. W. Garner, Reconstruction in Missis- sippi (New York, 1901).; W. G. Brown, Lower South in American it flows through Kulja, its valley reaching a width of 50 m. at History (New York, 1901); J. M. Beard, Ku Klux Sketches (Phila- Horgos-koljat. This valley is famed for its fertility, and is delphia, 1876); J. W. Burgess, Reconstruction and the Constitution admirably irrigated by canals, part of which, however, fell (New York, 1901). (W. L.F.) into decay after -55,000 of the inhabitants migrated to Russian KUKU KHOTO (Chinese Kwei-hwa), a city of the Chinese territory in 1881. The climate of this part of the valley is, province of Shan-si, situated to the north of the Great Wall, in of course, continental-frosts of – 22° F. and heats of 170° F. 40° 50' N. and 111° 45' E., about 160 m. W. of Kalgan. It lies being experienced-but snow lasts only for one and a half in the valley of a small river which joins the Hwang-ho 50 m. to months, and the summer heat is tempered by the proximity the south. There are two distinct walled towns in Kuku Khoto, of the high mountains. Apricots, peaches, pears and some at an interval of a mile and a half; the one is the seat of the civil vines are grown, as also some cotton-trees near the town of а governor and is surrounded by the trading town, and the other Kulja, where the average yearly temperature is 48°5 F. 1 The judgment of the historian William Garrott Brown, himself (January 15°, July 77°). Barley is grown up to an altitude of a Southerner, is worth quoting: “ That violence was often used 6500 ft. cannot be denied. Negroes were often whipped, and so were carpet- The population may number about 125,000, of whom baggers. The incidents related in such stories as Tourgée's A Fool's Errand all have their counterparts in the testimony before 75,000 are settled and about 50,000 nomads (Grum-Grzimailo). congressional committees and courts of law. In some cases, after | The Taranchis from East Turkestan represent about 40 % repeated warnings, men were dragged from their beds and slain by of the population; about 40,000 of them left Kulja when the persons in disguise, and the courts were unable to find or to convict Russian troops evacuated the territory, and the Chinese govern- the murderers. Survivors of the orders affirm that such work was of Kashgaria done, in most cases by persons not connected with them or acting ment sent some 8000 families from different town under their authority. It is impossible to prove or disprove their to take their place. There are, besides, about 20,000 Sibos statements. When such outrages were committed, not on worthless and Solons, 3500 Kara-kidans, a few Dungans, and more than adventurers, who had no station in the Northern communities from 10,000 Chinese. The nomads are represented by about 18,000 which they came, but on cultivated persons who had gone South Kalmucks, and the remainder by Kirghiz. Agriculture is from genuinely philanthropic motives--no matter how unwisely insufficient to satisfy the needs of the population, and food is or tactlessly they went about their work--the natural effect was to horrify and enrage the North." imported from Semiryechensk. Excellent beds of coal are а 944 KULM-KULU 1 1 found in different places, especially about Kulja, but the KULMBACH, or CULMBACH, a town of Germany, in the fairly rich copper ores and silver ores have ceased to be Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, picturesquely situated worked. on the Weisser Main, and the Munich-Bamberg-Hof railway, The chief towns are Suidun, capital of the province, and 11 m. N.W. from Bayreuth. Pop. (1900), 9428. It contains Kulja. The latter (Old Kulja) is on the li river. It is one a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, a museum of the chief cities of the region, owing to the importance of its and several schools. The town has several linen manufactories bazaars, and is the seat of the Russian consul and a telegraph and a large cotton spinnery, but is chiefly famed for its many station. The walled town is nearly square, each side being extensive breweries, which mainly produce a black beer, not about a mile in length; and the walls are not only 30 ft. high but unlike English porter, which is largely exported. Connected broad enough on the top to serve as a carriage drive. Two broad with these are malting and bottling works. On a rocky eminence, streets cut the enclosed area into four nearly equal sections. 1300 ft. in height, to the south-east of the town stands the former Since 1870 a Russian suburb has been laid out on a wide scale. fortress of Plassenburg, during the 14th and 15th centuries The houses of Kulja are almost all clay-built and flat-roofed, the residence of the margraves of Bayreuth, called also mar- and except in the special Chinese quarter in the eastern end of graves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. It was dismantled in 1807, the town only a few public buildings show the influence of and is now used as a prison. Kulmbach and Plassenburg Chinese architecture. Of these the most noteworthy are the belonged to the dukes of Meran, and then to the counts Taranchi and Dungan mosques, both with turned-up roofs, of Orlamunde, from whom thcy passed in the 14th century and the latter with a pagoda-looking minaret. The population to the Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, and thus to the is mainly Mahommedan, and there are only two Buddhist margraves of Bayreuth. pagodas. A small Chinese Roman Catholic church has main- See F. Stein, Kulmbach und die Plassenburg in alter und neuer tained its existence through all the vicissitudes of modern Zeit (Kulmbach, 1903); Huther, Kulmbach und Umgebung. (Kulm. times. Paper and vermicelli are manufactured with rude bach, 1886); and Ç. Meyer, Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kulmbach appliances in the town. The outskirts are richly cultivated (Munich, 1895). with wheat, barley, lucerne and poppies. Schuyler estimated KULMSEE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of the population, which includes Taranchis, Dungans, Sarts, West Prussia, on a lake, 14 m. by rail N. of Thorn and at the Chinese, Kalmucks and Russians, at 10,000 in 1873; it has junction of railways to Bromberg and Marienburg. Pop. since increased. (1900), 8987. It has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, which New Kulja, Manchu Kulja, or Ili, which lies lower down was built in the 13th, and restored in the 15th century, and an the valley on the same side of the stream, has been a pile Evangelical church. Until 1823 the town was the seat of the of ruins since the terrible massacre of all its inhabitants by the bishops of Kulm. insurgent Dungans in 1868. It was previously the seat of KULP, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government the Chinese government for the province, with a large penal of Erivan, 60 m. W.S.W. from the town of Erivan and 2 m. S. establishment and strong garrison; its population was about of the Aras river. Pop. (1897), 3074. Close by is the Kulp 70,000. salt mountain, about 1000 ft. high, consisting of beds of clay History. -Two centuries B.C. the region was occupied by intermingled with thick deposits of rock salt, which has been the fair and blue-eyed Ussuns, who were driven away in the worked from time immemorial. Regular galleries are cut in 6th century of our era by the northern Huns. Later the Kulja the transparent, horizontal salt layers, from which cubes of territory became a dependency of Dzungaria. The Uighurs, about 70 lb weight are extracted, to the amount of 27,500 tons and in the 12th century the Kara-Khitai, took possession of every year. it in turn. Jenghiz Khan conquered Kulja in the 13th century, KULU, a subdivision of Kangra district, Punjab, British India, and the Mongol Khans resided in the valley of the Ili. It is which nominally includes the two Himalayan cantons or waziris supposed (Grum-Grzimailo) that the Oirads conquered it at the of Lahul and Spiti. The tahsil of Kulu has an area of 1054 sq. m., end of the 16th or the beginning of the 17th century; they of which only 60 sq. m. are cultivated; pop. (1901), 68,954. The kept it till 1755, when the Chinese annexed it. During the Sainj, which joins the Beas at Largi, divides the tract into two insurrection of 1864 the Dungans and the Taranchis formed portions, Kulu proper and Soraj. Kulu proper, north of the here the Taranchi sultanate, and this led to the occupation of Sainj, together with inner Soraj, forms a great basin or depression Kulja by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later the territory in the midst of the Himalayan system, having the narrow gorge was restored to China. of the Beas at Largi as the only outlet for its waters. North and KULM (CUlm). (1) A town of Germany, in the province of east the Bara Bangahal and mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a West Prussia, 33 m. by rail N.W. of Thorn, on an elevation mean elevation of 18,000 ft., while southward the Jalori and above the plain, and I m. E. of the Vistula. Pop. (1905), Dhaoladhar ridges attain a height of 11,000. ft. The higher 11,665. It is surrounded by old walls, dating from the 13th villages stand 9000 ft. above the sea; and even the cultivated century, and contains some interesting buildings, notably its tracts have probably an average elevation of 5000 ft. The houses churches, of which two are Roman Catholic and two Protestant, consist of four-storeyed chålets in little groups, huddled closely and its medieval town-hall. The cadet school, founded here together on the ledges or slopes of the valleys, picturesquely built in 1776 by Frederick the Great, was removed to Köslin with projecting eaves and carved wooden verandas. The Beas, in 1890. There are large oil mills, also iron foundries and which, with its tributaries, drains the entire basin, rises at the machine shops, as well as an important trade in agricultural crest of the Rohtang pass, 13,326 ft. above the sea, and has an produce, including fruit and vegetables. Kulm gives name average fall of 125 ft. per mile. Its course presents a succession to the oldest bishopric in Prussia, although the bishop resides of magnificent scenery, including cataracts, gorges, precipitous at Pelplin. It was presented about 1220 by Duke Conrad of cliffs, and mountains clad with forests of deodar, towering above Masovia to the bishop of Prussia. Frederick II. pledged it the tiers of pine on the lower rocky ledges. It is crossed by in 1226 to the Teutonic order, to whom it owes its early develop- several suspension bridges. Great mineral wealth exists, but ment. By the second peace of Thorn in 1466 it passed to the difficulty of transport and labour prevents its development. Poland, and it was annexed to Prussia in 1772. It joined Hot Springs occur at three localities, much resorted to as places the Hanseatic League, and used to carry on very extensive of pilgrimage. The character of the hillmen resembles that of manufactures of cloth. most other mountaineers in its mixture of simplicity, independ- (2) A village of Bohemia about 3 m. N.E. of Teplitz, at the ence and superstition. Tibetan polyandry still prevails in Soraj, foot of the Erzgebirge, celebrated as the scene of a battle in but has almost died out elsewhere. The temples are dedicated which the French were defeated by the Austrians, Prussians rather to local deities than to the greater gods of the Hindu and Russians on the 29th and 30th of August 1813 (see pantheon. Kulu is an ancient Rajput principality, which was NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). conquered by Ranjit Singh about 1812. Its hereditary ruler, KUM-KUMISHAH 945 a with the title of rai, is now recognized by the British government years on the non-regulation system by three most successful as jagirdar of Rupi. administrators-Mr Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry KUM, a small province in Persia, between Teheran on the N. Ramsay. and Kashan on the S. It is divided into seven buluk (districts): KUMASI, or COOMASSIE, the capital of Ashanti, British West (1) Humeh, with town; (2) Kumrud; (3) Vazkerud; (4) Kinar Rud Africa, in 6° 34' 50" N., 2° 12' W., 168 m. by rail N. of Sekondi Khaneh; (5) Kubistan; (6) Jasb; (7) Ardabal; has a population of and 120 m. by road N.N.W. of Cape Coast. Pop. (1906), 6280; 45,000 to 50,000, and pays a yearly revenue of, about £8000. including suburbs, over 12,000. Kumäsi is situated on a low The province produces much grain and a fine quality of cotton rocky eminence, from which it extends across a valley to the hill with a very long staple. opposite. It lies in a clearing of the dense forest which covers Kum, the capital, in 34° 39' N. and 50° 55' E., on the Anarbar the greater part of Ashanti, and occupies an area about iš m. river, which rises near Khunsar, has an elevation of 3100 ft. in length and over 3 m. in circumference. The land immediately It owes much of its importance to the fact that it contains the around the town, once marshy, has been drained. On the north- tomb of Imam Reza's sister Fatmeh, who died there A.D. 816, west is the small river Dah, one of the headstreams of the Prah. and large numbers of pilgrims visit the city during six or seven The name Kum-asi, more correctly Kum-ase (under the okum months of the year. The fixed population is between 25,000 and tree) was given to the town because of the number of those trees 30,000. A carriage road 92 m. in length, constructed in 1890- in its streets. The most imposing building in Kumasi is the fort, 1893, connects the city with Teheran. It has post and telegraph built in 1896. It is the residence of the chief commissioner and offices. is capable of holding a garrison of several hundred men. There See Eastern Persian Irak, R. G. S. suppl. (London, 1896). are also officers' quarters and cantonments outside the fort, KUMAIT IBN ZAID (679–743), Arabian poet, was born in the European and native hospitals, and stations of the Basel and reign of the first Omayyad caliph and lived in the reigns of nine Wesleyan missions. The native houses are built with red clay others. He was, however, a strong supporter of the house of in the style universal throughout Ashanti. They are somewhat Hashim and an enemy of the South Arabians. He was imprisoned richly ornamented, and those of the better class are enclosed in by the caliph Hishām for his verse in praise of the Hashimites, compounds within which are several separate buildings. Near but escaped by the help of his wife and was pardoned by the the railway station are the leading mercantile houses. The intercession of the caliph's son Maslama. Taking part in a principal Ashanti chiefs own large houses, built in European rebellion, he was killed by the troops of Khalid ul-Qasri. style, and these are leased to strangers. His poems, the Häshimiyyāt, have been edited by J. Horovitz Before its destruction by the British in 1874 the city presented (Leiden, 1904). An account of him is contained in the Kitāb ul- a handsome appearance and bore many marks of a comparatively Aghāni, xv. 113-130. (G. W. T.) high state of culture. The king's palace, built of red sandstone, KUMAON, or KUMAUN, an administrative division of British had been modelled, it is believed, on Dutch buildings at Elmina. India, in the United Provinces, with headquarters at Naini Tal. It was blown up by Sir Garnet (subsequently Viscount) Wolseley's It consists of a large Himalayan tract, together with two sub- forces on the oth of February 1874, and but scanty vestiges of it montane strips called the Tarai and the Bhabhar; area 13,725 remain. The town was only partially rebuilt on the withdrawal sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,207,030, showing an increase of less than of the British troops, and it is difficult from the meagre accounts 2% in the decade. The submontane strips were up to 1850 an of early travellers to obtain an adequate idea of the capital of the almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but since Ashanti kingdom when at the height of its prosperity (middle of then the numerous clearings have attracted a large population the 18th to middle of the 19th century). The streets were from the hills, who cultivate the rich soil during the hot and cold numerous, broad and regular; the main avenue was 70 yds. seasons, returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon wide. A large market-place existed on the south-east, and is a maze of mountains, some of which are among the loftiest behind it in a grove of trees was the Spirit House. This was the known. In a tract not more than 140 m. in length and 40 m. in place of execution. Of its population before the British occupa- breadth there are over thirty peaks rising to elevations exceed- tion there is no trustworthy information. It appears not to ing 18,000 ft. (see HIMALAYA). The rivers rise chiefly in the have exceeded 20,000 in the first quarter of the 19th century. southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north of the loftiest This is owing partly to the fact that the commercial capital peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of rapid of Ashanti, and the meeting-place of several caravan routes declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal are the Sarda from the north and east, was Kintampo, a town farther north. (Kali), the Pindar and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alak- The decline of Kumasi after 1874 was marked. A new royal nanda. The valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts palace was built, but it was of clay, not brick, and within the is now under official supervision. The chief trees are the chir, limits of the former town were wide stretches of grass-grown or three-leaved Himalayan pine, the cypress, fir, alder, säl or country. In 1896 the town ain suffered at the hands of the iron-wood, and saindan. Limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss British, when several of the largest and most ancient houses in and granite constitute the principal geological formations. the royal and priestly suburb of Bantama were destroyed by fire. Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos exist; but in the revolt of 1900 Kumasi was once more injured. The rail- they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane way from the coast, which passes through the Tarkwa and Obuassi strips and deep valleys the climate is mild. The rainfall of the gold-fields, reached Kumasi in September 1903. Many merchants outer Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon, at the Gold Coast ports thereupon opened branches in Kumasi. is double that of the central hills, in the average proportion A marked revival in trade followed, leading to the rapid expan- of 80 in. to 40. No winter passes without snow on the higher sion of the town. By 1996 Kumasi had supplanted the coast ridges, and in some years it is universal throughout the moun- towns and had become the distributing centre for the whole of tain tract. Frosts, especially in the valleys, are often severe. Ashanti. Kumaon is occasionally visited by epidemic cholera. Leprosy is KUMISHAH, a district and town in the province of Isfahan, most prevalent in the east of the district. Goitre and cretinism Persia. The district, which has a length of 50 and a breadth afflict a small proportion of the inbabitants. The hill fevers at of 16 m., and contains about 40 villages, produces much grain. times exhibit the rapid and malignant features of plague. The town is situated on the high road from Isfahan to Shiraz, In 1891 the division was composed of the three districts of 52 m. S. of the former, It was a flourishing city several miles Kumaon, Garhwal and the Tarai; but the two districts of Kumaon in circuit when it was destroyed by the Afghans in 1722, but is and the Tarai were subsequently redistributed and renamed after now a decayed place, with crumbled walls and mouldering towers their headquarters, Naini Tal and Almora. Kumaon proper and a population of barely 15,000. It has post and telegraph constituted an old Rajput principality, which became extinct offices. South of the city and extending to the village Maksud- at the beginning of the 19th century. The country was annexed beggi, 16 m. away, is a level plain, which in 1835 (February 28) after the Gurkha war of 1815, and was governed for seventy was the scene of a battle in which the army (2000 men, 16 guns) 2 946 KUMQUAT-KUNENE of Mahommed Shah, commanded by Sir H. Lindsay-Bethune, military encampment, spreading to both sides of the river and routed the much superior combined forces (6000 men) of the connected by a very creditable bridge built on the cantilever shah's two rebellious uncles, Firman-Firma and Shuja es system. There are no apparent relics of Buddhism in the Kunar, Saltana. such as are common about Jalalabad or Chitral, or throughout KUMQUAT (Citrus japonica), a much-branched shrub from Swat and Dir. This is probably due to the late occupation of the 8 to 12 ft. high, the branches sometimes bearing small thorns, valley by Kafirs, who spread eastwards into Bajour within com- with dark green glossy leaves and pure white orange-like flowers paratively recent historical times, and who still adhere to their standing singly or clustered in the leaf-axils. The bright orange- fastnesses in the Kashmund hills. The Kunar valley route to yellow fruit is round or ellipsoidal, about 1 in. in diameter, Chitral and to Kafiristan is being developed by Afghan engineer- with a thick minutely tuberculate rind, the inner lining of which ing. It may possibly extend ultimately unto Badakshan, in is sweet, and a watery acidulous pulp. It has long been culti- which case it will form the most direct connexion between the vated in China and Japan, and was introduced to Europe in 1846 Oxus and India, and become an important feature in the strate- by Mr Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural Society, gical geography of Asia. (T. H. H.*) and shortly after into North America. It is much hardier than KUNBIS, the great agricultural caste of Western India, corre- most plants of the orange tribe, and succeeds well when grafted sponding to the Kurmis in the north and the Kapus in the Telugu on the wild species, Citrus trifoliata. It is largely used by the country. Ethnically they cannot be distinguished from the Chinese as a sweetmeat preserved in sugar. Mahrattas, though the latter name is sometimes confined to the KUMTA, or COOMPTA, a sea-coast town of British India, in the class who claim higher rank as representing the descendants of North Kanara district of Bombay, 40 m. S. of Karwar. Pop. Sivaji's soldiers. In some districts of the Deccan they form an (1901), 10;818. It has an open roadstead, with a considerable actual majority of the population, which is not the case with trade. Carving in sandal-wood is a speciality. The commercial any other Indian caste. In 1901 the total number of both importance of Kumta has declined since the opening of the Kunbis and Mahrattas in all India was returned at nearly 84 Southern Mahratta railway system. millions. KUMYKS, a people of Turkish stock in Caucasia, occupying KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD (1839- the Kumyk plateau in north Daghestan and south Terek, and 1894), German physicist, was born at Schwerin in Mecklenburg the lands bordering the Caspian. It is supposed that Ptolemy on the 18th of November 1839. He began his scientific studies knew them under the name of Kami and Kamaks. Various at Leipzig, but afterwards went to Berlin. At first he devoted explorers see in them descendants of the Khazars. A. Vambéry himself to astronomy, but coming under the influence of H. G. supposes that they settled in their present quarters during the Magnus, he turned his attention to physics, and graduated in flourishing period of the Khazar kingdom in the 8th century. 1864 with a thesis on the depolarization of light. In 1867 he It is certain that some Kabardians also settled later. The became privatdozent in Berlin University, and in the following Russians built forts in their territory in 1559 and under Peter I. year was chosen professor of physics at the Zürich Polytechnic; Having long been more civilized than the surrounding Caucasian then, after a year or two at Würzburg, he was called in 1872 to mountaineers, the Kumyks have always enjoyed some respect Strassburg, where he took a great part in the organization of the among them. The upper terraces of the Kumyk plateau, which new university, and was largely concerned in the erection of the the Kumyks occupy, leaving its lower parts to the Nogai Tatars, Physical Institute. Finally in 1888 he went to Berlin as successor are very fertile. to H. von Helmholtz in the chair of experimental physics and KUNAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan, on the north-west directorship of the Berlin Physical Institute. He died after a frontier of British India. The Kunar valley (Khoaspes in the protracted illness at Israelsdorf, near Lübeck, on the 21st of classics) is the southern section of that great river system which May 1894. As an original worker Kundt was especially success- reaches from the Hindu Kush to the Kabul river near Jalalabad, ful in the domains of sound and light. In the former he developed and which, under the names of Yarkhun, Chitral, Kashkar, &c., a valuable method for the investigation of aerial waves within is more extensive than the Kabul basin itself. The lower reaches pipes, based on the fact that a finely divided powder-lycopo- of the Kunar are wide and comparatively shallow, the river dium, for example—when dusted over the interior of a tube in meandering in a multitude of channels through a broad and fairly which is established a vibrating column of air, tends to collect open valley, well cultivated and fertile, with large flourishing in heaps at the nodes, the distance between which can thus be villages and a mixed population of Mohmand and other tribes ascertained. An extension of the method renders possible the of Afghan origin. Here the hills to the eastward are compara- determination of the velocity of sound in different gases. In light tively low, though they shut in the valley closely. Beyond them Kundt's name is widely known for his inquiries in anomalous are the Bajour uplands. To the west are the great mountains dispersion, not only in liquids and vapours, but even in metals, of Kafiristan, called Kashmund, snow-capped, and running to which he obtained in very thin films by means of a laborious 14,000 ft. of altitude. Amongst them are many wild but process of electrolytic deposition upon platinized glass. He also beautiful valleys occupied by Kafirs, who are rapidly submitting carried out many experiments in magneto-optics, and succeeded to Afghan rule. From 20 to 30 miles up the river on its left in showing, what Faraday had failed to detect, the rotation under bank, under the Bajour hills, are thick clusters of villages, the influence of magnetic force of the plane of polarization in amongst which are the ancient towns of Kunar and Pashat. certain gases and vapours. The chief tributary from the Kafiristan hills is the Pechdara, KUNDUZ, a khanate and town of Afghan Turkestan. The which joins the river close to Chagan Sarai. It is a fine, broad, khanate is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the W. by swift-flowing stream, with an excellent bridge over it (part of Tashkurghan, on the N. by the Oxus and on the S. by the Hindu Abdur Rahman's military road developments), and has been Kush. It is inhabited mainly by Uzbegs. Very little is known largely utilized for irrigation. The Pechdara finds its sources about the town, which is the trade centre of a considerable in the Kafir hills, amongst forests of pine and deodar and thick district, including Kataghan, where the best horses in Afghan. tangles of wild vine and ivy, wild figs, pomegranates, olives istan are bred. and oaks, and dense masses of sweet-scented shrubs. Above KUNENE, formerly known also as Nourse, a river of South- Chagan Sarai, as far as Arnawai, where the Afghan boundary West Africa, with a length of over 700 m., mainly within Portu- crosses the river, and above which the valley belongs to guese territory, but in its lower course forming the boundary Chitral, the river narrows to a swift mountain stream obstructed between Angola and German South-West Africa. The upper by boulders and hedged in with steep cliffs and difficult“ parris basin of the river lies on the inner versant of the high plateau or slopes of rocky hill-side. Wild almond here sheds its blossoms region which runs southwards from Bihe parallel to the coast, into the stream, and in the dawn of summer much of the floral forming in places ranges of mountains which give rise to many beauty of Kashmir is to be found. At Asmar there is a slight streams running south to swell the Kunene. The main stream widening of the valley, and the opportunity for a large Afgban | rises in 12° 30' S. and about 160 m. in a direct live from the sea KUNERSDORF-KUOPIO 947 at Benguella, runs generally from north to south through four | atmosphere of alchemy, he derided the notion of the alkahest degrees of latitude, but finally flows west to the sea through a or universal solvent, and denounced the deceptions of the adepts break in the outer highlands. A little south of 16° S. it receives who pretended to effect the transmutation of metals; but he the Kulonga from the east, and in about 16° 50' the Kakulovar | believed mercury to be a constituent of all metals and heavy from the west. The Kakulovar has its sources in the Serra da minerals, though he held there was no proof of the presence of Chella and other ranges of the Humpata district behind Mossa-“sulphur comburens.” medes, but, though the longest tributary of the Kunene, is but His chief works were Oeffentliche Zuschrift von dem Phosphor a small river in its lower course, which traverses the arid region Mirabil (1678); Ars vitriaria experimentalis (1689) and Laboratorium comprised within the lower basin of the Kunene. Between the chymicum (1716). mouths of the Kulonga and Kakulovar the Kunene traverses KUNLONG, the name of a district and ferry on the Salween, a swampy plain, inundated during high water, and containing in the northern Shan States of Burma. Both are insignificant, several small lakes at other parts of the year. From this swampy but the place has gained notoriety from being the nominal region divergent branches run S.E. They are mainly inter-terminus in British territory of the railway across the northern mittent, but the Kwamatuo, which leaves the main stream in Shan States to the borders of Yunnan, with its present terminus about 15° 8' E., 17° 15' S., flows into a large marsh or lake called at Lashio. In point of fact, however, this terminus will be 7 m. Etosha, which occupies a depression in the inner table-land about below the ferry and outside of Kunlong circle. At present 3400 ft. above sea-level. From the S.E. end of the Etosha lake Kunlong ferry is little used, and the village was burnt by Kachins streams issue in the direction of the Okavango, to which in times in 1893. It is served by dug-outs, three in number in 1899, and of great flood they contribute some water. From the existence capable of carrying about fifteen men on a trip. Formerly the of this divergent system it is conjectured that at one time the trade was very considerable, and the Burmese had a customs Kunene formed part of the Okavango, and thus of the Zambezi station on the island, from which the place takes its name; but basin. (See NGAMI.). the rebellion in the great state of Theinni, and the southward On leaving the swampy region the Kunene turns decidedly movement of the Kachins, as well as the Mahommedan rebellion to the west, and descends to the coast plain by a number of in Yunnan, diverted the caravans to the northern route to Bhamo, cataracts, of which the chief (in 17° 25' S., 14° 20' E.) has a fall which is still chiefly followed. The Wa, who inhabit the hills of 330 ft. The river becomes smaller in volume as it passes immediately overlooking the Nam Ting valley, now make the through an almost desert region with little or no vegetation. route dangerous for traders. The great majority of these Wa The stream is sometimes shallow and fordable, at others confined live in unadministered British territory. to a narrow rocky channel. Near the sea the Kunene traverses KUNZITE, a transparent lilac-coloured variety of spodumene, a region of sand-hills, its mouth being completely blocked at low used as a gem-stone. It was discovered in 1902 near Pala, in water. The river enters the Atlantic in 17° 18' S., II° 40' E. San Diego county, California, not farfrom the locality which yields There are indications that a former branch of the river once the fine specimens of rubellite and lepidolite, well known to entered a bay to the south. mineralogists. The mineral was named by Dr C. Baskerville KUNERSDORF, a village of Prussia, 4 m. E. of Frankfurt after Dr George F. Kunz, the gem expert of New York, who on-Oder, the scene of a great battle, fought on the 12th of August first described it. Analysis by R. O. E. Davis showed it to be 1759, between the Prussian army commanded by Frederick the a spodumene. Kunzite occurs in large crystals, some weighing Great and the allied Russians under Soltykov and Austrians as much as 1000 grams each, and presents delicate hues from under Loudon, in which Frederick was defeated with enormous rosy lilac to deep pink. It is strongly dichroic. Near the losses and his army temporarily ruined. (See SEVEN YEARS' surface it may lose colour by exposure. Kunzite becomes WAR.) strongly phosphorescent under the Röntgen rays, or by the KUNGRAD, a trading town of Asiatic Russia, in the province action of radium or on exposure to ultra-violet rays. (See of Syr-darya, in the delta of the Amu-darya, 50 m. S. of Lake SPODUMENE.) Aral; altitude 260 ft. It is the centre of caravan routes leading KUOPIO, a province of Finland, which includes northern to the Caspian Sea and the Uralsk province. Karelia, bounded on the N.W. and N. by Uleåborg, on the E. by KUNGUR, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of Olonets, on the S.E. by Viborg, on the S. by St Michel and on the Perm, on the highway to Siberia, 58 m. S.S.E. of the city of W. by Vasa. Its area covers 16,500 sq. m., and the population Perm. Pop. (1892), 12,400; (1897), 14,324. Tanneries and the (1900) was 313,951, of whom 312,875 were Finnish-speaking, manufacture of boots, gloves, leather, overcoats, iron castings The surface is hilly, reaching from 600 to 800 ft. of altitude in and machinery are the chief industries. It has trade in boots, the north (Suomenselkä hills), and from 300 to 400 ft. in the south. iron wares, cereals, tallow and linseed exported, and in tea It is built up of gneisso-granites, which are covered, especially imported direct from China. in the middle and east, with younger granites, and partly of KUNKEL (or KUNCKEL) VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN gneisses, quartzite, and talc schists and augitic rocks. The (1630-1703), German chemist, was born in 1630 (or 1638), near whole is covered with glacial and later lacustrine deposits. Rendsburg, his father being alchemist to the court of Holstein. The soil is of moderate fertility, but often full of boulders. He became chemist and apothecary to the dukes of Lauenburg, Large lakes cover 16% of surface, marshes and peat bogs and then to the elector of Saxony, Johann Georg II., who put over 29% of the area, and forests occupy 2,672,240 hectares. him in charge of the royal laboratory at Dresden. Intrigues Steamers ply along the lakes as far as Joensuu. The climate engineered against him caused him to resign this position in 1677, is severe, the average temperature being for the year 36° F., and for a time he lectured on chemistry at Annaberg and Witten- for January 13° and for July 63º. Only 2.3% of the whole berg. Invited to Berlin by Frederick William, in 1679 he be surface is under cultivation. Rye, barley, oats and potatoes came director of the laboratory and glass works of Brandenburg, are the chief crops, and in good years these meet the needs and in 1688 Charles XI. brought him to Stockholm, giving him of the population. Dairy farming and cattle breeding are of the title of Baron von Lowenstjern in 1693 and making him a rapidly increasing importance. Nearly 38,800 tons of iron ore member of the council of mines. He died on the 20th of March are extracted every year, and nearly 12,000 tons of pig iron 1703 thers say 1702). at Dreissighufen, his country house near and 6420 tons of iron and steel are obtained in te iron- Pernau. Kunkel shares with Boyle the honour of having dis- works. Engineering and chemical works, tanneries, saw-mills, covered the secret of the process by which Brand of Hamburg paper-mills and distilleries are the chief. industrial establish- had prepared phosphorus in 1669, and he found how to make ments. . The preparation of carts, sledges and other wooden artificial ruby (red glass) by the incorporation of purple of Cassius. goods is an important domestic industry. Timber, iron, His work also included observations on putrefaction and fer- butter, furs and game are exported. The chief towns of the mentation, which he spoke of as sisters, on the nature of salts, government are Kuopio (13,519), Joensuu (3954) and Iisalmi and on the preparation of pure metals. Though he lived in an | (1871). 948 KUOPIO-KUPRILI KUOPIO, capital of the Finnish province of that name, situated women, to allow nobody to grow too rich, to keep his treasury on Lake Kalla-vesi, 180 m. by rail from the Kuivola junction of well filled, and himself and his troops constantly occupied. Had the St Petersburg-Helsingfors main line. Pop. (1904), 13,519. he so desired, Kuprili might have taken advantage of the revolts It is picturesquely situated, is the seat of a bishop, and has a of the Janissaries to place himself on the throne; instead, he cathedral, two lyceums and two gymnasia (both for boys and recommended the sultan to appoint his son as his successor, and girls), a commercial and several professional schools. There is so founded a dynasty of able statesmen who occupied the grand an agricultural school at Leväis, close by. Kuopio, in conse- vizierate almost without interruption for half a century. quence of its steamer communication with middle Finland and 2. FAZIL AHMED KUPRILI (1635–1676), son of the preceding, the sea (via Saima Canal), is a trading centre of considerable succeeded his father as grand vizier in 1661 (this being the first importance. instance of a son succeeding his father in that office since the KUPRILI, spelt also KÖPRILI, KOEPRULU, KEUPRULO, &c., time of the Chenderélis). He began life in the clerical career, the name of a family of Turkish statesmen. which he left, at the age of twenty-three, when he had attained 1. MAHOMMED KUPRILI (c. 1586–1661) was the grandson of the rank of muderris. Usually humane and generous, he sought an Albanian who had settled at Kupri in Asia Minor. He began to relieve the people of the excessive taxation and to secure them life as a scullion in the imperial kitchen, became cook, then purse- against unlawful exactions. Three years after his accession to bearer to Khosrev Pasha, and so, by wit and favour, rose to be office Turkey suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of St Gothard master of the horse, “pasha of two tails," and governor of a and was obliged to make peace with the Empire. But Kuprili's series of important cities and sanjaks. In 1656 he was appointed influence with the sultan remained unshaken, and five years later governor of Tripoli; but before he had set out to his new post Crete fell to his arms (1669). The next war in which he was called he was nominated to the grand vizierate at the instance of power-upon to take part was with Poland, in defence of the Cossacks, ful friends. He accepted office only on condition of being who had appealed to Turkey for protection. At first successful, allowed a free hand. He signalized his accession to power by Kuprili was defeated by the Poles under John Sobieski at Khotin suppressing an émeute of orthodox Mussulman fanatics in and Lemberg; the Turks, however, continued to hold their own, Constantinople (Sept. 22), and by putting to death certain and finally in October 1676 consented to honourable terms of favourites of the powerful Valide Sultana, by whose corruption peace by the treaty of Zurawno (October 16, 1676), retaining and intrigues the administration had been confused. A little Kaminiec, Podolia and the greater part of the Ukraine. Three later (January 1657) he suppressed with ruthless severity a rising days later Ahmed Kuprili died. His military capacity was far of the spahis; a certain Sheik Salim, leader of the fanatical mob inferior to his administrative qualities. He was a liberal pro- of the capital, was drowned in the Bosporus; and the Greek tector of art and literature, and the kindliness of his disposition Patriarch, who had written to the voivode of Wallachia to formed a marked contrast to the cruelty of his father; but he announce the approaching downfall of Islam, was hanged. This was given to intemperance, and the cause of his death was dropsy impartial severity was a foretaste of Kuprili's rule, which was brought on by alcoholic abuse. characterized throughout by a vigour which belied the expecta- 3. ZADE MUSTAFA KUPRILI (1637–1691), surnamed Fazil, son tions based upon his advanced years, and by a ruthlessness of Mahommed Kuprili, became grand vizier to Suleiman II. in which in time grew to be almost blood-lust. His justification 1689. Called to office after disaster had driven Turkey's forces was the new life which he breathed into the decaying bones of from Hungary and Poland and her fleets from the Mediterranean, the Ottoman empire. he began by ordering strict economy and reform in the taxation; Having cowed the disaffected elements in the state, he turned himself setting the example, which was widely followed, of his attention to foreign enemies. The victory of the Venetians voluntary contributions for the army, which with the navy he off Chios (May 2, 1657) was a severe blow to the Turkish sea- reorganized as quickly as he could. His wisdom is shown by power, which Kuprili set himself energetically to repair. A the prudent measures which he took by enacting the Nizam-i- second battle, fought in the Dardanelles (July 17-19), ended by jedid, or new regulations for the improvement of the condition a lucky shot blowing up the Venetian flag-ship; the losses of the of the Christian rayas, and for affording them security for life Ottoman fleet were repaired, and in the middle of August and property; a conciliatory attitude which at once bore fruit Kuprili appeared off Tenedos, which was captured on the 31st in Greece, where the people abandoned the Venetian cause and and reincorporated permanently in the Turkish empire. Thus the returned to their allegiance to the Porte. He met his death at Ottoman prestige was restored at sea, while Kuprili's ruthless the battle of Salankamen in 1691, when the total defeat of the enforcement of discipline in the army and suppression of revolts, Turks by the Austrians under Prince Louis of Baden led to their whether in Europe or Asia, restored it also on land. It was, expulsion from Hungary. however, due to his haughty and violent temper that the tradi- 4. HUSSEIN KUPRILI (surnamed AMUJA-ZADE) was the son tional friendly relations between Turkey and France were broken. of Hassan, a yo er brother of Mahommed Kuprili. After The French ambassador, de la Haye, had delayed bringing him occupying various important posts he became grand vizier in the customary gifts, with the idea that he would, like his prede-1697, and owing to his ability and energy the Turks were able cessors, speedily give place to a new grand vizier; Kuprili was to drive the Austrians back over the Save, and Turkish fleets bitterly offended, and, on pretext of an abuse of the immunities were sent into the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The efforts of diplomatic correspondence, bastinadoed the ambassador's of European diplomacy succeeded in inducing Austria and son and cast him and the ambassador himself into prison. A Turkey to come to terms by the treaty of Carlowitz, whereby special envoy, sent by Louis XIV., to make inquiries and demand Turkey was shorn of her chief conquests (1699). After this event reparation, was treated with studied insult; and the result was Hussein Kuprili, surnamed “the Wise," devoted himself to the that Mazarin abandoned the Turkish alliance and threw the suppression of the revolts which had broken out in Arabia, power of France on to the side of Venice, openly assisting the Egypt and the Crimea, to the reduction of the Janissaries, and Venetians in the defence of Crete. to the institution of administrative and financial reform. Un- Kuprili's restless energy continued to the last, exhibiting itself fortunately the intrigues against him drove him from office in on one side in wholesale executions, on the other in vast building 1702, and soon afterwards he died. operations. By his orders castles were built at the mouth of 5. Numan KUPRILI, son of Mustafa Fazil, became grand vizier the Don and on the bank of the Dnieper, outworks against the in 1710. The expectations formed of him were not fulfilled, as ever-aggressive Tatars, as well as on either shore of the Dar- although he was tolerant, wise and just like his father, he in- danelles. His last activity as a statesman was to spur the sultan judiciously sought to take upon himself all the details of adminis- on to press the war against Hungary. He died on the 31st of tration, a task which proved to be beyond his powers. He October 1661. The advice which, on his death-bed, he is said failed to introduce order into the administration and was to have given to the sultan is characteristic of his Machiavellian dismissed from office in less than fourteen months after his statecraft. This was: never to pay attention to the advice of l appointment. KURAKIN—KŪRDISTĀN 949 6. ABDULLAH KUPRILI, a son of Mustafa Fazil Kuprili, was of Jebel Sinjar, where they purchase right of pasturage from the appointed Kaimmakam or locum tenens of the grand vizier in Shammar Arabs. Each tribe has its own pasture-grounds, and 1703. He commanded the Persian expedition in 1723 and trespass by other tribes is a fertile source of quarrel. During captured Tabriz in 1725, resigning his office in 1726. In 1735 the periodical migrations Moslem and Christian alike suffer from he again commanded against the Persians, but fell at the disas- the predatory instincts of the Kurd, and disturbances are trous battle of Bagaverd, thus emulating his father's heroic death frequent in the districts traversed. In Turkey the sedentary at Selankamen. Kurds pay taxes; but the nomads only pay the sheep tax, which KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH, PRINCE (1676–1727), Russian is collected as they cross the Tigris on their way to their summer diplomatist, was the brother-in-law of Peter the Great, their pastures. wives being sisters. He was one of the earliest of Peter's pupils. Character.—The Kürd delights in the bracing, air and un- In 1697 he was sent to Italy to learn navigation. His long and restricted liberty of the mountains. He is rarely a muleteer or honourable diplomatic career began in 1707, when he was sent camel-man, and does not take kindly to handicrafts. The Kūrds to Rome to induce the pope not to recognize Charles XII.'s generally bear a very indifferent reputation, a worse reputation candidate, Stanislaus Leszczynski, as king of Poland. From perhaps, than they really deserve. Being aliens to the Turks 1708 to 1712 he represented Russia at London, Hanover, and in language and to the Persians in religion, they are everywhere the Hague successively, and, in 1713, was the principal Russian treated with mistrust, and live as it were in a state of chronic plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Utrecht. From 1716 warſare with the powers that be. Such a condition is not of to 1722 he held the post of ambassador at Paris, and when, in course favourable to the development of the better qualities of 1724, Peter set forth on his Persian campaign, Kurakin was human nature. The Kūrds are thus wild and lawless; they are appointed the supervisor of all the Russian ambassadors ac- much given to brigandage; they oppress and frequently maltreat credited to the various European courts. “The father of Russian the Christian populations with whom they are brought in contact, diplomacy," as he has justly been called, was remarkable -these populations being the Armenians in Diarbekr, Erzerum throughout his career for infinite tact and insight, and a wonder- and Van, the Jacobites and Syrians in the Jebel-Tür, and the fully correct appreciation of men and events. He was most Nestorians and Chaldaeans in the Hakkāri country. useful to Russia perhaps when the Great Northern war (see Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of the Kurdish Sweden, History) was drawing to a close. Notably he prevented chief is pride of ancestry. This feeling is in many cases exagger- Great Britain from declaring war against Peter's close ally, ated, for in reality the present tribal organization does not date Denmark, at the crisis of the struggle. Kurakin was one of the from any great antiquity. In the list indeed of eighteen principal best-educated Russians of his day, and his autobiography, tribes of the nation which was drawn up by the Arabian historian carried down to 1709, is an historical document of the first im- Masudi, in the roth century, only two or three names are to be portance. He intended to write a history of his own times with recognized at the present day. A 14th-century list, however, Peter the Great as the central figure, but got no further than translated by Quatremère, presents a great number of identical the summary, entitled History of Tsar Peler Aleksievich and the names, and there seems no reason to doubt that certain Kürdish People Nearest lo Him (1682–1694) (Rus.). families can trace their descent from the Omayyad caliphs, while See Archives of Prince A. Th. Kurakin (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1899); | only in recent years the Babān chief of Suleimania, representing A. Brückner, A Russian Tourist in Western Europe in the beginning the old Sohrans, and the Ardelān chief of Sinna, representing of the XVIIIth Century (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892). (R. N. B.) an elder branch of the Gurāns, each claimed an ancestry of at KURBASH, or KOURBASH (from the Arabic qurbash, a whip; least five hundred years. There was up to a recent period no Turkish qirbach; and French courbache), a whip or strap about more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the east a yard in length, made of the hide of the hippopotamus or than the court of one of these great Kürdish chiefs, where, like rhinoceros. It is an instrument of punishment and torture used another Saladin, the bey ruled in partriarchal state, surrounded in various Mahommedan countries, especially in the Turkish by an hereditary nobility, regarded by his clansmen with empire. “Government by kurbash" denotes the oppression reverence and affection, and attended by a bodyguard of young of a people by the constant abuse of the kurbash to maintain Kürdish warriors, clad in chain armour, with flaunting silken authority, to collect taxes, or to pervert justice. The use of the scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance and sword as in the time of the kurbash for such purposes, once common in Egypt, has been crusades. abolished by the British authorities. Though ignorant and unsophisticated the Kūrd is not wanting KÜRDISTĀN, in its wider sense, the “ country of the Kūrds” in natural intelligence. In recent years educated Kūrds have (Koords), including that part of Mount Taurus which buttresses held high office under the sultan, including that of grand vizier, the Armenian table-land (see ARMENIA), and is intersected by the have assisted in translating the Bible into Turkish, and in editing Batman Su, the Bohtan Su, and other tributaries of the Tigris; a newspaper. The men are lithe, active and strong, but rarely and the wild mountain district, watered by the Great and Little of unusual stature. The women do not veil, and are allowed Zab, which marks the western termination of the great Iranian 1 See Notices et Extraits des MSS., xiii. 305. Of the tribes enumer- plateau. ated in this work of the 14th century who still retain a leading place Population. The total Kürd population probably exceeds two among the Kūrds, the following names may be quoted: Guranieh and a half millions, namely, Turkish Kūrds 1,650,000, Persian of Dartang, modern Gurans; Zengench, in Hamadan hills, now in 800,000, Russian 50,000, but there are no trustworthy statistics. Kermānshāh; Hasnani of Kerkuk and Arbil, now in the Dersim The great mass of the population has its home in Kürdistān. tradition; Soliriehºof Shekelabad and Tel-Haftūn, modern Sohrān, mountains, having originally come from Khorāsān according to But Kurds are scattered irregularly over the country from the from whom descend the Babān of Suleimanich; Zerzari of Hinjarin river Sakaria on the west to Lake Urmia on the east, and from mountains, modern Zerzas of Ushnu (cuneiform pillars of Kel-i-shin Kars on the north to Jebel Sinjar on the south. There is also and Sidek noticed by author); Julamerkieh, modern Julamerik, said an isolated settlement in Khorasan. The tribes, ashiret, into to be descended from the caliph Merwān-ibn-Fakam; Hakkarieh, Hakkāri inhabiting Zuzan of Arab geography; Bokhtieh, modern which the Kūrds, are divided, resemble in some respects the Bohtān. The Rowadi, to whom Saladin belonged, are probably Highland clans of Scotland. Very few of them number more modern Rawendi, as they held the fortress of Arbil (Arbela). Some than 10,000 souls, and the average is about 3000. The sedentary twenty other names are mentioned, but the orthography is so and pastoral Kurds, Yerli, who live in villages in winter and doubtful that it is useless to try to identify them. The Sheref-nama, a history of the Kurds dating from the 16th encamp on their own pasture-grounds in summer, form an in-century, tells us that " towards the close of the reign of the Jen- creasing majority of the population. The nomad Kūrds, Kocher, ghizians, a man named Baba Ardilān, a descendant of the governors who always dwell in tenis, are the wealthiest and most inde of Diarbekr, and related to the famous Ahmed-ibn-Merwān, after pendent. They spend the summer on the mountains and high remaining for some time among the Gurāns, gained possession of the country of Shahrizor" and the Ardelān family history, with the plateaus, which they enter in May and leave in October; and pass gradual extension of their power over Persian Kürdistān, is then the winter on the banks of the Tigris and on the great plain north | traced down to the Saffavid period. 950 KÜRDISTĀN great freedom. The Kurds as a race are proud, faithful and Kūrdish literature. Many of the popular Persian poets have been hospitable, and have rude but strict feelings of honour. They religious mysteries of the Ali-Illāhis in the hands of the Dersimlis to translated into Kurdish, and there are also books relating to the are, however, much under the influence of dervishes, and when the north and of the Gurāns of Kerinānshah to the south. The their fanaticism is aroused their habitual lawlessness is apt to New Testament in Kurdish was printed at Constantinople in 1857. degenerate into savage barbarity. They are not deficient in The Rev. Samuel Rhea published a grammar and vocabulary of the martial spirit, but have an innate dislike to the restraints of Hakkāri dialect in 1872. In 1879 there appeared, under the auspices of the imperial academy of St Petersburg a French-Kürdish military service. The country is rich in traditions and legends, dictionary compiled originally by Mons. Jaba, many years Russian and in lyric and in epic poems, which have been handed down consul at Erzerum, but completed by Ferdinand Justi by the help from earlier times and are recited in a weird melancholy tone. of a rich assortment of Kurdish tales and ballads, collected by Socin Anliquities.-Kürdistān abounds in antiquities of the most and Prym in Assyria. Religion. --The great body of the nation, in Persia as well as in varied and interesting character. But it has been very little Turkey, are Sunnis of the Shafi'ite sect, but in the recesses of the opened up to modern research. A series of rock-cut cuneiform Dersim to the north and of Zagros to the south there are large half- inscriptions extend from Malatia on the west to Miandoābpagan communities, who are called indifferently Ali-Illahi and (in Persia) on the east, and from the banks of the Aras on the Kizji!-bāsh, and who hold tenets of some obscurity, but of consider- north to Rowanduz on the south, which record the glories of Ali," they observe secret ceremonies and hold esoteric doctrines able interest. Outwardly professing to be Shi'ites or“ followers of a Turanian dynasty, who ruled the country of Nairi during which have probably descended to them from very early ages, and the 8th and 7th centuries, B.C., contemporaneously with the of which the essential condition is that there must always be upon the lower Assyrian empire. Intermingled with these are a few earth a visible manifestation of the Deity. While paying reverence to the supposed incarnations of ancient days, to Moses, David, genuine Assyrian inscriptions of an earlier date; and in one Christ, All and his tutor Salmān-ul-Farisi, and several of the Shi'ite instance, at Van, a later tablet of Xerxes brings the record down imams and saints, they have thus usually some recent local celebrity to the period of Ĝrecian history. The most ancient monuments at whose shrine they worship and make vows; and there is, moreover, of this class, however, are to be found at Holwān and in the in every community of Ali-Illahis some living personage, not neces- sarily ascetic, to whom, as representing the godhead, the superstitious neighbourhood, where the sculptures and inscriptions belong tribesmen pay almost idolatrous honours. °Among the Gurāns of the probably to the Guti and Luli tribes, and date from the early south the shrine of Baba Yadgār, in a gorge of the hills above the Babylonian period. old city of Holwān, is thus regarded with a supreme veneration. In the northern Kürdish districts which represent the Similar institutions are also found in other parts of the mountains, which may be compared with the tenets of the Druses and Nosairis Arzanene, Intilene, Anzitene, Zabdicene, and Moxuene of the in Syria and the Ismailites in Persia. ancients, there are many interesting remains of Roman cities, History.— With regard to the origin of the Kūrds, it was for- e.g. at Arzen, Miyafarikin (anc. Martyropolis), Sisauronon, and the merly considered sufficient to describe them as the descendants ruins of Dunisir near Dara, which Sachau identified with the of the Carduchi, who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand Armenian capital of Tigranocerta. Of the Macedonian and through the mountains, but modern research traces them Parthian periods there are remains both sculptured and in- far beyond the period of the Greeks. At the dawn of history scribed at several points in Kürdistān; at Bisitun or Behistun the mountains overhanging Assyria were held by a people (q.v.), in a cave at Amadía, at the Mithraic temple of Kereftū, named Gütü, a title which signified “a warrior,” and which on the rocks at Sir Pūl-o-Zohab near the ruins of Holwān, was rendered in Assyrian by the synonym of Gardu or Kardu, and probably in some other localities, such as the Bālik country the precise term quoted by Strabó to explain the name of the between Lahijān and Koi-Sanjāk; but the most interesting Cardaces (Kápåakes). These Gütü were a Turanian tribe of site in all Kürdistān, perhaps in all western Asia, is the ruined such power as to be placed in the early cuneiform records on an fire temple of Pāi Kūli on the southern frontier of Suleimania. equality with the other nations of western Asia, that is, with Among the débris of this temple, which is scattered over a bare hillside, are to be found above one hundred slabs, inscribed of Babylonia; and during the whole period of the Assyrian the Syrians and Hittites, the Susians, Elamites, and Akkadians with Parthian and Pahlavi characters, the fragments of a wall which formerly supported the eastern face of the edifice, and empire they seem to have preserved a more or less independent bore a bilingual legend of great length, dating from the Sassanian political position. After the fall of Nineveh they coalesced with the Medes, and, in common with all the nations inhabiting period. There are also remarkable Sassanian remains in other the high plateaus of Asia Minor, Armenia and Persia, became parts of Kūrdistān—at Salmūs to the north, and at Kermān- shāh and Kasr-i-Shīrīn on the Turkish frontier to the south. gradually Aryanized, owing to the immigration at this period of history of tribes in overwhelming numbers which, from Language.- The Kurdish language, Kermānji, is an old Persian patois, intermixed to the north with Chaldaean words and to the whatever quarter they may have sprung, belonged certainly to south with a certain Turanian element which may not improbably the Aryan family. have come down from Babylonian times. Several peculiar dialects The Gülü or Kūrdu were reduced to subjection by Cyrus are spoken in secluded districts in the mountains, but the only before he descended upon Babylon, and furnished a contingent varieties which, from their extensive use, require to be specified are the Zaza and the Gurān. The Zaza is spoken throughout the of fighting, men to his successors, being thus mentioned under western portion of the Dersim country, and is said to be unintelligible the names of Saspirians and Alarodians in the muster roll of to the Kermānjī-speaking Kūrds. It is largely intermingled with the army of Xerxes which was preserved by Herodotus. Armenian, and may contain some trace of the old Cappadocian, but In later times they passed successively under the sway of is no doubt of the samne Aryan stock as the standard Kūrdish. The the Macedonians, the Parthians, and Sassanians, being especially Gurān dialect again, which is spoken throughout Ardelān and Kermānshāh! chiefly differs from the northern Kürdish in being befriended, if we may judge from tradition well entirely free from any Semitic intermixture. It is thus somewhat from the remains still existing in the country, by the Arsacian nearer to the Persian than the Kermānji dialect, but is essentially monarchs, who were probably of a cognate race. Gotarzes the same language. It is a mistake to suppose that there is no indeed, whose name may perhaps be translated “chief of 'The Gurān are mentioned in the Mesalik-el-Absārasthedcminant the Gūtā,” was traditionally believed to be the founder of the tribe in southern Kürdistān in the 14th century, occupying very much Gurāns, the principal tribe of southern Kürdistān, and his the same seats as at present, from the Hamadan frontier to Shah. rizor. Their name probably signifies merely the mountaineers, name and titles are still preserved in a Greek inscription at being derived from gur or giri, a mountain," which is also found 2" The Kalhûr tribe are traditionally descended from Gudarz- in Zagros, i.e. za-giri,." beyond the mountain," or Pusht-i-koh, as ibn-Gio, whose son Roham was sent by Bahman Keiāni to destroy the name is translated in Persian. They are a fine, active and hardy Jerusalem and bring the Jews into captivity; This Roham is the race, individually brave, and make excellent soldiers, though in individual usually called Bokht-i-nasser (Nebuchadrezzar) and he appearance very inferior to the tribal Kūrds of the rorthern dis- ultimately. succeeded to the throne. The neighbouring country has tricts. These latter indeed delight in gay colours, while the Gurāns ever since remained in the hands of his descendants, who are called dress in the most homely costume, wearing coarse blue cotton Gurāns" (Sheref-Nama, Persian MS.). The same popular tradition vests, with felt caps and coats. In a great part of Kürdistān the still exists in the country, and INTAPZHO reonOOPO2 is found name Gurān has become synonymous with an agricultural peasantry, on the rock at Behistun, showing that Gudarz-ibn-Gio was really as opposed to the migratory shepherds. an historic personage. See Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. ix. 114. as as 44 . KŪRDISTĀN-KURILES 951 Behistun near the Kurdish capital of Kermanshāh. Under | Binder, Au Kürdistan (Paris, 1887); Naumann, Vom Goldnen Horn the caliphs of Bagdad the Kūrds were always giving trouble to Asia Minor, &c. (1895): Lerch, Forschungen über die Kurden zu den Quellen des Euphrat (Munich, 1893); Murray, Handbook in one quarter or another. In A.D. 838, and again in 905, (St Petersburg, 1857-58); Jaba, Dict. Kurde-Français (St Peters- there were formidable insurrections in northern Kürdistān; burg, 1879): Justi, Kurdische Grammatik (1880); Prym and the amir, Adod-addaula, was obliged to lead the forces of the Socin, Kurdische Sammlungen (1890); Makas, Kurdische Studien caliphate against the southern Kūrds, capturing the famous Armenia (1901); A.' v. Williams Jackson, Persia, Past and Present (1901); Earl Percy, Highlands of Asiatic Turkey (1901); Lynch, fortress of Sermāj, of which the ruins are to be seen at the (1906). (C. W. W.; H. C. R.) present day near Behistun, and reducing the province of Shahrizor with its capital city now marked by the great mound KÜRDISTĀN, in the narrower sense, a province of Persia, of Yassin Teppeh. The most flourishing period of Kurdish situated in the billy districts between Azerbaijan and Kerman- power was probably during the 12th century of our era, when shah, and extending to the Turkish frontier on the W., and the great Saladin, who belonged to the Rawendi branch of bounded on the E. by Gerrus and Hamadan. In proportion the Hadabāni tribe, founded the Ayyubite dynasty of Syria, to its size and population it pays a very small yearly revenue and Kürdish chiefships were established, not only to the east-only about £14,000~due to the fact that a great part of the and west of the Kürdistān mountains, but as far as Khorāsān population consists of wild and disorderly nomad Kūrds. Some upon one side and Egypt and Yemen on the other. During of these nomads pass their winters in Turkish territory, and the Mongol and Tatar domination of western Asia the Kūrds have their summer pasture-grounds in the highlands of Kūrd- in the mountains remained for the most part passive, yielding istãn. This adds much to the difficulty of collecting taxation. a reluctant obedience to the provincial governors of the plains. The province is divided into sixteen districts, and its eastern When Sultan Selim I., after defeating Shah Ismail, 1514, part, in which the capital is situated, is known as Ardelan. annexed Armenia and Kürdistān, he entrusted the organiza- The capital is Senendij, usually known as Sinna (not Sihna, tion of the conquered territories to Idris, the historian, who or Sahna, as some writers have it), situated 60 m. N.W. of was a Kürd of Bitlis. Idris found Kürdistān bristling with Hamadan, in 35° 15' N., 47° 18' E., at an elevation of 5300 ft. castles, held by hereditary tribal chiefs of Kürd, Arab, and The city has a population of about 35,000 and manufactures Armenian descent, who were practically independent, and great quantities of carpets and felts for the supply of the province passed their time in tribal warfare or in raiding the agricultural and for export. Some of the carpets are very fine and expen- population. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts, sive, rugs 2 yards by icosting £15 to £20. Post and telegraph and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of offices have been established since 1879. heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also KURGAN, a town (founded 1553) of West Siberia, in the resettled the rich pastoral country between Erzerūm and government of Tobolsk, on the Siberian railway, 160 m. E. of Erivan, which had lain waste since the passage of Timūr, with Chelyabinsk, and on the left bank of the Tobol, in a wealthy Kūrds from the Hakkiari and Bohtan districts. The system agricultural district. Pop. (1897), 10,579. Owing to its of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged position at the terminus of steam navigation up the river until the close of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29. But Tobol, it has become second only to Tyumen as a commercial the Kūrds, owing to the remoteness of their country from the centre. It has a public library and a botanic garden. There capital and the decline of Turkey, had greatly increased in is a large trade in cattle with Petropavlovsk, and considerable influence and power, and had spread westwards over the country export of grain, tallow, meat, hides, butter, game and fish, as far as Angora. After the war the Kūrds attempted to free there being three large fairs in the year. In the vicinity are themselves from Turkish control, and in 1834 it became necessary a great number of prehistoric kurgans or burial-mounds. to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha. KURIA MURIA ISLANDS, a group of five islands in the The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of Arabian Sea, close under the coast of Arabia, belonging to the Kūrd beys were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising Britain and forming a dependency of Aden. They are lofty under Bedr Khān Bey in 1843 was firmly repressed, and after and rocky, and have a total area of 28 sq. m., that of the largest, the Crimean War the Turks strengthened their hold on the Hallania, being 22 sq. m. They are identified with the ancient country. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 was followed Insulac Zenobii, and were ceded by the sultan of Muscat to by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah, 1880–81, to found an Britain in 1854 for the purposes of a cable station. They are independent Kūrd principality under the protection of Turkey. inhabited by a few families of Arabs, who however speak a The attempt, at first encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the dialect differing considerably from the ordinary Arabic: The projected creation of an Armenian state under the suzerainty islands yield some guano. of Russia (sce ARMENIA), collapsed after Obaidullah's raid into KURILES (Jap. Chishima, “thousand islands "), a chain of Persia, when various circumstances led the central government small islands belonging to Japan, stretching in a north-easterly to reassert its supreme authority. Until the Russo-Turkish direction from Nemuro Bay, on the extreme east of the island War of 1828–29 there had been little hostile feeling between of Yezo, to Chishima-kaikyo (Kuriles Strait), which separates the Kūrds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877-1878 the them from the southernmost point of Kamchatka. They extend mountaineers of both races had got on fairly well together. from 44° 45' to 50° 56' N. and from 145° 25' to 156° 32' E. Their Both suffered from Turkey, both dreaded Russia. But the coasts measure 1496 m.; their area is 0159 sq. m.; their total national movement amongst the Armenians, and its encourage- number is 32, and the names of the eight principal islands, ment by Russia after the last war, gradually aroused race counting from the south, are Kunashiri, Shikotan, Etoroſu hatred and fanaticism. In 1891 the activity of the Armenian (generally called Etorop, and known formerly to Europe as Staten Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position of Island), Urup, Simusir, Onnekotan, Paramoshiri (Paramusir) the Kūrds by raising a body of Kūrdish irregular cavalry, and Shumshiri. From Noshapzaki (Notsu-no-sake or Notsu which was well armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan. Cape), the most easterly point of Nemuro province, to Tomari, The opportunities thus offered for plunder and the grati- the most westerly point in Kunashiri, the distance is 73 m., and fication of race hatred brought out the worst qualities of the the Kuriles Strait separating Shumshiri from Kamchatka is about Kūrds. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, and were the same width. The name Kurile is derived from the soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at Sasūn and Russian kurit (to smoke), in allusion to the active volcanic other places, 1894-96, in which the Kurds took an active part. character of the group. The dense fogs that envelop these Authorities.-Rich, Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan islands, and the violence of the currents in their vicinity, have (1836); Wagner, Reise nach Persien und dem Lande der Kurden greatly hindered exploration, so that little is known of their (Leipzig, 1852); Consul Taylor in R. G. S. Journal (1865); Millingen, physiography. They lie entangled in a vast net of sea-weed; Wild Life among the Koords (1870); Von Luschan, “ Die Wander- volker Kleinasiens,” in Vn. d. G. für Anthropologie (Berlin, 1886); are the resort of innumerable birds, and used to be largely Clayton. “ The Mountains of Kürdistān," in Alpine Journal (1887); 1 frequented by seals and sea-otters, which, however, have beep 952 KURISCHES HAFF- as -KUROPATKIN almost completely driven away by unregulated hunting. Near the miles. The latter is fringed throughout its whole length by a south-eastern coast of Kunashiri stands a mountain called Rausu- chain of dunes, which rise in places to a height of nearly 200 ſt. nobori (3005 ft. high), round whose base sulphur bubbles up in and threaten, unless checked, to be pressed farther inland and silt large quantities, and hot springs as well as a hot stream are found. up the whole Haff. On the west coast of the same island is a boiling lake, called See Berendt, Geologie des Kurischen Haffs (Königsberg, 1869); Ponto, which deposits on its bed and round its shores black sand, Sommer, Das Kurische Haff (Danzig. 1889); A. Bezzenberger, consisting almost entirely of pure sulphur. This island has Die Kurische Nehrung und ihre Bewohner (Stuttgart, 1889); and several lofty peaks; Ponnobori-yama near the eastcoast, and Lindner, Die, Preussische Wüste einst und jetzt, Bilder von der Chachanobori and Rurindake in the north. Chachanobori Kurischen Nehrung (Osterwieck, 1898). (about 7382 ft.) is described by Messrs Chamberlain and Mason KURNOOL, or KARNUL, a town and district of British India, ‘a cone within a cone, the inner and higher of the two being— in the Madras presidency. The town is built on a rocky soil at so the natives say-surrounded by a lake.” The island has the junction of the Hindri and Tungabhadra rivers 33 m. from a extensive forests of conifers with an undergrowth of ferns and railway station. The old Hindu fort was levelled in 1865, with flowering plants, and bears are numerous. The chief port of the exception of one of the gates, which was preserved as a Kunashiri is Tomari, on the south coast. The island of Shikotan specimen of ancient architecture. Cotton cloth and carpets are is remarkable for the growth of a species of bamboo (called manufactured. Pop. (1901), 25,376, of whom halfare Mussulmans. Shikotan-chiku), having dark brown spots on the cane. Etorofu The DISTRICT OF KURNOOL has an area of 7578 sq. m., pop. has a coast-line broken by deep bays, of which the principal are (1901), 872,055, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. Two Naibo-wan, Rubetsu-wan and Bettobuwan on the northern shore long mountain ranges, the Nallamalais and the Yellamalais, and Shitokap-wan on the southern. It is covered almost com- extend in parallel lines, 'north and south, through its centre. pletely with dense forest, and has a numberof streams abounding The principal heights of the Nallamalai range are Biranikonda with salmon. Shana, the chief port, is in Rubetsu Bay. This (3149 ft.), Gundlabrahmeswaram (3055 ft.), and Durugapukonda island, the principal of the group, is divided into four provinces (3086 ſt.). The Yellamalai is a low range, generally flat-topped for administrative purposes, namely, Etorofu, Furubetsu, Shana with scarped sides; the highest point is about 2000 ft. Several and Shibetoro. Its mountains are Atosha-nobori (4035 ft.) | low ridges run parallel to the Nallamalais, broken here and there in Etorofu; Chiripnupari (5009 ft.) in Shana; and Mokoro-nobori by gorges, through which mountain streams take their course. (3930 ft.) and Atuiyadake (3932 ft.) in Shibetoro. Among the Several of these gaps were dammed across under native rule, to other islands three only call for noticeon account of their altitudes, form tanks for purposes of irrigation. The principal rivers are namely, Ketoi-jima, Rashua-jima and Matua-jima, which rise to the Tungabhadra and Kistna, which bound the district on the heights of 3944, 3304 and 5240 ft. respectively. north. When in flood, the Tungabhadra averages 900 yards Population.-Not much is known about the aborigines. By broad and 15 ſt. deep. The Kistna here flows chiefly through some authorities Ainu colonists are supposed to have been the first uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long smooth reaches, with settlers, and to have arrived there via Yezo; by others, the earliest intervening shingly rapids. The Bhavanasi rises on the Nalla- comers are believed to have been a hyperborean tribe travelling malais, and falls into the Kistna at Sungameswaram, a place of southwards by way of Kamchatka. The islands themselves pilgrimage. During the 18th century Kurnool formed the have not been sufficiently explored to determine whether they jagir of a semi-independent Pathan Nawab, whose descendant furnish any ethnological evidences. The present population was dispossessed by the British government for treason in 1838. aggregates about 4400, or 0.7 per sq. m., of whom about 600 are The principal crops are millets, cotton, oil-seeds, and rice, with a Ainu (q.v.). There is little disposition to emigrate thither from little indigo and tobacco. Kurnool suffered very severely from the Japan proper, the number of settlers being less than 100 annually. famine of 1876-1877, and to a slight extent in 1896–1897. It is History.—The Kurile Islands were discovered in 1634 by the the chief scene of the operations of the Madras Irrigation Com- Dutch navigator Martin de Vries. The three southern islands, pany taken over by government in 1882. The canal, which starts Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Shikotan, are believed to have belonged from the Tungabhadra river near Kurnool town, was constructed to Japan from a remote date, but at the beginning of the 18th at a total cost of two millions sterling, but has not been a financial century the Russians, having conquered Kamchatka, found their success. A more successful work is the Cumbum tank, formed way to the northern part of the Kuriles in pursuit of fur-bearing under native rule by damming a gorge of the Gundlakamma animals, with which the islands then abounded. Gradually these river. Apart from the weaving of coarse cotton cloth, the chief encroachments were pushed farther south, simultaneously with industrial establishments are cotton presses, indigo vats, and aggressions imperilling the Japanese settlements in the southern saltpetre refineries. The district is served by the Southern half of Sakhalin. Japan's occupation was far from effective in Mahratta railway. either region, and in 1875 she was not unwilling to conclude a KUROKI, ITEI, COUNT (1844– ), Japanese general, was convention by which she agreed to withdraw altogether from born in Satsuma. He distinguished himself in the Chino- Sakhalin provided that Russia withdrew from the Kuriles. Japanese War of 1894-95. He commanded the I. Army in the An officer of the Japanese navy, Lieut. Gunji, left Tokyo Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), when he won the opening with about forty comrades in 1892, his intention being to form battle of the war at the Yalu river, and afterwards advanced a settlement on Shumshiri, the most northerly of the Kurile through the mountains and took part with the other armies in Islands. They embarked in open boats, and for that reason, as the battles of Liao-Yang, Shaho and Mukden (see Russo- well as because they were going to constitute themselves their JAPANESE WAR). He was created baron for his services in the country's extreme outpost, the enterprise attracted public former war, and count for his services in the latter. enthusiasm. After a long struggle the immigrants became fairly KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH (1848– ), Rus. prosperous. sian general, was born in 1848 and entered the army in 1864. Sce Capt. H. J. Snow, Notes on the Kurile Islands (London, 1896). From 1872 to 1874 he studied at the Nicholas staff college, after KURISCHES HAFF, a lagoon of Germany, on the Baltic coast which he spent a short time with the French troops in Algiers. of East Prussia, stretching from Labiau to Memel, a distance of In 1875 he was employed in diplomatic work in Kashgaria and 60 m., has an area of nearly 680 sq. m. It is mostly shallow and in 1876 he took part in military operations in Turkistan, Kokan only close to Memel attains a depth of 23 ft. It is thus unnavig- and Samerkand. In the warof 1877–78 against Turkey he earned able except for small coasting and fishing boats, and sea-going a great reputation as chief of staff to the younger Skobelev, and vessels proceed through the Memeler Tief (Memel Deep), which after the war he wrote a detailed and critical history of the connects the Baltic with Memel and has a depth of 19 ſt. and a operations which is still regarded as the classical work on the breadth of 800 to 1900 ft. The Kurisches Haff is separated subject and is available for other nations in the German transla- from the Baltic by a long spit, or tongue of land, the so-called tion by Major Krahmer. After the war he served again on the Kurische Nehrung, 72 m. in length and with a breadth of 1 to 2 south-eastern borders in command of the Turkestan Rifle Brigade, KURO SIWO- 953 -KURSK a and in 1881 he won further fame by a march of 500 miles from British troops traversed the country, and the tribesmen were Tashkent to Geok-Tépē, taking part in the storming of the latter severely punished. In Lord Curzon's reorganization of the place. In 1882 he was promoted major-general, at the early age frontier in 1900-1901, the British troops were withdrawn from of 34, and he henceforth was regarded by the army as the natural the forts in the Kurram valley, and were replaced by the successor of Skobelev. In 1890 he was promoted lieutenant- Kurram militia, reorganized in two battalions, and chiefly general, and thirteen years later, having acquired in peace and drawn from the Turi tribe. war the reputation of being one of the foremost soldiers in Europe, KURSEONG, or KARSIANG, a sanatorium of northern India, in he quitted the post of minister of war which he then held and took the Darjeeling district of Bengal, 20 m. S. of Darjeeling and command of the Russian army then gathering in Manchuria for 4860 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 4469. It has a station on the contest with Japan. His ill-success in the great war of 1904-5, the mountain railway, and is a centre of the tea trade. It also astonishing as it seemed at the time, was largely attributable to contains boys' and girls' schools for Europeans and Eurasians. his subjection to the superior command of Admiral Alexeiev, KURSK, a government of middle Russia, bounded N. by the the tsar's viceroy in the Far East, and to internal friction amongst government of Orel, E. by that of Voronezh, S. by Kharkov and the generals, though in his history of the war (Eng. trans., 1909) W. by Chernigov. Area, 17,932 sq. m. It belongs to the central he frankly admitted his own mistakes and paid the highest plateau of middle Russia, of which it mostly occupies the tribute to the gallantry of the troops who had been committed southern slope, the highest parts being in Orel and Kaluga, to battle under conditions unfavourable to success. After the to the north of Kursk. Its surface is 700 to 1100 ft. high, defeat of Mukden and the retirement of the whole army to Tieling deeply trenched by ravines, and consequently assumes a hilly he resigned the command to General Linievich, taking the latter aspect when viewed from the river valleys. Cretaceous and officer's place at the head of one of the three armies in Manchuria. Eocene rocks prevail, and chalk, iron-stone, potters' clay and (See Russo-JAPANESE WAR.) phosphates are among the economic minerals. No fewer than KURO SIWO, or KURO SHIO (literally blue salt), a stream four hundred streams are counted within its borders, but none current in the Pacific Ocean, easily distinguishable by the of them is of any service as waterways. A layer of fertile loess warm temperature and blue colour of its waters, flowing north-covers the whole surface, and Kursk belongs almost entirely to eastwards along the east coast of Japan, and separated from it by the black-earth region. The flora is distinct from that of the a strip of cold water. The current persists as a stream to about governments to the north, not only on account of the black-earth 40 N., between the meridians of 150° E. and 160° E., when it fora which enters into its composition, but also of the plants of merges in the general easterly drift of the North Pacific. south-western Russia which belong to it, a characteristic which The Kuro Siwo is the analogue of the Gulf Stream in the is accentuated in the southern portion of the government. The Atlantic. climate is milder than that of middle Russia generally, and winds KURRAM, a river and district on the Kohat border of the from the south-east and the south-west prevail in winter. The North-West Frontier province of India. The Kurram river average temperatures are for the year 42° F., for January 14° F. drains the southern flanks of the Safed Koh, enters the plains and for July 67°F. The very interesting magnetic phenomenon, a few miles above Bannu, and joins the Indus near Isa-Khel after known as the Byelgorod anomaly, covering an oval area 20 m. a course of more than 200 miles. The district has an area of long and 12 m.wide, has been studied near the town of this name. 1278 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 54,257. It lies between the Miranzai The population, 1,893,597 in 1862, was 2,391,091 in 1897, of Valley and the Afghan border, and is inhabited by the Turis, a whom 1,208,488 were women and 199,676 lived in towns. The tribe of Turki origin who are supposed to have subjugated the estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,797,000. It is thoroughly Russian Bangash Pathans five hundred years ago. It is highly irrigated,(76% Great Russians and 24% Little Russians), and 94 % well peopled, and crowded with small fortified villages, orchards are peasants who own over 59% of the land, and live and groves, to which a fine background is afforded by the dark mostly in large villages. Owing to the rapid increase of the pine forests and alpine snows of the Safed Koh. The beauty peasantry and the small size of the allotments given at the eman- and climate of the valley attracted some of the Mogul emperors of cipation of the serfs in 1861, emigration, chiefly to Siberia, is on Delhi, and the remains exist of a garden planted by Shah Jahan. the increase, while 80,000 to 100,000 men leave home every Formerly the Kurram valley was under the government of Kabul, summer to work in the neighbouring governments. Three- and every five or six years a military expedition was sent to quarters of the available land is under crops, chiefly rye, other collect the revenue, the soldiers living meanwhile at free quarters crops being whcat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet, potatoes, on the people. It was not until about 1848 that the Turis were sugar-beets, hemp, flax, sunflowers and fruits. Grain is exported brought directly under the control of Kabul, when a governor was in considerable quantities. Bees are commonly kept, as also appointed, who established himself in Kurram. The Turis, are large numbers of livestock. Factories (steam flour-mills, being Shiah Mahommedans, never liked the Afghan rule. During sugar-factories, distilleries, wool-washing, tobacco factories) the second Afghan War, when Sir Frederick Roberts advanced by give occupation to about 23,000 workers. Domestic and petty way of the Kurram valley and the Peiwar Kotal to Kabul, the trades are on the increase in the villages, and new ones are Turis lent him'èvery assistance in their power, and in consequence being introduced, the chief products being boots, ikons (sacred their independence was granted them in 1880. The administra- images) and shrines, toys, caps, vehicles, baskets, and pottery. tion of the Kurram valley was finally undertaken by the British About 17 m. from the chief town is held the Korennaya fair, government, at the request of the Turis themselves, in 1890. formerly the greatest in South Russia, and still with an annual Technically it ranks, not as a British district, but as an agency or trade valued at £900,000. The Kursk district contains more than administered area. Two expeditions in the Kurram valley also sixty old town sites; and barrows cr burial mounds (kurgans) are require mention: (1) The Kurram expedition of 1856 under extremely abundant. Notwithstanding the active efforts of the Brigadier Chamberlain. The Turis on the first annexation of the local councils (zemstvos), less than 10% of the population read Kohat district by the British had given much trouble. They had and write. The government is crossed from north to south and repeatedly leagued with other tribes to harry the Miranzai valley, from west to south by two main lines of railway. The trade in harbouring fugitives, encouraging resistance, and frequently grain, hemp, hemp-seed oil, sheepskins, hides, tallow, felt goods, attacking Bangash and Khattak villages in the Kohat district. wax, honey and leather goods is very brisk. There are fifteen Accordingly in 1856 a British force of 4896 troops traversed districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, their country, and the tribe entered into engagements for future are Kursk (9.0.) Byelgorod (21,850), Dmitriev (7315), Fatezh good conduct. (2) The Kohat-Kurram expedition of 1897 under (4959), Graivoron (7669), Korocha (14,405), Lgov (5376), Novyi Colonel W. Hill During the frontier risings of 1897 the in-Oskol (2762), Oboyan (11872), Putivl 68965), Rylsk (11,415), habitants of the Kurram valley, chiefly the Massozai section of the Staryi Oskol (16,662), Shchigry (3329), Suja (12,856) and Tim Orakzais, were infected by the general excitement, and attacked (7380). There are more than twenty villages which have from the British camp at Sadda and other posts. A force of 14,230 5000 to 12,000 inhabitants each. (P. A K.; J. T. BE.) 954 KURSK-KUSHK KURSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the prominent teeth and thick lips. Their villages are called mottas, same name, at the junction of the railways from Moscow, Kiev groups of four or five huts, built in mountain glens or forests, and Kharkov, 330 m. S.S.W. from Moscow, Pop. (1897), 52,896. At the 1901 census the numbers were returned at 4083. It is built on two hills (750 ft.), the slopes of which are planted See James W. Breeks, An Account of Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris with orchards. The environs all round are well wooded and the (1873); Dr John Shortt, Hill Ranges of Southern India, pt. i. 47-53; woods are famous for their nightingales. Among the public Rev. F. Metz, Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills (Mangalore, buildings the more noticeable are a monastery with an image of 1864). the Virgin, greatly venerated since 1295; the Orthodox Greek KURUNEGALA, the chief town in the north-western province cathedral (18th century); and the episcopal palace, Kursk being of Ceylon. Pop. of the town, 6483; of the district, 249,429. It a bishopric of the national church. It is essentially a provincial was the residence of the kings of Ceylon from A.D. 1319 to 1347, town, and is revered as the birthplace of Theodosius, one of the and is romantically situated under the shade of Adagalla (the most venerated of Russian saints. It has a public garden, and rock of the Tusked Elephant), which is 600 ft. high. It was in has become the seat of several societies (medical, musical, educa- 1902 the terminus of the Northern railway (59 m. from Colombo, tional and for sport). Its factories include steam flour-mills, which has since been extended 200 m. farther, to the northern- distilleries, tobacco-works, hemp-crushing mills, tanneries, soap- most coast of the Jaffna Peninsula. Kurunegala is the centre works and iron-works. It has a great yearly fair (Korennaya), of rice, coco-nut, tea, coffee and cocoa cultivation. and an active trade in cereals, linen, leather, fruit, horses, cattle, KURUNTWAD, or KURANDVAD, a native state of India, in hides, sheepskins, furs, down, bristles, wax, tallow and manu- the Deccan division of Bombay, forming part of the Southern factured goods. Mahratta jagirs. Originally created in 1772 by a grant from the Kursk was in existence in 1032. It was completely destroyed peshwa, the state was divided in 1811 into two parts, one of which, by the Mongols in 1240. The defence of the town against an called Shedbal, lapsed to the British government in 1857. In incursion of the Turkish Polovtsi (or Comans or Cumani) is 1855 Kuruntwad was further divided between a senior and a celebrated in The Triumph of Igor, an epic which forms one of the junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered among most valuable relics of early Russian literature. From 1586 to other native states and British districts. Area of the senior the close of the 18th century the citadel was a place of consider- branch, 185 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 42,474; revenue, £13,000. Area able strength; the remains are now comparatively few. of junior branch, 114 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 34,003; revenue, £9000. KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH (1809-1890), German Lutheran | The joint tribute is £640. The chiefs are Brahmans by caste, of theologian, was born at Montjoie near Aix la Chapelle on the the Patwardhan family. The town of Kurunt wad, in which 13th of December 1809, and was educated at Halle and Bonn. both branches have their residence, is on the right bank of the Abandoning the idea of a commercial career, he gave himself to Panchganga river near its junction with the Kistna. Pop. (1901), the study of theology and became religious instructor at the 10,451. gymnasium of Mitau in 1835, and ordinary professor of theology KURZ, HERMANN (1813–1873), German poet and novelist, (church history, 1850; exegesis, 1859) at Dorpat. He resigned was born at Reutlingen on the 30th of November 1813. Having his chair in 1870 and went to live at Marburg, where he died on studied at the theological seminary'at Maulbronn and at the the 26th of April 1890. Kurtz was a prolific writer, and many university of Tübingen, he was for a time assistant pastor at of his books, especially the Lehrbuch der heiligen Geschichte (1843), Ehningen. He then entered upon a literary career, and in 1863 became very popular. In the field of biblical criticism he wrote was appointed university librarian at Tübingen, where he died a Geschichte des Alten Bundes (1848-1855), Zur Theologie der on the oth of October 1873. Kurz is less known to fame by Psalmen (1865) and Erklärung des Briefs an die Hebräer (1869). his poems, Gedichte (1836) and Dichtungen (1839), than by his His chief work was done in church history, among his produc- historical novels, Schillers Heimaljahre (1843, 3rd ed., 1899) tions being Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte für Studierende and Der Sonnenwirt (1854, 2nd ed., 1862), and his excellent (1849), Abriss der Kirchengeschichte (1852) and Handbuch der translations from English, Italian and Spanish. He also allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte (1853-1856). Several of his books published a successful modern German version of Gottfried von have been translated into English. Strassburg's Tristan und Isolde (1844). His collected works KURUMAN, a town in the Bechuanaland division of Cape were published in ten volumes (Stuttgart, 1874), also in twelve Colony, 120 m. N.W. of Kimberley and 85 m. S.W. of Vryburg. volumes (Leipzig, 1904). It is a station of the London Missionary Society, founded in His daughter, Isolde Kurz, born on the 21st of December 1818, and from 1821 to 1870 was the scene of the labours 1853 at Stuttgart, takes a high place among contemporary lyric of Robert Moffat (q.v.) who here translated the Bible into the poets in Germany with her Gedichle (Stuttgart, 1888, 3rd ed. Bechuana tongue. In the middle period of the 19th century 1898) and Neue Gedichte (1903). Her short stories, Florentiner Kuruman was the rendezvous of all travellers going north | Novellen (1890, 2nd ed. 1893), Phantasien und Märchen (1890), or south. Of these the best known is David Livingstone. Italienische Erzählungen (1895) and Von Dazumal (1900) are The trunk railway line passing considerably to the east of distinguished by a fine sense of form and clear-cut style. the town, Kuruman is no longer a place of much importance. KUSAN (“lake" or "inland bay"), a small group of North It is pleasantly situated on the upper course of the Kuruman American Indian tribes, formerly living on the Coos river and the river, being beautified by gardens and orchards, and presents coast of Oregon. They call themselves Anasitch, and other a striking contrast to the desert conditions of the surrounding names given them have been Ka-us or Kwo-Kwoos, Kowes and country. Its name is that of the son and heir of Mosilikatze, Cook-koo-oose. They appear to be in no way related to their the founder of the Matabele nation. Kuruman disappeared neighbours. The few survivors, mostly of mixed blood, are on during his father's lifetime and the succession passed to Loben- the Siletz reservation, Oregon, gula (see RHODESIA: History). In November 1899 the town KUSHALGARH, a village in the Kohat district of the North- was besieged by a Boer force. The garrison, less than a hun- West Frontier province of India. It is only notable as the point dred strong, held out for six weeks against over 1000 of the at which the Indus is bridged to permit of the extension of the enemy, but was forced to surrender on the ist of January 1900. strategic frontier railway from Rawalpindi to the Miranzai and In June following it was reoccupied by the British. Kurram valleys. KURUMBAS and KURUBAS, aboriginal tribes of southern KUSHK, a river of Afghanistan, which also gives its name to India, by some thought to be of distinct races. There are two the chief town in the Afghan province of Badghis, and to a types of Kurumbas, those who live on the Nilgiri plateau, speak military post on the border of Russian Turkestan. The river the Kurumba dialect and are mere savages; and those who live Kushk,during a portion of its course, forms the boundary between in the plains, speak Kanarese and are civilized. The former Afghan and Russian territory; but the town is some 20 m. from are a small people, with wild matted hair and scanty beard, the border. Kushk, or Kushkinski Post, is now a fourth-class sickly-looking, pot-bellied, large-mouthed, with projecting jaws, Russian fortress, on a Russian branch railway from Merv, the a KUSTANAISK-KUTTENBERG 955 terminus of which is 12 m. to the south, at Chahil Dukteran. It is and is distributed as follows: Imeretians, 41.2%; Mingrelians served by both the Transcaspian and the Orenburg-Tashkent and Lazes, 22.5 %; Gurians; 7.3%; Ajars, 5.8%; Svane- railways. The terminus is only 66 m. from Herat, and in tians, 1•3 %; of other nationalities there are 6% of Abkhasians, the event of war would become an important base for a 2.6% of Turks, 2-3% of Armenians, besides Russians, Jews, Russian advance. Some confusion has arisen through the Greeks, Persians, Kurds, Ossetes and Germans. By religion popular application of the name of Kushk to this terminus, 87% of the population are Greek Orthodox and only 10% Mus- though it is situated neither at the Russian post nor at the sulmans. The total population was 933,773 in 1897, of whom old town. (T. H. H.*) 508,468 were women and 77,702 lived in towns. The estimated KUSTANAISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of population in 1906 was 924,800. The land is excessively sub- Turgai, on the Tobol river, 410 m. E.N.E. of Orenburg, in a very divided, and, owing to excellent cultivation, fetches very high fertile part of the steppes. Pop. (1897), 14,065. The first build- prices. The chief crops are maize, wheat, barley, beans, rye, ings were erected in 1871, and it has since grown with American- hemp, potatoes and tobacco. Maize, wine and timber are like rapidity. The immigrants from Russia built a large village, largely exported. Some cotton-trees have been planted. The which became the centre of the district administration in 1884, vine, olive, mulberry and all sorts of fruit trees are cultivated, as and a town in 1893, under the name of Nicolaevsk, changed later also many exotic plants (eucalyptus, cork-oak, camellia, and even into Kustanaisk. It is an educational centre, and a cathedral tea). Manganese ore is the chief mineral, and is extracted for has been built. There are tanneries, tallow works, potteries, export to the extent of 160,000 to 180,000 tons annually, besides and a fair for cattle, while its trade makes it a rival to Orenburg coal, lead and silver ores, copper, naphtha, some gold, litho- and Troitsk. graphic stone and marble. Factories are still in infancy, but KÜSTENLAND (coast-land or littoral), a common name for silk is spun. A railway runs from the Caspian Sea, via Tiflis and the three crown-lands of Austria, Görz and Gradisca, Istria and the Suram tunnel, to Kutais, and thence to Poti and Batum, and Trieste. Their combined area is 3084 sq. m., and their popula- from Kutais to the Tkvibuli coal and manganese mines. The tion in 1900 was 755,183. They are united for certain adminis- export of both local produce and goods shipped by rail from trative purposes under the governor of Trieste, the legal and other ports of Transcaucasia is considerable, Batum and Poti financial authorities of which also exercise jurisdiction over the being the two chief ports of Caucasia. Kutais is divided into entire littoral. seven districts, of which the chief towns, with their populà- KUTAIAH, KUTAYA, or KIUTAHIA, the chief town of a sanjak tions in 1897, are Kutais, capital of the province (q.v.); Lailashi in the vilayet of Brusa (Khudavendikiar), Asia Minor, is situated (834), chief town of Lechgum, of which Svanetia makes a separate on the Pursaksu, an affluent of the Sakaria (anc. Sangarius). administrative unit; Ozurgeti (4694); Oni, chief town of Racha; The town lies at an important point of the great road across Asia Senaki (101); Kvirili, of Sharopan district; Zugdidi; and two Minor from Constantinople to Aleppo, and is connected by a semi-military districts Batum (28,512) with Artvin (7000) and branch line with the main line from Eski-shehr to Afium Kara- Sukhum-kaleh (7809). (P. A. K.-J. T. BE.) Hissar, of the Anatolian railway. It has a busy trade; pop. KUTAIS, a town of Russian Caucasia, capital of the govern- estimated at 22,000. Kutaiah has been identified with the ment of the same name, 60 m. by rail E. of Poti and 5 m. from ancient Cotiaeum. the Rion station of the railway between Poti and Tiflis. Pop. See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, vol. iv. (Paris, 1894). (1897), 32,492. It is one of the oldest towns of Caucasia, having KUTAIS, a government of Russian Transcaucasia, situated been the ancient capital (Aea or taea) of Colchis, and later the between the Caucasus range on the N. and the Black Sea on the capital of Imeretia (from 792); Procopius mentions it under the W., the government of Tiflis on the E. and the province of Kars name of Kotatision. Persians, Mongols, Turks and Russians on the S. Area, 14,313 sq. m. The government includes the have again and again destroyed the town and its fortress. In districts of Guria, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhasia and Svanetia, 1810 it became Russian. It is situated on both banks of the and consists of four distinct parts: (1) the lowlands, drained by. Rion river, which is spanned by three bridges. Its most re- the Rion, and continued N.W. along the shore of the Black Sea; markable building is the ruined cathedral, erected in the 11th (2) the southern slopes of the main Caucasus range; (3) the century by the Bagratids, the ruling dynasty of Georgia, and western slopes of the Suram mountains, which separate Kutais destroyed by the Turks in 1692; it is the most important repre- from Tiflis; and (4) the slopes of the Armenian highlands, as well sentative extant of Georgian architecture. The fort, mentioned as a portion of the highlands themselves, drained by the Chorokh by Procopius, is now a heap of ruins, destroyed by the Russians and its tributary, the Ajaris-tskhali, which formerly constituted in 1770. The inhabitants make hats and silks, and trade in the Batum province. Generally speaking, the government is agricultural produce and wine. On the right bank of the Rion mountainous in the north and south. Many secondary ridges is a government model garden, with a model farm. and spurs shoot off the main range, forming high, narrow valleys KUT-EL-AMARA, a small town in Turkish Asia, on the east (see CAUCASUS). The district of Batum and Artvin in the S.W., bank of the Tigris (32° 29' 19'' N., 44° 45' 37" E.) at the point which in 1903 were in part separated for administration as the where the Shatt-el-Hai leaves that stream. It is a coaling semi-military district of Batum, are filled up by spurs of the station of the steamers plying between Basra and Bagdad, and an Pontic range, 9000 to'11,240 ft. high, the Arayan ridge separating important Turkish post for the control of the lower Tigris. them from the plateau of Kars. Deep gorges, through which KUTENAI (Kutonaga), a group of North-American Indian tributaries of the Chorokh force their passage to the main river, tribes forming the distinct stock of Kitunahan. Their former intersect these highlands, forming most picturesque gorges. The range was British Columbia, along the Kootenay lake and river. lowlands occupy over 2400 sq. m. They are mostly barren They were always friendly to the whites and noted for their in the littoral region, but extremely fertile higher up the honesty. In 1904 there were some 550 in British Columbia; and Rion. in 1908 there were 606 on the Flathead Agency, Montana. The climate is very moist and warm. The winters are often KUTTALAM, or COURTALLUM, a sanatorium of southern India, without frost at all in the lowlands, while the lowest temperatures in the Tinnevelly district of Madras; pop. (1901), 1197. Though observed are 18° F. at Batum and 9º at Poti. The mountains situated only 450 ft. above sea-level, it possesses the climate of a condense the moisture brought by the west winds, and the much higher elevation, owing to the breezes that reach it through yearly amount of rain varies from 50 to 120 in. The chief a gap in the Ghats. It has long been a favourite resort for rivers are the Rion, which enters the Black Sea at Poti; the European visitors, the season lasting from July to September; Chorokh, which enters the same sea at Batum; and the Ingur, the and it has recently been made more accessible by the opening Kodor and the Bzyb, also flowing into the Black Sea'in Abkhasia. of the railway from Tinnevelly into Travancore. The scenery The vegetation is extremely rich, its character suggesting the is most picturesque, including a famous waterfall. sub-tropic regions of Japan (see CAUCASIA). The population KUTTENBERG (Czech, Kutná Hora), a town of Bohemia, belongs almost entirely to the Kartvelian or Georgian group, I Austria, 45 m. E. by S. of Prague. Pop. (1900), 14,799, mostly 956 KUTUSOV-KVASS Çzech. Amongst its buildings are the Gothic five-naved church and was defeated, but not decisively, and after retreating to the of St Barbara, begun in 1368, the Gothic church of St Jacob (14th south-west of Moscow, he forced Napoleon to begin the celebrated century) and the Late Gothic Trinity church (end of 15th century). retreat. The old general's cautious pursuit evoked much criti- The Wälscher Hof, formerly a royal residence and mint, was cism, but at any rate he allowed onlya remnant of the Grand Army built at the end of the 13th century, and the Gothic Steinerne to regain Prussian soil. He was now field marshal and prince of Haus, which since 1849 serves as town-hall, contains one of the Smolensk—this title having been given him for a victory over richest archives in Bohemia. The industry includes sugar- part of the French army at that place in November 1812. Early refining, brewing, the manufacture of cotton and woollen stuffs, in the following year he carried the war into Germany, took com- leather goods and agricultural implements. mand of the allied Russians and Prussians, and prepared to The town of Kuttenberg owes its origin to the silver mines, raise all central Europe in arms against Napoleon's domination, the existence of which can be traced back to the first part of the but before the opening of the campaign he fell ill and died on the 13th century. The city developed with great rapidity, and at 25th of March 1813 at Bunzlau. Memorials have been erected the outbreak of the Hussite troubles, early in the 14th century, to him at that place and at St Petersburg. was next to Prague the most important in Bohemia, having Mikhailovsky-Danilevski's life of Kutusov (St Petersburg, 1850) become the favourite residence of several of the Bohemian kings. was translated into French by A. Fizelier (Paris, 1850). It was here that, on the 18th of January 1419, Wenceslaus IV. KUWĒT (KUWEIT, Koweit), a port in Arabia at the north- signed the famous decree of Kuttenberg, by which the Bohemian western angle of the Persian Gulf in 29° 20' N. and 48" E., about nation was given three votes in the elections to the faculty of 80 m. due S. of Basra and 60 m. S.W. of the music of the Prague University as against one for the three other“ nations." Shat el Arab. The name Kuwēt is the diminutive fus of Kut, In the autumn of the same year Kuttenberg was the scene of a common term in Irāk for a walled village; it is also shown in horrible atrocities. The fierce mining population of the town some maps as Grane or Grain, a corruption of Kurēn, the dimi- was mainly German, and fanatically Catholic, in contrast with nutive of Karn, a horn. It lies on the south side of a bay 20 m. Prague, which was Czech and utraquist. By way of reprisals long and 5 m. wide, the mouth of which is protected by two for the Hussite outrages in Prague, the miners of Kuttenberg islands, forming a fine natural harbour, with good anchorage in seized on any Hussites they could find, and burned, beheaded or from 4 to 9 fathoms of water. The town has 15,000 inhabitants threw them alive into the shafts of disused mines. In this way and is clean and well built; the country around being practically 1600 people are said to have perished, including the magistrates desert, it depends entirely on the sea and its trade, and its sailors and clergy of the town of Kauřim, which the Kuttenbergers had have a high reputation as the most skilful and trustworthy on the taken. In 1420 the emperor Sigismund made the city the base for Persian Gulf; while its position as the nearest port to Upper Nejd his unsuccessful attack on the Taborites; Kuttenberg was taken gives it great importance as the port of entry for rice, picce goods, by Žižka, and after a temporary reconciliation of the warring &c., and of export for horses, sheep, wool and other products of parties was burned by the imperial troops in 1422, to prevent its the interior. Kuwēt was recommended in 1850 by General F. R. falling again into the hands of the Taborites. Žižka none the less Chesney as the terminus of his proposed Euphrates Valley railway, took the place, and under Bohemian auspices it awoke to a new and since 1898, when the extension of the Anatolian railway to period of prosperity. In 1541 the richest mine was hopelessly Bagdad and the Gulf has been under discussion, attention has flooded; in the insurrection of Bohemia against Ferdinand I. again been directed to it. An alternative site for the terminus the city lost all its privileges; repeated visitations of the plague has been suggested in Um Khasa, at the head of the Khor 'Abd- and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War completed its ruin, allah, where a branch of the Shat el Arab formerly entered the sea; Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines it lies some 20 m. N.E. of Kuwēt and separated from it by the failed; the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devas- island of Bubiān, which has for some time been in Turkish occupa- tated by fire. The mines were abandoned at the end of the 18th tion. An attempt by Turkey to occupy Kuwēt in 1893 was met century; one mine was again opened by the government in 1874, by a formal protest from Great Britain against any infringement but the work was discontinued in 1903. of the status quo, and in 1899 Sheikh Mubārak of Kuwēt placed KUTUSOV (GOLENISHCHEV-KUTUSOV), MIKHAIL LARION- his interests under British protection. OVICH, PRINCE OF SMOLENSK (1745-1813), Russian field marshal, The total trade passing through Kuwēt in 1904-1905 was was born on the 16th of September 1745 at St Petersburg, and valued at £160,000. The imports include arms and ammunition, entered the Russian army in 1759 or 1760. He saw active service piece goods, rice, coffee, sugar, &c.; and the exports, horses, in Poland, 1764-69, and against the Turks, 1770-74; lost an pearls, dates, wool, &c. The steamers of the British India eye in action in the latter year; and after that travelled for some Steamship Company call fortnightly. (R. A. W.) years in central and western Europe. In 1784 he became major- KUZNETSK, two towns of Russia. (1) A town in the govern- general, in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under ment of Saratov, 74 m. by rail east of Penza. It has grown Suvorov, whose constant companion he became, he won consider- rapidly since the development of the railway system in the Volga able distinction in the Turkish War of 1788–91, at the taking of basin. It has manufactures of agricultural machinery and hard- Ochakov, Odessa, Benda and Ismail, and the battles of Rimnik ware, in a number of small factories and workshops, besides and Mashin. He was now (1791) a lieutenant-general, and suc- tanneries, rope-works, boot and shoe making in houses, and there cessively occupied the positions of ambassador at Constan- is considerable trade in sheepskins, grain, salt and wooden goods tinople, governor-general of Finland, commandant of the corps exported to the treeless regions of south-east Russia. Pop. of cadets at St Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and governor- (1897), 21,740. (2) A town in West Siberia, in the government of general of St Petersburg. In 1805 he commanded the Russian Tomsk, 150 m. E.N.E. of Barnaul, on the Upper Tom river, at the corps which opposed Napoleon's advance on Vienna (see head of navigation. It has trade in grain, cattle, ſurs, cedarwood, NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS), and won the hard-fought action nuts, wax, honey and tallow, and is the centre of a coal-mining of Dürrenstein on the 18th-19th of November. district. Pop. (1897), 3141. On the eve of Austerlitz (g.v.) he tried to prevent the Allied KVASS, or KwasS (a Russian word for “ leaven"), one of the generals from fighting a battle, and when he was overruled took so national alcoholic drinks of sia, and popular also in eastern little interest in the event that he fell asleep during the reading of Europe. It is made, by a simultaneous acid and alcoholic the orders. He was, however, present at the battle itself, and was fermentation, of wheat, rye, barley and buckwheat meal or of wounded. From 1806 to 1811 Kutusov was governor-general rye bread, with the addition of sugar or fruit. It has been a of Lithuania and Kiev, and in 1811, being then commander- universal drink in Russia since the 16th century. Though in the in-chief in the war against the Turks, he was made a prince. large towns it is made commercially, elsewhere it is frequently Shortly after this he was called by the unanimous voice of the an article of domestic production. Kvass is of very low alcoholic army and the people to command the army that was retreating content (0-7 to 2.2 %). There are, beside the ordinary kind, before Napoleon's advance. He gave battle at Borodino (q.v.), I superior forms of the drink, such as apple or raspberry kvass. a « KWAKIUTL-KWANZA 957 KWAKIUTL, a tribe of North-American Indians of Wakashan city of that name, it flows south as far as Liu-ch'êng Hien, stock. They number about 2000. Formerly the term was where it forms a junction with the Lung-kiang, or Dragon used of the one tribe in the north-east of Vancouver, but now River. Adopting the trend of this last-named stream, which it is the collective name for a group of Wakashan peoples. has its head-waters in Kwei-chow, the mingled flow passes The Kwakiutl Indians are remarkable for their conservatism eastward, and farther on in a south-easterly direction, by in all matters and specially their adherence to the custom of Lai-chow Fu, Wu-suan Hien, and Sin-chow Fu, where it receives Potlatch, which it is sometimes suggested originated with them. the waters of the Si-kiang, and thenceforth changes its name Tribal government is in the hands of secret societies. There for that of its affluent. The treaty ports in Kwang-si are are three social ranks, hereditary chiefs, middle and third Wuchow Fu, Lung-chow and Nanning Fu. estates, most of the latter being slaves or their descendants. KWANG-TUNG, a southern province of China, bounded N. Entry to the societies is forbidden the latter, and can only be by Hu-nan, Kiang-si and Fu-kien, S. and E. by the sea, and obtained by the former after torture and fasting. The hamatsa W. by Kwang-si. It contains an area, including the island or cannibal society is only open to those who have been mcm- of Hainan, of 75,500 sq. m., and is divided into nine prefectures; bers of a lower society for eight years. and the population is estimated at about 30,000,000. Its KWANGCHOW BAY (KWANGCHOW WAN), a coaling station name, which signifies east of Kwang,” is derived, according on the south coast of China, acquired, along with other con- to Chinese writers, from the fact of its being to the east of the cessions, by the French government in April 1898. It is situated old province of Hu-kwang, in the same way that Kwang-si on the east side of the peninsula of Lienchow, in the province derives its name from its position to the west of Hu-kwang. of Kwangtung, and directly north of the island of Hainan. Kwang-tung extends for more than 600 m. from east to west, It is held on lease for 99 years on similar terms to those by and for about 420 from north to south. It may be described as a which Kiaochow is held by Germany, Port Arthur by Japan hilly region, forming part as it does of the Nan Shan ranges. and Wei-hai-wei by Great Britain. The cession includes These mountains, speaking generally, trend in a north-east the islands lying in the bay; these enclose a roadstead 18 m. and south-westerly direction, and are divided by valleys of long by 6 m. wide, with admirable natural defences and great fertility. The principal rivers of the province are the a depth at no part of less than 33 ft. The bay forms the Si-kiang, the Pei-kiang, or North River, which rises in the estuary of the Ma-Ts'e river, navigable by the largest men-of-mountains to the north of the province, and after a southerly war for 12 m. from the coast. The limits of the concession course joins the Si-kiang at San-shui Hien; the Tung-kiang, inland were fixed in November 1899. On the left bank of the or East River, which, after flowing in a south-westerly direction Ma-Ts'e France gained from Kow Chow Fu a strip of territory from its source in the north-east of the province, empties m. by 6 m., and on the right bank a strip 15 m. by i m. itself into the estuary which separates the city of Canton from from Lei Chow Fu. The country is well populated; the capital the sea; and the Han River, which runs a north and south course and chief town is Lei Chow. The cession carries with it full across the eastern portion of the province, taking its rise in territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the lease. the mountains on the western frontier of Fu-kien and emptying In January 1900 it was placed under the authority of the itself into the China Sea in the neighbourhood of Swatow. governor-general of Indo-China, who in the same month ap- Kwang-tung is one of the most productive provinces of the pointed a civil administrator over the country, which was empire. Its mineral wealth is very considerable, and the divided into three districts. The population of the territory is soil of the valleys and plains is extremely fertile. The principal about 189,000. A mixed tribunal has been instituted, but the article of export is silk, which is produced in the district forming local organization is maintained for purposes of administration. the river delta, extending from Canton to Macao and having In addition to the territory acquired, the right has been given its apex at San-shui Hien. Three large coal-fields exist in the to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour of province, namely, the Shao-chow Fu field 'in the north; the Ompon, situated on the west side of the peninsula, and in Hwa Hien field, distant about 30 m. from Canton; and the consequence of difficulties which were offered by the provincial west coast field, in the south-west. The last is by far the government on the occasion of taking possession, and which largest of the three and extends over the districts of Wu-ch'uen, compelled the French to have recourse to arms, the latter Tien-pai, Yang-kiang, Yang-ch'un, Gan-p'ing, K'ai-p'ing, demanded and obtained exclusive mining rights in the three Sin-hing, Ho-shan, Sin-hwang, and Sin-ning. The coal from adjoining prefectures. Two lines of French steamships call the two first-named fields is of an inferior quality, but that in at the bay. By reason of the great strategical importance the west coast field is of a more valuable kind. Iron ore is found of the bay, and the presence of large coal-beds in the near in about twenty different districts, notably in Ts'ing-yuen, neighbourhood, much importance is attached by the French Ts'ung-hwa, Lung-men, and Lu-fēng. None, however, is to the acquirement of Kwangchow Wan. exported in its raw state, as all which is produced is manu. KWANG-SI, a southern province of China, bounded N. factured in the province, and principally at Fat-shan, which by Kwei-chow and Hu-nan, E. and S. by Kwang-tung, S.W. has been called the Birmingham of China. The Kwang-tung and w. by French Indo-Chino and Yun-nan. It covers an coast abounds with islands, the largest of which is Hainan, area of 80,000 sq. m. It is the least populous province of China, which forms part of the prefecture of K'iung-chow Fu This its inhabitants numbering (1908) little over 5,000,000. The island extends for about 100 m. from north to south and the Skias, an aboriginal race, form two-thirds of the population. same distance from east to west. The southern and eastern The provincial capital is Kwei-lin Fu, or City of the Forest portions of Hainan are mountainous, but on the north there is a of Cinnamon Trees, and there are besides ten prefectural cities. plain of some extent. Gold is found in the central part, and The province is largely mountainous The principal rivers sugar, coco-nuts, betel-nuts, birds' rests, and agar agar, or sea are the Si-kiang and the Kwei-kiang, ur Cinnamon River, vegetable, are among the other products of the island. Canton, which takes its rise in the district of Hing-gan, in the north of Swatow, K'iung-chow (in Hainan), Pakhoi, San-shui are among the province, and in the neighbourhood of that of the Siang the treaty ports. Three ports in the province have been ceded river, which flows northward through Hu-nan to the Tung- or leased to foreign powers-Macao to Portugal, Hong-Kong t'ing Lake. The Kwei-kiang, on the other hand, takes a (with Kowloon) to Great Britain, and Kwangchow to France. southerly course, and passes the cities of Kwei-lin, Yang-so KWANZA (COANZA or QUANZA), a river of West Africa, Hien, P'ing-lē Fu, Chao-přing Hien, and so finds its way to with a course of about 700 m. entirely within the Portuguese Wu-chow Fu, where it joins the waters of the Si-kiang. Another territory of Angola. The source lies in about 13° 40' S., 17° considerable river is the Liu-kiang, or Willow River, which 30' E on the Bihe plateau, at an altitude of over 5000 ft. It rises in the mountains inhabited by the Miao-tsze, in Kwei-chow. runs first N.E. and soon attains fairly large dimensions. Just Leaving its source it takes a south-easterly direction, and enters north of 12° it is about 60 yds. wide and 13 to 16 ft. deep. kwang-si, in the district of Hwai-yuen. After encircling the From this point to 10° it flows N.W., receiving many tributaries, 958 KWEI-CHOW-KYD o ous. 1 1 especially the Luando from the east. In about 10°, and at are also found. Area 4387 sq. m., pop. (1901), 168,827, showing intervals during its westerly passage through the outer plateau an increase in the decade of 2.3%. escarpments, its course is broken by rapids, the river flowing The chief town, Kyaukpyu, had a population in 1901 of 3145 in a well-defined valley flanked by higher ground. The lowest It has a municipal committee of twelve members, three ex officio fall is that of Kambamba, or Livingstone, with a drop of 70 ft. and nine appointed by the local government, and there is a third- Thence to the sea, a distance of some 160 m., it is navigable class district gaol. Kyaukpyu is a port under the Indian Ports by small steamers, though very shallow in the dry season. Act (X. of 1889), and the steamers of the British India Naviga. The river enters the sea in 9° 15' S., 13° 20' E., 40 m. S. of tion Company call there once a week going and coming between Loanda. There is a shifting bar at its mouth, difficult to Rangoon and Calcutta. cross, but the river as a waterway has become of less importance KYAUKSË, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper Burma, since the fertile district in its middle basin has been served by with an area of 1274 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of the railway from Loanda to Ambaca (see ANGOLA), 141,253. It is also known as the Ko-kayaing, so called from the KWEI-CHOW, a south-western province of China, bounded original nine canals of the district. It consists of a generally N. by Sze-ch'uen, E. by Hu-nan, S. by Kwang-si, and W. by level strip running north and south at the foot of the Shan Hills, Yun-nan. It contains 67,000 sq. m., and has a population and of a hilly region rising up these hills to the east, and includ. of about 8,000,000. Kwei-yang Fu is the provincial capital, ing the Yeyaman tract, which lies between 21° 30' and 21° 40' N. and besides this there are eleven prefectural cities in the pro- and 96° 15' and 96° 45' E., with peaks rising to between 4500 vince. With the exception of plains in the neighbourhood and sooo ft. This tract is rugged and scored by ravines, and is of Kwei-yang Fu, Ta-ting Fu, and Tsun-i Fu, in the central and very sparsely inhabited. . The Panlaung and Zawgyi rivers from northern regions, the province may be described as mountain- the Shan States flow through the district and are utilized for the The mountain ranges in the south are largely inhabited numerous irrigation canals. Notwithstanding this, much timber by Miao-tsze, who are the original owners of the soil and have is floated down, and the Panlaung is navigable for small boats all been constantly goaded into a state of rebellion by the oppression the year round. Rain is very scarce, but the canals supply ample to which they have been subjected by the Chinese officials. water for cultivation and all other purposes. They are said to To this disturbing cause was added another in 1861 by the spread have been dug by King Nawrahtà in 1092. He is alleged to have of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan into some of the completed the system of nine canals and weirs in three years' south-western districts of the province. The devastating time. Others have been constructed since the annexation of effects of these civil wars were most disastrous to the trade Upper Burma. At that time many were in serious disrepair, but and the prosperity of Kwei-chow. The climate is by nature most of them have been greatly improved by the construction unhealthy, the supply of running water being small, and that of proper regulators and sluices. Two-thirds of the population of stagnant water, from which arises a fatal malaria, being are dependent entirely on cultivation for their support, and this considerable. The agricultural products of the province are is mainly rice on irrigated land. In the Yeyaman tract the very limited, and its chief wealth lies in its minerals. Copper, chief crop is rice. The great majority of the population is pure silver, lead, and zinc are found in considerable quantities, Burmese, but in the hills there are a good many Danus, a cross and as regards quicksilver, Kwei-chow is probably the richest between Shans and Burmese. The railway runs through the country in the world. This has been from of old the chief centre of the rice-producing area, and feeder roads open up the product of the province, and the belt in which it occurs extends country as far as the Shan foot-hills. The greater part of the through the whole district from south-west to north-east. One district consists of state land, the cultivators being tenants of of the principal mining districts is K'ai Chow, in the prefecture government, but there is a certain amount of hereditary freehold of Kwei-yang Fu, and this district has the advantage of being KYAUKSĒ town is situated on the Zawgyı River and on the situated near Hwang-p'ing Chow, from which place the products Rangoon-Mandalay railway line, and is well laid out in regular can be conveniently and cheaply shipped to Hankow. Cinna- streets, covering an area of about a square mile It has a popula. bar, realgar, orpiment and coal form the rest of the mineral tion (1901) of 5420, mostly Burmese, with a colony of Indian products of Kwei-chow. Wild silk is another valuable article traders. Above it are some bare rocky hillocks, picturesquely of export. It is chiefly manufactured in the prefecture of studded with pagodas. Tsun-i Fu. KYD, THOMAS (1558-1594), one of the most important of the KYAUKPYU, a district in the Arakan division of Lower Burma, English Elizabethan dramatists who preceded Shakespeare. on the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. It consists of, first, a Kyd remained until the last decade of the 19th century in what strip of mainland along the Bay of Bengal, extending from the appeared likely to be impenetrable obscurity. Even his name An pass, across the main range, to the Ma-i River, and, secondly, was forgotten until Thomas Hawkins about 1773 discovered it in the large islands of Ramree and Cheduba, with many others to connexion with The Spanish Tragedy in Thomas Heywood's the south, lying off the coast of Sandoway. The mainland in the Apologie for Actors. But by the industry of English and German north and east is highly mountainous and forest-clad, and the scholars a great deal of light has since been thrown on his life lower portion is cut up into numerous islands by a network and writings. He was the son of Francis Kyd, cilizen and scri- of tidal creeks. Between the mainland and Ramree lies a group vener of London, and was baptized in the church of St Mary of islands separated by deep, narrow, salt-water inlets, forming Woolnoth, Lombard Street, on the 6th of November 1558. His the north-eastern shore of Kyaukpyu harbour, which extends for mother, who survived her son, was named Agnes, or Anna. In nearly 30 m. along Ramree in a south-easterly direction, and October 1565 Kyd entered the newly founded Merchant Taylors' has an average breadth of 3 m. The principal mountains are the School, where Edmund Spenser and perhaps Thomas Lodge were Arakan Yomas, which send out spurs and sub-spurs almost to at different times his school-fellows. It is thought that Kyd did the sea-coast. The An pass, an important trade route, rises to not proceed to either of the universities, he apparently followed, a height of 4064 ft. above sea-level. The Dha-let and the An soon after leaving school, his father's business as a scrivener rivers are navigable by large boats for 25 and 45 m. respec- But Nashe describes him as a “ shifting companion that ran tively. Above these distances they are mere mountain torrents. through every art and throve by none He showed a fairly wide Large forests of valuable timber cover an area of about 650 range of reading in Latin. The author on whom he draws most sq. m. Kyaukpyu contains numerous “mud volcanoes," from freely is Seneca, but there are many reminiscences, and occasion. which marsh gas is frequently discharged, with occasional issue ally mistranslations of other authors. Nashe contemptuously of flame. The largest of these is situated in the centre of Cheduba said that“ English Seneca read by candlelight yeeldes many good island. Earth-oil wells exist in several places in the district. sentences," no doubt exaggerating his indebtedness to Thomas The oil when brought to the surface has the appearance of a Newton's translation John Lyly had a more marked influence whitish-blue water, which gives out brilliant straw-coloured rays, on his manner than any of his contemporaries. It is believed that and emits a strong pungent odour. Limestone, iron and coal | he produced his famous play, The Spanish Tragedy, between 1584 " KYFFHÄUSER 959 and 1589; the quarto in the British Museum (which is probably | times and privy broken passions." He must have died late in earlier than the Göttingen and Ellesmere quartos, dated 1594 1594, and on the 30th of December of that year his parents re- and 1599) is undated, and the play was licensed for the press in nounced their administration of the goods of their deceased son, 1592. The full title runs, The Spanish Tragedie containing lhe in a document of great importance discovered by Professor Schick. Lamentable End of Don Horatio and Bel-imperia; with the Pitiful The importance of Kyd, as the pioneer in the wonderful move. Death of Old Hieronimo, and the play is commonly referred to by ment of secular drama in England, gives great interest to his Henslowe and other contemporaries as Hieronimo. This drama works, and we are now able at last to assert what many critics enjoyed all through the age of Elizabeth and even of James I. have long conjectured, that he takes in that movement the position and Charles I. so unflagging a success that it has been styled the of a leader and almost of an inventor. Regarded from this point most popular of all old Engl plays. Certain expressions in of view, The Spanish Tragedy is a work of extraordinary valué, Nashe's preface to the 1589 edition of Robert Greene's Menaphon since it is the earliest specimen of effective stage poetry existing may be said to have started a whole world of speculation with in English literature. It had been preceded only by the pageant- regard to Kyd's activity. Much of this is still very puzzling; nor poems of Peele and Lyly, in which all that constitutes in the is it really understood why Ben Jonson called him "sporting modern sense theatrical technique and effective construction Kyd." In 1592 there was added a sort of prologue to The Spanish was entirely absent. These gifts, in which the whole power of Tragedy, called The First Parl of Jeronimo, or The Warres of the theatre as a place of general entertainment was to consist, Portugal, not printed till 1605. Professor Boas concludes that were supplied earliest among English playwrights to Kyd, and Kyd had nothing to do with this melodramatic production, which were first exercised by him, so far as we can see, in 1586. This, gives a different version of the story and presents Jeronimo then, is a more or less definite starting date for Elizabethan drama, as little more than a buffoon. On the other hand, it becomes and of peculiar value to its historians. Curiously enough, The more and more certain that what German criticism calls the Ur- Spanish Tragedy, which was the earliest stage-play of the great Hamlet, the original draft of the tragedy of the prince of Denmark, period, was also the most popular, and held its own right through was a lost work by Kyd, probably composed by him in 1587. the careers of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and Fletcher. It was This theory has been very elaborately worked out by Professor not any shortcoming in its harrowing and exciting plot, but the Sarrazin, and confirmed by Professor Boas; these scholars are tameness of its archaic versification, which probably led in 1602 doubtless right in holding that traces of Kyd's play survive in to its receiving“ additions,” which have been a great stumbling- the first two acts of the 1603 first quarto of Hamlet, but they block to the critics. It is known that Ben Jonson was paid for probably go too far in attributing much of the actual language these additional scenes, but they are extremely unlike all other of the last three acts to Kyd. Kyd's next work was in all prob- known writings of his, and several scholars have independently ability the tragedy of Soliman and Perscda, written perhaps in conjectured that John Webster wrote them. Of Kyd himself it 1588 and licensed for the press in 1592, which, although anony- seems needful to point out that neither the Germans nor even mous, is assigned to him on strong internal evidence by Mr Boas. Professor Boas seems to realize how little definite merit his poetry No copy of the first edition has come down to us; but it was re- has. He is important, not in himself, but as a pioneer. The printed, after Kyd's death, in 1599. In the summer or autumn influence of Kyd is marked on all the immediate predecessors of of 1590 Kyd seems to have given up writing for the stage, and Shakespeare, and the bold way in which scenes of violent crime to have entered the service of an unnamed lord, who employed were treated on the Elizabethan stage appears to be directly a troop of" players.” Kyd was probably the private secretary owing to the example of Kyd's innovating genius. His relation of this nobleman, in whom Professor Boas sees Robert Radcliffe, to Hamlet has already been noted, and Titus Andronicus presents afterwards fifth earl of Sussex. To the wife of the earl (Bridget and exaggerates so many of his characteristics that Mr Sidney Morison of Cassiobury) Kyd dedicated in the last year of his life Lee and others have supposed that tragedy to be a work of Kyd's his translation of Garnier's Cornelia (1594), to the dedication of touched up by Shakespeare. Professor Boas, however, brings which he attached his initials. Two prose works of the dramatist cogent objections against this theory, founding them on what he have survived, a treatise on domestic economy, The Householder's considers the imitative inferiority of Titus Andronicus to The Philosophy, translated from the Italian of Tasso (1588); and a Spanish Tragedy. The German critics have pushed too far their sensational account of The Most Wicked and Secret Murdering of attempt to find indications of Kyd's influence on later plays John Brewer, Goldsmith (1592). His name is written on the of Shakespeare. The extraordinary interest felt for Kyd in title-page of the unique copy of the last-named pamphlet at Germany is explained by the fact that The Spanish Tragedy was Lambeth, but probably not by his hand. That many of Kyd's long the best known of all Elizabethan plays abroad. It was plays and poems have been lost is proved by the fact that frag- acted at Frankfort in 1601, and published soon afterwards at ments exist, attributed to him, which are found in no surviving Nuremberg. It continued to be a stock piece in Germany until context. Towards the close of his life Kyd was brought into the beginning of the 18th century; it was equally popular in relations with Marlowe. It would seem that in 1590, soon after Holland, and potent in its effect upon Dutch dramatic literature. he entered the service of this nobleman, Kyd formed his acquaint- Kyd's works were first collected and his life written by Professor ance. If he is to be believed, he shrank at once from Marlowe as a F. S. Boas in 1901. Of modern editions of The Spanish Tragedy may man“intemperate and of a cruel heart”and “irreligious.” This, be mentioned that by Professor J. M. Manly in Specimens of the however, was said by Kyd with the rope round his neck, and is Pre-Shakespearean Drama, vol, ii. (Boston, 1897), and by J. Schick scarcely consistent with a good deal of apparent intimacy between 1894); C. Markscheffel, T. Kyd's Tragödien (1885); Gregor Sarrazin, in the Temple Dramatists (1898). See also Cornelia (ed. H. Gassner. him and Marlowe. When, in May 1593, the “ lewd libels” and Thomas Kyd und sein Kreis (1892); G. O. Fleischer, " Bemerkungen blasphemies ” of Marlowe came before the notice of the Star über Thomas Kyd's Spanish Tragedy” (Jahresbericht der Drei-König. Chamber, Kyd was immediately arrested, papers of his having schule zu Dresden-Neustadt (1896); J. Schick, T. Kyd's Spanish been found - shuffled ” with some of Marlowe’s, who was im- R. Koppel, in Prölss, Altengl. Theater (vol. i., 1904). Tragedy (Literarhistorische Forschungen, vol. 19, 1901), and (E. G.) prisoned a week later. A visitation on Kyd's papers was made in consequence of his having attached a seditious libel to the KYFFHÄUSER, a double line of hills in Thuringia, Germany. wall of the Dutch churchyard in Austin Friars. Of this he was The northern part looks steeply down upon the valley of the innocent, but there was found in his chamber a paper of “ vile Goldene Aue, and is crowned by two ruined castles, Rothenburg heretical conceits denying the deity of Jesus Christ.” Kyd was (1440 ft.) on the west, and Kyffhausen (1542 ft.) on the east. arrested and put to the torture in Bridewell. He asserted that The latter, built probably in the 10th century, was frequently he knew nothing of this document and tried to shiſt the responsi- the residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors, and was finally bility of it upon Marlowe, but he was kept in prison until after destroyed in the 16th century. The existing ruins are those of the the death of that poet (June 1, 1593). When he was at length Oberburg with its tower, and of the Unterburg with its chapei. dismissed, his patron refused to take him back into his service. The hill is surmounted by an imposing monument to the emperor He fell into utter destitution, and sank under the weight of“ bitter William I., the equestrian statue of the emperor being 31 ſt. 15 а 960 KYNASTON-KYSHTYM 1 high and the height of the whole 210 ft. This was erected, and "occasionally smacks of the sake cup." But if he did in 1896. According to an old and popular legend, the emperor not possess Hokusai's dignity, power and reticence, he sub- Frederick Barbarossa sits asleep beside a marble table in the suituted an exuberant fancy, which always lends interest to interior of the mountain, surrounded by his knights, awaiting draughtsmanship of very great technical excellence. In the destined day when he shall awaken and lead the united addition to his caricatures, Kyosai painted a large number peoples of Germany against her enemies, and so inaugurate of pictures and sketches, often choosing subjects from the an era of unexampled glory. But G. Vogi has advanced cogent folk-lore of his country. A fine collection of these works is reasons (see Hist. Zeitschrift, xxvi. 131-187) for believing preserved in the British Museum; and there are also good that the real hero of the legend is the other great Hohen- examples in the National Art Library at South Kensington, staufen emperor, Frederick II., not Frederick I. Around and the Musée Guimet at Paris. Among his illustrated books him gradually crystallized the hopes of the German peoples, may be mentioned Ychon Taka-kagami, Illustrations of Hawks and to him they looked for help in the hour of their sorest need. (5 vols., 1870, &c.); Kyosai Gwafu (1880); Kyosai Dongwa; But this is not the only legend of a slumbering future deliverer Kyosai Raku-gwa; Kyosai Riaku-gwa; Kyosai Mangwa (1881); which lives on in Germany. Similar hopes cling to the memory Kyosai Suigwa (1882); and Kyosai Gwaden (1887). The latter of Charlemagne, sleeping in a hill near Paderborn; to that of the is illustrated by him under the name of Kawanabe Toyoku, Saxon hero Widukind, in a hill in Westphalia; to Siegfried, in the and two of its four volumes are devoted to an account of his hill of Geroldseck; and to Henry I., in a hill near Goslar. own art and life. He died in 1889. See Richter, Das deutsche Kyffhäusergebirge (Eisleben, 1876); See Guiniet (É.) and Regamey (F.), Promenades japonaises (Paris, Lemcke, Der deutsche Kaiserlraum und der Kyj hauser (Magdeburg. 1880): Anderson (W.),Catalogue of Japanese Painting in the British 1887); and Fuhrer durch das Kyffhäusergebirge (Sangerhausen. 1891); Museum (London, 1886); Mortimer Menpes, "A Personal View of Baltzer, Das Kyffhausergebirge (Rudolstadt, 1882); A. Fulda, Die Japanese Art: A Lesson from Kyosai," Magazine of Art (1888). Kyffhausersage (Sangerhausen, 1889); and Anemüller, Kyffhauser und (E. F. S.) Rothenburg (Detmold, 1892). KYRIE (in full kyrie eleison, or eleeson, Gr. Kúple é dénoov; cf. KYNASTON, EDWARD (c. 1640–1706), English actor, was Ps. cxxii. 3, Matt. xv, 22, &c., meaning “ Lord, have mercy "), born in London and first appeared in Rhodes's company, having the words of petition used at the beginning of the Mass and in been, like Betterton, a clerk in Rhodes's book-shop before he other offices of the Eastern and Roman Churches. In the set up a company in the Cockpit in Drury Lane. Kynaston Anglican Book of Common Prayer the Kyrie is introduced was probably the last and certainly the best of the male actors into the orders for Morning and Evening Prayer, and also, with of female parts, for which his personal beauty admirably fitted an additional petition, as a response made by the congregation him. His last female part was Evadne in The Maid's Tragedy after the reading of each of the Ten Commandments at the in 1661 with Killigrew's company. In 1665 he was playing opening of the Communion Service. These responses are important male parts at Covent Garden. He joined Betterton usually sung, and the name Kyrie is thus also applied to their at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1695, after which he received less musical setting. In the Lutheran Church the Kyrie is still important rôles, retiring in 1699. He died in 1706, and was said or sung in the original Greek. “Kyrielle," a shortened buried on the 18th of January. form of Kyrie eleison, is applied to eight-syllabled four-line verses, KYNETON, a town of Dalhousie county, Victoria, Australia, the last line in each verse being repeated as a refrain. on the river Campaspe, 56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. KYRLE, JOHN (1637-1724), “the Man of Ross,” English Pop. (1901), 3274. It is the centre of a prosperous agricul- philanthropist, was born in the parish of Dymock, Gloucester- tural and pastoral district. Important stock sales and an shire, on the 22nd of May 1637. His father was a barrister annual exhibition of stock are held. There are, moreover, and M.P., and the family had lived at Ross, in Herefordshire, some rich gold quartz reefs in the neighbourhood. Kyneton for many generations. He was educated at Balliol College, lies at an elevation of 1687 ft., and the scenery of the district, Oxford, and having succeeded to the property at Ross took which includes some beautiful waterfalls, attracts, visitors in up his abode there. In everything that concerned the welfare summer. of the little town in which he lived he took a lively interest KYOSAI, SHO-FU (1831-1889), Japanese painter, was born in the education of the children, the distribution of alms, in al Koga in the province of Shimotsuke, Japan, in 1831. After improving and embellishing the town. He delighted in mediating, working for a short time, as a boy, with Kuniyoshi, he received between those who had quarrelled and in preventing lawsuits. his artistic training in the studio of Kano Döhaku, but soon He was generous to the poor and spent all he had in good works. abandoned the formal traditions of his master for the greater | He lived a great deal in the open air working with the labourers freedom of the popular school. During the political ferment on his farm. He died on the 7th of November 1724, and was which produced and followed the revolution of 1867, Kyosai buried in the chancel of Ross Church. His memory is pre- attained a considerable reputation as a caricaturist.' He was served by the Kyrle Society, founded in 1877, to better the three times arrested and imprisoned by the authorities of the lot of working people, by laying out parks, encouraging house shogunate. Soon after the assumption of effective power by the decoration, window gardening and flower growing. Ross was mikado, a great congress of painters and men of letters was held, eulogized by Pope in the third Moral Epistle (1732), and by at which Kyosai was present. He again expressed his opinion Coleridge in an early poem (1794). of the new movement in a caricature, which had a great popular KYSHTYM, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, success, but also brought him into the hands of the police 56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Chelyabinsk, on a river of the same this time of the opposite .party. Kyosai must be considered name which connects two lakes. Pop. (1897), 12,331. The the greatest successor of Hokusai (of whom, however, he was official name is Verkhne-Kyshtymskiy-Zavod, or Upper Kyshtym not a pupil), and as the first political caricaturist of Japan. Works, to distinguish it from the Lower (Nizhne) Kyshtym His workm-like his life-is somewhat wild and undisciplined, Works, situated two miles lower down the same river. 1 1 END OF FIFTEENTH VOLUME PRINTED BY R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY, CHICAGO, ON "BRITANNICA INDRA PAPER" MANUFACTURED BY S. D. WARREN & COMPANY, BOSTON, MASS. BINDERS, TEE J. 8. TAPLEY COMPANY, NEW YORK, AND R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY, CHICAGO 5 . e 2 n n .