THE BY A. cºnsº Atºs - - - - tº lºº, A. M. - ºn Tº opticº to N. WITH AN º "Rººs pick Lººp, ºne christian Philosopher, &c. º! ºn ºD BY F. HUNTºrº - 1836, º | GEOGRAPHY op Trip. HEAVENS, | j --~~--~--~~~ ~~~~--~~~~ ~~~~--~--~~~~ ~~ȧ§ŽĢĪĶĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪ \\:|- |||||||||||||||||}#$ iſſiſſiſſil [[IIIHIIIHIIIll] iii. † UITTINIT!!! ~~~~~~...~. N | }}#########################ËžģáÉ%$§$țËËĚĚĒĒ ÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÏÏĪĪİfffffffffÎÏÏĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪſ ~~~~--~~~~ ~~~~--~----------º-----------|×* *----~--~~~~ --~--~~~~ ~~~~•• • •••• ----**_rz_°~----…-…--~~~~ -…--~~~~--~~~ ~~--~~~~ ~~~~*~*~*~*~~~~*~*=~~~~*~*~*** --~~~~[[!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Ř~ -…-…-…-:::::- |■ \}§§§§ , ſīļļģīÎÏÏĪĪĪĪĪĪĪi -------------=!!!!!! ·r·º·:·º·::-::::.……*..*wits:…!!!!!!!!æ:(3x***>.*?)(?!-(.*,,+.*:r:№º::::::“. ----------------–-------------------~------- ·******~*=~,~~~~. :::*~*~*~**:)*(^ STB (23 , E f- & 3 (2 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS, ... ? 322 …tvºr “” * -º ---> ---wºº. CLASS BOOK OF ASTRONOMY, ACCOMPANIED BY A. C E L E S T I.A. L. A T L A S. BY ELIJAH H. BURRITT, A. M. THIRD EDITION. WITH AN INTRODUCTION, BY THOMAS DICK, LL.D., Author of the Christian Philosopher, &c. H A R T FOR D : PUBLISHED BY F. J. HUNTINGTON. 1836. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833, by F. J. HUNTINGTON, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Connecticut. iº W. ' à. *: * ; § “- º * º$, t “. ... - . **ś..". ‘.…?. Ǻ PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. In presenting a third edition of this work to the public, it is proper to point out several very important improvements which … have been made. - Dr. Dick of Scotland, so well known both in Europe and in this country, as the author of the Christian Philosopher, and * other scientific and popular works, has prepared, expressly for Tº the work, an Introduction on the Advantages of the Study of Astronomy. So far as authority and name can go to give cur- rency to the work, and to establish the confidence of teachers in it as a proper text book, this simple fact, the publisher flatters himself, furnishes every testimonial which can be desired. The work has been thoroughly revised, and the errors of for- mer editions corrected. It will be observed that several new Chapters, on the important subjects of Planetary JMotion, The Phcnomena of Day and Night, The Seasons, The Tides, The Obliquity of the Ecliptic, The Precession of the Equi- moves, &c., have been added. It is only necessary to observe the Atlas, to discover that the Plates have been engraved entirely anew, upon steel, and in a very superior and beautiful style. The figures of the Constella- tions are far more natural and spirited than those of the former Atlas. Especially, the characters which represent the stars are distinct, so that the pupil can discern, at once, to what class they belong. One new plate has been introduced, illustrating to the eye, the Relative Magnitudes, Distances, and Positions of the different bodies which compose the Solar System. This plate the teacher will find to be of very important service, and to aid him much in his verbal explanations. The arrangement of the Plates in the present Atlas, is such, that the teacher and pu- pil can easily place them, in mind, so as to have a distinct view of the entire surface of the visible Heavens. Such are the principal improvements which have been made in the work. They speak for themselves. The publisher knows not what could express his satisfaction with the past, or his hopes for the future success of the work, better than such improvements. Hartford, Nov. 1835. P. R. E. F. A. C. E. I HAVE long felt the want of a Class Book, which should be to the starry heavens, what Geography is to the earth; a work that should exhibit, by means of appropriate delineations, the scenery of the heavens: the various constellations arranged in their order, point out and classify the principal stars, according to their magnitudes and places, and be accompanied, at the same time, with such fami- liar exercises and illustrations, adapted to recitation, as should bring it within the pale of popular instruction, and the scope of Juvenile understandings. Such a work I have attempted to supply. I have endeavoured to make the descriptions of the stars so familiar, and the instructions for finding them so plain, that the most inexperienced should not fail to understand them. In accomplishing this, I have relied but little upon globes and maps, or books. 1 very early discovered that it was an easy matter to sit down by a celestial globe, and, by means of an approved catalogue, and the help of a little graduated slip of brass, make out, in detail, a minute description of the stars, and discourse quite familiarly of their position, magnitude and ar- rangement, and that when all this was done, I had indeed given the pupil a few additional facilities for finding those stars upon the artificial globe, but which left him, after all, about as ignorant of their apparent situation in the heavens, as before. I came, at length, to the conclusion, that any description of the stars, to be practically useful, must be made from a careful observation of the stars them- selves, and made at the time of observation. f To be convinced of this, let any person sit down to a celestial globe or map, and from this alone, make out a set of instructions, in regard to some favourite constellation, and then desire his pupil to trace out in the firmament, by means of it, the various stars which he has thus described. The pupil will find it little better than a fancy sketch. The bearings and distances, and especially, the com- parative brightness, and relative positions, will rarely be exhibited with such accuracy that the young observer will be inspired with much confidence in his guide. I have demonstrated to myself, at least, that the most judicious in- structions to put on paper for the guide of the young in this study, are those which I have used most successfully, while in a clear eve- ning, without any chart but the firmament above, I have pointed out, with my finger, to a group of listeners, the various stars which compose this and that constellation. In this way, the teacher will describe the stars as they actually appear to the pupil—taking advantage of those obvious and more striking features that serve to identify and to distinguish them from all others. Now if these verbal instructions be committed to Wri- PREFACE. ting and placed in the hands of any other pupil, they will answer nearly the same end. This is the method which I have pursued in this work. The descriptive part of it, at least, was not composed by the light of the Sun, principally, nor of a lamp, but by the light of the stars themselves. Having fixed upon the most conspicuous star, or group of Stars, in each constellation, as it passed the meri- dian, and with a pencil carefully noted all the identifying circum- stances of position, bearing, brightness, number and distance—their geometrical allocation, if any, and such other descriptive features as seemed most worthy of notice, I then returned to my room to tran- scribe arid classify these memoranda in their proper order; repeat- ing the same observations at different hours the same evening, and on other evenings at various periods, for a succession of years; al- ways adding such emendations as Subsequent observations matured. To satisfy myself of the applicability of these descriptions, I have given detached portions of them to different pupils, and sent them out to find the stars; and I have generally had the gratification of hearing them report, that “every thing was just as I had described it.” If a pupil found any difficulty in recognizing a star, I re-ex- amined the 㺠to see if it could be made better, and when I found it susceptible of improvement, it was made on the spot. It is not pretended, however, that there is not yet much room for im- provement; for whoever undertakes to delineate or describe every visible star in the heavens, assumes a task, in the accomplishment of which, he may well claim some indulgence. The maps which accompany the work, in the outlines and ar- rangement of the constellations, are essentially the same with those of Dr. Wollaston. They are projected upon the same principles as maps of Geography, exhibiting a faithful portraiture of the hea- vens for every month, and consequently for every day in the year, and do not require to be rectified, for that purpose, like globes. They are calculated, in a good measure, to supersede the neces- sity of celestial globes in schools, inasmuch as they present a more natural view of the heavenly bodies, and as nearly all the problems which are peculiar to the celestial globe, and a great number be- sides, may be solved upon them in a very simple and satisfactory manner. They may be put into the hands of each individual in a class at the same time, but a globe cannot be. The student may conveniently hold them before his eye to guide his survey of the heavens, but a globe he cannot. There is not a conspicuous star in the firmament which a child of ten years may not readily find by their aid. Besides, the maps are always right and ready for use, while the globe is to be rectified and turned to a particular meri- dian; and then if it be not held in that position for the time being, it is liable to be moved by the merest accident or breath of wind. There is another consideration which renders an artificial globe of very little avail as an auxiliary for acquiring a knowledge of the stars while at school. It is this:—the pupil spends one, perhaps two weeks, in solving the problems, and admiring the figures, on it, in which time it has been turned round and round a hundred times; it is then returned safely to its case, and some months afterwards, or it may be the next evening, he directs his eye upwards to recog- * PREFACE. nize his acquaintance among the stars. He may find himself able to recollect the names of the principal stars, and the uncouth forms by which the constellations are pictured out; but which of all the positions he has placed the globe in, is now so present to his mind that he is enabled to identify it with any portion of the visible hea- Vens? He looks in vain to see, “Lions and Centaurs, Gorgons, Hydras rise, And gods and heroes blaze along the skies.” He finds, in short, that the bare study of the globe is one thing, and that of the heavens quite another; and he arrives at the con- clusion, that if he would be profited, both must be studied and com- pared together. This, since a class is usually furnished with but one globe, is impracticable. In this point of view also, the maps are preferable. I have endeavoured to teach the Geography of the heavens in nearly the same manner as we teach the Geography of the earth. What that does in regard to the history, situation, extent, popula- tion and principal cities of the several kingdoms of the earth, I have done in regard to the constellations; and I am persuaded, that a knowledge of the one may be as easily obtained, as of the other. The systems are similar. It is only necessary to change the terms in one, to render them applicable to the other. For this rea- son, I have yielded to the preference of the publisher in calling this work “Geography of the Heavens,” instead of URANoGRAPHY, or Some other name more etymologically apposite. /* That a serious contemplation of those stupendous works of the Möst High, which astronomy unfolds, is calculated above all other departments of human knowledge, to enlarge and invigorate the powers of religious contemplation, and subserve the interests of ra- tional piety, we have the testimony of the most illustrious charac- ters that have adorned our race. If the work which I now submit, shall have this tendency, I shall not have written in vain. Hitherto, the science of the stars has been but very superficially studied if our schools, for want of pro- per helps. They have continued to gaze upon the visible heavens without comprehending what they saw. They have cast a vacant eye upon the splendid pages of this vast volume, as children amuse themselves with a book which they are unable to read. They have caught here and there, as it were a capital letter, or a picture, but they have failed to distinguish those smaller characters on which the sense of the whole depends. Hence, says an eminent English Astronomer, “A comprehensive work on Descriptive Astronomy, detailing, in a popular manner, all the facts which have been ascer- tained respecting the scenery of the heavens, accompanied with a variety of striking delineations, accommodated to the capacity of youth, is a desideratum.” How far this desirable end is accom- º: by the following work, I humbly leave to the public to ecide. Hartford, Feb. 1833. - - 4- Andromeda, Aries, the Ram, Auriga, the Charioteer, - a Argo Navis, the Ship * Asterion et Chara, vel Canes Venatici, the Greyhounds, Aquila et Antinous, the Eagle and Antinous, - - Aquarius, the Water Bearer Bootes, the Bear Driver, Cassiopeia, Cepheus, - Cetus, the Whale, Columba, the Dove, - Camelopardalus, the Camelopard, Canis Minor, the Little Dog, Canis Major, the Great Dog, Cancer, the Crab, - 4- Coma Berenices, Berenice's Hair, Corvus, the Crow, - Centaurus, the Centaur, Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown, - -> Cygnus, the Swan Capricornus, the Goat, Constellations,—origin of, Draco, the Dragon, Delphinus, the Dolphin, Eridanus, River Po, Equulus, vel Equi Sectio, the Lit- tle Horse, or the Horse's Head, Gemini, the Twins, - Hydra, the Water Serpent the Cup, - Hercules, Lépus, the Hare, Lynx, - Leo, the Lion, - Leo Minor, the Little Lion Lupus, the Wolf, - Libra, the Balance, Lyra, the Harp, 4- Monoceros, the Unicorn, Orion, * - -- Pisces, the Fishes, Perseus et Caput Medusae, Per- seus and Medusa's Head, - - *- - - º : . and - - * * - * * - º J sº * * - Page Pegasus, the Flying Horse, - 133 Piscis Australis, vel Notius, the Southern Fish, - - - 136 Sextans, the Sextant, - - 82 Serpens, the Serpent, - - 102 Scorpio, the Scorpion, - - 109 Sagittarius, the Archer, - - 124 Stars—variable, sº - - 137 Double, - , - - 138 Clusters of - - - 141 Number, Distance, and Economy of - - 152 Falling or Shooting, - 160 Taurus, the Bull, º - - 62 Ursa Major, the Great Bear, - 85 Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, - 105 Virgo, the Virgin, * - - 92 Via Lactea, the Milky Way, - 144 PART II. ſº Asteroids, - - - - 68 Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights, - - * - - 144 Comets, * - - -- - 88 Days and Nights, different lengths of - - - - - - - 129 Earth, - - - * * – 35 Equinoxes, Precession of - - 112 Ecliptic,+Obliquity of, - - 120 Forces, Attractive and Projectile, 109 Gravitation, Universal Law of, I05 Herschel, - - - - - 86 Jupiter, - - - - - 74 Mars, •e - - - - 64 Mercury, - - & - - 17 Moon, * - - - - 47 Moon—Harvest and Horizontal, 136 Refraction, - “s - 140 Solar System—General Phenom- ena of - - - - - I Sun, * * - * - º 11 Saturn, sm - - - 80 Seasons, . - - - 129 Tides, - - - - - 123 Twilight, - - - - 140 Venus, - - - - - 22 A IN T R O DUCTION. ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDY OF ASTRONOMY BY THOMAS DICIK, L.L. D. tº Arº AstroNoMY is a science which has, in all ages, engaged the at- tention of the poet, the philosopher, and the divine, and been the subject of their study and admiration. Kings have descended from their thrones to render it homage, and have sometimes enriched it with their labours; and humble shepherds, while watching their flocks by night, have beheld with rapture the blue vault of heaven, with its thousand shining orbs moving in silent grandeur, till the morning star announced the approach of day.—The study of this science must have been co-eval with the existence of man. For there is no rational being who, for the first time, has lifted his eyes to the nocturnal sky, and beheld the moon walking in brightness among the planetary orbs and the host of stars, but must have been struck with awe and admiration at the splendid scene, and its sub- lime movements, and excited to anxious inquiries into the nature, the motions, and the destinations of those far-distant orbs. Com- pared with the splendour, the amplitude, the august motions, and the ideas of infinity which the celestial vault presents, the most re- splendent terrestrial scenes sink into inanity, and appear unworthy of being set in competition with the glories of the sky. - hº of the sublimity of its objects, and the pleasure arising from their contemplation, Astronomy is a study of vast utility, in consequence of its connexion with terrestrial arts and sciences, many of which are indebted to the observations and the rinciples of this science for that degree of perfection to which they have attained. - Astronomy has been of immense utility to the science of GEO GRAPHY; for it is chiefly in consequence of celestial observations that the true figure of the earth has been demonstrated and its density as: certained. It was from such observations, made on the mountain Schehallien in Scotland, that the attraction of mountains was de- termined. The observations were made by taking the meridian distances of different fixed stars near the zenith, first on the south, and afterwards on the north side of the hill, when the plumb line of w INTRODUCTION. ix the Sector was found, in both cases, to be deflected from the per- pendicular towards the mountain; and, from calculations founded on the quantity of this deflection, the mean density of the earth was ascertained. It was likewise by means of celestial observations that the length of a degree of the meridian was measured, and the circumference of the globe, with all its other dimensions accurately ascertained; for, to ascertain the number of degrees between any two parallels on the Earth's surface, observations must be taken, with proper instruments, of the sun or of the stars, at different sta- tions; and the accurate measurement of the terrestrial distance be- tween any two stations or º partly depends on astronomical observations combined with the principles and operations of Trigo- nometry. So that without the aids of this science the figure and density, the circumference and diameter of our terrestrial habita- tion, and the relative position of places on its surface, could never have been ascertained. Astronomy is likewise of great utility to the art of NAVIGATION: without a certain knowledge of which the mariner could never have traced his course through pathless oceans to remote regions— the globe would never have been circumnavigated, nor an inter- course opened between the inhabitants of distant lands. It is of essential importance to the navigator, not only to know the situation of the port to which he is bound, but also to ascertain with pre- cision, on what particular portion of the terraqueous globe he is at any time placed—what course he is pursuing—how far he has tra- velled from the port at which he embarked—what dangerous rocks or shoals lie near the line of his course—and in what direction he must steer, in order to arrive, by the speediest and the safest course, to his destined haven. It is only, or 3. by astronomical obser- vations that such particulars can be determined. By accurately observing the distance between the moon and certain stars, at a particular time, he can calculate his distance East or West from a given meridian; and, by taking the meridian altitude of the sun or of a star, he can learn his distance from the Equator or from the poles of the world. In such observations, a knowledge of the con- stellations, of the polestar, and of the general positions of all the stars of the first and second magnitude, is of particular importance; and, therefore, a navigator who is unacquainted with the science of the heavens, ought never to be appointed to conduct a ship through the Indian, the Atlantic, or the Pacific oceans, or through any por- tions of the sea which is not within sight of land. By the observa- tions founded on astronomical science, which have been made in different regions, by mariners and travellers of various descriptions, the latitudes and longitudes of the principal places on the globe, and their various bearings and relations have been determined, so that we can now take a view of the world we inhabit in all its mul- tifarious aspects, and direct our course to any quarter of it, either for business, for pleasure, or for the promotion of philanthropic ob- jects. Thus, Astronomy has likewise become of immense utility to Trade and Commerce, in opening up new emporiums for our X INTRODUCTION. manufactures, in augmenting and multiplying the sources of wealth, in promoting an intercourse between the most distant nations, and enabling us to procure, for Our accommodation or luxury, the pro- ductions of every climate. If science has now explored almost every region; if Politics and Philosophy have opened a communi- Çation between the remotest inhabitants of the globe; if alliances have been formed between the most distant tribes of mankind; if Traffic has explored the multifarious productions of the earth and Seas, and transported them from one country to another, and, if heathen lands and barbarous tribes have been “visited with the Day-spring from on high, and the knowledge of salvation,”—it is Owing to the aids derived from the science of the stars, without which the continents, the islands, and the different aspects of our globe would never have been explored by those who were separa- led from them by intervening oceans. This Science has been no less useful to AGRIC ULTURE, and to the cultivators of the earth. The Successful cultivation of the Soil depends on a knowledge of the course of the sun, the exact length of the seasons, and the periods of the year most proper for the opera- tions of tillage and sowing. The ancients were directed in these operations, in the first instance, by observing the courses of the moon, and that twelve rewolutions of this luminary corresponded nearly with one apparent revolution of the sun. But finding the coincidence not exact, and that the time of the seasons was chang- ing—in order to know the precise bounds of the sun's annual course, and the number of days corresponding to his apparent yearly revo- lution, they were obliged to examine with care what stars were successively obscured in the evening by the sun, or overpowered by the Splendour of his light, and what stars were beginning to emerge from his rays, and to re-appear before the dawn of the morning. By certain ingenious methods, and numerous and at- tentive observations, they traced out the principal stars that lay in the line of the Sun's apparent course, gave them certain names by which they might be afterwards distinguished, and then divided the circle of the heavens in which the sun appears to move, first into quadrants, and afterwards into 12 equal parts, now called the signs of the Zodiac, which they distinguished by names correspond- ing to certain objects and operations connected with the different seasons of the year. Such were the means requisite to be used for ascertaining the length of the year, and the commencement of the different seasons, and for directing the labours of the husbandman; —and, were the knowledge of these things to be obliterated by any extensive moral or physical convulsion, mankind would again be under the necessity of having recourse to astronomical observations for determining the limits of the solar year, and the course of the seasons. Although we find no difficulty, in the present day, and require no anxious observations, in determining the seasons, yet, before astronomical observations were made with some degree of accuracy, the ancient Greeks had to watch the rising of Arcturus the Pleiades and Orion, to mark their seasons, and to determine the INTRODUCTION. * X1 gº proper time for their agricultural labours. The rising of the star Sirius along with the sun, announced to the Egyptians the period when they might expect the owerflowing of the Nile, and, conse- quently, the time when they were to sow their grain, cut their ca- nals and reservoirs, and prepare the way for their expected harvest. The science of C H R O NOLOGY, likewise depends on celestial observations. The knowledge of an exact measure of time is of considerable importance in arranging and conducting the affairs of life, without which, society in its movements would soon run into confusion. For example, if we could not ascertain, within an hour or two, when an assembly or any concourse of human beings was to meet for an important purpose, all such purposes would soon be frustrated, and human improvement prevented. Our ideas of time or succession in du- ration, are derived from motion ; and in order to its being divi- ded into equal parts, the motions on which we fix as standards of time must be constant and uniform, or at least, that any slight de- viation from uniformity shall be capable of being ascertained. But we have no uniform motion on earth by which the lapse of duration can be accurately measured. Neither the flight of birds, • the motion of the clouds, the gentle breeze, the impetuous whirl- wind, the smooth-flowing river, the roaring cataract, the falling rain, nor even the flux and reflux of the ocean, regular as they generally are, could afford any certain standard for the measure of time. It is, therefore, to the motion of the celestial orbs alone that we can look for a standard of duration that is certain and inva- riable, and not liable to the changes that take place in all terrestrial movements. Those magnificent globes which roll around us in the canopy of the sky—whether their motions be considered as real or only apparent, move with an order and regularity which is not found in any physical agents connected with our globe; and when from this quarter we have derived any one invariable mea- sure of time, we can subdivide it into the minutest portions, to subserve all the purposes of civil life, and the improvements of science. Without the aids of astronomy, therefore, we should have had no accurate ideas of the lapse of time, and should have been obliged, like the rude savage of the desert, to compute our time by the falls of snow, the succession of rainy seasons, the melting of the 1ce, or the progress and decay of vegetation. *’ Celestial observations, in consequence of having ascertained a regular measure of time, have enabled us to fix chromological dates, and to determine the principal epochs of History. Many of those epochs were coincident with remarkable eclipses of the sun or moon, which the ancients regarded as prognostics of the loss of battles, the death of monarchs, and the fall of empires; and which are recorded in connexion with such events, where no dates are mentioned. The astronomer, therefore, knowing the invariable movements of the heavenly orbs, and calculating backwards through the past periods of time, can ascertain what remarkable eclipses must have been visible at any particular time and place, and con- sequently, can determine the precise date of contemporary events. xii 4& INTRODUCTION. Calvisius, for example, founds his Chronology on 144 eclipses o. the sun, and 127 of the moon, which he had calculated for the pur- pose of determining epochas and settling dates. The grand con- junction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, which occurs once in 800 years, in the same point of the zodiac, and which has happened only eight times since the Mosaic Creation, furnishes Chronology with incontestable proofs of the date of events, when such phenomena happen to be recorded. On such data, Sir Isaac Newton deter- mined the period when Thales the philosopher flourished, particu- larly from the famous eclipse which he predicted, and which hap- pened just as the two armies under Algattes, king of Lydia, and Cyaxares the Mede were engaged; and which has been calculated to have happened in the 4th year of the 43d Olympiad, or in the }. before Christ 603. On similar grounds Dr. Halley, a cele- rated astronomer of the last century, determined the very day and hour of the landing of Julius Cesar in Britain, merely from the circumstances stated in the “Commentaries” of that illustrious general. - Astronomy has likewise lent its aid to the PROPAGATION OF RELIGION, and the conversion of the heathen world. For, without the light derived from this celestial Science, oceans would never have been traversed, nor the continents and islands explored where benighted nations reside, and, consequently, no messengers of Peace could have been despatched to teach them “the knowledge of salvation, and to guide their steps in the way of peace.” But, with the direction afforded by the heavenly orbs and the magnetic needle, thousands of Christian missionaries, along with millions of bibles, may now be transported to the most distant continents and islands of the ocean, to establish among them the “Law and Testimony” of the Most High—to illume the darkness and counteract the moral abomina- tions and idolatries of the Pagan world. If the predictions of an- cient prophets are to be fulfilled; if the glory of Jehovah is to cover the earth; if “the isles aſar off,” that have not yet heard of the fame of the Redeemer, nor seen his glory, are to be visited with the “Day-spring from on high,” and enrolled among the citizens of Zion; if the world is to be regenerated, and Righteousness and Praise to spring forth before all nations—those grand events will be accomplished partly through the influence and direction of those celestial luminaries which are placed in the firmament to be for signs, and for seasons, and for days and years. The light reflected from the material heavens will lend its aidin illuminating the minds of the benighted tribes of mankind, till they be prepared for being transported into those celestial mansions where knowledge shall be perfected, and Sovereign power triumphant. It will be likewise from aid derived from the heavenly orbs that the desolate wastes of the globe in every region will be cultivated and replenished with inhabitants. For the Almighty “created not the earth in vain, but formed it to be inhabited ;” and his purpose in this respect must ul- timately be accomplished; and the process of peopling and cultiva- tion is now going forward in New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, * INTRODUCTION. xiii Africa, the Western States of America, and other regions where Sterility and desolation have prevailed since the universal Deluge. But how could colonies of men be transported from civilized na- tions to those distant regions unless by the guidance of celestial lu- minaries, and by the aid of those arts which are founded on the ob- servations of astronomy 3 So that this science exerts an extensiv and beneficial influence over the most important affairs of mankind. In short, astronomy, by unfolding to us the causes of certain ce- lestial phenomena, has tended to D IS SIP A T E SU P E R ST IT IO U S N OT I O N S and vain alarms. In former ages the approach of a blazing comet, or a total eclipse of the sun or moon, were regarded with universal consternation as prognostics of impending calamities, and as har- bingers of Divine vengeance. Å; even in the present day, such notions prevail among most of those nations and tribes that are un- acquainted with astronomical science. During the darkness occa- Sioned by a solar eclipse, the lower orders of Turkey have been seen assembling in clusters In the streets, gazing wildly at the sun, running about in wild distraction, and firing volleys of muskets at the sun to frighten away the monster by which they supposed it was about to be devoured. The Moorish song of #. or the howl they make for the dead, has been heard, on such occasions, resounding from the mountains and the vales, while the women brought into the streets all the brass pans, and vessels, and iron utensils they could collect, and striking them with all their force, and uttering dreadful screams, occasioned a horrid noise that was heard for miles around. But astronomy has put to flight such ter- rific phantoms and groundless alarms, by unfolding to us the true causes of all such phenomena, and showing us that they happen in exact conformity, with those invariable laws by which the Almighty conducts the machine of the universe—that eclipses are merely the effects of the shadow of one opaque globe ſalling upon another, and that comets are bodies which move in regular, but long elliptical orbits—which appear and disappear instated periods of time, and are destined to subserve some grand and beneficent designs in the sys- tem to which they belong. So that we may now contemplate all such celestial phenomena, not only with composure and tranquillity, but with exultation and delight. In short, astronomy has under- mined the absurd and fallacious notions by which the professors of Judicial Astrology have attempted to jº on the credulity of mankind, under pretence of disclosing the designs of Fate, and the events of futurity. It shows us, that the stars are placed at im- measurable distances from our terrestrial sphere—that they can have no influence upon the earth, but what arises from the law of universal gravitation—that the great end for which they were crea- ted was to diffuse light, and to perform other important services in regions infinitely distinct from the sphere we occupy—that the pla- nets are bodies of different sizes, and somewhat similar to the globe on which we live—that all their aspects and conjunctions are the result of physical laws which are regular and immutable—and that no data can be ascertained on yhich it can be proved that they ad xiv INTRODUCTION. exert a moral influence on the temperaments and destinies of men, except in so far as they tend to raise our affections to their Al- mighty Author, and excite us to confide in his care, and to contem- plate the effects of his wisdom and omnipotence. The heavens are set before us, not as the “Book of Fate,” in which we may pry into the secrets of our future destiny, which would only serve to destroy activity, and increase the pressure of our present afflictions —but as the “Book of God,” in which we may read his wondrous works, contemplate the glory of his eternal empire, and be excited to extend our views to those expansive scenes of endless ſelicity which awaii the faithful in the realms above. Independently of the considerations above stated, the study of as- tronomy is attended with many advantages in a moral, intellectual, and religious point of view. § 1. This department of science unfolds to us the most striking dis- plays of the perfections of the Deity—particularly the grandeur of his Omnipolence: His Wisdom is conspicuously displayed in the general arrangement of the heavenly orbs, particularly in reference to the globes which compose the solar system—in placing near the centre of this system that immense luminary the Sun, from whence light and heat might be distributed, in due proportion, to all the worlds that roll around it—in nicely proportionating the motions and distances of all the planets primary and secondary—in uniting them in one harmonious system, by one grand universal law which prevents them from flying off in wild confusion through the infini- ty of space—in tº e constancy and regularity of their motions, no one interfering with another, or deviating from the course pre- scribed—in the exactness with which they run their destined rounds, finishing their circuits with so much accuracy as not to de- viate from their periods of revolution, the hundredth part of a mi- nute in a thousand years—in the spherical figures given to all those mighty orbs, and the diurnal motions impressed upon them, by which a due proportion of light and heat is diffused over every part of their surface. The Benevolence of the Deity shines no less con- spicuous in those upper regions, in ordering all the movements and arrangements of the celestial globes so as to act in subserviency to the comfort and happiness of senticnt and intelligent beings. For, the wisdom of God is never employed in devising means without an end; and the grand end of all his arrangements, in so far as our views extend, is the communication of happiness; and it would be inconsistent with the wisdom and other perfections of God not to admit, that the same end is kept in view in every part of his domin- ions, however far removed from the sphere of our contemplation. The heavens, therefore, must be considered as presenting a bound- less scene of Divine benevolence. For they unfold to view a count- less number of magnificent globes, calculated to be the habitations of various orders of beings, and which are, doubtless, destined to be the abodes of intellectual life. For the character of the Deity would be impeached, and his wisdom virtually denied, were we to Sup- pose him to arrange and establish a magnificent series of means without an end corresponding, in utility and dignity, to the gran- deur of the contrivance. When, therefore, we consider the innu- INTRODUCTION. XV merable worlds which must exist throughout the immensity of space, the countless myriads of intelligences that people them, the various ranks and orders of intellect that may exist among them, the innumerable diversified arrangements which are made for pro- moting their enjoyment, and the peculiar displays of Divine benig- nity enjoyed in every world—we are presented with a scene of Di- vine goodness and beneficence which overpowers our conceptions, and throws completely into the shade all that we perceive or enjoy within the confines of this sublunary world. And, although the minute displays of Divine benevolence in distant worlds are not yet particularly unfolded to our view, yet this circumstance does not prove that no such displays exist;-and as we are destined to an immortal life, in another region of creation, we shall, doubtless, be favoured with a more expansive view of the effects of Divine . benignity in that eternal scene which lies before us. ſ' But this science exhibits a more striking display than any other of the Omnipotent emergies of the Eternal Mind. It presents before us objects of overpowering magnitude and splendour—planetary globes a thousand times larger than the earth—magnificent rings which would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and would enclose within their vast circumference 500 worlds as large as ours—suns a million times larger than this earthly ball, diffusing their light over distant worlds—and these Suns scattered in every direction through the immensity of space, at immeasurable distances 'from each other, and in multitudes of groups which no man can number, presenting to the eye and the imagination a perspective of starry systems, boundless as immensity.—It presents to our view motions so astonishing as to overpower and almost terrify the ima- gination—bodies a thousand times larger than the earth flying with a velocity of 29,000 miles an hour, performing circuits more than three thousand millions of miles in circumference, and carrying along with them a retinue of revolving worlds in their swift career; nay, motions, at the rate of 880,000 miles an hour, have been per- ceived among the celestial orbs, which as far surpass the motions we behold around us in this lower world, as the heavens in height surpass the earth. Such motions are perceived not only in the so- lar system, but in the most distant regions of the universe, among double stars—they are regular and uninterrupted—they have been going forward for thousands, perhaps for millions of years—there is perhaps no body in the universe but is running its round with similar velocity; and it is not unlikely that the whole machine of universal nature is in perpetual motion amidst the spaces of immen- sity, and will continue thus to move throughout all the periods of endless duration. Such objects and such motions evidently displa the omnipotence of the Creator beyond every other scene whic creation presents; and, when seriously contemplated, cannot but inspire us with the most lofty and impressive conceptions of the “eternal power” and majesty of Him who sits on the throne of the universe, and by whom all its mighty movements are conducted. They demonstrate, that his agency is universal and uncontrollable —that he is able to accomplish all his designs, however incompre- hensible to mortals—that no created being can frustrate his pur- xvi INTRODUCTION. poses, and that he is worthy of our highest affection, and our inces- sant adoration. 2. Astronomy displays before us the extent and grandeur of God's wniversal empire. #. globe we inhabit, with all its appendages, forms a portion of the Divine empire, and, when minutely investi- gated, exhibits a striking display of its Creator's power, benignity, and intelligence. But it forms only one small province of his uni- versal dominions—an almost undistinguishable speck in the great map of the universe: and if we confine our views solely to the lim- its of this terrestrial ball, and the events which have taken place on its surface, we must form a very mean and circumscribed idea of the extent of the Creator's kingdom and the range of his moral go- vernment. But the discoveries of astronomy have extended our views to other provinces of the empire of Omnipotence, far more spacious and magnificent. They demonstrate, that this earth, with all its vast oceans and mighty continents, and numerous population, ranks among the smaller provinces of this empire—that the globes composing the system to which it belongs, (without including the sun,) contain an extent of territory more than two thousand times larger than our world—that the sun himself is more than 500 times larger than the whole, and that, although they were all at this mo- ment buried in oblivion, they would scarcely be missed by an eye that could survey the whole range of creation.—They demonstrate, that ten thousands of suns, and ten thousand times ten thousands OI revolving worlds are dispersed throughout every region of bound- less space, displaying the creating and supporting energies of Om- nipotence; and consequently, are all under the care and superin- tendence of Him “who doth according to his will in the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth.” Such an empire, and such only, appears corresponding to the perfections of Him who has existed from eternity past, whose power is irresistible, whose goodness is unbounded, and whose presence fills the immen- sity of space; and it leads us to entertain the most exalted senti- ments of admiration at the infinite intelligence implied in the super- tntendence of such vast dominions, and at the boundless beneficence displayed among the countless myriads of sensitive and intellectual beings which must people his wide domains. 3. The objects º; this science discloses, afford subjects of Sub- lime contemplation, and tend to elevate the soul above vicious passions and grovelling pursuits. In the hours of retirement and solitude What can be more delightful, than to wing our way in Imagination amidst the splendid objects which the firmament displays—to take our flight along with the planets in their wide career—to behold them running their ample founds with velocities forty times swifter than a cannon ball—to survey the assemblages of their moons, re- volving around them in their respective orders, and carried at the same time, along with their primaries, through the depths of space —to contemplate the magnificent arches which adorn the firmament cf Saturn, whirling round that planet at the rate of a thousand miles in a minute, and displaying their radiance and majestic movements to an admiring population—to add scene to scene, and magnitude to magnitude, till the mind acquire an ample conception of such INTRODUCTION. xvin august objects—to dive into the depths of infinite space till we be surrounded with myriads of suns and systems of worlds, extending beyond the range of mortal comprehension, and all running their appointed rounds, and accomplishing the designs of beneficence in obedience to the mandate of their almighty Author Such objects afford matter for rational conversation, and for the most elevated contemplation. In this ample field the most luxuriant imagination may range at large, representing scenes and objects in endless va- riety and extent; and, after its boldest excursions, it can scarcely go beyond the reality of the magnificent objects which exist within the range of creating power and intelligence. The frequent contemplation of such objects tends to enlarge the capacity of the mind, to ennoble the human faculties, and raise the soul above grovelling affections and vicious pursuits. For the dis- positions of mankind and their active pursuits generally correspond to the train of thought in which they most frequently indulge. If these thoughts run among puerile and vicious objects, such will be the general character of their affections and conduct. If their train of thinking take a more elevated range, the train of their actions and the passions they display, will, in some measure, be correspond- ent. Can we suppose, that a man whose mind is daily conversant with the noble and expansive objects to which I have adverted, would have his soul absorbed in the pursuits of ambition, tyranny, slavery and oppression, war and devastation ? Would he rush like a madman through burning cities, and the mangled carcasses of the slain, in order to trample under foot the rights of mankind, and to enjoy a proud pre-eminence over his fellows—and find pleasure in such accursed pursuits’; Would he ſawn on statesmen and princes, and violate every moral principle in order to obtain a pen- sign or a post of opulence or honour ! Would he drag his fellow men to the stake, because they worshipped God according to the dictates of their consciences, and behold with pleasure their bodies roasting in the flames? Would he drive men, women and children from their homes, loaded with chains and fetters, to pine in misery and to perish in a distant land, merely because they asserted the rights to which they were entitled as citizens and as rational beings? Would he command the poor slave to be torn and lacerated by the infernal whip, and to be hunted and shot down like a beast of prey, and prosecute, without remorse, such a system of cruelty and in- justice Or, would he degrade himself below the level of the brutes by a daily indulgence in rioting and drunkenness, till his faculties were benumbed, and his body found wallowing in the mire? It is scarcely possible to suppose that such passions and conduct would he displayed by the man who is habitually engaged in celestial con- templations, and whose mind is familiar with the august objects which the firmament displays. As a learned American professor has observed,—“If men were taught to act in view of all the bright worlds which are looking down upon them, they could not be guilty of those abominable cruelties towards their species” which the scenes of slavery so mournfully display. We should then expect, that the iron rod of oppression would be broken in pieces—that war would cease its horrors and devastations—that liberty would be * xviii * INTRODUCTION. proclaimed to the captives—that “righteousness would run down our streets as a river,” and a spirit congenial to that of the inhabit- ants of heaven would be displayed by the rulers of mations, and by all the families of the earth. For all the scenes which the firma- ment exhibits have a tendency to inspire tranquillity—to produce a love of harmony and order, to stain the pride of human grandeur- to display the riches of Divine beneficence—to excite admiration and reverence—and to raise the soul to God as the Supreme Director of universal nature, and the source and centre of all true enjoy- ment;-and such sentiments and affections are directly opposed to the degrading pursuits and passions which have contaminated the Society of our world, and entailed misery on our species. I might have added, on this head, that the study of this subject has a peculiar tendency to sharpen and invigorate the mental fac- ulties. It requires a considerable share of gitention and of intel- lectual acumen to enter into all the particulafs connected with the principles and facts of astronomical science. The elliptical form of the planetary orbits, and the anomalies thence arising, the muta- tion of the earth's axis, the causes of the seasons, the difficulty of reconciling the apparent motions of the planets with their real mo- tions in circular or elliptical orbits, the effects produced by centri- fugal and centripetal forces, the precession of the equinoxes, the ab- erration of light, the method of determining the distances and mag- litudes of the celestial bodies, mean and apparent time, the irregu- larity of the moon's motion, the difficulty of forming adequate ideas of the immense spaces in which the heavenly bodies move, and their enormous size, and various other particulars, are apt, at first view, to startle and embarrass the mind, as if they were beyond the reach of its comprehension. But, when this science is imparted to the young under the guidance of enlightened instructors—when they are shown not merely pictures, globes and orreries, but direct- ed to observe with their own eyes, and with the assistance of teles- copes, all the interesting phenomena of the heavens, and the mo- tions which º whether real or apparent—when they are shown the spots of the sun, the moons and belts of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the rings of Saturn, and the mountains and vales which diversify the surface of the moon—such objects tend to awaken the attention, to expand the faculties, to produce a taste for rational in- vestigation, and to excite them to more eager and diligent inquiries into the subject. The objects appear so grand and novel, and strike the senses with so much force and pleasure, that the mind is irre- sistibly led to exert all its energies in those investigations and ob- servations by which it may be enabled to grasp all the principles and facts of the science. And every difficulty which is surmounted adds a new stimulus to the exertions of the intellect, urges it for- ward with delight in the path of improvement, and thus invigorates the mental powers, and prepares them for engaging with spirit and alacrity in every other investigation. ( 4. The study of astronomy has a tendency to moderate the pride of man, and to promote humility.) Pride is one of the distinguishing characteristics of puny man, and has been one of the chief causes of all thé contentions, wars, devastations, oppressions, systems of INTRODUCTION. XIX slavery, despotisms, and ambitious projects which have desolated and demoralized our sinful world. Yet there is no disposition more incongruous to the character and circumstances of man. Perhaps there are no rational beings throughout the universe among whom pride would appear more unseemly or incompatible than in man; considering the abject situation in which he is placed. He is ex- posed to innumerable degradations and calamities, to the rage of storms and tempests, the devastations of earthquakes and volcanoes, the fury of whirlwinds, and the tempestuous billows of the ocean, the ravages of the sword, pestilence, famine, and numerous dis eases, and, at length, he must sink into the grave, and his body be- come the companion of worms. The most dignified and haughty of the sons of men are liable to such degradations, and are frequent- ly dependent on the meanest fellow creatures whom they despise, for the greater part of their accommodations and comforts. Yet, in such circumstances, man, that puny worm of the dust, whose knowledge is so limited, whose follies are so numerous and glaring —has the effrontery to strut in all the haughtiness of pride, and to glory in his shame. When scriptural arguments and motives pro- duce little effect, I know no considerations which have a more pow- erful tendency to counteract this deplorable Fº of human beings than those which are borrowed from the objects connected with astronomy. They show us what an insignificant being—what a mere atom, indeed, man appears amidst the immensity of crea- tion: What is the whole of this globe, compared with the solar sys- tem, which contains a mass of matter ten hundred thousand times greater q What is it in comparison of the hundred millions of suns and worlds which the telescope has descried throughout the starry regions, or of that infinity of worlds which doubtless lie beyond the range of human vision in the unexplored regions of immensity ? What, then, is a kingdom, or a province, or a baronial territory, of which we are as proud as if we were the lords of the universe, and for which we engage in so much devastation and carnage What are they when set in competition with the glories of the sky | Could we take our station on the lofty pinnacles of heaven, and look down on this scarcely distinguishable speck of earth, we should be ready to exclaim with Seneca, “Is it to this little spot that the great de- signs and vast desires of men are confined 7 Is it for this there is so much disturbance of nations, so much carnage, and so many ru- inous wars? O folly of deceived men, to imagine great kingdoms in the compass of an atom, to raise armies to divide a point of earth with the sword!” It is unworthy of the dignity of an immortal mind to have its affections absorbed in the vanishing splendours of earthly grandeur, and to feel proud of the paltry possessions and distinctions of this sublunary scene. To foster a spirit of pride and vainglory in the presence of Him who “sitteth on the circle of the heavens,” and in the view of the overwhelming grandeur and im- mensity of his works, is a species of presumption and arrogance of which every rational mind ought to feel ashamed. And, therefore, we have reason to believe, that those multitudes of fools, “dressed in a little brief authority,” who walk in all the loftiness of pride, have not yet considered the rank they hold in the scale of universal XX INTRODUCTION. being;-and that a serious contemplation of the immensity of crea- tion would have a tendency to convince us of our ignorance and nothingness, and to humble us in the dust, in the presence of the Former and Preserver of all worlds. We have reason to believe that the most exalted beings in the universe—those who are fur- nished with the most capacious powers, and who have arrived at the greatest perfection in knowledge—are distinguished by a pro- portional share of humility; for, in proportion as they advance in their surveys of the universal kingdom of Jehovah, the more will they feel their comparative ignorance, and be convinced of their limited faculties, and of the infinity of objects and operations which lie beyond their ken. At the same time they will feel, that all the faculties they possess were derived from Him who is the original fountain of existence, and are continually dependent for their exer- cise on his sustaining energy. Hence we find, that the angelic tribes are eminently distinguished for the exercise of this heavenly virtue. They “cover their faces with their wings” in the presence of their Sovereign, and fly, with cheerfulness, at his command, to our degraded world, “to minister to the heirs of Salvation.” It is only in those worlds where ignorance and depravity prevail (if there be any such besides our own) that'such a principle as pride is known or cherished in the breast of a dependent creature—and therefore every one in whom it predominates, however high his station or worldly accomplishments, or however abject his condition may be, must be considered as either ignorant or depraved, or more prop- erly, as having both those evils existing in his constitution, the one being the natural and necessary result of the other. 5. The studies connected with astronomy tend to prepare the soul for the employments of the future world. In that world, the glory of the Divine perfections, as manifested throughout the illimitable tracts of creation, is one of the objects which unceasingly employ the contemplation of the blessed. For they are represented in their ado- rations as celebrating the attributes of the Deity displayed in his operations: “Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Al- mighty thou art worthy to receive glory and honour and power, for thou hast created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and were created.” Before we can enter that world and mingle with its inhabitants, we must acquire a relish for their employments, and some acquaintance with the objects which form the subject of their sublime investigations; otherwise, we could feel no enjoyment in the society of heavenly intelligences, and the exercises in which they engage. The investigations connected with astronomy, and the frequent contemplation of its objects, have a tendency to pre- pare us for such celestial employments, as they awaken attention to such subjects, as they invigorate the faculties, and enlarge the ca- pacity of the intellect, as they suggest sublime inquiries, and desires for further information which may afterwards be gratified; as they form the groundwork of the progress we may afterwards make in that state in our surveys of the Divine operations, and as they ha- bituate the mind to take large and comprehensive views of the em- pire and moral government of the Almighty. Those who have made progress in such studies, under the influence of holy disposi- & INTRODUCTION XX1 * tions, may be considered as fitted to enter heaven with peculiar ad- vantages, as they will then be introduced to employments and inves- tigations to which they were formerly accustomed, and for which they were prepared—in consequence of which they may be preparedſ for filling stations of superior eminence in that world, and for di- recting the views and investigations of their brethren who enjoyed few opportunities of instruction and improvement in the present state. For we are informed, in the º records, that “they who are wise,” or as the words should be rendered, “they who excel in wisdom shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to righteousness, as the stars for ever and ever.” 6. The researches of astronomy demonstrate, that it is in the power of the Creator to open to his intelligent offspring endless sour- ces of felicity. In looking forward to the scene of our future desti- nation, we behold a series of ages rising in succession without any prospect of a termination; and, at first view, it might admit of a doubt, whether the universe presents a scene so diversified and boundless, that intelligent beings, during an endless duration, could expect that new scenes of glory and felicity might be continually opening to their view, or, whether the same series of perceptions and enjoyments might not be reiterated so as to produce satiety and indifference. Without attempting positively to decide on the par- ticular scenes or sources of happiness that may be opened in the eternal world, it may be admitted, that the Deity has it in his power to gratify his rational creatures, during every period of duration, with new objects and new sources of enjoyment; and, that it is the science of astronomy alone which has presented us with a demon- stration, and a full illustration of this important truth. For, it has displayed before us a universe boundless in its extent, diversified as to its objects, and infinite as to their number and variety. Even within the limits of human vision the number of worlds which exist cannot be reckoned less than three thousand millions ; and those which are nearest to us, and subject to our particular examination, present varieties of different kinds, both as to magnitude, motion, splendour, colour and diversity of surface—evidently indicating, that every world has its peculiar scenes of beauty and grandeur. But, as no one will be so presumptuous as to assert, that the bound- aries of the universe terminate at the limits of human vision, there may be an assemblage of creation beyond all that is visible to us, which as far exceeds the visible system as the vast ocean exceeds in magnitude a single drop of water; and this view is nothing more! than compatible with the idea of a Being whose creating energies are infinite, and whose presence fills immensity.' Here, then, we have presented to our contemplation a boundless scene, correspond- ing in variety, and extent of space, to the ages of an endless dura- tion; so that we can conceive an immortal mind expatiating amidst objects of benignity, sublimity and grandeur, ever varied and ever new, throughout an eternal round of existence, without ever arri- ving at a point, where it might be said, “Hitherto shalt thou come, but no farther.” And we have reason to conclude that such will be the privilege and enjoyment of all holy beings. For we are in- ; on the authority of inspiration, that “in God’s presence XXIl INTRODUCTION. there is fulness of joy, and at his right hand are pleasures for ever 7more.” 7. The science of astronomy is a study which will be prosecuted without intermission in the eternal world. This may be inferred from what has been already stated. For, it is chiefly among the numerous worlds dispersed throughout the universe that God is seen, his perfections manifested, and the plans of his moral govern- ment displayed before the eyes of unnumbered intelligences. The heavens constitute by far the grandest and most extensive portion of the empire of Omnipotence ; and if it shall be one part of the happiness of immortal spirits to behold and investigate the beauty, grandeur and beneficence displayed throughout this empire, we may rest assured, that they will be perpetually employed in such exercises; since the objects of their investigation are boundless as immensity;-or, in other words, astronomy, among other branches of celestial Science, will be their unceasing study and pursuit. As it has for its object, to investigate the motions, relations, phenomena, scenery, and the ultimate destination of the great bodies of the uni- verse, the subject can never be exhausted. Whatever may be said in regard to the absolute perfection of other sciences, astronomy can never be said, at any future period of duration, to have arrived at perfection, in so far as it is a subject of study to finite minds; and, at this moment, even in the view of the Infinite Mind that created the universe, its objects may not yet be completed. For we have reason to believe that the work of creation is still going forward, and, con- sequently, that new worlds and systems may be continually emerg- ing from nothing under the energies of Creating Power. However capacious, therefore, the intellects of good men, in a future world, may be, they will never be able fully to explore the extent and va- riety, “the riches and glory” of Him “who dwells in light unap- proachable;”—yea, the most exalted of created intelligences, where. ever existing, although their mental powers and activities were incomparably superior to those of man, will be inadequate to a full investigation and comprehension of the grandeur and sublimities of that kingdom which extends throughout the regions of immensity. And this circumstance will constitute one ingredient of their hap- piness, and a security for its permanency. For, at every period of infinite duration, they will be enabled to look forward to a suc- cession of scenes, objects and enjoyments different from all they had previously contemplated or experienced, without any prospect of a termination. We may therefore conclude, that, unless the material universe be demolished, and the activities of immortal minds suspended, the objects of astronomy will continue throughout eternity to be the subject of study, and of unceasing contemplation. Such are some of the advantages attending the study of the sci- ence of astronomy. It lies at the foundation of our geographical knowledge—it serves as a handmaid and director to the traveller and navigator—it is subservient to the purposes of universal com- merce—it determines the seasons, and directs the operations of the husbandman—it supplies us with an equable standard of time, and settles the events of history—it lends its aid to the propagation of re- ligion, and undermines the foundation of superstition and astrology. INTRODUCTION. xxiii Above all, it illustrates the glory of the perfections of the Deity-– displays the extent and grandeur of his universal empire—affords subjects of Sublime contemplation, enlarges the conceptions, and in- vigorates the mental powers—counteracts the influence of pride, and promotes the exercise of humility—prepares the soul for the employments of the futpure j". demonstrates, that the Cre- ator has it in his power to open up endlessly diversified sources of happiness to every order of * intelligent offspring, throughout all the revolutions of eternity. The moral advantages arising from the study of this Science, however, cannot be appreciated or enjoyed, unless such studies and investigations be prosecuted in connexion with the facts and principles of Revelation. But, when associated with the study of the Scriptures, and the character of God therein delineated, and the practice of Christian precepts, they are calcula- ted “to make the man of God perfect,” to enlarge his conceptions of Divine perfection, and to expand his views of “the inheritance of the saints in light.” Such being the advantages to be derived from the study of this science, it ought to form a subject of attention in every seminary intended for the mental and moral improvement of mankind. In order to the improvement of the young in this science, and that its objects may make a deep impression on their minds, they should be directed to make frequent observations, as opportunity offers, on the movements of the nocturnal heavens, and to ascertain all the facts which are obvious to the eye of an attentive spectator. And, while they mark the different constellations, the apparent diurnal motion of the celestial vault, the planets in their several courses, and the moon walking in her brightness among the host of stars— they should be indulged with views of the rings of Saturn, the belts and satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Mercury and Venus, the numerous groups of stars in the Milky Way, the double and treble stars, the most remarkable Nebulae, the mountains and plains, the caverns and circular ridges of hills which diversify the surface of the moon, as they appear through good achromatic or reflecting telescopes. Without actual observation, and the exhibition of such interesting objects, the science of astronomy makes, comparatively, little impression on the mind. Our school books on astronomy should be popular in their lang", ge and illustrations, but, at the same time, they should be comprehensive in their details, and every exhibition should be clear and well defined. They should contain, not merely descriptions of facts, to be received on the authority of the author or the instructer, but illustrations of the reasons or argu- ments on which the conclusions of astronomy are founded, and of . the modes by which they have been ascertained. And, while pla– netariums, celestial globes, and planispheres of the heavens are ex- hibited, care should be taken to direct the observations of the pupils as frequently as possible, to the objects themselves, and to guard them against the limited and distorted notions which all kinds of artificial representations have a tendency to convey. There is still room for improvement in all the initiatory books on this subject I have examined; but such books are now rapidly improving, both as to their general plan, and the interesting nature xxiv. INTRODUCTION. of their details. I have seen nothing superior in this respect, or better adapted to the purpose of rational instruction, than Mr. Bur: rett's excellent work entitled “The Geography of the Heavens,” second edition, comprising 342 closely printed pages. . It contains, in the first place, a full and interesting description of all the con- stellations, and principal stars in the heavens, interspersed with a great variety of mythological, historical and philosophical informa- tion, calculated to amuse and instruct the general reader, and to arrest the attention of the young. The descriptions of the bodies connected with the solar system, are both popular and scientific, containing a lucid exhibition of the facts which have been ascer- tained respecting them, and a rational explanation of the phenomena connected with their various aspects and motions. The Celestial Atlas which accompanies the work is varied, comprehensive, and judiciously constructed, and forms the most complete set of planis- heres, for the purpose of teaching, which has hitherto been pub- ished. It consists of four maps about fourteen inches square, de- lineated on the same principles as geographical projections, exhi- biting the stars that pass near the meridian at a certain hour, along with the circumjacent constellations for every month, and for every day of the year. Besides these there are two circumpolar maps of the northern and southern hemispheres of the heavens, and a pla- nisphere on the principle of Mercator's projection, which exhibits at one view the sphere of the heavens, and the relative positions of the different constellations and principal stars. With the assistance of these maps, which in a great measure supersede the use of a cclestial globe, an intelligent teacher may, at certain intervals in the course of a year, render his pupils familiar with most of the visible stars in the heavens; and they will make a deeper impres- sion on their minds when taught in this way, than by the use of a globe. This work, on the whole, indicates great industry and re- search on the part of the author, and a familiar acquaintance with thé various departments of the science of the heavens. He has de- rived his materials from the most valuable and modern works of science, and has introduced not a few illustrations and calculations of his own, which tend to enhance the general utility of the work. The moral and religious reflections which the objects of this science naturally suggest, have not been overlooked, and, I trust, will have a tendency to raise the minds of the young to that Almighty Being whose power, wisdom, and superintending providence are so stri- kingly displayed throughout the regions of the firmament. PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. IN entering upon this study, the phenomena of the heavens, as they appear in a clear evening, are the first objects that demand our attention. Our first step is to learn the names and positions of the heavenly bodies, so that we can identify, and distinguish them from each other. In this manner, they were observed a nd studied ages before. books were written, and it was only after many, careful and repeated observations, that systems and theories of Astronomy were formed. To the visible heavens, then, the attention of the pupil should be first directed, for it is only when he shall have become in some measure, familiar with them, that he will be able to locate his Astronomical knowledge, or fully comprehend the terms of the science. For the sake of convenient reference, the heavens were early divided into constellations, and particular names assign- ed to the constellations and to the stars which they contain. A constellation may be defined to be a cluster or group of stars embraced in the outline of some figure.” These figures are in many cases, creations of the imagination, but in others, the stars are in reality so arranged as to form figures which have some resemblance to the objects whose names have been as- signed to them. . These divisions of the celestial sphere, bear a striking analogy to the civil divisions of the globe. The constellations answer to states and kingdoms, the most brilliant clusters to towns and cities, and the number of stars in each, to their respective population. The pupil can trace the boundaries of any constel- lation, and name all its stars, one by one, as readily as he can trace the bounda- ries of a state, or name the towns and cities from a map of New England. In this sense, there may be truly said to be a Geography of the Heavens. The stars are considered as forming, with reference to their magnitudes, six classes; the brightest being called stars of the first magnitude, the next brightest, stars of the second magnitude, and so on to the sixth class, which consists of the smallest stars visible to the naked eye, In order to be able Why, in entering upon the study of Astronomy, should the attention of the pupil be first directed to the visible heavens? Why were the heavens early divided into con- . stellations, and names assigned to the constellations and the stars What is a con- stellation? Do these figures really exist in the skies? In what sense 2ndy there truly be said to be a Geography of the Heavens 2 How many classes are the stars considered as forming with reference to their magnitude. *...* tº 26 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. to designate, with precision their situations, imaginary circles have been considered as drawn in the heavens, most of which correspond to and are in the same plane with similar circles, supposed, for similar purposes, to be drawn on the surface of the Earth. In order to facilitate the study of it, artificial representations of the heavens, similar to those of the surface of the Earth, have been made. Thus, a Celestial Atlas, composed of se- veral maps, accompanies this work. Before, however, pro- ceeding to explain its use, it is necessary to make the pupil acquainted with the imaginary circles alluded to above. CIRCLEs of THE SPHERE.—The Aaris of the Earth is an imaginary line, passing through its centre, north and south, about which its diurnal revolution is performed. The Poles of the Earth are the extremities of its axis. The Aaris of the Heavens is the axis of the Earth pro- duced both ways to the concave surface of the heavens. The Poles of the Heavens are the extremities of their axis. The Equator of the Earth is an imaginary great circle passing round the Earth, east and west, everywhere equally distant from the poles, and dividing it into northern and southern hemispheres. The Equator of the Heavens, or Equinoctial, is the great circle formed on the concave surface of the heavens, by pro- ducing the plane of the Earth’s equator. . . A plane is that which has surface but not thickness. The plane of a circle is that imaginary superficies which is bounded by the circle. The Rational Horizon is an imaginary great circle, whose plane, passing through the centre of the Earth, divides the heavens into two hemispheres, of which the upper one is called the visible hemisphere, and the lower one, the invisi- ble hemisphere. It is the plane of this circle which deter- mines the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies. The Sensible or Apparent Horizon, is the circle which terminates our view, where the Earth and sky appear to meet. To a person standing on a plain, this circle is but a few miles in diameter. If the eye be elevated five feet, the radius of the sensible horizon will be less than two miles and three quarters; if the eye be elevated six feet, it will be just three miles. The observer being always in the centre of the sensible horizon, it will ºve as he moves, and enlarge or contract, as his station is elevated or depress- € - ~ What expedient has been devised for designating, with precision, the situations of the heavenly bodies?, What is the axis of the Earth? What are the poles of the Earth? What is the axis of the heavens? What are the poles of the heavens? What is the equator of the Earth? What is the equator of the heavens or the equinoctial? What is a plane? What is the plane of a circle? What is the rational horizon? What is the sensible or apparent horizon? What is the diameter of this circle to a yer; Stand- Žng on a gloº. 2 What will its radius be if the eye be elevated five feet? If it be ele- wated six feet? On what does the place of its centre and its circumference depend? PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 27 The Poles of the Horizon are two points, of which the one is directly over head, and is called the Zenith : the other is directly under foot, and is called the Nadir. Vertical Circles are circles drawn through the Zenith and Nadir of any place, cutting the horizon at right angles. The Prime Vertical is that which passes through the east and west points of the horizon. The Ecliptic is the great circle which the Sun appears to describe annually among the stars. It crosses the Equinoc- tial, a little obliquely, in two opposite points which are called the Equinores. The Sun rises in one of these points on the 21st of March ; this point is called the Vernal Equinox. It sets in the opposite point on the 23d of September; this point is called the Autumnal Equinox. One half of the ecliptic lies on the north side of the Equinoctial, the other half on the south side, making an angle with it of 23#9. This angle is called the obliquity of the Ecliptic. The axis of the Eclip- tic makes the same angle with the axis of the heavens; so that the poles of each are 2349 apart. This angle is perpetually decreasing. At the commencement of the Christian era, it was about 23°45'. At the beginning of 1836, it was only 23° 27' 38 º’, show- ing an annual diminution of about half a second, or 45’’.70 in a hundred years. A time will arrive, however, when this angle, having reached its minimum, will again increase in the same ratio that it had before diminished, and thus it will continue to oscillate at long periods, between certain limits, which are said to be comprised within the space of 20°42'. - The ecliptic, like every other circle, contains 360°, and it i divided into 12 equal arcs of 30° each, called signs, which the ancients distinguished by particular names. This division commences at the vernal equinox, and is continued east- wardly round to the same point again, in the following order: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scor- po, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces. The Sun, commencing at the first degree of Aries, about the 21st of March, passes, at a mean rate, through one sign every month. The Zodiac is a zone or girdle, about 16 degrees in breadth, extending quite round the heavens, and including all the heavenly bodies within 89 on each side of the ecliptic. It in- cludes, also, the orbits of all the planets, except some of the asteroids, since they are never seen beyond 89 either north or south of the écliptic. : Parallels of Latitude are small circles imagined to be What are the poles of the horizon? What are vertical circles? What is the prime vertical? NWhat is the ecliptic? What are the equinoxes? The vernal equinox? The autumnal equinox? How is the ecliptic situated with respect to the equinoctial? What is the obliquity of the ecliptic P. Describe the manner in which this angle varies. De- 3cribe the division of the ecliptic into signs. How much, at a mean rate, does the Sun †: in the ecliptic every month 3 "What is the zodiac What are parallels of atitude 3 ** 28 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. drawn on the Earth’s surface, north and south of the equator, and parallel to it. Parallels of Declination are small circles, imagined to be drawn on the concave surface of the heavens, north and south of the equinoctial, and parallel to it; or they may be consid- ered as circles formed by producing the parallels of latitude to the heavens. The Tropic of Cancer is a small circle, which lies 234° north of the equinoctial, and parallel to it. The Tropic of Capricorn is a small circle, which lies 23#9 south of the equinoctial, and parallel to it. On the celestial sphere, these two circles mark the limits of the Sun’s farthest declination north and south. On the terrestial sphere, they divide the torrid, from the two temperate zones. That point in the ecliptic which touches the tropic of Cancer, is called the Sum- tner Solstice; and that point in the ecliptic which touches the tropic of Capricorn, is called the Winter Solstice. The distance of these two points from the equinoctial, is always equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, which, in round numbers, is 23c.9; but as we have seen the obliquity of the ecliptic is continually changing; therefore the position of the tropics must make a correspondent change. The Colures are two great circles which pass through the poles of the heavens, dividing the ecliptic into four equal parts, and mark the seasons of the year. One of them passes through the equinoxes at Aries and Libra, and is thence called the Equinoctial Colure; the other passes through the solstitial points or the points of the Sun’s greatest declination north and south, and is thence called the Solstitial Colure. The Sun is in the equinoctial points the 21st of March and the 23d of Septem- ber. He is in the solstitial points the 22d of June and the 22d of December. The Polar Circles are two small circles, each about 66;o from the equator, being always at the same distance from the poles that the tropics are from the equator. The northern is called the Arctic circle, and the southern the Antarctic circle. Meridians are imaginary great circles drawn through the poles of the world, cutting the equator and the equinoctial at right angles. Every place on the Earth, and every corresponding point in the heavens, is considered as having a meridian passing through it; although astronomers apply * , § What are parallels of declination? What is the tropic of cancer? What is the tropic of Capricorn? What is the summer solstice? What is the winter solstice? What is their distance from the equator, compared with the obliquity of the ecliptic 2 Is this distance glºbays the same?” What are the colures? What is the equinoctial colure? What is th9 Solstitial colure? . On what days of the year is the sun in the equinoctial UQirits? Qh what days, is he in the solstitial points? What are the polar circles?, By what names, are they distinguished? What are meridians? How many meridians are there? How many, do astronomers apply to the heavens 2 .* *~. s * * * & º PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 29 but 24 to the heavens, thus dividing the whole concave surface into 24 sections, each 150 in width. These meridians mark the space which the heavenly bodies appear to describe, every hour, for the 24 hours of th y. They are thence sometimes denominated Hour Circles. In measuring distances and determining positions on the Earth, the equator, and some fixed meridian, as that of Greenwich, contain the primary starting points; in the heavens, these points are in the ecliptic, the equinoctial, and that #. ºlian which passes through the first point of Aries, called the equinoc- tial colure. Latitude on the Earth, is distance north or south of the equator, and is measured on a meridian. Latitude in the Heavens, is distance north or south of the ecliptic, and at right angles with it. Longitude on the Earth, is distance either east or west from some fixed meridian, measured on the equator. Longitude in the Heavens, is distance east from the first point of Aries, measured on the ecliptic. Declimation is the distance of a heavenly body either north or south of the equinoctial, measured on a meridian. Right Ascension is the distance of a heavenly body east from the first point of Aries, measured on the equinoctial. It is more convenient to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their declination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude, since the former correspond to terrestrial latitude and longitude. Latitude and declination may extend 90° and no more. Terrestrial longitude may extend 180° either east or west; but celestial longitude and right ascen- sº being reckoned in only one direction, extend entirely round the circle, or 360°. In consequence of the Earth’s motion eastward in its orbit, the stars seem to have a motion westward, besides their apparent diurnal motion caused by the Earth's revolution on its axis; so that they rise and set sooner every succeeding day by about four minutes, than they did on the preceding. This is called their daily acceleration. It amounts to just two hours a month. ExAMPLE.—Those stars and constellations which do not rise until 10 o’clock this evening, will, at the same hour, one month hence, be 30° above the horizon; and, for the same reason, those stars which we see directly over head this evening, will at the same hour, three months ºnce, be seen setting in the id: having in this time, performed one fourth of their apparent annual revo- ution. ar The following table of sidereal revolutions, shows the difference between solar and sidereal time. The first column contains the numbers of complete revolu- tions of the stars, or of the Earth's rotation on its axis; the second exhibits the Into how many sections, do these méridians divide the concave surface of the heavens 2 Of what width are these sections? Why are these meridians sometimes called hour cir- cles 2 In ºneas wring distances on the Earth, what circles contain the primary starting points 2 Where are these points in measuring distances in the heavens? What is la- titude on the Earth? What is latitude in the heavens? What is longitude on the Earth? What is longitude in the heavens? What is declimation? What is right ascension? Why is it more convenient to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their de- clination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude 2 Hoºt, many de- grees may latitude and declination extend ? How many terrestrial longitude? Hºo 7nany celestial tongitude 2. What is meant by the daily acceleration of the stars". To how many minutes does it amount? Ilustrº this subject with an eaſºn ple. 's ** :: -- , f 30 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. * times in which these revolutions are made; and the third, shows how much the Stars gain on the ºun every day—that is, how much sooner they rise and come to the meridian A. ºry succeeding day, than they did on the preceding Revolutions Times in which Revolutions Daily acceleration of the Of the Stars. are made. Stars. days ho. min. Sec. h min. SCC 1. 0 23 56 4 0 3 55 2 1 23 52 8 O 7 51 3 2 23 48 12 0 11 47 4 3 23 44 16 0 15 43 5 4 23 40 20 0 19 39 6 5 23 36 24 0 23 35 7 6 23 32 28 0 27 81 8 7 23 28 32 0 31 27 9 8 23 24 36 0 85 23 10 9 23 20 41 0 39 I9 J 1 J0 23 16 45 0 43 14 12 11 23 12 49 0 47 10 13 12 23 8 53 0 51 6 14 13 23 4 57 0 55 2 15 14 23 1 I 0 58 58 16 15 22 57 5 } 2 54 17 16 22 53 9 I 6 - 50 18 17 22 49 13 1 10 46 19 18 22 45 17 I 14 42 20 19 22 41 22 I 18 38 2] 20 22 37 26 1 22 33 22 21 22 33 30 i 26 29 23 22. 22 29 34 l 30 25 24 23 22 25 38 1 34 21 25 24 22 21 42 l 38 17 26 25 22 17 46 l 42 13 27 26 22 13 50 1 46 9 27 22 9 54 I 50 5 29 28 22 5 58 I 54 l 30 29 22 2 3 1 57 57 40 39 21 22 44 2 37 16 50 49 20 43 25 3 16 35 100 99 17 26 50 6 33 it) 200 199 10 53 40 13 6 9 300 299 4 20 30 19 39 360 359 0 24 23 35 23 365 364 0 4. 56 23 55 3 366 365 0 l 0 59 0 On this account, we have not always the same constella- tions visible to us throughout the year. While some, that were not visible before, are successively rising to view in the east, and ascending to the meridian, others sink beneath the western horizon, and are seen no more, until, having passed through the lower hemisphere, they again reappear in the east. It is easy to convert right ascension into time, or time into right ascension; for if a heavenly body is one hour in passing over 159, it will be one fifteenth of an hour, or 4 minutes, in passing over 19. - If the first point of Aries be on the meridian at 12 o'clock, the next hour line, which is 15° E, of it, will comé to the meridian at 1 o'clock; the second hour line at 2 o’clock; the third at 3, &c. Of any two bodies whose right ascensions are given, that one will pass the meridian first which has the least right ascension. The first map of the atlas represents, upon a large scale, a general view of the solar system. This will be more fully described in the Second Part of the work. Do we always see the same constellations? Explain themanner of converting right ascerºszoº, 3rºo time. &nd time into right ascension. PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 3i The next six maps represent different sections of the concave surface of the heavens. The first of these exhibits the principal constellations visible to us in October, November and Decem- ber; the second, those visible in January, February and March; . the third, those visible in April, May and June; and the fourth, those visible in July, August and September; with the exception, however, of the constellations which lie be- yond the 50th degree of north and south declination, of which, indeed, those around the North Pole are always, and those around the South Pole, never, visible to us. - These constellations are represented on the sixth and seventh maps, called circumpolar maps, which are an exact continu- ation of the Cthers, and if joined to them at their correspond- Ing degrees of right ascension and declination, they might be considered as constituting one map. The scale on which all the above-mentioned maps are drawn is that of a 16 inch globe. The lines drawn on the maps have been already de- fined; and their use, being nearly the same with those in Geography, will be readily understood. Those which are drawn from right to left, on each side of the equinoctial and parallel to it, are called Parallels of Declination. Those which are drawn up and down through the maps, at intervals of 159, are called Meridians of Right Ascension, or Hour Circles. The scale at the top and bottom of the first four maps, and in the circumference of the circumpolar maps, in- dicates the daily progress of the stars in right ascension, and shows on what day of the month any star will be on the me- ridian at 9 o'clock in the evening. The constellation called the Great Bear is an exception to this rule; in this constellation the principal stars are marked in the order of their right ascension. That point of projection for the maps which would exhibit each successive º of the heavens directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening, was chosen, ecause in summer at an earlier hour the twilight would bedim our observation of the stars, and at other seasons of the year it is easier to look up to stars that }. an hour of their meridian altitude than to those which are directly over 63.0}. It will be readily seen that the stars are so represented on the maps as to show their relative magnitudes. The method invented by Bayer, of designating them by the letters of the Greek and Roman alphabets, is adopted. Thus in each con- stellation the stars are marked alpha, beta, &c., and should the letters of the Greek alphabet be exhausted, those of the Roman are employed. Some of the stars have also proper names. - The first four maps of the heavens are so constructed that the For what months does the first map represent the heavens? For what months does the second map represent the heavens? The third? The fourth? What constellations are represented on the sixth and seventh maps? In what manner must these six maps be arranged to form one complete map of the heavens? On what scale are these maps drawn? What is the use of the scale at the top and bottom of the first four maps, and in the circumference of the circumpolar maps? Why was that point Qf projection for the maps, which would represent each successive portion of th; heavens directly over Jhead at 9 o'clock in the evening, chosen 2 What is the method by which the stars are 72°3rrooted on the mans ? How must the pupil, in using either of the first four maps, 32 - PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. . pupil in using them must suppose himself to face the south, and to hold them directly over head in such manner that the top of the map shall be towards the north, and the bottom towards the south; the right hand side of the map will then be west, and the left hand east. In using the circumpolar maps he must suppose himself to face the pole, and to hold them in such a manner that the day of the given month shall be up- permost. The Celestial Planisphere represents the whole heavens lying between 70 degrees of north and south decli- nation, not as the surface of a concave sphere, but of a con- cave, cylinder, and spread out so as to form a plain surface. A great variety of interesting problems, including almost all those that are peculiar to the celestial globe, may be solved upon it with facility and readiness. We may now imagine the pupil ready to begin the study of the visible Heavens. The first thing of importance is to fix upon the proper starting point. This, on many accounts, would seem to be the North Polar Star. Its position is ap- parently the same every hour of the night throughout the year, while the other stars are continually moving. Many of the stars also in that region of the skies never set, so that when the sky is clear, they may be seen at any hour of the night. They revolve about the Pole in small circles, and never disappear below the horizon. On this account they are said to be within the circle of perpetual apparition. On the other hand, the identity of the North Polar Star, strange as it may appear, is not so easily determined, by those who are just entering upon this study, as that of some others. For this reason, the point directly over head, called the zenith, is preferable, since upon this point every one can fix with cer- tainty in whatever latitude he may be. It will be alike to all the central point of the visible heavens, and to it the pupil will learn imperceptibly to refer the bearing, motion, and dis- tances of the heavenly bodies. That meridional point in each map, whose declination corresponds with the latitude of the place of observation, represents the zenith of the heavens at that place; and those constellations of stars which occupy this position on the maps, will be seen directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening of the day through which the meridian passes.—Thus in Georgia, for instance, the starting point should be those stars which are situated in this meridian near the 33d degree of north declination, while in New England it should be those which are situated in it near the 42d degree. How, in using the circumpolar maps? Describe the construction and use of the Ce- lestial Plamisphere. ...When the pupil is ready to begin the study of the visible heav- ens, what is the first step to be taken 7–What advantages has the North Polar Star, as a proper starting point? -What disadvantages? What point is preferable to the Polar Star Why is it preferable? How may the point corresponding to this be found at port, the maps? At whot time in the evening, wiil the stars which are near this point on the maps, be seen directly over head? Is it indispensably necessary to begin with the Stars noar this central meridian? T’RELIMINARY CHAPTER. " 33 We might, nowever, begin with the stars near either of the meridians represented on the maps, the only rule of selection being to commence at that which approaches nearest to being over head at the time required. & We have chosen for our starting point in this work, that meridian which passes through the vernal equinox at the first point of Aries, not only because it is the meridian from which the distances of all the heavenly bodies are measured; but especially because the student will thus be enabled to observe and compare the progressive motion of the constellations ac- cording to the order in which they are always arranged in catalogues, and also to mark the constellations of the Zodiac passing over head as they rise one after another in their or- der, and to trace among them the orbits of the Earth and of the other planets. As Greek letters so frequently occur in catalogues and maps of the stars and on the celestial globes, the Greek alphabet is here introduced for the use of those who are unacquainted with it. The capitals are seldom used for designating the stars, but are here given for the sake of regularity. THE GREEK ALPHABET. A. (M. Alpha 3. B 8 Beta . b T y Gamma g A d Delta d : E & Epsilon e short Z. § Zeta. Z H . n Eta e long {} 6 Theta th & I t Iota i K. K. Kappa k - A. X Lambda l M | Mu II] t N 19 Nu Il 5. § Xi X O O Omicron o short TI Tr Pi p P p Rho r X S Sigma S T rº- Tau t Y ty Upsilon u qā p Phi ph X. 2. Chi * ch ºpt t!, Psi ps S} (a) Omega o long In 1603, John Bayer, of Augsburg, in Germany, published a complete Atlas of all the constellations, with the useful invention of denoting the stars in every * What is the only rule of selection? What is the starting point chosen for this work? What advantages has this meri-dian as a starting point? t 34 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. constellation by the letters of the Greek and Roman Alphabets; assigning the Greek letter a to the principal stars in each constellation, 3 to the second in magnitude, 27 to the third, and so on ; and when the Greek alphabet was ex- hausted, the notation was carried on with the Roman letters, a, b, c, &c. That the memory might not be perplexed with a multitude of names, this convenient method of designating the stars has been adopted by all succeeding astronomers, who have farther enlarged it by the Arabie notation, 1, 2, 3, &c. whenever the stars in the constellations outnumbered both alphabets. INCREASE OF SIDEREAL TIME IN MEAN SOLAR HOURS, &c. Increase. Hours. m. sec. 1 0 9,857 2 19.713 3 29,569 4 39,426 5 49.282 6 59,139 7 1 8,995 8 18.852 9 28.708 10 38.565 11 48,421 12 58.278 13 2 8.134 14 17.991 15 .847 . 16 37,704 17 47.560 18 57.4.17 19 3 7.273 20 17.130 21 26.986 22 36.S42 23 46.699 24 56.555 Daily acceleration of a star in passing - the meridian, “. Iſl. SCC, 3 55,9095 M I 11 i THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS. CHAPTER I. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN NOVEMEER. g ANDROMEDA. IF we look directly over head at 10 o’clock, on the 10th & November, we shall see the constellation celebrated in fable, by the name of ANDROMEDA. It is represented on the map by the figure of a woman having her arms extended, and chainedº by her wrists to a rock. It is bounded N. by Cassiopeia, E. by Perseus and the head of Medusa, and S. by the Triangles and the Northern Fish. It is situated between 200 and 500 of N. declination. Its mean right ascension is nearly 159; or one hour E. of the equinoctial colure. - It consists of 66 visible stars, of which three are of the 2d magnitude, and two of the 3d; most of the rest are small. The stars directly in the zenith, are too small to be seen in the presence of the moon, but the bright star Almaack, of the 2d magnitude, in the left foot, may be seen 139 due E., and Merach, of the same magnitude, in the girdle, 70 south of the zenith. This star is then nearly on the meridian, and with two others N. W. of it forms the girdle. The three stars forming the girdle are of the 2d, 3d, and 4th magnitude, situated in a row, 39 and 4° apart, and are called Merach, Mu and Nu. * About 29 from Nu at the northwestern extremity of the girdle, is a remarkable nebula of very minute stars, and the only one of the kind which is ever visible to the naked eye. It resembles two cones of light, joined at their base, about #9 in length, and #9 in breadth. If we look directly over head at 10 o'clock on the 10th of November, what constella- tion shall we see? How is it represented on the map? How is it bounded? What are its right ascension and declination? How many visible stars has it? Describe the girdle of Andromeda. Describe the appearance of a remarkable nebula which lies at its northwestern extremity. t * 36 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, {} If a straig tº line, connecting Almaack with Merach, be produced southwesterly, 8° farther, it will reach to Delta, a star of the 3d magnitude in the left breast. This star may be otherwise known by its forming a line, N. and S. with two smaller ones on either side of it; or, by its constituting, with two others, a very small triangle, S. of it. ſº \ Nearly in a line with Almaack, Merach and Delta, but curving a little to the N. 79 farther, is a lone star of the 2d magnitude, in the head, called Alpheratz. This is the N. E. corner of the great “Square of Pegasus,” to be hereafter de- scribed. It will be well to have the position of Alpheratz well fixed in the mind, because it is but one minute west of the great equinoctial colure, or first meridian of the heavens, and forms nearly a right line with Algemib in the wing of Pegasus, 14° S. of it, and with Beta in Cassiopeia, 30° N. of it. If a line, connecting these three stars, be produced, it will terminate in the pole. These three guides, in connex- ion with the North Polar Star point out to astronomers the position of that great circle in the heavens from which the right ascension of all the heavenly bodies is measured. .- HISTORY..—The story of Andromeda, from which this constellation derives its name, is as follows: She was daughter of Cepheus, king of Æthiopia, by Cassio- peia. She was promised in marriage to Phineus, her uncle, when Neptune drowned the kingdom, and sent a sea monster to ravage the country, to appease the resentment which his favourite Nymphs bore against Cassiopeia, because she had boasted herself fairer than Juno and the Nereides. The oracle of Ju- piter Ammon was consulted, and nothing could pacify the anger of Neptune unless the beautiful Andromeda should be exposed to the sea monster. She was accordingly chained to a rock for this purpose, near Joppa, (now Jaffa, in Syria,) and at the inoment the monster was going to dévour her, Perseus, who was then returning through the air from the conquest of the Gorgons, saw her and was captivated by her beauty. - “Chained to a rock she stood; young Perseus stay’d His rapid flight, to woo the beauteous maid.” He promised to deliver her and destroy the monster if Cepheus would give her to him in marriage. Cepheus consented, and Perseus instantly changed the sea monster into a rock, by showing him Medusa's head, which was still reeking in his hand. The enraged Phineus opposed their nuptials and a violent battle ensued, in which he, also, was turned into a stone by the petrifying influence or the Gorgon’s head. The morals, maxims, and historical events of the ancients, were usually com- municated in fable or allegory. The fable of Andromeda and the sea monster, might mean that she was courted by some monster of a sea-captain, who at- tempted to carry her away, but was prevented by another more gallant and suc- cessful rival, PISCES. THE FISHEs.—This constellation is now the first in order, of the 12 constellations of the Zodiac, and is usually repre- sented by two fishes tied a considerable distance apart, at the extremities of a long undulating cord, or riband. H. occupies Describe the magnitude and position of Delta. How may this star be otherwise known? Describe the position and magnitude of Alpheratz. What position does this star occupy in the great square of Pegasus? Why is it important to have the position of this star well ſized in the mind? What is the present order of the Fishes among the constellations of the Zodiacº How is it represented 3 Describe its outline and Space , in the heavens. '. PESCES. 37 a large triangular space in the heavens, and its outline at first is somewhat difficult to be traced. In consequence of the annual precession of the stars, the constellation Pisces has now come to occupy the sign Aries; each constellation having advanced one whole sign in the order of the Zodiac. The sun enters the sign Pisces, while the earth enters that of Virgó, about the 19th of February, but he does not reach the constellation Pisces before the 6th of March. The Fishes, therefore, are now called the “Leaders of the Celestial Hosts.”—See Aries. That loose assemblage of small stars directly south of Merach, in the constellation of Andromeda, constitutes the Northern Fish, whose mean length is about 169, and breadth, 79. Its mean right ascension is 159, and its declination 250 N. Consequently, it is on the meridian the 24th of Novem- ber; and, from its breadth, is more than a week in passing over it. The Northern Fish and its riband, beginning at Merach, may, by a train of small stars, be traced, in a S. S. easterly direction, for a distance of 339, until we come to the star El Rischa, of the 3d magnitude, which is situated in the node, or flexure of the riband. . This is the principal star in the constellation, and is situated 2° N. of the equinoctial, and 53 minutes east of the meridian. !, Seven degrees S. E. of El Rischa, passing by three or four very small stars we come to Mira, in the Whale, a star of about the 3d magnitude, and known as the “Wonderful Star of 1596.” El Rischa may be otherwise identified by means of a º cluster of five stars in the form of a pentagon, about 15° E. of it.—See Cetus. From El Rischa the riband or cord makes a sudden flexure, doubling back across the ecliptic, where we meet with three stars of the 4th and 5th magnitude situated in a row 39 and 49 apart, marked on the map Zeta, Epsilon, Delta. From Delta the riband runs north and westerly along the Zodiac, and terminates at Beta, a star of the 4th magnitude, 119 S. of Markab in Pegasus. This part of the riband including the Western Fish at the end of it, has a mean declination of 5° N., and may be seen throughout the month of November, passing the meridian slowly to the W., near where the sun passes it on the 1st of April. Twelve degrees W. of this Fish, there are 4 small stars situated in the form of the letter Y. The two Fishes, and the cord between them, make two sides of a large triangle, 309 and 40° in length, the open part of which is towards the N. W. When the Northern Fish is on the what are the size and position of the Northern Fish? When, and how longisit on the meridian? How may it be traced? What is the principal star in this constellation, and where is it situated? How far, and in what direction from Alpha, is Mira, in the Whale? By what peculiarappellation is this star known? What is the direction of the riband from Alpha, What stars do we meet with, where the riband doubles back across the eclip- tic? What is the direction of this part of the riband from Delta, and where does it ter- minate? What are its mean declination, and the time of its passing the meridian? What striking cluster is seen about 12° W. of the Western Fish? What geometrical figure . . . . may be conceived to be formed by the two Fishes and the cord between them; Where is the Western Fish when the Northern is on the meridian 2 . 38 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |Nov. meridian, the Western is nearly 2 hours past it. This con- stellation is bounded N. by Andromeda, W. by Andromeda and Pegasus, S., by the Cascade, and E. by the Whale, the Ram and the Triangles. When, to enable the pupil to find any star, its direction from another is given. the latter is always understood to be on the ineridian. - After a little experience with the maps, even though unaccompanied by di- rections, the ingénious youth will be able, of himself, to devise a great many ex- pedients and facilities for tracing the consteilations, or selecting out particular StarS. HISTORY..—The ancient Greeks, who have some fable to account for the ori- gin of almost every constellation, say, that as Venus and her son Cupid were one day on the banks of the lºuphrates, they were greatly alarined at the appearance of a terrible giant, named Typhon. Throwing theimselves into the river, they were changed into fishes, and by this means escaped danger. To commemorate this event, Minerva placed two fishes among the stars. According to Ovid, Holmer, and Virgil, this Typhon was a famous giant. He had a hundred heads, like those of a serpent or dragon. Flames of devouring fire darted from his ſmouth and eyes. He was no sooner born, than he made war against heaven, and so frightened the gods, that they fled and assumed diſ. ferent shapes. Jupiter became a rain; Mercury, aim ibis; Apollo, a crow ; Juno, a cow; Bacchus, a goal, ; Diana, a cat; Venus, a fish, &c. The father of the gods, at least, put Typhon to flight, and crushed him under Mount AEtna. The obvious sentinent implied in the fable of this hideous monster, is evi- dently this: that there is in the world a description of men whose unouth is so “full of cursing and bitterness,” derisipm and violence, that modest virtue is sometimes forced to disguise itself, or flee from their presence, \ In the Hebrew Zodiac, Pisces is allotted to the escutcheon of Simeon. No sign appears to have been considered of more malignant influence than Pisces. The astrological calendar describes the emblems of this constellation as indicative of violence and death. Both the Syrians and Egyptians abstained from eating fish, out of dread and abhorrence ; and when the latter would re- present any thing as odious, or express hatred by hieroglyphics, they painted a fish. * In using a circumpolar map, face the pole, and hold it up in your hands in such a mammer that the part which contains the name of the given month shall be uppermost, and you will have a portraiture of the heavens as seen at that time. . The constellations about the Antarctic Pole are not visible in the United States; those about the Arctic or northern pole, are always visible. CASSIOPEIA. CAssiopBIA is represented on the celestial map, in regal state seated on a throne or chair, holding in her left hand the branch of a palm tree. Her head and body are seen in the Milky Way. Her foot rests upon the Arctic Circle, upon which her chair is placed. She is surrounded by the chier personages of her royal family. The king, her husband, is on her right hand—Perseus, her son-in-law, on her left—and Andromeda, her daughter, just above her. This constellation is situated 26° N. of Andromeda, and midway between it and the North Polar Star. It may be What are the boundaries of this constellation? How is the constellation Cassiopeia represented on the map? By whom is she surrounded? How is this constellation situated in respect to Andromeda and the polar star? MAP VI.] CASSIOPEIA. 39 * seen, from our latitude, at all hours of the night, and may be traced out at almost any season of the yºax. Its mean decli- nation is 600 N. and its right ascension 129. Trisis on our meridian the 22d of November, but does not sensibly change its position for several days; for it should be remembered that the apparent motion of the stars becomes slower and slower, as they approximate the poles. Cassiopeia is a beautiful constellation, containing 55 stars that are visible to the naked eye; of which five are of the 3d magnitude, and so situated as to form, with one or two smaller ones, the figure of an inverted chair. — “Wide her stars ** Dispersed, nor shine with mutual aid improved; Nor dazzle, brilliant with contiguous flame: Their number fifty-five.” • Caph, in the garland of the chair, is almost exactly in the equinoctial colure, 30° N. of Alphératz, with which, and the Polar Star, it forms a straight line. [See note to Androme- da.] Caph is therefore on the meridian the 10th of Novem- ber, and one hour past it on the 24th. It is the westernmost star of the bright cluster. Shedir”, in the breast, is the up- permost star of the five bright ones, and is 5° S. E. of Caph: the other three bright ones, forming the chair, are easily dis- tinguished, as they meet the eye at the first glance. There is an importance attached to the position of Caph that concerns the mariner and the surveyor. . It is used, in connexion with observations on the Polar Star, for determi- ning the latitude of places, and for discovering the magnetic variation of the needle. It is generally supposed that the North Polar Star, so called, is the real immoye- able pole of the heavens; but this is a mistake. It is so near the true pole that it has obtained the appellation of the North Polar Star; but it is, in reality, more than a degree and a half distant from it, and revolves about the true pole every 24 hours, in a circle, whose radius is 1° 35'. It will consequently, in 24 hours, be twice on the meridian, once above, and once below the pole; and twice at its greatest elongation E. and W. * [See North Polar Star.] The Polar Star not being exactly in the N. pole of the heavens, but one degree and 35 minutes on that side of it which is towards Caph, the position of the latter becomes Important as it always shows on which side of the true pole the polar star is. There is another mportant fact in relation to the position * Shedir, from El Seder, the Seder tree; a name given to this constellation by Ulugh-Beigh. , . º When may it be seen from this latitude? When is it on our meridian? How is the motion of the stars affectell as they approach the poles? How many principal stars in this constellation, and witat is their appearance? Descrihe the situatiºn of Caph. When is Caph on the méridian What is the relative position of Shedir? Why is the position of Caph important? 40 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. NOW. of this star. It is equidistant from the pole, and exactly op- posite another remarkable star in the square of the Great Bear, on the other side of the pole. [See Megrez.] It also serves to mark a spot in the starry heavens, rendered memo- rable as being the place of a lost star. Two hundred and fifty years ago, a bright star shone 50 N. N. E. of Caph, where now is a dark void On the 8th of November, 1572, Tycho Brahe and Corne- lius Gemma saw a star in the constellation of Cassiopeia, which became, all at once, so brilliant, that it surpassed the splendour of the brightest planets, and might be seen even at noonday ! ... Gradually, this great brilliancy diminished, until the 15th of March, 1573, when, without moving from its place, it became utterly extinct. Its colour, during this time, exhibited all the phenomena of a prodigious flame—first it was of a dazzling white, then of a reddish yellow, and lastly of an ashy paleness, in which its light expired. It is impossible, says Mrs. Somerville, to imagine any thing more tremendous than a conflagration that could be visible at such a distance. It was seen for sixteen months. Some astronomers imagined that it would reappear again after 150 years; but it has never been discovered since. This phenomenon alarmed all the astronomers of the age, who beheld it; and many of them wrote dissertations con- cerning it. Rev. Professor Vince, one of the most learned and pious astronomers of the age, has this remark:—“The disappear- ance of some stars may be the destruction of that system at the time appointed by the DEITY for the probation of its in- habitants; and the appearance of new stars may be the for mation of new systems for new races of beings then called into existence to adore the works of their Creator.” Thus, we may conceive the Deity to have been employed from all eternity, and thus he may continue to be employed for endless ages; forming new sys- teins of beings to adore him; and transplanting beings already formed into hap- pier regions, who will continue to rise higher and higher in their enjoyments, and go on to contemplate system after system through the boundless universe. LA PLACE says:—“As to those stars which suddenly shine forth with a very vivid light, and then immediately, disappear, it is extremely probable that great conflagrations, produced by extraordinary causes, take place on their surface. This conjecture, continues he, is confirmed º: change of colour, which is analogous to that presented to us on the earth by those bodies which are set on fire and then gradually extinguished.” The late eminent Dr. Good also observes that—worlds and systems of worlds What memorable spot does Caph serve to mark Out? \Describe thc phenomenon of the lost star. What does Mrs. Somery ille say of it?, How long was it seen? Has any thing been discovered of it since ºs. How did this phenomenon affect the astronomers of the age?-What does Vince say of the disappearance ºf some stars, and the new ap- pearance of others?' Repeat the observations of Dr. Good won the subject of new stars appearing and disappearirg, . MAP VI.] CEPHEUS. 41 are not only perpetually creating, but also º disappearing. It is an extraordinary fact, that within the period of the last century, not less than thir- teen stars, in different constellations, seem to have totally perished, and ten new ones to have been created. In many instances it is unquestionable, that the stars themselves, the supposed habitation of other kinds or orders of intelligent be- ings, together with the different planets by which it is probable they were sur- rounded, have utterly vanished, and the spots which they occupied in the hea- vens, have become blanks! What has befallen other systems, will assuredly befall our own. Of the time and the manner we know nothing, but the fact is incontrovertible; it is foretold by revelation; it is inscribed in the heavens; it is felt through the earth. Such is the awful and daily text; what then ought to be the comment? The great and good Beza, falling in with the superstition of his age, attempted to prove that this was a comet, or the same luminous appearance which conduct- ed the magi, or wise men of the East, into Palestine, at the birth of our Saviour, and that it now appeared to announce his second coming ! - About 60 N. W. of Caph, the telescope reveals to us a grand nebula of small stars, apparently compressed into one mass, or single blaze of light, with a great number of loose stars surrounding it. HISTORY..—Cassiopeia was wife of Cepheus, king of Æthiopia, andmother of An- dromeda. She was a queen of Imatchless beauty, and seemed to be sensible of it; for she even boasted herself fairer than Juno, the sister of Jupiter, or the Nerei- des—a maine given to the sea nymphs. This so provoked the ladies of the sea that they complained to Neptune of the insult, who sent a frightful monster to ravage her coast, as a punishment for her insolence. But the anger of Neptune and the jealousy of the nymphs were not thus appeased. They demanded, and it was finally ordained that Cassiopeia should chain her daughter Andromeda, whom she tenderly loved, to a desert rock on the beach, and leave her exposed to the ſury of this monster. She was thus left, and the monster approached; but just as he was going to devour her, Perseus killed him. “The saviour youth the royal pair confess, And with heav'd hands, their daughter's bridegroom bless.” - - JEusden’s Ovid. CEPHEUS. CEPHEUs is represented on the map as a king, in his royal robe, with a sceptre in his left hand, and a crown of stars upon his head. He stands in a commanding posture, with his left foot over the pole, and his sceptre extended towards Cassio- peia, as if for favour and defence of the queen. - - - - - -—“Cepheus illumes The neighbouring heavens; still faithful to his queen, With thirty-five faint luminaries mark'd.” This constellation is about 25° N. W. of Cassiopeia, near the 2d coil of Draco, and is on the meridian at 8 o’clock the 3d of November; but it will linger near it for many days. Like Cassiopeia, it may be seen at all hours of the night, when the sky is clear, for to us it never sets. - By reference to the lines on the map, which all meet in the pole, it will be evi- dent that a star, near the pole, moves over a much less space in one hour, than There is a remarkable nebula in this constellation; describe its situation and ap- pearance. How is Cepheus represented? What is his posture? Where is this con- stellation situated? 4% - 42 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | Nov. one at the equinoctial; and generally, the nearer the pole, the narrower the space, and the slower the motion. The stars that are so near the pole may be better described by their polar distance, than by their declimation. By polar distance, is meant—the distance from the pole; and is what the declination wants of 90°. In this constellation there are 35 stars visible to the naked eye; of these, there glitters on the left shoulder, a star of the 3d magnitude, called Alderamin, which with two others of the same brightness, 89 and 120 apart, form a slightly-curved line towards the N. E. The last, whose letter name is Gam- ma, is in the right knee, 199 N. of Caph, in Cassiopeia. The middle one in the line, is Alphirk, in the girdle. This star is one third of the distance from Alderamin to the pole, and nearly in the same right line. It cannot be too well understood that the bearings, or direction of one star from another, as given in this treatise, are strictly applicable only when the former one is on, or near the meridian. The bearings given, in many cases, are not the least approximations to what appears to be their relative position; and in some, if relied upon, will lead to errours. For example:–It is said, in the preceding paragraph, that Gamma, in Cepheus, bears 19° N. of Caph in Cassiopeia. This is true, when Caph is on the meridian, but at this very morment, while the author is writing this lime, Gamma appears to be 199 due west of Caph; and six months hence, will appear to be the same distance east of it. The reason is obvious; the circle which Cepheus appears to describe about the pole, is within that of Cassiopeia, and consequently when on the east side of the pole, will be within, , or between Cassiopeia and the pole—that is, west of Cassiopeia. And for the same reason, when Cepheus is on the west side Öf the pole, it is between that and Cassiopeia, or east of it. Let it also be remembered, that in speaking of the poie, which we shall have frequent occasion to do, in the course of this work, the North Polar Star, or an imaginary point very near it, is always meant; and not as some will vaguely ap- prehend, a point in the horizon, directly N. of us. The true pole of the heavens is always elevated just as many degrees above our horizon, as we are north of the Equator. If we live in 42° N. latitude, the N. pole will be 42° above our horizon. (See North Polar Star.) There are also two smaller stars about 99 E. of Alderamin and Alphirk, with which they form a square; Alderamin being the upper, and Alphirk the lower one on the W. 89 apart. In the centre of this square there is a bright dot, or semi-visible star. The head of Cepheus is in the Milky-Way, and may be known by three stars of the 4th magnitude in the crown, which form a small acute triangle, about 90 to the right of Alderamin. The mean polar distance of the constellation is 25°, while that of Alderamin is 28° 10'. The right ascension of the former is 338°; consequently, it is 229 E. of the equi- noctial colure. . The student will understand that right ascension is reckoned on the equinoc- tial, from the first point of Aries, E., quite round to the same point again, which How many, and what are the principal stars in it? Describe the last star ºn, the curve. Describe the middle one. What four stars form a square in this constellation? Where is the head of Cepheus, and how may it be known? What is the mean pºlar º of this constellation? How far, and which way is it from the equinoctial COłure? MAP II.] ARIES. 43 is 360°, Now 338°, measured from the same point, will reach the same point again, within 22°; which is the difference between 360° and 338°. This rule will apply to any other case. HISTORY..—This constellation immortalizes the name of the king of AEthiopia. The name of his queen was Cassiopeia. They were the parents of Andromeda, who was betrothed to Perseus. º: was one of the Argonauts who accompanied Jason on his perilous expeditionſ in quest of the golden fieece. Newton supposes that it was owing to this circumstance that he was placed in the heavens; and that not only this, but all the ancient constellations, relate to the Argonautic ex- pedition, or to persons some way connected with it. Thus, he observes that as Musæus, one of the Argonauts, was the first Greek who made a celestial sphere, he would naturally delineate on it those figures which had some reference to the expedition. Accordingly, we have on our globes to this day, the Golden Ram, the ensign of the ship in which Phryxus fled to Colchis, the scene of the Argo- nautic achievements. We have also the Bull with brazen hoofs, tamed by Ja- son; the Twins, Castor and Pollux, two sailors, with their mother Leda, in the form of a Swan, and Argo, the ship itself; the watchful Dragon Hydra, with the Qup of Medea, and a raven upon its caréass, as an emblem of death; also Chi- ron, the Master of Jason, with his Altar, and Sacrifice; Hercules, the Argonaut, with his club, his dart, and vulture, with the dragon, crab and lion which he slew; and Orpheus, one of the company, with his harp. All these, says Newton, refer to the Argonauts. Again; we have Orion, the son of Neptune, or, as some say, the grandson of Minos, with his dogs, and hare; and river, and scorpion. We have the story of Perseus in the constellation of that name, as well as in Cassiopeia, Cepheus, An: dromeda and Cetus; that of Calisto and her son Arcas, in Ursa Major; that of Icareus and his daughter Erigone, in Bootes and Virgo. Ursa Minor relates to one of the nurses of Jupiter; Auriga, to Erichthonius; Ophiuchus, to Phorbas; Sagittarius, to Crolus, the son of one of the Muses ; Capricorn, to Pan, and Aquarius to Ganymede. We have also Ariadne’s crown, Bellerophon’s horse, Neptune’s dolphin, Ganymede’s eagle, Jupiter's goat with her kids, the asses of Bacchus, the fishes of Venus and Cupid, with their parent, the southern fish. These, according to Deltoton, comprise the Grecian constellations mentioned by the poet Aratus; and all relate, as Newton supposes, remotely or immediately, to the Argonauts. . It may 'be remarked, however, that while none of these figures refer to any transactions of a later date than the Argonautic expedition, yet the great disa- greement which appears in the mythological account of them, proves that their invention must have been of greater antiquity than that event, and that these constellations were received for some time among the Greeks, before their poets referred to them in describing the particulars of that memorable exhibition. C H A P T E R II. gº DIRECTIONS FOR TRACIN', THE CONSTELLATIONs which ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN DECEMBER. *. - ARIES. THz RAM.–Twenty-two centuries ago, as Hipparchus in- forms us, this constellation: occupied the first sign in the ecliptic, commencing at the vernal equinox. But as the con- stellations gain about 50/1 on the equinox, at every revolution of the heavens, they have advanced in the ecliptic nearly 31° beyond it, or more than a whole sign: so that the Fishes now -- What was the position of Aries in the ecliptic, 22 centuries ago? * 44 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [DEC. occupy the same place in the Zodiac, that Aries did, in the time of Hipparchus; while the constellation Aries is now in the sign Taurus, Taurus in Gemini, and Gemini in Cancer, and so on. ** ARIES is therefore now the second constellation in the Zodiac. It is situated next east of Pisces, and is midway between the Triangles and the Fly on the N. and the head of Cetus on the S. It contains 66 stars, of which, one is of the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th magnitudes. \ “First, from the east, the Ram conducts the year; . Whom Ptolemy with twice nine stars adorns, Of which two only claim the second rank; The rest, when Cynthia fills the sign, are lost.” It is readily distinguished by means of two bright stars in the head, about 40 apart, the brightest being the most north- easterly of the two. The first, which is of the 2d magnitude, situated in the right horn, is called Alpha Arietis, or simply Arietis ; the other, which is of the 3d magnitude, lying near the left horn, is called Sheratam, and may be known by an- other star of the 4th magnitude, in the ear, 130 S. of it, called Mesarthim, which is the first star in this constellation. Arietis and Sheratan, are one instance out of many, where stars of more than ordinary brightness are seen together in pairs, as in the Twins, the Little Dog, &c., the brightest star being commonly on the east. The position of Arietis affords important facilities to nau- tical science. Difficult to comprehend as it may be, to the unlearned, the skilful navigator who should be lost upon an unknown sea, or in the midst of the Pacific Ocean, could, by measuring the distance between Arietis and the Moon, which often passes near it, determine at once not only the spot he was in, but his true course and distance to any known meri- dian or harbour on the earth. i Lying along the moon’s path, there are nine conspicuous’ stars that are used by nautical men for determining their lon- gitude at sea, thence called nautical stars. These stars are Arietis, Aldebaran, Pollua, Regulus, Spica Virginis, Antares, Altair, Fomalhaut, and Markab. The true places of these stars, for every day in the year, are given in the Nau- tical Almanac, a valuable work published annûally by the English “Board of Ad- miralty,” to guide mariners in navigating the seas. They are usually published two or three years in advance, for the benefit of long voyages. That a man, says Sir John Herschel, by merely measuring the moon's appa- rent distance from a star, with a little portable instrument held in his hand, and What is its present position?, How is it now situated with respect to the surround- ing constellations? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is this constellation readily distinguished? Describe the two bright stars in the head, For what purposes is the position of some of the stars in Arietis important? How many stars are used for determining longitude at sea, and where are they situated? By What general name are they called? Enumerate them. MAP II.] ARIES. 45 applied to his eye, even with so unstable a footing as the deck of a ship, shall say positively within five miles, where he is, on a boundless ocean, cannot but appear to persons ignorant of physical astronomy, an approach to the miraculous. And et, says he, the alternatives of life and death, wealth and ruin, are daily and ourly staked, with perfect confidence, on these marvellous computations. * Capt. Basil Hall, of the royal navy, relates that he had sailed from San Blas on the west coast of Mexico, and after a voyage of 8000 miles occupying eighty-nine days, arrived off Rio Janeiro, having in this interval passed through the Pacific ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic without making any land or seeing a single sail on the voyage. Arrived within a few days' sail of Rio, he took a set of lunar observations, to ascertain his true position, and the bearing of the harbour, and shaped his course accordingly. “I hove to,” says he, “ at 4 in the morning, till the day should break, and then bore up; for although it was hazy, we could see before us a couple of miles or so. About 8 o'clock it became so foggy that I did not like to stand in farther, and was just bringing the ship to the wind again before sending the people to breakfast, when it suddenly cleared off, and I had the satisfaction of seeing the great Sugar-loaf ' rock, which stands on one side of the harbour's mouth, so nearly right ahead that we had not to alter our course above a point in order to hit the entrance of Rio. This was the first land we had seen for three months, after crossing so . . and being set backwards and forwards by innumerable currents and oul winds.” Arietis comes to the meridian about 12 minutes after She- ratan, on the 5th December, near where the sun does in mid- summer. Arietis, also, is nearly on the same meridian with Almaach, in the foot of Andromeda, 190 N. of it, and culmi- nates only four minutes after it. The other stars in this con- stellation are quite small, constituting that loose cluster which we see between the Fly on the north, and the head of Cetus On the south. . - rºw When Arietis is on the meridian, Andromeda and Cassio- peia are a little past the meridian, nearly over head, and Per- seus with the head of Medusa, is as far to the east of it. Taurus and Auriga are two or three hours lower down; Orion appears in the S. E., and the Whale on the meridian, just below Aries, while Pegasus and the Swan are seen half way over in the west. The manner in which the ancients divided the Zodiac into 12 equal parts, was both simple and ingenious, . Having no instrument that would measure time exactly, “They took a vessel, with a small hole in the bottom, and having filled it with water, suffered the same to distil, drop by drop, into another vessel set beneath to receive it, beginning at the moment when some star rose, and con- tinuing till it rose the next following night, when it would have performed one complete revolution in the heavens. The water falling down into the receiver, they divided into 12 equal parts; and having twelve other small vessels in readi- ness, each of them capable of containing one part, they again poured all the wa- ter into the upper vessel, and observing the rising of some star in the Zodiac, at the same time suffered the water to drop into one of the small vessels. And as soon as it was full, they removed it, and set an empty one in its place. Just as each vessel was fui, they took notice what star of the Zodiac rose at that , time, and thus continued the process through the year, until the 12 vessels were filled.” Thus the Zodiac was divided into l? equal portions, corresponding to the 12 When does Arietis pass the meridian? What other brilliant star is on the meridian nearly at the same time? When Aries is on the meridian, what other constellations are immediately in view3. Describe the manner in which the ancients divided the Zodiac. At what point of the Zodiac did this division commence? 46 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [DEC. months of the year, commencing at the vermal equinox. Each of these portions served as the visible representative or sign of the month it appeared in. All those stars in the Zodiac which were observed to rise while the first vessel was filling, were constellated and included in the first sign, and called Aries, an animal held in great esteem by the shepherds of Chaldea. All those stars in the Zodiac which rose while the second vessel was filling, were constellated and included in the second sign, which for a similar reason, was denominated Tau- Tus; and all those Stars which were observed to rise while the third vessel was filling, were constellated in the third-sign, and called Gemini, in allusion to the twin season of the flocks. Thus each sign of 30° in the Zodiac, received a distinctive appellation, accord- ing to the fancy or superstition of the inventors; which names have ever since been retained, although the constellations themselves have since left their nom- inal signs more than 30° behind. The sign Aries, therefore, included all the stars embraced in the first 30° of the Zodiac, and no more. The sign Taurus, in like manner, included all those stars embraced in the next 30° of the Zodiac, or those between 30° and 60°, and so of the rest. Of those who imagine that the twelve constellations of the Zodiac refer to the twelve tribes of Israel, some ascribe Aries to the tribe of Simeon, and others, to Gad. } HISTORY.—According to fable, this is the ram which bore the golden fleece, and carried Phryxus and his sister Helle through the air, when they fled to Col- chis from the persecution of their stepmother Ino. The rapid motion of the ram in his aerial flight high above the earth, caused the head of Helle to turn with giddiness, and she fell from his back into that part of the sea which was after- wards called Hellespont, in commemoration of the dreadful event. Phryxus arrived safe at Colchis, but was soon murdered by his own father-in-law, AEtes, who envied him his golden treasure. This gave rise to the celebrated Argo- nautic expedition under the command of Jason, for the recovery of the golden iłeece. Nephele, queen of Thebes, having provided her children, Phryxus and Helle, with this noble animal, upon which they might elude the wicked designs of those who sought their life, was afterwards changed into a cloud, as a reward for her parental solicitude; and the Greeks ever after called the clouds by her name. But the most probable account of the origin of this constellation is given º al ºins paragraph, where it is referred to the flocks of the Chaldean shepherds. k During the campaigns of the French army in Egypt, General Dessaix discow- ered among the ruins at Dendera, near the banks of the Nile, the great temple, supposed by some to have been dedicated to Isis, the female deity of the Egyp- tians, who believed that the rising of the Nile was occasioned by the tears which i. ºnually shed for the loss of her brother Osiris, who was murdered by yphon. -- Others suppose this edifice was erected for astronomical purposes, from the circumstance that two Zodiacs were discovered, drawn upon the ceiling, on op- posite sides. On both these Zodiacs the equinoctial points are in Leo, and not in Aries; from which it has been concluded, by those who pertinaciously en- deavour to array the arguments of science against the chronology of the Bible and the validity of the Mosaic account, that these Zodiacs were constructed when the sun entered the sign Leo, which must have been 9720 years ago, or 4000 years before the inspired account of the creation. The infidel writers in France and Germany, make it 10,000 years before. But we may “set to our seal,” that what- ever is true in fact and correct in inference on this subject will be found, in the end, not only consistent with the Mosaic record, but with the common meaning of the expressions it uses. The discovery of Champollion has put this question for ever at rest; and M. Latronne, a most learned antiquary, has very satisfactorily demonstrated that these Egyptian Zodiacs are merely the horoscopes of distinguished personages, or the precise situation of the heavenly bodies in the Zodiac at their nativity. The idea that such was their purpose and origin, first suggested itself to this gentleman on finding, in the box of a mummy, a similar Zodiac, with such What did each of these portions of the Zodiac serve 2 JWhat stars were placed in the first sign 2 What name was given to the constellation, thus formed 2 What stars were placed in the second sign 2 What was the second constellation called 2 What stars were placed in the third sign, and what was it called? Are the sa/me names still retained 2 What does this precession, or going forward of the stars amount to in a year? MAP II. J CETUS. 47 inscriptions and characters as determined it to be the horoscope of the deceased 81"SO}}. p Of all the discoveries of the antiquary among the relics of ancient Greece, the ruins of Palulyra, the gigantic pyramids of Egypt, the temples of their gods, or the sepulchres of their kings, scarcely one so aroused and riveted the curiosity of the learned, as did the discovery of Champollion the younger, which deciphers the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. The potency of this invaluable discovery has already been signally manifested in settling a formidable controversy between the champions of infidelity and those/who maintain the Bible account of the creation. It has been shown that the constellation Piscés, since the days of Hipparchus, has come, by reason of the annual precession, to occupy the same apparent place in the heavens that Aries did two thousand years ago. The Christian astronomer and the infidel are perfectly agreed as to the fact, and the amount of this yearly gain in the appa- i ent motion of the stars. They both believe, and both can demonstrate, that the fixed stars have gone forward in the Zodiac, about 50” of a degree in every revo- lution of the heavens since the creation; so that were the world to light upon any authentic inscription or record of past ages, which should give the true position or longitude of any particular star at that time, it would be easy to fix an unques- tionable date to smell a record. Accordingly, when the famous “Egyptian Zo- diacs,” which were sculptured on the walls of the temple at Dendera, were brought away en masse, and exhibited in the Louvre at Paris, they enkindled a more exciting interest in the thousands who saw them, than ever did the en- trance of Napoleon. “ Educated men of every order, and those who had the vanity to think theimselves such,” says the commentator of Champollion, “rush- ed to behold the Zodiates. These Zodiacs were immediately published and colm- 1mented upon, with 14:ore or less good faith and decorum. Science struck out into systeins very bold; and the spirit of infidelity, seizing upon the discovery, flattered itself with the hope of drawing from thence new support. It was unjus- tifiably taken for granted, that the ruins of Egypt furnished astronomy with mon- uments, containing observations that exhibited the state of the heavens in the most remote periods. Starting with this assumption, a pretence was made of demonstrating, by in eans of calculations received as inălți. that the celestial appearances assigned to these monuments extended back from forty-five to six- ty-five centuries; that the Zodiacal system to which they must belong, dated back fifteen thousand years, and must reach far beyond the limits assigned by Moses to the existence of the world.” Among those who stood forth more or less bold as the adversaries of revelation, the most prominent was M. Dupuis, the famous author of L' origine de tows les Cultes. The infidelity of Dupuis was spread about by means of pamphlets, and the ad- vocates of the Mosaic account were scandalized “until a new Alexander arose to cut the Gordian knot, which men had vainly sought to untie. This was Cham- pollion the younger, armed with his discovery,” The hieroglyphics now speak a language that all can understand, and no one gainsay. “The Egyptian Zodiacs, then,” says Latronne, “relate in no respect to astronomy, but to the idle phan- tasies of judicial astrology, as connected with the destinies of the emperors who Inade or completed them.” CETU.S. THE WHALE.—As the whale is the chief monster of the deep, and the largest of the aquatic race, so is it the largest constellation in the heavens. It occupies a space of 500 in length, E. and W., with a mean breadth of 209 from N. to S. It is situated below Aries and the Triangles, with a mean declination of 12° S. It is represented as making its way to the E., with its body below, and its head elevated above the equinoctial: and is six weeks in passing the meridian. Its W. what is the comparative size of the Whale? What is its extent? Where is it situ- ated? How long is the Whale in passing the meridian? & 48 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [DEC. tail comes to the meridian on the 10th of November, and its head leaves it on the 22d of December. This constellation contains 97 stars; two of the 2d mag- nitude, seven of the 3d, and thirteen of the 4th. The head of Cetus may be readily distinguished, about 20° S. E. of Aries, by means of five remarkable stars, 40 and 5° apart, and so situated as to form a regular pentagon. The brightest of these is Menkar, of the 2d magnitude, in the nose of the Whale. It occupies the S. E. angle of the figure. It is 349 N. of the equinoctial, and 150 E. of El Rischa in the bight of the cord between the Two Fishes. It is directly 37° S. of Algol, and nearly in the same direction from the Fly. It makes an equilateral triangle with Arietis and the Pleiades, being distant from each about 23° S.; and may otherwise be known by a star of the 3d magnitude in the mouth, 3° W. of it, called Gamma, placed in the south middle angle of the pentagon. - Nu is a star of the 4th magnitude, 49 N. W. of Gamma, and these two constitute the S. W. side of the pentagon in the head of the Whale, and the N. E. side of a similar oblong figure in the neck. Three degrees S. S. W. of Gamma, is another star of the 3d imagnitude in the lower jaw, marked Delta, constituting the E. side of the oblong pentagon; and 60 S. W. of this, is à noted star in the neck of the Whale, called Mira, or the “wonderful star of 1596,” which forms the S. E. side. This variable star was first noticed as such by Fabricius, on the 13th of August, 1596. It changes from a star of the 2d mag- nitude so as to become invisible once in 334 days, or about 7 times in 6 years. Herschel makes its period 331 days, 10 hours, and 19 minutes; while Hevelius assures us that it once disappeared for 4 years; so that its true period, perhaps, has not been satisfactorily determined. The whole number of stars ascertained to be variable, amounts to only 15; while those which are suspected to be variable, amount to 37. Mira is 70 S. S. E. of El Rischa, in the bend or knot of the riband which connects the Two Fishes. Ten degrees S. of Mira, are 4 small stars, in the breast and paws, about 39 apart, which form a square, the brightest being on the E. Ten de- When does it approach, and when does it leave the meridian'ſ What is the whole number of stars in Cetus? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? How may, the head of Cetus be distinguished? What are the name and position.9f the brightest? How far is it from the equinoctial, and the principal star in the Fishes! What is its direction from Algol and the Fly? With what stars does it form an equi- lateral triangle? How may it otherwise be known? Describe the position of Nu. Describe the situation of Delta and Mira. When and by whom was this star discover- ed to be variable? What are the extent and period of this variation? How long does Herschel make it? What does Hevelius say of it? Has the true perio of Mira been satisfactorily determined? How far, and which way is Mira from Alpha, in the knot of the riband? What four small stars do you observe 100 S. of Mira'ſ MAP II.] PERSEUs, ET CAPUT MEDUSE. 49 grees S. W. of Mira, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the heart, called Baten Kaitos, which makes a scalene triangle with two other stars of the same magnitude 70 and 10° W. of it; also, an equilateral triangle with Mira, and the eastern- most one in the square. A great number of geometrical figures may be formed from the stars in this, and in most of the other constellations, merely by reference to the maps; but it is better that the student should exercise his own ingenuity in this way with reference to the stars themselves, ſor when once he has constructed a group into any letter or figure of his own invention, he never will forget it. The teacher should therefore require his class to commit to writing the result of their own observations upon the relative position, magnitude and figures of the principal stars in each constellation. One evening's exercise in this way will disclose to the student a surprising multitude of crosses, squares, triangles, . arcs and letters, by which he will be better able to identify and remember them, than by any instructions that could be given. For example: Mira and Baten in the Whale, about 10° apart, make up the S. E. or shorter side of an irregular square, with El Rischa in the node of the riband, and another star in the Whale as far to the right of Baten, as El Rischa is above Mira. Again, There are three stars of equal magnitude, forming a straight line W. of Baten; from which, to the middle star is 109, thence to the W. one 12%; and 8° or 9° S. of this line, in a triangular direction, is a bright star of the second magnitude in the coil of the tail, called Diphºla. In a southerly direction, 25° below Diphaa, is Alpha in the head of the Phe- nix, and about the same distance S. § is Fomalhaut, in the mouth of the Southern Fish, forming together a large triangle, with Diphola in the vertex or top of it. - #. fine cluster of small stars S. of the little square in the Whale, constitutes a part of a new constellation called the Chymical Furnace. The two stars N. E. and the three to the southward of the little square, are in the river Eridanus. History.—This constellation is of very early antiquity; though most writers consider it the famous sea monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda be- cause her mother Cassiopeia had boasted herself fairer than Juno or the Sea Nymphs; but slain by Perseus and placed among the stars in honour of his achievement. “The winged hero now descends, now soars, And at his pleasure the vast monster gores. Deep in his back, swift stooping from above, His crooked sabre to the hilt he drove.” It is quite certain, however, that this constellation had a place in the heavens long prior to the time of Perseus. When the equinoctial sun in Aries, which is right over the head of Cetus, opened the year, it was denominated the Preserver or Deliverer, by the idolaters of the East. On this account, according to Pausa- nias, the sun was worshipped, at Eleusis, under the name of the Preserver or Saviour “With gills pulmonic breathes the enormous whale, And spouts aquatic columns to the gale ; Sports on the shining wave at noontide hours, And shifting rainbows crest the rising showers.”—Darwin. PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSAF. PERSEUs is represented with a sword in his right hand, the head of Medusa in his left, and wings at his feet. It is situ- How is Baten Kaitos situated? What is said of the various figures that different constellations eachibit 2 Give an eſtample. Of what constellation does that fine cluster of stars of the little square in the Whale, constitute a part 2 How is the constellation Perseus represented 2 5 50 . PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [DEC. ated directly N. of the Pleiades and the Fly, between Andro- meda on the W. and Auriga on the E. Its mean declination is 490 N. lt is on the meridian the 24th of December. It contains, including the head of Medusa, 59 stars, two of which are of the 2d magnitude, and four of the 3d. According to Eudosia, it contains, including the head of Medusa, 67 stars. ——“Perseus next, Brandishes high in heaven his sword of flame, And holds triumphant the dire Gorgon’s head, Flashing with fiery snakes the stars he counts Are Siarty-seven ; and two of these he boasts, Nobly refulgent in the second rank— One in his west, one in Medusa's head.” THE HEAD of MEDUSA is not a separate constellation, but forms a part of Perseus. It is represented as the trunkless head of a frightful Gor- gon, crowned with coiling snakes, instead of hair, which the victor Perseus holds in his hand. There are, in all, about a dozen stars in the Head of Me- dusa ; three of the 4th magnitude, and one, varying alter- mately from the 2d to the 4th magnitude. This remarkable star is called Algol. It is situated 120 E. of Almaach, in the foot of Andromeda, and may be known by means of three stars of the 4th magnitude, lying a few degrees S. W. of it, and forming a small triangle. It is on the meridian the 21st of December; but as it continues above the horizon 18 hours out of 24, it may be seen every evening from September to May. It varies from the 2d to the 4th magnitude in about 3% hours, and back again in the same time; after which it remains steadily brilliant for 2% days, when the same changes recur. The periodical variation of Algol was determined in 1783, by John Goodricke of York (Eng.) to be 2 days, 20 hours, 48 minutes, and 56 seconds. Dr. Herschel attributes the variable appearance of Algol to spots upon its surface, and thinks it has a motion on its axis similar to that of the sun. He also observes, of variable stars generally:—“The rotary motion of stars upon their axes is a capital feature in their resemblance to the sun. It appears to me now, that we cannot refuse to admit such a motion, and that indeed it may be as evidently proved as the diurnal mo- Where is it situated? What is its declimation, and when is it on the meridian 7 What is the whole number of its stars What is the magnitude of its principal ones? Of what constellation does Caput Medusae form a par’? How is it represented? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? What are the name and position of the variable star in this constellation? When is it on the meridian, and how long may it be seen In what time does it vary from the 2d to the 4th magnitude, and back again? How long is it steadily brilliant? When and by whom was its periodical variation determined? What is its exact period? To what does Dr Herschel attribute its variable appearance? MAP III.] PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSAE. 51 tion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the surface, less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in certain di- rections either towards, or from us, will account for all the phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the stars, so satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look out for any other cºli ISé. It is said, that the famous astronomer Lalande, who died at Paris in 1807, was wont to remain whole nights, in his old age, upon the Pon: Neuf, to exhibit to the curious the variations in the brilliancy of the star Algol. Nine degrees E. by N. from Algol, is the bright star Alge- nib, of the 2d magnitude, in the side of Perseus, which with Almaack, makes a perfect right angle at Algol, with the open part towards Cassiopeia. By means of this strikingly perfect figure, the three stars last mentioned may always be recog- nised without the possibility of mistaking them. Algenib may otherwise be readily distinguished by its being the brightest and middle one of a number of stars lying four and five degrees apart, in a large semicircular form, curving to- wards Ursa Major. g Algenib comes to the meridian on the 21st December, 15 minutes after Algol, at which time the latter is almost di- rectly over head. When these two stars are on the meridian, that beautiful cluster, the Pleiades, is about half an hour E. of it; and in short, the most brilliant portion of the starry heavens is then visible in the eastern hemisphere. The glories of the scene are unspeakably magnificent; and the student who fixes his eye upon those lofty mansions of being, cannot fail to covet a knowledge of their order and relations, and to “reverence Him who made the Seven Stars and Orion.” f The Milky-Way around Perseus is very vivid, being un- doubtedly a rich stratum of fixed stars, presenting the most wonderful and sublime phenomenon of the Creator's power and greatness. Kohler, the astronomer, observed a beautiful nebula near the face of Perseus, besides eight other nebulous clusters in different parts of the constellation. The head and sword of Perseus are exhibited on the circumpolar map. That very bright star 23° E. of Algol, is Capella in the Charioteer. History.—Perseus was the son of Jupiter and Danae. He was no sooner born than he was cast into the sea with his mother; but being driven on the coasts of one of the islands of the Cyclades, they were rescued by a fishermian, and carried to Polydectes, the king of the place, who treated then with great hil- manity, and intrusted them to the care of the priests of Minerva’s Temple. His rising genius and manly courage soon made him a favourite of the gods. At a How may Algenib be distinguished? When is it on the meridian? How long fifter Aſgol'. When these two stars are on the meridian, what beautiful cluster is hºlſ an four east of it? What is the general appearance of the eastern hemisphere at that time? What is the appearance of the Milky Way around Perseus? What nebulae have been observed in this constellation 3 - 52 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JAN. great feast of Polydectes, all the nobles were expected to present the king with a superb and beautiful horse; but Perseus, who owed his benefactor much, not wishing to be thought less munificent than the rest, engaged to bring him the head of Medusa, the only one of the three Gorgons who was subject to mor- tality. The maines of the other two were Stheno and Euriale. They were re- presented with serpents wreathing round their heads instead of hair, having yellow wings and brazen hands; their bodies which grew indissolubly together, were covered with impenetrable scales, and their very looks had the power of turning into stones all those on whom they fixed their eyes. To equip Perseus for this perilous enterprise, Pluto, the god of the infernal regions, lent him his helmet, which had the power of rendering the wearer in- visible. Minerva the goddess of wisdom, furnished him with her buckler, which was as resplendent as a polished mirror; and he received from Mercury, wings for his feet, and a dagger made of diamonds. Thus equipped, he mounted into the air, conducted by Minerva, and came upon the monsters who, with the watchful snakes about their heads, were all asleep. He approached them, and with a courage which amazed and delighted Minerva, cut off with one blow Me- dusa's head. The noise awoke the two immortal sisters, but Pluto’s helinet rem- dered Perseus invisible, and the vengeful pursuit of the Gorgons proved fruitless. “In the mirror of his polished shield Reflected, saw Medusa slumbers take, And not one serpent by good chance awake; Then backward an unerring blow he sped, And from her body lopped at once her head.” Perseus then made his way through the air, with Medusa's head yet reeking in his hand, and from the blood which dropped from it as he flew, sprang all ; innumerable serpents that have ever since infested the sandy deserts of y lä. *. The victor Perseus, with the Gorgon head, O'er Lybian sands his airy journey sped, The gory drops distilled, as swift he flew, And from each drop envenomed serpents grew.” The destruction of Medusa réndered the name of Perseus immortal, and he was changed into a constellation at his death, and placed among the stars, with the head of Medusa by his side. - C H A P T E R III. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONs which ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN JANUARY. The constellations which pass our meridian in the months of January, Febru- ary and March, present to us the most brilliant and interesting portion of the heavens; embracing an annual number of stars of the highest order and bright- jº all so conspicuously situated, that the most inexperienced can easily trace the Iſl Out. - • , TAURUS. THE BULL is represented in an attitude of rage, as if about to plunge at Orion, who seems to invite the onset by provo- cations of assault and defiance. Only the head and shoulders of the animal are to be seen; but these are so distinctly - -What is the comparative brilliancy of the constellations which pass the meridian in January, February and March A How is Taurus represented? What parts of the animal are to be seen? MAP. III.] TAURUS. 53 marked that they cannot be mistaken. Taurus is now the second sign and third constellation of the Zodiac; but ante- rior to the time of Abraham, or more than 4000 years ago, the vernal equinox took place, and the year opened when the sun was in Taurus; and the Bull, for the space of 2000 years, was the prince and leader of the celestial host. The Ram succeeded next, and now the Fishes lead the year. The head of Taurus sets with the sun about the last of May, when the opposite constellation. the Scorpion is seen to rise in the S. E. It is situated between Perseus and Auriga on the north, Gemini on the east, Orion and Eridanus on the south, and Aries on the west, having a mean declination of 16° N. It contains 141 visible stars, including two remarkable clusters called the PLEIADEs and HYADEs. The first is now on the shoulder, and the latter in the face of the Bull. The Pleiades, according to fable, were the seven daughters of Atlas and the nymph Pleione,” who were turned into stars, with their sisters the Hyades, on account of their amiable virtues and mutual affection. º Thus we every where find that the ancientº, with all their barbarism and idolatry, entertained the belief that umblemished virtue and a mueritorious life would meet their reward in the sky. Thus Virgil represents Magnus Apollo as Lending from the sky to address the youth Iulus:— “Macte nova virtute puer; sic itar ad astra; l)iis genite, et geniture Deos.” “Go on, spotless boy, in the paths of virtue; it is the way to the stars; offspring of the gods thyself—so shalt thou become the father of gods.” o Our disgust at their superstitions may be in some Imeasure mitigated, by seri- ously reflecting, that had some of these personages lived in our day, they had been ornaments in the Christian church, and models of social virtue. The names of the Pleiades are Alcione, Merone, Maia, Electra, Tayeta, Sterope and Celeno, Merope was the only one who married a mortal, and on that account her star is dim among her sisters. Although but six of these are visible to the naked eye, yet Dr. Hook informs us that, with a twelve feet telescope, he saw 78 stars; and Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars in this small cluster. The most ancient authors, such as Homer, Attalus, and Geminus, counted only siz Pleiades; but Simonides, Varro, Pliny, Aratus, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy, reckon them seven in number; and it was asserted, that the seventh had been seen before the burning of Troy; but this difference might arise from the dif ference in distinguishing them with the naked eye. * Dr. Hutton is of opinion that Atlas being the first astronomer who disco- vered these stars, called them by the names of the daughters of his wife Pleione. - What is the numerical order of Taurus among the signs and constellations of the Zodiacº what was its position in the Zodiac before the time of Abraham? How long did it continue to lead the celestial host? What constellation succeeded next? Where is Taurus now situated? How many stars does it contain? What remarkable clusters . . . are in this constellation?-Where are these placed? Mention the names of the Pleiades. which of these seven stars is not seen, and why? Are these six all that can be seen through the telescope? ** 54 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. ' [JAN The Pleiades are so called from the Greek word, TXaeiv, pleein, to sail; because, at this season of the year, they were considered “the star of the ocean” to the benighted mariner.” Alcyone, of the 3d magnitude, being the brightest star in this cluster, is sometimes called the light of the Ple- iades. The other five are principally of the 4th and 5th magnitudes. The Pleiades, or as they are more familiarly termed, the seven stars, come to the meridian 10 minutes before 9 o'clock, on the evening of the 1st of January, and may serve, in place of the sun, to indicate the time, and as a guide to the sur- rounding stars. According to Hesiod, who wrote about 900 years before the birth of our Sa viour, the heliacal rising of the Pleiades took place on the 11th of May, about the time of harvest. “When, Atlas-born, the Pleiad stars arise Before the sun above the dawning skies, 'Tis time to reap; and when they sink below The morn-illumin’d west, 'tis time to sow.” Thus, in all ages, have the stars been observed by the husbandman for “signs and for seasons.” - * Pliny says that Thales, the Miletan astronomer, determined the cosmical setting of the Pleiades to be 25 days after the autumnal equinox. This would make a difference between the setting at that time and the present, of 35 days, and as a day answers to about 59' of the ecliptic, these days will make 34° 25'. This di- vided by the annual precision (50}^^), will give 2465 years since the time of Thales. Thus does astronomy become the parent of chronology. If it be borne in mind that the stars uniformly rise, come to the meridian, and set about four minutes earlier every succeeding night, it will be very easy to determine at what time the seven stars pass the meridian on any night subse- quent or antecedent to the 1st of January. For example: at what time will the * Virgil, who flourished 1200 years before the invention of the magnetic needle, says that the stars were relied upon, in the first ages of nautical enterprise, to guide the Tude bark Over the SeaS. “Tung almos primum fluvii sensere cavatas; Navita tum stellis numeros, et nomina fecit, Pleiadas, Hyadas, claramgue Lycaonis Arcton.” “Then first on seas the shallow alder swam ; Then sailors quarter'd heaven, and found a name For every fix’d and every wand'ring star— The Pleiads, Hyads, and the Northern Car.” The same§. also describes Palinurus, the renowned pilot of the Trojan fleet, as “watching the face of the nocturnal heavens.” “Sidera cuncta notat tacito labentia cq210, Arcturum, pluviasque Hyadas, geminośgue Tr1Ones, Armatumque auro circumspicit Oriona. *Observe the stars, and notes their sliding course, The Pleiads, Hyads, and their wat'ry force; And both the Bears is careful to behold ‘A And bright Orion, arm'd witn ournish’d gold.” Indeed, this sagacious pilot was once so intent in gazing upon the stars while at the helm, that he fell overboard, and was lost to his companions. “Headlong he fell, and, struggling in the main, Cried out for helping hands, but cried in vain.” ... From what circumstance do the Pleiades derive their name? What is the brightest of the Pleiades called? -What is the size of the restrºWhen are the Pleiades, on the meridianº-How much earlier do the stars rise, conse to the mériqian, and Sct, every succeeding night? MAP III.] TAURUS, - 55 - seven stars culminate on the 5th January 1 Multiply the 5 days by 4 and take the result from the time they culminate on the 1st, and it will give 30 minutes after 8 o'clock in the evening. The Pleiades are also sometimes called Vergiliae, or the “Virgins of spring;” because the sun enters this cluster in the “season of blossoms,” about the 18th of May. He who made them alludes to this circumstance when he demands of Job: “Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Ple- iades,” &c.—[Job 38: 31.] The Syrian name of the Pleiades is Succoth, or Succoth-Benoth, derived from a Chaldaic word, which signifies “to speculate, to observe,” and the “Men of Succoth,” (2 Kings 17: 30.) have been thence considered observers of the StarS. The Hyades are situated 11° S. E. of the Pleiades, in the face of the Bull, and may be readily distinguished by means of five stars” so placed as to form the letter W. The most brilliant star is on the left, in the top of the letter, and called Aldebaran ; from which the moon’s distance is computed. “A star of the first magnitude illumes His radiant head; and of the second rank. Another beams not far remote.” Aldebaran is of Arabic origin, and takes its name from two words which signify, “He went before, or led the way”— alluding to that period in the history of astronomy when this star led up the starry host from the vernal equinox. It comes to the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 10th of January, or 48% minutes after Alcyone, on the 1st. When Aries is about 279 high, Aldebaran is just rising in the east. So MANILIUs:— “Thus when the Ram hath doubled ten degrees, And join’d seven more, then rise the Hyades.” A line 1539 E. N. E. of Aldebaran will point out a bright star of the 2d magnitude in the extremity of the northern horn, marked Beta or El Nath; (this star is also in the foot of Auriga, and is common to both constellations.) From Beta in the northern horn, to Zeta, in the tip of the southern horn, it is 89, in a southerly direction. This star forms a right angle with Aldebaram and Beta. Beta and Zeta, then, in the button of the horns, are in a line nearly north and south, 80 apart, with the brightest on the north. That very bright star 174° N. of Beta, is Capella, in the constellation Auriga. # The ancient Greeks counted seven in this cluster:- “The Bull's head shines with seven refulgent flames, Which, Grecia, Hyads, from their showering, names.” At what time will the seven stars culminate on the 'fiſh January 2*By what other names are they sometimes called, and why T. What allusion is made to this cluster in the ancient Scriptures? NDescribe the situation and appearance of the Hyades. - What is the brightest of them called What is the origin of the word Aldebaran, and to what does it allude? When does Aldebaran culirinate Describe the position of Beta? What are the name and direction of the sºr in the southern hºrn? What is the relative position of these stars? What very bright star is secn 17° 30' N. of Beta? ... 56 ſ’ICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. +. [JAN. History.—According to the Grecian mythology, this is the animal which bore Europa over the seas to that country, which derived from her its name. She was the daughter of Agenor, and princess of Phoenicia. She was so beautiful that Jupiter became enamoured of her ; and assuming the shape of a snow-white bull, he mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, with her female at- tendants, were gathering flowers in the meadows. Europa caressed the bèau. tiful animal, and at last had the collrage to sit upon his back. The god now took advantage of her situation, and with precipitate steps retired towards the shore, and crossed the sea with Europa upon his back, and arrived safe in Crete. Some suppose she lived about 1552 years before the Christian era. It is probable, however, that this constellation had a place in the Zodiac before the Greeks be- gan to cultivate a knowledge of the stars; and that it was rather an invention of the Egyptians or Chaldeans. Both the Egyptians and Persians worshipped a deity under this figure, by the name of Apis ; and Belzoni is said to have found an embalmed bull in one of the notable sepulchres near Thebes, In the Hebrew Zodiac, Taurus is ascribed to Joseph. ORION. Whoever looks up to this constellation and learns its name, will never forget it. It is too beautifully splendid to need a description. When it is on the meridian, there is then above the horizon the most magnificent view of the celestial bodies that the starry firmament affords; and it is visible to all the habitable world, because the equinoctial passes through the middle of the constellation. It is represented on celestial maps by the figure of a man in the attitude of assaulting the Bull, with a sword in his belt, a huge club in his right hand, and the skin of a lion in his left, to serve for a shield. Manilius, a Latin poet, who composed five books on as- tronomy a short time before the birth of our Saviour thus describes its appearance:— “First next the Twins, see great Orion rise, II is arms extended stretch o'er half the skies His stride as large, and with a steady pace He marches on, and measures a vast space; On each broad shoulder a bright star display’d, And three obliquely grace his hanging blade. In his vast head, immers'd in boundless spheres, Three stars, less bright, but yet as great, he bears, But farther off removed, their splendour's lost; Thus grac'd and arm’d he leads the starry host.” The centre of the constellation is midway between the poles of the heavens and directly over the equator. It is also about 8° W. of the solstitial colure, and comes to the me- ridian about the 23d of January. The whole number of visible stars in this constellation is 78; of which, two are of the first magnitude, four of the 2d, three of the 3d, and fif- teen of the 4th. | Those four brilliant stars in the form of a long square or >What is the general appearance of the constellation Orion ** when this constellation is on the uneridian, what is the appearance of the starry firmament? To whom is it -visible, and why? How is Grion represented on celestial maps? Describe its position. How is it situated \h respect to the solstitial colure, and when is it on the meridian? what remarkable stats forth the outline of the consieilation? MAP III.] ORION. 57 parallelogram, intersected in the middle by the “Three Stars,” or “Ell and Yard,” about 25°.S. of the Bull's horns, form the outlines of Orion.” The two upper stars in the par- allelogram are about 15° N. of the two lower ones; and being placed on each shoulder, may be called the epaulets of Orion. The brightest of the two lower ones is in the left foot, on the W., and the other, which is the least brilliant of the four, in the right knee. To be more particular: Bella- trix is a star of the 2d magnitude on the W. shoulder; Be- telguese is a star of the 1st magnitude, 74° E. of Bellatrix, on the E. shoulder. It is brighter than Bellatrix, and lies a little farther towards the north; and comes to the meridian 30 minutes after it, on the 21st of January. These two form the upper end of the parallelogram. Rigel is a splendid star of the 1st magnitude, in the left foot, on the W. and 15° S, of Bellatrix. Saiph, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the right knee, 84° E. of Rigel. These two form the lower end of the parallelogram. “First in rank The martial star upon his shoulder flames: A rival star illuminates his foot; And on his girdle beams a luminary Which, in vicinity of other stars, Might claim the proudest honours.” There is a little triangle of three small stars in the head of Orion, which forms a larger triangle with the two in his shoulders. In the middle of the parallelogram are three stars of the 2d magnitude, in the belt of Orion, that form a straight line about 30 in length from N. W. to S. E. They are usu- ally distinguished by the name of the Three Stars, because there are no other stars in the heavens that exactly resemble them in position and brightness. . They are sometimes de- nominated the Three Kings, because they point out the Hyades and Pleiades on one side, and Sirius, or the Dog-star on the other. In Job they are called the Bands of Orion ; while the ancient husbandmen called them Jacob’s rod, and sometimes the Rake. The University of Leipsic, in 1807, gave them the name of Napoleon. But the more common appellation for them, including those in the sword, is the Ell and Yard. They derive the latter name from the circum- stance that the line which unites the “three stars” in the belt measures just 3° in length, and is divided by the central star . Describe the two upper ones in the group. Describe the two lower ones. Give a more particular description of the stays in the shoulder. How do you distinguish Be- telguese from Bellatrix? When does Betelguese come to the meridian? Describe the stars which form the lower end of the parallelogram. What stars do you observe in the head of Orion}-Describe the situation and appearance of the “Three Stars?” Why are they called the three stars? -What else are they denominated, and why? What names were given to them by the ancients? What by the University of Leipsic *YWhat is the more familiar term for them...and whence is it derived? 58 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. LJAN. into two equal parts, like a yard-stick; thus serving as a graduated standard for measuring the distances of stars from each other. When therefore any star is described as being so many degrees from another, in order to determine the dis- tance, it is recommended to apply this rule. It is necessary that the scholar should task his ingenuity only a few evenings in applying such a standard to the stars, before he will learn to judge of their relative distances with an accuracy that will seldom vary a degree from the truth. The northernmost star in the belt, called Mintika, is less than #0 S. of the equinoctial, and when on the meridian, is almost exactly over the equator. It is on the meridian, the 24th of January.* - The “three stars” are situated about 80 W. of the solstitial colure, and uniformly pass the meridian one hour and fifty minutes after the seven stars. There is a row of stars of the 4th and 5th magnitudes, S. of . the belt, running down obliquely towards Saiph, which forms the sword. This row is also called the Ell because it is once and a quarter the length of the Yard or belt. A very little way below Thabit, in the sword, there is a ne- bulous appearance, the most remarkable one in the heavens. With a good telescope an apparent opening is discovered, through which, as through a window, we seem to get a glimpse of other heavens, and brighter regions beyond. As the telescope extends our knowledge of the stars and greatly increases their visible number, we behold hundreds and thousands, which, but for this almost divine improvement of our vision, had forever remained, unseen by us, in an unfathomable void. - A star in Orion's sword, which appears single to the unassisted vision, is mul- tiplied into six by the telescope; and another, into twelve. Galileo found 80 in the belt, 21 in a nebulous star in the head, and about 500 in another part of Orion, within the compass of one or two degrees. Dr. Hook saw 78 stars in the Pleiades, and Rheita with a better telescope, saw about 200 in the same cluster, and more than 2000 in Orion. About 90 W. of Bellatrix are eight stars, chiefly of the 4th magnitude, in a curved line running N. and S. with the con- cavity towards Orion; these point out the skin of the lion in his left hand. Of Orion, on the whole, we may remark with Eudosia:— , §He who admires not to the stars is bind.” HISTORY.—According to some authorities, Orion was the son of Neptune and queen Euryale, a famous Amazonian huntress, and possessing the disposition of * Though the position of this star, with respect to the equator, is the same at all times, whether it be on the meridian or in the horizon; yet it appears to occupy this position, only when it is on the meridian. How may the distances of the stars from each other be measured by reference to the yard? How are the three stars situated with respect to the solstitial colure, and how with respect to the seven stars? \Describe the stars which form the Sword of Qrion, ~What else is this row called? MDescribe the nebulous appearance which is visible in this cluster. What other discoveries has the telescope made in this constellation ? What stars about 9° W. of Bellatrix * MAP III.] ORION. 59 * his mother, he became the greatest hunter in the world, and even boasted that there was not an animal on earth which he could not conquer. . To punish this vanity, it is said that a scorpion sprung up out of the earth and bit his foot, that he died; and that at the request of Diana, he was Pºi. among the stars directly opposite to the Scorpion that caused his death. mother, but was the gift of the gods, Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, to a peasant of Boeotia, as a reward of piety, and that he was invested with the power of Walk- ing over the sea without wetting his feet. In strength and stature he surpassed all other mortals. He was skilled in the working of iron, from which he fabri- cated a subterranean palace for Vulcan; he also walled in the coasts of Sicily against the inundations of the sea, and built thereon a temple to its gods. Orion was betrothed to the daughter of OEnopion, but he, unwilling to give up his daughter, contrived to intoxicate the illustrious hero and put out his eyes on the seashore where he had laid himself down to sleep. Orion, finding himself blind when he awoke, was conducted by the sound to a neighbouring forge, where he placed one of the workmen on his back, and, by his directions, went to a place where the rising sun was seen with the greatest advantage. Here he turned his face towards the luminary, and, as it is reported, immediately recov. ered his sight, and hastened to punish the perfidious cruelty of OEnopion. The daughters of Orion distinguishéd themselves as nuch as their father; and, when the oracle had declared that Boeotia should not be delivered from a dreadful pestilence, before two of Jupiter’s children were immolated on the altars. they joyfully accepted the offer, and voluntarily sacrificed themselves for the good of their country. The deities of the infernal regions were struck at the patriotism of the two females, and immediately two stars were seen to ascend up from the earth, still smoking with their blood, and they were placed in the heavens in the form of a crown. Ovid says their bodies were burned by the Thebans, and that two persons arose from their ashes, whom the gods soon after changed into constellations. As the constellation Orion, which rises at noon about the 9th day of March, and sets at noon about the 21st of June, is generally supposed to be accompani- ed, at its rising, with great rains and storms, it became extremely terrible to mariners, in the early adventures of navigation. Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, with some of the Greek poets, make mention of this. - Thus Eneas accounts for the storm which cast him on the Aſrican coast on his way to Italy:— - “To that blest shore we steer'd our destined way, , When sudden, dire Orion rous’d the sea ; All charg’d with tempests rose the baleful star, And on our navy pour’d his wat'ry war.” To induce him to delay his departure, Dido's sister advises her to “Tell him, that, charg’d with deluges of rain, Orion rages on the wintry main.” The name of this constellation is mentioned in the books of Job and Amos. and in Homer, . The inspired prophet, penetrated like the psalmist of Israel, with the omniscience and power displayed in the celestial glories, utters this sublime injunction : “Seek Him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the shadow of déath into morning.” Job also, with profound veneration, adores His awful majesty who “cornmandeth the sun and sealeth up the stars; who alone spreadeth out the heavens, and maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south :” And in another place, the Almighty demands of him— “Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven? Canst thou hind the sweet influen- ces of the Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion; canst thou bring forth Mazza- roth in his season, or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons?” | Calmet supposes that Mazzaroth is here put for the whole order of celestial bodies in the Zodiac, which, by their appointed revolutions, produce the varions seasons of the year, and the regular succession of day and night. Arcturus is the name of the principal star in Bootes, and is here put for the constellation itself. The expression, his sons, doubtless refers to Asterion, and Chara, the N. º with which he seems to be pursuing the great bear around the orth pole. " . The following lines are copied from a work entitled “Astronomical Recrea- tions,” by J. Green, of Pennsylvania, to whom the author is indebted for many valuable hints concerning the mythology of the ancient constellations. thers say that Orion had no 60 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. |JAN, “When chilling winter spreads his azure skies, Behold Orion's giant form arise; His golden girdle glitters on the sight, And the broad falchion beams in splendour bright; A lion's brindled hide his bosom shields, And his right hand a ponderous weapon wields. The River's shining streams beneath him pour, And angry Taurus rages close before; Behind him Procyon barks, and Sirius growls, While full in front, the monster Cetus howls. See bright Capella, and Medusa there, With horrid serpents hissing through her hair, See Cancer too, and near the Hydra dire, With roaring Leo, filled with furious fire. The timid Hare, the Dove with olive green, And Aries, fly in terrour from the scene; The warrior Perseus gazes from above, And the Twin offspring of the thunderer Jove. Lo! in the distance, Cassiope fair In state reposes on her golden chair; Her beauteous daughter, bound, before ner stands, And vainly strives to free her fettered hands; For aid she calls on royal Cepheus near, But shrieks from her reach not her father's ear. See last of all, around the glowing pole, With shining scales, the spiry Dragon roll A grizzly Bear on either side appears, Creeping with lazy motion 'mid the stars ” These lines are easily committed to memory, and would assist the pupil in re- valling the names of the constellations in this very interesting portion of the 11623. We HS, -LEPUs. THE HARE.-This constellation is situated directly south of Orion, and comes to the meridian at the same time; namely on the 24th of January. It has a mean declination 180 S. and contains 19 small stars, of which, the four princi- pal ones are of the 3d magnitude. It may be readily distin- guished by means of four stars of the 3d magnitude, in the form of an irregular square, or trapezium. Zeta, of the 4th magnitude, is the first star, and is situa- ted in the back, 50 S. of Saiph, in Orion. About the same distance below Zeta are the four principal stars, in the legs and feet. These form the square. They are marked Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta. Alpha and Beta otherwise called Arneb, form the N. W. end of the trapezium, and are about 30 apart. Gamma and Delta form the S. E. end, and are about 23° apart. The upper right hand one, which is Arneb, is the brightest of the four, and is near the centre of the con- Where is the constellation of the Hare situated? When does it come to the merl; dian? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of its principal ones? How may it he distinguished? In what part of the animal are these stars pla– ced? Describe the principal star in Lepus. Whāt are the distance and direction of the fguare from Zeta?" Describe the stars at each end of this square. Which is the tº fightest of the four? t - MAP. III.] coLUMBA—ERIDANUs. t 61 stellation. Four or five degrees S. of Rigel are four very minute stars, in the ears of the Hare. History.—This constellation is situated about 189 west of the Great Dogs which, from the motion of the earth, seems to be pursuing it, as the Greyhounds do the Bear, round the circuit of the skies. It was one of those animals which Orion is said to have delighted in hunting, and which, for this reason, was made into a constellation and placed near him among the stars. t COLUMBA. NoAH's Dow E.-This constellation is situated about 16° S. of the Hare, and is nearly on the same meridian with the “Three Stars,” in the belt of Orion. It contains only 10 stars; one of the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th mag- nitudes; of these, Phaet and Beta are the brightest, and are about 23° apart. Phaet, the principal star, lies on the right and is the highest of the two ; Beta may be known by means of a smaller star just east of it, marked Gamma. A line drawn from the easternmost star in the belt of Orion, 320 di- rectly south, will point out Phaet; it is also 1130 S. of the lower left hand star in the square of the Hare, and makes with Sirius and Naos, in the ship, a large equilateral triangle. HISTORY..—This constellation is so called in commemoration of the dove which Noah “sent forth to see if the waters were abated front off the face of the ground,” after the ark had rested on mount Ararat. “And the dove came in to him in the evening, and lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off.” ——“The surer messenger, A dove :-ent forth once, and again to spy Green tree or ground, whereon his foot may light: The second time returning, in his bill An olive leaf he brings, pacific sign!” ERIDANUs. THE River Po.—This constellation meanders over a large and very irregular space in the heavens. It is not easy, nor scarcely desirable, to trace out, all its windings among the stars. Its entire length is not less than 1309; which, for the sake of a more easy reference, astronomers divide into two sections, the northern and the southern. That part of it which lies between Orion and the Whale, including the great bend about his paws, is distinguished by the name of the Northern stream ; the remainder of it is called the Southern streaſº. * i The Northern stream commences near Rigel, in the foot Are these all the stars that are visible in this constellation? Describe the situation of Noah's Dove. How many stars does it contain, and what are the principal? Which of these are the brightest, and how situated? How may Beta be known? What is the position of Phaet with regard to Orion \ Describe the general form of the constellation Eridanus. What is its entire length, and how is it divided? By what names are these sections distinguished? What are the course and distance of the Northern stream? 62 | PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JAN. * of Orion, and flows out westerly, in a serpentine course, nearly 400, to the Whale, where it suddenly makes a com- plete circuit and returns back nearly the same distance to- wards its source, but bending gradually down towards the south, when it again makes a similar circuit to the S. W. and finally disappears below the horizon. West of Rigel there are five or six stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, arching .. in a semicircular form, and marking the first bend of the northern stream. About 8° below these, or 19° W. of Rigel, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, in the second bend of the northern stream, marked Gamma. This star cul- minates 13 minutes after the Pleiades, and one hour and a quarter before Rigel. Passing Gamma, and a smaller star west of it, there are four stars nearly in a row, which bring us to the breast of Cetus, 8° N. of Gamma, is a small star gº Ried, which is thought by some to be considerably nearer the earth than 1THUIS Theemim, in the southern stream, is a star of the 3d magnitude, apout 17° S. W. of the square in Lepus, and may be known by means of a smaller star, 19 above it. Achermar is a brilliant star of the 1st magnitude, in the extremity of |. southern stream; but having 58° of S. declination, can never be seen in this atitude. t The whole number of stars in this’ constellation is 84; of which, one is of the 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven are of the 3d. Many of these cannot be pointed out by ver- bal description; they must be traced from the map. History.—Eridanus is the name of a celebrated river in Cisalpine Gaul, also called Padus. Its modern name is Po. Virgil calls it the king of rivers. The Latin poets have rendered it memorable from its connexion with the fable of Phaeton, who, being a son of Phoebus and Clymene, became a favourite of Venus, who intrusted him with the care of one of her temples. This favour of the goddess made him vain, and he sought of his father a public and incontestable sign of his tenderness, that should convince the world of his origin. Phoebus, after sonie hesitation, made oath that he would grant him whatever he required, and no sooner was the oath uttered, than— “The youth, transported, asks without delay, To guide the sun’s bright chariot for a day. The god repented of the oath he took, For anguish thrice his radiant head he shook;- My son, says he, some other proof require, Rash was my promise, rash was thy desire— Not Jove himself the ruler of the sky, That hurls the three-forked thunder from above, Dares try his strength; yet who as strong as Jove? Besides, consider what irnpetuous force Turins stars and planets in a diff'rent course. I steer against their motions; nor am I Borne back by all the current of the sky: But how could you resist the orbs that roll In adverse whirls, and sters, the rapid poll?” Phoebus represented the dangers to which he would be exposed in vain. He undertook the aerial journey, and the explicit directions of his father were for- gotten. No sooner had Phaeton received the reins than he betrayed his igno- rance of the manner of guiding the chariot. The flying coursers became sem- sible of the confusion of their driver, and immediately departed from the usual track. Phaeton repented too late of his rashness, and already heaven and earth Describe its first bend? Describe the position of Gamma, and tell when it comes to the meridian', What stars are between Gamma and the Whale? What small star gbout 8° above'Gamma, and what is its distance from the earth compared with that qf Sirius 2 Describe the situation of Theemim. Describe the position and magnitude of Archernar?. What is the whole number of stars in this constellation? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? - MAP III.] - AURIGA. 63 h were threatened with a universal conflagration as the consequence, when Jupi- ter, perceiving the disorder of the horses, struck the driver with a thunderbolt, and hurled him headlong from heaven into the river Eridanus. His body, con- sumed with fire, was found by the nymphs of the place, who honoured num with a decent burial, and inscribed this epitaph upon his tomb :- “Hic situs est Phaeton, currus auriga paterni: Quene si non tenuit, magnis tamenezcidit ausis.” His sisters mourned his unhappy end, and were changed by Jupiter into poplars. “All the long night their mournful watch they keep, And all the day stand round the tomb and weep.”—OvID. It is said the tears which they shed, turned to amber, with which the Phoeni- cians and Carthaginians carried on in secrecy a most lucrative trade. The great heat produced on the occasion of the sun's departing out of his usual course, is said to have dried up the blood of the Ethiopians, and turned their skins black; and to have produced sterility and barrenness over the greater part of Lybia. “At once from life and from the chariot driven, Th’ ambitious boy fell thunderstruck from heaven.” “The breathless Phaeton, with flaming hair, Shot from the chariot like a falling star, That in a summer's evening from the top Of heav'n drops down, or seems at least to drop, Till on the Po his blasted corpse was hurl’d, Far from his country, in the western world.” The fable of Phaeton evidently alludes to some extraordinary heats which were experienced in a very remote period, and of which only this confused tra- dition has descended to later times. ATJRIGA. THE CHARIOTEER, called also the Wagoner, is represented on the celestial map by the figure of a man in a declining posture, resting one foot upon the horn of Taurus, with a goat and her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right. It is situated N. of Taurus and Orion, between Perseus on the W. and the Lynx on the E. Its mean declination is 450 N.; so that when on the meridian, it is almost directly over head in New England. It is on the same meridian with Orion, and culminates at the same hour of the night. Both of these constellations are on the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 24th of January, and 1 hour and 40 minutes east of it on the 1st of January. - The whole number of visible stars in Auriga, is 66, inclu- ding one of the 1st and one of the 2d magnitude, which mark the shoulders. Capella is the principal star in this constel- lation, and is one of the most brilliant in the heavens. It takes its name from Capella, the goat, which hangs upon the left shoulder. It is situated in the west shoulder of Auriga, How is the constel'ation Aurigarepresented? Where is it situated? What is its méan declination, and what its position on the meridian? ... How is it situated in respect to Orionº. When are these constellations on the meridian? What is the whole number of visible stars in Auriga? How many of the 1st and 2d magnitude? What is the name of the principal star, and whence derived? Where is this situated? * sº. 64 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JAN. 240 E. of Algol, and 280 N. E. of the Pleiades. It may be known by a little sharp-pointed triangle formed by three stars, 30 or 40 this side of it, on the left. It is also i80 N. of El Nath, which is common to the northern horn of Taurus, and the right foot of Auriga. Capella comes to the meridian on the 19th of January, just 2% minutes before Rigel, in the foot of Orion, which it very much resembles in brightness. Menkalima, in the east shoulder, is a star of the 2d magnitude, 74° E. of Capella, and culminates the next minute after Betelguese, 373° S. of it. Theta, in the right arm, is a star of the 4th magnitude, 89 directly south of Menkalina. It may be remarked as a curious coincidence, that the two stars in the shoul- ders of Auriga are of the same magnitude, and just as far apart as those in Orion, and opposite to them. Again, the two stars in the shoulders of Auriga, with the two in the shoulders of Orion, Inark the extremities of a long, narrow parallelogram, lying N. and S., and whose leng his just five times its breadth. Also, the two stars in Auriga, and the two in Orion, make two slender and similar triangles, both meeting in a common point, halfway between them at El Nath, in the north- ern horn of Taurus. * Delta, a star of the 4th magnitude in the head of Auriga, is about 9° N. of the two in the shoulders, with which it makes a triangle, about halſ the height of those just alluded to, with the vertex at Delta. The two stars in the shoulders are therefore the base of two similar triangles, one extending about 9° N., to the head, the other 18° S., to the heel, on the top of the horn: both figures together resembling an elongated diamond. - Delta in the head, Menkalina in the right shoulder, and Theta in the arm of Auriga, make a straight line with Betelguese in Orion, Delta in the square ºf the Hare, and Beta in Noah's Dove; all being very nearly on the same meridian, 4° W. of the solstitial colure. * - “See next the Goatherd with his kids; he shines With seventy stars, deducting only four. Of which Capella never sets to us,” * And scarce a star with equal radiance peams Upon the earth : two other stars are seen Due to the second order.”—Eudosia. HISTORY..—The Greeks give various accounts of this constellation; some sup- pose it to be Erichthonius, the fourth king of Athens, and son of Vulcan and Mi- nerva, who awarded him a place among the constellations on account of his many useful inventions. He was of a monstrous shape. He is said to have invented chariots, and to have excelled all others in the management of horses. In allu- sion to this, Virgil has the following lines:— - “Primus Erichthonius currus et quatuor ausus Jungere equos, rapidisque rotis insistere victor.” .." Georgic. Lib. iii. p. 113 “Böld Erichthonius was the first who join’d Four horses ſor the rapid race design'd, And o'er the dusty wheels presiding sate ’”—Dryden. Other writers say that Bootes invented the chariot, and that Auriga was the Som'of Mercury, and charioteer to OEnomaus, king of Pisa, and so experienced, that he rendered his horses the swiftest in all Greece. But as neither of these ſables seems to account for the goat and her kids, it has been supposed that they refer to Almathaba and her sister Melissa, who fed Jupiter, during his infancy, & * In the latitude of London; but in the latitude of New England, Capella disappears below the horizon, in the N. N. W., for a few hours, and then reappears in the N. N. E. How may it be known? What are its distance and direction from El Nath, in the horn of Taurus? When does Capella come to the meridian . Describe the star in the east shoulder of Auriga. Describe Theta. What curious coincidence eacists betwcén. the stars in the shoulders of Auriga and those in the shoulders ºf Orion ? Describe the situation ºf Delta. The too stars in the shoulders of Azeriga form the base ºf two tri- angles; please describe thern. What stars in Auriga, Orion, the Hare, and the Dove, are ow the same ºneridian 2 How fºr is this line of stars west of the solstitial colure? MAP III.] CAMELOPARDALUs.--THE LYNX. 65, with goat's milk, and that, as a reward for their kindness, they were placed in the heavens. But there is no reason assigned for their being placed in the arms uf Auriga, and the inference is unavoidable, that mythology is in fault on this oint, p Jamieson is of opinion that Auriga is a mere type or scientific symbol of the beautiful ſable of Phaeton, because he was the attendant of Phoebus at that re- mote period when Taurus opened the year. CAMELOPARDALUS. THE CAMELOPARD.—This constellation was made by He- velius out of the unformed stars which lay scattered between Perseus, Auriga, the head of Ursa Major, and the Pole Star. It is situated directly N. of Auriga and the head of the Lynx, and occupies nearly all the space between these and the pole. It contains 58 small stars; the five largest of which are only of the 4th magnitude. The principal star lies in the thigh, and is about 20° from Capella, in a northerly direction. It marks the northern boundary of the temperate zone; being less than one degree S. of the Arctic circle. There are two other stars of the 4th magnitude hear the right knee, 129 N. E. of the first mentioned. They may be known by their standing 19 apart and alone. The other stars in this constellation are too small, and too much scattered to invite observation. History.—The Camelopard is so called from an animal of that name, peculiar to Ethiopia. This animal resembles both the camel and the leopard. Its body is spotted like that of the leopard. Its neck is about seven feet long, its fore and hind legs, from the hoof to the second joint, are nearly, of the same length; but from the second joint of the legs to the body, the fore legs are so long in coul- parison with the hind ones, that no person could sit upon its back, without in-, stantly sliding off as from a horse that stood up on his hind feet. C H A P T E R IV. bIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN FEBRUARY. - THE LYNX. THE constellation of the Lynx, like that of the Camelopard, exhibits no very interesting features by which it can be dis- tinguished. It contains only a moderate number of inferior stars, scattered over a large space N. of Gemini, and between Auriga and Ursa Major. The whole number is 44, including Of what was the Camelopard made? Where is it situated? What is the whole num- ber of stars? What is the magnitude of the largest? What are the name and position of the principal one? Where are the other º stars situated? How may they * be known. Whence does it derive tts name? What is the situation of the Lynx? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? 66 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [FEP. only three that are so large as the 3d magnitude. The largest of these, near the mouth, is in the solstitial colure, 14%o N. of Menkalina, in the E. shoulder of Auriga. The other two prim- cipal stars are in the brush of the tail, 3}o S.W. of another star of the same brightness in the mouth of the Lesser Lion, with which it makes a small triangle. Its centre is on the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 23d, or at half past 7 on the 1st, of February. HISTORY —This constellation takes its name from a wild beast which is said to be of the genus of the wolf. GEMINI. . THE Twins.—This constellation represents, in a sitting posture, the twin brothers, Castor and Pollux. Gemini is the third sign, but fourth constellation in the order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the Lynx, be- tween Cancer on the east, and Taurus on the west. The orbit of the earth passes through the centre of the constella- tion. As the earth moves round in her orbit from the first point of Aries to the same point again, the sun; in the mean- time, will appear to move through the opposite signs, or those which are situated right over against the earth, on the other side of her orbit. Accordingly, if we could see the stars as the sun appeared to move by them, we should see it passing over the constel- lation Gemini between the 21st of June and the 23d of July; but we seldom see more than a small part of any constellation through which the sun is then passing, because the feeble lustre of the stars is obscured by the superior effulgence of the Sun. When the sun is just entering the outlines of a constellation on the east, its western limit may be seen in the morning twilight, just above the rising sun. So when the sun has arrived at the western limit of a constellation, the eastern part of it may be seen lingering in the evening twilight, just behind the setting sun. Under other circumstances, when the sun is said to be in, or to enter, a particu- lar constellation, it is to be understood that that constellation is not then visible, but that those opposite to it, are. For example: whatever constellation sets with the Sun on any day, it is plain that the one opposite to it must be then rising, and continue visible through the night. Also, whatever constellation rises and sets with the sun to-day, will, six months hence, rise at sun-setting, and set at sun-rising. For example: the sun is in the centre of Gemini about the 6th of Describe the position of the largest. Describe the position of the other two principal stars. What are their distance and direction from the one in the head? When is its centre on the meridian? Describe the position and appearance of the Twins. What is the relative position of Gemini among the signs and constellations of the Zodiacº How is the orbit of the earth situated, with respect to these constellations? How do the sun and earth appear to move through these signs? When does the sun appear to pass through the constellation Germini? Do we usually see the constellations while the sun is passing through them? Under what circumstances can we see some part ºf them? . When the sºn is in or entering any constellation, are the opposite constellº tions visible or ngã 2 If a constellation rise with the sun to-day, how will it rºsé sta, months hence? Give an example, d MAP III.] * GEMINI. 67 July, and must rise and set with it on that day; consequently, six months from that time, or about the 4th of January, it will rise in the east, just when the sun is setting in the west, and will colne to the meridian at midnight; being then ex- actly opposite to the surf. Now as the stars gain upon the sun at the rate of two hours every month, it follows that the centre of this constellation will, on the 17th of February, come to the meridian three hours earlier, or at 9 o'clock in the evening. It would be a pleasant exercise for students to P. questions to each other, somewhat like the following:—What zodiacal constellation will rise and set with the sun to-day ? What one will rise at sun-setting 7 What constellation is three hours high at sun-set, and where will it be at 9 o'clock q What constel- lation rises two hours before the sun ? How many days or months hence, and at what hour of the evening or morning, and in what part of the sky shall we see the constellation whose centre is now where the sun is ? &c., &c. . In solving these and similar questions, it may be remembered that the sun is in the vernal equinox about the 21st of March, from whence it advances through one sign or constellation every succeeding month thereaſter; and that each con- stellation is one month in advance of the sign of that name: wherefore, reckon Pisces in March, Aries in April, Taurus in May, and Gemini in June, &c.; be- ginning with each constellation at the 21st, or 22d of the month. Gemini contains 85 stars, including one of the 1st, one of º & ) is - º º the 2d, four of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitudes. It is readily recognised by means of the two principal stars, Cas- tor and Polluſc, of the 1st and 2d magnitudes, in the head of the Twins, about 40 apart. There being only 11 minutes' difference in the transit of these two stars over the meridian, they may both be consid- ered as culminating at 9 o'clock about the 24th of February. Castor, in the head of Castor, is a star of the 1st magnitude, 4}o N. W. of Pollux, and is the northernmost and the bright- est of the two. Pollua', is a star of the 2d magnitude, in the head of Pollux, and is 44° S. E. of Castor. This is one of the stars from which the moon’s distance is calculated in the Nautical Almanac. ./ “Of the famed Ledean pair, One most illustrious star adorns their sign, And of the second order shine twin lights.” The relative magnitude or brightness of these stars has undergone considerable changes at different periods; whence it has been conjectured by various astronomers that Pollux must vary from the 1st to the 3d magnitude. But Herschel, who observed these stars for a period of 25 years, ascribes the variation to Castor, which he found to consist of two stars, very close together, the less revolving about the larger once in 342 years and two months. Bradly and Maskelyne found that the line joining the two stars which form Castor was, at all times of the year, parallel to the line joining Castor and Pollux; and that both of the former move around a common centre between them, in If a constellation come to the meridian at midnight to-day, how long before it will come to the meridian at 9 o'clock in the evening 2 the constellation, Geminº Come to the meridian at midnight, on the 4th of January, when will it culminate at 9 o'clock? What is the number of stars, in Gemini? By what means is it readily recognised? When do these stars culminate? Describe Castor. Describe Pollux. For what pur- pose is it observed at sea? Is the brightness of these two stars always the same? Who ascribes this variableness to Castor, and for what reason? 68 PICTURE OF THE IHEAVENS, |FEB. orbits nearly circular, as two balls attached to a rod would do, if suspended by a string affixed to the centre of gravity between them. “These men,” says Dr. Bowditch, “were endowed with a sharpness of vision, and a pºwer of penetrating into space, almost unexampled in the history of as- tronolny. . 20° S. W. of Castor and Pollux, and in a line nearly parallel with them, is a row of stars 3° or 4° apart, chiefly of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, which dis- tinguish the feet of the twins. The brightest of these is Alhena, in Pollux’s upper foot; the next small star S. of it, is in his other foot: the two upper stars in the line next above Gamma, mark Castor's feet. ł This row of feet is nearly two thirds of the distance from Pollux to Betelguese in Orion, and a line connecting them will pass through Alhena, the principal star in the feet. About two thirds of the distance from the two in the head to those in the feet, and nearly parallel with them, there is another row of three stars. about 69 apart, which mark the knees. There are, in this constellation, two other remarkable parallel rows, lying at right angles with the former; one, leading from the head to the foot of Castor, the brightest star being in the middle, and in the knee; the other, leading from the head to the foot of Pollux, the brightest star, called Wasat, being in the body, and Zeta, next belcw it, in the knee. Wasat is in the ecliptic, and very near the centre of the constellation. The two stars, Mu and Tejat; in the northern foot, are also very near the ecliptic: Tejat is a small star of between the 4th and 5th magnitudes, 2° W, of Mu, and deserves to be noticed because it marks the spot of the summer solstice, in the tropic of Cancer, just where the sum is on the longest day of the year, and is, Inorecwer, the dividing limit between the torrid and the N. temperate zone. Propus, also in the ecliptic, 2.49 W. of Tejat is a star of only the 5th Inagul- tude, but rendered memorable as being the star which served for imany years to determine the position of the planet Herschel, after its first discovery. Thus as we pursue the study of the stars, we shall find continually new and more wonderful developments to engage our feelings and reward our labour. We shall have the peculiar satisfaction of reading the same volume that was spread out to the patriarchs and poets of other ages, of admiring what they adulired, and of being led as they were led, to look upon these lofty mansions of being as hav- ing, above then ail, a common Father with ourselves, “who ruleth in the armies of heaven, and bringeth forth their hosts by number.” HISTORY..—Castor and Pollux were twin brothers, sons of Jupiter, by Leda, the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. The manner of their birth was very sin. gular. They were educated at Pallena, and afterwards embarked with Jason in the celebrated contest for the golden fleece, at Colchis; on which occasion they behaved with unparalleled courage and bravery. Pollux distinguished hiluself by his achievements in arms and personal prowess, and Castor in equestrian exercises and the management of horses. Whence they are represented, in the temples of Greece, on white horses, armed with spears, riding side by side, their heads crowned with a petasus, on whose top glittered a star. Among the ancients, and especially among the Romans, there prevailed a superstition that Castor and Pollux often appeared at the head of their armies, and led on their troops to battle and to victory. “Castor and Pollux, first in martial force, One bold on foot, and one renown'd ſor horse. tº Fair Leda's twins in time to stars decreed, One ſought on foot, one curb’d the fiery steed.”—Virgil. “Castor alert to tame the foaming steed, And Pollux strong to deal the manly deed.”—Martial. The brothers cleared the Hellespont and the neighbouring seas from pirates, after their return from Colchis; from which circumstance they have ever since been regarded as the friends and protectors of navigation. In the Argonautic expedition, during a violent storm, it is said two flames of fire were seen to play around their heads, and immediately the tempest ceased, and the sea was calm. pescribe the stars tohich mark the feet of the Twins. Specify the stars in each. How is this roº” situated toith respect to Orion 2 Describe the second row of stars in this constellatºom. Are there yet other rows in this constellation 2 Describe them. What is the position of Wasat? Two other stars are very near the ecliptic; mention them. Describe the position of Tejat. Give a description of the star Propus. MAP III.] - CANIS IMINOR. f 69 From this circumstance, the sailors inferred, that whenever both fires appeared . the sky, it would be fair weather: but when only one appeared, there would e SiOrlſl S. - St. Paul, after being wrecked on the island of Melita, embarked for Rome “in a ship whose sign was Castor and Pollua; ;” so formed, no doubt, in accordance with the popular belief that these divinities presided over the science and safety of navigation. They were initiated into the sacred mysteries of Cabiri, and into those of Ceres and Eleusis. They were invited to a feast at which Lynceus and Idas were going to celebrate their nuptials with Phoebe and Telaria, the daughters of Leucippus, brother to Tyr:darus. They became enainoured of the daughters, who were about to be 1married, and resolved to supplant their rivals: a battle ensued, in which Castor killed Lynceus, and was hiliseif killed by Idas. Pollux revenged the death of his brother by killing Idas; but, being himself immortal, and most tenderly attached to his deceased brother, he was unwilling to survive him; he therefore entreated Jupiter to restore him to life, or to be deprived himself of in unortality ; wherefore, Jupiter permitted Castor, who had been slain, to share the immoriality of Pollux; and consequently, as long as the one was upon earth, so long was the other detained in the internal regions, and they alternately lived and died every day. Jupiter also further rewarded their fraternal attachment by changing thein both into a constellation under the name of Gemini, Twins, which, it is strangely pretended, never appear together, but when one rises the other sets, and so on alternately. “By turns they visit this ethereal sky, And live alternate, and alternate die.”—Homer. “Pollux, offering his alternate life. Çould free his brother, and could daily go By turns aloft, by turns descend beiow.”—Virgil. Castor and Pollux were worshipped both by the Greeks and Romans, who sacrificed white lambs upon their altars. In the Hebrew Zodiac, the constella- tion of the Twins relers to the tribe of Benjamin. g CANIS MINOR. THE LITTLE Dog.—This small constellation is situated about 5° N. of the equinoctial, and midway between Canis Major and the Twins. It contains 14 stars, of which two are very brilliant. The brightest star is called Procyon. It is of the 1st magnitude, and is about 40 S. E. of the next bright- est, marked Gomelza, which is of the 2d magnitude. . These two stars resemble the two in the head of the Twins. Procyon, in the Little Dog, is 230 S. of Pollux in Gemini, and Gomelza is about the same distance S. of Castor. A great number of geometrical figures may be formed of - the principal stars in the vicinity of the Little Dog. For ex- ample; Procyon is 23° S. of Pollux, and 26° E. of Betelguese, and forms with them a large right angled triangle. Again : Procyon is equidistant from Betelguese and Sirius, and forms with them an equilateral triangle whose sides are each about 269. If a straight line, connecting Procyon and Sirius, be produced 239 farther, it will point out Phaet, in the Dove. Describe the situation of Canis Minor. \\hat is its whole number of stars? What is the magnituſle of its principal ones What is the brightest one called, and how is it situated? What otherstars do Procyon and Gomelza resemble? What are the distance and direction of Procyon from Poliux? Of Gornelza from Castor? What are their distance and direction from Castor and Pollux What kind of figures may be formed of the stars in the neighbourhood of the Little I)og 3 Give semc examples. * 70 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |FEB. Procyon is often taken for the name of the Little Dog, or for the whole constellation, as Sirius is for the greater one; hence it is common to refer to either of these constellations by the name of its principal star. Procyon comes to the me- ridian 53 minutes after Sirius, on the 24th of February; although it rises, in this latitude, about half an hour before it. For this reason, it was called Procyon, from two Greek words which signify (Ante Canis) “before the dog.” “Canicula, fourteen thy stars; but far Above them all, illustrious through the skies, Beams Procyon ; justly by Greece thus calléd The bright jorerunner of the greater Dog.” HISTORY..—The Little Dog, according to Greek fable, is one of Orion’s hounds. Some suppose it refers to the Egyptian god Anubis, which was represented with a dog's head : others to Diana, the goddess of hunting; and others, that it is the faithful dog Maera, which belonged to Icarus, and discovered to his daughter Erigone the place of his burial. Others, again, say it is one of Actaeon's hounds that devoured their master, after Diana had transformed him into a stag, to pre- vent, as she said, his betraying her. “This said, the man began to disappear By slow degrees, and ended in a deer. Transform’d at length, he flies away in haste, And wonders why he flies so fast. But as by chance, within a neighb'ring brook, He saw his branching horns, and alter'd look, Wretched Actaeon in a doleful tone sºf He tried to speak, but only gave a groan; And as he wept, within the watery glass, . He saw the big round drops, with silent pace, Run trickling down a savage, hairy face. What should he do? or seek his old abodes, Or herd among the deer, and skulk in woods? As he thus ponders, he behind him spies His opening hounds, and now he hears their cries. From shouting men, and horns, and dogs, he flies. When now the flectest of the pack that press'd Close at his heels, and sprung before the rest, Had fasten’d on him, straight another pair . Hung on his wounded side, and held him there, Till all the pack came up, and every hound Tore the sad huntsman grovelling on the ground.” It is most probable, however, that the Egyptians were the inventors of this con- stellation; and as it always rises a little before the Dog-star, which, at a particu- lar season, they so much dreaded, it is properly represented as a little watchful creature, giving notice like a faithful sentinel of the other's approach. * It is not difficult to deduce the moral of this fable. The selfishness and caprice of human friendship furnish daily illustrations of it. . While the good man, the philan- thropist, or the public benefactor, is in affluent circumstances, and, with a heart to devise, has the power to minister blessings to his numerous beneficiaries, his virtues are the general theme; but when adverse storms have changed the ability, though they could not shake the will of their benefactor, he is straightway pursued, like AC- taeon, by his own hounds; and, like Actaeon, he is “torn to the ground” by the fangs that fed upon his bounty.-L. Q. C. L. s & r *SWhat name is usually given to the Little Dog? When does Procyon rise and culmi- mate, with respect to the Dog-star? what name, for this reason, was given to this & constellation? • MAP III.] MONOCEROS—CANIS MAJOR. 71 MONOCEROS. THE UNIcorn.—This is a modern constellation, which was made out of the unformed stars of the ancients that lay scat- tered over a large space of the heavens between the two Dogs. It extends a considerable distance on each side of the equinoctial, and its centre is on the same meridian with Procyon. It contains 31 small stars, of which the seven principal ones are of only the 4th magnitude. Three of these are situated in the head, 30 or 40 apart, forming a straight line N. E. and S. W. about 90 E. of Betelguese in Orion’s shoul- der, and about the same distance S. of Alhena in the foot of the Twins. - The remaining stars in this constellation are scattered over a large space, and being very small, are unworthy of particu- lar notice. History.—THE Monoceros is a species of the Unicorn or Rhinoceros. It is about the size of a horse, with one white horn growing out of the middle of its forehead. It is said to exist in the wilds of Ethiopia, and to be very formidable. Naturalists say that, when pursued by the hunters, it precipitates itself from the tops of the highest rocks, and pitches upon its horn, which sustains the whole force of its fall, so that it receives no damage thereby. Sparmann informs us, that the figure of the unicorn, described by some of the ancients, has been found delineated on the surface of the rock in Caffraria; and thence conjectures that such an animal, instead of being fabulous, as some suppose, did once actually exist in Africa. Lobo affirms that he has seen it. The rhinoceros, which is akin to it, is found in Bengal, Siam, Cochin China, part of China Proper, and the isles of Java and Sumatra. * CANIS MAJOR. THE GREAT Dog.—This interesting constellation is situa- ted southward and eastward of Orion, and is universally known by the brilliance of its principal star, Sirius, which is apparently the largest and brightest in the heavens. It glows in the winter hemisphere with a lustre which is unequalled by any other star in the firmament. Its distance from the earth, though computed at 20 millions of millions of miles, is supposed to be less than that of an other star: a distance, however, so great that a cannon ball, which flies at the rate of 19 miles a minute, would be two millions of years in passing over the mighty interval; while sound, moving at the rate of 13 miles a minute, would reach Sirius in little less than three millions of years. - —-ºh - What stars compose the constellation Monoceros? How is this constellation situ- ated, and when is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of its principal ones?. Describe those in the head.--Describe the sition and appearance of Canis Major. What is its appearance in the winter?-, t is its distance from the earth computed to be, and how is it compared with that of the other stars?-How long would it take a cannon-ball to pass over this distance in what time would sound reach Sirius from the earth? * * 72 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |FEB. It may be shown in the same manner, that a ray of light, which occupies only 8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming to us from the sun, which is at the rate of nearly two hundred thousand niiies a second, would be 3 years and 82 days in passing through the vast space that lies between Sirius, and the earth, Conse- auently, were it blotted from the heavens, its light would continue visible to us for a period of 3 years and 82 days after it had ceased to be. If the nearest stars give such astonishing results, what shall we say of those which are situated a thousand tinues as far beyond these, as these are from us? In the remote ages of the world, when every man was his own astronomer, the rising and setting of Sirius, or the Dog- star, as it is called, was watched with deep and various so- licitude. The ancient Thebans, who first cultivated astro- nomy in Egypt, determined the length of the year by the number of its risings. The Egyptians watched its rising with mingled apprehensions of hope and fear; as it was ominous to them of agricultural prosperity or blighting drought. It foretold to them the rising of the Nile, which & ºt g rºw they called Siris, and admonished them when to sow. The Romans were accustomed yearly, to sacrifice a dog to Sirius to render him propitious in his influence upon their herds and fields. The eastern nations generally believed the rising of Sirius would be productive of great heat on the earth. Thus Virgil:— “Tunisteriles exurere Sirius agros: Ardebant herba’, et victum seges agra negabat.” — “Parched was the grass. and blighted was the corn : Nor 'scape the beasts; for Sirius, from on high, With pestilential heat infects the sky.” - Accordingly, to that season of the year when Sirius rose with the sun and seemed to blend its own influence with the heat of that luminary, the ancients gave the name of Dog- days, (Dies Caniculares). At that remote period the Dog- days commenced on the 4th of August, or four days after the summer solstice, and lasted forty days or until the 14th of September. At present the Dog-days begin on the 3d of July, and continue to the 11th of August, being one day less than the ancients reckoned. Hence, it is plain that the Dog-days of the moderns have no reference whatever to the rising of Sirius, or any other star, because the time of their rising is perpetually accelerated by the precession of the equinoxes: they have reference then only to the summer solstice which never changes its position in respect to the seasons. : How long is light in coming from Sirius to the earth? Suppose this star were now to be blotted from the heavens, how long before its twinkling would expire? How was the rising of Sirius regarded in the remote ages of the world? What use was made of it by the ancient Thebans? How did the Egyptians regard it, and for what reason? What did it foretel to them? What did the Romans offerin sacrifice to Sirius annually? Why? How was it regarded by the eastern nations generally? What season of the year did the ancients call Dog-days? When did these begin, and how long did they łº, At pººn', when do they begin and end? Have our Dog-days any reference to e Dog-star? - MAP III.] CANIS MAJOR. 73 The time of Sirius’ rising varies with the latitude of the place, and in the same latitude, is sensibly changed after a course of years, on account of the preces- sign at the equinoxes. This enables us, to deteriuine with approximate accu- racy, the dates of uţany events of antiquity, which cannot be well determined by other records. We do not know, ſor instance, in what precise period of the world Hesiod flourished. Yet he tells us, in his Opera et Dies, lib. ii. v. 185, that Arcturus in his time rose heliacally, 60 days after the winter solstice, which, then was in the 9th degree of Aquarius, or 399 beyond its present position. Now 39° .504” =2794 years since the time of Hesiod, which corresponds very ncarly with history. When a star rose at sun-setting, or set at sun-rising, it was called the Achromi- cal rising or setting. When a planet or star appeared above the horizon just before the sun, in the morning, it was called the Heliacal rising of the star; and when it sunk below the horizon immediately after the sun, in the evening, it was called the Heliacal setting. According to Ptolenly, stars of the first magnitude are seen rising and setting when the sun is 13° below the horizon; stars of the 20 magnitude require the sun's depression to be 13°; stars of the 3d magnitude, 149, and so on, allowing one degree for each magnitude. The rising and setting of the stars described in this way, since this mode of description often occurs in Hesiod, Virgil, Columella, Ovid, Pliny, &c., are called poetical rising and set. ting. They served to mark the times of religious ceremonies, the seasons al- lotted to the several departments of husbandry, and the overflowing cº "k" Nile The student may be perplexed to understand how the Dog-star, which he seldom sees till mid-winter, should be associated with the most fervid heat of summer. This is explained by considering that this star, in summer, is over our heads in the daytime, and in the lower hemisphere at night. As “thick the floor of heaven is inlaid with patines of bright gold,” by day, as by might; but on account of the superior splendour of the sun, we cannot see them. . Sirius is situated nearly S. of Alhena, in the feet of the Twins, and about as far S. of the equinoctial as Alhena is N. of it. It is about 100 E. of the Hare, and 260 S. of Be. telguese in Orion, with which it forms a large equilateral triangle.) It also forms a similar triangle with Phaet in the Dove, and Naos in the Ship. These two triangles being joined at their vertex in Sirius, present the figure of an enormous X, called by some, the EGYPTIAN X. Sirius is also pointed out by the direction of the Three Stars in the belt of Orion. Its distance from them is about 239. It comes to the meri- dian at 9 o'clock on the 11th of February.” Mirzam, in the foot of the Dog, is a star of the 2d magni- tude, 53° W. of Sirius. A little above, and 40 or 50 to the left, there are three stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, form- ing a triangular figure somewhat resembling a dog's head. What is meant by the Achronical rising and setting of the stars 2 What, by their Heliacal rising and setting 2 By whom were the terms thºts applied, and what were these risings and settings called?...What did they serve?". Explain how it is, that the Dog-star, which is seldom seen till mid-winter, should be associated with the most fervid heat of summer. “Are there as many stars over our head in the daytime as in the night?’s Describe the situation of Sirius. What is its position with regard to Bé- teiguese and Procyon, and in connexion, with them what figure does it form? With what other stars does it form a similar triangle? What is the appearance of these two triangles taken together? SHow else is Sirius pointed out? Describe the position and magnitude of Mirzam. What stars mark ** of the Dog: 74 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAR. The brightest of them, on the left, is called Muliphen. It entirely disappeared in 1670, and was not sean again for more than 20 years. Since that time it has maintained a steady lustre. Wesen is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, in the back, 11° S. S. E. of Sirius, with which, and Mirzam in the paw, it makes an elongated triangle. The two hinder feet are marked by Naos and Lambda, stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, situated about 30 apart, and 129 directly S. of the fore foot. This constellation contains 31 visible stars, including one of the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and two of the 3d ; all of which are easily traced out by the aid of the map. - History.—Manilius, a Latin poet who flourished in the Augustan age, wrote an admirable poem, in five books, upon the fixed stars in which he thus speaks of this constellation :- .* “All others he excels; no fairer light . Ascends the skies, rione sets so clear and bright.” But EUDosLA best describes its:– - “Next shines the Dog with sixty-four distinct; Fam’d for pre-eminence in envied song, Theme of Homeric and Virgilian lays: * His fierce Inouth flames with dreaded Sirius; Three of his stars retire with feeble beams.” According to some mythologists, this constellation represents one of Orion's hounds, which was placed in the sky, near this celebrated huntsman. Others say it received its name in honour of the dog given by Aurora to Cephalus, which surpassed in speed all the animals of his species. Cephalus, it is said at- tempted to prove this by running him against a fox, which, at that time, was thought to be the fleetest of all animals. After they had run together a long time without either of them obtaining the victory, it is said that Jupiter was so much gratified at the fleetness of the dog that he assigned him a place in the heavens. - 2. But the name and form of this constellation are, no doudt, derived from the Egyptians, who, carefully watched its rising, and by it judged of the swelling of the Nile, which they called Siris, and, in their hieroglyphical manner of writing, since it was as it were the sentinel and watch of the year, represented it under the figure of a dog. They observed that when Sirius hecame visible in the east, just before the morning dawn, the overflowing of the Nile immediately followed. i. it warned them, like a faithful dog, to escape from the region of the inun- ation, f C H A P T E R W . DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS which ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN MARCH. ARGO NAVIS. THE SHIP ARGo.—This constellation occupies a large space in the southern hemisphere, though but a small part of it can Which is the brightest of these, and what remarkable circumstance in its history? IIow has it appeared since its return? Describe the situation and magnitude of Wesent What stars mark the hinder feet? What is the number of visible stars in this con- stellation? Describe the constellation Argo Navis 7 MAP III.] ARGO NAWIS. 75 be seen in the United States. It is situated S. E. of Canis Major, and may be known by the stars in the prow and deck of the ship. If a straight line joining Betelguese and Sirius, be produ- ced 18° to the southeast, it will point out Naos, a star of the 2d magnitude, in the rowlock of the ship. This star is in the S. E. corner of the Egyptian X., and of the large equi- lateral triangle made by itself with Sirius and the Dove. When on the meridian, it is seen from this latitude about 8° above the southern horizon. It comes to the meridian on the 3d of March, about half an hour after Procyon, and continues visible but a few hours. w Gamma, in the middle of the ship, is a star of the 2d mag- nitude, about 70 S. of Naos, and just skims above the south- ern horizon for a few minutes, and then sinks beneath it. The principal star in this constellation is called, after one of the pilots, Canopus; it is of the 1st magnitude, 36° nearly S. of Sirius, and comes to the meridian 17 minutes after it; but having about 53° of S. declination, it cannot be seen in the United States. The same is true of Miaplacidus, a star of the 1st magnitude in the oars of the ship, about 25° E. of Canopus, and 61° S. of Alphard, in the heart of Hydra. An observer in the northern hemisphere, can see the stars as many degrees south of the equinoctial in the southern hemisphere, as his own latitude lacks of 90°, and no more. Markeb, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the prow of the ship, and may be seen from this latitude, 169 S. E. of Sirius, and about 100 E. of Wesen, in the back of the Dog. This star may be known by its forming a small triangle with two othérs of the same magnitude, situated a little, above it, on the E., 39 and 40 apart. This constellation contains 64 stars, of which, two are of the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and nine of the 3d. Most of these are too low down to be seen in the United States. HISTORY..—This constellation is intended to perpetuate the memory of the famous ship which carried Jason and his 54 companions to Colchis, when they resolved upon the perilous expedition of recovering the golden fleece. The de- rivation of the word Argo has been often disputed. Some derive it from Argos, supposing that this was the name of the person who first proposed the expedi- tion, and built the ship. Others maintain that it was built at Argos, whence its name. Cicero calls it Argo, because it carried Grecians, commonly called Ar- gives. Diodorus derives the word from , which signifies swift. Ptolemy says, but not truly, that Hercules built the ship and called it Argo, after a son of Jason, who bore the same name. This ship had fifty oars, and being thus pro- pelled must have fallen far short of the bulk of the smallest ship craft used by Where is it situated? Point out the situation of Naos, in the ship? When may it be seen in this latitude 3. When is it on the meridian? Describe the position and magni- tude of Gamma. What are the situation and name of the principal star in this constel- lation? Why can it 11ot be seen in the United States? Is any other considerable star in the ship similarly situated? Describe Markeb. How may this star be known? What is the number of visible stars in this constellation? What is the magnitude of its prin- cipal ones? 76 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | MAR. moderns. It is even said that the crew were able to carry it on their backs from the Danube to the Adriatic. According to many authors, she had a beam on her prow, cut in the forest of Dondona by Minerva, which had the power of giving oracles to the Argonauts. This ship was the first, it is said, that ever ventured on the sea. After the expc- dition was finished, and Jason had returned in triumph, he ordered her to be jº ashore at the isthmus of Corinth, and consecrated to Neptune, the god of the Sea. - Sir Isaac Newton endeavours to settle the period of this expedition at about 30 ears before the destruction of Troy; and 43 years aſter the death of Solomon. r. Bryant, however, rejects the history of the Argonautic expedition as a mere fiction of the Greeks, and supposes that this group of stars, which the poets de; nominate Argo Navis, reſers to Noah's ark and the deluge, and that the fable of the Argonautic expedition, is ſounded on certain Egyptian traditions that relate to the preservation of Noah and his family during the flood. \ CANCER. . THE CRAB, is now the fifth constellation and fourth sign of the Zodiac. It is situated in the ecliptic, between Leo on the E. and Gemini on the W. It contains 83 stars, of which, one is of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitude. Some place the first-mentioned star in the same class with the other seven, and consider none larger than the 4th magnitude. Beta, is a star of the 3d or 4th magnitude, in the south- western claw, 100 N. E. of Procyon, and may be known from the fact that it stands alone, or at least has no star of the same magnitude near it. It is midway between Procyon and Acubens. + Acubens, is a star of similar brightness, in the southeastern claw, 10° N. E. of Beta, and nearly in a straight line with it and Procyon. An imaginary line drawn from Capella through Pollux, will point out Acubens, at the distance of 249 from Pollux. It may be otherwise distinguished by its standing between two very small stars close by it in the same claw. Tegmine, the last in the back, appears to be a small star, of between the 5th and 6th magnitudes, 849 in a northerly direction from Beta. It is a treble star, and to be distinctly seen, requires very favourable circumstances. Two of them are so near together that it requires a telescopic power of 300 to separate them. About 79 northeasterly from Tegmine, is a nebulous cluster of very minute stars, in the crest of Cancer, suffi- ciently luminous to be seen by the naked eye. It is situated in a triangular position with regard to the head of the Twins and the Little Dog. It is about 20° W. of each. It may otherwise be discovered by means of two conspicuous stars What is the relative position of Cancer among the signs and constellations of the - Zodiac! How is it situated 3 What are the number and magnitude of its stars? Where is Beta situated, and how may it be known Which way from Procyon and Acubens? Dèscribe Acubens. What are its distance and direction from Pollux? How may it be otherwise known? Describe Tegmine. There is a remarkable cluster in this con- stellation—describe its position. How may it otherwise be discovered? MAP II.] CAN CER. 77 of the 4th magnitude lying one on either side of it, at the dis- tance of about 29, called the northern and southern Aselli. By some of the Orientalists, this cluster was denominated Praesepe, the Manger, a contrivance which their fancy fitted up for the accommbdation of the Aselli or Asses; and it is so called by modern astronomers. The appearance of this nebula to the unassisted eye, is not unlike the nucleus of a comet, and it was repeatedly mistaken for the comet of 1832, which, in the month of November, passed in its neighbour- hood. w - The southern Asellus, marked Delta, is situated in the line of the ecliptic and in connexion with Wasat and Tejat. marks the course of the earth's orbit for a space of 369 from the solstitial colure. - There are several other double and nebulous stars in this constellation, most of which are too small to be seen; and in- deed, the whole constellation is less remarkable for the bril- liancy of its stars than any other in the Zodiac. & The sun arrives at the sign Cancer about the 21st of June, but does not reach the constellation until the 23d of July. The mean right ascension of Cancer is 1289. It is conse- quently on the meridian the 3d of March. A few degrees S. of Cancer, and about 17° E. of Procyon, are four stars of the 4th magnitude, 3° or 49 apart, which mark the head of Hydra. This constella- tion will be described on Map III. The beginning of the sign Cancer (not the constellation) is called the Tropic of Cancer, and when the sun arrives at this point, it has reached its utmost limit of north declination, where it seems to remain stationary a few days, before it begins to decline again to the south. This stationary attitude of the sun is called the suminer solstice; from two Latin words signifying the Sun's standing still. The distance from the first point of Cancer to the equinoctial, which at present, is 230 373", is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. . It is a remarkable and well as: certained fact, that this is continually growing less and less. The tropics are slowly and steadily approaching the equinoctial, at the rate of about half a second every year; so that the sun does not now come so far north of the equator in Ruminer, nor decline so far South in winter, as it must have done at the creation, by nearly a degree. - History.—In the Zodiacs of Esne, and Dendera, and in most of the astrological remains of Egypt, a Scarabaeus, or Beetle, is used as the symbol of this sign; but in Sir William Jones's Oriental Zodiac, and in some others found in India, we ineet with the figure of a crab. As the Hindoos, in all probability, derived their knowledge of the stars from the Chaldeans, it is supposed that the figure of the crab, in this place, is more ancient than the Beetle. In some eastern representations of this sign, two animals, like asses, are found in this division of the Zodiac; and as the Chaldaic name for the ass may be translated muddiness, it is supposed to allude to the discolouring of the Nile, which river was rising when the sum entered Cancer. The Greeks, in copying this sign, have placed two asses as the appropriate symbol of it, which still re- What is the name of this cluster? What is its appearance to the naked eye, and for what has it been mistaken? How is the star called the southern Asellus, situated, with respect to the ecliptic?...What other stars in this constellation ?, At what time ãoes the sun enter the sign Cancer?. At what time the constellation? Where Žs the Tropic ºf Cancer situated? When the sun regghes this point what is said of its dé. ciążón 3. What is this stationary attitude of the sun cºlled? What is the obliquity of he ecliptic? What remarkable fact in respect to this distance? Doe: his affect tººd stability of the tropic3. 7% 78 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [APRIL. main. They explain their reason, however, for adopting this figure, by saying that these are the animals that assisted Jupiter in his victory over the giants. Dopuis accounts for the origin of the asses in the following words :-Le Can- ccr. oil sont les etoiles appellees les anes, forine l'impreinte du pavillon d’IS- sachar que Jacob assimile à l'ane. - - Mythologists give different accounts of the origin of this constellation. The prevailing opinion is, that while Hercules was engaged in his famous contest with the dreadful Lernaºan monster, Juno, envious of the ſame of his achieve- ments, sent a sea-crab to bite and annoy the hero’s feet, but the crab being Soon despatched, the goddess to reward its services, placed it among the constella- tions. “The Scorpion’s claws here clasp a wide extent, And here the Crab's in lesser clasps are bent.” C H A P T E R W I. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN APRIL. T.E.O. THE LION.—This is one of the most brilliant constellations in the winter hemisphere, and contains an unusual number of very bright stars. It is situated next E. of Cancer, and directly S. of Leo Minor and the Great Bear. . The Hindoo Astronomer, Varaha, says, “Certainly the southern solstice was once in the middle of Asleha (Leo); the northern in the first degree of Dhan- ishta” (Aquarius). Since that time, the solstitial, as well as the equinoctial points, have gone backwards on the ecliptic 75°. This divided by 50}”, gives 5373 years; which carry us back to the year of the world 464. Sir W. Jones, says, that Varaha lived when the solstices were in the first degrees of Cancer and Capricorn; or about 400 years before the Christian era. Leo is the fifth sign, and the sixth constellation of the Zo- diac. The mean right ascension of this extensive group is 1509, or 10 hours. Its centre is therefore on the meridian the 6th of April. Its western outline, however, comes to the meridian on the 18th of March, while its eastern limit does not reach it before the 3d of May. This constellation contains 95 visible stars, of which two are of the 1st magnitude, two of the 2d, six of the 3d, and fifteen of the 4th. - “Two splendid stars of highest dignity, r \ Two of the second class the Lion boasts, And justly figures the fierce sunumer’s rage.” The principal star in this constellation is of the 1st mag- nitude, situated in the breast of the animal, and named Re- gulus, from the illustrious Roman consul of that name. what is the general appearance of the constellation Leo? Where is it situated? What is the relative order among the signs and constellations of the Zodiacº What is the right ascension of Leo, and when is its centre on the meridian 2. When do the outlines of the figure come to the meridian? What number of visible stars does if Con- tain, and how large are the principal ones? What is the name of the first star in the constellation, and whence is it derived? 2 * MAP iv.] . - . LEO. - 79 It is situated almost exactly in the ecliptic, and may be readily distinguished on account of its superior brilliancy. It is the largest and lowest of a group of five or six bright stars which form a figure somewhat resembling a sickle, in the neck and shoulder of the Lion. There is a little star of the 5th magnitude about 20 S. of it, and one of the 3d mag- nitude 50 N. of it, which will serve to point it out. Regulus is the brightest star in the constellation, except Denebola, in the tail, 25° E. of it. Great use is made of Re- gulus by nautical men, for determining their longitude at sea. Its latitude, or distance from the ecliptic, is less than #9; but its declimation, or distance from the equinoctial is nearly 132 N.; so that its meridian altitude will be just equal to that of the sun on the 19th of August. Its right ascension is very nearly 1509. It therefore culminates about 9 o'clock on the 6th of April. When Regulus is on the “meridian, Castor and Pollux are seen about 400 N. W. of it, and the two stars in the Little Dog, are about the same distance in a S. W. direction; with which, and the two former, it makes a large isosceles tri- angle whose vertex is at Regulus. The next considerable star, is 5° N. of Regulus, marked Eta, situated in the collar; it is of between the 3d and 4th magnitudes, and, with Regulus, constitutes the handle of the sickle. Those three or four stars of the 3d magnitude, N. and W. of Eta, arching round with the neck of the animal, de- scribe the blade. º - Al Gieba, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, situated in the shoulder, 49 in a N. E. direction from Eta, and may be easily distinguished by its being the brightest and middle one of the three stars lying in a semicircular form, curving towards the west; and it is the first in the blade of the sickle. Adhafera, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the neck, 40 N. of Al Gieba, and may be known by a very mi- nute star just below it. This is the second star in the blade of the sickle. Ras al Asad, situated before the ear, is a star of the 3d or 4th magnitude, 6° W. of Adhafera, and is the third in the blade of the sickle. The next star, Epsilon, of the same magnitude, situated in the head, is 24° S. W. of Ras al Asad, and a little within the curve of the sickle. About midway Describe the situation of Regulus. What other stars serve to point it out? ...What is its comparative brightness? What use is made of it in nautical astronomy? What are its latitude and declination? On what day will Regulus culminate at 9 o'click in the evening? When is it on the meridian, with what stars does it form a large triangle, ' and in what direction are they from it? What are the name and position of the next considerable star in its vicinity? What stars form the blade of the sickle? Where is Al Gieba situated, and how may it be distinguished? What is the position of Adhafera. and bow may it be known? Describe the situation of Ras al Asad. S0 PICTURE OF THE IIEAVENS. [APRIL. -- between these, and a little to the E., is a very small star, hardly visible to the naked eye. Lambda, situated in the mouth, is a star of the 4th magni- tude, 3}o S. W. of Epsilon, and the last in the sickle’s point. Rappa, situated in the nose, is another star of the same magnitude, and about as far from Lambda as Epsilon. Epsilon and Kappa are about 54° apart, and form the longest side of a triangle, whose vertex is in Kappa. -- Zozma, situated in the back of the Lion, is a star of the 2d, magnitude, 18° N. E. of Regulus, and midway between it and Coma Berenices, a fine cluster of small stars, 189 N. E. of Zozma. Theta, situated in the thigh, is another star of the 3d mag- nitude, 59 directly S. of Zozma, and so nearly on the same meridian that it culminates but one minute after it. This star makes a right angled triangle with Zozma on the N. and Denebola on the E., the right angle being at Theta. Nearly in a straight line with Zozma, and Theta, and south of them, are three or four smaller stars, 40 or 59 apart, which mark one of the legs. f Denebola, is a bright star of the 1st magnitude, in the brush of the tail, 100 S. E. of Zozma, and may be distin- guished by its great brilliancy. It is 50 W. of the equinoc- tial colure, and comes to the meridian 1 hour and 41 minutes after Regulus, on the 3d of May; when its meridian altitude is the same as the sun’s at 12 o'clock the next day. When Denebola is on the meridian, Regulus is seen 25° W. of it, and Phad, in the square of Ursa Major, bears 39° N. of it. It forms, with these two, a large right angled triangle ; the right angle being at Denebola. It is so nearly on the same meridian with Phad that it culminates only four minutes before it. Denebola is 35}o W. of Arcturus, and about the same dis- tance N. W. of Spica Virginis, and forms, with them, a large equilateral triangle on the S. E. It also forms with Arcturus and Cor Caroli a similar figure, nearly as large on the N. E. These two triangles, being joined at their base, constitute a perfect geometrical figure of the forms of a Rhom- bus: called by some, the DIAMOND OF VIRGO. A line drawn from Denebola through Regulus, and continued 79 or 89 further in the same direction, will point out Xi and Omicron, of the 3d and 4th magni- tudes, situated in the fore claws, and about 3° apart. What star is next? Describe the position of Lambda? What are the situation and magnitude of Kappa? What is the distance between Epsilon and Kappa? Describe the position of Zozma? What are the magnitude and position of Theta;. What geometri- Cal figure may be formed with this star, Zozma and Denebola? What stars in this neighbourhood mark one of the legs of Leo? Describe Denebola? How far is it from ... the equinoctial colure, and when does it come to the meridian? When Denebola is on the meridian, what geometrical figure does it form, in connevion with Régulus and Phad 2 With what other star is it nearly on the same meridian 2 What is the position of Denebola in regard to Arcturus and Spica Virginis, and what figure does it form with them? With what other stars does Denebola form a similar figure?, What large º, figure is formed by these two triangles? What stars point out those in ñé fe claws MAP IV.] LEO. - 81 º - C There are a number of other stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes in this con- stellation, which require no description, as the scholar will easily trace them out from the map. The position of Régulus and Denebola are often referred to in the geography of the heavens, as they serve to point out other clusters in the saine neighbourhood. HISTORY..—According to Greek fable, this Lion represents the formidable ani. mal which infested the forests of Nemasa. It was slain by Hercules, and placed by Jupiter among the stars in commemoration of the dreadful conflict. Some writers have applied the story of the twelve labours of Hercules to the progress of the sun through the twelve signs of the ecliptic ; and as the combat of that celebrated hero with the Lion was his first labour, they have placed Leo as the § sign. The figure of the Lion was, however, on the Egyptian charts long efore the invention of the fables of Hercules. 'It would seein, moreover, ac. cording to the fable itself, that Hercules, who represented the sun, actually slew tlie Nemasan Lion, because Léo was already a zodiacal sign. In hieroglyphical writing, the Lion was an emblem of violence and fury; and the representation of this animal in the Zodiac, signified the intense heat occa- sioned by the sun when it entered that part of the ecliptic. The Egyptians were much annoyed by lions during the heat of summer, as they at that season, left the desert, and hunted the banks of the Nile, which had then reached its greatest elevation. It was therefore natural for their astronomers to place the Lion where we find him in the zouliac. * The figure of Leo, very much as we now have it, is in all the Indian and Egyp- tian Zodiacs. The overflowing of the Nile, which was regularly and anxiously expected every year by the Egyptians, took place when the Sun was in this sign. They therefore paid more attention to it, it is to be presumed, than to any other. This was the principal reason. Mr. Green supposes, why Leo stands first in the zodiacs of Dendera. - The circular zodiac, mentiomed in our account of Aries, and which adorned the ceiling in one of the inner rooms in the fainous temple in that city, was brought away en masse in 1821, and removed to Paris. On its arrival at the Louvre, it was purchased by the king for 150,000 francs, and, after being exhibited there for a year, was placed in one of the halls of the library, where it is now to be seen in apparently perfect preservation. This most interesting relic of astrology, after being cut away from the ruins where it was found, is about one foot thick, and eight feet square. The rock of which it is composed, is sandstone. Qn the face of this stone, appears a large square, enclosing a circle four feet in dialne- ter, in which are arranged in an irregular spiral line, the zodiacal constellations, commencing with the sign Leo. On eacli side of this spiral line are placed a great variety of figures. These are supposed to represent other constellations, though they bear no analogy, in form, to those which we now have. Many of these figures are accompanied with hieroglyphics, which probably express their names. The commentator of Chalmpollion, from whom we have derived inany interesting facts in relation to them, has furnished merely a general history of their origin and purpose, but does not add particulars. Copies of these drawings and characters, have been exhibited in this country, and the wonderful conclu- sions that have been drawn from them, have excited much astonishinent. Compared with our present planispheres, or with stellar phenomena, it abounds with contradictory and irrelevant matter. So far from proving what was strenu- ously maintained by infidel writers, soon after its discovery, that the Greeks took from it the model of their zodiac, which they have transmitted to us, it seems to demonstrate directly the reverse. The twelve signs, it is true, are there, but they are not in their proper places. Cancer is between Leo and the pole; virgo bears no proportion to the rest; some of the signs are placed double; they are all out of the ecliptic, and by no means occupy those regular and equal portions of space which Egyptian astronomers are said to have exactly ineasured by means of their clepsydra. . - - The figures, without what may be termed the zodiacal circle, could never have included the same stars in the heavens which are now circumscribed by the figures of the constellations. . Professor Green is of opinion, that the small apartment in the ruins of Dendera, which was mysteriously ceiled with this zo- diac, was used for the purposes of judicial astrology, and that the sculptured figures upon it were employed in horoscopical predictions, and in that casting of nativities for which the Egyptians were so ſainous. + Why is the position of Regulus and Denebola often referred to? 82 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [APRIL. º -- - -- * In the Hebrew Zodiac, Leo is assigned to Judah, on whose standard, according to all traditions, a Lion is painted. This is clearly intimated in numerous passa- ges of the Hebrew writings: Ex-‘‘Judah is a Lion’s whelp ; he stoopeth down. he croucheth as a Lion ; and as an old Lion; who shall rouse him up 3’ Gen. xlix. 9. “The Lion of the tribe of Judah hath prevailed.” Rev. v. 5. LEO MINOR. THE LITTLE LION.—This constellation was formed by Hevelius, out of the Stellae informes, or unformed stars of the ancients, which lay scattered between the Zodiacal con- stellation Léo, on the S. and Ursa Major, on the N. Its mean right ascension is the same with that of Regulus, and it comes to the meridian at the same time on the 6th of April. The modern constellations, or those which have been added to our celestial maps since the adoption of the Greek notation, in 1603, are referred to by the letters of the English alphabet, instead of the Greek. This is the case in regard to Leo Minor, and all other constellations whose origin is subsequent to that period. Leo Minor contains 53 stars, including only one of the 3d magnitude, and 5 of the 4th. The principal star is situated in the body of the animal, 13° N. of Gamma Leonis,* in a straight line with Phad, and may be known by a group of smaller stars, a little above it on the N. W. It forms an equilateral triangle with Gamma and Delta Leonis, the vertex being in Leo Minor. This star is marked with the letter l, in modern catalogues, and being the principal representative of the constellation, is itself sometimes called the Little Lion : 8° E. of this star (the Little Lion) are two stars of the 4th mag- nitude, in the last paw of Ursa Major, and about 10° N. W. of it, are two other stars of the 3d magnitude, in the first hind paw. “The Smaller Lion now succeeds; a cohort Of fifty stars attend his steps; And three, to sight unarm’d, invisible.” SEXT ANS. THE SExTANT, called also URANIA's SExTANT, f is a modern constellation that Hevelius made out of the unformed stars of the ancients, which lay scattered between the Lion, on the N., and Hydra, on the S. - It contains 41 very small stars, including only one as large * Leonis is the genitive, or possessive case of Leo, and Ganima Leonis means the Gamma of Leo. Thus also the principal star in Aries is marked Alpha Arietis, mean- ing the Alpha of Aries, &c. f Urania was one of the muses, and daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She pre- sided over astronomy. . She was represented as a young virgin. dressed in an azure- coloured robe, crowned with stars, holding a robe in her hands, and having many mathematical instruments about her. What is the origin of Leo Minor, and how is it situated What is its mean right as- cension? When is it on the meridian? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? What is the position of the principal star in this constellation, and how may it be known What figure does it form with some other stars 2 What letter represents this star, and what else is it called 2 What nebulae do the find in this constellation 2 What are the origin and position of the Sextant? How many stars does it contain? MAP IV.] HYDRA AND THE cup, 83 as the 4th magnitude. This is situated very near the equi- noctial, 13° S. of Regulus, and comes to the meridian about the same time on the 6th of April. The other stars in this constellation are too small to engage attention. A few of the largest of them may be traced out from the map. HistoRY.—A sextant, in mathematics, is the sixth part of a circle, or an arch comprehending 60 degrees. But the terri, is more particularly used to denote an astronounical instrument well known to imariners. Its use is the same as that of the quadrant; namely, to measure the angular distance, and take the altitude of the sun, Inoon, planets, and fixed stars. It is indispensable to the mariner in finding the latitude and longitude at sea, and should be in the hands of every surveyor and practical engineer. It may serve the purpose of a theodolite, in measuring inaccessible heights and distances. It may gratify the young pupil to know, that by means of such an instrument, well adjusted, and with a clear eye and a steady hand, he could readily tell, within a few hundred yards, how far north or south of the equator he was, and that from any quarter of the world, known or unknown. This constellation is so called, on account of a supposed resemblance to this instrument. * * HYDRA AND THE CUP. HyDRA, THE WATER SERPENT, is an extensive constella- tion, winding from E. to W. in a serpentine direction, over a space of more than 100 degrees in length. It lies south of Cancer, Leo, and Virgo, and reaches almost from Canis Mi- nor to Libra. It contains sixty stars, including one of the 2d magnitude, three of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. Alphard, or Cor Hydrae, in the heart, is a lone star of the 2d magnitude, 230 S. S. W. of Regulus, and comes to the meridian at the same time with Lambda, in the point of the sickle, about 20 minutes before 9 o'clock on the 1st of April. There is no other considerable star near it, for which it can be mistaken. An imaginary line drawn from Gamma Leonis through Regulus, will point out Cor Hydrae, at the distance of 239. The head of Hydra may be distinguished by means of four stars of the 4th magnitude, 249 and 40 apart, situated 69 S. of A cubens, and forming a rhomboidal figure. The three upper stars in this cluster, form a small arch, and may be known by two very small stars just below the middle one, making with it a very small triangle. The three western stars in the head, also make a beautiful little triangle. The eastern star in this group, marked Zeta, is about 60 directly S. of Acubens, and culminates at the same time. - When Alphard is on the meridian, Alkes, of the 4th mag- nitude, situated in the bottom of the Cup, may be seen 24° What is the position of the largest one? Describe the situation and extent of the constellation Hydra. What are the number and magnitude of its stars 3 Describe the position and magnitude of Alphard. What are the distance and direction of Cor Hy- drae from Gamma Leonist. How may the head of Hydra be distinguished? How may the three upper stars in this cluster be known? Which stars form a beautiful little triangle? Hów is Alkes situated, and when may it be seen 7 . * 84 * PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |APRIL. S. E. of it, and is distinguished by its forming an equilateral triangle with Beta and Gamma, stars of the same magnitude; 60 S. and E. of it. Alkes is common both to Hydra and the Cup. Beta, on the S., is in Hydra, and Gamma, on the N. E., is near the middle of the Cup. A line drawn from Zozma, through Theta Leonis, and continued 38%.9 directly S. will reach Beta; it is therefore on the same meridian, and will culminate at the same time on the 23d of April. The Cup itself, called also the Crater, may be easily dis- tinguished by means of six stars of the 4th magnitude, form- ing a beautiful crescent, or semicircle, opening to the W. The centre of this group is about 150 below the equinoctial, and directly S. of the hinder feet of Leo. The crescent form of the stars in the Cup is so striking and well defined, when the moon is absent, that no other description is necessary to point them out. Its centre comes to the meridian about two hours after Alphard, on the same evening; and consequently, it culminates at 9 o'clock, one month after Alphard does. The remainder of the stars in this constellation may be easily traced by aid of the map. When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, its other ex- tremity is many degrees below the horizon, so that its whole length cannot be traced out in the heavens until its centre, or the Cup, is on the meridian. - —“Near the equator rolls The sparkling Hydra, proudly enuinent To drink the Galary’s refulgent sea ; Nearly a fourth of the encircling curve Which girds the ecliptic, his vast ſolds involve; Yet ten the number of his stars diffused O'er the long track of his enormous spires : Chief beams his heart, sure of the second rank, But emulous to gain the first.”—Eudosia. History.—The astrologers of the east, in dividing the celestial nosts into vari- ous compartinents, assigned a popular and allegorical meaning to each. Thus the sign Leo, which passes the ineridian about midnight, when the Sun is in Pisces, was called the House of the Lions, Leo being the domicil of Sol. The introduction of two serpents into the constellations of the ancients, bad its origin, it is supposed, in the circumstances that the polar one represented the oblique course of the stars, while the Hydra, or Great Snake, in the southern hemisphere, symbolized the moon’s course: hence the Nudes are called the Dragon’s head and tail, to this day. The hydra was a terrible monster, which, according to mythologists, infested the neighbourhood of the lake Lerma, in the Peloponnesus. It had a hundred leads, according to Diodorus; fiſty, according to Simonides; and nine, accord- ing to the more cominorily received opinion of Apollodorus, Hyginus, and others, As soon as one of these heads was cut off, two immediately grew up if the wound was not stopped by fire. If Alkes be situated in the Cup, why is it also included in Hydra? How are the other two stars that make a triangle with Aikes, situated? How is Beta situated with respect to Zozma and Theta Leonis? When is Béta on the meridian? How may the Cup be distinguished? How is the centre of this group situated with respect to Leo, and the equinoctial? What single circumstance is sufficient to designate the stars in the Cup? When is it on the meridian When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, where is the other extremity of the constellation? MAP. VI.] URSA MAJOR. 85 * “Art thou proportion'd to the hydra’s length, * Who, by his wounds, received augmented strength 3 He raised a hundred hissing heads in air, When one I lopp'd, up sprang a dreadſul pair.” To destroy this dreadful Inonster, was one of the labours of Hercules, and this he easily effected with the assistance of Jolaus, who applied a burning iron to the wounds as soon as one head was cut off. While Hercules was destroying the hydra, Juno, jealous of his glory, sent a sea-crab to bite his foot. This new enemy was soon despatched; and Juno was unable to succeed in her attempts to lessen the fame of Hercules. The conqueror dipped his arrows in the gall of the hydra, which ever after rendered the wounds inflicted with them incurable and mortal. This fable of the many-headed hydra may be understood to mean nothing more than that the marshes of Lerna were infested with a multitude of serpents, which seemed to multiply as fast as they were destroyed. p C H A P T E R W II. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN MAY. URSA MAJOR. THE GREAT BEAR.—This great constellation is situated between Ursa Minor on the north, and Leo Minor on the south. It is one of the most noted and conspicuous in the northern hemisphere. It has been an object of universal ob- servation in all ages of the world. The priests of Belus, and the Magi of Persia; the shepherds of Chaldea, and the Phoe- nician navigators, seem to have been equally struck with its peculiar outlines. And it is somewhat remarkable that a re- mote nation of American aborigines, the Iroquois, and the earliest Arabs of Asia, should have given to the very same constellation the name of “Great Bear,” when there had probably never been any communication between them; and when the name itself is so perfectly arbitrary, there being no resemblance whatever to a bear, or to any other animal. It is readily distinguished from all others by means of a remarkable cluster of seven bright stars, forming what is familiarly termed the Dipper, or Ladle. In some parts of England it is called “Charles's Wain,” or wagon, from its fancied resemblance to a wagon drawn by three horses in a line. Others call it the Plough. The cluster, however, is more frequently put for the whole constellation, and called, simply, the Great Bear. But we see no reason to reject the How is Ursa Major situated? How has it always been regarded ? What people seem to have becn peculiarly struck with its splendour? What remarkable cir- cumstance respecting its name? Is there any resemblance hetween the outlines of - this constellation and the figure of a bear? By what is this constellation readily dis- tinguished from all others? By What other names is the Dipper called ! What is this S cluster more frequently called? º **. 86 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [MAY. very appropriate appellation of the shepherds, for the resem- blance is certainly in favour of the Dipper: the four stars in the square forming the bowl, and the other three, the handle. When the Dipper is on the meridian, above the pole, the bottom lies towards us, with the handle on the right. Benetmasch is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, and is the first in the handle. The second, or middle star in the handle, is Mizar, 79 distant from Benetnasch. It may be known by means of a very minute star almost touching it, called Alcor. which appears to be double when seen through a telescope, and of a silver white. The third star in the handle is called Alioth, and is about 40 W. of Mizar. Alioth is very nearly opposite Shedir in Cassiopeia, and at an equal distance from the pole. Benetmasch, Mizar, and Alioth, constitute the han- dle, while the next four in the square form the bowl of the Dipper. - Five and a half degrees W. of Alioth is the first star in the top of the Dipper, at the junction of the handle, called Megrez; it is the smallest and middle one of the cluster, and is used in various observations both on sea and land, for important purposes.* At the distance of 4}o S. W. of Megrez, is Phad, the first star in that part of the bottom, which is next the handle. The stars in this cluster are so well known, and may be so easily described without reference to their relative bearings, that they would rather confuse than assist the student, were they given with ever so much accuracy. The several bearings for this cluster were taken when Megrez was on the meridian, and will not apply at any other time, though their respective distances will remain the Sal Iłę. - At the distance of So W. of Phad, is the westernmost star in the bottom of the Dipper, called Merak. The bright star 5° N. of it, towards the pole, is called Dubhe; but these two, Merak and Dubhe, are, by common consent, talled the Point- ers, because they always point towards the pole; for, let the line which joins them be continued in the same direction 283.9 farther, it will just reach the north pole. The names, positions, and relative distances of the stars in this cluster, should be well remembered, as they will be fre- sition of Merak and Dubhe. What are these stars called, and why? * . * When Megrez and Caph have the same altitude, and are seen in the same hori- zontal line east and West, the polar star is then at its greatest elongation from the true pole of the heavens; and this is the proper time for an observer to take its angle of elevation, in order to determine the latitude, and its azimuth or angle of declination, in order to determine the magnetic variation. What, on the whole, is an appropriate appellation for it, and why? Ypescribe the po- sition of the Dipper when on the meridian. Describe the position of Benetrasch. What is the next star in the Dipper, and how may it he known What is the next, or third- star in the Dipper? What stars form the bowl and handle of the Dipper? Describe the position and use of Megrez. What star is situated next to Megrez : Describe the po- MAP VI.] URSA MAJOR. - 87 quently adverted to. The distance of Dubhe, or the Pointer nearest to the north pole, is 283°. The distance between the two upper stars in the Dipper is 10°; between the two lower ones is 8°: the distance from the brim to the bottom next the handle, is 4°; between Megrez and Alioth is 5%"; between Alioth and Mizar 4°, and between Mizar and Benetnasch, 79. The reason why it is important to have these distances clearly settled in the mind is, that these stars, being always in view, and more familiar than any other, the student will never fail to have a standard measure before him, which the eye can easily make use of in determining the distances between other stars. The position of Megrez in Ursa Major, and of Caph in Cassiopeia, is somewhat remarkable. They are both in the equinoctial colure, almost exactly opposite each other, and equally distant from the pole. Caph is in the colure, which passes through the vernal equinox, and Megrez is in that which passes through the autumnal equinox. The latter passes the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 10th of May, and the former just six months afterwards, at the same hour, on the 10th of November. - Psi, in the left leg of Ursa Major, is a star of the 3d mag- nitude, in a straight line with Megrez and Phad, distant from the latter 1249. A little out of the same line, 39 farther, is another star of the 3d magnitude, marked Epsilon, which may be distinguished from Psi, from its forming a straight line with the two Pointers. º The right fore paw, and the two hinder ones, each about 15° from the other, are several y distinguished by two stars of the 4th magnitude, between 19 and 29 apart. These three duplicate stars are nearly in a right line, 20° S. of, and in a direction nearly parallel with, Phad and Dubhe, and are the only stars in this constellation that ever set in this latitude. There are few other stars of equal brightness with those just described, but amidst the more splendid and interesting group with which they are clustered, they seldom engage our observation. The whole number of visible stars in this constellation is 87; of which one is of the 1st, three are of the 2d, seven of the 3d, and about twice as many of the 4th magnitude. HISTORY..—URSA MAJOR is said to be Calisto, or Helice, daughter of Lycaon, What is the distance of Dubhe from the north pole? Mention the relative distances between the other stars in this group. “ Tiſhy is it important to have the relative dis- tances of these stars from each other well settled in the mind 2 What is there remark- able in the position of Megrez, and Caph in Cassiopeia? When do they pass the me. ridian! Describe the position of Psi. Where is Epsilon situated, and hūw may it be distinguished? How are the paws of the Bear distinguished What is the situation of these stars with respect to Phad and Dubhe What are the only stars in this con- stellation that ever Set in this latitude? What is the whoke number of visible stars in - & . this constellation, and bow many of each magnitude? 88 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [MAY. king of Arcadia. She was an attendant of Diama,” and mother of Arcas, by Ju- piter, who placed her among the constellations, aſter the jealousy of Juno had changed her into a bear. “This said, her hand within her hair she wound, Swung her to earth, and dragg’d her on the ground; The prostrate wretch liſts up her hand in prayer; Her arms grow shaggy and deform'd with hair, Her mails are sharpen'd into pointed claws, Her hands bear half her weight, and turn to paws; Her lips, that once could tempt a god, begin To grow distorted in an ugly grin; And lest the supplicating brute might reach The ears of Jove, she was deprived of speech. How did she fear to lodge in woods alone, And haunt the fields and meadows, once her own | How often would the deep-mouth’d dogs pursue, Whilst from her hounds the frighted hunters flew.”—Ovid's Met. Some suppose that her son Areas, otherwise called Bootes, was changed into Ursa Minor, or the Little Bear. It is well known, that the ancients represented . both these constellations under the figure of a wagon drawn by a team of horses; hence the appellation of Charles’s Waim, or wagon. This is alluded to in the Phenomena of Aratus, a Greek poem, from which St. Paul quotes, in his address to the Athenians:— - § “The one call’d Helix,t soon as day retires, Observed with ease, lights up his radiant fires: *. —r * Diana was the goddess of hunting, and the patroness of modesty and chastity — “The huntress Džūn, Fair, Silver-shafted queen, for ever chaste, Set at maught The frivolous bolt of Cupid ; gods and men Fear her stern frown, and she was queen o' th' woods.”—Mºlton. The most famous of her temples was that of Ephesus, near Smyrna, in Asia, which was one of the seven wonders of the world. It is related in the Acts of the Apostles, that “Demetrius, a silverSmith, Who made silver shrines for Diana,” endeavoured to excite opposition to the Christian religion, because “this Paul had persuaded much people that they be no gods which are made with hands,” and “that the temple of the great goddess Diana should be despised, and her mag,nificence should be destroyed, whom all Asia and the world worshippeth. And when they heard these sayings they were full of wrath, and cried out, saying, Great is Diana of the Ephesians / And thus they continued shouting for the space of two hours.” And again, “When the town glerk had appeased the people, he said, Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter?” - The “image which fell down from Jupiter,” doubtless alludes to the fable that Juno cast her out of heaven, and that Neptune, in pity of her desolate condition, raised the island of Delos, from the AEgean sea, for her birth and habitation ; for it was in this island that the twins, Apollo and Diana, were born. Diana is therefore sometimes called Delia, from the name of the island that gave her birth. She was represented under the figure of a very beautiful virgin, in a hunting dress, a head taller than any of her attendant mymphs, with a bow in her hand, a quiver suspended across her shoulders, and her forehead ornamented with a silver crescent “which Jews might kiss and infidels adore.” The inhabitants of Taurica sacrificed upon her altars all the strangers that were shipwrecked upon their coast. The Lacedemonians yearly Offer- ed her human victims till the age of Lycurgus, who changed this barbarous custom of immolation to flagellation. The Athenians generally offered her goats, while others offered white kids and ewes. - - “Haste the sacrifice ; Seven bullocks yet unyoked for Phoebus choose, And for Diana, seven unspotted eves.”—Virgil. Who does not bow with grateful veneration at that Christian intrepidity of St. Paul, who risked his life in exposing the delusion and idolatry of the worshippers of the goddess Diana It is a remarkable circumstance, that the temple of Diana was burnt to the ground the very day on which Alexander the great was born 1 t Calisto was a native of the city of Helice, in Achaia, a district near the bay of Co- rinth ; hence the Greater Bear is sometimes called Helice :- - S., “Night on the earth pour’d darkness; on the sea, The watchful sailor, to Orion's star And Helice, turn’d heedful.”—Apollonizis. MAP IV.] & COMA BERENICES, 89 The other, smaller, and with feebler beams, In a less circle drives its lazy teams; But inore adapted for the sailor’s guide, Whene'er, by night, he tempts the briny tide.” In the Egyptian planispheres of remote antiquity, these two constellations are represented by the figures of bears, instead of wagons; and the Greeks, who derived most of their astronomical symbols from the Egyptians, though they usually altered them to emblems of their own history or superstition, have, nev- ertheless, retained the original form of the two bears. It is said by Aratus, that the Pheniclan navigators made use of Ursa Minor in directing their voyages:– “Observing this, Phenicians plough the main:” while the Greeks confined their observations to Ursa Major. Some imagine that the ancient Egyptians arranged the stars near the north pole, within the outlines of a bear, because the polar regions are the haunts of this * and also because it makes neither extensive journeys nor rapid HIla.T.C. ſ. CS * At what period men began to sail by the stars, or who were the first people that did so, is not clear; but the honour is usually given to the Phenicians. That it was practised by the Greeks, as early as the time of the Trojan war, that is, about 1200 years B. C., we learn from Homer: for he says of Ulysses, when sailing on his raft, that “Placed at the helm he sate, and mark'd the skies, Nor closed in sleep his ever watchful eyes.” It is ration at to suppose that the stars were first used as a guide to travellers by land, for we can scarcely imagine that men would venture themselves upon the sea by night, before they had first learned some safe and sure method of ('irecting their course by land. And we find, according to Diodorus Siculus, that I tº ellers in the sandy plains of Arabia were accustoned to direct their course } the Bears That people travelled in these vast deserts at night by observing the stars, is directly proved by this passage of the Koran:—“God has given you the stars to be guides in the dark, both by land and by sea.” * CoMA BERENICEs. BERENICE’s HAIR.—This is a beautiful cluster of smalf stars, situated about 5° E. of the equinoctial colure, and mid- way between Cor Caroli on the northeast, and Denebola on the southwest. If a straight line be drawn from Benetmasch through Cor Caroli, and produced to Denebola, it will pass through it. - The principal stars are of between the 4th and 5th magni- tudes. According to Flamsted, there are thirteen of the 4th magnitude, and according to others there are seven ; but the student will find agreeably to his map, that there is apparently but one star in this group, entitled to that rank, and this is situated about 70 S. E. of the main cluster. Although it is not easy to mistake this group for any other in the same region of the skies, yet the stars, which compose it are all so small as to be rarely distinguished in the full pre- sence of the moon. The confused lustre of this assemblage Describe the appearance and situation of Coma Berenices. What are the magnitudes of the principal stars in this cluster? What are they, according to Flamsted and others? How many stars of the 4th magnitude will the student find on the map? Is it * easy to mistake this group, and is it visible in presenée of the moon? * 3. 90 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. , |MAY. * of small stars somewhat resembles that of the Milky-Way. It contains besides the stars already alluded to, a number of nebulae. The whole number of stars in this constellation is 43; its mean right ascension is 1859. It consequently is on the me- ridian the 13th of May. * —“Now behold The glittering maze of Berenice's Hair; Forty the stars; but such as seem to kiss The flowing tresses with a lambent fire: Four to the telescope alone are seen.” HISTORY..—Berenice was of royal descent, and a lady of great beauty, who married Ptolemy Soter, or Evergetes, one of the kings of Egypt, her own bro- ther, whom she loved with much tenderness. When he was going on a danger- ous expedition against the Assyrians, she vowed to dedicate her hair to the goddess of beauty, if he returned in safety. Sometime after the victorious re- turn of her husband, Evergetes, the locks which agreeably to her oath, she had deposited in the temple of Venus disappeared. The king expressed great re- gret at the loss of what he so much prized; whereupon Conon, his astronomer, publicly reported that Jupiter had taken away the queen's locks from the temple, and placed them among the stars. W “There Berenice's locks first rose so bright, The heavens bespangling with dishevelled light.” Conon, being sent for by the king, pointed out this constellation, saying, “There behold the locks of the queen.” This group being among the unformed stars until that time, and not known as a constellation, the king was satisfied with the declaration of the astronomer, and the queen became reconciled to the par- tiality of the gods. Callimachus, an historian, and poet, who flourished long before the Christian era, has these lines as translated by Tytler:— “Immortal Conon, blest with skill divine, Amid the sacred skies behold me shine; E’en me, the beauteous hair, that lately shed Refulgent beams from Berenice's head; The lock she fondly vowed with lifted arms, Imploring all the powers to save from harms Her dearer lord, when from his bride he flew, To wreck stern vengeance on the Assyrian crew.” CORV U.S. THE CRow.—This small constellation is situated on the eastern part of Hydra, 15° E. of the Cup, and is on the same meridian with Coma Berenices, but as far S. of the equinoc- tial as Coma Berenices is N. of it. It therefore culminates at the same time, on the 12th of May. It contains nine visi- * stars, including three of the 3d magnitude and two of the 4th. , This constellation is readily, distinguished by means of three stars, of the 3d magnitudé and one of the 4th, forming a trapezium or irregular square, the two upper ones being about 34° apart, and the two lower ones 60 apart. What does its lustre resemble? What is the number of stars in this constellation, and when is it on the meridian? Where is the Crºw situated? When is it on the ºne- : h º What are the number and magnitude of its stars How is it readily distin- Shed? * MAP Iv.] CCRWUS, 91 The brightest of the two upper stars, on the left, is called Algorab, and is situated in the E. wing of the Crow ; it has nearly the same declination S. that the Dog-star has, and is on the meridian about the 13th of May. It is 2139 E. of Alkes in the Cup, 149 S.W. of Spica Virginis, a brilliant star of the 1st magnitude to be described in the next chapter. Beta, on the back of Hydra and in the foot of the Crow, is a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 7° S. of Algorab. It is the brightest of the two lower stars, and on the left. The right- hand lower one is a star of the 4th magnitude, situated in the neck, marked Epsilon, about 6° W. of Beta, and may be known by a star of the same magnitude situated 2° below it, in the eye, and called Al Chiba. Epsilon is 213° S. of the vernal equinox, and if a meridian should be drawn from the pole through Megrez, and produced to Epsilon Corvi, it would mark the equinoctial colure. Gamma in the W. wing, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 34° W. of Algorab, and is the upper righthand one in the square. It is but 1° E. of the equinoctial colure. 10° E. of Beta is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the tail of Hydra, marked Gamma; , these two, with Algorab, form i.early a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Beta. . . History.--The Crow, it is said, was once of the purest white, but was changed for tale-bearing to its present colour. A fit punishment for such a fault “The raven once in snowy plumes was drest, White as the whitest dove's unsullied breast, Fair as the guardian of the capitol, Soft as the Swan; a large and lovely fowl; His tongue, his prating tongue, had changed him quite, To sooty blackness from the purest white.” According to Greek fable, the Crow was made a constellation by Apollo. This god being jealous of Coronis, (whom he tenderly loved,) the daughter of Phle- gyas and mother of OEsculapius, sent a crow to watch her behaviour; the bird perceived her criminal partiality for Ischys the Thessalian, and immediately acquainted Apollo with her conduct, which so fired his indignation that he lodged an arrow in her breast, and killed her instantly. “The god was wroth ; the colour left his look, g The wreath his head, the harp his hand forsook; His silver bow and feather'd shafts he took, And lodged an arrow in the tender breast, That had so often to his own been prest.” To reward the crow, he placed her among the constellations. - Others say that this constellation takes its name from the daughter of Coro- naeus, king of Phocis, who was transformed into a crow by Minerva, to rescue the maid from the pursuit of Neptune. The following, from an eminent Latin poet of the Augustine age, is her own,account of the metamorphosis as transla- ted into English verse by Mr. Addison — ‘For as my arms I lifted to the skies, I saw black feathers from my fingers rise: Describe the position of Algorab. How does its declination compare with that of Sirius? What are its distance : direction from Alkes and Spica Virginis? De- scribe the situation of Beta. Describe the situation of the righthand lower star. What is the distance of Epsilon from the vermal equinox, and how may the equinoctial colure be traced out by it? What are the magnitude and position of Gamma?" Of Beta? 92 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAY. I strove to fling my garment on the ground; My garment turned to plumes, and girt me round: My hands to beat my naked bosom try; Nor naked bosom now nor hands had Î: Lightly I tripp'd, nor weary as before Sunk in the sand, but skimm’d along the shore; Till, rising on my wings, I was preferr’d To be the chaste Minerva's virgin bird.” VIRGO. THE VIRGIN.—This is the sixth sign, and seventh constel- lation in the ecliptic. It is situated next east of Leo, and about midway between Coma Berenices on the N. and Cor- vus on the S. It occupies a considerable space in the hea- vens, and contains, according to Flamsted, one hundred and ten stars, including one of the 1st, six of the 3d, and ten of the 4th magnitudes. Its mean declination is 5° N., and its mean right ascension is 195°. Its centre is therefore on the meridian about the 23d of May. The sun enters the sign Virgo, on the 23d of August, but does not enter the constellation before the 15th of September. When the sun is in this sign, the earth is in Pisces; and vice versa. - , Spiga Virginis, in the ear of corn” which the virgin holds in her left hand, is the most brilliant star in this constella- tion, and situated nearly 15° E. N. E. of Algorab in the Crow, about 35° S. E. of Denebola, and nearly as far S. S. W. of Arcturus—three very brilliant stars of the 1st magnitude that form a large equilateral triangle, pointing to the S. Arc- turus and Denebola are also the base of a similar triangle on the north, terminating in Cor Caroli, which, joined to the former, constitutes the Diamond of Virgo. The length of this figure, from Cor Caroli on the north to Spica Virginis on the south, is 509. Its breadth, or shorter diameter, extending from Arcturus on the east, to Denebola on the west, is 3549. Spica may otherwise be known by its solitary splendour, there being no visible star near it except one of the 4th magnitude, situ- ated about 19 below it, on the left. The position of this star in the heavens, has been deter- mined with great exactness for the benefit of navigators. It * In the Egyptian Zodiac, Isis, whose place was supplied by Virgo, was represented with three ears of corn in her hand. According to the Egyptian mythology, Isis was said to have dropped a sheaf of corn, as she fled from Typhon, who, as he continued to pursue her, Scattered it over the heaven . The Chinese call the Zodiac the yellow, road, as resembling a path over which the ripened ears of corn are scattered. What is the relative position of Virgo among the signs and constellations of the ecliptic? How is it situated? How many stars does it contain, and how large are the principal ones? What are its mean declination and right ascension? When is the Centre of the constellation on the meridian 7 Describe the principal star in Virgo. What are the distance and direction of Virgo from Algorab, Denebola and Arcturus? What are the magnitude and appearance of these three stars, and what figure do they form? How may Spica be otherwisé distinguished? Why has its position been determined With great exactness? Map IV.] VIRGO. - 93 is one of the stars from which the moon's distance is taken for determining the longitude at sea. Its situation is highly favourable for this purpose, as it lies within the moon’s path, and little more than 2° below the earth’s orbit. Its right ascension being 1999, it will come to our meridian at 9 o'clock about the 28th of May, in that point of the heav- ens where the sun is at noon about the 20th of October. Windemiatriz, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the right arm, or northern wing of Virgo, and is situated nearly in a straight line with, and midway between Coma Berenices, and Spica Virginis. It is 1949 S. W. of Arcturus, and about the same distance S. E. of Coma Berenices, and forms with these two a large tri- angle, pointing to the south. It bears also 18° S. S. E. of Denebola, and comes to the meridian about 23 minutes before Spica Virginis. Zeta, is a star of the 3d magnitude 1149 N. of Spica, and very near the equi- noctial. Gamma, situated near the left side, is also a star of the 3d magnitude, and very near the equinoctial. It is 13° due west of Zeta, with which and Spica it forms a handsome triangle. Eta, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the southern wing, 5°W. of Gamma, and but 24° E. of the autumnal equinox. Beta, called also Zavijava, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the shoulder of the wing, 74° W*of Eta, with which and Gamma, it forms a line near the Earth’s orbit, and parallel to it. Beta, Eta, Gamma and Spica, form the lower and longer side of a large spherical triangle whose vertex is in Beta. The other stars in this figure may Be easily traced by means of the map. About 13° E. of Spica, there are two stars of the 4th magnitude, 3° apart, which mark the foot of Virgo. These two stars are on nearly the same meridian with Arcturus, and culminate nearly at the same time. The lower one, marked Lambda, is on the south, and but 8° W. of the principal star in Libra. Several other stars of the 3d magni- tude lie scattered about in this constellation, and may be traced out by the map. “Her lovely tresses glow with starry light; Stars ornament the bracelet on her hand; Her west in ample fold, glitters with stars: Beneath her snowy feet they shine; her eyes Lighten, all glorious, with the heavenly rays, But first the star which crowns the golden sheaf.” History.—The famous zodiac of Dendera, as we have already noticed, com- mences with the sign Leo ; but another zodiac, discovered among the ruins at Estne, in Egypt, commences with Virgo; and from this circumstance, some have argued, that the regular precession of the equinoxes established a date to this at least 2000 years older than that at Dendera. The discoveries of Cham: . pollion, however, render it probable that this ancient relic of astrology at Estne was erected during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, and consequently did not precede the one at Dendera more than fourteen years. Of this, however, we may be certain: the autumnal equinox now corresponds with the first degree of Virgo; and, consequently, if we find a zodiac in which the summer solstice was placed where the autumnal equinox now is, that zodiac carries us back 90° on the ecliptic ; this divided by the annual precession 50%", must fix the date at about 6450 years ago. This computation, according to the chronology of the Sacred writings, carries us back to the earliest ages of the human species on earth, and proves, at least, that astronomy was among the first studies of mankind. The most rational way of accounting for this zodiac, says Jamieson, is to ascribe it to the family of Noah; or perhaps to the patriarch himself, who constructed it for the benefit of those who should live after the deluge, and who preserved it as a monument to perpetuate the actual state of the heavens immediately subsequent to the creation. Fable represents the ancient Egyptians as believing that the yearly and regu- lar inundations of the Nile proceeded from the abundant tears which Isis shed Why is its situation favourable for taking the moon's distance? When does it pass our meridian? Describe the situation of Windemiatria. Describe the figure ºphich it forms with other stars in the same neighbourhood. What are its distance and bearing from Denebola? Describe Zeta. Describe Gamma. Describe the position qf Eta Dé- cribe the position of Beta. What geometrical figure may be formed qf the stars in this zzeighbourhood? *. 94 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAY. for the loss of Osiris, whom Typhom had basely murdered. By confounding the simple allegory of the learned with the mythological cread of the vulgar, the historical account furnished us, respecting Isis, becomes perplexed and unin- telligible. Perhaps with the following key, we may unlock the mystery :—The sun in Leo, was adormed as the god Osiris; in Virgo, it was worshipped as his sister Isis; at its passage into Scorpio, the terrible reign of Typhon commenced. Columella fixes the transit of the sun into Scorpio, on the 13th of the calends of November; and this period nearly corresponds with that in which Osiris was feigned to have been slain by Typhon, and the death of Orion was to have been occasioned by the sting of a scorpion. When Scorpio begins to rise, Orion sets; when Scorpio comes to the meridian, Leo begins to set:-Typhon then reigns, Qsiris is slain, and his sister follows him to the tomb weeping. The traditions allot the sign Virgo to Naphtali, whose standard had for its symbol, a tree “bearing goodly branches.” Thus mythology, in describing the physical state of the world, Invented a symbolical language which personified inanimate objects; and the priests redu- ced the whole of their noblest science to fables, which the people believed as true histories representing the moral condition of mankind during the first ages of civil government. ' According to the ancient poets, this constellation represents the virgin AS- traºa, the goddess of justice, who lived upon the earth during the golden age ; but being offended at the wickedness and impiety of mankind during the brazen and iron ages of the world, she returned to heaven, and was placed among the constellations of the zodiac, wiih a pair of scales (Libra) in one hand and a sword in the other. f Hesiod, who flourished nearly a thousand years before the birth of our Saviour, and later writers, mention four ages of the world; the golden, the silver, the brazen, and the iron age. In the beginning of things, say they, all men were happy, and all men were good; the earth brought forth her fruits without the labour of man ; and cares, and wants, wars and diseases, were un- known. But this happy state of things did not last long. To the golden age, the silver age succeeded; to the silver, the brazen ; and to the brazen, the iron. Perpetual spring no longer reigned; men continually quarrelled with each other; rrime succeeded to crime; and blasphemy and murder stained the history of every day. In the golden age, the gods did not disdain to mix familiarly with the sons of men. The innocence, the integrity and brotherly love which they found among us, were a pleasing spectacle even to superior natures; but as mankind degenerated, one god after another deserted their late beloved haunts; Astraea lingered the last; but finding the earth steeped in human gore, she her- self flew away to the celestial regions. “Victa jacet pietas; et virgo cade madentes Ultima coelestum terras Astraea reliquit.” Met. Lib. i. v. 149. “Faith flees, and piety in exile mourns; And justice, here oppress'd, to heaven returns.” Some, however, maintain, that Erigone was changed into the constellation Virgo. The death of her father Icarius, an Athenian, who perished by the hands of some peasants, whom he had intoxicated with wine, caused a fit of despair, in which Erigone hung herself; and she was afterwards, as it is said, §. among the signs of the zodiac. She was directed by her faithful dog Maera to the place where her father was slain. The first bough on which she hung herself, breaking, she sought a stronger, in order to effect her purpose. “Thus once in Marathon's impervious wood, Erigone beside her father stood, When hastening to discharge her pious vows, She loos'd the knot, and cull'd the strongest boughs.” - LEwis’s Statius, B. xi. ASTERION ET CHARA; VEL CANES VENATICI. THE GREYHounds.--This modern constellation, embracing two in one, was made by Hevelius out of the unformed stars what is the origin of the constellation called the Greyhounds; MAP IV.] ROOTES. • 95. of the ancients which were scattered between Bootes on the east, and Ursa Major on the west, and between the handle of the Dipper on the north, and Coma Berenices on the south. These Hounds are represented on the celestial sphere as being in pursuit of the Great Bear, which Bootes is huntings round the pole of heaven, while he holds in his hand the leash by which they are fastened together. The northern one is called Asterion, and the southern one, Chara. The stars in this group are considerably scattered, and are principally of the 5th and 6th magnitudes; of the twenty-five stars which it contains, there is but one sufficiently large to engage our attention. Cor Caroli, or Charles’s Heart, so named by Sir Charles Scarborough, in memory of King Charles the First, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the neck of Chara the Southern Hound. - When on the meridian, Cor Caroli is 1749 directly S. of Alioth, the third star in the handle of the Dipper, and is so nearly on the same meridian that it culmi- nates only one minute and a half aſter it. This occurs on the 20th of May. A line drawn from Cor Caroli through Alioth will lead to the N. polar star. This star may also be readily distinguished by its being in a straight line with, and midway between Benetmasch, the first star in the handle of the Dipper, and Coma Berenices: and also by the fact that when Cor Caroli is on the ineridian, Denebola bears 28° S. W., and Arcturus 26° S. E. of it, forming with these two Stars a very large triangle, whose vertex is at the north; it is also at the north- ern extremity of the large Diamond, already described. \ - The remaining stars in this constellation are too small, and too much scattered to excite our interest. - t C H A P T E R W III. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CoNSTELLATIpNs which ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN JUNE. BOOTES.* THE BEAR-DRIVER is represented by the figure of a hunts- man in a running posture, grasping a club in his right hand, and holding up in his left the leash of his two greyhounds, Asterion and Chara, with which he seems to be pursuing the Great Bear round the pole of the heavens. He is thence called Arctophylax, or the “Bear-Driver.”. * Pronounced Bo-o'-tes. How are the Greyhounds represented? By what names are they distinguished? What are the magnitudes of the stars which compose this group, and how are they sit- uated with respect to each other? Describe the principal star. When on the meridian, what is its situation with regard to Alioth 2 Hów is Čor Caroli situated with respect to the polar star? How may this star be otherwise readily distinguished 2. What large geometrical ſigºtre does it form with two other bright stars in its vicinity? How is the constellation Bootes represcnted? Why is Bootes called the Bear-Driver? A 96 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JUNE. *- This constellation is situated between Corona Borealis, on the east, and Cor Caroli, or the Greyhounds, on the west. It contains fifty-four stars, including one of the 1st magnitude, seven of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. Its mean declimation is 20° N., and its mean right ascension is 2129; its centre is therefore on the meridian the 9th of June. Bootes may be easily distinguished by the position and splendour of its principal star, Arcturus, which shines with a reddish lustre, very much resembling that of the planet Mars. Arcturus is a star of the 1st magnitude, situated near the left knee, 260 S. E. of Cor Caroli and Coma Berenices, with which it forms an elongated triangle, whose vertex is at Arc- turus. It is 3540 E. of Denebola, and nearly as far N. of Spica Virginis, and forms with these two, as has already been observed, a large equilateral triangle. It also makes, with Cor Caroli and Denebola, a large triangle whose vertex is in Cor Caroli. - A great variety of geometrical figures may be formed of the stars in this bright region of the skies. For example; Cor Caroli on the N., and Spica Virginis in the S., constitute the extreme points of a very large figure in the shape of a dia- mond; while Denebola on the W. and Arcturus on the E., limit the mean diam- eter at the other points. Arcturus is supposed, by some, to be nearer the earth than any other star in the northern hemisphere. Five or six degrees S. W. of Arcturus are three stars of the 3d and 4th maghi. tudes, lying in a curved line, about 2° apart, and a little below the left knee of Bootes; and about 7° E. of Arcturus are three or four other stars of similar mag- nitude, situated in the other leg, making a larger curve N. and S. Mirac, in the girdle, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10° N. N. E. of Arcturus, and 'about 11° W of Alphacca, a star in the Northern Crown. Segimus, in the west shoulder, is a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 20° E. of Cor Caroli, and about the same distance N. of Arcturus, and forms, with these two, a right an- gled triangle, the right angle being at Šeginus. The same star forms a right an- gled triangle with Cor Caroli and Alioth, in Ursa Major, the right angle being at Cor Caroli. H & Alkaturops, situated in the top of the club, is a star of the 4th magnitutle, about 10#9 in an easterly direction from Seginus, which lies in the left shoulder: and about 4}9. S. of Alkaturops is another star of the 4th magnitude, in the club near the east shoulder, marked Delta. Delta is about 99 distant from Mirac, and 74° from Alphacca, and forms, with these two, a regular triangle, 4. Nekkar is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the head, and is about 6° N. E. of Seginus, and 5° W. of Alkaturops; it forms, with Delta and Segimus, nearly a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Nekkar. These are the principal stars in this constellation, except the three stars of the 4th magnitude situated in the right hand. These stars may be known, by two of them being close together, and about 5° beyond Benetmasch, the first star How is this constellation situated? How many stars does it contain How large are the principal ones? What is its mean right ascension? What is its mean declination? men is its centre on the meridian? THow is it easily distinguished from the sur- rounding constellations 3 Describe Arcturus. What is its situation with respect to Denebolā and Spica Virginism. How is it situated with respect to Cor Caroli and Dene- bola? What remarkable configuratiºn in this part of the sky? What is the distance of Arcturus from the earth, compared with that of the other stars in the northern hem- isphere? What stars five or sia: degrees southwest of Arcturus? What Stars in the other leg 2 Describe the star Mirac. Descrile Segānus. With what other stars does Seginus form a right angled triangle? Describe the position of Alkatūrops. Describe the position ºf Deita. Descriàe Nekkar. - MAP IV.] BOOTES. 97 in the handle of the Dipper. About 6° E. of Benetnasch is another star of the 4th magnitude, situated in the arin, which ſorms, with Benetnasch and the three in the hand, an equilateral triangle. 1. The three stars in the left hand of Bootes, the first in the handle of the Dipper, Cor Caroli, Colina Berenices, and Denebola, are all situated nearly in the same right line, running from northeast to southwest. - “Bootes follows with redundant light; Fifty-four stars he boasts; one guards the Bear, Thence call’d Arcturus, of resplendent front, , The pride of the first order: eight are veil'd, - -- Invisible to the unaided eye.” MANILIUS thus speaks of this constellation:— “And next Bootes comes, whose order'd beams Present a figure driving of his teams Below his girdle, near fiis knees, he bears The bright Arcturus, ſairest of the stars.” Arcturus is mentioned by name in that beautiful passage in Job, already referred to, where the Almighty answers “out of the whirlwind,” and says:— “Canst thou the sky’s benevolence restrain, And cause the Pleiades to shine in vain 3 Or, when Orion sparkles from his sphere, - Thaw the cold seasons and unbind the year? Bid Mazzaroth his station know, And teach the bright Arcturus where to glow 3’’ - Young's Paraphrase. HISTORY..—The ancient Greeks called this constellation Iycaon—a name de- rived from Aukoç, which signifies a wolf. The Hebrews called it Caleb Anubach, the “Barking Dog ;” while the Latins, among other names, called it Canis. If we go back to the time when Taurus opened the year, and when Virgo was the fifth of the zodiacal signs, we shall find that brilliant star Arcturus, so reunarka- ble for its red and fiery appearance, corresponding with a period of the year as remarkable for its heat. Pythagoras, who introduced the true systein of the universe into Greece, received it from QEnuphis, a priest of On, in Egypt. And this college of the priesthood was the noblest of the east, in cultivating the studies of philosophy and astronolny. Among the high honours which Pharaoh confer. red on Joseph, he very wisely gave him in marriage “a daughter of the priest of On.” The supposed era of the book of Job, in which Arcturus is repeatedly mentioned, is 1513 B.C * Bootes is supposed by some to be Icarus, the father of Erigone, who was killed by shepherds for intoxicating them. ... Others maintain that it is Ericthonius, the inventor of chariots. According to Grecian fable, as well as later authorities, Bootes was the son of Jupiter and Calisto, and named Arcas. Ovid relates, that Juno, being incensed at Jupiter for his partiality to Calisto, changed her into a bear, and that her son Arcas, who became a faunous hunter, one day roused a bear in the chase, and not knowing that it was his mother, was about to kill her, when Jupiter snatched thern both up to heaven and placed them among the con- stellations. Met. b. ii. v. 496–508. “But now her son had fifteen summers told, Fierce at the chase, and in the forest bold; When as he beat the woods in quest of prey, He chanced to rouse his mother where she lay. She knew lier son, and kept him in her sight, And fondly gazed: the boy was in a fright, And aim’d a pointed arrow at her breast; And would have slain his mother in the beast : But Jove forbad, and snatch'd them through the air In whirlwinds up to heaven, and fix d'em there; Describe the three stars in the left hand of Bootes. What stars in this neighton ſhood form a long line through the heavens? Where is Arcturus mentioned in the Scrip- tureS3 f 9 98 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. * [JUNE. Where the new constellations nightly rise, And add a lustre to the northern skies.” e & Garth’s Translation. LUCAN, in his Pharsalia, says, - “That Brutus, on the busy times intent, To virtuous Cato's humble dwelling went. 'Twas when the solemn dead of night came on, When bright Calisto, with her shining son, Now half that circle round the pole had run.” This constellation is called Bootes, says Cicero, (Nat. Deo. Lib. ii. 42) from a Greek word signifying a wagoner, or ploughman; and sometimes Arctophylaz, from two Greek words signifying bear-keeper or bear-driver. “Arctophylax, vulgo qui dicitur esse Bootes, Quod quasi temone adjunctum praese quatit Arctum.” w The stars in this region of the skies seem to have attractèd the admiration of almost all the eminent writers of antiquity. Claudian observes, that “Bootes with his wain the north unfolds; The southern gate Orion holds.” And Aratus,” who flourished nearly 800 years before Claudian, says, “Behind, and seeming to urge on the Bear, Arctophylax, on earth Bootes named, Sheds o'er the Arctic car his silver light.” CENTAURUS. THE CENTAUR.—This fabulous monster is represented by * This is the poet whom St. Paul refers to when he tells the Athenians, Acts xvii. 23, that “some of their own poets have said,” “Tov yap waſ yeyo; 27/28) : For We are also his offspring.” These words are the beginning of the 5th line of the “Phenome- na,” of Aratus; a celebrated Greek poem written in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, two thousand one hundred years ago, and afterwards translated into Latin verse by Cicero. Aratus was a poet of St. Paul's own country. The apostle borrows again from the same poet, both in his Epistle to the Galatians, and to Titus. The subject of the poem was grand and interesting: hence we find it referred to in the writings of St. Clement, St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, QEcumenius, and others. As this poem describes the nature and motions of the stars, and the origin of the constellations, and is, more- over, one of the oldest compositions extant, upon this interesting subject, the author has taken some pains to procure a Polyglot copy from Germany, together with the As- tronomicon of Manilius, and some other works of similar antiquity, that nothing should be wanting on his part which could impart an interest to the study of the constella- tions, or illustrate the frequent allusions to them which we meet with in the Scrip- res Ures. Dr. Doddridge says of the above quotation, that “these words are well known to he found in Aratus, a poet of Paul’s own country, who lived almost 300 years before the apostle's time; and that the same words, with the alteration of only one letter, are to be found in the Hymn of Cleanthes, to Jupiter, the Supreme God; which is, beyond Comparison, the purest and finest piece of matural religion, of its length, which I know in the whole world of Pagan antiquity; and which, so far as I can recollect, contains nothing unworthy of a Christian, or, I had almost said, of an inspired pen. The apos- tle might perhaps refer to Cleanthes, as well as to his countrymān Aratus.” Many of the elements and fables of heathen mythology are so blended with the in- spired Writings, that they must needs be studied, more or less, in order to have a more prºper understanding of numerous passages poth in the Qld and New Testament. The great apostle of the Gentiles, in uttering his inspired sentiments, and in pen: ning his epistles, often refers to, and sometimes quotes verbatim from the distinguished writers who preceded him. - Thus, in 1 Cor. xv. 33, we have “M” raayaağe ‘dºugºvaty ºn 3.pngº' oatata, wºu.” Be not deceived; evil communications corrupt good manners;” which is a literal quotation by the apostle from the Thais of Menander, an inventor of Greek Comedy, and a celebrated Athenian poet, who flourished nearly 400 years before the apostle wrote his epistle to the Corinthians. Thus Paul adopts the sentiment, of the comedian, and it becomes hallowed by “the divinity that stirred within him.” Teſ: tullian remarks, that “in quoting this, the apostle hath sanctified the poet's sentiment.” How is the Centaur represented? f tº MAP Iv.1. LUPUS, 99 the figure of a man terminating in the body of a horse, hold- ing a wolf at arm’s length in one hand, while he transfixes its body with a spear in the other. Although this constellation occupies a large space in the southern hemisphere, yet it is so low down that the main part of it cannot be seen in our latitude. It is situated south of Spica Virginis, with a mean declination of 50°. It con- tains thirty-five stars, including two of the 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and six of the 3d; the brightest of which are not visible in the United States. Theta, is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitude, in the east shoulder, and may be seen from this latitude during the month of June, being about 27° S. by E. from Spica Virginis, and 129 or 139 above the southern horizon. It is easily recognised, in a clear evening, from the circumstance that there is no other star of similar brightness, in the same region, for which it can be mistaken. It is so ; on the same meridian with Arcturus that it culminates but ten minutes efore it. - - Iota, is a star of between the 4th and 5th magnitude, in the west shoulder, 94° W. of Theta. It is about 26° almost directly south of Spica Virginis, and is on the meridian nearly at the same time. Mu and Nu, are stars of the 4tn magnitude, in the breast, very near together, and form a regular triangle with the two stars in the shoulders. A few degrees north of the two stars in the 'shoulders, are four small stars in the head. The relative position of the stars in the head and shoulders is very similar to that of the stars in the head and shoulders of Orion. HISTORY..—Centaurs, in mythology, were a kind of fabulous monsters, half men and half horses. This fable is, however, differently interpreted; some suppose the Centaurs to have been a body of shepherds and herdsmen, rich in cattle, who inhabited the mountains of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invention of pastoral poetry. But Plutarch and Pliny are of opinion, that such monsters have really existed. Others say, that under the reign of Ixion, king of Thessaly, a herd of bulls ran mad, and ravaged the whole country, rendering the mountains inaccessible; and that some young men, who had found the art of taming and mounting horses, undertook to expel these noxious animals, which they pur- sued on horseback, and thence obtained the appellation of Centaurs. This success rendering them insolent, they insulted the Lapithae, a people of Thessaly; and because, when attacked, they fled with great º it was Sup- posed that they were half horses and half men; men on horses being at that period a very uncommon sight, and the two appearing, especially at a distance, to constitute but one animal. So the Spanish cavalry at first seemed to the as- tonished Mexicans, who imagined the horse and his rider, like the Centaurs of the ancients, to be some monstrous animal of a terrible form. The Centaurs, in reality, were a tribe of Lapithae, who resided near Mount Pelion, and first invented the art of breaking horses, as intimated by Virgil:— “The Lapithae to chariots add the state Of bits and bridles; taught the steed to bound; To turn the ring, and trace the mazy ground; To stop, to fly, the rules of war to know;. To obey the rider, and to dare the foe.” LUPUS. THE Wolf.-This constellation is situated next east of the Centaur, and south of Libra; and is so low down in the What is the situation of this constellation? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? Describe the situation of Theta. How is it easily recognised in a clear even- dng 2 What is its distance from the meridian of Arcturus? Describe the star in the west shoulder. Describe the stars in the breast, Where is the Wolf situated? 100 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JUNE. k southern hemisphere, that only a few stars in the group are visible to us. It contains twenty-four stars, including three of the 3d mag- nitude, and as many of the 4th; the brightest of which, when on the meridian, may be seen in a clear evening, just above the southern horizon. Their particular situation, however, will be better traced out by reference to the map than by writ- ten directions. The most favourable time for observing this constellation, is towards the latter end of June. History.—This constellation, according to fable, is Lycaon, king of Arcadia, who lived about 3,600 years ago, and was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, because he offered human victims on the altars of the god Pan. Some attribute this met- amorphosis to another cause. The sins of mankind, as they relate, had become so enormous, that Jupiter visited the earth to punish its wickedness and impiety. He came to Arcadia, where he was announced as a god, and the people began to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon, however, who used to sacrifice all strangers to his wanton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his subjects, and to try the divinity of the god, served up human flesh on his table. This im- piety so offended Jupiter, that he immediately destroyed the house of Lycaon, and changed him into a wolf. “Of these he murders one ; he boils the flesh, And lays the mangled morsels in a dish; Some part he roasts; then serves it up, so dress'd, And bids me welcome to his human feast. Moved with disdain, the table I o’erturn'd, And with avenging flames the palace burn'd. aw The tyrant in a fright for shelter gains *. The neighb’ring fields, and scours along the plains: Howling he fled, and ſain he would have spoke, But human voice his brutal tongue forsook. His mantle, now his hide, with rugged hairs, Cleaves to his back; a ſamish’d face he bears; His arms descend, his shoulders sink away To multiply his legs for chase of prey: He grows a wolf.”—Ovid, Met. B. i. LIBRA. THE BALANCE.-This is the seventh sign, and eighth con- stellation, from the vernal equinox, and is situated in the Zo- diac, next east of Virgo. The sun enters this sign, at the autumnal equinox, on the 23d of September; but does not reach the constellation before the 27th of October. Virgo was the goddess of justice, and Libra, the scales, which she is usually represented as holding in her left hand, are the appropriate emblem of her office. When the sun en- ters the sign Libra, the days and nights are equal all over the How many stars does it contain? Under what circumstances may the brightest of them be seen? How may the stars in this group be most conveniently traced out? When is the most favourable time for observing this constellation? How is Libra sit- uated among the constellation of the Zodiac At what season of the year times the sun enter Libra? Who was Virgo, and what was the emblem of her office? What is the relative length of the days and nights when the sun enters Libra? MAP IV.] LIBRA. 101 world, and seem to observe a kind of equilibrium, like a balance. f When, however, it is said that the vernal and autumnal equinoxes are in Aries, and Libra, and the tropics in Cancer and Capricorn, it must be remembered that the signs Aries and Libra, Cancer and Capricorn, and not the constellations of these names are meant; for the equinoxes are now in the constellations Pisces and Virgo, and the tropics in Gemini and Sagittarius; each constellation having gone forward one sign in the ecliptic. º ~ About 22 centuries ago, the constellation Libra coincided with the sign Libra; but having advanced 30° or more in the ecliptic, it is now in the sign Scorpio, and the constellation Scorpio is in the sign. Sagittarius, and so on. - While Aries is now advanced a whole sign above the equi- noctial point into north declination, Libra has descended as far below it into south declination. - Libra contains fifty-one stars, including two of the 2d mag- nitude, two of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. Its mean decli- nation is 89 south, and its mean right ascension 2269. Its centre is therefore on the meridian about the 22d of June. It may be known by means of its four principal stars, form- ing a quadrilateral figure, lying northeast and southwest, and having its upper and lower corners nearly in a line running north and south. The two stars which form the N. E. side of the square, are situated about 7° apart, and distinguish the Northern Scale. The two stars which form the S. W. side of the square, are situated about 60 apart, and distinguish the Southern Scale. Zubeneschamali, in the Southern Scale, about 21° E. of Spica, and 8° E, of Lambda Virginis, is a star of the 2d magnitude, and is situated very near the ecliptic, about 42}9 E. of the autumnal equinox. The distance from this star down to Theta Centauri, is about 23°, with which, and Spica Virginis, it forms a large triangle, on the right. Zubenelgemabi, the uppermost star in the Northern Scale, is also of the 2d magnitude, 9}º above Zubeneschamali, towards the northeast, and it comes to the meridian about twenty-six minutes after it, on the 23d of June. Zubenelge- mabi is the northernmost of the four bright stars in this figure, and is exactly opposite the lower one, which is 11° south of it. Zubenhakrabi, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the Northern Scale, 7° S. E. of Zubenelgemabi, and nearly opposite to Zubeneschamali, at the distance of 11° on the east. These two make the diagonal of the square east and west. Iota, is a star of the 3d magnitude, and constitutes the southernmost corner of When it is said that the vernal and autumnal equinoxes are in Aries and Libra, and the tropics in Cancer and Capricorn, what is meant? In what constellations, then, are the equinoxes and the tropics situated? . When did the constellation of Łibra coincide with the sign. Of that name? In what sign is the constellation Libra now situated ; What are the number and magnitude of the stars in Libra? What are its right ascen- sion and declination? When is its centre on the meridian? How may this constella- tion be known? What figure do the three upper stars, in this figure form? What stars distinguish the Northern Scale? What the Southern? Describe Zubeneschamali. With what other stars does it form a large triangle 2 Describe the principal star in the Northern Scale. Describe the position of zºnesiast. Describe the position ºf Iota. †. *. 102 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |JUNE. the square. It is about 6° S. E. of Zubeneschamali, and 11° S. of Zubenelge- mabi, with which it forms the other diagonal north and south. Zebenelgubi, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated below the Southern Scale, at the distance of 69 from Iota, and marks the southern limit of the Zodiac. It is situated in a right line with, and nearly midway between, Spica Virginis and Beta Scorpionis; and comes to the meridian nearly at the same moment with Nekkar, in the head of Bootes. The remaining stars in this constellation are too small to engage attention. The scholar, in tracing out this constellation in the heavens, will perceive that Lambda and Mu, which lie in the ſeet of Virgo on the west, form, with Zubenès- chamali and Zubenelgemabi, almost as handsome and perfect a figure, as the other two stars in the Balance do on the east. History.—The Libra of the Zodiac, says Maurice, in his Indian Antiquities, is perpetually seen upon all the hieroglyphics of Egypt; which is at once an argu- inent of the great antiquity of this asterism, and of the probability of its having been originally fabricated by the astronomical sons of Misraim. In some few zodiacs, Astrăşa, or the virgin who holds the balance in her hand as an emblem of equal justice, is not drawn. Such are the zodiacs of Estne and Dendera. Humboldt is of opinion, that although the Romans introduced this constellation into their zodiac in the reign of Julius Cesar, still it might have been used by the Egyptians and other nations of very remote antiquity It is generally supposed that the figure of the balance has been used by all nations to denote the equality of the days and nights, at the period of the Sun's arriving at this sign. It has also been observed, that at this season there is a greater uniformity in the temperature of the air all over the earth's surface. Others affirm, that the beam only of the balance was at first placed among the stars, and that the Egyptians thus honoured it as their Nilometer, or instrument by which they measured the inundations of the Nile. To this custom of measur- ing the waters of the Nile, it is thought the prophet alludes, when he describes the Almighty as measuring the waters in the hollow of his hand.—Isa. xl. 12. The ancient husbandmen, according to Virgil, were wont to regard this sign as indicating the proper time for sowing their winter grain :- “But when Astrata's balance, hung on high, Betwixt the nights and days divides the sky, Then yoke your oxen, sow your winter grain, Till cold December comes with driving rain.” The Greeks declare that the balance was placed among the stars to perpetuate the memory of Mochus, the inventor of weights and measures. Those who refer the constellations of the Zodiac to the twelve tribes of Israel, ascribe the Balance to Asher. SERPENS. THE SERPENT.—There are no less than four kinds of ser- pents placed among the constellations. The first is the Hydra, which is situated south of the Zodiac, below Cancer, Leo and Virgo; the second is Hydrus, which is situated near the south pole; the third is Draco, which is situated about the north pole; and the fourth is the Serpent, called Serpens Ophiuchi, and is situated chiefly between Libra and Corona Borealis. A large part of this constellation, however, is so blended with Ophiuchus, the Serpent-Bearer, who grasps it in both hands, that the concluding description of it will be deferred until we come to that éonstellation. “The Serpens Ophiuchi winds his spire Immense; fewer by ten his figure trace; What star in this constellation marks the southern limit of the Zodiac2. How many kinds of serpents have been placed among the constellations? Mention them, and their situations, With what is a large part of this constellation blended? MAP v.] SERPENS. 103 One of the second rank; ten shun the sight; And seven, he who bears the monster hides.” .. Thoses stars which lie scattered along for about 25°, in a serpentine direction between Libra and the Crown, mark the body and head of the Serpent. * # About 100 directly S. of the Crown there are three stars of the 3d magnitude, which, with several smaller ones, distin- guish the head. Umuk, of the 2d magnitude, is the principal star in this con- stellation. It is situated in the heart, about 100 below those in the head, and may be known by its being in a hine with, and between, two stars of the 3d magnitude—the lower one, marked Epsilon, being 249, and the upper one, marked Delta, about 5}o from it. The direction of this line is N. N. W. and S. S. E. Unuk may otherwise be known by means of a small star, just above it, marked Lambda. - In that part of the Serpent which lies between Corona Bo- realis and the Scales, about a dozen stars may be counted, of which five or six are conspicuous. For the remainder of this constellation, the student is refer- red to Serpentarius. * * “Vast as the starry Serpent, that on high Tracks the clear ether, and divides the sky. And southward winding from the Northern Wain, Shoots to remoter spheres its glittering train.”—Statius. IIISTORY..—The Hivites, of the Old Testament, were worshippers of the Ser- pent, and were called Ophites. The idolatry of these Ophites was extremely ancient, and was connected with Tsabaism, or the worship of the host of heaven. The heresy of the Ophites, mentioned by Mosheim in his Ecclesiastical History, originated, perhaps, in the admission into the Christian church of some remnant of the ancient and popular sect of Tsabaists, who adored the celestial Serpent. According to ancient tradition, Ophiuchus is the celebrated.physician AEscu- lapius, son of Apollo, who was instructed in the healing art by Chiron the Cen- taur; and the serpent, which is here placed in his hands, is understood by some to be an emblem of his sagacity and prudence ; while others suppose it was designed to denote his skill in healing the bite of this reptile. Biblical critics º that this constellation is alluded to in the following passage of the book of Job :— “By his spirit He hath garnished the heavens; his hand hath formed the crooked serpent.” Mr. Green supposes, however, that the inspired writer here refers to Draco, because it is a more obvious constellation, being nearer the pole where the constellations were more universally noticed; and moreover, because it is a more ancient constellation than the Serpent, and the hieroglyphic by which the Egyptians usually represented the heavens, CORONA BOREALIS. THE NorthERN CRowN.—This beautiful constellation ma be easily known by means of its six principal stars, whic are so placed as to form a circular figure, very much resem- What stars mark the head and body of the Serpent? Describe the principal star in this constellation. How may it be known? What stars distinguish the head?. How many stars maybe counted in that part of the constellation which lies between Corona Borealis and the Scales? How may Corona Borealis be easily known? 104 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |JUNE. bling a wreath or crown. It is situated directly north of the Serpent's head, between Bootes on the west and Hercules on the east. This asterism was known to the Hebrews by the name of Ataroth, and by this name the stars in Corona Borealis are called, in the East, to this day. Alphacca, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest and middle star in the diadem, and about 110 E. of Mirac, in Bootes. It is very readily distinguished from the others both on account of its position and superior brilliancy. Alphacca, Arcturus, and Seginus, form nearly an isosceles triangle, the vertex of which is at Arcturus. This constellation contains twenty-one stars, of which only six or eight are conspicuous; and most of these are not larger than the 3d magnitude. Its mean declination is 30° north, and its mean right ascension 2359; its centre is º on the meridian about the last of June, and the first of July. “And, near to Helice, effulgent rays Beam, Ariadne, from thy starry crown: Twenty and one her stars; but eight alone Conspicuous; one doubtful, or to claim The second order, or accept the third.” HISTORY..—This beautiful little cluster of stars is said to be in commemoration of a crown presented by Bacchus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, second king of Crete. eseus, king of Athens, (1235 B.C.,) was shut up in the celebrated labyrinth of Crete, to be devoured by the ferocious Minotaur which was con- fined in that place, and which usually fed upon the chosen young men and maidens exacted from the Athenians as a yearly tribute to the tyranny of Minos; but Theseus slew the monster, and being ſurnished with a clue of thread by Ariadne, who was passionately enamoured of him, he extricated himself from the difficult windings of his confinement. He afterwards married the beautiful Ariadne, according to promise, and car- ried her away; but when he arrived at the island of Naxos, he deserted her, notwithstanding he had received from her the most honourable evidence of at- tachment and endearing tenderness. Ariadne was so disconsolate upon being abandoned by Theseus, that, as some say, she hanged herself; but Plutarch says that she lived many years after, and was espoused to Bacchus, who loved her with much tenderness, and gave her a crown of seven stars, which, after her death, was placed among the stars. - “Resolves, for this the dear engaging dame Should shine forever in the rolls of ſame; And bids her crown among the stars be placed, And with an eternal constellation grac'd, The golden circlet mounts; and, as it flies, Its diamonds twinkle in the distant skies; There, in their pristine form, the gemmy rays Between Alcides and the Dragon blaze.” Manilius, in the first book of his Astronomicon, thus speaks of the Crown. “Near to Bootes the bright crown is view'd And shines with stars of different magnitude: Where is it situated? Describe the principal star in the group. What geometrical fi is formed by the stars in this neighbourhood? What are the number and mag- nitude of the stars in this constellation? What are its mean declination and right as- Cension? When is it on Cur meridian MAP wi.] URSA. MINOR, 105 Cr placed in front above the rest displays 2. A vigorous light, and darts surprising rays, This shone, since Theseus first his faith betray’d. The lmonuliaent of the ſorsaken traid.” * URSA. MINOR. - THE LITTLE BEAR.—This constellation, though not re- markable in its appearance, and containing but few conspi- cuous stars, 1s, nevertheless, justly distinguished from all others for the peculiar advantages which its position in the heavens is well known to afford to nautical astronomy, and especially to navigation and surveying. The stars in this group being situated near the celestial pole, appear to revolve about it, very slowly, and in circles so small as never to descend below the horizon. . In all ages of the world, this constellation has been more universally observed, and more carefully noticed than any other, on account of the importance j, mankind early at- tached to the position of its principal star. - . This, star which is so near the true pole of the heavens, has, from time immemorial, been denominated the North Polar STAR. By the Greeks it is called Cynosyre; by the Romans, Cynosura, and by other nations, Alruccabah. It is of the 3d magnitude, or between the 2d and 3d, and situated a little more than a degree and a half from the true pole of the heavens, on that side of it which is towards Cassi- opeia, and opposite to Ursa Major. . Its position is pointed out by the direction of the two Pointers, Merak and Dubhe, which lie in the square of Ursa Major. A line joining Beta Cassiopeiae, which lies at the distance of 329 on one side, and Megrez, which lies at the same distance on the other, will pass through the polar star. So general is the popular notion, that the North Polar Star is the true pole of the world, that even surveyors and navigators, who have acquired considerable dexterity in the use of the compass, and the quadrant, are not aware that it ever had any deviation, and consequently never make allow- ance for any. All calculations derived from the observed posi- tion of this star, which are founded upon the idea that its bearing is always due north of any place, are necessarily er- roneous, since it is in this position only twice in twenty-four hours; once when above, and once when below the pole. What rentlers Ursa Minor an important constellation? What is its situation with respect to the North Pole, and how do its stars appear to revolve around this pole? Wily has this constellatiºn bech more universally observed, in all ages of the world, than any other What is this star denominated i What are its magnitude and posi- tion? How is its position pointed out? How is it situated with respect to Megrez and Beta Cassiopeiae?, Is it generally considered to be the north pole of the heavens?-- Are calculations founded upon this, notion correct? - 106 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JUNE According to the Nautical Almanac, the mean distance of this star from the true pole of the heavens, for the year 1833 is 1° 34' 53", and its mean right ascensión is 1 hour and 19 seconds. Consequently, when the right ascension of the me- ridian of any place is 1 hour and 19 seconds, the star will be exactly on the meridian at that time and place, but 1° 34' 53'' above the true pole. , Six hours after, when the right as- cension of the meridian is 7 hours and 19 seconds, the star will be at its greatest elongation, or 1934ſ 53'ſ directly west of the true pole, and parallel to it, with respect to the horizon; and when the right ascension of the meridian is 13 hours and 19 seconds, the star will be again on the meridian, but at the distance of 1° 34' 53// directly below the pole. In like manner, when the right ascension of the meridan is 19 hours and 19 seconds, the star will be at its greatest east- ern elongation, or 1934/53// east of the true pole; and when it has finished its revolution, and the right ascension of the meridian is 25 hours and 19 seconds, or, what is the same thing, 1 hour, and 19 seconds, the star will now be on the meridian again, 1934/53!! above the pole. N. B. The right ascension of the meridian or of the mid-heaven, is the dis- tance of the first point of Aries from the meridian, at the time and place of ob- servation. The right ascension of the meridian ſor any time, is found, by adding to the given time the sun’s right ascension at the same time, and deducting 24 hours, when the sum exceeds 24 hours. From the foregoing facts we learn, that from the time the star is on the meridian, above the pole, it deviates farther and farther from the true meridian, every hour, as it moves to the west, for the space of six hours, when it arrives at its greatest elongation west, whence it reapproaches the same meridian below the pole, during the next six hours, and is then again on the meridian; being thus alternately half the time west of the meridian, and half the time east of it. Hence, it is evident that the surveyor who regulates his compass by the North Polar Star, must take his observation when the star is on the meridian, either above or below the pole, or make allowance for its altered position in every other situation. For the same reason must the navigator, who ap- plies his quadrant to this star for the purpose of determining the latitude he is in, make a similar allowance, according as its altitude is greater or less than the true pole of the hea- >What is the present distance of this star from the true pole of the heavens? What is its mean right ascension? Nhem is it on the meridian, and what then is its bearing from the pole. What is its situation six hours afterwards? What is its situation six hours after that? What is its situation when in its third quadrant? What do ygºt tºrt- dierstand by the right ascension of the meridian, or of the mid-heaven 2 Hoºp do 4/944 Jºnd the right ascension of the mid-heaven? In what manner does the north star de- viate from the meridjan during one revolution? How do these facts concern the Sur- veyor? - MAP VI.] URSA MINOR. . 107 vens; for we have seen that it is alternately half the time above and half the time below the pole. The method of finding the latitude of a place from the alti- tude of the polar star, as it is very simple, is very often re- sorted to. Indeed, in northern latitudes, the situation of this star is more favourable for this purpose than that of any other of the heavenly bodies; because a single observation, taken at any hour of the night, with a good instrument, will give the true latitude, without any calculation or correction, except that of its polar aberration. , * - If the polar star always occupied that point in the heavens which is directly opposite the north pole of the earth, it would be easy to understand how latitude could be determined from it in the northern hemisphere ; for in this case, to a person on the equator, the poles of the world would be seen in the horizon. º star would appear just visible in the northern horizon, with- out any elevation.) Should the person now travel one degree towards the north, he would see one degree below the star, and he would think it had risen one degree. e ~. And since we always see the ...}. of the upper hemisphere at one view, when there is nothing in the horizon to obstruct our vision, it follows that if we should travel 10° north of the equator, we should see just 10° below the pole, which would then appear to have risen 10°; and should we stop at the 42d de- . gree of north latitude we should, in like manner, have our horizon just 42° below the pole, or the pole would appear to have an elevation of 429. Whence we de- rive this general truth: The elevation of the pole of the equator, is always equal to the latitude of the place of observation. Any instrument, then, which will give us the altitude of the north pole, will give us also the latitude of the place. The method of illustrating this phenomenon, as given in most treatises on the globe, and as adopted by teachers generally, is to tell the scholar that the north pole rises higher and higher, as he travels farther and farther towards it. In other words, whatever number of degrees he advances towards the north pole, so many degrees will it rise above his horizon. This is not only an obvious errour in principle, but it misleads the apprehension of the pupil. It is not that the pole is elevated, but that our horizon is depressed as we advance towards the north. The same objection lies against the artificial globe; for it ought to be so fixed that the horizon might be raised or depressed, and the pole remain in its own invariable position. # Ursa Minor contains twenty-four stars, including three of the 3d magnitude and four of the 4th. The seven principal stars are so situated as to form a figure very much resembling that in the Great Bear, only that the Dipper is reversed, and about one half as large as the one in that constellation. The first star in the handle, called Cynosura, or Alrucca- bah, is the polar star, around which the rest constantly re- volve.) The two last in the bowl of the Dipper, corresponding to the Pointers in the Great Bear, are of the 3d magnitude, Why is the method of finding the latitude by the polar star, often resorted to? Why is the position of this star favourable to this purpose? If the north star perfectly co- ſincided with the north pole of the heavens, where would it be seen from the equator? Should a person travel one degree north of the equgtor, where would the star appear then 2's Suppose he should travel 10 degrees north of the equator? Suppose he were to stop at the 42d degree of north latitude 2 * What general truth results from these facts? ... What, then, is all we want, to find the latitude of any place? Of what advantage to dº mariner, is an instrument zohich will give the altitude of the pole? -What are the number and magnitude of the stars, contained in Ursa Minor?...What figure do the seven principal stars form?--Describe the first in the handle of the Little Dipper. De- scribe the two last in the bowl of the Dipper. 108 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JUNE. * and situated about 150 from the pole. The brightest of them is called Kochab, which signifies an axle or hinge, probably in reference to its moving so near the axis of the earth. Rochab may be easily known by its being the brightest and middle one of three conspicuous stars forming a row, one of which is about 29, and the other 30, from Kochab. The two brightest of these are situated in the breast and shoulder of the animal, about 30 apart, and are called the Guards or Pointers of Ursa Minor. They are on the meridian about the 20th of June, but may be seen at all hours of the night, when the sky is clear. Of the four stars which form the bowl of the Dipper, one is so small as hardly to be seen. They lie in a direction to- wards Gamma in Cepheus; but as they are continually changing their position in the heavens, they may be much better traced out from the map, than from description. Kochab is about 250 distant from Benetnasch, and about 249 from Dubhe, and hence forms with them a very nearly equilateral triangle. “The Lesser Bear Ileads from the pole the lucid band: the stars Which form this constellation, faintly shine, Twice twelve in number ; only one beams forth Conspicuous in high splendour, named by Greece The Cynosure ; by us the Polar STAR.” History.—The prevailing opinion is, that Ursa Major and Ursa Minor are the nymph Calisto and her son Arcas, and that they were transformed into bears by the enraged and imperious Juno, and aiterwards translated to heaven by the favour of Jupiter, lest they might be destroyed by the huntsunen, The Chinese claim that the emperor Hong-ti, the grandson of Noah, first dis- covered the polar star, and applied it to purposes of navigation. It is certain that it was used for this purpose in a very remote period of antiquity. From various passages in the ancients, it is unaniſest that the Phoenicians steered by Cynosura, or the Lesser Bear; whereas the mariners of Greece, and some other nations, steered by the Greater Bear, called Helice, or Helix. Y J.ucan, a Latin poet, who flourished about the time of the birth of our Saviour, thus adverts to the practice of steering vessels by Cynosura:— “Unstable Tyre now knit to firmer ground, With Sidon for her purple shells renown'd, Safe in the Cynosure their glittering guide With well-directed navies stem the tide.” Row E’s Translation, B. iii. The following extracts from other poets contain allusions to the same fact:—, “Phoenicia, spurning Asia’s bounding strand, * By the bright Pole star's steady radiance led, Bade to the winds her daring sails expand, And fearless plough’d old Ocean's stormy bed.” MAURICE’s Elegy on Sir W. Jones “Ye radiant signs, who from the etherial plain Sidonians guide, and Greeks upon the main, Who from your poles all earthly things explore, And never set beneath the western shore.” & OVID's Tristia. How may Kochab be easily known? What are the position and name of the two brightest of these? When are they on the meridiana. How is Kochab situated with. respect to Benetmasch and Dubhen . mar v.] g SCORPIO. 109 “Of all yon multitude of golden stars, Which the wide rounding sphere incessant bears. The cautious mariner relies on none, But keeps him to the constant pole alone.” * = LucAN's Pharsalia, B. viii. v. 225. Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, are sometimes called Triones, and sometimes the Greater and Lesser Wains. In Pennington's Memoirs of the learned Mrs. Car- ter, we have the following beautiful lines:— - “Here, Cassiopeia fills a lucid throne, There, blaze the splendours of the Northern Crown • While the slow Car, the cold Triomes roll O'er the pale countries of the frozen pole: Whose faithful beams conduct the wand'ring ship Through the wide desert of the pathless deep.” Thales, an eminent geometrician and astrońomer, and one of the seven wise men of Greece, who flourished six hundred years before the Christian era, is generally reputed to be the inventor of this constellation, and to have taught the use of it to the Phoenician navigators; it is certain that he brought the knowledge of it with him from Phoenice into Greece, with many other discoverios both in astronomy and mathematics. - sº / Until the properties of the magnet were known and applied to the use of navi- gation, and for a long time after, the north polar star was the only sure guide." At what time the attractive powers of the magnet were first known, is not cer- tain; they were known in Europe about six hundred years before the Christian era; and by the Chinese records, it is said that its polar attraction was known in that country at least one thousand years earlier. - CHAPTER Ix. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONs which ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN JULY. SCORPIO. THE SCORPION.—This is the eighth sign, and ninth constel- lation, in the order of the Zodiac. It presents one of the most interesting groups of stars for the pupil to trace out that is to be found in the southern hemisphere. It is situated south- ward and eastward of Libra, and is on the meridian the 10th of July. The sun enters this sign on the 23d of October, but does not reach the constella- tion before the 20th of November. When astronomy was first cultivated in the East, the two solstices and the two equinoxes took place when the sun was in Aquarius and Leo, Taurus and Scorpio, respectively. Scorpio contains, according to Flamsted, forty-four stars, including one of the 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven of the 3d. It is readily distinguished from all others by the peculiar lustre and the position of its principal stars. Antares, is the principal star, and is situated in the heart What is the position of Scorpio, among the signs and constellations of the Zodiacº How is it situated with respect te Libra, and when is it on our meridian? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is it readily distinguished from all others? Describe the principal star in this * 1 110 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JULY. of the Scorpion, about 192 east of Zubenelgubi, the southern- most star in the Balance. Antares is the most brilliant star in that region of the skies, and may be otherwise distinguish- ed by its remarkably red appearance. Its declination is about 260 S. It comes to the meridian about three hours after Spica Virginis, or fifty minutes after Corona Borealis, on the 10th of July. It is one of the stars from which the moon’s distance is reckoned for computing the longitude at sea. There are four great stars in the heavens, Fomalhaut, Aldebaran, Regulus, and Antares, which formerly answered to the solstitial and equinoctial points; and which were much noticed by the astronomers of the East. About 8.9 northwest of Antares, is a star of the 2d mag- nitude, in the head of the Scorpion, called Graffias. It is but one degree north of the earth’s orbit. It may be recognised by means of a small star, situated about aſ degree northeast of it, and also by its forming a slight curve with two other stars of the 3d magnitude, situated below it, each about 3°, apart. The broad part of the constellation near Graffias, is powdered with numerous small stars, converging down to a point at Antares, and resembling in figure a boy’s kite. As you proceed from Antares, there are ten conspicuous stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, which mark the tail of the kite, extending down, first in a south, southeasterly direction, about 17°, thence easterly about 8° further, when they turn, and advance about 80 towards the north, forming a curve like a shepherd’s crook, or the bottom part of the letter S. This crooked line of stars, forming the tail of the Scorpion, is very conspicuous, and may be easily traced. The first star, below Antares, which is the last in the back, is of only the 4th magnitude. It is about 2° southeast of Antares, and is denoted by the Greek. name of T. * Epsilon, of the 3d magnitude, is the second star from Antares, and the first in the tail, . It is situated about 7° below the star T, but inclining a little to the east. Mu, of the 3d magnitude, is the third star from Antares. It is situated 49 be- low Epsilon. It may otherwise be known by means of a small star close by it, on the left. Zeta, of about the same magnitude, and situated about as far below Mu, is the fourth star from Antares. Here the line turns suddenly to the east. Eta, also of the 3d magnitude, is the fifth star from Antares, and about 34° east of Zeta. - Theta, of the same magnitude, is the sixth star from Antares, and about 4.9 east of Eta. Here, the line turns again, curving to the north, and terminates in a couple of stars. - Iota, is the seventh star from Antares, 3.9 above Theta, curving a little to the left. It is a star of the 3d magnitude, and may be known by means of a small star, almost touching it, on the east. ... Rappa, a star of equal brightness, is less than 2° above Iota, and a little to the right. -- - | - - How is Antares otherwise distinguished? What is its declination g What is the time of its passing the meridian What nautical importance is attached to its position? Describe Graffias? How may it be recognised? What is the appearance of the constel- lation between Graffias and Antares? How many conspicuous stars below Antares? What are their magnitude and general direction? Describe the first star below 4??- tares. Describe the second star below Antares. Describe the third star, and fell hºo it may be known. Deseribe the fourth. Describe the fifth. Describe Theta. Describe Iota. Describe Kappa. * MAP' v.] . - scorpio. 111 Lesuth, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest of the two last in the tail, and is situated about 3° above Kappa, still further to the right. It may readily be known by Ineans of a smaller star, close by it, on the west. This, is a very beautiful group of stars, and easily traced out in the heavens. It furnishes striking evidence of the fa- cility with which most of the constellations may be so accu- rately delineated, as to preclude every thing like uncertainty in the knowledge of their relative situation. “The heart with lustre of amazing force, Reſulgent vibrates; faint the other parts, And ill-defined by stars of meaner note.” HistoRY.—This sign was anciently represented by various symbols, sometimes by a snake, and sometimes by a crocodile; but most commonly by the scorpion. This last syuibol is found on the Mithraic monuments, which is pretty good evi- dence that these monuments were constructed when the vernal equinox accord- ed with Taurus. On both the zodiacs of Dendera, there are rude delineations of this animal; that on the portico differs considerably from that on the other zodiac, now in the Louvre. Scorpio was considered by the ancient astrologers as a sign accursed. The Egyptians fixed the entrance of the sun into Scorpio as the commencement of the reign of Typhon, when the Greeks fabled the death of Orion. When the sun was in Scorpio, in the month of Athyr, as Plutarch informs us, the Egyptians enclosed the body of their god Osiris in an ark, or chest, and during this cere- molly a great annual festival was celebrated. Three days after the priests had enclosed Osiris in the ark, they pretended to have found him again. The death of Osiris, then, was lamented when the sun in Scorpio descended to the lower hemisphere, and when he arose at the vermal equinox, then Osiris was Said to be born anew. The Egyptians or Chaldeans, who first arranged the Zodiac, might have placed Scorpio in this part of the heavens to deuote that when the sun enters this sign, the diseases incident to the fruit season would prevail; since Autumn, which abounded in fruit, often brought with it a great variety of diseases, and might be thus fitly represented by that venomous animal, the scorpion, who, as he re- cedes, wounds with a sting in his tail. Mars was the tutelary deity of the scorpion, and to this circumstance is owing all that jargon of the astrologers, who say that there is a great analogy between the malign influence of the planet Mars, and this sign. To this also is owing the doctrine of the alchymists, that iron, which metal they call Mars, is under the dominion of Scorpio ; so that the transmutation of it into gold can be effected only when the sun is in this sign. The constellation of the Scorpion is very ancient. Ovid thus mentions it in his beautiful fable of Phaeton:— “There is a place above, where Scorpio bent, In tail and arms surrounds a vast extent : In a wide circuit of the heavens he shines, And fills the place of two celestial signs.” According to Ovid, this is the famous scorpion which sprang out of the earth at the command of Juno, and stung Orion; of which wound he died. It was in this way the imperious goddess chose to punish the vanity of the hero and the hunter, for boasting that there was not on earth any animal which he could not conquer. “Words that provok'd the gods once from him fell, *No beasts so fierce,” said he, “but I can quell;’ When lo! the earth a baleful scorpion sent, To kill Latona was the dire intent; Orion saved her, tho’ himself was slain, But did for that a spacious place obtain In heaven: ‘to thee my life,” said she, “was dear, And for thy merit shine illustrious there.’” Describe Lesuth. 112 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JULY. Although both Orion and Scorpio were honoured by the celestials with a place among the stars, yet their situations were so ordered that when One rose the other should set, and vice versa ; so that they never appear in the same hemisphere at the same time. In the Hebrew zodiac this sign is allotted to Dan, because it is written, “Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path.” HERCULES. Hercules is represented on the map invested with the skin of the Nemaan Lion, holding a massy club in his right hand, and the three-headed dog Cerberus in his left. He occupies a large space in the northern hemisphere, with one foot resting on the head of Draco, on the north, and his head nearly touching that of Ophiuchus, on the south. This constellation extends from 12° to 50° north declimation, and its mean right ascension is 255°; consequently its centre is on the meridian about the 21st of July. It is bounded by Draco on the north, Lyra on the east, Ophiuchus or the Serpent-Bearer on the south, and the Ser- pent and the Crown on the west. -- It contains one hundred and thirteen stars, including one of the 2d, or of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, nine of the 3d magnitude, and nineteen of the 4th. The principal star is Ras Algethi, is situated in the head, about 25° southeas: of Corona Borealis. . It may be readily known by means of another bright star of equal magnitude, 5° east, southeast of it called Ras Alhague. Ras Alhague marks the head of Ophiuchus, and Ras Algethi that of Hercules. These two stars are always seen together, like the bright pairs in Aries, Gemini, the Little Dog, &c. They come to our meridian about the 28th of July, near where the sun does, the last of April, or the middle Čí August. About midway between Ras Algethi on the southeast, and Ariadne’s Crown on the northwest, may be seen Beta and Gamma, two stars of the 3d magnitude, situated in the west shoulder, about 3° apart. The northernmost of these two is called Rutilicus. Those four stars in the shape of a diamond, 8° or 10° southwest of the two in the shoulder of Hercules, are situated in the head of the serpent. About 12° E. N. E. of Rutilicus, and 10#9 directly north of Ras Algethi, are two stars of the 4th magnitude, in the east shoulder. They may be known by two very minute stars a little above them on the left. The two stars in each shoulder of Hercules, with Ras Algethi in the head, form a regular triangle. The left, or east arm of Hercules, which grasps the triple-headed monster Cerberus, may be traced by means of three or four stars of the 4th Imagnitude, How is the constellation Hercules represented? What space does it occupy, and what is its situation in the heavens? What are its declination and right ascension? en is its centre on the meridian A How is it bounded? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? Describe the principal star. What do Ras Algethi and Ras Alhague serve to mark? When are they on our meridian Describe the situa- tion of Beta and Gamma. What is the northernmost of these two called 2 What four stars are situated 8° or 10° S. W. of the two in the shoulder? Describe the stars in the €4st show.lder. Hoºp may these be known 2 What geometrical figure do the stars in % head and shoulders of Hercules form 2 How may the left arm, of Hercules be trº- MAP v.] HERCULES, 113 situated in a row 3° and 4° apart, extending from the shoulder, in a northeasterly direction. That sliiall cluster, situated in a triangular form, about 14° northeast of Ras Algethi, and 13° east, southeast of the leii shoulder, distinguish the head of Cerberus. Eighteen or 20° northeast of the Crown, are four stars of the 3d and 4th mag- titudes, forming an irregular square, of which the two southern ones are about 4. .# and in a line 6° or 7° south of the two northern ones, which are nearly ** apart. Pi, in the northeast corner, may be known by means of one or two other small Stars, close by it, on the east. Eta, in the northwest corner, may be known by its being in a row with two smaller stars, extending towards the northwest, and about 4° apart. The stars of the 4th magnitude, just south of the Dragon's head, point out the left foot and ankle of Hercules. Several other stars, of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, may be traced out in this constellation, by reference to the map. - HistoRY.—This constellation is intended to immortalize the name of Hercules, the Theban, so celebrated in antiquity for, his heroic valour, and invincible prowess. According to the ancients, there were many persons of this name. Of all these, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena is the most celebrated, and to him the actions of the others have been generally attributed. The birth of Hercules was attended with many miraculous events. He was brought up at Tirynthus, or at Thebes, and before he had completed his eighth month, the jealousy of Juno, who was intent upon his destruction, sent two snakes to devour him. Not terrified at the sight of the serpents, he boldly seized thein, and squeezed them to death, while his brother Iphicles alarmed the house with his frightful shrieks. He was early instructed in the liberal arts, and scom became the pupil of the centaur Chiron, under whom he rendered himself the most valiant and accom- plished of all the heroes of antiquity. In the 18th year of his age, he com- inenced his arduous and glorious pursuits. He subdued a lion that devoured the flocks of his supposed father, Amphitryon. After he had destroyed the lion, he delivered his country from the annual tribute of a hundred oxen, which it paid to Erginus. As Hercules, by the will of Jupiter, was subjected to the power of Eurystheus, and obliged to obey him in every respect, Eurystheus, jealous of his rising fame and power, ordered him to appear at Mycenae, and perform the labours which, by priority of birth, he was eulpowered to impose upon him. Hercules refused, but afterwards consulted the oracle of Apollo, and was told that he must be sub- servient, for twelve years, to the will of Eurystheus, in compliance with the commands of Jupiter; and that, after he had achieved the most celebrated la- bours, he should be reckoned in the number of the gods. So plain an answer determined him to go to Mycenae, and to bear with tortitude whatever gods or men should impose upon him. Eurystheus, seeing so great a man totally sub- iected to him, and apprehensive of so powerful an enemy, commanded him to achieve a number of enterprises the most difficult and arduous ever known, generally called the Twelve LABours of HERCULEs. Being furnished with º armour by the ſavour of the gods, he boldly encountered the imposed 3.00 UTS. *~. 1. He subdued the NemaPan Lion in his den, and invested himself with his skin. - 2. He destroyed the Lermaean Hydra, with a hundred hissing heads, and dip- ped his arrows in the gall of the monster to render their wounds incurable. 3. He took alive the stag with golden horns and brazen feet, so famous for its incredible swiftness, after pursuing it for twelve months, and presented it, un- hurt, to Eurystheus. r } 4. He took alive the Erimanthian Boar, and killed the Centaurs who opposed 1:Iſl. -- 5. He cleansed the stables of Augias, in which 3000 oxen had been confined for many years. - 6. He killed the carniverous birds which ravaged the country of Arcadia, and fed on human flesh. 7. He took alive, and brought into Peloponnesus, the wild bull of Crete, which no mortal durst look upon. - How is the head of Cerberus distinguished? There are four stars ºn thi, ºn of nº £rregular square, in the body.gf Hercules-describe them..., 2nésgripe l'éºtºioſº of Pé, Describe the situation of Eta. wº point ozct the ºf foot Q). Hercuts.” y 's 114 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JULY. 8. He obtained for Eurystheus the mares of Diomedes, which fed on human flesh, after having given their owner to be first eaten by them. 9. He obtained the girdle of the queen of the Amazons, a formidable nation of warlike females. 10. He killed the monster Geryon, king of Gades, and brought away his ruli- Imerous flocks, which fed upon human flesh. 11. He obtained the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides, which were watched by a dragon. 12. And finally, he brought up to the earth the three-headed dog Cerberus, the guardian of the entrance to the infernal regions. According to Dupuis, the twelve labours of Hercules are only a figurative rep- resentation of the annual course of the Sun through the twelve signs of the Zo- diac; Hercules being put for the sun, inasmuch as it is the powerful planet which animates and imparts fecundity to the universe, and whose divinity has been honoured, in every quarter, by temples and altars, and consecrated in the reli- gious strains of all nations. - - Thus Virgil, in the eighth book of his AEmeid, records the deeds of Hercules, and celebrates his praise — “The lay records the labours, and the praise, Arld all the immortal acts of Hercules. First, how the mighty babe, when swath’d in bands, The serpents strangled with his infant hands; Then, as in years and matchless force he grew, e The OEchalian walls and Trojan overthrew; Besides a thousand hazards they relate, Procured by Juno's and Euristheus' hate. Thy hands, unconquer’d liero, could subdue The cloud-born Centaurs, and the monster crew; Northy resistless arm the bull withstood; Nor he, the roaring terrour of the wood. The triple porter of the Stygian seat With lolling tongue lay fawning at thy feet, And, seized with fear, forgot the mangled meat. The infernal waters trembled at thy sight: Thee, god, no face of danger could affright; Nor huge Typhaeus, nor the unnumber’d snake, Increased with hissing heads, in Lerna’s lake.” Besides these arduous labours which the jealousy of Eurystheus imposed upon him, he also achieved others of his own accord, equally celebrated. Before he delivered himself up to the king of Mycenae he accompanied the Argonauts to Colchis. He assisted the gods in their wars against the giants, and it was through him alone that Jupiter obtained the victory. He conquered Laomedom, and pil- laged Troy. At three different times he experienced fifs of insanity. In the second, he slew the brother of his beloved Iole; in the third he attempted to carry away the sa- cred tripod from Apollo’s temple at Delphi, for which the oracle told him he must be sold as a slave. He was sold accordingly to Omphale, queen of Iydia, who restored him to liberty, and married him. After this he returned to Pelo- Fº and re-established on the throne of Sparta his friend Tyndarus, who ad been expelled by Hippocoon. He became enamoured of Dejanira, whom, - after having overcome all his rivals, he married; but was obliged to leave his father-in-law's kingdom, because he had inadvertently killed a man with a blow of his fist. He retired to the court of Ceyx, king of Trachina, and in his way was stopped by the streams of the Evenus, where he slew the Centaur Nessus, for presuming to offer indignity to his beloved Dejanira. The Centaur, on expiring, gave to Dejanira the celebrated tunic which afterwards caused the death of Herº cules. “This tunic,” said the expiring monster, “has the virtue to recall a hus- band from unlawful love.” Dejanira, fearing lest Hercules should relapse again into love for the beautiful Iole, gave him the fatal tunic, which was so infected with the poison of the Lernaan Hydra, that he had no sooner invested himself with it, than it began to penetrate his bones, and to boil through all his veins. He attempted to pull it off, but it was too late. “As the red iron hisses in the flood, So boils the venom in his curdling blood. Now with the greedy flame his entrails glow, And livid sweats down all his body flow; MAP v.] - SERPENTARIUS. * 115 The cracking nerves, burnt up, are burst in twain, The lurking venom melts his swimming brain.” As the distemper was incurable, he implored the protection of Jupiter, gave his bow and arrow to Thiloctetes, and erected a largé burning pile on the top of Mount CEta. He spread on the pile the skin of the Nemasan lion, and laid him- self down upon it, as on a bed, leaning his head upon his club. Philoctetes set fire to the pile, and the hero saw himself, on a sudden, surrounded by the most appalling flames; yet he did not betray any marks of fear or astonishment. Ju- piter saw him from leaven, and told the surrounding gods, who would have drenched the pile with tears, while they entreated that he would raise to the skies the immortal part of a hero who had cleared the earth from so many mon- sters and tyrants; and thus the thunderer spake — “Be all your fears forborne : Th’ CEteam fires do thou, great hero, scorn. Who vanquish’d all things shall subdue the flame. That part alone of gross maternal frame Fire shall devour; while what from me he drew Shall live immortal, and its force subdue : That, when he’s dead, I’ll raise to realms above;— • May all the powers the righteous act approve.” Ovid's Met. lib. ix. Accordingly, after the mortal part of Hercules was consumed, as the ancient poets say, he was carried up to heaven in a chariot drawn by four horses, “Quem pater omnipotens inter cava nubila raptum, Quadrijugo curru radiantibus intulit astris.” “Almighty Jove In his swift car his honour’d offspring drove; High o'er the hollow clouds the coursers fly, And lodge the hero in the starry sky.” Ovid’s Met. lib,. ix. W. 271. sERPENTARIUS, VEL OPHIUCHUs. THE SERPENT-BEARER is also called Æsculapius, or the god of medicine. He is represented as a man with a venera- ble beard, having both hands clenched in the folds of a pro- digious serpent, which is writhing in his grasp. The constellation occupies a considerable space in the mid- heaven, directly south of Hercules, and west of Taurus Po- niatowski. Its centre is very nearly over the equator, oppo- site to Orion, and comes to the meridian the 26th of July. It contains seventy-four stars, including one of the 2d magni- tude, five of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. The principal star in Serpentarius is called Ras Alhague. It is of the 2d magnitude, and situated in the head, about 5° E. S. E. of Ras Algethi, in the head of Hercules. Ras Al- hague is nearly 13° N. of the equinoctial, while Rho, in the southern foot, is about 250 south of the equinoctial. These two stars serve to point out the extent of the constellation from north to south. Ras Alhague comes to the meridian on the 28th of July, about 21 minutes after Ras Algethi. How is the constellation Serpentarius represented? What is its extent, and where is it situated? When is its centre on the meridian? What are the number and mag- nitude of its stars? What are the name and position of its principal star? What two stars mark the extremes of the constellation, north and south & When is Ras Alhague on the meridian 116 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, [JULY. About 10° S. W. of Ras Alhague are two small stars of the 4th magnitude, Scarcely more than a degree apart. They distinguish the left or west shoulder. The northern one is marked Iota, and the other Kappa. Eleven or twelve degrees S. S. E. of Ras Alhague are two other stars of the 3d magnitude, in the east shoulder, and about 2° apart. The upper one is called Cheleb, and the lower one Gamma. These stars in the head and shoulders of Serpentarius, form a triangle, with the vertex in Ras Alhague, and pointing to- wards the northeast. About 49 E. of Gamma, is a remarkable cluster of four or five stars, in the form of the letter W, with the open part to the north. It very much resembles the Hyades. This beau- tiful little group marks the face of TAURUs PoniaTowski. The solstitial colure passes through the equinoctial about 2° E. of the lower star in the vertex of the W. The letter name of this star is k. There is something remarkable in its central posi- tion. It is situated almost exactly in the mid-heavens, being nearly equidistant from the poles, and midway between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. It is, however, about one and a third degrees nearer the north than the south pole, and about two degrees nearer the autumnal than the vernal equi- nox, being about two degrees west of the solstitial colure. Directly south of the V, at the distance of about 12°, are two very small stars, about 2° apart, situated in the right hand, where it grasps the serpent. About halfway between, and nearly in a line with, the two in the hand and the two in the shoulder, is another star of the 3d magnitude, imarked Zeta, situated in the Serpent, opposite the right elbow. It may be known by means of a minute star, just under it. - •. - Marsic, in the left arm, is a star of the 4th magnitude, about 10° S. W. of Iota and Cappa. About 7° farther in the same direction are two stars of the 3d mag nitude, situated in the hand, and a little more than a degree apart. The upper one of the two, which is about 16° N. of Graffias in Scorpio, is called Yed; the other is marked Epsilon. These two stars mark the other point in the folds of the monster where it is grasped by Serpentarius. The left arm of Serpentarius may be easily traced by means of the two stars in the shoulder, the one (Marsic) near the elbow, and the two in the hand; all lying nearly in a line N. N. E. and S. S. W. In the same manner may the right arm be traced, by stars very similarly situated; that is to say, first by the two * in the east shoulder, just west of the V, thence 89 in a southerly direction in- clining a little to the east, by Zeta, (known by a little star right under it,\ and then by the two small ones in the right hand, situated about 66 below zeta. About 12° from Antares, in an easterly direction, are two stars in the right foot, about 29 apart. The largest arra lower of the two, is on the lefthand. It is of between the 3d and 4th magnitudes, and marked Rho. There are several other stars in this constellation of the 3d and 4th magnitudes. They may be traced out from the maps. - - “Thee, Serpentarius, we behold distinct, With seventy-four refulgent stars; and one Graces thy helmet, of the second class: The Serpent, in thy hand grasp'd, winds his spire Immense; fewer by ten his figure trace; Describe the stars in the west shoulder of Serpentarius. What stars distinguish the east shoulder? How are these two stars denominated? What is the relative position of the stars in the head and shoulders ? What remarkable cluster of stars in this neighbourhood? To what constellation does this group belong? How is this cluster situated with respect to the solstitial colure? What is remarkable in the central posi- tion of Kappa; , Describe the stars in the right hand of Serpentarius. Describe the situation of Zétá. Describe Marsic, and the two stars in the left hand. Which of the two is called Yed, and how is it situated 2 Hoºp may the left dºrm of Serpentarias be traced 2 How Anay the right 0.7772 be traced 2 Describe the stars in the right foot Serpentarius. What other stars may be traced owl in this constellation ? MAP VI.] DRAco. 117 One of the Second rank; ten shun the sight; And seven, he who bears the monster hides.”—Eudosia. HISTORY. This constellation was known to the ancients twelve hundred years before the Christian era. Homer mentions it. It is thus referred to in the As- tronomicon of Manilius:- “Next, Ophiuchus, strides the mighty snake, Untwists his winding folds, and smooths his back, Extends his bulk, and o'er the slippery scale His wide-stretch'd hands on either side prevail. 2 The Snake turns back his head, and seems to rage: That war must last where equal power prevails.” AEsculapius was the Son of Apollo, by Coromis, and was educated by Chiron the Centaur, in the art of medicine, in which he became so skilful, that he was considered the inventor and god of medicine. At the birth of AEsculapius, the inspired daughter of Chiron uttered, “in sounding verse,” this prophetic strain: “Hail, great physician of the world, all hail! Hail, mighty infant, who, in years to come, Shall heal the nations and defraud the tomb Swift be thy growth ! thy triumphs unconfined 1 Make kingdoms thicker, and increase mankind: Thy daring art shall animate the dead, And draw the thunder on thy guilty head : - Then shalt thou die, but from the dark abode Rise up victorious, and be twice a god.” He accompanied the Argonauts to Colchis, in the capacity of physician. He is said to have restored many to life, insomuch that Pluto complained to Jupiter, that his dark dominion was in danger of being depopulated by his art, AEsculapius was worshipped at Epidaurus, a city of Peloponnesus, and hence , he is styled by Milton, “the god in Epidaurus.” Being sent for to Rome in the time of a plague, he assumed the form of a serpent and accompanied the ambas- sadors, but though thus changed, he was /Esculapius still, in serpente dews, the deity in a serpent, and under that form he continued to be worshipped at Rome. The cock and the serpent were sacred to him, especially the latter. The ancient physicians used them in their prescriptions. - One of the last acts of Socrates, who is accounted the wisest and best man of Pagan antiquity, was to offer a cock to Æsculapius. He, and Plato, were both idolaters; they conformed, and advised others to conform, to the religion of their country; to gross idolatry and absurd superstition. If the wisest and must learn- ed were so blind, what must the foolish and ignorant have been? C H A P T E R X. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN AUGUST. DRACO. THE DRAGON.—This constellation, which compasses a large circuit in the polar regions by its ample folds and con- tortions, contains many stars which may be easily traced. From the head of the monster, which is under the foot of Hercules, there is a complete coil tending eastwardly, about 17o N. of Lyra ; thence he winds down northerly about 149 What is the situation of the constellation Draco} Describe, if you please, the vari- ous coils of the Dragon. 118 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG. to the second coil, where he reaches almost to the girdle of Cepheus, then he loops down somewhat in the shape of the letter U, and makes a third coil about 150 below the first. From the third coil he holds a westerly course for about 13°, then goes directly down, passing between the head of the Lesser and the tail of the Greater Bear. This constellation contains eighty stars, including four of the 2d magnitude, seven of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. “The Dragon next, winds like a mighty stream; Within its ample folds are eighty stars, Four of the second order. Far he waves His ample spires, involving either Bear.” The head of the Dragon is readily distinguished by means of four stars, 39, 49, and 59 apart, so situated as to form an irregular square; the two upper ones being the brightest, and both of the 2d magnitude. The righthand upper one, called Etamin, has been rendered very noted in modern astronomy from its connexion with the discovery of a new law in phys- ical science, called the Aberration of Light. - The letter name of this star is Gamma, or Gamma Draco- nis; and by this appellation it is most frequently called. The other bright star, about 40 from it on the left, is Rastaben. About 40 W. of Rastaben, a small star may, with close at- tention, be discerned in the nose of the Dragon, which, with the irregular square before mentioned, makes a figure some- what resembling an Italic V, with the point towards the west, and the open part towards the east. The small star in the nose, is called Er Rakis. The two small stars 59 or 6° S. of Rastaben are in the left foot of Hercules. Rastaben is on the meridian nearly at the same moment with Ras Alhague. Etanin, 400 N. of it, is on the meridian about the 4th of August, at the same time with the three western stars in the face of Taurus Poniatowski, or the V. It is situated less than 2° west of the solstitial colure, and is exactly in the zenith of London. Its favourable position has led English astronomers to watch its appearance, for long periods, with the most exact and unwearied scrutiny. In the year 1725, Mr. Molyneux, and Dr. Bradley fitted up a very accurate and costly instrument, in order to diséover whether the fixed stars had any sensible parallax, while the earth moved from one extremity of its orbit to the other; or which is the same, to determine whether the nearest fixed stars are situated at such an immense distance from the earth, that any star which is seen this night directly north of us, will, six months hence, when we shall have gone 190 mill- What is the course of the monster from the third coil? What are the number and magnitude of the Stars contained in this constellation ? How is the head of the Dragon distinguished?, Which star is called Etamin, and for what is it noted? By what other appellation is it generally known? What stars in the head of Draco form the letterſ, and how is it situated? When is Rastaben on the 'meridian? When is Etamin on the meridian, and what stars in this region culminate at the same time? How is Rastaben situated with respect to the solstitial colure, and the Zenith of London. MAP. VI.] - DRACO. 119 ions of miles to the eastward of the place we are now in, be then seen exactly north of us still, without changing its position so much as the thickness of a spi. der’s web. These observations were subsequently repeated, with but little intermission, for twenty years, by the most acute observers in Europe, and with telescopes varying from 12 feet to 36 feet in length. In the meantime, Dr. Bradley had the honour of announcing to the world the very nice discovery, that the motion of . light, combined with the progressive motion of the earth in its orbit, causes the heavenly bodies to be seen in a different position from what they would be, if #: % were at rest. Thus was established the principle of the Aberration of ight. #. principle, or law, now that it is ascertained, seems not only very plain, but self-evident. For if light be progressive, the position of the telescope, in order to receive the ray, inust be different from what it would have been, if light had been instantaneous, or if the earth stood still. Hence the place to which the tel- escope is directed, will be different from the true place of the object. The quantity of this aberration is determined by a simple proposition. The earth describes 59'8" of her orbit in a day =3548’’, and a ray of light comes from the sum to us in S 13’’ = 493’’ : now 24 hours or 86400" : 493/.3 : 3548’’: 22’; which is the change in the star's place, arising from the cause abovemen- tioned. Of the four stars forming Ine Irregular square in the head, the lower and right- hand one is 549 N. of Etanin. It is called Grumium, and is of the 3d magnitude. A few degrees E. of the square, Inay be seen, with a little care, eight stars of the 5th magnitude, and one of the 4th, which is marked Omicron, and lies 8° E. of Grumium. This group is in the first coil of the Dragon. - The second coil is about 13° below the first, and may be recognised by means of four stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, so situated as to form a small square, about half the size of that in the head. The brightest of them is on the leſt, and is marked Delta. A line drawn from Rasiaben through Grumium, and produced about 14°, will point it out. A line drawn from Lyra through Zi Draconis, and produced 10° further, will point out 2eta, a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the third coil. Zeta may otherwise be known, by its being nearly in a line with, and midway between, Etamin and Kochab. From Zeta, the remaining stars in this constellation are easily traced. Eta, Theta, and Asich, come next; all stars of the 3d magnitude, and at the distance, severally, of 69, 49, and 5° from Zeta. At Asich, the third star from Zeta, the tail of the Dragon makes a sudden crook. Thuban, Kappa, and Gian- sar, follow next, and complete the tail. - Thuban, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, 119 from Asich, in a line with, and about midway between, Mizar and the southernmost guard in the Little Bear. By nautical men this star is called the Dragon’s. Tail, and is considered of much importance at sea. It is otherwise celebrated as being formerly the north polar star. About 2,300 years before the Christian era, Thuban was ten times nearer the true pole of the heavens than Cynosura now is. Rappa is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10° from Alpha, between Megrez and the pole. Mizar and Megrez, in the tail of the Great Bear, form, with Thuban and Kappa, in the tail of the Dragon, a large quadrilateral figure, whose longest side is from Megrez to Kappa: Giamsar; the last star in the tail, is between the 3d and 4tſ magnitudes, and 59 from Kappa. The two pointers will also point out Giansar, lying at the distance of little more than 8° from them, and in the direction of the pole. Describe the stars in the first coil of Draco. Describe the stars in the second coil. What is the brightest of this group called, and how may it be pointed out 2 What is he principal star.of the third coil, and how may it be found 2 How else may Zétá be known 2 What stars, come next to Zeta, in this constellation ? What stars follow these ? Describe Thuban. By what other name is this star known, and for what is jt. celebrated? When was Thuban within ten minutes of the pole?, Describe Kappa. †What figure do Mizar and Mégrez, in the tail cf the Great Bear, form with Thubart and Kappa, in the tail of the Dragón 2 Describe the position of Giansar, and tell how it is pointed Guº. ! - 120 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. |AUG. “Here the vast Dragon twines Between the Bears, and like a river winds, The Bears, that still with fearful caution keep, Untinged beneath the surface of the deep.” Warton’s Virgil, G. i. HISTORY..—Whoever attends to the situation of Draco, surrounding, as it does, the pole of the Ecliptic, will perceive that its tortuous windings are symbolical of the oblique course of the stars. Draco also winds round the pole of the world, as if to indicate, in the symbolical language of Egyptian astronomy, the motion of the pole of the Equator around the pole of the Ecliptic, produced by the pre- cession of the heavens. The Egyptian hyeroglyphic for the heavens, was a serpent, whose scales denoted the stars. When astronomy first began to be cul- tivated in Chaldea, Draco was the polar constellation. Mythologisis, however, give various accounts of this constellation; by some it is represented as the watchful dragon which guarded the golden apples in the famous garden of the Hesperides, near Mount Atlas in Africa; and was slain by Hercules. Juno, who presented these apples to Jupiter on the day of their nup- tials, took Thraco up to heaven, and made a constellation of him, as a reward for his faithful services. Others maintain, that in the war with the giants, this dragon* was brought into combat, and opposed to Minerva, who seized it in her hand, and hurled it, twisted as it was, into the heavens round the axis of the world, before it had time to unwind its contortions, where it sleeps to this day. Other writers of antiquity say, that this is the dragon killed by Cadmus, who was ordered by rus father to go in quest of his sister Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away, and never to return to Phoenicia without her. “When now Agenor had his daughter lost, He sent his son to search on every coast; And sternly bade him to his arms restore The darling maid, or see his face no more.” His search, however, proving fruitless, he consulted the oracle of Apollo, and was ordered to build a city where he should see a heifer stop in the grass, and to call the country Boeotia. He saw the heifer according to the oracle, and as he wished to render thanks to the god by a sacrifice, he sent his companions to fetch water from a neighbouring grove. The waters were sacred to Mars, and guarded by a most terrific dragon, who devoured all the messengers. Cadinus, tired of their sceming delay, went to the place, and saw the monster still feeding On their ſiesh. - “Deep in the dreary den, conceal’d from day, Sacred to Mars, a mighty dragon lay, Bloated with poison to a monstrous size : Tire broke in flashes when he glanced his eyes: * * Those who attempt to explain the mythology of the ancients, observe that the Hes. perides were certain persons who had an immense number of flocks; and that the ambiguous Greek word anxov, melon, which sometimes signifies an apple and some. times a sheep, gave rise to the fable of the golden apple of these gardens. The “Hesperian gardens famed of old,” as Milton observes, were so called from Hesperus Vesper, because placed in the west, under the evening star. . Some suppose them to have been situated near Mount Atlas, in Africa; others, maintain that they were the isles about Cape Verd, whose most westerly point is still callel Jesper??!??? § the Horn of the Hesperides; while others contend, that they were the Canary Slands. Atlas, said to have been contemporary with Moses, was king of Mauritania, in the north part of Africa, and owner of a thousand flocks of every kind. For refusing hos; pitality to Perseus, he was “hanged into the mountain that still bears his name ; and which is so high, that the ancients imagined that the heavens rested upoll its summit. and, consequently, that Atlas supported the world on his shoulders. Virgil has this idea, where he speaks of “Atlas, whose brawny back supports the skies;” and He- 5iod, verse 785, advances the same notion:— “Atlas, so hard necessity ordains, Crect, the ponderous vault of stars sustains. Not far from the Hosperides he stantls, Nor from the load retracts his head or hands.” - From this very ancient and whimsical notion, Atlas is represented by artists, and in works of mythology, as an old man hearing the world on his shoulders. Hence it is, that a collection of maps; embracing the whole world, is called an Atlas. MAP v.] LYRA. . . " 121 His towering crest was glorious to behold, His shoulders and his sides were scaled with gold; Three tongues he brandish’d when he charged his foes; His teeth stood jaggy in three dreadful rows, The Tyrians in the den for water sought, And with their urns explored the hollow vault: From side to side their empty urns rebound, And rouse the sleeping serpent with their sound. Straight he bestirs him, and is seen to rise; And now with dreadful hissings fills the skies, And darts his forky tongues, and rolls his glaring eyes. * The Tyrians drop their vessels in the fright, All pale and trembling at the hideous sight. Spire above spire uprear'd in air he stood, And gazing round him, overlook'd the wood: Then floating on the ground in circles roll’d; Then leap'd upon them in a mighty fold. All their endeavours and their hopes are vain; Some die entangled in the winding train; Some are devour’d, or feel a loathsome death, - Swoll’n up with blasts of pestilential breath.” Cadmus, beholding such a scene, boldly resolved to avenge, or to share ineur Yate. He therefore attacked the monster with slings and arrows, and, with the assistance of Minerva, slew him. He then plucked out his teeth, and sowed them, at the command of Pallas, in a plain, when they suddenly sprung up into armed men. “Pallas adest: motaeque jubet supponere terrae Viperos dentes, populi incrementa futuri. Paret: et, ut presso sulcum patefecit aratro, Spargit humi jussos, mortalia semina dentes. Inde (fide majus) glebae caepere moveri: Primaque de sulcis acies apparuit hastaº Tegmina mox capitum picto nutantia cono. Existunt : crescitaue seges clypeata virorum.” Ovid's Met. lib. iii. v. 102. “He sows the teeth at Pallas's command, And flings the future people from his hand. The clods grow warm, and crumble where he sows; And now the pointed spears advance in rows; Now nodding plumes appear, and shining crests, Now the broad shoulders and the rising $reasts; O'er all the field the breathing harvest swarins, A growing host ! a crop of men and arms P’ Entertaining worse apprehension from the direful offspring than he had done from the dragon himself, he was about to fly, when they all fell upon each other, and were all slain in one promiscuous carnage, except five, who assisted Cadmus to build the city of BGeotia. * LYRA. THE HARP.—This constellation is distinguished by one of the most brilliant stars in the northern hemisphere. It is sit- uated directly south of the first coil of Draco, between the Swan, on the east, and Hercules, on the west; and when on the meridian, is almost directly over head. It contains twenty-one stars, including one of the 1st mag- nitude, two of the 3d, and as many of the 4th. By what is the constellation of the Harp distinguished 7 Where is it situated? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? 122 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG. “There Lyra, for the brightness of her stars, More than their number eminent; thrice seven She counts, and one of these illuminates The heavens far around, blazing imperia. In the first order.” This star, of “the first order, blazing with imperial” lustre, is called Vega, and sometimes Wega; but more frequently it is called Lyra, after the name of the constellation. There is no possibility of mistaking this star for any other. It is situated 143° S. E. of Etanin, and about 30° N. N. E. of Ras Alhague and Ras Algethi. It may be certainly known by means of two small, yet conspicuous stars, of the 5th mag- nitude, situated about 20 apart, on the east of it, and making with it a beautiful little triangle, with the angular point at Lyra. - The northernmost of these two small stars is marked Epsilon, and the South- ern one, Zeta. About 29 S. E. of Zeta, and in a line with Lyra, is a star of the 4th magnitude, marked Delta, in the middle of the Harp; and 4° or 5° S. of Delta, are two stars of the 3d magnitude, about 2° apart, in the garland of the Harp, forming another triangle, whose vértex is in Delta. The star on the east, is marked Gamma; that on the west, Beta. If a line be drawn from Etamin through Lyra, and produced 69 farther, it will reach Beta. s * This is a variable star, changing from the 3d to nearly the 5th magnitude in the space ºf a week; it is supposed to have spots on its surface, and to turn on its axis, like our sun. º Gamma comes to the meridian 21 minutes after Lyra, and precisely at the same moment with Epsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, 173° S. of it. The declination of Lyra is about 3839 N.; consequently, when on the meridian, it is but 2° S. of the zenith of Hart- ford. It culminates at 9 o'clock, about the 13th of August. It is as favourably situated to an observatory at Washington, as Rastaben is to those in the vicinity of London. Its surpassing brightness has attracted the admiration of astronomers in all ages. Manilius, who wrote in the age of Augustus, thus alludes to it:— “ONE, placed in front above the rest, displays A vigorous light and darts surprising rays.” - - Astronomicon, B. i. p. 15. HISTORY..—It is generally asserted that this is the celestial Lyre which Apollo or Mercury gave to Orpheus, and upon which he played with such a masterly hand, that even the most rapid rivers ceased to flow, the wild beasts of the forest forgot their wildness, and the mountains came to listen to his song. Of all the nymphs who used to listen to his song, Eurydice was the only one who made a deep impression on the musician, and their nuptials were celebra- ted. Their happiness, however, was short. Aristaeus became enamoured of ‘Eurydice, and as she fied from her pursuer, a serpent, lurking in the grass, bit her foot, and she died of the wound. Orpheus resolved to recover her, or perish in the attempt. With his lyre in his hand, he entered the infernal regions, and gained admission to Pluto. The king of hell was charmed with his strains, the What is the name of the principal star? Describe its position. By what means may it be certainly known? What are the names of the two small stars forming the base of the trianglé 2 Describe the star in the midāle of the Harp, and those with which it Jorms another triangle. How are the stars in the base of this triangle marked on the map? How else ſmay. Beta be pointed out 2. What is there remarkable in the appear: ance of this star? When is Gamma on the meridian 2 What is the declination of Lyra 3 When does it culminate 2 What ancient poet mentions it? * f MAP v.] LYRA. 123 wheel of Ixion stopped, the stone of Sisyphus stood still, Tantalus forgot his thirst, and even the furies relented. Pluto and Proserpine were moved, and consented to restore him Eurydice, provided he forbore looking behind him till he had come to the extremest bor- ders of their dark dominions. The condition was accepted, and Orpheus was already in sight of the upper regions of the air, when he forgot, and turned back to look at his long lost Eurydice. He saw her, but she instantly vanished from his sight. He attempted again to follow her, but was refused admission. From this time, Orpheus separated himself from the society of mankind, which so offended the Thracian women, it is said, that they tore his body to pieces, and threw his head into the Hebrus, still articulating the words Euridice TEurydice ] as it was carried down the stream into the Ægean sea. Orpheus was one of the Argonauts, of which celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical account, which is still extant. After his death, he received divine honours, and his lyre became one of the constellations. This fable, or allegory, designed merely to represent the power of music in the hands of the great master of the science, is similarly described by three of the most renowned Latin poets. Virgil, in the fourth book of his Georgics, thus describes the effect of the lyre :— “E’en to the dark dominions of the night He took his way, through forests void of light, And dared amid the trembling ghosts to sing, And stood before the inexorable king. The infernal troops like passing shadows glide, And listening, crowd the sweet musician's side; Men, matrons, children, and the unmarried maid, The mighty hero's more majestic shade, And youth, on funeral piles before their parents laid. E’en from the depths of hell the damn’d advance; The infernal mansions, nodding, seem to dance; The gaping three-mouth’d dog forgets to snarl; The furies hearken, and their snakes uncurl; Ixion, seems no more his pain to feel, But leans attentive on his standing wheel. All dangers past, at length the lonely bride In safety goes, with her melodious guide.” º: and his followers represent Apollo playing upon a harp of seven strings, by which is meant (as appears from Pliny, b. ii. c. 22—Macrobius i. c. 19, and Censorinus c. ii.) the sun in conjunction with the seven planets; for they made him the leader of that septemary chorus, and the moderator of nature, and thought that by his attractive force he acted upon the planets in the harmonical ratio of their distances. g The doctrine of celestial harmony, by which was meant the music of the spheres, was common to all the nations of the East. To this divine music Euri- pides beautifully alludes:—“Thee I invoke, thou self-created Being, who gave birth to Nature, and whom light and darkness, and the whole train of globes en- circle with eternal music.”—So also Shakspeare :- * “Look, how the floor of heaven Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold; There's not the smallest orb, which thou behold'st, But in his motion like an angel sings, Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim: Such harmony is in immortal souls; But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it.” The lyre was a famous stringed instrument, much used among the ancients, said to have been invented by Mercury about the year of the world 2000; though some ascribe the invention to Jubal. (Genesis iv. 21.) It is universally allowed, that the lyre was the first instrument of the string kind ever used in Greece. The different lyres, at various periods of time, had from four to eighteen strings each. The modern lyre is the Welsh harp The lyre, among painters, is an attribute of Apollo ºthe Muses. * -* All poetry, it has been conjectured, was in its origin lyric.; that is: adapted to recitation or song, with the accompaniment of music and distinguished by the i 124 .- PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG. \ as utraost boldness of thought and expression; being at first employed in celebra. ting the praises of gods and heroes. Lesbos was the principal seat of the Lyric Muse; and Terpander, a native of this island, who flourished about 650 years B. C., is one of the earliest of the lyric poets whose name we find on record. Sappho, whose misſortunes have united with her talents to render her name memorable, was born at Mitylene, the chief city of Lesbos. She was reckoned a tenth muse, and placed without con- troversy at the head of the female writers in Greece. But Pindar, a native of Thebes, who flourished about 500 years B. C., is styled the prince of lyric poets. To him his fellow-citizens erected a monument; and when the Lacedemonians ravaged Boeotia, and burnt the capital, the following words were written upon #. door of the poet: ForbBAR. To BURN THis House. It was THE Dwelling of INT) AR. SAGIT TARIUS. THE ARCHER.—This is the ninth sign and the tenth con- stellation of the Zodiac. It is situated next east of Scorpio, with a mean declination of 350 S. or 12° below the ecliptic. The sun enters this sign on the 22d of November, but does not reach the constellation before the 7th of December. It occupies a considerable space in the southern hemisphere, and contains a number of subordinate, though very conspicu- ous stars. The whole number of its visible stars is sixty- nine, including five of the 3d magnitude, and ten of the 4th. It may be readily distinguished by means of five stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, forming a figure resembling a little short, straight-handled Dipper, turned nearly bottom up- wards, with the handle to the west, familiarly called the Milk-Dipper, because it is partly in the Milky-Way. This little figure is so conspicuous that it cannot easily be mistaken. It is situated about 33° E. of Antares, and comes to the meridian a few minutes after Lyra, on the 17th of Au- gust. Of the four stars forming the bowl of the Dipper, the two upper ones are only 3° apart, and the lower ones 59. The two smaller stars forming the handle, and extending westerly about 439, and the easternmost one in the Bowiefthe Dipper, are all of the 4th magnitude. The star in the end of the handle, is marked Lambda, and is placed in the bow of Sagittarius, just within the Milky-Way. Lambda may otherwise be known by its being nearly in a line with two other stars about 44° apart, extending to- wards the S. E. It is also equidistant from Phi and Delta, with which it makes a handsome triangle, with the vertex in Lambda. About 5° above Lambda, and a little to the west, are two stars close together, in the end of the bow, the bright- est of which is of the 4th magnitude, and marked Mu. This star serves to point out the winter solstice, being about 2° N. of the tropic of Capricorn, and less than one degree east of the solstitial colure. + • If a line be drawn from Sigma through Phi, and produced about 69 farther to the west, it will point out Delta, and produced about 39 from Delta, it will point out Gamma; stars of the 3d magnitude, in the arrow. The lattér is in the point What is the order in the Zodiac, of Sagittarius? How is it situated? When does the sun appear to enter this constellation? What are its extent and appearance? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How may it be readily distinguished? What is this figure called, and why? Where is this figure to be found, and when is it on the meridian? How far apart are the two upper stars in the bowl of the Dipper? How far apart are the two lower ones? Describé £he stars in the handle. Describe the Tosition of Lambda. How may Lambda be otherwise known? With what other stars does it form a handsome triangle? Describe the position of Mu. How may Delta and Gamma be pointed out? sº MAP v.] AQUILA. ET ANTINOUS. 125 * t * of the arrow, and may be known by means of a small star just above it, on the right. This star is so nearly on the same meridian with Etanin, in the head of Draco, that it culminates only two minutes after it. A few other conspicuous stars in this constellation, forming a variety of geo- metrical figures, may be easily traced from the inap. HISTORY..—This constellation, it is said, commemorates the famous Centaur Chiron, son of Philyra and Saturn, who changed himself into a horse, to elude the jealous inquiries of his wife Rhea. Chiron was famous for his knowledge of music, medicine, and shooting. He taught mankind the use of plants and medicinal herbs; and instructed, in all the polite arts, the greatest heroes of his age. He taught Æsculapius physic; Apollo music; and Hercules astronomy; and was tutor to Achilles, Jason, and zºneas. According to Ovid, he was slain by Hercules, at the river Evenus, for ºffering indignity to his newly married bride. ; “Thou monster double shap’d, my right set free— Swift as his words, the fatal arrow flew; The Centaur’s back admits the feather'd wood, And through his breast the barbed weapon stood; Which, when in anguish, through the flesh he tore, From both the wounds gush’d forth the spumy gore.” The arrow which Hercules thus sped at the Centaur, having been dipped in she blood of the Lernaºan Hydra, rendered the wound incurable, even by the father of medicine himself, and he begged Jupiter to deprive him of immortality, if thus he might escape his excruciating pains. Jupiter granted his request, and translated him to a place among the constellations. “Midst golden stars he stands refulgent now And thrusts the scorpion with his bended bow.” This is the Grecian account of Sagittarius; but as this constellation appears on the ancient zodiacs of Egypt, Dendera, Esme, and India, it seems conclusive that the Greeks only borrowed the figure, while they invented the fable. This is known to be true with respect to very many of the ancient constellations. Hence the jargon of the conflicting accounts which have descended to us. AQUILA, ET ANTINOUS. THE EAGLE, AND ANTINous.--This double constellation is situated directly south of the Fox and Goose, and between Taurus Poniatowski on the west, and the ‘Dolphin, on the east. It contains seventy-one stars, including one of the 1st magnitude, nine of the 3d, and seven of the 4th. It may be readily distinguished by the position and superior brilliancy of its principal star. Altair, the principal star in the Eagle, is of the 1st, or be- tween the 1st and 2d magnitudes. It is situated about 149 S. W. of Dolphin. It may be known by its being the largest and middle one of the three bright stars which are arranged in a line bearing N. W. and S. E. The stars on each side of Altair, are of the 3d magnitude, and distant from it about 2°. This row of stars very much resembles that in the Guards of the Lesser Bear. How is Gamma situated with respect to Etaning In what part of the heavens is the Eagle situated? ...What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is it distin- guished? Describe its principal star. How may it be known? What is the magnitude of the stars on each side of Altair? How far distant from it are they? What row of ...rs does this row resemble? Sie - 1 1 126 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG. * Altair is one of the stars from which the moon’s distance is taken for computing longitude at sea. Its mean declination is nearly 83° N., and when on the meridian, it occupies nearly the same place in the heavens that the sum does at noon on the 12th day of April. It culminates about 6 minutes before 9 o'clock, on the last day of August. It rises acrony- cally about the beginning of June. Ovid alludes to the rising of this constellation; or, more probably, to that of the principal star, Altair:- —“Now view the skies, And you’ll behold Jove's hook’d-bill bird arise.” Massey's Fasti. — “Among thy splendid group ONE dubious whether of the second RANK, Or to the FIRST entitled ; but whose claim Seems to deserve the FIRST.” -* t Eudosia. The northernmost star in the lime, next above Altair, is called Tarazed. In the wing of the Eagle, there is another row composed of three stars, situated 4° or 5° apart, extending down towards the southwest; the middle one in this line is the smallest, being only of the 4th magnitude; the next is of the 3d magnitude, marked Delta, and situated 89 S.W. of Altair, As you proceed from Delta, there is another line of three stars of the 3d mag- nitude, between 5° and 6° apart, extending southerly, but curving a little to the west, which mark the youth Antinous. The northern wing of the Eagle is not distinguished by any conspicuous stars. Zeta and Epsilon. of the 3d magnitude, situated in the tail of the Eagle, are about 29 apart, and 12° N. W. of Altair. The last one in the tail, marked Epsi- lº # on the same meridian, and culminates the same moment with Gamma, in the Harl). - rººpsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, to Theta, in the wrist of Antinous, may be traced a long line of stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, whose letter names are Theta, Eta, Mu, Zeta, and Epsilon. The direction of this line is from S. E. to N. W., and its length is about 25°. Eta is remarkable for its changeable appearance. Its greatest brightness con- tinues but 40 hours; it then gradually diminishes for 66 hours when its lustre remains stationary for 30 hours. It then waxes brighter and brighter, until it appears again as a star of the 3d magnitude. • From these phenomena, it is inferred that it not only has spots on its surface, like our sun, but that it also turns on its axis. * Similar phenomena are observable in Algol, Beta, in the Hare, Delta, in Ce- pheus, and Omicron, in the Whale, and many others. “Aquila the next, Divides the ether with her ardent wing: Beneath the Swan, nor far from Pégasus, PoETIC EAGLE.” HISTORY..—Aquila, or the Eagle, is a constellation usually joined with Antinous. Aquila, is supposed to have been Merops, a king of the island of Cos, in the Ar- chipelago, and the husband of Clymerſe, the mother of Phaeton; this monarch having been transformed into an eagle, and placed among the constellations. Some have imagined that Aquila was the eagle whose form Jupiter assumed when he carried away Ganymede; others, that it represents the eagle which brought nectar to Jupiter while he lay concealed in the cave at Crete, to avoid Of what importance is this star at sea? What is its declination? What place does it occupy in the heavens when on the meridian, and when does it culminate? When does it rise acronycally? Describe the position of Tarazed. Describe the roup of stars in the wing of the Eagle. Describe the row qf stars which mark the youth Antinous. What stars tº the ºorthern wing 2. Describe Zeta and Epsilon, Hºhen is Epsilon on the meridian 2 What long ºne of stars terminates at Epsilon 2 What are the direc- tion and eatent of this line? Describe the remarkable appearance of Eta. What is triferred from these phenomena? - … MAP v.] DELPHINUS. 127 the fury of his father, Saturn. Some of the ancient poets say, that this is the eagle which furnished Jupiter with weapons in his war with the giants:— “Trie tow’ring Eagle next doth boldly soar, p As if the thunder in his claws he bore; He’s Worthy Jove, since he, a bird, supplies The heaven with sacred bolts, and arms the skies.” Manilius. The eagle is justly styled the “sovereign of birds,” since he is the largest, strongest, and swiftest of all the feathered tribe that live by prey. Homer calls the eagle, “the strong sovereign of the plumy race;” Horace styles him— “The royal bird, to whom the king of heaven The empire of the feather'd race has given :” t And Milton denominates the eagle the “Bird of Jove.” Its sight is quick. strong and piercing, to a proverb: Job xxix. 28, &c. “'Though strong the hawk, though practis'd well to fly, An eagle drops her in the lower sky; An eagle when deserting human sight, She seeks the sun in her unwearied flight; Did thy command her yellow pinion liſt So high in air, and set her on the cliſt Where ſar above thy world she dwells alone, And proudly makes the strength of rocks her own; Thence wide o'er mature takes her dread survey, And with a glance predestinates her prey ! She feasts her young with blood; and höv'ring o'er Th’ unslaughter'd host, enjoys the promis'd gore.” ANTINOUS. Antin ous is a part of the constellation Aquila, and was invented by Tycho Brahe. Antinous was a youth of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. So greatly was his oeath lamented by the emperor Adrian, that he erected a temple to his memory, an fruilt in honour of him a splendid city, on the banks of the Nile, the ruins of w” ºn are still visited by travellers with much interest. / * C H A P T E R X [. JIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN SDPTEMBER. DELPHINUS. THE Dolphin.—This beautiful little cluster of stars is sit- uated 139 or 14° N. E. of the Eagle. It consists of eighteen stars, including five of the 3d magnitude, but none larger. It is easily distinguished from all others, by means of the four principal stars in the head, which are so arranged as to form the figure of a diamond, pointing N. E. and S. W. To many, this cluster is known by the name of Job’s Coffin; but from whom, or from what fancy, it first obtained this appellation, is not known. Where is the constellation Delphinus situated? What are the number and magni- tute of its stars? How is this constellation distinguished flom all others? What sin- gular name is sometimes given to this cluster, and whence was it derived? 128 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [sept. There is another star of the 2d magnitude, situated in the body of the Dolphin, about 39 S.W. of the Diamond, and marked Epsilon. The other four are marked Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta. Between these are several smaller stars, too small to be seen in presence of the moon. The mean declination of the Dolphin is about 15° N. It comes to the meridian the same moment with Deneb Cygni, and about 50 minutes after Altair, on the 16th of September. - “Thee I behold, majestic Cygnus, On the Inarge dancing of the heavenly sea, Arion's friend; eighteen thy stars appear— One telescopic.” HISTORY..—The Dolphin, according to some mythologists, was made a constel- lation by Neptune, because one of these beautiful fishes had persuaded the god- dess Amphitrite, who had made a vow of perpetual celibacy, to become the wife of that deity; but others maintain, that it is the dolphin which preserved the "famous lyric poet and musician Arion, who was a native of Lesbos, an island in the Archipelago. He went to Italy with Periander, tyrant of Corinth, where he obtained immense riches by his profession, Wishing to revisit his native country, the sailors of the ship in which he embarked, resolved to murder him, and get possession of his wealth. Seeing them immoveable in their resolution, Arion begged permis- sion to play a tune upon his lute before he should be put to death. The melody of the instrument attracted a unimber of dolphins around the ship; he immedi- ately precipitated himself into the sea; when one of them, it is asserted, carried him safe on his back to Taenarus, a promontory of Laconia, in Peloponnesus; whence he hastened to the court of Periander, who ordered all the sailors to be crucified at their return. “But, (past belief) a dolphin's arched back Preserved Arion from his destined wrack; Secure he sits, and with harmonious strains Requites his bearer ſor his friendly pains.” When the famous poet Hesiod was murdered in Naupactum, a city of Ætolia, in Greece, and his body thrown into the sea, some dolphins, it is said, brought back the floating corpse to the shore, which was immediately recognised by his friends ; and the assassins being afterwards discovered by thc dogs of the de- parted bard, were put to death, by intmersion in the same sea. Taras, said by some to have been the ſounder of Tarentum, now Tarento, in the south of Italy, was saved from shipwreck by a dolphin; and the inhabitants of that city preserved the memory of this extraordinary event on their coin. The natural shape of the dolphin, however, is not incurvated, so that one might ride upon its back, as the poefs imagined, but almost straight. When it is first taken from the water, it exhibits a variety of exquisitely beautiful but evanescent tints of colour, that pass in succession over its body until it dies. They are an extremely swift-swimming fish, and are capable of living a long time out of water; in fact, they seem to delight to gambol, and leap out of their native element, “Upon the swelling waves the dolphins show Their bending backs; then swiftly darting go, And in a thousand wreaths their bodies show.” CYGNU.S. THE Swan.—This remarkable constellation is situated in the Milky-Way, directly E. of Lyra, and nearly on the same Mention some other stars in the Dolphin, What is the mean declination of the Dol- phin, and when is it on the meridian? In what part of the heavens is the constellation Cygnus situated? MAP v.] CYGNU.S. - 129 meridian with the Dolphin. It is represented on outspread wings, flying down the Milky-Way, towards the southwest. The principal stars which mark the wings, the body and the bill of Cygnus, are so arranged, as to form a large and regular Cross ; the upright piece lying along the Milky- Way from N. E. to S. W., while the cross piece, repre- senting the wings, crosses the other at right angles, from S. E. to N. W. - Arided, or Deneb Cygni, in the body of the Swan, is a star of the 1st magnitude, 240 E. N. E. of Lyra, and 300 di- rectly N. of the Dolphin. It is the most brilliant star in the constellation. It is situated at the upper end of the cross, and comes to the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 16th of Sep- tember. Sadºr, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 6° S. W. of Deneb, situated exactly in the º or where the upright piece intersects the cross piece, and is about 20°F. Of Lyra. - Delta, the principal star in the west wing, or arm of the cross, is situated N. W. of Sadºr, at the distance of little more than S9, and is of the 3d magnitude. Beyond Delta, towards the extremity of the wing, are two smaller stars about 5° apart, and inclining a little obliquely to the north ; the last of which reaches nearly to the first coil of Draco. These stars mark the west wing; the east wing may be traced by means of stars very similarly situated. Giemah, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the east wing, just as far east of Sad’r in the centre of the cross, as Delta is west of it. This row of three equal stars, Delta, Sad’r, and Gienah, form the bar of the cross, and are equidistant from each other, being about 8° apart. Beyond Gienah on the east, at the distance of 69 or 79 there are two other stars of the 3d magnitude; the last of which marks the extremity of the eastern wing. The stars in the neck are all too small to be noticed. There is one, however, in the beak of the Swan, at the foot of the cross, called Allièreo, which is of the 3d magnitude, and can be seen very plainly. It is about 16° S. W. of Sad’r, and about the same distance S. E. of Lyra, with which it Imakes nearly a right angle. “In the small space between Sad'r and Albireo,” says Dr. Herschel, “the stars in the Milky-Way seem to be clustering into two separate divisions; each divi- sion containing more than one hundred and sirty-five thousand stars.” Albireo bears northerly from Altair about 20°. Immediately south and south- east of Albireo, may be seen the Fox and Goose ; and about midway between Albireo and Altair, there may be traced a line of four or five Iminute stars, called the ARRow; the head of which is on the S. W., and can be distinguished by means of two stars situated close together. - According to the British catalogue, this constellation con- tains eighty-one stars, including one of the 1st or 2d mag- nitude, six of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. The author of the following beautiful lines, says there are one hundred and seven. “Thee, silver Swan, who, silent, can o’erpass? A hundred with seven radiant stars compose Thy graceful ſorm: amid the lucid stream How is it represented? What remarkable figure is formed by its principal stars? Describe the position and appearance of Arided, or Deneb Cygni. When does it cul- minate at 9 o'clock? Describe the position of Sad"r. Describe Delta. What stars be: yond Delta? What stars in the east wing 2 What stars form the bar of the cross 2 What stars beyond Gienah on the east 2 Describe the stars in the neck and bill of the Swan. How is the star in the bill situated with respect to Sad'r and Lyra & º clusters south and southeast of Albire0? What are the number and magnitude of the stars in the Swan 3 - * 130 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [SEPT. Of the fair Milky-Way distinguish'd; one Adorns the second order, where she cuts The waves that follow in her utmost track; This never hides its fire throughout the night, And of the rest, the more conspicuous mark - Her Snowy pinions and refulgent neck.”—Eudosia, b. iv. Astronomers have discovered three variable stars in the Swan. Chi, situated in the neck, between Beta and Sad’r, was first observed to vary its brightness, in 1686. Its periodical changes of light are now ascertained to be completed in 405 days. Sad” is also changeable. Its greatest lustre is somewhat less than that of a star of the 3d magnitude, and it gradually diminishes till it reaches that of the 6th. Its changes are far from being regular, and, from present observations, they do not seem to recur till after a period of ten years or more. A third variable star was discovered in the head on the 20th of June, 1670, by Anthelme. It appeared then to be of the 3d magnitude, but was so far diminished in the following October, as to be scarcely visible. In the beginning of April 1671, it was again seen, and was rather brighter than at first. After sever changes, it disappeared in March, 1672, and has not been observed since. These remarkable facts seem to indicate, that there is a brilliant planetary system in this constellation, which, in some of its revolutions, becomes visible to Uls. History.—Mythologists give various accounts of the origin of this constella- tion. Some suppose it is Orpheus, the celebrated musician, who, on being mur- dered by the cruel priestess of Bacchus, was changed into a Swan, and placed near his Harp in the heavens. Others suppose it is the swan into which Jupiter tº when he deceived Leda, wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. Some affirm that it was Cicnus, a son of Neptune, who was so completely invul- nerable that neither the javelins nor arrows, nor even the blows of Achilles, in furious combat, could make any impressiqn. “Headlong he leaps from off his lofty car, And in close fight on foot renews the war;-- But on his flesh nor wound nor blåbd is seen, The sword itself is blunted on the skin.” But when Achilles saw that his darts and blows had no effect on him, he im. mediately threw him on the ground and smothered him. While he was attempt- ing to despoil him of his firmour, he was suddenly changed into a swan. “With eager haste he went to strip the dead; The vanish’d body from his arms was fled. His seagod sire, tº immortalize his fame, Had turn’d it to a bird that bears his name.” According to Ovid this constellation took its name from Cygnus, a relative of Phaeton, who deeply lamented the untimely fate of that youth, and the melan- ; end of his sisters, who, standing around his tomb, wept themselves into poplars. “Cicnus beheld the nymphs transform’d, allied To their dead brother on the mortal side, In friendship and affection nearer bound; He left the cities, and the realms he own’d, Through pathless fields, and lonely shores to range; • And woods made thicker by the sisters’ change, Whilst here, within the dismal gloom alone, The melancholy monarch made his moan; His voice was lessen’d as he tried to speak, And issued through a long-extended neck: His hair transforms to down, his fingers meet In skinny films, and shape his oary feet; From both his sides the wings and feathers break: And from his motith proceeds a blunted beak: º All Cicnus now into a swan was turn’d.”—Ovid's Met. b. ii. , What variable stars have astronomers discovered in this constellation? Which ºf these was first discovered to be variable in 1686 In what period are its periodical changes of light completed? Describe the appearance of Sadr. Describe the one dia. covered in 1670. What do these remarkable facts indicate? MAP v.] CAPRICORNUS. . 131 Virgil, also, in the 10th book of his AEneid, alludes to the same fable:- “For Cicnus loved unhappy Phaeton, And sung his loss in poplar groves alone, Beneath the sister shades to sooth his grief; Heaven heard his song, and hasten’d his relief; And changed to Snowy plumes his hoary hair, * And wing’d his flight to sing aloft in air.” - Of all the feathered race, there is no bird, perhaps, which makes so beautiful and majestic an appearance as the swan. ost every poet of eminence has taken notice of it. The swan has, probably, in all ages, and in every country where taste and elegance have been cultivated, been considered as the emblem of poetical dignity, purity, and ease. By the ancients it was consecrated to Apollo and the Muses; they also entertained a notion that this bird foretold its own end, and sang more sweetly at the approach of death. “She, like the swan Expiring, dies in melody.”—AEschylus. “So on the silver stream, when death is nigh, . & 8 º' The mournful swan sings its own elegy.”—Ovid, Tristia. ** CAPRICORNU.S. THE GoAT.—This is the tenth sign, and eleventh constel- lation, in the order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the Dolphin, and next east of Sagittarius. Its mean declination is 200 south, and its mean right ascension, 310°. It is there- fore on the meridian about the 18th of September. It is to be observed that the first point of the sign Capricorn, not the constellation, marks the southern tropic, or winter solstice. The sun, therefore, arrives at this point of its orbit the 21st of December, but does not reach the constellation Capricorn until the 16th of January. • The sun, having now attained its utmost declination south, after remaining a few days apparently stationary, begins once more to retrace its progress northwardly, affording to the wintry latitudes of the north, a grateful presage of returning Spring. At the period of the winter solstice, the sun is vertical to the tropic of Capricorn, and the southern hemisphere enjoys the same light and heat which the northern hemisphere en- joys on the 21st of June, when the sun is vertical to the tropic of Cancer. It is, at this period, mid-day at the south pole, and midnight at the north pole. The whole number of stars in this constellation is fifty- one ; none of which are very conspicuous. The three largest are only of the 3d magnitude. There is an equal number of the 4th. ". Where is Capricornus situated? What are its mean right ascension and declination? When is the main body of the constellation on the meridian A When does the Sun enter the sign, and when the constellation Capricorn? Does the sun ever extend beyond this point into the southern hemisphere 3 What is the position of the sun with re- spect to the tropic of Capricorn, at the winter solstice, and what are the seasons in the two hemispheres? hat are the number and magnitude of the stars in this con- stellation? d * 132 * PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [SEPT. The head of Capricorn may be recognised by means of two stars of the 3d magnitude, situated a little more than 20 apart, called Giedi and Dabih. They are 289 from the Dol- phin, in a southerly direction. Giedi is the most northern star of the two, and is double. If a line be drawn from Lyra through Altair, and produced about 23° farther, it will point out the head of Capricorn. These two stars come to the meridian the 9th of September, a few minutes after Sad’r, in Cygni. A few other stars, of inferior note may be traced out by reference to the maps. - The sign of the Goat was called by the ancient oriental- ists the “Southern gate of the Sun,” as Cancer was denom- inated the “Northern gate.” The ten stars in the sign Ca- pricorn, known to the ancients by the name of the “Tower of Gad,” are probably now in the constellation Aquarius. HISTORY..—Capricornus is said to be Pan, or Bacchus, who, with some other deities were feasting near the banks of the Nile, when suddenly the dreadful giant Typhon came upon thein, and compelled them all to assume a different shape, in order to escape his fury. Ovid relates, “How Typhon, ſrom the conquer'd skies, pursued Their routed godheads to the seven-mouth’d flood: Forced every gºd, (his fury to escape,) Some beastly form to take, or earthly shape. Jove (sings the bard) was chang'd into a ram, From whence the horns of Lybian Ammon came. Bacchus (, goat, Apollo was a crow ; Phoebe a cat; the wiſe of Jove a cow, Whose hue was whiter than the falling snow Mercury to a nasty Ibis turned— While Venus fi om a fish protection craves, And once more plunges in her native waves.” On this occasion it is further related that Bacchus, or Pan, led the way and plunged into the Nile, and that the part of his body which was under the water, assumed the form of a fish, and the other part that of a goat; and that to pre- serve the memory of this frolic, Jupiter made him into a constellation, in his metamorphosed shape. Some say that this constellation was the goat Amalthea, who supported the in- fant Jupiter with her milk. To reward her kindness, the father of the gods placed her among the constellations, and gave one of her horns to the ny uphs who had taken care of him in his infantile years. This gift was ever after called the horn of plenty; as it possessed the virtue of imparting to the holder what- ever she desired.” The real sense of this fable, divested of poetical embellishment, appears to be this; that in Crete, some say in Lybia, there was a small territory shaped very much like a bullock’s horn, and exceedingly fertile, which the king presented to his daughter Amalthea, whom the poets ſeigned to have been Jupiter's nurse. “The bounteous Pan,” as he is styled by Milton, was the god of rural scenery, shepherds, and huntsmen. Virgil thus addresses him:— * On this account the Latin term Cornucopia, denotes plenty, or abundance of good things. The word Amalthea, when used figuratively, has also the same meaning. How may it be recognised? How are Giedi and Dabih situated with respect to the Dolphin? How are these two stars distinguished from each other, and what is their position in respect to the Eagle When are they on our meridian? What were the signs º and Cancer originally called? Where are the ten stars, known to the ancients by the name of the “Tower of Gad,” now to be found? MAP II. J - PEGASUS. r #33 ‘And thou, the shepherd's tultelary god Leave, for a while, O Pan thy loved abode.” The name of Pam is derived from a Greek word signifying all things; and he was often considered as the great principle of vegetable and animal life. He re- sided chiefly in Arcadia, in woods and the most rugged mountains. As Pan usually terrified the inhabitants of the adjacent country, even when he was no- where to be seen, that kind of fear which often seizes men, and which is only ideal or imaginary, has received from him the name of Panic. - * CHAPTER x II. DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON THE MERIDIAN IN OCTOBER. PEGASUS. THE FLYING HoRSE-This constellation is represented in an Inverted posture, with wings. It occupies a large space in the heavens, between the Swan, the Dolphin and the Eagle, on the west, and the Northern Fish ánd Andromeda, on the east. Its mean right ascension is 340°, or it is situa- ted 20° W. of the prime meridian. It extends from the equinoctial N. 35°. Its mean length E. and W. is about 40°, and it is six weeks in passing Our meridian, viz. from the 1st of October to the 10th of November. We see but a part of Pegasus, the rest of the animal, being, as the poets imagined, hid in the clouds. It is readily distinguished from all other constellations by means of four remarkable stars, about 15° apart, forming the figure of a square, called the square of Pegasus. The two western stars in this square come to the meridian about the 23d of October, and are 13° apart. The northern one, which is the brightest of three triangular stars in the martingale, is of the 2d magnitude, and is called Scheat. Its declination is 26% o N. Markab, also of the 2d magnitude, situated in the bead of the wing, is 13° S. of Scheat, and passes the meri- dian 11 minutes after it. \ * * Pales, the female deity corresponding to Pan, was the goddess of sheepfolds and of pastures among the Romans. Thus Virgil – & “Now, sacred Pales, in a lofty strain, I sing the rural honours of thy reign.” The shepherds offered to this goddess milk and honey, to gain her protection over their flocks. She is represented as an old woman, and was worshipped with great solemnity at Rome. Her festivals which were called Palilia, were celebrated on the 20th of April, the day on which Romulus laid the foundations of the city. How is Pegasus represented? What-space and position does it occupy in the hea- vens ! What are the distance and direction of its centre from the prime meridian? what are its mean length and breadthq . How long is it in passing our meridian! When does it pass the meridian How is this constellation distinguished from all others? DCscribe the two Stars Which º the West side of the square? 134 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [oCT. The two stars which form the eastern side of the square, come to the meridian about an hour after those in the western. The northern one has already been described as Alpheratz in the head of Andromeda, but it also belongs to this constel- lation, and is 14° E. of Scheat. 14° S. of Alpheratz, is Al- genib, the last star in the wing, situated 1639 E. of Markab. Algenib, in Pegasus, Alphératz, in Andromeda, and Caph in Cassiopeia are situated on the prime meridian, and point out its direction through the pole. For this reason, they are sometimes called the three guides. They form an arc of that great circle in the heavens from which the distances of all the heavenly bo- dies are measured. It is an arc of the equinoctial colure which passes through the vernal equinox, and which the sun crosses about the 21st of March. It is, in astronomy, what the meridian of Greenwich is in geography. If the sun, or a planet, or a star, be said to have so many degrees of right ascension, it Imeans that the sun or planet has ascended so many degrees from this prime Irieridian. Eniſ, sometimes called Emir, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the nose of Pe- gasus, about 20° W. S. W. of Markab, and halfway between it and the 1)olphin, About # of the distance from Markab towards Eniſ, but a little to the S., there is a star of the 3d magnitude situated in the neck, whose letter name is Zeta. The loose cluster directly S. of a line joining Enif and Zeta, forms the head of Pe- gaSuS. in this constellation, there are eighty-nine stars visible to the naked eye, of which three are of the second magnitude * and three of the third. HISTORY.—This, according to fable, is the celebrated horse which sprung from the blood of Medusa, after Perseus had cut off her head. He received his name according to Hesiod, from his being born near the sources (ºrh)º, Pege) of the ocean. According to Ovid, he fixed his residence on Mount Helicon, where by striking the earth with his foot, he raised.the fabled fountain called Hippocrene. He became the favourite of the Muses; and being famed by Neptune or Mi- nerva, he was given to Bellerophon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyre, to aid him in conquering the Chimaera, a hideous monster that continually vomited flames. This monster had three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. The fore parts of its body were those of a lion, the middle those of a goat, and the hinder those of the dragon. It lived in Lycia, of which the top, on account of its deso- late wilderness, was the resort of lions, the middle, which was fruitful, was cow- ered with goats, and at the bottom, the marshy ground abounded with serpents. Bellerophon was the first who made his habitation upon it. ... Plutarch thinks the Chimaera was the captain of some pirates who adorned their ship with the images of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. After the destruction of this monster, Bellerophon attempted to fly up to hea- ven upon Pegasus; but Jupiter was so displeased at this presumption, that he sent an insect to sting the horse, which occasioned the melancholy fall of his rider. Bellerophon fell to the earth, and Pegasus continued his flight up to hea- ven, and was placed by Jupiter among the constellations. “Now heav'n his further wand'ring flight confines, Where, splendid with his num’rous stars, he shines.” - Ovid's Fast. &========= / EQUULUS, VEL EQUISECTIO. THE LITTLE HORSE, OR THE HORSE’s HEAD.—This Aste- rism, or small cluster of stars, is situated about 7° W. of Emif, in the head of Pegasus, and about halfway between it Describe the two on the east side. What is the name of the star in the N. E. corner of the square?. In the S. E. corner? In the S. W. corner? In the N. W. corner De- scribe the position and magnitude of Erzäf. What is the whole number of stars in ; p *: # the magnitude of the principal ones? Describe the situation of the Yê Llú.16. HOTS6 - MAP II.] AQUARIUS. 135 and the Dolphin. It is on the meridian at 8 o’clock, on the 11th of October. It contains ten stars, of which the four principal are only of the 4th magnitude. These may be readily distinguished by means of the long irregular square which they form. The two in the nose, are much nearer to- gether than the two in the eyes; the former being 1° apart, and the latter 24°. Those in the nose are uppermost, being 40 N. of those in the eyes. This figure also is in an inverted position. These four stars are situated 100 or 120 S. E. of the diamond in the Dolphin’s head. Both of these clusters, are noticeable on account of their figure rather than their brilliancy. r History.—This constellation is supposed to be the brother of Pegasus, named Celeris, given by Mercury to Castor, who was so celebrated for his skill in the management of horses; others take him to be the celebrated horse which Nep- tune struck out of the earth with his trident, when he disputed with Minerva for superiority. The head only of Celeris is visible, and this, also, is represented in an inverted position. AQUARIUS. THE WATER-BEARER.—This constellation is represented by the figure of a man, pouring out water from an urn. It is situated in the Zodiac, immediately S. of the equinoctial, and bounded by the Little Horse, Pegasus, and the Western Fish on the N., the Whale on the E., the Southern Fish on the S. and the Goat on the W. It is now the 12th in order, or last of the Zodiacal constellations; and is the name of the 11th sign in the ecliptic. Its mean declination is 14° S. and its mean right ascension 335°, or 22 hours, 20 min. ; it being 1 hour and 40 min. W. of the equinoctial colure; its centre is, therefore, on the meridian the 15th of October. It contains one hundred and eight stars; of which the four largest are all of the 3d magnitude. “His head, his shoulders, and his lucid breast, Glisten with stars; and where his urn inclines Rivers of light brighten the wat'ry track.” The northeastern limit of Aquarius may be readily distin- guished by means of four stars of the 4th magnitude, in the hand and handle of the urn, so placed as to form the letter Y, very plainly to be seen, 15° S. E. of Emif, or 18° S. S. W. of Markab, in Pegasus; making with the two latter nearly a right angle. When is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the agnitude of the principal ones? How may the principal stars be distinguished? ow are the two in the nose distinguished from the two in the eyes? What are their istance and direction from the Dolphing. On what account are these clusters noticea. e? How is Aquarius represented? Where is it situated? What is its present order among the constellations of the Zodiacº What are its right ascension and declination? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? How may the N.E. limit of Aquarius be readily distinguished? What are the distance and direction of this letter Y, from Markab and Enif, in Pegasus? : 136 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. LoGT. About 44° W. of this figure is El Melik, a star of the 3d magnitude, in the E. shoulder, and the principal one in this constellation. 10° S. W. of El Melik, is another star of the same imagnitude, situated in the W. shoulder, called Sades Sawd. Ancha of the 4th magnitude, is in the right side, 8° S. of El Melik. 9° E. of Ancha, is another star of the 4th magnitude, whose letter maine is Lambda. Scheat, of the 3d magnitude, lying below the knee, is situated 89 S. of Lamb: da; and 14° S. of Scheat, the brilliant star Fomalhäut,” of between the 1st and 2d magnitudes, terminates the cascade in the mouth of the Southern Fish. This star is common to both these constellations, and is one of those from which the lunar distance is computed for ascertaining the longitude at sea. It culminates at 9 o'clock on the 22d of October. Fomalhaut,” Deneb Kaitos, and Alpha in the head of the Phºenix, make a large triangle, whose vertex is in Deneb Kaitos. Those two stars of the 4th magnitude, situated 49 S. of Sad es Saud, and nearly the same distance from Ancha, are in the tail of Capricorn. They are about 29 apart. The western one is called Deneb Algedi. The rest of the stars in the cascade are quite small; they may be traced from the letter Y, in the urn, in a southeasterly direction towards the tail of Cetus, from which the cascade suddenly bends off near Scheat, in an opposite course, and finally disappears in the mouth of the Southern Fish, 30° S. of Y. HISTORY..—This constellation is the famous Ganymede, a beautiful youth of Phrygia, son of Tros, king of Troy, or, according to Lucian, son of Dardanus. He was taken up to heaven by Jupiter as he was tending his father’s flocks on Mount Ida, and became the cupbearer of the gods in place of Hebe. There are various opinions, however, among the ancients respecting its origin. Some Sup- pose it represents Deucalion, who was placed among the stars after the celebra- ted deluge of Thessaly, 1500 years beſore the birth of our Saviour; while others think it designed to commemorate Cecrops, who came from Egypt to Greece, founded Athens, established science, and introduced the arts of polished life. The ancient Egyptians supposed the setting or disappearance of Aquarius, caused the Nile to rise, by the sinking of his urn in the water.—In the Zodiac of the Hebrews, Aquarius répresents the tribe of Reuben. PISCIS AUSTRALIS, VEL NOTIUS. THE SouTHERN FISH.—This constellation is directly S. of Aquarius, and is represented as a fish drinking the water which Aquarius pours from his urn. Its mean declination is 31° S. and its mean right ascension and time of passing the meridian are the same as those of Aquarius, and it is seen on the meridian at the same time; viz., on the 15th of October. It contains 24 visible stars, of which one is of the 1st magni- tude or between the 1st and 2d, two are of the 3d, and five of the 4th. The first and most beautiful of all is Fomalhaut, situated in the mouth. This is 14° directly S. of Scheat in Aquarius, and may be seen passing the meridian low down in the southern hemisphere, on the 22d and 23d of October. * Pronounced Fo-ma-lo. What is the name of the principal star in this constellation? What is its position 2 What star in the W. shoulder? Describe the situation of Ancha. What is the post- tãor of Scheat and Fomalhaut 2 . To what constellations is Fomalhaut common 2 Of what nautical importance is it 2 When does it culminate 2 With what other stars does it form a large triangle? How may you trace the stars in the cascade? Describe the situation and appearance of the Southern Fish. What are its mean right ascension and declination? When is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars What is the magnitude of its principal ones? What are the name and position of the most brilliant star in the constellation? When and where does it pass the meridian VARIABLE AND DoublE STARs, &c. 137 Its position in the heavens has been determined with the É. possible accuracy, to enable navigators to find their ongitude at sea. - The mode of doing this cannot be explained here. The problem is one of some difficulty. It consists in finding the angular distance between some star whose position is well known, and the moon when she is passing near it; also, the altitude of each, at the same instant, with good sextants. These data furnish the elements of a spherical triangle, the solution of which, after various intricate corrections, is made to result in the longitude of the given place,—See note to Arieties. In 1714, the British Parliament offered a reward of 10,000 pounds ster- ling, to any man who should discover a method of determining the longitude within 19, or 60 geographic miles of the truth; 15,000 pounds to the man who should find it within 40 miles, and 20,000 pounds, if found within 30 miles. These rewards in part have been since distributed among eminent mathematicians, in. Europe, agreeably to the respective merits of their discoveries. HISTORY.—This constellation is supposed to have taken its name from the transformation of Venus into the shape of a fish when she fled, terrified at the horrible advances of the monster Twphon, as we have related in the mythology of the Fishes.—(See Pisces.) - - CHAPTE R x III. WARIABLE AND DOUBLE STARS–CLUSTERS–NEBULHE. 1. WARIABLE STARs.-The periodical variations of brilliancy to which some of the fixed stars are subject, may be reckoned among the most remarkable of their phenomena. Several stars, formerly distinguished by their splendour, have entirely disappeared; others are now conspicuous which do not seem to have been visible to the ancient observers; and there are some which alternately appear and disappear, or, at least, of which the light undergoes great periodic changes. Some seem to become gradually more obscure, as Delta in the Great Bear; others, like Beta in the Whale, to be increasing in brilliancy. Some stars have all at once blazed forth with: great splendour, and, after a gradual diminution of their light, again become extinct. The most remarkable instance of this kind is that of the star which appeared in 1572, in the time of Tycho Brahe. It suddenly shone forth, in the constella- tion Cassiopeia, with a splendour exceeding that of stars of the first magnitude, even of Jupiter and of Venus, at their least distances from the earth; and, could be seen, with the naked eye, on the meridian, in full day ! Its brilliancy gradu- ally diminished from the time of its first appearance, and at the end of sixteen months, it entirely disappeared, and has For what purpose has its position been very accurately determined: Describe the pe- riodical variations of brilliancy to which some of the fixed stars are subject? Mention some of the most remarkable instances of such variations, and describe them particu- larly, y 12+ 3:4::1 138 . DOUBLE STARS. never been seen since. (See a more particular account of this phenomenon, page 40.) • * Another instance of the same kind was observed in 1604, when a star of the first magnitude suddenly appeared in the right foot of Ophiuchus. It presented, like the former, all the phenomena of a prodigious flame, being, at first, of a dazzling white, then of a reddish yellow, and, lastly, of a leaden pale- ness; in which its light expired. These instances prove that the stars are subject to great physical revolutions.—Page 41. A great number of stars have been observed whose light seems to undergo a regular periodic increase and diminution. They are properly called Variable Stars. One in the Whale has a period of 334 days, and is remarkable for the magni- tude of its variations. From being a star of the second mag- nitude, it becomes so dim as to be seen with difficulty through powerful telescopes. Some are remarkable for the shortness of the period of their variation. Algol has a period of between two and three days; Delta Cephei, of 5 days; Beta Lyrae, of 62-5 days; and Mu Antinoi, of 7 days. The regular succession of these variations precludes the supposition of an actual destruction of the stars; neither can the variations be supposed to arise from a change of distance; for as the stars invariably retain their apparent places, it would be necessary to suppose that they approach to, and recede from the earth in straight lines, which is very improbable. The most probable supposition is, that the stars revolve, like the sun and planets, about an axis. “Such a motion,” says the elder Herschel, “may be as evidently proved, as the diur- nal motion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the surface, less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in certain directions, either towards or from us, will account for all the phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the stars, so satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look for any other cause.” 2. DoDELE STARs.—On examining the stars with telescopes of considerable power, many of them are found to be com- posed of two or more stars, placed contiguous to each other, or of which the distance subtends a very minute angle. This appearance is, probably, in many cases, owing solely to the optical effect of their position relative to the spectator; for it is evident that two stars will appear contiguous if they are What are such stars denominated? Describe the variations of one in the Whale. What stars are remarkable for the shortness of the period of their variations? Why may we not suppose that the stars which disappear are actually destroyed? Why may not the variations arise from a change of distance? What is the most probable suppo- sition in regard to their cause How does Dr. Herschel explain these phenomena? On examining the stars with a telescope of considerable power, what other peculiarity • Go we find? To what Is this appearance, in many cases, owing? DOUBLE STARS. - 139 placed nearly in the same line of vision, although their real distance may be immeasurably great. - There are, however, many instances in which the angle of position of the two stars varies in such a manner as to indi- cate a revolution about each other and about a common cen- tre. In this case they are said to form a Binary System, performing to each other the office of sun and planet, and are connected together by laws of gravitation like those which prevail in the solar system. The recent observations of Sir John Herschel and Sir James South, have established the truth of this singular fact, beyond a doubt. Motions have been detected, so rapid as to become measurable within very short periods of time; and at certain epochs, the satellite or feebler star has been observed to disappear, either passing behind or before the primary, or approaching so near to it that its light has been absorbed by that of the other. The most remarkable instance of a regular revolution of this sort, is that of Mizar, in the tail of the Great Bear; in which the angular motion is 6 degrees and 24 minutes of a great circle, annually; so that the two stars complete a revo- fution about one another in the space of 58+ years. About eleven twelfths of a complete circuit have been already de- scribed since its discovery in 1781, the same year in which the planet Herschel was discovered. A double star in Ophiuchus presents a similar phenomenon, and the satellite has a motion in its orbit still more rapid. Castor, in the Twins,” Gamma Virginis, Zeta in the Crab, 2i Bootis, Delta Serpentis, and that remarkable double star 61 Cygni, together with several others, amounting to 40 in number, f exhibit the same evidence of a revolution about each other and about a common centre. But it is to be remem- bered that these are not the revolutions of bodies of a planet- ary nature around a solar centre, but of sun around sun– each, perhaps, accompanied by its train of planets, and their satellites, closely shrouded from our view by the splendour of their respective suns, and crowded into a space bearing hardly a greater proportion to the enormous interval which separates them, than the distances of the satellites of our plan- * Page 67. t Herschel's Astronomy, page 391. Are there, however, any instances where one star revolves with another around a common centre?, When two stars are thus situated, what system are they said to form? Why is it thus denominated? What modern astronomers of great celebrity- have established the truth of this theory? What rates of motion did they detect in these binary systems? What other interesting phenomena, indicating a mutual revo- lution, did they discover? What is the most remarkable instance of this fact? ... Men- tion some other instances. Are these revolving stars of a planetary nature? Of what nature are they? 140 Double STARs, ets from their primaries, bear to their distances from the sun itself. - * The examination of double stars was first undertaken by the late Sir William Herschel, with a view to the question of parallax. His attention was, however, soon arrested by the new and unexpected phenomena which these bodies pre- sented. Sir William observed of them, in all, 2400. Sir James South and Her- Schel have given a catalogue of 380 in the Transactions of the Royal Society, for 1824, and South added 458, in 1826. Sir John Herschel, in addition to the above, published an account of 1000, before he left England for the Cape of Good Hope, Where he is, at the time we write, pushing his discoveries in the southern hem- isphere with great perseverance and success. Professor Struve, with the great º telescope, has given a catalogue of 3,063 of the most remarkable of these Siłł.T.S. The object of these catalogues is not merely to fix the place of the star within such limits as will enable us easily to discover it at any future time, but also to record a description of the appearance, position, and mutual distances, of the individual stars composing the system, in order that subsequent observers may have the means of detecting their connected motions, or any changes which they may exhibit. Professor Struve has also taken notice of 52 triple stars, among which No. 11 of the Unicorn, Zeta of Cáncer, and Zi of the Balance, appear to be termary systems in motion. Quadruple and quintuple stars have likewise been observed, which also appear to revolve about a common centre of gravity; in short, every region of the heavens furnishes examples of these curious phe- In OIGerla, Colour of the Stars.-Many of the double stars exhibit the curious and beautiful phenomenon of contrasted colours, or complimentary tints. In such instances, the larger star is usually of a ruddy or orange hue, while the smaller one ap- pears blue or green, probably in virtue of that general law of optics, which provides, that when the retina is under the in- fluence of excitement by any bright, coloured light, feebler º which seen alone would produce no sensation but that of whiteness, shall for the time appear coloured with the tint complimentary to that of the brighter. Thus, a yellow colour predominating in the light of the brighter star, that of the less bright one, in the same field of view, will appear blue; while, if the tint of the brighter star verge to crimson, that of the other will exhibit a tendency to green—or even appear a vivid green. The former contrast is beautifully exhibited by Iota, in Cancer; the latter by Almaach, in Andromeda—both fine double stars. If, however, the coloured star be much the less bright of the two, it will not materially affect the other. Thus, for instance, Eta Cassiopeiae exhibits the beautiful combina- tion of a large white star, and a small one of a rich ruddy purple. - It is not easy to conceive what variety of illumination two suns—a red and a green, or a yellow and a blue one—must afford to a planet revolving about either; and what charming What beautiful and curious phenomenon has been observed, as it regards the colour of double stars? Explain how these colours are usually contrasted. Mention an ex- ample of this phenomenon. How, if the coloured star be much the less bright of the two, will the other be affected? Give an instance. What may be the effect of such a variety of colou" in solar light? - - CLUSTERS. - i4 | contrasts and grateful vicissitudes—a red and a green da”, for instance, alternating with a white one and with darkness —might arise from the presence or absence of one or the other, or.both, above the horizon. Insulated stars of a red colour, almost as deep as that of blood, occur in many parts of the heavens, but no green or blue star (of any decided hue) has, ve believe, ever been noticed, unassociated with a companion brighter than itself. - CLUSTERs.--When we cast our eyes over the concave sur- face of the heavens in a clear night, we do not fail to observe that there are, here and there, groups of stars which seem to be compressed together more densely than those in the neigh- bouring parts; forming bright patches and clusters. There is a group called the Pleiades, in which six or seven stars may be noticed, if the eye be directed full upon it; and many more if the eye be turned carelessly aside, while the at- tention is kept directed” upon the group. Telescopes show fifty or sixty large stars thus crowded together in a very mod- erate space, and comparatively insulated from the rest of the heavens. Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars in this small cluster. The constellation, called Coma Berenices, is another group, more diffused, and consisting of much larger StarS. In the constellation Cancer, there is a nebulous cluster of very minute stars, called Praesepe, or the Beehive, which is sufficiently luminous to be seen by the naked eye, in the ab- sence of the moon, and which any ordinary spyglass will re- solve into separate stars. In the sword-handle of Perseus, also, is another such spot, crowded with stars. It requires, however, rather a better telescope to resolve it into individual stars. These are called Clusters of Stars. Whatever be their nature, it is certain that other laws of aggregation subsist in these spots, than those which have determined the scattering of stars over the general surface of the sky. Many of them, indeed, are of an exactly round figure, and convey the idea of a globular space filled full of stars, and constituting, in it- self, a family or society apart, and subject only to its own internal laws. - “It would be a vain task,” says the younger Herschel, “to * “It is a very remarkable fact,” says Sir John Herschel, “that the centre of the visual organ is by far less, sensible to feeble impressions of light, than the exterior portions of the retina.”—Ast. p. 398. Are individual stars of a deep colour ever found separate from others? What are clusters of stars? Mention some instance. Describe it. Mention some other instance. Describe the position and appearance of Praesepe. Describe any other cluster. Which you may recollect. What are the constitution and figure of such groups? What £he younger Herschel say of the number of stars which compose these clusters? 142 NEBULE. attempt to count the stars in one of these globular clusters. They are not to be reckoned by hundreds ; for it would ap- ear that many clusters of this description must contain, at east, ten or twenty thousand stars, compacted and wedged together in a round space, not more than a tenth part as large as that which is covered by the moon. * 4. NEBULE.—The Nebulae, so called from their dim, cloudy appearance, form another class of objects which furnish mat- ster for curious speculation, and conjecture respecting the for- mation and structure of the sidereal heavens. When exam- ined with a telescope of moderate powers, the greater part of the nebulae are distinctly perceived to be composed of little stars, imperceptible to the naked eye, because:Son account of their apparent proximity, the rays of light proceeding from each are blended together, in such a ‘manner as to produce only a confused luminous appearance. In other nebulae, however, no individual stars can be per- ceived, even through the best telescopes; and the nebulae exhibit only the appearance of a self-luminous or phosphores- cent patch of gaseous vapour, though it is possible that even in this case, the appearance may be owing to a congeries of stars so minute, or so distant, as not to afford, singly, sufficient light to make an impression on the eye. $ In some instances a nebula presents the appearance of a faint luminous atmosphere, of a circular form, and of large extent, surrounding a central star of considerable brilliancy. One of the most remarkable nebulae is in the sword-handle of Orion, . It is formed of little flocky masses, like wisps of cloud, which seem to adhere to many small stars at its out- skirts. It is not very unlike the mottling of the sun’s disk, but of a coarser grain, and with darker intervals. These wisps of light, however, present no appearance of being composed of small stars; but in the intervals between them, we fancy that we see stars, or that, could we strain our sight a little more, we should see them. These intervals may be compa- red to openings in the firmament, through which, as through a window, we seem to get a glimpse of other heavens, and brighter regions beyond.-Page 58. Another very remarkable nebula is that in the girdle of An- dromeda, which, on account of its being visible to the naked eye, has been known since the earliest ages of astronomy. It is often mistaken for a comet, by those unacquainted with the Why are the nebulae so called? Describe the usual appearances of nebulae, as seen through a telescope. What other appearance do-nebulae'sometimes exhibit? Mention Some instances of the most remarkable nebulae. Describe the one in the sword- handle of Orion. Describe the one which is in the girdle of Andromeda. , NEBULE. 143 heavens. Marius, who noticed it in 1612, describes its ap- pearance as that of a candle shining through horn; and the resemblance is certainly very striking. Its form is a long oval, increasing, by insensible gradations of brightness, from the circumference to a central point, which, though very much brighter than the rest, is not a star, but only a nebula in a high state of condensation. No power of vision hitherto di- rected to this nebula has been able to resolve it into the least appearance of stars. It occupies an area comparatively large —equal to that of the moon in quadrature.—This º, may be considered as a type, on a large scale, of a very numerous class of nebulae, of a round or oval figure, increasing more or less in density towards the centre. Annular nebulae also exist, but are among the rarest ob- jects in the heavens. The most conspicuous of this class, is to be found exactly halfway between the stars Beta and Gamma Lyrae, and may be seen with a telescope of moderate power. It is small, and particularly well defined; appearing like a flat oval ring. The central opening is not entirely dark, but is filled with a faint, hazy light, uniformly spread over it, like a fine gauze stretched over a hoop. Planetary nebulae are very extraordinary objects. The have, as their name imports, the appearance of planets, wit round or slightly oval disks, somewhat mottled, but approach- ing, in some instances, to the vividness of actual planets. Some of them, upon the supposition that they are equally dis- tant from us with the stars, must be of enormous magnitude. That one, for instance, which is situated in the left hand of Aquarius, must have a volume vast enough, upon the lowest computation, to fill the whole orbit of Herschel ! The nebulae furnish an inexhaustible field of speculation and conjecture. That by far the larger number of them con- sists of stars, there can be little doubt; and in the intermina- ble range of system upon system, and firmament upon firma- ment, which we thus catch a glimpse of the imagination is bewildered and lost. Sir William Herschel conjectured that the nebulae might form the materials out of which nature elaborated new suns and systems, or replenished the wasted light of older ones. But the little we know of the physical constitution of these sidereal masses, is altogether #: to warrant such a conclusion. Of what class of nebulae may this be considered as a type? What other species of nebulae exist in the heavens? Describe the most conspicuous of this class. What other species of nebulae are more rarely found? Describe the appearance of planetary nebulae. What do we know in regard to their magnitude? How large must the one be which is situated in the left hand of Aquarius? What did Sir William Herschel Con” . jecture as to the use of the nebulae? Have we facts sufficient to warrant such a con- jecture ? - 144 VIA LACTEA, OR [MAP VIII. C H A P T E R XIV. VIA LACTEA. “Throughout the Galaxy's extended line, Unnumber'd orbs in gay confusion shine: Where every star that gilds the gloom of night With the ſaint tremblings of a distant light, Perhaps illumes sonie system of its own, With the strong influence of a radiant sun.”—Mrs. Carter : THERE is a luminous zone or pathway of singular white- ness, varying from 49 to 209 in width, which passes quite round the heavens. The Greeks called it GALAxy, on ac- count of its colour and appearance: the Latins, for the same reason, called it VIA LACTEA, which, in our tongue, is Milky- Way. ... Of all the constellations which the heavens exhibit to our view, this fills the mind with the most indescribable gran- deur and amazement. When we consider what unnumbered millions of mighty sums compose this cluster, whose distance is so vast that the strongest telescope can hardly separate their mingled twilight into distinct specks, and that the most contiguous of any two of them may be as far asunder as our sun is from them, we fall as far short of adequate language to express our ideas of such immensity, as we do of instru- ments to measure its boundaries. It is one of the recent achievements of astronomy that has resolved the Milky-Way into an infinite number of small stars, whose confused and feeble lustre occasions that pe- culiar whiteness which we see in a clear evening, when the moon is absent. It is also a recent and well accredited doc- trine of astronomy, that all the stars in the universe are ar- ranged into clusters, or groups, which are called NEBULE or STARRY SYSTEMs, each of which consists of many thousands of stars.' - The fixed star which we call ouR SUN, belongs, it is said, to that extensive nebula, the Milky-Way ; and although ap- parently at such an immeasurable distance from its fellows, is, doubtless, as near to any one of them, as they are to one another. . . Of the number and economy of the stars which compose this group, we have very little exact knowledge. Dr. Her- schel informs us that, with his best glasses, he saw and ºwhat do you understand by the Milky-Way? By what different names is it called? Arwhy does the contemplation of this constellation fill the mind with ideas of grandeur and amazement? What causes the whiteness of the Milky Way? Ainto what are all the stars in the universe arranged? / To what nebula does the §urfbelong, and what is probably its distance from its fellows? What knowledge have we of the number and economy of the stars in this group? - MAP VIII.] , MILKY-WAY. J 145 counted 588 stars in a single spot, without moving his tele- scope; and as the gradual motion of the earth carried these out of view and introduced others successively in their places, while he kept his telescope steadily fixed to one point, “there passed over his field of vision, in the space of one quarter of an hour, no less than one hundred and siarteen thousand stars, and at another time in forty-one minutes, no less than two hundred and fifty-eight thousand.” In all parts of the Milky-Way he found the stars unequally dispersed, and appearing to arrange themselves into separate clusters. In the small space, for example, between Beta and Sad’r, in Cygni, the stars seem to be clustering in two di- visions; each division containing upwards of one hundred and sixty-five thousand stars. At other observations, when examining a section of the Milky-Way, not apparently more than a yard in breadth, and six in length, he discovered fifty thousand stars, large enough to be distinctly counted; and he suspected twice as many more, which, for want of sufficient light in his telescope, he saw only now and then. (It appears from numerous observations, that various changes are taking place among the nebulae—that several nebulae are formed by the dissolution of larger ones, and that many ne- bulae of this kind are at present detaching themselves from the Milky-Way. In that part of it which is in the body of Scorpio, there is a large opening, about 4° broad, almost destitute of stars. These changes - seem to indicate that mighty movements and vast operations are continually going on in the distant regions of the universe, upon a scale of mag- nitude and grandeur which baffles the human understanding. More than two thousand five hundred nebulae have already been observed ; and, if each of them contains as many stars as the Milky-Way, several hundreds of millions of stars must exist, even within that portion of the heavens which lies open to our observation. “O what a confluence of ethereal fires, From urns unnumber'd down the steep of heaven Streams to a point, and centres on my sight.” Although the Milky-Way is more or less visible at all seasons of the year, yet it is seen to the best advantage du- ring the months of July, August, September, and October. When Lyra is on, or near the meridian, it may be seen How many did Dr. Herschel count in a single spot during the space of 15 minutes? How did he find the stars dispersed, throughout the Milky-Way? Give an example. Give another instance. /What changes are taking place in the Milky-Way and other nebulae? What do these changes indicate? How many nebulae have been discovered? If each of these nebulae contains as many stars as the Milky-Way, how many stars must exist even in that portion of the heavens which lies, open to ºur observation? Where and at what period may the Mºvº,be seen to the best advantage? ‘s & 146 ORIGIN OF THE stretching obliquely over the heavens from northeast to south- west, gradually moving over the firmamelºt in common with other constellations. Its form, breadth and appearance are varicus, in different parts of its course. In some places it is dense and luminous; in others, it is scattered and ſaint. Its breadth is often not more than five degrees; though sometimes it is ten or fifteen degrees, and even twenty. In some places it assumes a double path, but for the most part it is single. It may be traced in the heavens, beginning near the head of Cepheus, about 30° from the north pole, through the constellations Cassiopeia. Perseus, Auriga, and part of Orion and the ſect of Gemini, where it crosses the Zodiac ; thence over the equinoctial into the southern Heinis); here, through Monoceros, and the middle of the ship Argo, where it is utost iunimous, Cinarles's Oak, the Cross, the feet of the Centaur, and the Altar l; ere it is iivided into two branches, as it passes over the Zodiac again into the ºthern hºnºsphere. One branch runs through the tail of Scorpio, the bow of Sagittarius, the shield of Sobieski, the feet of Antinous, Aquila, Delphinus, the Arrow, and the Śwan. The other branch passes through the upper part of the tail of Scorpio, the side of Serpentarius, Taurus Poniatowski, the Goose and the neck of the Swan. where it again unites with the other branch, and passes on to the i.ead of Ceplieus, the place of its be- ginning. - There are several other nebulae in the heavens as large as the Milky-Way, but riot visible to the maked eye, which may exhibit the phenomenon of a lucid zone to the planetary worlds that may be placed within them.” Some of the pagan philosophers maintained that the Milky-Way was formerly the sun’s path, and that its present luminous appearance is the track which its scattered beams leſt visible in the heavens, - The ancient poets and even philosophers, speak of the Galaxy, or Milky-Way, as the path which their deities used in the heavens, and which led directly to the throne of Jupiter. Thus, Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, Book i. :— “A way there is in heaven’s extended plain, Which when the skies are clear is seen below, And mortals, by the maine of Milky, know ; The groundwork is of stars, through which the road Lies open to the Thunderer's abode.” Milton alludes to this, in the following lines:— “A broad and ample road, whose dust is gold, And pavement, stars, as stars to thee appear, Seen in the Galaxy, that Milky-Way, Which nightly, as a circling zone, thou seest Powdered with stars.” CHAPTE R xv. ORIGIN OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. THE science of astronomy was cultivated by the Imme- diate descendants of Adam. Josephus informs us that the Describe the breadth and appearance of the Milky-Way. How may it be traced in ..he heavens? Are there other nebulae in the heavens as large as the Milky-Way ºf{ow early was the science of astronomy cultivated? What authority have we for ting so fºrly a date to the science? sº CONSTEL!. ATIONS. - 147 sons of SETH employed themselves in the study of astronomy; and that they wrote their observations upon two pillars, one of brick, and the other of stone,” in order to preserve them against the destruction which ADAM had foretold should come upon the earth. He also relates, that Abraham argued the unity and power of God, from the orderly course of things both at sea and land, in their times and seasons, and from his observations upon the motions and influences of the sun, moon, and stars; and that he read lectures in astronomy and arithmetic to the Egyptians, of which they understood noth- ing till Abraham brought these sciences from Chaldea to Egypt; from whence they passed to the Greeks. (BEROSUs also observes that Abraham was a great and just man, and famous for his celestial observations; the making of which was thought to be so necessary to the human wel- fare, that he assigns it as the principal reason of the Al- mighty’s prolonging the life of man. This ancient historian tells us, in his account of the longevity of the antediluvians, that I’rovidence found it necessary to prolong man’s days, in order to promote the study and advancement of virtue, and the improvement of geometry and astronomy, which required, at least, six hundred years for making and perfecting obser- vations.f. When Alexander took Babylon, Calisthenes found that the most ancient observations existing on record in that city, were made by the Chaldeans about 1903 years before that period, which carries us back to the time of the dispersion of mankind by the confusion of tongues. It was 1500 years after this that the Babylonians sent to Hezekiah, to inquire about the shadow’s going back on the dial of Ahaz.” 3. * It is therefore very probable that the Chaldeans and Egyp- tians were the original inventors of astronomy; but at what period of the world they marked out the heavens into constel- lations, remains in uncertainty. La Place fixes the date thirteen or fourteen hundred years before the Christian era, since it was about this period, that Eudoxus constructed the first celestial sphere upon which the constellations were de-’ Jºsephus affirms, that “he saw himself that of stone to remain in Syria in his OWI), tin le. - f Vince's Complete System of Astronomy, Vol. ii. p. 244. .*What does Josephus relate concerning Abraham's knowledge of astronomy? Who, . does he say, first introduced this science into Egypt? What other historian of remote antiquity-speaks of Abraham's attention to this science?, What reason does Berosus assign for the longevity of the antetliluvians ? a when Alexander took Babylon, what aucient observations did he find in that city To what period of the world do these observations carry us back T. How long after this was it that the Babylonians sent to Hezekiah, to inquire abolit the shadow's going back on the dial of Ahaz º.º.Who, then, may we conclude, were the original inventors of astronomy, and at whât per e they arrange the fixed stars into constellations 3 When does La Place ſix the date? 14|S - origiN of THE lineated.* Sir Isaac Newton was of opinion, that all the old constellations related to the Argonautic expedition, and that they were invented to commemorate the heroes and events of that memorable enterprise. It should be remarked, however, that while mone of the ancient constellations refer to transac- tions of a later date, yet we have various accounts of them, of a much higher antiquity than that event.) Some of the most learned antiquarians of Europe have searched every page of heathen mythology, and ransacked all the legends of poetry and fable for the purpose of rescuing this subject from that impermeable mist which rests upon it, and they have only been able to assure us, in general terms, that they are Chaldean or Egyptian hieroglyphics, intended to perpetuate by means of an imperishable record, the memory of the times in which their inventors lived, their religion and manners, their achievements in the arts, and whatever in their history, was most worthy of being commemorated. There was at least, a moral grandeur in this idea; for an event thus registered, a custom thus canonized, or thus enrolled among the stars, must needs survive all other traditions of men, and stand forth in perpetual characters to the end of time. In arranging the constellations of the Zodiac, for instance, it would be natural for them, we may imagine, to represent those stars which rose with the sun in the spring of the year, by such animals as the shepherds held in the greatest esteem at that season; accordingly, we find Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, as the symbols of March, April, and May. * The usual size of artificial globes, designed to represent the celestial sphere, is from 9 to 18 inches in diameter. Globes have been recently constructed in Germany, Which are said to be more splendid and complete than any in the world. The largest ever 7made are that of Gottorp, two in the library of the late king of France, and one. in Pembroke college, Cambridge. . . The globe of Gottorp, now in the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, is a large hollow sphere, eleven and a half feet in diameter, containing a table and seats for twelve H. The inside represents the visible surface of the heavens, bespangled With gilded stars, ranged in their proper order and magnitude, and by means of a cu- rious piece of mechanism by which it is put in motion, exhibits the true position of the stars, at any time, together with their rising and setting. The convex surface, or Outside of this #. represents the terrestrial sphere. In 1704, two globes of equal dimensions, it is said, were made for Cardinal d’Estrees, by Cornelli, a Venitian, and deposited in the king's library at Paris. These, however, are far inferior in size to one of similar construction, erected at Pembroke college, in the University of Cambridge, by the late Dr. Long, president of that institution. This is a hollow sphere, sufficiently capacious to admit thirty persons to sit within it, Where they can observe the artificial world of stars and planets, revolving over their #;" Same Order as they are seen in the heavens. This sphere is eighteen feet What opinion has Sir Isaac Newton advanced upon this subject? Have we however, any accounts of the constellations, of a higher antiquity than that event? Do any of the ancient constellations refer to transactions of a later date? What have the most learned antiquarians of Europe done upon this subject, and of what do they assure us? How long would the memory of an action, or event, thus registered, be likely to ;ºn afranging the constellations of the Zodiac, how was it natural to represent Sºº's . . & - * * CONSTE!. LATIONS. - 149 2. : When the sun enters the sign Cancer, at the summer sol- sºice, he discontinues his progress towards the north pole, and : ... ims to return, towards the south pole. This retrograde mo– : , ) was fitly represented by a Crab, which is said to go back- *... :: *ds. The sun enters this sign about the 22d of June. The heat which usually follows in the next month, was yº presented by the Lion ; an animal remarkable for its fierce- ress, and which at this season was frequently impelled by thirst, to leave the sandy desert, and make its appearance on the banks of the Nile. t The sun entered the sixth sign about the time of harvest, which season was therefore represented by a Virgin, or female. - *==-& reaper, with an ear of corn in her hand. At the autumnal equinox, when the sun enters Libra, the . days and nights are equal all over the world, and seem to ob- serve an equilibrium or balance. The sign was therefore represented under the symbol of a pair of Scales. Autumn, which produces fruit in great abundance, brings with it a variety of diseases, and on this account was repre- sented by that venomous animal the Scorpion, which, as he recedes, wounds with a sting in his tail. The fall of the leaf was the season for hunting, and the stars which mark the . sun’s path at this time were represented by a huntsman, or * archer, with his arrows and weapons of destruction. The Goat, which delights in climbing and ascending some mountain or precipice, is the emblem of the winter solstice, when the sun begins to ascend from the southern tropic, and gradually to increase in height for the ensuing half year. Aquarius, or the Water-Bearer, is represented by the figure of a man pouring out water from an urn, an emblem of the dreary and uncomfortable season of winter. The last of the zodiacal constellations was Pisces, or a couple of fishes, tied back to back, representing the fishing season. The severity of winter is over; the flocks do not afford sustenance, but the seas and rivers are open and abound with fish. } “Thus monstrous forms, o'er heaven's nocturnal arch, Seen by the sage, in pomp celestial march; See Aries there his glittering bow unfold, And raging Taurus toss his horns of gold; With bended bow the sullen Archer lowers, And there Aquarius comes with all his showers; t what sign was represented under the figure of a Crab, and why? When does,the gun enter this sign? What animal represented the heat of summer, and why? When does the sun enter the sixth sign, and how is this season represented? Why was the sign which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox represented under the symbol of a Balance? Why were the autumnal signs, Scorpio and Sagittarius, represented as they are What does the Goat represent? What is signified by the Water-Bearer? What do the Fishes represent? . - 13% 150 ORIGIN OF THE Lions and Centaurs, Gorgons, Hydras rise, And gods and heroes blaze along the skies.” Whatever may have led to the adoption of these rude names at first, they are now retained to avoid confusion. The early Greeks, however, displaced many of the Chal- dean constellations, and substituted such images in their place as had a more special reference to their own history. The Romans, also, pursued the same course with regard to their history; and hence the contradictory accounts that have de- scended to later times. Some, moreover, with a desire to divest the science of the stars of its pagan jargon and profanity, have been induced to alter both the names and figures of the constellations. In doing this, they have committed the opposite fault; that of blending them with things sacred. The “venerable Bede,” for example, instead of the profane names and figures of the twelve constellations of the Zodiac, substituted those of the twelve apostles. Julius Schillerius, following his example, completed the reformation in 1627, by giving Scripture names to all the constellations in the heavens. Weigelius, too, a celebrated professor of mathematics in the university of Jena, made a new order of constellations, by converting the firma- ment into a COELUM HERALDICUM, in which he introduced the arms of all the princes of Europe. But astronomers, gene- rally, never approved of these innovations; and for ourselves, we had as lief the sages and heroes of antiquity should con- tinue to enjoy their fancied honours in the sky, as to see their places supplied by the princes of Europe. ... • The number of the old constellations, including those of the Zodiac, was only forty-eight. As men advanced in the knowledge of the stars, they discovered many, but chiefly in southern latitudes, which were not embraced in the old con- stellations, and hence arose that mixture of ancient and mod- ern names which we meet with in modern catalogues. * The order of the signs is thus described by Dr. Watts — The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins And next the Crab, the Lion shines, The Virgin, and the Scales; - The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-Goat, The Man that holds the Water-Pot, And Fish, with glittering tails. Similar to this are the Latin verses:– Sunt, aries, taurus, genini, cancer, leo, virgo, Libragºte, &corpius, arcítenens, Caper, amphora, pisces. Why have attempts been made to change the names and figures of the ancient con- stellations? What fault has been committed in doing this? What did the venerable Bede substitute for the profane names and figures of the twelve constellations of the Zodiacº Who followed his example, and to what extent? What other change was attempted, and by whom? Have astronomers, generally approved of these innova: tions? What was the number of the old constellations? Whence is the mixture of ancient and modern names which We meet with in modern Catalogues? - CONSTELLATIONS. 151 Astronomers divide the heavens into three parts, called the northern and southern hemispheres, and the Zodiac. In the northern hemisphere, astronomers usually reckon thirty-four constellations; in the Zodiac twelve, and in the southern hemisphere forty-seven; making, in all, ninety-three. Besides these, there are a few of inferior note, recently formed, which are not considered sufficiently important to be particularly described. - f ... • * , About the year 1603, John Bayer, a native of Germany, invented the convenient system of denoting the stars in each constellation by the letters of the Greek alphabet, applying to the largest star the first letter of the alphabet; to the next largest the second letter, and so on to the last. Where there are more stars in the constellation than there are Greek let- ters, the remainder are denoted by the letters of the Roman alphabet, and sometimes by figures. By this system of no- tation, it is now as easy to refer to any particular star in the heavens, as to any particular house in a populous city, by its street and number. - Before this practice was adopted, it was customary to de- note the stars by referring them to their respective situations in the figure of the constellation to which they severally be- longed; as the head, the arm, the foot, &c. . * It is hardly necessary to remark that these figures, which are all very curiously depicted upon artificial globes and maps, are, purely, a fanciful invention—answering many convenient ends, however, for purposes of reference and classification, as they enable us to designate with facility any particular star, or cluster of stars; though these clusters very rarely, if ever, represent the real figures of the object whose names they bear. And yet it is somewhat remarkable that the name of “Great Bear,” for instance, should have been given to the very same constellation by a nation of American aborigines, (the Iro- quois,) and by the most ancient Arabs of Asia, when there never had been any communication between them Among other nations, also, between whom there exists no evidence of any intercourse, we find the Zodiac divided into the same number of constellations, and these distinguished by nearly the same names, representing the twelve months, or seasons of the year. * * - The history of this whimsical personification of the stars carries us back to the earliest times, and introduces us, as we have seen, to the languages and customs, the religion and How do astronomers usually divide the heavens, and what is the number of con- stellations in each division? What convenient system of notation has been invented for denoting the stars in each constellation? Who invented this system 3 Before this method was introduced, what was the practice? # 152 NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND º poetry, the sciences and arts, the tastes, talents, and recºr genius, of the early nations of the earth. The ancient Atial- tides and Ethiopians, the Egyptian priests, the magi of Per- sia, the shepherds of Chaldea, the Bramins of India, the man- darins of China, the Phoenician navigators, the philosophers of Greece, and the wandering ‘Arabs, have all added more or less to these curious absurdities and ingenious inven- tions, and have thus registered among the stars, as in a sort of album, some memorial of themselves and of the times in which they lived. The constellations, or the uncouth figures by which they are represented, are a faithful picture of the ruder stages of civilization. They ascend to times of which no other record exists; and are destined to remain when all others shall be lost. Fragments of history, curious dates and documents relating to chronology, geography, and languages, are here preserved in imperishable characters. The adver- tures of the gods, and the inventions of men, the exploits of heroes, and the fancies of poets, are here spread out in the heavens, and perpetually celebrated before all nations. The Seven stars, and Orion, present themselves to us, as they appeared to Amos and Homer: as they appeared to Job, more than 3000 years ago, when the Almighty demanded of him— “Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven 2 Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the PLEIADEs, or loose the bands of ORION ? Canst thou bring forth MAzzAROTH in his season, or canst thou guide ARCTURUs with his sons º' Here, too, are consecrated the lyre of Orpheus, and the ship of the Ar- gonauts; and, in the same firmament, glitter the mariner's compass and the telescope of Herschel. C H A P T E R X I V. NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND ECONOMY OF THE STARs. Y THE first conjecture in relation to the distance of the fixed stafs, is, that they are all placed at an equal distance from the observer, upon the visible surface of an immense concave vault, which rests upon the circular boundary of the world, and which we call the Firmament. 2 We can with the unassisted eye, form no estimate of their. respective distances; nor has the telescope yet enabled us to arrive at any exact results on this subject, although it has re- vealed to us many millions of stars that are as far removed *What is the first conjecture which we form in relation to the distances of the fixed " stars? What means have we for ascertaining their number and distance? - * *... . Economy of THE STARs. 153 beyond those which are barely visible to the naked eye, as these are from us. .Viewed through the telescope, the hea- vens become quite another spectacle—not only to the under- standing, but to the senses. New worlds burst upon the sight, and old ones expand to a thousand times their former dimen- sions. Several of those little stars which but feebly twinkle on the unassisted eye, become immense globes, with land and water, mountains and valleys, encompassed by atmos- pheres, enlightened by moons, and diversified by day and might, summer and winter. - Beyond these are other suns, giving light and life to other systems, not a thousand, or two thousand merely, but multi- plied without end, and ranged all around us, at immense dis- tances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten thousand worlds, all in rapid motion ; yet calm, regular and harmonious—all space seems to be illuminated, and every particle of light a world.) … It has been computed that one hundred millions of stars which cannot be discerned by the naked eye, are now visible through the telescope. And yet all this vast assemblage of suns and worlds may bear no greater proportion to what lies heyond the utmost boundaries of human vision, than a drop of water to the ocean; and, if stricken out of being, would be no more missed, to an eye that could take in the universe, than the fall of a single leaf from the forest. 1 r 2. We should therefore learn, (says an eminent divine of the present century,”) not to look on our earth as the universe of God, but as a single, insignificant atom of it; that it is only one of the many mansions which the Supreme Being has created for the accommodation of his worshippers; and that he may now be at work in regions more distant than geome- try ever measured, creating worlds more manifold than num- bers ever reckoned, displaying his goodness, and spreading over all, the intimate visitations of his care. e The immense distance at which the nearest stars are known to be placed, proves that they are bodies of a prodigious size, not inferior to our sun, and that they shine, not by reflected rays, but by, their own native light. It is thérefore concluded, with good reason, that every fixed star is a sun, no less spacious than ours, surrounded by a retinue of planetary worlds, which *AChalmers. How do the heavens appear through the telescope A What are beyond those little stars which are scarcely visible to the naked eye?, How many stars are visible through the telescope? What proportion may this vast assemblage of suns and worlds bear to what lies beyond the utmost boundaries of human vision?, How should we . learn from this to regard our own earth? What does the immensedſstance of the stars, prove in regard to their magnitude and º º 154 NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND . revolve around it as a centre, and derive from it light and heat, and the agreeable vicissitudes of day and night. These vast globes of light, then, could never have been de- signed merely to diversify the voids of infinite space, nor to Shed a few glimmering rays on our far distant world, for the amusement of a few astronomers, who, but for the most pow- erful telescopes, had never seen the ten thousandth part of them. We may therefore rationally conclude, that wherever the All-wise Creator has exerted his creative power, there also he has placed intelligent beings to adore his goodness. “Hipparchus, the father of astronomy, first made a catalogue of the fixed stars. It contained 1022. The accuracy with which the places of these were recorded, has conferred essential benefit upon the science, and has enabled us to solve unany celestial phenomena and problems of chronology, which other- wise had been difficult. During the 18th century, upwards of 100,000 were catalogued by the various astronomers of Europe, and their position in the heavens determined with an exactness that seldom varied a second from the truth ; insolnuch that it has been justly remarked, that “there is scarcely a star to be seen in the heavens, whose place and situation is not better known than thal of lilost cities and towns upon the earth.” But the stargazers of our times are not idle. Professor Bessell of Konigs- berg, observed in three years, it is asserted, between 30,000 and 40,000 stars, comprehended within a zone of 13° on each side of the equator; but even this great number is but a small portion of the whole number which lie within the limit of the zone which he examined. To procure a more complete survey, the academy of Berlin proposed that this same zone should be parcelled out almong twenty-four observers, and that each should confine himself to an hour of right ascension, and examine it in minute detail. This plan was adopted; and the 18th Irour was confided to Professor Inghirami, of Florence, and examined with so much care, that the positions of 75,000 stars in it, have been deterulined. Pro- fessor M. Štruve, of the Dorpat university, has examined in person, 130,000 stars, of which 800 (double ones) were before unknown to science. The labours of Sir Wm. Herschel were chiefly devoted to exploring the sys- terms of nebulae and double stars that lie, for the luost part, beyond the reach of ordinary telescopes. No fewer than two thousand five hundred nebulae were observed by this indefatigable astronomer, whose places have been conſputed from his observations, reduced to a common epoch. and arranged into a cata- logue in order of their right ascension, by his sister Miss CAROLINE HERSCHEL, a lady so justly celebrated in Europe for her astronomical knowledge and dis- coveries, but whose name, strange as it is, is seldom mentioned in this country. Be it remembered, nevertheless, for her ſame, flat she discovered two of the satellites of the planet which bears her brother’s name, besides a multitude of COInetS. . The greatest possible ingenuity and pains have been taken by astronomers to determine, at least, the approximate dis- tance of the nearest fixed stars. If they have hitherto been unable to arrive at any satisfactory result, they have at least, established a limit beyond which the stars must necessarily be placed. If they have failed to calculate their true distan- ces from the earth, it is because they have not the requisite data. The solution of the problem, if they had the data, would not be more difficult than to compute the relative dis- * * : * : *, *, *. = ... What conclusion may be drawn from tà . have astronomers taken to find thé dištá: come to? For what reason have tºº. lem a difficult one? - tº: ECONOMY OF THE STARS. 155 .." t tances of the planets—a thing which any school-boy can do. In estimating so great a distance as the nearest fixed star, it is necessary that we employ the longest measure which astronomy can use. Accordingly, we take the whole diame- ter of the earth’s orbit, which, in round numbers, is 190 millions of miles, and endeavour, by a simple process in mathematics, to ascertain how many measures of this length are contained in the mighty interval which separates us from the stars. The method of doing this can be explained to the appre- hension of the pupil, if he does not shrink from the illustra- tion, through an idle fear that it is beyond his capacity. For example; suppose that, with an instrument construct- ed for the purpose, we should this might take the precise bear- ing or angular direction from us of some star in the northern hemisphere, and note it down with the most perfect exact- Hess, and, having waited just six months, when the earth shall have arrived at the opposite point of its orbit, 190 mill- ions of miles east of the place which we now occupy, we should then repeat our observation upon the same star, and see how much it had changed its position by our travelling , so great a distance one side of it. Now it is evident, that if it changes its apparent position at all, the quantity of the change will bear some proportion to the distance gone over ; that is, the nearer the star, the greater the angle; and the more remote the star, the less the angle. It is to be observed, that the angle thus found, is called the star's Annual Par- allaw. Af But it is ſound by the most eminent astronomers of the age, and the most perfect instruments ever made, that this parallax does not exceed the four thousandth part of a de- gree, or a single second ; so that, if the whole great orbit of the earth were lighted up into a globe of fire 600 millions of miles in circumference, it would be seen from the nearest star only as a twinkling atom ; and to an observer placed at this distance, our sun, with its whole retinue of planetary worlds, would occupy a space scarcely exceeding the thickness of a spider’s web.” If the nearest of the fixed stars are placed at —t— * A just idea of the import of this term, will impart a force and sublimity to an ex- pression of St.James, which no power of words could improve. . It is said, Chapterſ. verse 17., of Him from whom cometh down every good and perfect gift, that there is “ovz ayu ºrapaxxºn a ſporn; azroaxixaga.” Literally, There is “neither par- allay nor shadow of change:” As if the apostle had said–Perallventure, that in tra: velling millions and millions of miles through the regions of immensity, there may be a sensible parallax to some of the fixed stars; yet, as to the Father of Lights; view. him from whatever point of his Empire we may, he is without parallay or shadow change 1 What measure is employed in estimating .. e distances Of the fixed stars? How, is it used? What is the angle thus ſºft §§§ is the greatest magnitude of the annual parallax? ºf , " . . . \ : 156 NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND such inconceivable distances in the regions of space, with what line shall we measure the distance of those which are a thousand or a million of times as much farther from them, as these are from us. . e If the annual parallax of a star were accurately known, it would be easy to compute its distance by the following rule: As the sine of the star’s parallax: Is to radius, or ninety degrees: : So is the Earth’s distance from the sun: To the star’s distance from the sun. If we allow the annual parallax of the nearest star to be 1", the calculation will be, As 0.000004848.136S=Nat. Sine of 1/7. Is to 1.0000000000000–Nat. Sine of 90°. - So is 95,273,868.867748554=Earth’s distance from the sun. To 19,651,627,683,449=Star’s distance from the sun. In this calculation we have supposed the earth to be placed at the mean dis- tance of 24,047 of its own semi-diameters, or 95.273,868.86774S554 miles from the sun, which makes the star’s distance a very little less than twenty billions of miles. Dr. Herschel says that Sirius cannot be nearer than 100,000 times the diameter of the earth’s orbit, or 19,007,788,800,000 of miles. Biot, who either takes the earth’s distance greater than he lays it down in his Traité’ Elementaire d’Astronomie Physique, or has made an errour in figures, makes the distance 20,086,868,036,404. Dr. Brewster makes it 20,159,665,000,000 miles. A mean of these computations, is 20 billions; that is, 20 millions of mill- ions of miles, to a parallax of I’ Astronomers are generally agreed in the opinion that the annual parallax of the stars is less than 1", and consequently that the nearest of them is placed at a much greater distance from us, than these calculation's make it. It was, how- ever, announced during the last year, that M. D’Assas, a French astronomer, had satisfactorily established the annual parallax of Keid, (a small star 89 N. of Ganama. Eridani,) to be 2'', that of Rigel, in Orion to be 1”. 43, and that of Sirius to be l’’. 24. If these results may be relied on, Keid is but 10 billions, Rigel but 14 billions, and Sirius 16 billions of miles from the earth. This latter distance is, however, so great that, if Sirius were to fall towards the earth at the rate of a million of miles a day, it would take it forty three thousand, three hundred years to reach the earth; or, if the Almighty were now to blof it out of the heavens, its 'brilliance would continue undiminished in our hemisphere for the space of three years. The most brilliant stars, till recently, were supposed to be situated nearest the earth, but later observations prove that ...this opinion is not well founded, since some of the smaller stars appear to have, not only a greater annual parallax, but an absolute motiën in space, much greater than those of the brightest class. *. What conclusion may be drawn from this fact in regard to the distances of the fixed stars? If the annual parallax of a star were known, by what simple rule could you coºpute its distance? If we allow the annual pataifax of the nearest star to be i’’, what will its distance be? What is a mean of the calculations of different, astron- omers, ſor a parallgæ of 1* 2 What recent observations indicate à greater parallaº, to some of the stars? If the parallaº of Sirius be 1” .24, what will be its distance? How long would it require, passing through this distance, at the rate of a million of miles a day, to reach the earth, and how long would its light continue, undiminished to us, were it to be biotted from the heavens? What has been supposed to be the rela- tive distance of the most brilliant stars from the earth? What do later observations . prove, in regard to this opinion? ECONOMY OF THE STARS. 157 * It has been computed that the light of Sirius, although twenty thousand million times less than that of our Sun, is, nevertheless, three hundred and twenty-four times greater than that of a star of the sixth magnitude. If we suppose the two stars to be really of the same size; it is easy to show that the star of the sixth magnitude is fifty-seven and one third times farther from us than Sirius is, because light diminishes as the square of the distance of the luminous body increases. By the same reasoning it may be shown, that if Sirius were placed where the sun is, it would appear to us to be four times as large as the Sun, and give four times as much light and heat. It is by no means unreasonable to suppose, that many of the fixed stars exceed a million of miles in diameter. * 2- We may pretty safely affirm, then, that stars of the sixth magnitude, are not less than 900 millions of millions of miles distant from us; or a million of times farther from us than the planet Saturn, which is scarcely visible to the naked eye. But the human mind, in its present state, can no more appre- ciate such distances than it can infinity; for if our earth, which moves at more than the inconceivable velocity of a mill- ion and a half of miles a day, were to be hurried from its orbit, and to take the same rapid flight over this immense tract, it would not traverse it in sixteen hundred thousand years; and every ray of light, although it moves at the rate of one hundred and ninety-three thousand miles in a single second of time, is more than one hundred and seventy years in com- ing from the star to us. | But what is even this, compared with that measureless ex- tent which the discoveries of the telescope indicate? Ac- cording to Dr. Herschel, the light of some of the nebulae, just perceptible through his 40 feet telescope, must have been a million of ages in coming to the earth; and should any of them be now destroyed, they would continue to be perceptible for a million of ages to come. T}r. Herschel informs us, that the glass which he used, would separate stars at 497 times the distance of Sirius. It is one of the wonders of creation that any phenomena of bodies at such an immense distance from us should be perceptible by human sight; but it is a part of the Divine Maker’s plan, that although they do not act physically upon us, yet they should so far be objects of our perception, as \ Suppose the light of Sirius to be twenty thousand million times less than that of our sun, how would it compare with that of a star of the sixth magniflude? If we suppose the two stars to be of the same size, how much farther off is the star of the sixth magnitude, than Sirius is? Suppose Sirius to be placed where our Sun is, how? would its apparent magnitude, and its light and heat compare ºpith those ºf the sun ? , What may we generally affirm of the distance of stars of the sixth magnitude? Can the human mind appreciate such distances? What illustrations can you give to show their immensity 3 What is this distance compared with that of the telescopic stars, and the nebulae? Why are we able to see bodies at so great a distance? 158 NUMBER, DISTANCF, AND to expand our ideas of the vastness of the universe, and of the stupendous extent and operations of his omnipotence. “With these facts before us,” says an eminent astronomer Z and divine, “it is most reasonable to conclude, that those ex- | pressions in the Mosaic history of Creation, which relates to the creation of the fixed stars, are not to be understood as referring to the time when they were brought into existence, as if they had been created about the same time with our earth; but as simply declaring the fact, that, at whatever pe- riod in duration they were created, they derived their exist- ence from God.” - “That the stars here mentioned,” (Gen. i. 16.) says a dis- tinguished commentator,” “were the planets of our system, and not the fixed stars, seems a just inference from the fact, that after mentioning them, Moses immediately subjoins, “And Elohim set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth, and to rule over the day and over the night; evidently alluding to Venus and Jupiter, which are alternately dur morning and evening stars, and which ‘give light upon the earth,’ far surpassing in brilliancy any of the fixed stars.” | However wast the universe now appears; however numerous the worlds which may exist within its boundless range, the language of Scripture, and Scripture alone, is sufficiently comprehensive and sublimé, to express all the emotions which naturally arise in the mind, when contemplating its structure. This shows not only the harinomy which subsists between the discoveries of the Revelation and the discoveries of Science, but also forms by itself, a strong presutuptive evidence, that the records of the Bible are authentic and diviſie. We have hitherto described the stars as being immoveable and at rest; but from a series of observations on double stars, Dr. Herschel found that a great many of them have changed their situations with regard to each other; that some perform revolutions about others, at known and regular periods, and that the motion of some is direct, while that of others is re- trograde; and that many of them have dark spots upon their surface, and turn on their axes, like the sun. I A. A remarkable change appears to be gradually taking place * in the relative distances of the stars from each other in the constellation Hercules. The stars in this region appear to be spreading farther and farther apart, while those in the v opposite point of the heavens seem to close nearer and nearer together in the same manner as, when walking through a * S. Turner, F. S. A. R. A. S. L., 1832. *----~ *-* *-* * ~ *—------- ... With these facts before us, what may we reasonably conclude with regard to the * expressions in the Mosaic history which relate to the creation of the fixed stars? What is the opinion ºf Mr. Turner in regard to the stars here mentioned?, To what is the expression, ºſo rule over the day and over the night,” supposed to allude? , Give some account ºf the real motions of the fixed stars. Awhat remarkable changes are taking place in the constellation Hercules? t * ,- EconoMy of THE STARs. 159 forest, the trees towards which we advance, appear to be constantly separating, while the distance between those which we leave behind, is gradually contracting. 2- . From this appearance it is concluded, that the Sun, with all its retinue of planetary worlds, is moving through the re- gions of the universe, towards some distant centre, or around some wide circumference, at the rate of sixty or seventy thousand miles an hour; and that it is therefore highly prob- able, if not absolutely certain, that we shall never occupy that portion of absolute space, through which we are at this moment passing, during all the succeeding ages of eternity.* I The author of the CHRISTIAN PHILosopher endeavours to convey some idea of the boundless extent of the universe, by the following sublime illustration:- “Suppose that one of the highest order of intelligences is endowed with a power of rapid motion superior to that of light, and with a corresponding degree of intellectual energy; that he has been flying without intermission, from one pro- vince of creation to another, for six thousand years, and will continue the same rapid course for a thousand millions years to come; it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that, at the end of this vast tour, he would have advanced no far- ther than the ‘suburbs of creation,’—and that all the magnifi- cent systems of material and intellectual beings he had sur- veyed, during his rapid flight, and for such a length of ages, bear no more oroportion to the whole empire of Omnipotence, than the smallest grain of sand does to all the particles of rºatter contained in ten thousand worlds.” / . Were a seraph, in prosecuting the tour of creation in the manner now stated, ever to arrive at a limit beyond which no farther displays of the Divinity could be perceived, the thought would overwhelm his faculties with unutterable emo- tions; he would feel that he had now, in some measure, comprehended all the plans and operations of Omnipotence, and that no farther manifestation of the Divine glory remain- ed to be explored. But we may rest assured that this can never happen in the case of any created intelligence. There is moreover an argument derivable from the laws of the physical world, that seems to strengthen, I had almost said, to confirm, this idea of the Infinity of the material universe. It is this—If the number of stars be finite and occupy only a part of space, the outward stars would be continually attracted * Professor Bessel does not fall in with this prevailing opinion. What conclusion is drawn from this appearance?, Shall we then prºbably ever occupy that portion of space through which we are now passing, again? -What illus-- tration does the author of the Christian Philosopher give in order to convey some idea of the boundless exterit of the universe?, Were a scraph ever to arrive at a limit beyond which no farther displays of the divine glory could be perceived, how would the idea affect him? Is It probable that such a place exists in the universe, or Within the scope of any created intelligence 3 160 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. * to those within, and in time would unite in one. But if the number be infinite, and they occupy an infinite space, all parts would be nearly in equilibrio, and coº- sequently each fixed star, being equally attracted in every direction, would keep its place. No wonder, then, that the Psalmist was so affected with the idea of the immensity of the universe, that he seems almost afraid lest he should be overlooked amidst the im- mensity of beings that must needs be under the superintend- ence of God; or that any finite mortal should exclaim, when contemplating the heavens—“What is man, that THOU art mindful of him ſ” C H A P T E R X W II. FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. ſº ^ THE phenomenon of shooting stars, as it is called, is com- mon to all parts of the earth; but is most frequently seen in tropical regions. The unerring aim, the startling velocity, and vivid brightness with which they seem to dart athwart the sky, and as suddenly expire, excite our admiration; and we often ask, “What can they be?” ” - 2. But frequent as they are, this interesting phenomenon is not well understood. Some imagine that they are occasioned by electricity, and others, that they are nothing but luminous gas. Others again have supposed, that some of them are luminous bodies which accompany the earth in its revolution around the sun, and that their return to certain places might be calculated with as much certainty and exactness as that of any of the comets. / Dr. Burney, of Gosport, kept a record of all that he ob- served in the course of several years. The number which he noticed in 1819, was 121, and in 1820, he saw 131. Pro- fessor Green is confident that a much larger number are am- nually seen in the United States. Signior Baccaria supposed, they were occasioned by elec- tricity, and thinks this opinion is confirmed by the following observations. About an hour after sunset, he and some friends, that were with him, observed a falling star, directing its course directly towards them, and apparently growing larger and larger, but just before it reached them it disap- A. Where does the phenomenon of falling, or shooting stars occur? What is there to excite our admiration in this phenomenon?, Is this interesting phenomenon Well ºn. derstood? What are the different opinions in regard to them? How many shooting stars did Dr. Burney observe in the years 1819 and 1820? Is it probable that a much larger number is seen every year in the United States? What did Baccaria suppºse they were occasioned by, and what observations did he make to strengthen his Opinion? s | FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. . j6? peared. On vanishing, their faces, hands, and clothes, with the earth, and all the neighbouring objects, became suddenly illuminated with a diffused and lambent light. It was attend- ed with no noise. During their surprise at this appearance, a servant informed them, that he had seen a light shine sud- denly in the garden, and especially upon the streams which he was throwing to water it. The Signior also observed a quantity of electric matter col- lect about his kite, which had very much the appearance of a falling star. Sometimes he saw a kind of halo accompanying the kite, as it changed its place, leaving some glimmering of light in the place it had quitted. Shooting stars have been supposed by those meteorologists who refer them to electricity or luminous gas, to prognosticate changes in the weather, such as rain, wind, &c.; and there is, perhaps, some truth in this opinion. The duration of the brilliant tract which they leave behind them, in their motion through the air, will probably be found to be longer or shorter, according as watery vapour abounds in the atmosphere. The motion that this phenomenon betokens high winds, is of great antiquity. Virgil, in the first book of his Georgics, expresses the same idea:— “Saepe ejiam stellas vento impendente widebis Praecipites cºlo labi; noctisque per umbram Flammarum longos a tergo albescere tractus. And oft, before tempestuous winds arise, The seeming stars fall headlong from the skies, And shooting through the darkness, gild the night With sweeping glories and long trails of light.” The number of shooting stars, observed in a single night, though variable, is commonly very small. There are, how- ever, several instances on record of their falling in “showers” —when every star in the firmament seems loosened from its sphere, and moving in lawless flight from one end of the heavens to the other. As early as the year 472, in the month. of November, a phenomenon of this kind took place near Constantinople. As Theophanes relates, “The sky appeared to be on fire,” with the corruscations of the flying meteors. A shower of stars, exactly similar took place in Canada, between the 3d and 4th of July, 1814, and another at Montreal, in November, 1819. In all these cases, a residuum, or black dust, was deposited upon the surface of the waters, and upon the roofs of buildings, and other objects. In the year 1810, “inflamed sub- stances,” it is said, fell into and around lake Van, in Armenia, which stained the water of a blood colour, and cleft the earth in various places. On the 5th of g What was the appearance upon streams of water? What did he observe at this time about his kite? What connexion are they supposed to have with meteorology? What circumstance may we probably find to confirm this idea? Is this notion of very ancient, or of modern date? What is, usually, the number of shooting stars observed in a single night? When, and where, occurred the first instance, on record, of their falling in great numbers? Mention some other instances. What remarkable vestige was left by these meteoric showers? 14% 162 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. September, 1819, a like phenomenon was seen in Moravia. History furnishes many more instances of meteoric showers, depositing a red dust, in some places, so plentiful as to admit of chylnical analysis. The commissioner, (Mr. Andrew Ellicott,) who was sent out by Our government to fix the boundary between the Spanish possessions in North America and the United States, witness- ed a very extraordinary flight of shooting stars, which filled the whole atmosphere from Cape Florida to the West India Islands. This grand phenomenon took place the 12th of November, 1799, and is thus described:—“I was called up,” says Mr. Ellicott, “about 3 o'clock in the morning, to see the shooting stars, as they are called. The phenomenon was grand and awful. The whole heavens appeared as if illu- minated with skyrockets, which disappeared only by the light of the sun, after daybreak. The meteors, which at any one instant of time, appeared as numerous as the stars, flew in all possible directions except from the earth, towards which they all inclined more or less, and some of them descended perpendicularly over the vessel we were im, so that I was in constant expectation of their falling on us.” Mr. Ellicott further states that his thermometer which had been at 80° Fahr. for the four days preceding, fell to 56° about 4 o’clock, A. M., and that nearly at the same time, the wind changed from the south to the northwest, from whence it blew with great violence for three days without intermission. These same appearances were observed, the same night, at Santa Fe de Bogota, Cumana, Quito, and Peru, in South America; and as far north as Labrador and Greenland, ex- tending to Weimar in Germany, being thus visible over an extent on the globe of 649 of latitude, and 949 of longitude. The celebrated Humboldt, accompanied by M. Bompland, then in S. America, thus speaks of the phenomenon:--"Towards the morning of the 13th of No. vember, 1799, we witnessed a most extraordinary scene of shooting meteors. Thousands of bolides, and failing stars succeeded each other during four hours. Their direction was very regular from north to south. From the beginning of the phenomenon there was not a space in the firmament, equal in extent to three diameters of the moon, which was not filled, every instant, with b0lides or falling stars. . All the meteors left luminous traces, or phosphorescent bands behind them, which lasted seven or eight seconds.” This phenomenon was witnessed by the Capuchin missionarv at San Fer- nando de Afiura, a village situated in lat. 7° 53' 12", amidst the savannahs of the province of Varinas; by the Franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of , the Oronoco, and at Marca, on the banks of the Rio Negro, lat, 29 40' long. 70° 21', and in the west of Brazil, as far as the equator itself; and also at the city of Porto Cabello, lat. 109 6' 52”, in French Guiana, Popayan, Quito, and Peru. . It is somewhat surprising that the same appearances, observed in places so widely separated, amid the vast and lonely deserts of South America, should have been seen, the same night, in the United States, in Labrador, in Greenland, * and at Itterstadt, near Weimar, in Germany Recite instances of a similar ſcind, in which a red dust has been deposited. Describe the phenomenon of shooting stars described by Mr. Ellicott, in 1799. Describe the same phénomenon as seen, in South Aºterica, by Humboldt and others. In what other garis of the earth, was it witnessed, and by whom 2 t FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. 163 We are told that thirty years before, at the city of Quito, “There was seen in one part of the sky, above the volcano of Cayamburo, so great a number of falling stars, that the mountain was thought to be in flames. This singular sight lasted more than an hour. The people assembled in the plain of Exida, where a magnificent view presents itself of the highest summits of the Cordilleras. A procession was already on the point of setting out from the convent of St. Francis, when it was perceived that the blaze on the horizon was caused by fiery meteors, which ran along the sky in all directions, at the altitude of 12 or 13 degrees.” 2. But the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars, of which the world has furnished any record, was witnessed throughout the United States on the morning of the 13th of November, 1833. The entire extent of this astonishing exhibition has not been precisely ascertained, but it covered no inconsiderable portion of the earth’s surface. It has been traced from the łongitude of 61°, in the Atlantic ocean, to longitude 1000 in Cºntral Mexico, and from the North American lakes to the , , est Indies. it was not seen, however, any where in Europe, nor in South America, nor in any part of the Pacific ocean yet heard from. Every where, within the limits abovementioned, the first appearance was that of fireworks of the most imposing grandeur, covering the entire vault of heaven with myriads of fireballs, resembling skyrockets. Their corruscations were bright, gleaming and incessant, and they fell thick as the flakes in the early snows of December. To the splen- dours of this celestial exhibition, the most brilliant skyrockets and fireworks ..of art, bear less relation than the twinkling of the most tiny star, to the broad glare of the sun. The whole heavens seemed in motion, and suggested to some the awful grandeur of the image employed in the apocalypse, upon the opening of the sixth seal, when “the stars of heaven fell unto the earth, even as a fig-tree casteth her untimely figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind.” f One of the most remarkable circumstances attending this display was, that the meteors all seemed to emanate from one and the same point, a little southeast of the zenith. Following the arch of the sky, they ran along with immense velocity, Describe another phenomenon of a similar kind, seen in South America about thirty years before...When occurred the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars of which the world has any record? How extensively was it witnessed? What was the first appearance of the phenomenon? What scene in the apocalypse, did itsug- gest to some? From what point did the meteors appear to emanate?" Describe their motion. w j64 FALLING, or shooting STARs. describing in some instances, an arc of 300 or 40° in a few seconds. On more attentive inspection it was seen, that the meteors exhibited three distinct varieties; the first, consisting of phosphoric lines, apparently described by a point; the second, of large fireballs, that at intervals darted along the sky, leav- ing luminous trains, which occasionally remained in view for a number of minutes, and, in some cases, for half an hour or more ; the third, of undefined luminous bodies, which remain- ed nearly stationary in the heavens for a long time. Those of the first variety were the most numerous, and resembled a shower of fiery snow driven with inconceivable velocity to the north of west. The second kind appeared more like falling stars—a spectacle which was contemplated by the more unenlightened beholders with great amazement and terrour. The trains which they left, were commonly white, but sometimes were tinged with various prismatic colours, of great beauty. , These fireballs were occasionally of enormous size. , Dr. Smith, of North Carolina, describes one which appeared larg— er than the full moon rising.” “I was,” says he, “startled by the splendid light in which the surrounding scene was exhibited, rendering even small objects quite visible.” The same ball, or a similar one, seen at New Haven, passed off in a northwest direction, and exploded a little northward of the star Capella, leaving, just behind the place of explosion, a train of peculiar beauty. The line of direction was at first nearly straight; but it soon began to contract in length, to dilate in breadth, and to assume the figure of a serpent SCROL- LING itself up, until it appeared like a luminous cloud of va- pour, floating gracefully in the air, where it remained in full view for several minutes. ' 2 Of the third variety of meteors, the following are remark- able examples:—At Poland, Ohio, a luminous body was dis- tinctly visible in the northeast for more than an hour. It was very brilliant, in the form of a pruning-hook, and apparently twenty feet long, and eighteen inches broad. It gradually * If this body were at the distance of 110 miles, from the observer, it must have had a diameter of one mile ; if at the distance of 11 miles, its diameter was 528 feet; and if only one mile off, it must have been 48 feet in diameter. These considerations leave no doubt, that many of the meteors were bodies of large size. What other appearances were observed, upon mote attentive inspection? Give a more particular account of the first variety. Of the second. What do we know in regard to the size of these fireballs? /How does Dr. Smith describe one seen by him in North Carolina? What was the appearance of the same or a similar ball, as Seºn at New Haven? What was there peculiar in the course, and final disappearance of it? Swppose this meteor was 110 miles distant frºm the place of observation, what mºst Rašč been its diameter? What, if it were il miles distant? What, if only one mile? , Mention some examples of the third variety of meteors FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. 165 / settled towards the horizon, until it disappeared. At Niagara Falls, a large, luminous body, shaped like a square table, was seen near the zenith, remaining for some time almost stationary, emitting large streams of light./ # * The point from which the meteors seemed to emanate, was observed by those who fixed its position among the stars, to be in the constellation Leo; and, according to their concur- rent testimony, this RADIANT POINT was stationary among the stars, during the whole period of observation; that is, it did not move along with the earth, in its diurnal revolution east- ward, but accompanied the stars in their apparent progress westward. f 2 A remarkable change of weather from warm to cold, ac- companied the meteoric shower, or immediately followed it. In all parts of the United States, this change was remarkable for its suddenness and intensity. In many places, the day preceding had been unusually warm for the season, but, be- fore the next morning, a severe frost ensued, unparalleled, for the time of year. In attempting to explain these mysterious phenomena, it is argued, in the first place, that the meteors had their origin beyond the limits of our atmosphere; that they of course did not belong to this earth, but to the regions of space exte- rior to it. The reason on which this conclusion is founded is this:—All bodies near the earth, including the atmosphere itself, have a common motion with the earth around its axis from west to east; but the radiant point, that indicated the source from which the meteors emanated, followed the course of the stars from east to west; therefore, it was independent of the earth’s rotation, and consequently, at a great distance from it, and beyond the limits of the atmos- phere. The height of the meteoric cloud, or radiant point, above the earth’s surface was, according to the mean average of Professor Olmsted’s observa- tions, not less than 2238 miles. * That the meteors were constituted of very light, combus- tible materials, seems to be evident, from their exhibiting the actual phenomena of combustion, they being consumed, or converted into smoke, with intense light; and the extreme tenuity of the substance composing them is inferred from the fact that they were stopped by the resistance of the air. Had their quantity of matter been considerable, with so prodigious a velocity, they would have had sufficient momentum to dash them upon the earth; where the most disastrous consequences might have followed. In What Constellation Was the point from which the meteors seemed to radiatel What changes were observed in the weather during or soon after this phenomenon? In attempting to account for these phenomena, what hypothesis has been advanced in regard to the place where the meteors had their origin? What is the reasoning which this hypothésis is sustained? How high was the meteoric cloud supposed to 5e above the earth 2 What do we know in regard to the substance of which the meteors were composed? What might have been the consequences, if their quantity of matt had been considerable; " (I quantity £º 166 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. The momentum of even light bodies of such size, and in such numbers, trav- ersing the atmosphere with such astonishing velocity, must have produced ex- tensive derallgements in the atmospheric equilibriuin. Cold air from the upper regions would be brought down to the earth; the portions of air incumbent over districts of country remote from each other, being mutually displaced, would exchange places, the air of the warm latitudes be transferred to colder, and that of cold latitudes, to warmer regions, Various hypotheses have been proposed to account for this wonderful phenomena. The agent which most readily suggests itself in this, and in many other unexplained natural appear- ances, is electricity. But no known properties of electricity are adequate to account for the production of the meteors, for the motions, or for the trains which they, in many instances, left behind them. Others, again, have referred their proximate cause to magnetism, and to phosphoretted hydrogen ; both of which, however, seem to be utterly insufficient, so far as their properties are known, to account for so unusual a phe- IłOH]6. Il O]]. Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, who has taken much pains to collect facts, and to establish a permanent theory for the periodical recurrence of such phenomena, came to the conclusion, that— The meteors of November 13th, 1833, emanated from a nebulous body, which was then pursuing its way along with the earth around the sun ; that this body continues to re- volve around the sun, in an elliptical orbit—but little in- clined to the plane of the ecliptic, and having its aphelion near the orbit of the earth; and finally, that the body has a period of nearly six months, and that its perihelion 'is a little below the orbit of Mercury. This theory, at least accommodates itself to the remarkable fact, that almost all the phenomena of this descrip.’on, which are known to have happened, have occurred in the two opposite months of April and November. A similar exhibition of meteors to that of November, 1833, was observed on the same day of the week, April 20th, 1803, at Richmond, in Virginia, Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and at Halifax, in British Amer- ica. Another was witnessed in the autumn of 1818, in the North sea, when, in the language of the observers, “all the surrounding atmosphere was enveloped in one expansive sea of fire, exhibiting the appearance of another Moscow in flames.” * * Exactly one year previous to the great phenomenon of 1833, namely, on the 12th of November, 1832, a similar me- What effect must the momentum of even light bodies of such size, moving with such velocity, have had upon the atmosphere 2 Mention some hypotheses which have been proposed to account for these meteors. Ato what conclusion did Professor Olmsted, after a long investigation, come, in regati to them? To what remarkable facts in such phenomena, is this theory adapted? At what other corresponding periods have Similar phenomena been Observed? FALLING, or shooting STARs. 167 / teoric display was seen near Mocha, on the Red sea, by Capt. Hammond and crew, of the ship Restitution. A gentleman in South Carolina, thus describes the effect of the phenomenon of 1833, upon his ignorant blacks:– “I was suddenly awakened by the most dis- tressing cries that ever fell on my ears. Shrieks of horrour, and cries of mercy, I could hear from most of the megroes of three plantations, amounting in all to about six or eight hundred. While earnestly ſistening for the cause, I heard a faint voice near the door calling my name; I arose, and taking my sword. stood at the door. At this moment, I heard the same voice still beseech- ing me to rise, and saying, “O ! my God, the world is on fire P I then opened the door, and it is difficult to say which excited me most—the awfulness of the scene, or the distressed cries of the negroes; upwards of one hundred lay Fº on the ground—some speechless, and some with the bitterest cries. 2’ ut most with their hands raised, imploring God to save the world and them. The scene was truly awful; for never did rain fall much thicker, than the meteors fell towards the earth: east, west, north, and south, it was the same !” N How did the scene of the 13th of November, 1833, affect the minds of the negroes in South Carolina? P A R T II. ºsmºs CHAPTER I. GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE SOLAR SYSTEMI. Our attention has hitherto been directed to those bodies which we see scattered every where throughout the whole celestial concave. These bodies, as has been shown, twinkle with a reddish and variable light, and appear to have always the same position with regard to each other. We know that their number is very great, and that their distance from us is immeasurable. We are also acquainted with their comparative brightness and their situation. In a word, we have before us their few visible appearances, to which our knowledge of them is well nigh limited; almost all our reasonings in regard to them being founded on comparatively few and uncertain analogies. Accordingly, our chief busi- ness, thus far, has been to detail their number, to describe their brightness and positions, and to give the names by which they have been designated. There now remain to be considered certain other celes- tial bodies, all of which, from their remarkable appearance and changes, and some of them from their intimate connec- tion with the comfort, convenience, and even existence of man, must have always attracted especial observation, and been objects of the most intense contemplation and the deep- est interest. Most of these bodies are situated within the lim- its of the Zodiac. The most important of them are, the sun, so superior to all the heavenly bodies for its apparent mag- nitude, for the light and heat which it imparts, for the mark- ed effects of its changes of position with regard to the earth; To what particulars is our knowledge of the fixed stars, those heavenly bodies which we have heretofore been considering, well nigh confined 3 Where are the bodies which now remain to be considered, situated 3 A 2 GENERAL PHENOMENA and the moon, so conspicuous among the bodies which give light by night, and from her soft and silvery brightness, so pleasing to behold, remarkable ºot only for changes of posi- tion; but for the varied phases or appearances which she presents, as she waxes from her crescent form through all her different stages of increase to a full orb, and wanes back again to her former diminished figure. The partial or total obscuration of these two bodies, which sometimes occurs, darkness taking place even at mid-day, and the face of night, before lighted up by the moon’s beams, being suddenly shaded by their absence, have always been among the most striking astronomical phenomena, and so powerful in their influence upon the beholders, as to fill them with perplexity and fear. If we observe these two bodies, we shall find, that, besides their apparent diurnal motion across the heavens, they exhibit other phenomena, which must be the effect of motion. The sun during one part of the year, will be seen to rise every day farther and farther towards the north, to continue longer and longer above the horizon, to be more and more clevated at mid-day, until he arrives at a certain limit ; and then, during the other part, the order is entirely reversed. The moon sometimes is not seen at all ; and then, when she first becomes visible, appears in the west, not far from the setting sun, with a slen- der crescent form ; every night she appears at a greater distance from the setting sun, increasing in size, until at length she is found in the east, just as the sun is sinking below the horizon in the west. The sun, if his motions be attentively observed, will be found to have another motion, opposite to his apparent diurnal motion from east to west. This may be perceived distinct- ly, if we notice, on any clear evening, any bright star, which is first visible after sun set, near the place where he sunk below the horizon. The following evening, the star will not be visible on account of the approach of the sun, and all the stars on the east of it, will be successively eclipsed by gºss--- Which of them are the most important 3 Describe the most obvious phenome- ua of the sun and moon. oF THE SOLAR systEM. 3 his rays, until he shall have made a complete apparent revo- lution in the heavens. These are the most obvious pheno- mena exhibited by these two bodies. There are, also, situated within the limits of the Zodiac, certain other bodies, which, at first view, and on a superficial examination, are scarcely distinguishable from the fixed stars. But observed more attentively, they will be seen to shine with a milder, whiter, and steadier light, and besides be- ing carried round with the stars, in the apparent revolution of the great celestial concave, they will seem to change their places in the concave itself. They have sometimes a sta- tionary attitude, sometimes appear to be moving from west to east, and sometimes to be going back again from east to west; being seen at sunset sometimes in the east, and some- times in the west, and always apparently changing their po- sition with regard to the earth, each other, and the other heavenly bodies. From their wandering, as it were, in this manner, through the heavens, they were called by the Greeks, Irèavnrat, planets, which signifies wanderers. There also sometimes appear in the heavens, bodies of a very extraordinary aspect, which continue visible for a con- siderable period, and then disappear from our view; and noth- ing more is seen of them, it may be for years, when they again present themselves, and take their place among the bodies of the celestial sphere. They are distinguished from the planets by a dull and cloudy appearance, and by a train of light. As they approach the sun, however, their faint and nebulous light becomes more and more brilliant, and their train increases in length, until they arrive at their nearest point of approximation, when they shine with their greatest brilliancy. As they recede from the Sun, they gradually lose their splendour, resume their faint and nebulous appear- ance, and their train diminishes, until they entirely disappear. They have no well defined figure, they seem to move in every possible direction, and are found in every part of the heavens. From their train, they were called by the Greeks, counrat, comets, which signifies having long hair. Describe the most obvious phenomena of the planets. Whence do they derive their name 3 Describe the comets. Whence is their name derived 3 4. GENERAL PHENOMENA The causes of these various phenomena must have early constituted a very natural subject of inquiry. Accordingly, we shall find, if we examine the history of the science, that " in very early times there were many speculations upon this subject, and that different theories were adopted to account for these celestial appearances. The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Indians, and Chinese, early possessed many astronomical facts, many observations of important phenomena, and many rules and methods of astronomical calculation ; insomuch, it has been ima- gined, that they had the ruins of a great system of astronomical science, which, in the earliest ages of the world, had been carried to a great degree of perfection, and while the principles and the explanations of the pheno- mena were lost, the isolated, unconnected facts, rules of calculation, and phenomena themselves, remained. Thus, the Chinese, who, it is generally agreed, possess the oldest authentic observations on record, have, recorded in their annals, a conjunction of five planets at the same time, which hap- pened 2461 years before Christ, or 100 years before the flood. By mathe- matical calculation, it is ascertained that this conjunction really occurred at that time. The first observation of a solar eclipse of which the world has any knowledge, was made by the Chinese, 2128 years before Christ, or 220 years after the deluge. It seems, also, that the Chinese understood the method of calculating eclipses; for, it is said, that the emperor was so irrita- ted against the great officers of state for neglecting to predict the eclipse, that he caused them to be put to death.* The astronomical epoch of the Chinese, according to Bailly, commenced with Fohi, their first emperor, who flourished 2952 years before the Christian era, or about 350 years be- fore the deluge. If it be asked how the knowledge of this antediluvian astronomy was preserved and transmitted, it is said that the columns on which it was registered have survived the deluge, and that those of Egypt are only copies which have become originals, now that the others have been forgotten. The Indians, also, profess to have many celestial observations of a very early date. The Chaldeans have been justly celebrated in all ages for their astronomical observations. When Alexandertook Babylon, his preceptor, Callisthenes, found a series of Chaldean observations, made in that city, and extending back with little interruption, through a period of 1903 years preceding that event. This would carry us back to at least 2234 years before the birth of Christ, or to about the time of the dispersion of mankind by the confusion of tongues. Though it be conceded, that upon this whole period in the history of the science, the obscurity of very remote antiquity must necessarily rest, still it will remain evident that the pheno- mena of the heavenly bodies had been observed with great attention, and had been a subject of no ordinary interest. * It is well known that the Chinese have, from time immemorial, con- sidered Solar Eclipses and Conjunctions of the planets, as prognostics of importance to the Empire, and that they have been predicted as a matter of State policy. What oriental nations early possessed many important astronomical facts, observations and rules 3 Whence is it supposed that they obtained them 3 Give some instances. of THE SOLAR systEM. 5 But however numerous or important were the observations ofcriental an- tiquity, they were never reduced to the shape and symmetry of a regular *Greek, in all probability, derived many notions in regard to this science, and many facts and observations, from Egypt, the great fountain of ancient learning and wisdom, and many were the speculations and hy- potheses of their philosophers. In the fabulous period of Grecian history, Atlas, Hercules, Linus, and Orpheus, are mentioned as persons distinguished for their knowledge of astronomy, and for the improvements which they made in the science. But in regard to this period, little is known with certainty, and it must be considered, as it is termed, fabulous. The first of the Greek philosophers who taught Astrono- my, was Thales, of Miletus. He flourished about 640 years before the Christian era. Then followed Anaximan- der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Plato.—Some of the doctrines maintained by these philosophers were, that the Earth was round, that it had two motions, a diurnal mo- tion on its axis, and an annual motion around the sun, that the sun was a globe of fire, that the moon received her light from the sun, that she was habitable, contained mountains, seas, &c.; that her eclipses were caused by the earth's shadow, that the planets were not designed merely to adorn our heavens, that they were worlds of themselves, and that the fixed stars were centres of distant systems. Some of them, however, maintained, that the earth was flat, and others, that though round, it was at rest in the centre of the universe. When that distinguished school of philosophy was estab- lished at Alexandria, in Egypt, by the munificence of the sovereigns to whom that portion of Alexander's empire had fallen, astronomy received a new impulse. It was now, in the second century after Christ, that the first complete sys- tem or treatise of astronomy, of which we have any know- ledge, was formed. All before had been unconnected and incomplete. Ptolemy, with the opinions of all antiquity, and of all the philosophers who had preceded him, spread out Were these facts, however, reduced to a science 3 Whence, is it probable, that the Grecks derived their first notions of astrongmy 3 What is the name of the first of the Greek pliilosophers who taught astronomy 3 At what time did he flourish 3 Whal Greek philosophers after him taught upon the same subject? Mention some of the doctrines which they maintained. When was the first complete system of Astronomy written, an; by whom 7 A. 6 GENERAL PHENOMENA before him, composed a work in thirteen books, called the Meya»n Xuvraúz, or Great System. Rejecting the doctrine of Pythagoras, who taught that the sun was the centre of the universe, and that the earth had a diurnal motion on its axis and an annual motion around the sun, as contrary to the evidence of the senses, Ptolemy endeavoured to account for the celestial phenomena, by supposing the Earth to be the centre of the universe, and all the heavenly bodies to revolve around it. He seems to have entertained an idea in regard to the supposition, that the earth revolved on its axis, similar to one which some entertain even at the present day, “If." says he, “there were any motion of the earth common to it and all other heavenly bodies, it would certainly precede them all by the excess of its mass being so great ; and ani- mals and a certain portion of heavy bodies would be left behind, riding upon the air, and the earth itself would very soon be completely carried out of the heavens.” In explaining the celestial phenomena, however, upon his hypothesis, he met with a difficulty in the apparently stationary attitude and retrograde motions which he saw the planets sometimes have. To explain this, how- ever, he supposed the planets to revolve in small circles, which he called epicycles, which were, at the same time, carried around the earth in larger circles, which he called deferents, or carrying circles. In following out his theory, and applying it to the explanation of different phenomena, it became necessary to add new epicycles, and to have recourse to other ex- pedients, until the system became unwieldy, cumbrous, and complicated. This theory, although astronomical observations continued to be made, and some distinguished astronomers appeared from time to time, was the pre- vailing theory until the middle of the 15th century. It was not, however, always received with implicit confidence; nor were its difficulties always entirely unappreciated. f ...” Alphonso * king of Castile, who flourished in the 13th century, when contemplating the doctrine of the epicycles, exclaimed, “Were the universe thus constructed, if the deity had called me to his councils at the creation of the world, I could have given him good advice.” He did not, howev- er, mean any impiety or irreverence, except what was directed against the system of Ptolemy. About the middle of the 15th century, Copernicus, a native of Thorn in Prussia, conceiving a passionate attachment to the study of astronomy, quitted the profession of medicine In how many books was it comprised, and what was the work called 3 What was the system of Ptolemy 3 How did Ptolemy explain the stations and retro- gradations of the planets 3 How long was the system of Ptolemy the prevailing system 3 Was it, always received with implicit confidence? Who established a new system of Astronomy about the middle of the i5th century 4 OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 7 and devoted himself, with the most intense ardour, to the study of this science. “His mind,” it is said, “had long been imbued with the idea that simplicity and harmony should characterize the arrangements of the planetary sys- tem. In the complication and disorder, which, he saw, reigned in the hypothesis of Ptolemy, he perceived insu- perable objections to its being considered as a representa- tion of nature. In the opinions of the Egyptian sages, in those of Pytha- goras, Philolaus, Aristarchus and Nicetas, he recognised his own earliest conviction that the earth was not the centre of the universe. His attention was much occupied with the speculation of Martinus Capella, who placed the Sun be- tween Mars and the Moon, and made Mercury and Venus revolve around him as a centre, and with the system of Ap- pollonius Pergoeus, who made all the planets revolve around the Sun, while the Sun and Moon were carried around the Earth in the centre of the universe. - The examination, however, of these hypotheses, gradual- ly expelled the difficulties with which the subject was beset, and after the labour of more than thirty years, he was per- mitted to see the true system of the universe. The Sun he considered as immoveable, in the centre of the system, while the earth revolved around him, between the orbits of Venus and Mars, and produced by its rotation about its axis all the diurnal phenomena of the celestial sphere. The other planets he considered as revolving about the Sun, in orbits exterior to that of the Earth. (See the Relative Po- sition of the Planets’ Orbits, Plate I. of the Atlas.) Thus, the stations and retrogradations of the planetswere the necessary consequence of their own motions, combin- ed with that of the Earth about the Sun. He said that “by long observation, he discovered, that if the motions of the planets be compared with that of the earth, and be esti- mated according to the times in which they perform their revolutions, not only their several appearances would fol- What led him to doubt the system of Ptolemy 3 How long was he employed in the examination of different hypotheses before he came to a satisfactory result? What was the system of Copernicus? 8 GENERAL PHENOMENA low from this hypothesis, but that it would so connect the or. der of the planets, their orbits, magnitudes, and distances, and even the apparent motion of the fixed stars, that it would be impossible to remove one of these bodies out of its place without disordering the rest, and even the whole of the uni- verse also.” Soon after the death of Copernicus, arose Tycho Brahe, born at Knudstorp, in Norway, in 1546. Such was the distinction which he had attained as an astronomer, that when dissatisfied with his residence in Denmark, he had re- solved to remove, the king of Denmark, learning his inten- tions, detained him in the kingdom, by presenting him with the canonry of Rothschild, with an income of 2000 crowns per annum. He added to this sum a pension of 1000 crowns, gave him the island of Huen, and established for him an ob- servatory, at an expense of about 200,000 crowns. Here Tycho continued for twenty-one years, to enrich astronomy with his observations. His observations upon the Moon were important, and upon the planets, numerous and precisc, and have formed the data of the present generalizations in astronomy. He, however, rejected the system of Coperni- cus ; considering the earth as immoveable in the centre of the system, while the sun, with all the planets and comets revolving around him, performed his revolution around the earth, and, in the course of twenty-four hours, the stars also revolved about the central body, This theory was not as simple as that of Copernicus, and involved the absurdity of making the Sun, planets, &c. revolve around a body compar- atively insignificant. Now, near the close of the 15th century, arose two men, who wrought most important changes in the science, Kep- ler, and Galileo, the former a German, the latter an Italian. What distinguished astronomer, soon after the time of Copernicus, enriched as: . tronomy with many valuable observations 3 What inducements did the king of Denmark offer him to remain in the kingdom 4 How long did he continue to Imake observations in his observatory in the island of Huen 3 How were the heavenly bodies arranged, in his system : What absurdity did it involve 3 What two illustrious astronomers made several very important discoveries Socn ... after the time of Tycho Brahe 3 OF THE SOLAR SYSTEMI, 9 Previous to Kepler, all investigations proceeded upon the supposition that the planets moved in circular orbits, which had been a source of much error. This supposition Kepler showed to be false. He discovered that their orbits were ellipses. The orbits of their secondaries or moons he also found to be the same curve. He next determined the di- mensions of the orbits of the planets, and found to what their velocities in their motions through their orbits, and the times of their revolutions, were proportioned; all truths of the greatest importance to the science. While Kepler was making these discoveries of facts, very essential for the explanation of many phenomena, Galileo was discovering wonders in the heavens never before seen by the eye of man. Having improved the telescope, and applied it to the heavens, he observed mountains and valleys upon the surface of our moon; satellites or secondaries were discovered revolving about Jupiter; and Venus, as Copernicus had predicted, was seen exhibiting all the differ- ent phases of the moon, waxing and waning as she does, through various forms. Many minute stars, not visible to the naked eye, were descried in the milky-way; and the largest fixed stars, instead of being magnified, appeared to be small brilliant points, an incontrovertible argument in fa- vour of their immense distance from us. All his discoveries served to confirm the Copernican theory, and to show the absurdity of the hypothesis of Ptolemy. Although the general arrangement and motions of the planetary bodies, together with the figure of their orbits, had been thus determined, the force or power which car- ries them around in their orbits, was as yet unknown. The discovery of this was reserved for the illustrious New- ton.* By reflecting on the nature of gravity—that power which causes bodies to descend towards the centre of the earth—since it does not diminish at the greatest distance * The discovery of Newton was in some measure anticipated by Co- pernicus, Kepler, and Hooke. What were the discoveries of Kepler 3 What were the discoveries of Galileo 3 What was the discovery of Newton 3 How was he led to make it? 10 GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE SOLAR SYSTEMI. from the centre of the earth to which we can attain, being as powerful on the loftiest mountains as it is in the deepest caverns, he was led to imagine that it might extend to the moon, and that it might be the power which kept her in her orbit, and caused her to revolve around the earth. He was next led to suppose that perhaps the same power carried the primary planets around the sun. By a series of calculations, he was enabled at length to establish the fact, that the same force which determines the fall of an apple to the earth, car- ries the moons in their orbits around the planets, and the plan- ets and comets in their orbits around the Sun. To recapitulate briefly; the system, (not hypothesis, for much of it has been established by mathematical demonstra- tion,) by which we are now enabled to explain with a beauti- ful simplicity the different phenomena of the sun, planets, moons, and comets, is, that the sun is the central body in the system; that the planets and comets move round him in elliptical orbits, whose planes are more or less inclined to each other, with velocities bearing to each other” a cer- tain ascertained relation, and in times related to their dis- tances; that the moons, or secondaries, revolve in like man- ner, about their primaries, and at the same time accompany hem in their motion around the sun; all meanwhile revolving on axes of their own ; and that these revolutions in their orbits, are produced by the mysterious power of attraction. The particular mode in which this system is applied to the explanation of the differerent phenomena, will be exhibited as we proceed to consider, one by one, the several bodies above mentioned. These bodies, thus arranged and thus revolving, consti- tute what is termed the solar system. The planets have been divided into two classes, primaries and secondaries. The latter are also termed moons, and sometimes satellites. * The orbits or paths of the planets were discovered by tracing the course of the planets by means of the fixed stars. Recepitulate briefly the system by which we are enabled to explain the differ- ent celestial phenomena. What is meant by the Solar System 3 Into what two classs have the planets been divided ? - THE sun. 11 The primaries are those which revolve about the Sun, as a centre. The secondaries are those which revolve about the primaries. There have been discovered eleven prima- ries; namely, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel; of which, Mercury is the nearest to the Sun, and the others follow, in the order in which they are named. Vesta, Juno, Ceres and Pallas, were discovered by means of the telescope, and, because they are very small, compared with the others, are called asteroids. There have been discovered, eighteen secondaries. Of these, the Earth has one, Jupiter four, Saturn seven, and Herschel six. All these, except our Moon, as well as the asteriods, are invisible to the naked eye. C H A P T E R II. THE SUN. 2 The Sun is a vast globe, in the centre of the solar sys- tem, dispensing light and heat to all the planets, and gov- erning all their motions. It is the great parent of vegetable life, giving warmth to the seasons, and colour to the landscape. Its rays are the cause of various vicissitudes on the surface of the earth and in the atmosphere. By their agency, all winds are pro- duced, and the waters of the Sea are made to circulate in vapour through the air, and irrigate the land, producing springs and rivers. 1 - Define a primary planet. Define a secondary planet. How many primary planets have been discovered 3 What are their names, and what the order of their distance from the sun ? Which of them were discovered by means of the telescope 3 Why are these termed asteroids? How many secondaries have been discovered 4 How are they distributed among the primaries 3 Which of the primaries and secondaries are invisible to the naked eye?Af Mention some of the effects produced by the Sun. i ºr * ...: ºf .. .* 12 THE SUN. We shall by and by show the earth and other planets to be globular. From analogy we infer that the Sun is also. Besides, were it a mere plane, it would not contain sufficient matter to produce the effects which it pro- duces by the force of its attraction. It must therefore be a solid, and if a solid, it must be globular, otherwise its disc, instead of being circular, would be of some other figure. It will also be shown, that there is reason to suppose that it revolves upon an axis, which tends still further to confirm the same position. That it is the central body of the system, must be supposed, otherwise we could not explain satisfactorily the various celestial pheno- mena. The truth of the supposition has been established by mathemati- cal demonstrations. 2 The Sun is by ſar the largest of the heavenly bodies whose dimensions have been ascertained. It diameter is something more than 887 thousand miles. Consequently, it contains a volume of matter equal to fourteen hundred thou- sand globes of the size of the Earth. Of a body so vast in its dimensions, the human mind, with all its efforts, can form no adequate conception. The whole distance between the Earth and the Moon would not suffice to embrace one third of its diameter.' I Here let the student refer to Plate I. where the Relative Magnitudes of the Sun and Planets are exhibited. Let him compare the segment of the Sun's circumſerence; as there represented, with the entire circumſerence of the Earth. They are both drawn upon the same scale. The segment of the Sun's circumference, since it is almost a straight line, must be a very small part of what the whole circumference would be, were it represented entire, Let the student understand this diagram, and he will be in some measure able to conceive how like a mere point the Earth is, compared with . the Sun, and to form in his mind some image of the vast magnitude of the latter. / Were the Sun a hollow sphere, perforated with a thousand openings to admit the twinkling of the luminous atmosphere around it—and were a globe as large as the Earth placed at its centre, with a satellite as large as our moon, and at the same distance from it as she is from the earth, there would be present to the eye of aspectator on the interior globe, a universe as splendid as that which now appears to the uninstructed eye—a universe as large and extensive as the What reasons are there for supposing the sun to be globular 2 . How do we know that it is the central body of the system 3 ºr What is its magnitude compareſ' with that of the other heavenly bodies whose dimensions have been estimated 3 What is its diameter 3. How much larger is the Sun than the Earth 7 What is the whole distance between the Earth and the Moon, compared with the diameter of the Sun ?, Give some illustration to enable us to conceive of the magnitude of the Sun. THE SUN. 13 whole creation was conceived to be, in the infancy of astron- omy. 4 - The next thing which fills the mind with wonder, is the distance at which so great a body must be placed, to occupy, apparently, so small a space in the firmament. The Sun's mean distance from the Earth, is twelve thousand times the Earth's diameter, or a little more than 95 millions of miles. We may derive some faint conception of such a distance, by considering that the swiftest steamboats, which ply our waters at the rate of 200 miles a day, would not traverse it in thirteen hundred y?ars; and, that a cannon ball, flying night and day, at the rate of 16 miles a minute, would not reach it in eleven years. I The Sun, when viewed through a telescope, presents the appearance of an enormous globe of fire, frequently in a state of violent agitation or ebullition; dark spots of irregu- lar form, rarely visible to the naked eye, sometimes pass over his disc, moving from east to west, in the period of near- ly fourteen days. - These spots are usually surrounded by a penumbra, and that, by a margin of light, more brilliant than that of the Sun. A spot when first seen on the eastern edge of the Sun, appears like a line which progressively extends in breadth, till it reaches the middle, when it begins to contract, and ultimately disappears, at the western edge. In some rare instances, the same spots re-appear on the east side, and are permanent for two or three revolutions. But, as a general thing, the spots on the Sun are neither perma- nent nor uniform. Sometimes several small ones unite in- to a large one; and, again, a large one separates into numer- ous smaller ones. Some continue several days, weeks, and even months, together; while others appear and disappear, in the course of a few hours. Those spots that are formed gradually, are, for the most part, as gradually dissolved; What is the distance of the Sun from the Earth 4, a Give some illustration to enable us to conceive of the distance. What is the appearance of the Sun when viewed through a telescope 3 In what time do the spots seen on the Sun pass across the disc 1 In what direction do they move 3 Describe their appearance. Do the same spots ever re-appear on the east side? Are the spots generally per- manent and uniform 3 Describe their irregularities 3 B 14 * THE SUN. whilst those that are suddenly formed, generally vanish as quickly. It is the general opinion, that spots on the Sun were first discovered by Galileo, in the beginning of the year 1611; though Scheiner, Harriot, and Fabricius, observed them about the same time. During a period of 18 years from this time, the Sun was never found entirely clear of spots, excepting a few days in December, 1624; at other times, there were frequently seen, twenty or thirty at a time, and in 1625, upwards of fifty were seen at once. From 1650, to 1670, scarcely any spots were to be seen; and, from 1676, to 1684, the orb of the Sun presented an un- spotted disc. Since the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury, scarcely a year has passed, in which spots have not been visible, and frequently in great numbers. In 1799, Dr. Herschel observed one nearly 30,000 miles in breadth. * A single second of angular measure, on the sun's disc, as seen from the earth, corresponds to 462 miles ; and a circle of this diameter (containing therefore nearly 220,000 square miles) is the least space which can be dis- tinctly discerned on the sun as a visible area, even by the most powerful glasses. Spots have been observed, however, whose linear diameter has been more than 44,000 miles ; and, if some records are to be trusted, of even still greater extent. DR. Dick, in a letter to the author, says, “I have for many years exam- ined the solar spots with considerable minuteness, and have several times seen spots which were not less than the one-twenty-fifth part of the sun’s diameter, which would make them about 22,192 miles in diameter, yet they were visible neither to the naked eye, nor through an opera glass, mag- nifying about three times. And, therefore, if any spots have been visible to the naked eye—which we must believe, unless we refuse respectable testimony—they could not have been much less than 50,000 miles in di- BIſleter. The apparent motion of these spots over the Sun's sur- face, is continually varying in its direction. Sometimes they seem to move across it in straight lines, at others in curve lines. These phenomena may be familiarly illustra- ted in the following manner. Who, is it generally supposed, first discovered spots on the Sun ? Who else observed them about the same time 3 What was the breadth of the one seen by Dr. Herschel in 17993 In what direction do the spots on the sun appear to In OVC 3 THE SUNs. 15. Let EE represent the ecliptic; NS, its north and south poles, M the point where the spot enters, and m the point where it leaves the Sun's disc. At the end of November, and the beginning of December, the spot will appear to move downwards, across the Sun's disc, from left to right, describ- ing the straight lines M m, Fig. 1; soon after this period, these lines begin gradually to be inflected towards the north, till about the end of February, or the beginning of March, when they describe the curve lines repre- sented in Fig. 2. After the beginning of March, the curvature decreases, till the latter end of May, or the beginning of June, when they again describe straight lines tending upwards, as in Fig. 3. By and by these straight lines begin to be inflected downwards, till about the beginning of September, when they take the form of a curve, having its convex side towards the south pole of the Sun, as in Fig. 4. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. As these phenomena are repeated every year, in the same order, and belong to all the spots that have been per- ceived upon the Sun's disc, it is concluded, with good rea- son, that these spots adhere to the surface of the Sun, and revolve with it, upon an axis, inclined a little to the plane of the ecliptic. The apparent revolution of a spot, from any' particular point of the Sun's disc, to the same point again, is accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 26 minutes, and 24 sec- onds; but during that time, the spot has, in fact, gone Illustrate these phenomena by diagrams. What conclusions have been drawn from these phenomena 3 What is the apparent time occupied by a spot in re- volving from any particular point of the sun's disc to the same point again? 16 - THE SUN. through one revolution, together with an arc, equal to that described by the Sun, in his orbit, in the same time, which reduces the time of the Sun's actual rotation on his axis, to 25 days, 9 hours, and 36 minutes. The part of the sun's disc not occupied by spots, is far from being uniformly bright. Its ground is finely mottled with an appearance of minute, dark dots, or pores, which, attentively watched, are found to be in a constant state of change. / What the physical organization of the Sun may be, is a question which astronomy, in its present state, cannot solve. It seems, however, to be surrounded by an ocean of inex- haustible flame, with dark spots of enormous size, now and then floating upon its surface. From these phenomena, Sir W. Herschel supposed the Sun to be a solid, dark body, sur- rounded by a vast atmosphere, almost always filled with luminous clouds, occasionally opening and disclosing the dark mass within. The speculations of Laplace were dif- ferent. He imagined the solar orb to be a mass of fire, and the violent effervescences and explosions seen on its surface, to be occasioned by the eruption of elastic fluids, formed in its interior, and the spots to be enormous caverns, like º g" the craters of our volcanoes. Others have conjectured that these spots are the tops of solar mountains, which are sometimes left uncovered by the luminous fluid in which they are immersed. I Among all the conflicting theories that have been ad- vanced, respecting the physical constitution of the Sun, there is none entirely free from objection. The prevailing one seems tº be, that the lucid matter of the Sun is neither a liquid stibstance, nor an elastic fluid, but that it consists of luminous clouds, floating in the Sun's atmosphere, which ex- tends to a great distance, and that these dark spots are the opaque body of the Sun, seen through the openings in his atmosphere. Herschel supposes that the density of the lu- minous clouds need not be greater than that of our Aurora What is the actual time occupied by the revolution of the spot, and of course by the Sun on its axis *H ave we been able to determine what the physical or- ganization of the sun is? What was the theory of Sir W. Herschel in regard to this subject? What was that of Laplace 3/what is the prevailing theory 3 MEERCURY. 17 Borealis, to produce the effects with which we are ac- quainted. : - & * ~ The similarity of the Sun, to the other globes of the sys- tem, in its supposed solidity, atmosphere, surface diversified with mountains and valies, and rotation upon its axis, has led to the conjecture that it is inhabited, like the planets, by beings whose organs are adapted to their peculiar circum- stances. Such was the opinion of the late Dr. Herschel, who observed it unremittingly, with the most powerful tele- Scopes, for a period of fifteen years. Such, too, was the opinion of Dr. Elliott, who attributes to it the most delight- ful scenery; and, as the light of the Sun is eternal, so he imagined, were its seasons. Hence he infers, that this luminary offers one of the most blissful habitations for intel- ligent beings of which we can conceive. 1 M E R C U R Y . 2 MERCURY is the nearest planet to the Sun that has yet been discovered; and with the exception of the asteroids, is the smallest. Its diameter is only 2984 miles. Its size therefore is seventeen times less than that of the Earth. It would require more than 20 millions of such globes to com- pose a body equal to the Sun. I Here the student should refer to the diagrams, exhibiting the relative magnitudes and distances of the sun and planets, Plate I. And whenever . this subject recurs in the course of this work, the student should recur to the figures of this plate, until he is able to form in his mind distinct con- ceptions of the relative magnitudes and distances of all the planets. 2. It revolyes on its axis from west to east in 24 hours, 5 minutes, and 28 seconds; which makes its day about 10 23 What circumstances have led to the conjecture that the Sun.is inhabited 3 What was the opinion of Dr. Herschel on this point 3 How long had he observed it unremittingly, and with the most powerful telescopes 3 What was the opinion. of Dr. Elliot upon the same point?, What is the distance of Mercury from the Sun ? What is its magnitude compared with that of the other planets 3 What is its diameter 3 How many such bodies would it require to compose a body equal to the Sun ?--In what direction does it revolve on its axis, and what time does it occupy in iſe revolution ? - Sk B. 18 MERCURY. minutes longer than ours. It performs its revolution about the Sun in a few minutes less than 88 days, and at a mean distance of nearly 37 millions of miles. The length of Mercury's year, therefore, is equal to about three of our months. I The rotation of a planet on its axis, constitutes its day; its revolution bout the Sun constitutes its year. Mercury is not only the most dense of all the planets, but receives from the Sun seven times as much light and heat as the Earth. The truth of this estimate, of course, depends upon the supposition that the intensity of solar light and heat at the planets, varies inversely with their respective distances from the Sun, according to what we observe on the Earth. This law of analogy, did it exist with rigorous identity at all the planets, would be no argument against their being inhabited; because we are bound to presume that the All- wise Creator has attempered every dwelling place in his empire to the physical constitution of the beings which he has placed in it. s ºf From a variety of facts which have been observed in relation to the pro- duction of caloric, it does not appear probable, that the degree of heat on the surface of the different planets depends on their respective distances from the Sun. It is more probable, that it depends chiefly on the distri- bution of the substance of caloric on the surfaces, and throughout the atmos- pheres of these bodies, in different quantities, according to the different situations which they occupy in the solar system; and that these different quantities of caloric are put into action by the influence of the solar rays, so as to produce that degree of sensible heat requisite to the wants, and to the greatest benefit of each of the planets. On this hypothesis, which is corroborated by a great variety of facts and experiments, there may be no more sensible heat experienced on the planet Mercury, than on the surface of Herschel, which is fifty times farther removed from the Sun. I Owing to the dazzling brightness of Mercury, the swift- ness of its motion, and its nearness to the Sun, astronomers In how long time does it perform its revolution about the sun ? What is its mean distance from the sun ? What, then, is the length of its year, compared with ours º PWhat measures a planet's day ? What measures its year? A What is the density of Mercury, compared with that of the other planets? How much light and heat does it receive, compared with the Earth 3 On what supposition does the truth of this estimate depend ? If this were really the fact in regard to the planets, would it be any argument against their being inhabited 2 "On what does the degree of heat at the different planets probably depend ? Why flave astro- nomers been able to make but comparatively few discoveries respecting Mercury { MERCURY, 19 have made but comparatively few discoveries respect- ing it. …When viewed through a telescope of considerable magnifying power, it exhibits at different periods, all the, various phases of the Moon; except that it never appears quite full, because its enlightened hemisphere is never turned directly towards the Earth, only when it is behind the Sun, or so near to it, as to be hidden by the splendour of its beams. Its enlightened hemisphere being thus always turn- ed towards the Sun, and the opposite one being always dark, prove that it is an opaque body, similar to the Earth, shining only in the light which it receives from the Sun- y The rotation of Mercury on its axis, was determined from the daily position of its horns, by M. Schroeter, who not only discovered spots upon its surface, but several mountains in its southern hemisphere, one of which, was 10% miles high :—nearly three times as high as Chimborazo, in South America. It is worthy of observation, that the highest mountains which have been discovered in Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and perhaps we may add the Earth, are all situated in their southern hemispheres. During a few days in March and April, August and Sep- tember, Mercury may be seen for several minutes, in the morning or evening twilight, when its greatest elongations happen in those months; in all other parts of its orbit, it is too near the Sun to be seen by the naked eye. The greatest distance that it ever departs from the Sun, on either side, varies from 16° 12", to 28° 48', alternately. These extreme points in a planet's orbit, are called its elongations. The point of its greatest elongation is denominated its Aphelion; of its least elongation, its Perihelion. On the diagram, exhibiting the Relative Po- . sition of the Planets' Orbits [Plate I.] these points are represented by little dots in the orbits at the extremities of the right lines which meet them; the Perihelion points being above the Ecliptic, the Aphelion points below it. . . . What is its appearance when viewed through a telescope of considerable mag- nifying power 3. What circumstances prove that is an opaque body, shining only with the light of the sun ºr How was the rotation of Mercury on its axis deter- mined, and by whom 3 What did he discover on its surface 3 What was the altitude of the highest mountain which he saw 3. In which hemisphere are the highest mountains which have been discovered in JMercury, Penus, and the JMoon, situated 3 Does the same fact exist in regard to the earth & During what months may Mercury be seen for a few days, and in what parts of the day ? Why is it visible at these times, and not at others? What are the greatest distances which it departs from the sun, on either side? What is the elongation of a planet 7 What is its .3phelion? What is its Perihelion ? $20 MERCURY. Z. The revolution of Mercury about the Sun, like that of all the planets, is performed from west to east, in an orbit which is nearly circular. Its apparent motion, as seen from the earth, is, alternately, from west to east, and from east to west, nearly in straight lines; sometimes, directly across the face of the Sun, but at all other times, either a little above, or a little below it. 1 r / Being commonly immersed in the Sun's rays in the evening, and thus continuing invisible till it emerges from them in the morning, it appeared to the ancients like two distinct stars. A long series of observations was requisite, before they recognised the identity of the star which was seen to recede from the Sun in the morning with that which approached it in the evening. But as the one was never seen until the other disappeared, both were at last found to be the same planet, which thus oscillated on each side of the Sun. H Mercury’s oscillation from west to east, or from east to west, is really accomplished in just half the time of its revolution, which is about 44 days; but as the Earth, in the meantime, follows the Sun in the same direction, the apparent elongations will be prolonged to between 55 and 65 days. When Mercury passes directly over the Sun's disc, it is denominated a Transit. This would happen in every revo- lution, if the orbit lay in the same plane with the orbit of the Earth. But it does not ; it cuts the Earth’s orbit in two opposite points, as the ecliptic does the equator, but at an angle three times less. I See diagram, Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, and their Inclination to the Plane of the Ecliptic. [Plate I.] The dark lines denote sections in the planes of the planets' orbits. The dotted lines continued from the darklines denote the inclination of the orbits to the plane of the Ecliptic, which in clination is marked in figures on them. Let the student fancy as many circular pieces of paper, intersecting each other at the several angles of in- clination marked on this diagram, and he will be enabled to understand more easily what is meant by the inclination of the planets' orbits. 2. In what direction does Mercury revolve about the Sun ? What is the figure of its orbit 4 Describe its apparent motion as seen from the Earth. A How did it ap- pear to the ancients : What was the cause of this appearance #How were these apparently two distinct stars at last found to be but one 3 What is the actual period of each elongation of Mercury q What the apparent period? What is the cause of this difference yWhat does the expression, transit of Mercury, signify 3 Why does it not make a transit at every revolution ? MERCURY, - 21 It will be perceived on the diagram, that the inclination of Mercury's orbit to the plane of the ecliptic is 7°9". 2. These points of intersection are called the Nodes of the orbit. Mercury's ascending node is in the 16th degree of Taurus; its descending node in the 16th degree of Scorpio. As the Earth passes these nodes in November and May, the transits of Mercury must happen, for many ages to come, in one of these months. I The next Transit of Mercury will happen on the 7th of November, 1835, visible in the United States as follows: Beginning offhe Transit,0h.37"P.M. Duration of the Transit, 5h. 11' Middle of the Transit, 3 13 Nearest approach of centres, 535" End of the Transit, 5 48 Latitude S. 540ſ? The following is a list of all the Transits of Mercury from the time the first was observed by Gassendi, November 6, 1631, to the end of the present century. 1631 Nov. 6. 1707 May 5. 1776 Nov. 2 1835 Nov. 7. 1644 Nov. 6. 1710 Nov. 6. 1782 Nov. 12. 1S45 May 8. 1651 Nov. 2. 1723 Nov. 9. 1786 May 3. 1848 Nov. 9. 1661 May 3. 1736 Nov. 10. 1789 Nov. 5. 1861 Nov. 11. 1664 Nov. 4. 1740 Nov. 2. 1799 May 7. 1868 Nov. 4. 1674 May 6. 1743 Nov. 4. 1802 Nov. 8. 1878 May 6. 1677 Nov. 7. 1753 May 5. 1815 Nov. 11. 1881 Nov. 7. 1690 Nov. 9. 1756 Nov. 6. 1822 Nov. 4. 1891 May 9. 1697 Nov. 2. 1769 Nov 9. 1832 May 5. 1894 Nov. 10. By comparing the mean motion of any of the planets with the mean mo- tion of the Earth, we may, in like manner, determine the periods in which these bodies will return to the same points of their orbit, and the same positions with respect to the Sun. . It is useful to know them, because at the epochs thus indicated, the hour when the planets rise, set, and pass the me- ridian, and all the inequalities which affect their motion, with the various phenomena dependent upon the relative position of the two bodies with re- spect to the Sun, all recommencing in the same order as before, may hence be easily predicted. We have only to find a number of sidereal years, in which the planet completes exactly, or very nearly, a certain number of revolutions; that is, to find such a number of planetary revolutions, as, when taken together, shall be exactly equal to one, or any number of revolutions of the Earth. In the case of Mercury, this ratio will be, as 87.969 is to 365.256. Whence we find, that, 7 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 29 of Mercury; 13 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 54 of Mercury; 33 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 137 of Mercury; 46 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 191 of Mercury. What are the points where the orbits of the planets intersect the orbit of the earth called 3 Where is Mercury's ascending Node 4 Where is its descending node 3. In what months must the transit of Mercury occur for many ages to come 4 Why must they occur in these months 3 When will the neart transit of JMercury happen & How can we determine the periods in which the planets will return to the same points of their orbits, and the same positions in respect to the Sun ? Why is it useful to know these periods 3 State the method of making the computation. What will the ratio be in the case of JMercury 2 State the ratio be." tween the periodical revolutions of the Earth and JMercury. 22 VENUS. Therefore, transits of Mercury, at the same node, may happen at intervals of 7, 13, 33, 46, &c. years. Transits of Venus, as well as eclipses of the Sun and Moon, are calculated upon the same principle. The sidereal revolution of a planet respects its absolute motion; and is measured by the time the planet takes to revolve from any fixed star to the same star again. r" The synodical revolution of a planet respects its relative motion, and is measured by the time that a planet occupies in coming back to the same position with respect to the Earth and the Sun. Theºsidereal revolution of Mercury, is 87d. 23h. 15m.44s. Its synodical revolution is found by dividing the whole circumference of 360° by its rela- tive motion in respect to the Earth. Thus, the mean daily motion of Mercu- ry is 14732" .555; that of the Earth is 3548".318; and their difference is 11.184".237, being Mercury's relative motion, or what it gains on the Earth every day. Now by simple proportion, 11.184".237 is to 1 day, as 360° is to 115d. 21h. 3.25", the period of a synodical revolution of Mercury. The absolute motion of Mercury in its orbit, is 109,757 miles an hour; that of the Earth, is 68,288 miles: the difference, 41,469 miles, is the mean relative motion of Mercury, with respect to the Earth. W E N U. S. There are but few persons who have not observed a beau- tiful star in the west, a little after sun set, called the evening star. This star is Venus. It is the second planet from the Sun. It is the brightest star in the firmament, and on this account easily distinguished from the other planets. If we observe this planet for several days, we shall find that it does not remain constantly at the same distance from the Sun, but that it appears to approach, or recede from him, at the rate of about three fifths of a degree every day; and that it is sometimes on the east side of him, and sometimes on the west, thus continually oscillating backwards and for- wards between certain limits. f Jät what intervals then may transits of JMercury at the same mode happen 2 Upon what principle are transits of Venus and eclipses of the Sun and Moon, calculated? What is the sidereal revolution of a planet 2 What is the synodical "evolution 3 What is the time of the sidereal revolution of JMercury 3 State the "method of computing the time of the synodical revolution. Compute the synodi- cal revolution of Mercury. . What is the rate per hour of the absolute motion of Mercury in its orbit? Of the Earth q What is the mean relative motion of Mer- cury with respect to the Earth 3 (What beautiful star sometimes appears in the west a little after sunset ! What is the comparative distance of Venus from the i. : What is its comparative brightness? In what direction is its apparent mo- 10H1 • . - - . VENUs. 23 , As Venus never departs quite 48° from the Sun, it is never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to that luminary; being visible only about three hours after sun-set, and as long before sun-rise, according as its right ascension is greater or less than that of the Sun. At first, we behold it only a few minutes after Sun-set; the next evening we hardly dis- cover any sensible change in its position; but after a few days, we perceive that it has fallen considerably behind the Sun, and that it continues to depart farther and farther from him setting later and later every evening, until the distance between it and the Sun, is equal to half the space from the horizon to the zenith, or about 46°. I * It now begins to return towards the Sun, making the same daily progress that it did in separating from him, and to set earlier and earlier every succeeding evening, until it final- ly sets with the Sun, and is lost in the splendour of his light. - sº few days after the phenomena we have now described, we perceive, in the morning, near the eastern horizon, a bright star which was not visible before. This also is Venus, and now called the morning star. It departs farther and farther from the Sun, rising a little earlier every day, until it is seen about 46° west of him, where it appears sta- tionary for a few days; then it resumes its course towards the Sun, appearing later and later every morning, until it rises with the Sun, and we cease to behold it. In a few days, the evening star again appears in the west, very near the setting-sun, and the same phenomena are again exhibited. Such are the visible appearances of Venus. A /Venus revolves about the Sun from west to east in 2243 days, at the distance of about 68 millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 80 thousand miles an hour. She turns around on her axis once in 23 hours, 21 minutes, and 7 seconds. Thus her day is about 25 minutes shorter than , Why is it never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to the sun ? At what times is it visible 3 How long after sun-set is it when we first behold it in the West ? ictibe its changes of position. In What direction, and in what time, does üğrevolve about the Sun ? What is her distance from the Sun 4 what is the rātā per hour of her motion in her orbit 3. In what time does she revolve on º g/How are the lengths of her day and year, compared with those of the Earth $ • 24 VENUS. ours, while her year is equal to 7% of our months, or 32 weeks. I /The Sun appears twice as large to Venus as he does to us, and if they are inversely as the distance from him, she receives twice as much light and heat. Her orbit is within the orbit of the Earth; for if it were not, she would be seen as often in opposition to the Sun, as in conjunction with him ; but she was never seen rising in the east while the Sun was setting in the west. Nor was she ever seen in quadrature, or on the meridian, when the Sun was either rising or setting. Mercury being about 23° from the Sun, and Venus 46°, the orbit of Venus must be outside of the orbit of Mercury. The true diameter of Venus is 7621 miles ; but her ap- parent diameter and brightness are constantly varying, ac- cording to her distance from the Earth. When Venus and the Earth are on the same side of the Sun, her distance from the Earth is only 26 millions of miles; when they are on opposite sides of the Sun, her distance is 164 millions of miles. Were the whole of her enlightened hemisphere turned towards us, when she is nearest, she would exhibit a light and brilliancy twenty-five times greater than she generally does, and appear like a small brilliant moon; but, at that time, her dark hemisphere is turned towards the Earth. When Venus approaches nearest to the Earth, her apparent, or observed diameter, is 61" .2; when most remote, it is only 9".6; now 61" .2-9" ..6=41 nearly; so that she would appear, in the latter case, if then visible,41 times larger than in the former. When Venus’ right ascension is less than that of the Sun, she rises before him ; when greater, she appears after his How much larger does the Sun appear at Venus than he does at the Earth 3 How much more light and heat does she receive from him, than the Earth 3 How much farther is Venus from the Sun than Mercury 4 On which side of the orbit of Mercury must her orbit be 3/What is her true diameter 3 In what proportion do her apparent diameter and frightness constantly vary 3 What is her distance from the Earth when they are both on the same side of the Sun ? What is it when they are on opposite sides of the Sun ? Which hemisphere is turned to- wards the Earth when she is nearest to us? Were her enlightened hemisphere turned towards us at that time, how would her light and brilliancy be compared with that which she generally exhibits, and what would be her appearance 3 What is the length of her apparent diameter when she is nearest to the Earth & What is it when she is most remote 3 How much larger would she appear, if visible, in the former case than in the latter 2 In what circumstances does Venus rise before, and in what set after, the Sun ? f * VENUS. 25 setting. She continues alternately morning and evening star, for a period of 292 days, each time. - ,” To those who are but little acquainted with astronomy, it will seem strange, at first, that Venus should apparently continue longer on the east or west side of the Sun, than the whole time of her periodical revolution around him. But it will be easily understood, when it is considered, that while Venus moves around the Sun, at the rate of 80 thousand miles an hour, the Earth, in the meantime, follows at the rate of 68 thousand miles an hour; so that Venus actually gains on the Earth only 12 thousand miles an hour, or about #9 in a day.' Now it is evident that both planets will appear to keep on the same side of the Sun, until Venus has gained half her orbit, or 180° in advance of the Earth; and this, at a mean rate, will require 292 days. | This may be further illustrated thus: Suppose two steamboats, which we will call the Earth and Venus, set out from the same point, and sail the same way, around Long Island, whose circumference is estimated at 300 miles; suppose also, that Venus sails 10 miles an hour, and the Earth, 8 miles. Now it is obvious that Venus would be 30 hours in sailing quite around the island, while the Earth, in the same time, would have sailed 240 miles ; being, at the end of the first circuit, only 60 miles behind Venus. At the end of We- nus' second circuit, the Earth will be 120 miles behind, but yet on the same side of the island. . But after Venus shall have performed two complete circuits and one half of another, she will then be 150 miles in advance of the Earth, or just half around the island, and on the opposite side. So it is in respºct to the planets. Mercury and Venus are called Inferior” planets, because /their orbits are within the Earth's orbit, or between it and the Sun. The other planets are denominated “Superior, because their orbits are without or beyond the orbit of the Earth. [Plate I.] As the orbits of Mercury and Venus lie within the Earth's orbit, it is plain, that once in every * In almost all works on astronomy, Mercury and Venus are denominated inferior planets, and the others, superior. But as these terms are employed, not to express the relative size of the planets, but to indicate their situation with respect to the Earth, it would be better to adopt the terms interior and exterior. How long does she continue each time, alternately morning and evening star? Why does she appear longer on the east ºr west side of the sun than the whºle time of her periodical revolution around him 3 Give an illustration of this point. Why are Mercury and Venus called Inferior planets Zwhy are the other planets termed Superior planets? How often, in every synodical revolution, will each of these planets be in conjunction on the same side of the sun that the Earth is 3 How often on the opposite side : Explain this. C 26 VENUS. synodical revolution, each of these planets will be in con- junction on the same side of the Sun. In the former case, the planet is said to be in its inferior conjunction, and in the latter case, in its superior conjunction; as in the following figure. CONJUNCTION AND OPPOSITION OF THE PLANETS. Fig. 5. º The period of Venus’ synodical revolution is found in the same manner as that of Mercury; namely, by dividing the whole circumference of her orbit by her mean relative motion in a day. Thus, Venus’ absolute mean daily motion is 1° 36' 7".8, the Earth's is 59'8".3, and their difference 36'59" .5. Divide 3600 by 36'59".5, and it gives 583.920, or nearly 584 days, for Venus' synodical revolution, or the period in which she is twice in conjunction with the Earth. 2 Venus passes from her inferior to her superior conjunction in about 292 days. At her inferior conjunction, she is 26 millions of miles from the Earth; at her superior conjunc- tion, 164 millions of miles. * What names distinguish these two species of conjunction? How is the synodi- cal revolution of Venus found 3 JMake the †ºy long is she in pass- ing from her inferior to her superior conjunction? How far is she from the Earth at her inferior conjunction ? How far at her superior 3 t - VENUS. 27 It might be expected that her brilliancy would be propor- tionally increased, in the one case, and diminished, in the other; and so it would be, were it not that her enlightened hemisphere is turned more and more from us, as she ap- proaches the Earth, and comes more and more into view as she recedes from it. It is to this cause alone that we must attribute the uniformity of her splendour as it usually ap- pears to the naked eye. / / Mercury and Venus present to us, successively, the .various shapes and appearances of the Moon; waxing and waning through different phases, from the beautiful crescent to the full rounded orb. This fact shows, that they revolve around the Sun, and between the Sun and the Earth. Let the pupil endeavour to explain these phases on any other supposition, and he will be convinced that the system of Ptolemy is erroneous, while that of Copernicus is confirmed. It should be remarked, however, that Venus is never seen when she is entirely full, except once or twice in a century, when she passes directly over the Sun's disc. At every other conjunction, she is either behind the Sun, or so near him as to be hidden by the splendour of his light.* The diagram on the next page will better iſlustrate the various appearances of Venus, as she moves around the Sun, than any description of them could do. Z From her inferior to her superior conjunction, Venus ap- pears on the west side of the Sun, and is then our morning star; from her superior to her inferior conjunction she ap- pears on the east side of the Sun, and is then our evening star. | * The eminent astronomer, Thom As DICK, LL.D., well known in this country, as the author of the Christian Philosopher, Philosophy of a Future State, &c., in a review of this remark, observes—“This ought not to be laid down as a general truth. About the year 1813, I made a great variety of observations on Venus in the day time, by an equatorial instrument, and found, that she could be seen when only 1° 27' from the Sun's margin, and consequently may be seen at the moment of her superior conjunction, when her geocentric latitude, at that time, equals or exceeds 1° 43'. I have some faint expectations of being able to see Venus in the course of two or three §: her superior conjunction, if the weather be favourable.”—March 3, 1 Why is not her brilliancy proportionally increased, in the former case, and di- minished, in the latter 3, What appearances do Mercury and Venus present to us at different times? What supposition is necessary for the explanation of these phases? What system do they tend to refute 3 What system do they confirm 3 Iłow often is Venus seen when she is entirely full 2 Why is she not seen at the full oftenergy. In what part of her orbit does Venus appear on the west side of the sun 3 In what on the east : In what parts is she, alternately, morning, and evening star? APPEARANCES OF VENUS AS SHE MOVES AROUND THE SUN. Fig. 6. Superior Conjunction. Inferior Conjunction. § # VENUS. 29 Like Mercury, she sometimes seems to be stationary. Her apparent motion, like his, is sometimes quick; at one time, direct, and at another, retrograde; vibrating alternately backwards and forwards, from west to east, and from east to west. These vibrations appear to extend from 45° to 47°, on each side of the Sun. * Consequently she never appears in the eastern horizon, more than three hours before sun-rise, nor continues longer, in the western horizon, after sun set. Any star or planet, therefore, however brilliant it may appear, which is seen earlier or later than this, cannot be Venus. & In passing from her western to her eastern elongation, her motion is from west to east, in the order of the signs; it is thence called direct motion. In passing from her eastern to her western elongation, her motion with respect to the Earth, is from east to west, contrary to the order of the signs; it is thence denominated retrograde motion. Her motion appears quickest, about the time of her conjunctions; and she seems stationary, at her elongations. She is brightest about 36 days before and after her inferior conjunction, when her light is so great as to project a visible shadow in the night, and sometimes she is visible even at noon-day. | In the following figure, the outer circle represents the Earth's orbit, and the inner circle, that of Venus, while she moves around the Sun, in the order of the letters a, b, c, d, &c. When Venus is at a, she is in her inferior con- junction, between the Earth and Sun; and is in a situation similar to that 9f the Moon at her change, being then invisible, because her dark hemi- sphere is towards the Earth. At c, she appears half enlightened to the Earth, like the Moon in her first quarter: at d, she appears almost full, her enlightened side being then almost directly towards the Earth ; at e, she is in her superior conjunction, and would appear quite full, were she not directly behind the Sun, or so near him as to be hidden by the splendour of his light: at f she appears to be on the decrease: and at g, only halfen- lightened, like the Moon in her last quarter: at a, she disappears again be- tween the Earth and the Sun. In moving from g to c, she seems to go . backwards in the heavens, because she moves contrary to the order of the signs. In turning the arc of the circle from retrograde to direct motion, or frºm direct to retrograde, she appears nearly stationary for a few days; be- cause, in the former case, she is going almost directly from the Earth, and in the latter, coming towards it. As she describes a much larger portion Describe her apparent motion. How far on each side the sun do the vibrations of Venus extend ? What then is the longest time before sun rise that she appears in the eastern horizon 3. What the longest time after sun set that she appears 2n je jestern ?/What is the direction of her motion while she passes from her west- ºn to her eastern elongation? Why is it called direct motion? What is its direc, tion as she passes from her eastern to her western elongation ? Why is it called retrograde 3. When is her apparent motion quickest ? When does she appear stationary 3 When is she brightest 3 Hºw great is her light at this time 3 C 30 - VENUS, e- 3. DIRECT AND RETROGRADE MOTION. Fig. 7. of her orbit in going from c to g, than from g to c, she appears much longer direct than retrograde. At a mean rate, her retrogradations are accom- plished in 42 days. If the orbit of Venus lay exactly in the plane of the Earth's orbit, she would pass centrally across the Sun's disc, like a dark round spot, at every inferior conjunction; but as one half of her orbit lies about 34° above the eclip- tic, and the other half as far below it, she will always pass the Sun a very little above or below it, except when her inferior conjunction happens in, or near one of her nodes; in which case, she will make a transit. [Relative position of the Planet's Orbits’ Plate I–Plane of Venus—Inclina- tion 3°23'.] ] *** ^ This phenomenon therefore, is of very rare occurrence: it can happen only twice in a century; because it is only twice in that time that any number of complete revolutions of Venus, are just or nearly equal to a certain number of the Earth's revolutions. : Why does not Venus pass centrally across the sun's disc at every inferior con- junction ? In what circumstances will she make a transit across the sun ? ſhow often can this phenomenon happen? Why can it not happen oftener? vENUs. 31 The principle which was illustrated in predicting the transits of Mercury, applies equally well to those of Venus; that is, we must find such sets of numbers, (representing complete revolutions of the Earth and Venus,) as shall be to each other in the ratio of their periodical times, or as 365.256 is to 2247. Thus ; the motion of Venus, in the Julian year, is 2106591ſt. 52; that of the earth for the same period being 129627" 45, the ratio will be ######".}}. As the two terms of this fraction cannot be reduced by a common divisor, we must multiply them by such numbers as will make one a multiple of the other; accordingly, 13 times the denominator will be nearly equal to 8 times the numerator; and 475 times the denominator will equal 291 times the numerator. By combinimg these two periods and their multiples by addition and sub- traction, we shall obtain the period of all the transits that have ever hap- pened. Thus; 29.1–8×7=235, another period; and 291—6×8=243, an- , other period, and so on. Whence we find that, 8 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 13 of Venus. 235 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 382 of Venus. 243 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 395 of Venus. 251 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 408 of Venus. 291 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 475 of Venus. Hence a transit of Venus may happen at the same node, after an interval of 8 years ; but if it do not happen then, it cannot take place again, at the same node, in less than 235 years. The orbit of Venus crosses the ecliptic near the middle of Gemini and Sagittarius ; and these points mark the po- sition of her nodes. At present, her ascending node is in the 14th degree of Gemini, and her descending node, in the same degree of Sagittarius. The Earth passes her ascending node in the beginning of December, and her descending node, in the beginning of June. Hence, the transits of Venus, for ages to come, will happen in December and June. AThe first transit ever known to have been seen by any human being, took place at the ;Cºndiºg node, December 4th, 1639.” If to this dº a n = * , /. >< This ºenomenon was first witnessed by Horror/ a young gentleman about 21 years of age, living in an obscure village 15 miks north of Liver- pool. The tables of Kepler, constructed upon the observations of Tycho Brahe, indicated a transit of Venus, in 1631, but none was observed. Horrox, without much assistance from books and instruments, set himself to inquire into the error of the tables, and found, that such a phenomenon might be expected to happen in 1639. He repeated his calculations, during this interval, with all the carefulfiess and enthusiasm of a scholar ambi- tious of being the first to predict and observe a celeštial phenomenon, which, from the creation of the world, had never been witnessed. Confi- dent of the result, he communicated his expected triumph to a confidential State the method of predicting the transits of Venus. After how long an in- terval may a transit of Venus happen again at the same node 2 If it do not hap- pen then, how long a period must elapse before it will occur again at the same *ode 2 Where does the orbit of Penus cross the ecliptic, and where are her nodes 3 In what months, for ages to come, will the transits of Venus happen, and why? At which node, and when did the first transit of Venus ever known to have been ^ºsº, take place 3 e 32 VENUS. date, we add 235 years, we shall have the time of the next transit at the same node, which will accordingly happen in 1874. There will be another at the same node in 1882, eight years afterwards. It is not more certain that this phe- nomenon will recur, than that the event itself will engross the attention of all the astronomers then living upon the Earth. It will be anticipated, and provided for, and observ- ed, in every inhabited quarter of the globe, with an inten- sity of solicitude which no natural phenomenon, since the creation, has ever excited. } 2 The reason why a transit of Venus should excite so great an interest, is, because it may be expected to solve an im- portant problem in astronomy, which has never yet been satisfactorily done :—a problem whose solution will make known to us the magnitudes and masses of all the planets, the true dimensions of their orbits, their rates of motion around the Sun, and their respective distances from the Sun, and from each other. It may be expected, in short, to furnish a uni- friend residing in Manchester, and desired him to watch for the event, and to take observations. So anxious was Horrox not to fail of witnessing it himself, that he commenced his observations the day before it was expect- ed, and resumed them, at the rising of the Sun, on the morrow. But the very hour, when his calculations led him to expect the visible appearance of Venus upon the Sun's disc, was also the appointed hour for the public wor- ship of GoD on the Sabbath. The delay of a few minutes might deprive him forever of an opportunity of observing the transit. If its very com- mencement were not noticed, clouds might intervene and conceal it until the Sun should set : and nearly a century and a half would elapse before another opportunity would occur. He had been waiting for the event with the most ardent anticipation for eight years, and the result promised much benefit to the science. Notwithstanding all this, Horrow twice suspended his observations, and twice repaired to the House of God, the Great Author of the bright worlds he delighted to contemplate. When his duty was thus performed, and he had returned to his chamber the second time, his love of science was gratified with full success; and he saw what no mortal eye had observed befºres! A. If anything can add interest to this incident, it is the modesty with which the young astronomer apologizes to the world, for suspending his ob- servations at all. * I observed it,” says he, “from sun rise till nine o'clock, again a little before ten, and lastly at noon, and from one to two o'clock; the rest of the day being devoted to higher duties, which might not be neglected for these pastimes.” ... • .*When will the next two transits occur #Why will the next transit excite a very great and universal interest ? tº * *f WEN US, 33. versal standard of astronomical measure. Another conside- ration will render the observation of this transit peculiarly favorable; and that is, astronomers will be supplied with better instruments, and more accurate means of observation, than on any former occasion. I - So important, says Sir John Herschel, have these observations appear- ed to astronomers, that at the last transit of Venus, in 1769, expeditions were fitted out, on the most efficient scale, by the British, French, Russian, and other governments, to the remotest corners of the globe, for the express purpose of making them. The celebrated expedition of Captain Cook to Otaheite, was one of them. The general result of all the observations made on this most memorable occasion, gives 8" .5776 for the Sun's horizontal parallax. - • The phenomena of the seasons, of each of the planets, like those of the Earth, depend upon the inclination of the axis of the planet, to the plane of its orbit. The inclination of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit, though not precisely known, is commonly estimated at 75°; which is more than three times as great as the inclination of the Earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic. The north pole of Venus' axis inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius; the Earth's, towards the beginning of Cancer; consequently, the northern parts of Venus have summer in the signs where those of the Earth have winter, and vice versa. The declination of the Sun on each side of her equator, must be equal to the inclination of her axis; and if this ex- tends to 75°, her tropics are only 15° from her poles, and her polar circles as far from her equator. It follows, also, that the Sun must change his declination more in one day at Venus, than in five days on the Earth; and consequently, that he never-shines vertically on the same places for two days in succession. This may perhaps be providentially ordered, to prevent the too great effect of the Sun's heat, which; on the supposition that it is in inverse proportion to * Upon what do the phenomena of the seasons of each of the planets depend ? What is the estimated inclination of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit? How does this inclination compare with that of the Earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic 3 What seasons have the northern parts of Venus, when those of the Earth have winter 3 iow do we know this 3 To what must the declination of the sun on each side of her equator be equal 3 How far are her tropics from her poles, and her polar circles from her equator 4 How much more must the sun change his declination in one day at Venus than on the Earth 3 Why, per- haps, is this so ordered 3 º 'º 34 VENUS. the distance, is twice as great on this planet as it is on the Earth. - At each pole, the Sun continues half a year” without set- ting, in summer, and as long without rising, in winter; con- sequently, the polar inhabitants of Venus, like those of the earth, have only one day and one night in the year; with this difference, that the days and nights of Venus are not quite two thirds as long as ours. Between her polar circles, which are but 15° from her equator, there are two winters, two summers, two springs, and two autumns, every year. But because the Sun stays for some time near the tropics, and passes so quickly over the equator, the winters in that zone will be almost twice as long as the summers. a TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF VENUS. Fig. 8. When viewed through a good telescope, Venus exhibits not only all the moon-like phases of Mercury, but also a va- riety of inequalities on her surface; dark spots, and bril- liant shades, hills, and valleys, and elevated mountains. But on account of the great density of her atmosphere, these in- equalities are perceived with more difficulty than those up- on the other planets. *That is, half of Venus' year; which is 16 weeks. How many days and nights have her polar inhabitants during the year ! How long are these days and nights, compared with those of our polar inhabitants 3 How many, and what seasons has Venus between her polar circles? What is the length of the winters in this zone, compared with that of the summers ? What appearances, beside her moon-like phases, does Venus exhibit when seen through a good telescope 3 Why is it more difficult to perceive the inequalities on her surface than those on the other planets 3 & *- ...” t • THE EARTII. 35 The mountains of Venus, like those of Mercury and the Moon, are highest in the southern hemisphere. According to M. Schroeter, a celebrated German astronomer, who spent more than ten years in observations upon this planet, sorhe of her mountains rise to the enormous height of from 10 to 22 miles.* The observations of Dr. Herschel do not indicate so great an altitude; and he thinks, that in general they are considerably overrated. He estimates the diame- ter of Venus at 8,649 miles; making her bulk more than one sixth larger than that of the Earth. Several eminent astronomers affirm, that they have repeatedly seen Venus attended by a satellite, and they have given circumstantial de- tails of its size and appearance, its periodical revolution, and its distance from her. It is said to resemble our moon in its phases, its distance, and its magnitude. Other astrono- mers deny the existence of such a body, because it was not seen with Venus on the Sun's disc, at the transits of 1761, and 1769. > t THE EARTH. /* The Earth is the place from which all our observations of the heavenly bodies must necessarily be made. The ap- parent motions of these bodies being very considerably af. fected by her figure, motions, and dimensions, the latter hold an important place in astronomical science. It will therefore be proper to consider, first, some of the phenomena by which they have been determined. If, standing on the sea-shore, in a clear day, we view a ship leaving the coast, in any direction, the hull or body of the vessel first disappears; afterwards the rigging becomes * 1st, 22.05 miles; 2d, 18.97 miles; 3d, 11.44 miles; 4th, 10.84 miles. In which hemisphere are her mountains highest ? ' What does M. Schroeter make the altitude of some of the highest ? Is this estimate confirmed by the ob- servations of Dr. Herschel ? How long is the diameter of Venus, according to Herschel’s estimate 3 How much larger, then, must she be than the Earth 3 Some astronomers affirm that they have seen Venus attended by a satellite, why do others deny the existence of such a body?, Why is it important, in an astrono- mical view, to be acquainted with the figure, dimensions and motions of the Earth 4 Mention some of the proofs of the convexity of its surface? 36 THE EARTH, invisible, and lastly, the top of the mast vanishes from our sight. Those on board the ship, observe that the coast first sinks below the horizon, then the buildings, and lastly, the tallest spires, of the city which they are leaving. Now these phenomena are evidently caused by the convexity of the water which is between the eye and the object; for, were the surface of the sea merely an extended plain, the largest objects would be visible the longest, and the small- est disappear first. I CONVExITY OF THE EARTH. Fig. 9. Again : navigators have sailed quite around the Earth and thus proved its convexity. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, was the first who carried this enter- prise into execution. He embarked from Seville, in Spain, and directed his course towards the west. After a long voyage, he descried ºf 5 continent of America. Not finding an opening to enable him to continiſe his course in a westerly direction, he sailed along the coast towards the south, till, coming to its southern extremity, he sailed around it, ind found himself in the great Southern Ocean. He then resumed his course towards the west. After some time he arrived at the Molucca Islands, in the Eastern Hemis. phere ; and sailing continually towards the west, he made Europe from the east; arriving at the place from which he set out.* The next who circumnavigated the Earth, was Sir Francis I)rake, who sailed from Plymouth, December 13, 1577, with five small vessels, and ar- rived at the same place, September 26, 1580. Since that time, the circum- navigation of the Earth has heen performed by Cavendish, Cordes, Noort, Sharten, Heremites, Dampier, Woodes, Rogers, Schovten, Roggewin, * Magellan sailed from Seville, in Spain, August 10, 1519, in the ship called the Victory, accompanied by four other vessels. In April, 1521, he was killed in a skirmish with the natives, at the island of Sebu, or Zebu, sometimes called Matan, one of the Philippines. One of his vessels, however, arrived at St. Lucar, near Seville, September 7, 1522. Who first sailed around the earth 2 Describe briefly his voyage. Who next cºrcumnavigated the earth 2 Describe his voyage. JMention the names of some of those who have since accomplished this enterprise. THE EARTHe & 37 * Lord Anson, Byron, Carteret, Wallis, Bougainville, Cook, King, Clerk, Vancouver, and many others. / These navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, al- lowance being made for promontories, &c. arrived at the country they sailed from. Hence, the Earth must be either cylindrical or globular. It cannot be cylindrical, because, if so, the meridian-distances would all be equal to each other, which is contrary to observation. The figure of the Earth is, therefore, spherical. & - The convexity of the Earth, north and south, is proved by the altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars, which is found uniformly to increase as we approach them, while the inclination to the horizon, of the circles described by all the stars, gradually diminishes. While proceeding in a southerly direction, the reverse of this takes place. The altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars, con- tinually decreases; and all the stars describe circles whose inclination to the horizon increases with the distance. Whence we derive this general truth; The altitude of one pole, and the depression of the other, at any place on the Earth's surface, is equal to the latitude of that place. I / Another proof of the convexity of the earth's surface is, that the higher the eye is raised, the farther is the view ex- ºn observer may see the setting-sun from the top *br any considerable eminence, after he has ceas- ed to be visible to those below. Aeronauts, who have left the earth in the night, have not unfrequently “seen him emerging in brilliant majesty, above an ocean of clouds,” and then, on descending to the Earth, found all again was night. t The curvature of the Earth for one mile is 8 inches; and this curvature increases with the square of the distance. From this general law, it wiłł be easy to calculate the distance at which any object whose heightis given, may be seen, or to determine the height of an object when the distance is known. 1st. To find the height of the object when the distance is given. RULE. Find the square of the distance in miles, and take two thirds of that number for the height in feet. What may we infer from these facts in regard to the figure of the Earth? /How is the convexity of her surface proved 4 To what is the convexity propor- tional 2 State the rule, deduced from this fact, for finding the height of an object, when its distance from us is given. - ID # 38 N. THE EARTIſ, Ex. 1.-How high must the eye of an observer be raised to see the sur: face of the ocean, at the distance of three miles 7 Ans. The square of 3 ſt is 9.ft., and # of 9 ſt. is 6 ft. Ex. 2. Suppose a person can just see the top of a spire over an extended plain of ten miles, how high is the steeple 3 Ans. The square of 10 is 100, and # of 100, is 66%, feet. 2. To find the distance, when the height is given. RULE. Increase the height in feet one half, and extract the square root, for the distance, in miles. Ex. 1–How far can a person see the surface of a plain, whose eye is ele- vated six feet above it ! Ans. 6, increased by its half is 9, and the square root of 9 is 3; the distance is then 3 miles. Ex. 2.--To what distance can a person see a light-house whose height is 96 feet from the level of the ocean? Ans. 96 increased by its half, is 144, and the square root of 144 is 12; the distance is therefore 12 miles. 3. To find the curvature of the Earth when it exceeds a mile. , RULE. Multiply the square of the distance by .000126. Although it appears from the preceding facts, that the Earth is spherical, yet it is not a perfect sphere. If it were, the length of the degrees of latitude, from the equator to the poles, would be uniformly the same ; but it has been found, by the most careful measurement, that as we go from the equator towards the poles, the length increases with the lati- tude. These measurements have been made by the most-eminent mathema- ticians of different countries, and in various places, from the equator to the arctic circle. They have found that a degree of latitude at the arctic circle was nine sixteenths of a mile longer than a degree at the equator, and that the ratio of increase for the intermediate degrees was nearly as the squares of the sines of the latitude. Thus the theory of Sir Isaac Newton was confirmed, that the body of the Earth was more rounded #d convex between the tropics, but considerably flattened towards the pºes. Places of Length of a degree & Observation. Latitude. in English miles. Seſvers. Peru, Equator. 68.732 "Bouguer. Pennsylvania,390 12' N. 68.896 Mason and Dixon. Italy, 43 01 68.998 Boscovich and Lemaire. France, 46 69.054 Delambre and Mechain. England, 5] 29 54}ll 69.146 Mudge. Sweden, 66 20 10 69,292 Swamberg. These measurements prove the Earth to be an obſate spheroid, whose longest or equatorial diameter is 7924 miles, State the rule for finding the distance, when the height is given. State the ºrule for fiveding the cºrvature of the earth when the distance exceeds a mile. Is the figure of the Earth an exact sphere 4 Were the Earth a perfect sphere, how would the length of the degrees of latitude be, compared with each ºther ? How are they, in fact 4. What is the length of a degree at the Arctic circle, compared with a degree at the equator, as found by the measurements of different mathema- ticians ? What have they found to b; the ratio of increase for the intermediate de- grees 2 . What theory do these facts confirm 2. What is the length of the Earth's equatorial diameter, as found by these measurements 3 • . 2. gº? THE EARTH, 39 and polar diameter, 7898 miles. The mean diameter is therefore, about 7912, and their difference 26 miles. The French Academy have determined that the mean diameter of the Earth, from the 45th degree of north latitude, to the opposite degree of south latitude, is accurately 7912 miles. If the Earth were an exact sphere, its diameter Fig. 10. . might be determined by its curvature, from a single A B measurement. Thus in the adjoining figure, we have AP A B equal to 1 mile, and B D equal to 8 inches, to find A E, or B E, which does not sensibly differ from A E, since B D is only 8 inches. Now it is a propo- sition of Euclid, (B. 3, prop. 36,) that, when from a * point without a circle, two lines be drawn, one cutting and the other touching it, the touching line (BA) is a mean proportional between the cutting line (BE) and that part of it (BD) without the circle. B D : B A :: B A : B E or A E very nearly. That is, 1 mile being equal to 63360 inches, 8 : 63360 :: 63360 : 50181120 inches, or 7920 miles. This is very nearly what the most elaborate calculations make the Earth's equatorial diameter. / The Earth, considered as a planet, occupies a favoured rank in the Solar System. It pleased the All-wise Crea- tor to assign its position among the heavenly bodies, where nearly all the sister planets are visible to the naked eye. It is situated next to Venus, and is the third planet from the Sun. I To the scholar who for the first time takes up a book on astronomy, it will no doubt seem strange to find the Earth classed with the heavenly bodies. For what can appear more unlike, than the Earth, with her vast and seemingly immeasurable extent, and the stars, which appear but as points 2 The Earth is dark and opaque, the celestial bodies are brilliant. We perceive in it no motion; while in them we observe a continual change of place, as we view them at different hours of the day or night, or at dif. ferent seasons of the year. It moves round the Sun, from west to east, in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds ; and turns, the same way, on its axis in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds. What, her polar diameter 3 What is the diſference between the two 3 What is her mean diameter 3 What have the French academy determined to be the exact mean diameter from the 45th degree of north latitude to the opposite degree of south latitude 3 Illustrate the method of finding the diameter of the Earth from her curvature, on the supposition that her figure is an exact sphere? What is the length of her diameter as thus found 3 Haw is this, compared with the equatorial diameter, as found by the most elaborate calculations 32What is the position of the Earth in the Solar System 3 What revolutions doës it perform, and in what direction ? What is the time occupied in each of these revolutions 3 40 - THE EARTHe * The former is called its annual motion, and causes the vicis- situdes of the seasons. The latter is called its diurnal mo- tion, and produces the succession of day and night. The Earth’s mean distance from the Sun is about 95 millions of miles. It consequently moves in its orbit at the mean rate of 68 thousand miles an hour. Its equatorial di- ameter being 7924 miles, it turns on its axis at the rate of 1040 miles an hour. Thus, the earth on which we stand, and which has serv- ed for ages as the unshaken foundation of the firmest struc- tures, is every moment turning swiftly on its centre, and, at the same time, moving onwards with great rapidity through the empty space. s This compound motion is to be understood of the whole earth, with all that it holds within its substance, or sustains upon its surface—of the solid mass beneath, of the ocean which flows around it, of the air that rests upon it, and of the clouds which float above it in the air. That the Earth, in common with all the planets, revolves around the Sun as a centre, is a fact which rests upon the evidence of our senses, as well as upon the clearest demon- strations of philosophy. That it revolves, like them, upon its own axis, is a truth which every rising and setting sun il- lustrates, and which very many phenomena concur to estab- lish. Either the Earth moves around its axis every day, or the whole universe moves around it in the same time. There is no third opinion, that can be formed on this point. Either the Earth must revolve on its axis every 24 hours, to pro- duce the alternate succession of day and night, or the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, fixed stars, and the whole frame of the universe itself, must move around the Earth, in the same time. To suppose the latter case to be the fact, would be to cast a reflection on the wisdom of the Supreme Architect, whose laws are universal harmony. As well might the w By what terms are these revolutions distinguished, and what important effects do they produce 3 What is the Earth’s mean distance from the sun ? What is the mean rate of its motion in its orbit per hour? What is the rate of its revolu- tion on its axis per hour ! What are the proofs, that it performs these two re- volutions 3 THE EARTH. 41 beetle, that in a moment turns on its ball, imagine the heav- ens and the earth had made a revolution in the same instant. It is evident, that in proportion to the distance of the ce- lestial bodies from the Earth, must, on this supposition, be the rapidity of their movements. The Sun, then, would move at the rate of more than four hundred thousand miles in a minute; the nearest stars, at the inconceivable velocity of 1400 millions of miles in a second ; and the most distant luminaries, with a degree of swiftness which no numbers could express—a motion that would shatter the universe to atoms—and all this, to save the little globe we tread upon, from turning safely on its axis once in 24 hours. The idea of the heavens revolving about the Earth, is en- cumbered with innumerable other difficulties. We will mention only one more. It is estimated on good authority, that there are visible, by means of glasses, no less than one hundred millions of stars, scattered at all possible distances in the heavens above, beneath, and around us. Now, the question is—how shall all these machines be so wound up, as to run exactly to the period of the Earth's rotation, and all complete their revolutions at the same instant. In short, there is no more reason to suppose that the heav- ens revolve around the earth, than there is to suppose that they revolve around each of the other planets, separately, and at the same time; since the same apparent revolution is common to them all, for they all appear to revolve upon their axes, in different periods. The rotation of the Earth determines the length of the day, and may be regarded as one of the most important el- ements in astronomical science. It serves as a universal measure of time, and forms the standard of comparison for the revolutions of the celestial bodies, for all ages, past, and to come. Theory and observation concur in proving, that among the innumerable vicissitudes that prevail throughout creation, the period of the Earth's diurnal rotation, is immu- table. The Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds, of solar time. What important purposes does the period of the Earth’s rotation serve 3 ID * '42 - THE EARTH, This is called a sidereal day, because, in that time, the stars appear to complete one revolution around the Earth. But, as the Earth advances almost a degree eastward in its orbit, in the time that it turns eastward around its axis, it is plain that just one rotation never brings the same me- ridian around from the Sun to the Sun again; so that the Earth requires as much more than one complete revolution on its axis to complete a solar day, as it has gone forward in that time. Hence, in every natural or solar day, the Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis and the 365th part of another revolution. Consequently, in 365 days, the Earth turns 366 times around its axis. And as every revolution of the Earth on its axis completes a side- real day, there must be 366 sidereal days in a year. And, generally, since the rotation of any planet about its axis is the length of a sidereal day at that planet, the number of sidereal days will always exceed the number of solar days, by one, let that number be what it may, one revolution be- ing always lost in the course of an annual revolution. This difference between the sidereal and solar days may be il- lustrated by referring to a watch or clock. When both hands set out together, at 12 o'clock for instance, the min- ute hand must travel more than a whole circle before it will overtake the hour hand, that is, before they will come into conjunction again. - In the same manner, if a man travel around the Earth eastwardly, no matter in what time, he will reckon one day nore, on his arrival at the place whence he set out, than they do who remain at rest; while the man who travels around the Earth westwardly will have one day less. From which it is manifest, that, if two persons start from the same place at the same time, but go in contrary directions, the one trav- elling eastward and the other westward, and each goes com- pletely around the globe, although they should both arrive What is a sidereal day? What is a solar day ? What part of a second revolu- tion does the Earth complete in every solar day 4. How many times, then, does it turn on its axis in 365 days 3 How many sidereal days are there in a year 3 On any planet, what is the number of the sidereal days compared with the number of the solar 3 Illustrate the difference between the sidereal and solar days by referring to a watch.or clock. Illustrate it by referring to two travellers going . aroun ("the globe, one eastwardly, and the other westwardly. º THE EARTH. 43 again at the very same hour at the same place from which they set out, yet they will disagree two whole days in their reckoning. Should the day of their return, to the man who travelled westwardly, be Monday, to the man' who trav- elled eastwardly, it would be Wednesday; while to those who remained at the place itself, it would be Tuesday. Nor is it necessary, in order to produce the gain or loss of a day, that the journey be performed either on the equa- tor, or on any parallel of latitude; it is sufficient for the purpose, that all the meridians of the Earth be passed through, eastward or westward. The time, also, occupied in the journey, is equally unimportant; the gain or loss of a day being the same, whether the Earth be travelled around in 24 years, or in as many hours. It is also evident, that if the Earth turned around its axis but once in a year, and if the revolution was performed the same way as its revolution around the Sun, there would be perpetual day on one side of it, and perpetual night o the other. i From these facts the pupil will readily comprehend the principles in- volved in a curious problem which appeared a few years ago: It was grave- ly reported by an American ship, that, in sailing over the ocean, it chanced to find sia, Sundays in February. The fact was insisted on, and a solution demanded. There is nothing absurd in this.-The man who travels around the Earth eastwardly, will see the Sun go down a little earlier every suc- ceeding day, than if he had remained at rest; or earlier than they do who live at the place from which he set out. The faster he travels towards the rising sun, the sooner will it appear above the horizon in the morning, and so much sooner will it set in the evening. What he thus gains in time, will bear the same proportion to a solar day, as the distance travelled does to the circumference of the Earth.-As the globe is 360 degrees in circum- ference, the Sun will appear to move over one twenty-fourth part of its surface, or 14°, every hour, which is 4 minutes to one degree.—Consequent- ly, the Sun will rise, come to the meridian, and set, 4 minutes sooner, at a place 19 east of us, than it will with us; at the distance of 29 the Sun will rise and set 8 minutes sooner; at the distance of 3°, 12 minutes sooner, and so on. • Now the man who travels one degree to the cast, the first day, will have the Sun on his meridian 4 minutes sooner than we do who are at rest; > and the second day, 8 minutes sooner, and on the third day, 12 minutes sooner, and so 9n ; each successive day being completed 4 minutes earlier than the preceding, until he arrives again at the place from which he start- If the Earth revolved on its axis but once a year, and in the same direction as it revolves around the sun, what would be the consequence as it regards day and night? It was gravely reported some years ago by an American ship, that in sail- ang over the ocean, it found six Sundays in February ; please explain this. ‘A 44 THE EARTH, * ed; when this continual gain of 4 minutes a day will have amounted to a whole day in advance of our time; he having seen the Sun rise and set once more than we have. Consequently, the day on which he arrives at home, whatever day of the week it may be, is one day in advance of ours, and he must needs live that day over again, by calling the next day by the same name, in order to make the accounts harmonize. If this should be the last day of February in a bissextile year, it would also be the same day of the week that the first was, and be six times re- peated; and if it should happen on Sunday, he would, under these circum- stances, have six Sundays in February. * * Again —Whereas the man who travels at the rate of one degree to the east, will have all his days 4 minutes shorter than ours, so, on the contrary, the man who travels at the same rate towards the west, will have all his days 4 minutes longer than ours. When he has finished the circuit of the Earth, and arrived at the place from which he first set out, he will have seen the Sun rise and set once less than we have. Consequently, the day he gets home will be one day after the time at that place: for which reason, if he arrives at home on Saturday, according to his own account, he will have to call the next day Monday; Sunday having gone by before he reached home. Thus, on whatever day of the week January should end, in com- mon years, he would find the same day repeated only three times in Feb- ruary. If January ended on Sunday, he would, under these circumstan- ces, find only three Sundays in February. - The Earth's motion about its axis being perfectly equa- ble and uniform in every part of its annual revolution, the sidereal days are always of the same length, but the solar or natural days vary very considerably at different times of the year. This variation is owing to two distinct causes: the inclination of the Earth’s axis to its orbit, and the ine- quality of its motion around the Sun. From these two causes it is, that the time shown by a well regulated clock and that of a true sun-dial are scarcely ever the same. The difference between them, which sometimes amounts to 16} minutes, is called the Equation of Time, or the equation of solar days. ‘I he difference between mean and apparent time, or, in other words, be- tween Equinoctial and Ecliptic time, may be further shown by Figure 11; which represents the circles of the sphere. Let it be first premised, that equinoctial time is clock time; and that ecliptic time is solar or appa- Tent time. It appears, that from Aries to Cancer, the sun in the ecliptic comes to the meridian before the equinoctial sun; from Cancer to Libra, after it ; from Libra to Capricorn, before it; and from Capricorn to Aries, after it. If we notice what months the sun is in these several quarters, we shall find, that from the 25th of December to the 16th of April, and from the 16th of June to the 1st of September, the clock is faster than the sun- Why are the sidereal days always of the same length 3 What are the causes of the difference in the length of the solar days? What is meant by the expres: sion, equation of time 3 Illustrate the difference between mean and apparent time by reference to Fig.11. THE EARTH. - 45 dial; and that, from the 16th of April to the 16th of June, and from the 1st of September to the 25th of December, the sun-dial is faster than the clock. * EQUATION OF TIME. Fig. 11. N r I It is a universal fact, that, while none of the planets are perfect spheres, none of their orbits are perfect circles. . The planets all revolve about the Sun in ellipses of different degrees of eccentricity; having the Sun, not in the centre of the ellipse, but in one of its foci. The eccentricity of an orbit is the distance from the centre, to either of the foci. It is equal to half the difference between the two diameters. A planet in every revolution is therefore once in its aphelion, and once in its perihelion. In the former case, it is as much farther from the Sun than it is in the latter, as the longer diameter of the orbit exceeds the less; which excess is always equal to twice the eccentricity. . The longer axis of the Earth's orbit is about one sixtieth part longer than its shorter axis; consequently, the foci of the orbit are 13 millions of miles from its centre. Now as the Sun remains fixed in the lower focus of the Earth's orbit, it is easy to perceive that a line, passing centrally through the Sun at right angles with the longer axis of the orbit, will di- What is the figure of the orbits of the planets? In what point of the orbits is the sun situated? . What is the eccentricity of an orbit 3 To what is it always equal 2 How many times is a planet in its aphelion, and how many in its perihe. 2ion, in every revolution ? How much farther is it from the Sun in the former case than in the latter? How much longer is the longer azis of the Earth than the shorter 7 -In which focus of the Earth's orbit is the Sun ? 46 THE EARTH, ..º. into two unequal segments. Precisely thus it is divided by the equi- 7, OCttal. That portion of the Earth’s orbit which lies above the Sun, or north of the equinoctial, contains about 184 degrees; while that portion of it which lies below the Sun, or south of the equinoctial, contains only 176 degrees. This fact shows why the Sun continues about 8 days longer on the north side of the equator in summer, than it does on the south side in winter. The exact calculation, for the year 1830, is as follows: § 3. d. h. m. From the vernal equinox to the summer solstice, -92.21 19 & d. h. m. From the summer solstice to the autumnal equinox, =93 14 1 183, 11, 19. From the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice, =8917 #; d. h. m. From the winter solstice to the vernal equinox, = 89 1 13 $ 178, 18, 30. Difference in favour of the north side, - 7, 16, 49. The points of the Earth's orbit which correspond to its greatest and least distances from the Sun, are called, the former the Apogee, and the latter the Perigee; two Greek words, the former of which signifies from the Earth, and the latter about the Earth. These points are also designated by the common name of Apsides. [See these points represented, Plate I.] The Earth being in its perihelion about the 1st of Janu- ary, and in its aphelion the 1st of July, we are three millions of miles nearer the Sun in winter than in midsummer. The reason why we have not, as might be expected, the hottest weather when the Earth is nearest the Sun, is, because the Sun, at that time, having retreated to the southern tropic, shines so obliquely on the northern hemisphere that its rays have scarcely half the force of the summer Sun; and con- tinuing but a short time above the horizon, more cold is ac- cumulated by night than is dissipated by day. & As the Earth performs its annual revolution around the Sun, the position of its axis remains invariably the same ; always pointing to the North Pole of the heavens, and al- ways maintaining the same inclination to its orbit. This seems to be providentially ordered for the benefit of mankind. How does the equinoctial divide the Earth's orbit 2 Why does the sun remain longer on the north side of the equator in summer, than it does on the south side in winter ? What are the Earth's Apogee and Perigee 2 By what common name' are these two points designated 2 When is the Earth in its Perihelion ? When in its Aphelion ? Are we fiearer the sun in summer than in winter? How much nearer are we in winter than in summer ? Why do we not have the hottest wea- ther when we are nearest the sun ? As the Earth revolves about the sun, what is the position of its axis 3 º THE MOON, 47 If the axis of the Earth always pointed to the centre of its orbit, all external objects would appear to whirl about our heads in an inexplicable maze. Nothing would appear permanent. The mariner could no longer direct his course by the stars, and every index in nature would mislead us. THE MOON. There is no object within the scope º ob- servation which affords greater variety of interesting inves. tigation than the various phases and motions of the Moon. From them the astronomer ascertains the form of the Earth, the vicissitudes of the tides, the causes of eclipses and occul- tations, the distance of the Sun, and, consequently, the mag- nitude of the solar system. These phenomena, which are perfectly obvious to the unassisted eye, served as a standard of measurement to all nations, until the advancement of science taught them the advantages of Solar time. It is to these phenomena that the navigator is indebted for that precision of knowledge which guides him with well ground- ed confidence through the pathless Ocean.” ... The Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, and, in general, all the ancients, used to assemble at the time of new or full Moon, to discharge the duties of piety and gratitude for her unwearied attendance on the Earth, and all her manifold UlSéS. - When the Moon, after having been in conjunction with the Sun, emerges from his rays, she first appears in the evening, a little after sun-set, like a fine luminous crescent, with its convex side towards the Sun. If we observe her the next evening, we find her about 13° farther east of the Sun than on the preceding evening, and her crescent of light sensibly augmented. Repeating these observations, we per- ceive that she departs farther and farther from the Sun, as Should its axis always point to the centre of its orbit, how would external ob- jects appear to us?, What important purposes does the Moon serve to the astro- noiner ºr Qſ what importance are her phenomena to the navigator $2What na- tions used to assemble at the time of the new or of the full moon, to express their gratitude for her benefits 3 Describe the apparent motion of the Moon and her phases. 48 THE MOON. her enlightened surface comes more and more into view, un- til she arrives at her first quarter, and comes to the meridian at sun-set. She has then finished half her course from the new to the full, and half her enlightened hemisphere is turn- ed towards the Earth. - After her first quarter, she appears more and more gib- bous, as she recedes farther and farther from the Sun, until she has completed just half her revolution around the Earth, and is seen rising in the east when the Sun is setting in the west. She then ºresents her enlightened orb full to our view, and is said to be in opposition ; because she is then on the opposite side of the Earth with respect to the Sun. In the first half of her orbit she appears to pass over our heads through the upper hemisphere; she now descends be- low the eastern horizon to pass through that part of her or- bit which lies in the lower hemisphere. - - After her full, she wanes through the same changes of appearance as before, but in an inverted order; and we see her in the morning like a fine thread of light, a little west of the rising-sun. For the next two or three days she is lost to our view, rising and setting in conjunction with the Sun; after which, she passes over, by reason of her daily motion, to the east side of the Sun, and we behold her again a new Moon, as before. In changing sides with the Sun she changes also the direction of her crescent. Before her conjunction, it was turned to the east; it is now turned to- wards the west. These different appearances of the Moon are called her phases. They prove that she shines not by any light of her own ; if she did, being globular, we should always see her a round full orb like the Sun. , The Moon is a satellite to the Earth, about which she re- volves in an elliptical orbit, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 min- utes, and 3 seconds; the time which elapses between one new moon and another. This is called her synodical revo- lution. Her revolution from any fixed star to the same star again, is called her periodic, or sidereal revolution. It is ac- ~ How is it known that the Moon does not shine by her own light 4 About what does the Moon revolve, and what is the figure of her orbit 32:What is the time of her revolution from one new Moon to another ? What is thſºrevolution denomi- i. dZwhat is her periodic or sidereal revolution ? In what time is this accom. plished ; THE MOON. * 49 complished in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 114 sec- onds; but in this time, the Earth has advanced nearly as many degrees in her orbit; consequently the Moon, at the end of one complete revolution, must go as many degrees farther, before she will come again into the same position with respect to the Sun and the Earth. I * The Moon is the nearest of all the heavenly bodies, being about 30 times the diameter of the Earth, or 240,000 miles distant from us. Her mean daily motion, in her orbit, is nearly 14 times as great as the Earth's ; since she not only accompanies the Earth around the Sun every year, but, in the meantime, performs nearly 13 revolutions about the Earth. Although the apparent motion of the Moon, in her orbit, is greater than * that of any other heavenly body, since she passes over, at a mean rate, no less than 130 10' 35" in a day; yet this is to be understood as angular mo- tion—motion in a small orbit, and therefore embracing a great number of degrees, and but comparatively few miles. As the Moon while revolving about the Earth, is carried with it at the same time around the Sun, her path is ex- tremely irregular, and very different from what it seems to be. Like a point in the wheel of a carriage that is moving over a convex road, the Moon will describe a succession of epicycloidal curves, which are always concave towards the Sun; not, very unlike their presentation in the following figure. s Let A d b B represent a portion of the Earth's orbit, and a b c de the lunar orbit. When the Earth is at b, the new moon is at a ; and while the Earth is moving from b to its position as represented in the figure, the Moon has moved through half her orbit, from a to c, where she is full ; so while the Earth is moving from its present position to d, the Moon describes the other half of her orbit, from c to e, where she is again in conjunction. To what is the difference of time in these two revolutions owing 3 How great is the distance of the Moon from the Earth, compared with that of the Öther hea- venly bodies 4 What is her distance from us? What is her motion in her orbit, compared with the Earth's 32.Élow many times does she revolve around the Earth, every year 3 The apparent motion of the JMoon in her orbit is greater than that of any other heavenly body; is it to be understood that she passes through a correspondent space 3 Describe the Moon's path 3 E. º 50 THE MOON. THE MOON's MoTION. Fig. 12. … The Moon, though apparently as large as the Sun, is the smallest of all the heavenly bodies that are visible to the naked eye. Her diameter is but 2162 miles; consequently her surface is 13 times less than that of the Earth, and her bulk 49 times less. It would require 70 millions of such bodies to equal the volume of the Sun. The reason why she appears as large as the Sun, when, in truth, she is so much less, is because she is 400 times nearer to us than the Sun is. ; ‘. - The Moon revolves once on her axis exactly in the tim that she performs her revolution around the Earth. This is evident from her always presenting the same side to the Earth; for if she had no rotation upon an axis, every part of her surface would be presented to a spectator on the Earth, in the course of her synodical revolution. It follows, then, that there is but one day and night in her year, contain- What is her magnitude, compared with that of the other heavenly bodies 3 What is her diameter? How great are her surface and her bulk, compared with those of the Earth $2Bow many such bodies would it require to equal the yolume of the sun ? Why does she appear as large as the sun, when in reality she is so much less?/What is the time of her revolution on her axis, compared with that of her revolution around the Earth? How is this proved? How many days and nights then has slie in the course of her synodical revolution 3 THE MOON. 5i ing, both together, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 sec- onds. ' £ As the Moon turns on her axis only as she moves around the Earth, it is plain that the inhabitants of one half of the lunar world are totally deprived of the sight of the Earth, unless they travel to the opposite hemisphere. This we may presume they will do, were it only to view so sublime a spectacle; for it is certain that the Earth appears to the Moon ten times larger than any other body in the universe. 2. As the Moon enlightens the Earth, by reflecting the light ^ of the Sun, so likewise the Earth illuminates the Moon, ex- hibiting to her the same phases that she does to us, only in a contrary order. And, as the surface of the Earth is 13 times as large as the surface of the Moon, the Earth, when full to the Moon, will appear 13 times as large as the full moon does to us. That side of the Moon, therefore, which is towards the Earth, may be said to have no darkness at all, the Earth constantly shining upon it with extraordinary splendour when the Sun is absent; it therefore enjoys suc- cessively two weeks of illumination from the Sun, and two weeks of earth-light from the Earth. The other side of the Moon has alternately a fortnight's light, and a fortnight's darkness. As the Earth revolves on its axis, the several continents, seas, and islands, appear to the lunar inhabitants like so many spots, of different forms and brightness, alternately moving over its surface, being more or less brilliant, as they are seen through intervening clouds. By these spots, the lunarians can not only determine the period of the Earth's rotation, just as we do that of the Sun, but they may also find the longitude of their places, as we find the latitude of OUITS, As the full moon always happens when the Moon is di- rectly opposite the Sun, all the full moons in our winter, must happen when the Moon is on the north side of the equi- noctial, because then the Sun is on the south side of it; con- What is the length of both united 3/Describe the phenomena of the Earth as seen by the inhabitants of the Moon. As the earth revolves on its axis, how do its continents, seas, and islands appear to the lunar inhabitants 3}. For what pur- poses may these spots serve to the lunarians ? | 52 THE ON, * sequently, at the north pole of the Earth, there will be a fortnight's moon-light and a fortnight’s darkness by turns, for a period of six months, and the same will be the fact du- ring the Sun's absence the other six months, at the south pole. The Moon's axis being inclined only about 1,” to her orbit, she can have no sensible diversity of seasons; from which we may infer, that her atmosphere is mild and uni- form. The quantity of light which we derive from the Moon when full, is at least, 300 thousand times less than that of the Sun.” When viewed through a good telescope, the Moon pre- sents a most wonderful and interesting aspect. Besides the large dark spots, which are visible to the naked eye, we perceive extensive valleys, shelving rocks, and long ridges of elevated mountains, projecting their shadows on the plains below. Single mountains occasionally rise to a great height, while circular hollows, more than three miles decp, seem excavated in the plains. Her mountain scenery bears a striking resemblance to the towering sublimity and terrific ruggedness of the Alpine regions, or of the Appenines, after which some of her moun- tains have been named, and of the Cordilleras of our own continent. Huge masses of rock rising precipitously from the plains, lift their peaked summits to an immense height in the air, while shapeless crags hang over with their pro- jecting sides, and seem on the eve of being precipitated into the tremendous chasm below. Around the base of these frightful eminences, are strewed numerous loose and unconnected fragments, which time * This is Mons. Bouquer's inference, from his experiments, as stated by La Place, in his work, p. 42. The result of Dr. Wollaston's computations was different. Professor Leslie makes the light of the Moon 150,000 * less than that of the Sun: it was formerly reckoned 100,000 times €SS. i X^* What are the periods of the Moon's presence and absence to the polar inhab- i ants tº Explain this,*Why cannot the moon have any sensible diversity of séa- sons? What then måy we infer to be the character of her atmosphere 3 What is the quantity of light which she affords when full, compared with that of the Sun ? Describe the appearance of the Moon when seen through a good telescope. What mountains of the Earth does her mountain scenery resemble 3 Describe the ap- pearance of her mountains. THE MOON, 53 seems to have detached from their parent mass; and when we examine the rents and ravines which accompany the overhanging cliffs, the beholder expects every moment that they are to be torn from their base, and that the process of destructive separation which he had only contemplated in its effects, is about to be exhibited before him in all its reality. The range of mountains called the Appenines, which traverse a portion of the Moon's disc from north-east to south- west, and of which some parts are visible to the naked eye, rise with a precipitous and craggy front from the level of the Mare Imbrium, or Sea of showers.” In this extensive range are several ridges whose summits have a perpendicu- lar elevation of four miles, and more; and though they often descend to a much lower-level, they present an inac- cessible barrier on the north-east, while on the south-west they sink in gentle declivity to the plains. There is one remarkable feature in the Moon's surface which bears no analogy to any thing observable on the Earth. This is the circular cavities which appear in every part of her disc. Some of these immense caverns are nearly four miles deep, and forty miles in diameter. They are most numerous in the south-western part. As they reflect the Sun's rays more copiously, they render this part of her surface more brilliant than any other. They present to us nearly the same appearance as Our Earth might be supposed to present to the Moon, if all our great lakes and seas were dried up. The number of remarkable spots in the Moon, whose latitude and longitude have been accurately determined, exceeds 200. The number of seas and lakes, as they were formerly considered, whose length and breadth are known, is between 20 and 30; while the number of peaks and -*— * The name of a lunar spot. On what part of her disc is that range of mountains called the Appenines, situated 3 Describe it. What remarkable feature in the Moon's surface, bears no analogy to any thing observable on the Earth's surface 4 Describe their appear- ance. What is the number of remarkable spots in the Moon's surface, whose latitude and longitude have been accurately determined 3 What is the number of seas and lakes, as they were formerly considered 3 Whose dimensions are known 3 E” 54 THE Moon. mountains, whose perpendicular elevation varies from a fourth of a mile to five miles in height, and whose bases are from one to seventy miles in length, is not less than one hundred and fifty.* Graphical views of these natural appearances, accompanied with minute and familiar descriptions, constitute what is called Selenography, from two Greek words, which mean the same thing in regard to the Moon, as Geog- raphy does in regard to the Earth. An idea of some of these scenes may be formed by con- ceiving a plain of about 100 miles in circumference, encircled by a range of mountains, of various forms, three miles in perpendicular height, and having a mountain near the centre, whose top reaches a mile and a half above the level of the plain. From the top of this central mountain, the whole plain, with all its scenery, would be distinctly visible, and the view would be bounded only by a lofty amphi- theatre of mountains, rearing their summits to the sky. ( The bright spots of the Moon are the mountainous regions; while the dark spots are the plains, or more level parts of her surface. There may be rivers or small lakes on this planet; but it is generally thought, by astrono- mers of the present day, that there are no seas or large collections of water, as was formerly supposed. Some of these mountains and deep valleys are visible to the naked eye; and many more are visible through a telescope of but moderate powers. *, A telescope which magnifies only 100 times, will show a spot on the Moon's surface, whose diameter is 1223 yards; and one which magnifies a thousand times, will enable us to perceive any enlightened object on her surface whose * Brewster's Selenography. The best maps of the Moon, hitherto pub- lished, are those by Schroeter: But the most curious and complete repre- sentation of the telescopic and natural appearances of the Moon, is to be seen on Russel's Lunar Globe. See also Selenographia, by C. Blunt. What is the number of peaks and mountains whose perpendicular elevation varies from a fourth of a mile to five miles, and whose bases are from one to seventy miles in length 3 What is Selenography? Give an illustration to enable us to form some idea of some of these scenes. Which spots are the mountainous regions, and which the plains? Do astronomers now suppose, as they did for- merly, that there are large collections of water on the Moon's surface 3 Are any of her mountains and valleys visible to the naked eye 3 How small a spot on the Moon's surface can be seen by a telescope which magnifies 100 times?, How small an enlightened object can be seen by one which magnifies 1000 times? * ECLIPSES. 55. . s: dimensions are only 122 yards, which does not much exceed the dimensions of some of our public edifices, as for instance, the Capitol at Washington, or St. Paul's Cathedral. Pro- fessor Frauenhofer, of Munich, recently announced that he had discovered a lunar edifice, resembling a fortification, together with several lines of road. The celebrated as- tronomer Schroeter, conjectures the existence of a great city on the eastside of the Moon, a little north of her equator, an extensive canal, in another place, and fields of vegeta- tion, in another. - - It may be demonstrated from the laws of optics, that there exists no physical impossibility to the construction of instruments sufficiently powerful to settle the question of . the Moon being inhabited. The difficulty which prevent- ed the great telescope of Herschel from revealing this secret, was not so much the want of power in the lens, as of light in the tube, to render objects distinct under such an expan- sion of the visual rays. * so LAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSE s. Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none which engage the attention of mankind more than eclipses of the Sun and Moon; and to those who are unacquainted with astronomy, nothing appears more wonderful than the accu- racy with which they can be predicted. In the early ages of antiquity they were regarded as alarming deviations from the established laws of nature, presaging great public , calamities, and other tokens of the Divine displeasure. I * In China, the prediction and observance of eclipses are made a matter of state policy; in order to operate upon the fears of the ignorant, and im- pose on them a superstitious regard for the occult wisdom of their rulers. In Mexico, the natives fast and afflict themselves, during eclipses, under an apprehension that the great spirit is in deep sufferance. Some of the Mention any public edifices which are of nearly the same dimensions. Why may not a telescope be made by which we can determine the question of the Moon being inhabited 3,How were eclipses regarded in the early ages of antiquity ? To achat purpose do #. rulers of Chima make their prediction and obsermance, subservient 3 How do the natives of Jºſexico demean themselves during an eclipse 3 Why do they do this 3 - *s, 56 ECLIPSES. * northern tribes of Indians have imagined that the Moon had been wounded #. i. quarrel; and others, that she was about to be swallowed by a huge ISI!. It was by availing himself of these superstitious motions, that Columbus, when shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica, extricated himself and crew from a most embarrassing condition. Being driven to great distress for want of provisions, and the natives refusing him any assistance, when all hope seemed to be cut off, he bethought himself of their superstition in re- gard to eclipses. Having assembled the principal men of the Island, he remonstrated against their inhumanity, as being offensive to the great spirit; and told them that a great plague was even ready to fall upon them, and as a token of it, they would that night see the Moon hide her face in anger, and put on a dreadfully dark and threatening aspect. This artifice had the desired effect; for the eclipse had no sooner begun, than the frightened barbarians came running with all kinds of provisions, and throwing themselves at the feet of Columbus, implored his forgiveness.- Almagest, Vol. I, 55 c. v. 2. 2 An eclipse of the Sun takes place, when the dark body of the Moon, passing directly between the Earth and the Sun, intercepts his light. This can happen only at the instant of new Moon, or when the Moon is in conjunction; for it is only then that she passes between us and the Sun. An eclipse of the Moon takes place when the dark body of the Earth, coming between her and the Sun, intercepts his light, and throws a shadow on the Moon. This can happen only at the time of full Moon, or when the Moon is in opposition; for it is only then that the Earth is between her and the Sun. As every planet belonging to the solar system, both pri- mary and secondary, derives its light from the Sun, it must cast a shadow towards that part of the heavens which is op- posite to the Sun. This shadow is of course nothing but a privation of light in the space hid from the Sun by the opaque body, and will always be proportioned to the mag- nitude of the Sun and planet. If the Sun and planet were both of the same magnitude, the form of the shadow cast by the planet, would be that of a cylinder, and of the same diameter as the Sun or planet. What motions have some of the northern tribes of Indians entertained in re- gard to eclipses of the JMoon 3, Relate the anecdote of Columbus extricating hint- self and his crew from distress by availing himself of the superstitious notions of the natives of Jamaica in regard to eclipses, What causes eclipses of the Sun ? What causes eclipses of theſſ ! In what direction does every planet of the solar system cast a shadow 7 What is this shadow, and to what is it propor- tional 3 If the sun and planet were both of the same magnitude, what would be the form of the shadow, and its diameter 4 g ECLIPSES. 57 If the planet were larger than the Sun, the shadow would continually diverge, and grow larger and larger; but as the Sun is much larger than any of the planets, the shadows which they cast must converge to a point in the form of a cone; the length of which will be proportional to the size and distance of the planet from the Sun. The magnitude of the Sun is such, that the shadow cast by each of the primary planets always converges to a point before it reaches any other planet; so that not one of the primary planets can eclipse another. The shadow of any planet which is accompanied by satellites, may, on certain occasions, eclipse its satellites; but it is not long enough to eclipse any other body. The shadow of a satellite or moon, may also, on certain occa- - sions, fall on the primary, and eclipse it. When the Sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth, and the Moon at her least distance, her shadow is suffi- ciently long to reach the Earth, and extend 19,000 miles beyond. When the Sun is at his least distance from the Eärth, and the Moon at her greatest, her shadow will not reach the Earth's surface by 20,000 miles. So that when the Sun and Moon are at their mean distances, the cone of the Moon's shadow will terminate a little before it reaches the Earth's surface. In the former case, if a conjunction take place when the .centre of the Moon comes in a direct line between the centres of the Sun and Earth, the dark shadow of the Moon will fall centrally upon the Earth, and cover a circular area of 175 miles in diameter. To all places lying within this dark spot, the Sun will be totally eclipsed; as illustrated by Figure 13. ^, In consequence of the Earth's motion during the eclipse, this circular area becomes a continued belt over the earth's surface ; being, at the broadest, 175 miles wide. This belt is, however, rarely so broad, and often dwindles to a mere nominal line, without total darkness. . In March, this line extends itself from S. W. to N. E., and in September, from N.W. to S. E. In June, the central line is a curve, going, first, to the N. E., and then to the S. E.; in December, on the contrary, first to the If the planet were larger than the sun, what would be the form of the shadow 3 But as the sun is much larger than any of the planets, what must be the form of their shadows, and to what are they proportional 3 Why can no one of the pri- mary planets eclipse another? Explain how, on certain occasions, they may eclipse their satellites, and on others, be eclipsed by them. When the sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth, and the Moon at her least distance, how far will her stiadow extend ? When the sun is at his least distance, and the Moon at her greatest ?, When the Sun and Moon are both at their mean distances 3 In the first case, in what circumstances will the Moon's shadow fall centrally on the Earth, and what will be its figure and diameter 3 How will the sun appear to all places lying within this dark spot? Pescribe the effect of the Earth’s motion, during the eclipse upon this circular area. • 58 ar ECLIPSES, ^ * S. E. and then to the N. E. To all places, within 2000 miles, at least, of the central line, the eclipse will be visible; and the nearer the place of observation is to the line, the larger will be the eclipse. In winter, if the central trace be but a little northward of the equator, and in summer, if it be 250 N. latitude, the eclipse will be visible all over the northern hemi- sphere. As a general rule, though liable to many modifications, we may observe, that places from 200 to 250 miles from the central line, will be 11 digits eclipsed ; from thence to 500 miles, 10 digits; and so on, diminish- ing one digit in about 250-miles. E C L I P S E S OF T H E S U N . Fig. 13. If, in either of the other cases, a conjunction take place when the Moon's centre is directly between the centres of the Sun and Earth, as before, the Moon will then be too distant to cover the entire face of the Sun, and there will be seen, all around her dark body, a slender ring of dazzling light. This may be illustrated by the adjoining fig- ure. Suppose C D to represent a part of the Earth's orbit, and the Moon's shadow to termi- mate at the vertex W. The small space between ef will represent the breadth of the luminous ring which will be visible all around the dark body of the Moon. t Such was the eclipse of February 12, 1831, which passed over the southern states from S. W. to N. E. It was the only annular eclipse ever visible in the United States. Along the path of this eclipse, the luminous ring remained perfect and unbroken for the space of two min- utes. The next annular eclipse which will be visible to any considerable portion of the Uni- ted States, will take place Sept. 18th. 1838. In either of the other cases, the same circumstances occurring as before, what will be the appearance of the sun ? Why does not the Moon, in this case, cause a total eclipse 3. When did the only eclipse of this kind, ever visible in the United States, happen? Hºw long did the luminous ring, along its path remain un- broken 3. When will the next annular eclipse, visible to any considerable portion of the United States, happen 3 -* #3 ECLIPSES. y 59 From the most elaborate calculations, compared with a long series of ob- servations, the length of the Moon's shadow in eclipses, and her distance §: the Sun at the same time, vary within the limits of the following table : Length of shadow, Length of shadow in Length Distance in D1Stance Dist. Of MOOn. Semudlameters. in miles. Semidiameters. In miles. Least 57.760X3956 = 228,499 55.902X3956 = |221,148 Mean * 58.728×3956 = | 232,328 60.238X3956 = |238,300 Greatest 59.730×3956= |236,292. 63.862×3956 = 1252,638 Thus it appears that the length of the come of the Moon's shadow, in eclipses, varies from 228,499 to 236,292 miles; being 7,793 miles longer in the one case, than in the other. The inequality of her distances from the Earth is much greater ; they vary from 221,148 to 252,638 miles, making a dif- ference of 31,490 miles. Although a central eclipse of the Sun can never be total to any spot on the Earth more than 175 miles broad; yet the space over which the Sun will be more or less partially eclipsed, is nearly 5000 miles broad. The section of the Moon's shadow, or her penumbră, at the Earth's sur- face in eclipses, is far from being always circular. If the conjunction hap- pen when the centre of the Moon is a little above or a little below the line joining the centres of the Earth and Sun, as is most frequently the case, the shadow will be projected obliquely over the Earth's surface, and thus cover a much larger space. To produce a partial eclipse, it is not necessary that the shadow should reach the Earth; it is sufficient that the apparent distance between the Sun and Moon be not greater than the sum of their semidiameters. / If the Moon performed her revolution in the same path in which the Sun appears to move ; in other words, if her orbit lay exactly in the plane of the Earth's orbit, the Sun would be eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon at the time of every full. But one half of the Moon's orbit lies about 5° on the north side of the ecliptic, and the other half as far on the south'side of it; and, consequently, the Moon's orbit only crosses the Earth's orbit in two opposite points, called the Moon's nodes. I What are the limits between which the JMoon's shadow varies in eclipses 3 What is the difference between these two limits 3 What are the limits of her dis- tances from the Earth 2 What is the difference between them 2 What is the greatest breadth of any spot on the Earth's surface, to which a central eclipse of the sun can be total 3 What is the breadth of the greatest space over which the sun can be more or less partially eclipsed ? Is the penumbra of the JMoon at the Earth’s surface ºn eclipses always circular 3 In what circumstances will the shadow be projected oblzquely over the Earth's surface & JMust the shadow reach the Earth, to produce a partial eclipse 3 What vs the greatest apparent distance between the Sun and JMoon, within which such a result well take place 3/Why is not the sum eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon at every full 3 60 ECLIPSES, f When the Moon is in one of these points, or nearly so, at the time of new Moon, the Sun will be eclipsed. When she is in one of them, or nearly so, at the time of full Moon, the Moon will be eclipsed. But at all other new Moons, the Moon either passes above or below the Sun, as seen from the Earth ; and, at all other full Moons, she either passes above or below the Earth's shadow; and consequent- ly there can be no eclipse. I / If the Moon be exactly in one of her nodes at the time of her change, the Sun will be centrally eclipsed. If she be 14° from her node at the time of her change, the Sun will appear at the equator to be about 11 digits eclipsed. If she be 3° from her node at the time of her change, the Sun will be 10 digits eclipsed, and so on; a digit being the twelfth part of the Sun's diameter. But when the Moon is about 18° from her node, she will just touch the outer edge of the Sun, at the time of her change, without producing any eclipse. These are called the ecliptic limits. Between these limits, an eclipse is doubtful, and requires a more exact calcula- tion. | The mean ecliptic limit for the Sun is 16#9 on each side of the node ; the mean ecliptic limit for the Moon is 10#9 on each side of the node. In the former case, then, there are 33° about each node, making, in all, 66° out of 360°, in which eclipses of the Sun may happen : in the latter case, there are 21° about each node, making, in all, 429 out of 360°, in which eclipses of the Moon usually occur. The proportion of the solar, to the lunar eclipses, therefore, is as 66 to 42, or as 11 to 7. Yet, there are more visible eclipses of the Moon, at any given place, than of the Sun ; because a lunar eclipse is visible to a whole hemisphere, a solar eclipse only to a small portion of it. / The greatest possible duration of the annular appearance of a solar eclipse, is 12 minutes and 24 seconds; and the greatest possible time during which the Sun can be totally In what circumstances wiłł an eclipse of the Sun, and in what an eclipse of the Moon happen? / In what circumstances is the Sun centrally eclipsed ? What is the ratio between the Moon's distance from her mode, and the number of digits that the Sun is eclipsed ? What are these limits called ? Will there always be eclipses when the Moon is within these limits 3 What is the ecliptic limit for the Sun ? What is it for the JMoon 2 What number of degrees, them, are there about each mode, and how many out of 360°, in which Solar eclipses can happen? Hoºd many in which lunar eclipses lisually happen? What then is the proportion of the solar to the lunar eclipses 2 Why then are there more eclipses of the Moon visible at any given place than of the Sun ? What is the greatest possible duration of the annujar appearance of a solar cclipse 3, What is the greatest possible duration of , a total solar eclipse to any part of the world? - * ECLIPSES. 61 eclipsed, to any part of the world, is 7 minutes and 58 seconds. The Moon may continue totally eclipsed for one hour and three quarters. I *. f Eclipses of the Sun always begin on his western edge, and end on his eastern; but all eclipses of the Moon com- mence on her eastern edge, and end on her western. If the Moon, at the time of her opposition, be exactly in her node, she will pass through the centre of the Earth’s shadow, and be totally eclipsed. If, at the time of her opposition, she be within 6° of her node, she will still pass through the Earth's shadow, though not centrally, and be totally eclipsed: but if she be 12° from her node, she will only just touch the Earth's shadow, and pass it without being eclipsed. ' The duration of lunar eclipses, therefore, depends upon the difference between the diameter of the Moon and that section of the Earth's shadow through which she passes. When an eclipse of the Moon is both total and central, its duration is the longest possible, amounting nearly to 4 hours; º: . duration of all eclipses not central, varies with her distance from lile Ilo Cie. ECLIPSES OF THE MOON, & ſº a Fig. 15 º sº " " ??, š / Suu \* § #=== £22. s {{ſ}; #. £24 §§ º: º %||\& The diameter of the Earth's shadow, at the distance of the Moon, is nearly three times as large as the diameter of the Moon; and the length of the Earth's shadow is nearly four times as great as the distance of the Moon; exceeding it in the same ratio that the diameter of the Earth does the diame- ter of the Moon, which is as 3.663 to 1. What is the greatest duration of a total lunar eclipse ºf On which side of the sun do solar eclipses always begin, and on which do they end ? On which side of the Moon do lunar eclipses always begin, and on which do they end ? in what circumstances is the Moon totally eclipsed ? Beyond what distance from her mode, if she be, will she only touch the Earth's shadow, and not be eclipsed? On what, then, does the duration of lunar eclipses depend ? In what circumstan- ces is the duration of the lunar eclipse the longest possible 3 What is the length of the greatest duration of a lunar eclipse 3 PWith what does the duration of eclip- ses, not central, vary 3 What is the diameter of the Earth's shadow at the dis- tance of the Moon 3 What is the length of the Earth's shadow 4 What is their ratio to each other ? F - 62 ECLIPSES, f The length of the Earth's shadow, and its diameter at Diameter Length of the distance of the Moon, are subject to the variations of the the shad- exhibited in the following table. * shadow. low in ms. y Moon at the apogee 5,232 Sun at the perigee | Moor; at her mean distance, 5,762 | 842,217' Moon at the perigee 6,292 Moon at the apogee 5,270 Sun at his mean distance. | Moon at her mean distance 5,799 | 856,597 Moon at the perigee 6,329 Moon at the apogee 5,306 Sun at the apogee | Moon at her mean distance 5,836 | 871,262 Moon at the perigee 6,365 The first column of figures expresses the diameter of the Earth's shad- ow at the moon : and as the diameter of the Moon is only 2162 miles, it is evident that it can always be comprehended by the shadow, which is more than twice as broad as the disc of the Moon. The time which elapses between two successive changes of the Moon is called a Lunation, which, at a mean rate, is about 294 days. If 12 lunar months were exactly equal to the 12 solar months, the Moon's nodes would always occupy the same points in the ecliptic, and all eclipses would happen in the same months of the year, as is the case with the transits of Mercury and Venus: but, in 12 lunations, or lunar months, there are only 354 days; and in this time the Moon has passed through both her nodes, but has not quite accomplished her revolution around the Sun: the consequence is, that the Moon's nodes fall back in the ecliptic at the rate of about 1949 annually; so that the eclipses happen sooner every year by about 19 days. , As the Moon passes from one of her nodes to the other in 173 days, there is just this period between two succes- sive eclipses of the Sun, or of the Moon. In whatever time of the year, then, we have eclipses at cither node, we may be sure that in 173 days afterwards, we shall have eclipses at the other node. I Between what limits does the length of the Earth's shadow, and its diameter at the distance of the JMoon, vary 2 What is the breadth of the Earth's shadow, compared with that of the disc of the JMoon & What is a lunation ? How many days does a lunation embrace 3 Why do not all eclipses happen in the same months of the year 3 How far do the Moon's modes fall back in the ecliptic annu- ally, and how much sooner do the eclipses happen every year ! In what time does the Moon pass from one of her modes to the other q What is the length of the time which elapses between two successive eclipses of the Sun or the Moon 3 After there have been eclipses at one node, in what time may we be sure that tiere will be eclipses at the other ? ECLIPSES, 63 /... As the Moon's nodes fall back, or retrograde in the ecliptic at the rate of 19ło every year, they will complete a backward revolution entirely around the ecliptic to the same point again, in 18 years, 225 days; in which time there would always be a regular period of eclipses, if any complete number of lunations were finished without a remainder. But this never happens; for if both the Sun and Moon should start from a line of conjunction with either of the modes in any point of the ecliptic, the Sun would perform 18 annual revolutions and 222° of another, while the Moon would perform 230 lunations, and 85° of another, before the node would come around to the same point of the ecliptic again: so that the Sun would then be 138° from the node, and the Moon 85° from the Sun. f But after 223 lunations, or 18 years, 11 days,” 7 hours, 42 minutes, and 31 seconds, the Sun, Moon, and Earth will return so nearly into the same position with respect to each other, that there will be a regular return of the same eclipses for many ages. This grand period was discovered by the Chaldeans, and by them called Saros. If, therefore, to the mean time of any eclipse, either of the Sun or Moon, we add the Chaldean period of 18 years and 11 days, we shall have the return of the same eclipse. This mode of predicting eclipses will hold good for a thousand years. In this period there are usually 70 eclipses; 41 of the Sun, and 29 of the Moon. , * The number of eclipses in any one year, cannot be less than two, nor more than seven. In the former case, they will both be of the Sun; and in the latter, there will be five of the Sun, and two of the Moon—those of the Moon will be total. There are sometimes six; but the usual number is four : two of the Sun, and two of the Moon. / The cause of this variety is thus accounted for. Although the Sun usually passes by both nodes only once in a year, he may pass the same node again a little before the end of theyear. In consequence of the retrograde motion of the Moon's nodes, he will come to either of them 173 days after passing the other. He may, therefore, return to the same node in about 346 days, having thus passed one node twice and the other once, making each time, at each, an eclipse of both the Sun and the Moon, or sia in all. And, since 12 lunations, or 354 days from the first eclipse in the beginning of the year, leave room for another new Moon before the close of the year, and since . this new Moon may fall within the ecliptic limit, it is possible for the Sun to be eclipsed again. Thus there may be seven eclipses in the same year. * If there are four leap years in this interval, add 11 days ; but if there are five, add only 10 days. & In what time do the JMoon's nodes complete a backward revoluion around the ęcliptic 3 Why is there not always a regular period of eclipses in this time 2 If the Sun and JMoon should both start from a lime of conjunction with either mode, how many revolutions would the Sun perform, and how many lunations the JMoon, before the node would come around to the same point again 3/.After how many luna- tions will the Sun, JMoon, and Earth return so nearly to the same position with respect to each other, that there will be a regular returnt of the same eclipses for many ages 3 What nation discovered this grand period, and what did they call it? What is the mode of predicting eclipses, with which this fact furnishes us 2 How many eclipses are there usually in this period?,*What is the least, and what the greatest number of eclipses in any one year 3 In the former case, what eclipses will they be 3 What, in the latter 3 What is the usual number of eclipses in a year, and what eclipses are they 3 Please explain the cause of this variety. 64 MARS. , Again : when the Moon changes in either of her nodes, she cannot come within the lunar ecliptic limit at the next full (though if she be full in one of her nodes, she may come into the solar ecliptic limit at her next change,) and in six months afterwards, she will change near the other node ; thus making only two eclipses. The following is a list of all the solar eclipses that will be visible in Eu- rope and America during the remainder of the present century. To those which will be visible in New-England, the number of digits is annexed. Year. |Month Day & hour. Digits] Year. Month Day and Hour. Digits 1834, Nov. 30 1 22 P. M. 1039 || 1869, Aug. || 7 5 21 A.M. 10} 1836, May 15 725 A. M. 8+ || 1870, Dec. 22 6 0 A.M. 1838, Sept. 18 327 P. M.11 || 1873, May 26 3 0 A.M. 1841, July 18 10 0 A. M. 1874, Oct. 10 4 0 A.M. 1842, July | 8 0 0 Mer. 1875, Sept. 29 5 56 A.M. 11; 1844, Dec. 9 346 P.M.2 ſº || 1876, Már, 25 4 11 P.M. 33 1845, May | 6 4.55 A. M. 4} || 1878, July 29 456 P.M. 7} 1846, Apr. 25 11 15 A. M. 64 || 1879, July 19 2 0 A.M. 1847, Oct. 9 1 0 A. M. 1880, Dec. 31 730 A.M. 5; . 1848, Mar. 5 750 A. M. 6; 1882, May 17 1 0 A.M. 1851, July 28 748 A. M. 33 || 1885, Mar. 16 0 35 A.M. 6; 1854, May 26 426 P. M.11} || 1886, Aug. 29 6 30 A.M. 0} 1858, Mar. 15 614 A. M. 13 || 1887, Aug. 18 10 0 P.M. 1859, July 29 532 P. M. 2% || 1890, June 17 3 Q A. M. 1860, July 18 723 A. M. 64 || 1891, June | 6 0 Q Mer. 1861, Dec. 31 730 A. M. 4 || 1892, Oct. 20 0 19 P.M., 8, 1863, May. |17 1 0 P. M. 1895, Mar. 26 4 0 A.M. 1865, Oct. 19 9 10 A. M. 33 || 1896, Aug. || 9 Q Q Mer: 1866, Oct. 8 11 12 A. M. Gº || 1897, July 29 2 5 A.M. 4; 1867, Mar. 6 3 0 A. M. 1899, June || 8 0 Q Mer. 1868, Feb. 23 10 0 A. M. 1900, May 28 8 9 A.M. 11 The eclipses of 1838, 1854, 1869, 1875, and 1900, will be very large. In those of 1845, 1858, 1861, 1873, 1875, and 1880, the Sun will rise eclipsed. In that of 1844, the Sun will set eclipsed. Those of 1838, 1854, and 1875, will be annular. The scholar can continue this table, or extend it back- wards, by adding or subtracting the Chaldean period of 18 years, 11 days, 7 hours, 54 minutes, and 31 seconds. * M A R. S. Mars is the first of the exterior planets, its orbit lying immediately without, or beyond, that of the Earth, while those of Mercury and Venus are within. - - Mars appears to the naked eye, of a fine ruddy com- plexion; resembling, in colour, and apparent magnitude, the star Antares, or Aldebaran, near which it frequently What is the position of Mars in the solar system 7 Describe its appearance to the naked eye. ty MARSo 65 passes. It exhibits its greatest brilliancy about the time that it rises when the Sun sets, and sets when the Sun rises; because it is then nearest the Earth. It is least brilliant when it rises and sets with the Sun; for then it is five times farther removed from us than in the former case. • Its distance from the Earth at its nearest approach is about 50 millions of miles. Its greatest distance from us is about 240 millions of miles. In the former case, it appears nearly 25 times larger than in the latter. When it rises before the Sun, it is our morning star; when it sets after the Sun, it is our evening star. * The distance of all the planets from the Earth, whether they be interior or exterior planets, varies within the limits of the diameters of their orbits; for when a planet is in that point of its orbit which is nearest the Earth, it is evidently nearer by the whole diameter of its orbit, than when it is in the opposite point, on the other side of its orbit. The apparent diameter of the planet will also vary for the same reason, and to the same degree. Mars is sometimes seen in opposition to the Sun, and sometimes in superior conjunction with him; sometimes gibbous, but never horned. In inferior conjunction, it is never seen to pass over the Sun's disc, like Mercury and Venus. This proves not only that its orbit is eaterior to the Earth's orbit, but that it is an opaque body, shining only - by the reflection of the Sun. I The motion of Mars through the constellations of the Zodiac, is but little more than half as great as that of the Earth; it being generally about 57 days in passing over one sign, which is at the rate of a little more than half a degree each day. Thus if we know what constellation Mars enters to day, we may conclude that two months hence it will be in the next constellation; four months hence, in the next ; six months, in the next, and so on. Mars performs his revolution around the Sun in 1 year When does it exhibit its greatest brilliancy 3 Why is it most brilliant at this time 3, What are its least and greatest distances from us? How much larger does it appear in the former case, than in the latter 3 Within what limits does the distance of all the planets from the Earth, vary 2 JWith what does the apparent diameter of a planet, vary 3 What moon-like phases has Mars? What does the fact that it never assumes the crescent form at it its inferior conjunction, prove, in regard to its situation ? How do we know it to be opaque 7, What is the rate of its motion through the constellations of the zodiac, compared with that of the Earth 3 How long is it in passing over one sign 3. At what rate per day is this 3 How, then, if we know in what constellation it is at any one time, may we de- termine in what constellation it will be at any subsequent time ! In what time does it perform its revolution around the º: º * 66 . MARS. and 10, months, at the distance of 145 millions of miles; moving in its orbit at the mean rate of 55 thousand miles an hour. Its diurnal rotation on its axis is performed in 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 21; seconds; which makes its day about 44 minutes longer than ours. ; - Its mean sidereal revolution is performed in 686.9796458 solar days; of in 686 days, 23 hours, 30 minutes, 41.4 seconds. Its synodical revolution is performed in 779.936 solar days; or in 779 days, 22 hours, 27 minutes, and 50 seconds. Its form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame- ter is to its equatorial, as 15 is to 16, nearly. Its mean diameter is 4222 miles. Its bulk, therefore, is 7 times less than that of the Earth ; and being 50 millions of miles farther from the Sun, it receives from him only half as much light and heat. The inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, is about 2839. Consequently, its seasons must be very similar to those of the Earth. Indeed, the analogy between Mars and the Earth is greater than the analogy between the Earth and any other planet of the solar system. Their diurnal motion, and of coursé the length of their days and nights are nearly the same; the obliquity of their celiptics, on which the seasons depend, are not very different; and, of all the superior planets, the distance of Mars from the Sun is by far the nearest to that of the Earth; nor is the length of itſº year greatly different from ours, when compared with the years of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. I / To a spectator on this planet, the Earth will appear al- ternately, as a morning and evening star ; and will exhibit all the phases of the Moon, just as Mercury and Venus do to us; and sometimes, like them, will appear to pass over the Sun's disc like a dark round spot. Our Moon will never What is its distance from the Sun ? What is the mean rate of its motion in its orbit per hour ! In what time does it perform its revolution on its axis 3 What, then, is the length of its day, compared with that of the Earth 3 In what time does it perform its mean sidereal revolution ? In what time, its synodical revo- 3ution ? What are its form and dimensions : What, them, is its bulk, compared with the Earth's, and how much less light and heat does it receive from the sun 4 What is the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit?, How are its seasons, compared with those of the Earth 3 In what particulars is there a greater analo- gy between Mars and the Earth, than between the Earth and any other planet in º: solar system */ What must be the appearance of the Earth to a spectator at ars 3 MARs' 67 appear more than a quarter of a degree from the Earth, although her distance from it is 240,000 miles. If Mars be attended by a satellite, it is too small to be seen by the most powerful telescopes. I When it is considered that Vesta, the smallest of the asteroids, which is once and a half times the distance of Mars from us, and only 269 miles in diameter, is perceivable in the open space, and that without the presence of amore conspicuous body to point it out, we may reasonably conclude that Mars is without a moon. The progress of Mars in the heavens, and indeed of all the superior pla- nets, will, like Mercury and Venus, sometimes appear direct, sometimes retrograde ; and sometimes he will seem stationary. When a superior planet first becomes visible in the morning, west of the Sun, a little after Its conjunction, its motion is direct, and also most rapid. When it is first seen cast of the Sun, in the evening, soon after its opposition, its motion is retrograde. These retrograde movements and stations, as they appear to a spectator from the Earth, are common to all the planets, and demonstrate the truth of the Copernican system. tº- t The telescopic phenomena of Mars afford peculiar in- terest to astronomers. They behold its disc diversified with numerous irregular and variable spots, and ornamented with zones and belts of varying brilliance, that form, and disappear, by turns. Zones of intense brightness are to be seen in its polar regions, subject, however, to gradual changes. That of the southern pole is much the most bril- liant. Dr. Herschel supposes that they are produced by the reflection of the Sun's light from the frozen regions, and that the melting of these masses of polar ice is the cause of the variation in their magnitude and appearance. He was the more confirmed in these opinions by observ- ing, that after the exposure of the luminous zone about the north pole to a summer of eight months, it was considerably decreased, while that on the south pole, which had been in total darkness during eight months, had considerably in- creased. He observed, farther, that when this spot was most lu- minous, the disc of Mars did not appear exactly round, and that the bright part of its southern limb seemed to be swollen or arched out beyond the proper curve. / What is the greatest distance from the Earth at which our Moon will appear to him to be 3 Why may we reasonably conclude that JMars has no satellite 2 De- scribe the progress of JMars through the heavens 2 What system, do these ré - grade movements and stations, cummon to all the planets as seen from the Eart st rve to establish 3./What are the telescopic phenomena of Mars? How does Dr. º. - J& Herschel account fol thein 3 * 68 THE ASTEROIDS. TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF MARS, Fig. 16. The extraordinary height and density of the atmosphere of Mars, are supposed to be the cause of the remarkable redness of its light. s It has been found by experiment, that when a beam of white light passes through any medium, its colour inclines to red, in proportion to the density of the medium, and the space through which it has travelled. Thus the morning and evening clouds are beautifully tinged with red; the Sun, Moon, and stars, appear of the same colour when near the horizon; and every luminous object, seen through a mist, is of a ruddy hue. - This phenomenon may be thus explained;—The momentum of the red, or least refrangible rays, being greater than that of the violet, or most refran- gible rays, the former will make their way through the resisting medium, while the latter are either reflected or absorbed. The colour of the beam, therefore, when it reaches the eye, must partake of the colour of the least refrangible rays, and this colour must increase with the distance. The dim light, therefore, by which Mars is illuminated, having to pass twice through its atmosphere before it reaches the Earth, must be deprived of a great pro- portion of its violet rays, and consequently then be red. Dr. Brewstersup- poses that the difference of colour among the other planets, and even the ; stars, is owing to the different heights and densities of their atmos- pneres. THE ASTEROIDS, OR TELESCOPIC PLANETS. Ascending higher in the solar system, we find, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, a cluster of four small plan- ets, which present a variety of anomalies that distinguish How may the remarkable redness of the light of Mars be accounted for 3 THE ASTEROIDS, 69 them from all the older planets of the system. Their names are Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. They were all dis- covered about the beginning of the present century. f #. dates of their discovery, and the names of their discoverers, are as 011OWS : Ceres, January 1, 1801, by M. Piazzi, of Palermo. Pallas, March 28, 1802, by M. Olbers, of Bremen. Juno, September 1, 1804, by M. Harding, of Bremen. Vesta, March 29, 1807, by M. Olbers, of Bremen. The scientific Bode* entertained the opinion, that the plane- tary distances, above Mercury, formed a geometrical series, each exterior orbit being double the distance of its next interior one, from the Sun; a fact which obtains with re- markable exactness between Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. But this law seemed to be interrupted between Mars and Jupiter. Hence he inferred, that there was a planet want- ing in that interval; which is now happily supplied by the discovery of the four star form planets, occupying the very space where the unexplained vacancy presented a strong objection to his theory. These bodies are much smaller in size than the older planets—they all revolve at nearly the the same distances from the Sun, and perform their revolutions in nearly the same periods,--their orbits are much more eccentric, and have a much greater inclination to the ecliptic,+and what is altogether singular, except in the case of comets—all cross each other; so that there is even a possibility that two of * According to him, the distances of the planets may be expressed near- ly as follows:–the Earth's distance from the Sun being 10. Mercury 4 - !ºls 4–H3X2* = 28 Venus 44–3X1 = 7 Jupiter 4–H3X2* = 52 The Earth - 4+3X2 = 10|Saturn 4+3×2* = 100 Mars 4+3×2* = 16|Herschel 4-H 3X26 = 196 Comparing these values with the actual mean distances of the planets from the Sun, we cannot but remark the near agreement, and can scarcely hesitate to pronounce that the respective distances of the planets from the Sun, were assigned according to a law, although we are entirely ignorant of the exact law, and of the reason for that law.—Brinkley's Elements, p. 89 What new planets have been discovered within the present century q Where are they situated 3 What are the dates of their discovery, and the names of their discoverers ? Why did Bode infer that there was a planet wanting between Mars and Jupiter 3 In what particulars do these new planets differ from the older planets? How is it possible that two qf them should ever come into collision 3 70 THE ASTEROIDS. these bodies, may, sometime, in the course of their revolu- tions, come into collision. The orbit of Vesta is so eccentric, that she is sometimes farther from the Sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno, although her mean distance is many millions of miles less than theirs. The orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the other three, in two opposite points. The student should here refer to the Figures, Plate I. of the Atlas, and veri- fy such of these particulars as are there represented. It would be well for the teacher to require him to observe particularly the positions of their orbits, and to state their different degrees of inclination to the plane of the ecliptic. From these and other circumstances, many eminent as- tronomers are of opinion, that these four planets are the fragments of a large celestial body which once revolved between Mars and Jupiter, and which burst asunder by some tremendous convulsion, or some external violence. The discovery of Ceres by Piazzi, on the first day of the present century, drew the attention of all the astronomers of the age to that region of the sky, and every inch of it was minutely explored. The consequence was, that, in the year following, Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, announced to the world, the discovery of Pallas, situated not many degress from Ceres, and very much resembling it in size. From this discovery, Dr. Olbers first conceived the idea that these bodies might be the fragments of a former world; and if so, that other portions of it might be found either in the same neighbourhood, or else, having diverged from the same point, “they ought to have two common points of reunion, or two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens through which all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass. ” One of these nodes he found to be, in the constellation Virgo, and the opposite one, in the Whale; and it is a re- markable coincidence that it was in the neighbourhood of the latter constellation that Mr. Harding discovered the rºº —ar- How is it that Vesta is sometimes farther from 1he sun than either Ceres, Pal- las or Juno, when her mean distance is many millions of miles less than theirs? What is the position of her orbit with regard to their orbits 3 What theory in regard to the origin of these planets have some astronomers derived from these and some other circumstances? Who first conceived this idea 3 How came he to have this idea 3 Where did he imagine other fragments might be ſound 3 In what constellations did he find these nodes to be 3 Where were Juno and Vesta actually found 3 THE ASTEROIDS. 71 planet Juno. In order therefore to detect the remaining fragments, if any existed, Dr. Olbers examined, three times every year, all the small stars in Virgo and the Whale; and it was actually in the constellation Virgo, that he dis. covered the planet Vesta. Some astronomers think it not unlikely that other fragments of a similar description may hereafter be discovered. Dr. Brewster attributes the fall of meteoric stones to the smaller fragments of these bodies happening to come within the sphere of the Earth's at- traction. Meteoric stones, or what are generally termed aerolites, are stones which sometimes fall from the upper regions of the atmosphere, upon the Earth. The substance of which they are composed, is, for the most part, metallic; but the ore of which it consists is not to be found in the same constituent proportions in any known substance upon the Earth. Their fall is general- ly preceded by a luminous appearance, a hissing noise, and a loud explo- sion; and, when found immediately after their descent, they are always hot, and usually covered with a black crust indicating a state of exterior fusion. Their size differs from that of small fragments, of inconsiderable weight, to that of the most ponderous masses. Some have been found to weigh from 300 pounds to several tons; and they have descended to the Earth with a force sufficient to bury them many feet under the surface. Some have supposed that they are projected from volcanoes in the Moon; others, that they proceed from volcanoes on the Earth; while oth- ers imagine that they are generated in the regions of the atmosphere ; but the truthis, probably, not yet ascertained. In some instances, these stones have penetratad through the roofs of houses, and proved destructive to the inhabitants. If we carefully compute the force of gravity in the Moon, we shall find, that if a body were projected from her surface with a momentum that would cause it to move at the rate of 8,200 feet in the first second of time, and in the direction of a line joining the centres of the Earth and Moon, it would not fall again to the surface of the Moon; but would become a sa- tellite to the Earth. Such an impulse might, indeed, cause it, even after many revolutions, to fall to the Earth. The fall, therefore, of these stones, from the air, may be accounted for in this manner. Mr. Hatte, calculates, that even a velocity of 6000 feet in a second, would be sufficient to carry a body projected from the surface of the Moon beyond the power of her attraction. If so, a projectile force three times greater than that of a cannon, would carry a body from the Moon beyond the point of equal attraction, and cause it to reach the Earth. A force equal to this is often exerted by our volcanoes, and by subterraneous steam. Hence, How did Dr. Olbers discover Vesta ? To what does Dr. Brewster attribute the fall of meteoric stones 3 What is meant by the expression, meteoric stones 2 Of what substance are they composed ?. In what respect do they differ from any me- tallic substances known upon the Earth & What indications generally precede WWEFfºſſ? TTENTE Sãìà7FETHEVFOTúTÉ after their desceniz What is their magnitude 3 What theories have been adopted to account for their origin 3 Ez- plain how it is not impossible that they may come from the JMoon. 72 THE ASTEROIDS. there is no impossibility in the supposition of their coming from the Moon : but yet I think the theory of aerial consolidation the more plausible. Vesta appears, however, like a star of the 5th or 6th magnitude, shining with a pure steady radiance, and is the only one of the asteroids which can be discerned by the naked eye. JUNo, the next planet in order after Vesta, revolves around the Sun in 4 years, 4% months, at the mean distance of 254 millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at 1393 miles. This would make her magnitude 183 times less than the Earth's. The light and heat which she receives from the Sun is seven times less than that received by the Earth. . The eccentricity of her orbit is so great, that her great- est, distance from the Sun is nearly double her least distance; so that, when she is in her perihelion, she is nearer the Sun by 130 millions of miles, than when she is in her aphelion. This great eccentricity has a corresponding effect upon her rate of motion; for being so much nearer, and there- fore so much more powerfully attracted by the Sun at one time than at another, she moves through that half of her orbit which is nearest the Sun, in one half of the time that she occupies in completing the other half. According to Schroeter, the diameter of Juno is 1425 miles; and she is surrounded by an atmosphere more dense than that of any of the other planets. Schroeter also remarks, that the variation in her brilliancy is chiefly owing to certain changes in the density of her atmosphere; at the same time he thinks it not improbable that these changes may arise from a diurnal revolution on her axis. CEREs, the next planet in order after Juno, revolves about the Sun in 4 years 74 months, at the mean distance of 263; Describe the appearance of Vesta. What is the next planet in order after Ves- ta? In what time does she complete her revolution around the sun ? What is her mean distance from him 3 What the rate of her motion per hour ! What is the length of her diameter 3 How much less, then, is her magnitude, than that of the Earth 4 How much light and heat does she receive from the sun, compared with those received by the Earth 3 How much greater is her greatest distance from the sun, than her least distance 3 How much less time does she occupy in moving through that half of her orbit which is nearest to the sun, than she does in moving through that half which is farthest from him 3 What is her diameter, according to Schroeter 3 Jäccording to the same astronomer, what is the density of her at- mosphere, compared with that of the other planets 3 To what does he attribute the variation in her brilliancy & What is the next planet in order after Juno 3 In what time does she complete her revolution about the sun ? What is her mean distance from him 3 THE ASTEROIDS, 73 millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at 1582 miles, which makes her magnitude 125 times less than the Earth's. The intensity of the light and heat which she re- ceives from the Sun, is about 7# times less than that of those received by the Earth. Ceres shines with a ruddy colour, and appears to be only about the size of a star of the 8th magnitude. Consequent- ly she is never seen by the naked eye. She is surrounded by a species of cloudy or nebulous light, which gives her somewhat the appearance of a comet, forming, according to Schroeter, an atmosphere 675 miles in height. Ceres, as has been said, was the first discovered of the Asteroids. At her discovery, astronomers congratulated themselves upon the harmony of the system being restored. They had long wanted a planet to fill up the great void between Mars and Jupiter, in order to make the system complete in their own eyes; but the successive discoveries of Pallas and Juno again introduced confusiou, and presented a difficulty which they were unable to solve, till Dr. Olbers suggested the idea that these small anomalous bodies were merely the fragments of alarger planet, which had been exploded by some mighty convulsion. Among the most able and decided advocates of this hypothesis, is Dr. Brewster, of Edinburgh. PALLAs, the next planet in order after Ceres, performs her revolution around the Sun in 4 years, 73 months, at the mean distance of 264 millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at 2025 miles, which is but little less than that of our Moon. It is a singular, and very remarkable pheno- menon in the solar system, that two planets, (Ceres and Pallas) nearly of the same size, should be situated at equal distances from the Sun, revolve about him in the same period, and in orbits that intersect each other. The dif. ference in the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas is What is the rate of her motion per hour ! What is her diameter 3 How great is her magnitude, compared with that of the Earth q What is the intensity of the light and heat which she receives from the sun, compared with that of those re- ceived by the Earth 3 Describe her appearance. How high, according to Schroe- ter, is the atmosphere formed by this nebulous light 3 Why did astronomers con- gratulate themselves at the discovery of this planet & What again introduced Confusion and difficulty into their system 3 How were they at length enabled to solve the difficulty 3 What planet is the next in order after Ceres? In what time does she complete her revolution around the sun ? What is her mean dis- tance from him 3 %. the rate of her motion in her orbit per hour ! What is her diameter 3. How great is it compared with the diameter of the Moon 3 What is the difference between the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas from the Sun ? G 74 JUPITER, less than a million of miles. The difference in their side- real revolutions, according to some astronomers, is but a single day ! The calculation of the latitude and longitnde of the asteroids, is a labour of extreme difficulty, requiring more than 400 equations to reduce their anomalous perturbations to the true place. This arises from the want of auxiliary tables, and from the fact that the elements of the star form planets, are very imperfectly determined. Whether any of the asteroids have aro- tation on their axis, remains to be ascertained. J U P IT E R . / Jupiter is the largest of all the planets belonging to the solar system. It may be readily distinguished from the fixed stars, by its peculiar splendour and magnitude; ap- pearing to the naked eye almost as resplendent as Venus, although it is more than seven times her distance from the Sun. When his right ascension is less than that of the Sun, he is our morning star, and appears in the eastern hemis- phere before the Sun rises; when greater, he is our evening star, and lingers in the western hemisphere after the Sun sets. Nothing can be easier than to trace Jupiter among the constellations of the zodiac; for in whatever constellation he is seen to-day, one year hence he will be seen equally advanced in the meat constellation; two years hence, in the next ; three years hence, in the next, and so on; being just a year, at a mean rate, in passing over one constel- lation. . The exact mean motion of Jupiter in its orbit, is about one-twelfth of a degree in a day; which amounts to only 30°20'32" in a year. For 12 years to come, he will, at a mean rate, pass through the constellations of the zodiac, as follows: I What is the difference between the times of their sidereal revolutions 4 Why is the calculation of the latitude and longitude of the asteroids a labour of extreme difficulty 3 Have any of the asteroids a rotation on their azes 2 hich is the largest planet of the solar system ºf How may Jupiter be readily distinguish- ed from the fixed stars 3 ſow much frther is he from the Sun than Venus? In what case is he our morning star, and in what, our evening 3 How may he be traged; among the cqnstellations of the Zodiac 4. In what constellation will he be, each year, for twelgøyears to come 4 JUPITER, #5 1834 || Aries. 1838 | Leo. 1842 | Sagittarius. 1835 | Taurus. | 1839 Virgo. 1843 | Capricornus. 1836 || Gemini. 1840 | Libra. 1844 Aquarius. 1837 | Cancer. 1841 Scorpio. 1845 || Pisces. / Jupiter is the next planet in the solar system above the asteroids, and performs his annual revolution around the Sun in nearly 12 of our years, at the mean distance of 495 millions of miles; moving in his orbit at the rate of 30,000 miles an hour. The exact period of Jupiter's sidereal revolution is 11 years, 10 months, 17 days, 14 hours, 21 minutes, 25% seconds. His exact mean distance from the Sun is 495,533,837 miles ; consequently, the exact rate of his motion in his orbit, is 29,943 miles per hour. He revolves on an axis, which is perpendicular to the plane of his orbit, in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 50 seconds; so that his year contains 10,471 days and nights; each about 5 hours iong. - His form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame- ter is to its equatorial, as 13 to 14. He is therefore consid. erably more flattened at the poles, than any of the other planets except Saturn. This is caused by his rapid rotation on his axis; for it is a universal law that the equatorial parts of every body, revolving on an axis, will be swollen out, in proportion to the density of the body, and the rapidi- ty of its motion, The difference between the polar and equatorial diameters of Jupiter, exceeds 6000 miles. The difference between the polar and equatorial di- ameters of the Earth, is only 26 miles. Jupiter, even on the most careless view through a good telescope, appears to be oval ; the longer diameter being parallel to the direction of his belts, which are also parallel to the ecliptic. By this rapid whirl on his axis, his equatorial inhabitants f What is his position in the solar system 3 What is his mean distance from the gun? What is the rate per hour of his motion in his orbit What is the exact Period of his sidereal revolution ? What is his exact mean distance from the sun ? What the exact rate per hour of his motion in his orbit 2 What is the po- sition of his axis with respeet to the plane of his orbit 3 How many days and nights does his year eontain 3. How long are they, each 3 What is his form 3 What is the ratio between his polar and equatorial diameters ? What is the cause of his being more flattened at the poles than any of the other planets 3 What is the difference between his polar and equatorial diameters & What does his for ºt appear to be, through a good telescope; What is the direction of his longer di- azzeter? 76 JUPITER, are carried around at the rate of 26,554 miles an hour ; which is 1600 miles farther than the equatorial inhabitants of the Earth are carried, by its diurnal motion, in twenty- four hours. * The true mean diameter of Jupiter is 86,255 miles: which is nearly 11 times greater than the Earth's. His volume is therefore about thirteen hundred times larger than that of the Earth. [Compare his magnitude with that of the Earth. Plate I.] On account of his great distance from tha Sun, the degree of light and heat which he receives from it, is 27 times less than that received by the Earth. When Jupiter is in conjunction, he rises, sets, and comes to the meridian with the Sun; but is never observed to make a transit, or pass over the Sun's disc; when in opposition, he rises when the Sunsets, sets when the Sun rises, and comes to the meridian at midnight, which never happens in the case of an interior planet. This proves that Jupiter revolves in an orbit which is exterior to that of the Earth. As the variety in the seasons of a planet, and in the length of its days and nights depend upon the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and as the axis of Jupiter has no inclination, there can be no difference in his seasons, on the same parallels of latitude, nor any variation in the length of his days and nights. It is not to be understood, however, that one uniform season prevails from his equator to his poles; but that the same paralleſs of latitude on each side of his equator, uniformly enjoy the same season, what- ever season it may be. About his equatorial regions there is perpetual summer; and at his poles everlasting winter; but yet equal day and equal night at each. This arrangement seems to have been kindly ordered by the beneficent Creator; for had his axis been inclined to his orbit, like that of the Earth, his polar winters would bave been alternately a dreadful night of of six years darkness. At what rate per hour are his equatorial inhabitants carried by his motion on his axis 3 How much farther is this than the equatorial inhabitants of the Earth are carried in 24 hours ? What is Jupiter's true mean diameter ? . How much greater is it than the Earth's What is his volume, compared with the Earth's 3 What is the degree of light and heat which he receives from the sun, compared with that received by the Earth 3 How do we know that Jupiter’s orbit is exte: zior to that of the Earth 3 What is the arrangement of Jupiter's seasons, and of his days and nights 3 Had his axis been inclined to the piane of his orbit, like that of our Earth, how long would his polar nights have been 3 JUPITERe - 77 TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF JUPITER, - Fig. 17. , Jupiter when viewed through a telescope, appears to be surrounded by a number of luminous zones, usually termed belts, that frequently extend quite around him. These belts are parallel not only to each other, but, in general, to his equator, which is also nearly parallel to the ecliptic. They are subject, however, to considerable variation, both in breadth and number. Sometimes eight have been seen at once; sometimes only one, but more usually three. Dr. Herschel once perceived his whole disc covered with small belts. - - Sometimes these belts continue for months at a time with little or no variation, and sometimes a new belt has been seen to form in a few hours. Sometimes they are interrupted in their length; and at other times, they appear to spread in width, and run into each other, until their breadth exceeds 5,000 miles. Bright and dark spots are also frequently to be seen in the belts, which usually disappear with the belts themselves, though not always, for Cassini observed that one occupied the same position more than 40 years. Of the cause of these variable appearances, but little is known. They are generally supposed to be nothing more than atmospherical phenºmena, resulting from, or combined with the rapid mo- tion of the planet upon its axis. I Different opinions have been entertained by astronomers respecting the cause of these belts and spots. By some they have been regarded as clouds, or as openings in the atmosphere of the planet, while others imagine that they are of a more permanent nature, and are the marks of great physical , Describe Jupiter's appearance, as seen through a telescope. What is supposed o be the cause of these phenomena 3 {º - . ‘. + . G 78 JUPITER, revolutions, which are perpetually agitating and changing the surface of the planet. The first of these opinions sufficiently explains the variations in the form and magnitude of the spots, and the parallelism of the belts. The spot first observed by Cassini, in 1665, which has both disappeared and re-appeared in the same form and position for the space of 43 years, could not possibly be occasioned by any atmospherical variations, but seems evidently to be connected with the surface of the planet. The form of the belt, according to some astronomers, may be accounted for by supposing that the atmosphere reflects more light than the body of the planet, and that the clouds which float in it, being thrown into parallel strata by the rapidity of its diurnal motion, form regular interstices, through which are seen its opaque body, or any of the permanent spots which may come within the range of the opening. 2 Jupiter is also attended by four satellites or moons, some of which are visible to him every hour of the night; exhib- iting, on a small scale, and in short periods, most of the phe- nomena of the solar system. When viewed through a tele- scope, these satellites present a most interesting and beau- tiful appearance. The first satellite, or that nearest the planet, is 259,000 miles distant from its centre, and revolves around it in 424 hours; and appears, at the surface of Jupi- ter, four times larger than our moon does to us. His second satellite, being both smaller and farther distant, appears about the size of ours; the third somewhat less; and the fourth, which is more than a million of miles from him, and takes 16; days to revolve around him, appears only about one third the diameter of our moon. These satellites suffer frequent eclipses from passing through Jupiter's shadow, in the same manner as our moon is eclipsed in passing through the Earth's shadow. The three nearest satellites fall into his shadow, and are eclips- ed in every revolution; but the orbit of the fourth is so much inclined, that it passes by its opposition to him, two years in six, without falling into his shadow. By means of these eclipses, astronomers have not only discovered that light is 8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming to us from the Relate some of the different opinions entertained by astronomers on this sub- ject./ How many satellites has Jupiter 3 How often are they visible to him 7 What is the distance from him of his first or nearest satellite 3 "What is the time of its revolution 3 What is its apparent magnitude at the surface of Jupiter, com- pared with the magnitude of the Moon, as seen by us? What are the apparent magnitudes of his other satellites, as seen at his surface, compared with that of the Moon as seen at the Earth 3 What is the distance of his fourth satellite from him 4 What is the time of its revolution ºf How often are his three nearest satel- litcs eclipsed? How often his fourth 4 "Why is it not eclipsed as often as the others? "What important purposes have these eclipses served to astronomers ? JUPITER, - 79 Sun, but are also enabled to determine the longitude of pla- ces on the Earth with greater facility and exactness than by any other methods yet known. 1 It was long since found, by the most careful observations, that when the Earth is in that part of her orbit which is nearest to Jupiter, the eclipses appear to happen 8'13" sooner than the tables predict; and when in that part of her orbit which is farthest from him, 8' 13" later than the tables predict; making a total difference in time, of 16'26". From the mean of 6000 eclipses observed by Delambre, this disagreement between observation and calculation, was satisfactorily settled at 8 13", while both were considered equally correct. Now when the eclipses happen sooner than the tables, Jupiteris at his nearest to approach the Earth—when later, at his greatest distance; so that the difference in his distances from the Earth, in the two cases, is the whole diameter of the Earth's orbit, or about 190 millions of miles. Hence, it is concluded that light is not instantane- oùs, but that it occupies 16'26" in passing across the Earth's orbit, or 8'13" in coming from the Sun to the Earth; being nearly 12 millions of miles a Iminute. The revolutions of the satellites about Jupiter are pre- cisely similar to the revolutions of the planets about the Sun. In this respect they are an epitome of the solar sys- tem, exhibiting, on a smaller scale, the various changes that take place among the planetary worlds. Jupiter, when seen from his nearest satellite, appears a thousand times larger than our moon does to us, exhibiting, on a scale of inconceivable magnificence, the varying forms of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full moon, every 42 hours. The apparent diameters of Jupiter's satellites, their mean distances from him, and their periodical revolutions, are exhibited in the following table. Satellites. | Revolution. fº. Mean Dist. First. IJ.TISD.T.Sm.TI.7667|T259,000T Second. 3 13 14 1. 189 414,000 Third. 7 3 43 1. 050 647,000 Fourth. 16 16 32 - 0. 550 1,164,000 State the method by which the progressive motion of light, and the time which it occupies in coming to us from the sun were discovered. In what respect are Jupiter's satellites an epitome of the solar system 3. What is Jupiter's appearance; as seen from his nearest satellite 3 What are the diameters, anean distances, and times of the revolution of his satellites ? * 80 SATURN. S A T U R. N. * Saturn is situated between the orbits of Jupiter and Her. schel, and is the most remote planet from the Earth of any that are visible to the naked eye. It may be easily distin- guished from the fixed stars by its pale, feeble, and steady light. It resembles the star Fomalhaut, both in colour and size, differing from it only in the steadiness and uniformity of its light. From the slowness of its motion in its orbit, the pupil, throughout the period of his whole life, may trace its appa- rent course among the stars, without any danger of mistake. Having once found when it enters a particular constella- tion, he may easily remember where he is to look for it in any subsequent year; because, at a mean rate, it is just 2% years in passing over a single sign or constellation. Saturn's mean daily motion among the stars is only about 2', the thirtieth part of a degree. I Saturn entered the constellation Virgo about the beginning of 1833, and continued in it until the middle of the year 1835, when he passed into Li- bra. He will continue in that constellation until 1838; and so on ; occu- #; about 23 years in each constellation, or nearly 30 years in one revo- ution. His orbit is 909 millions of miles from the Sun; being nearly twice the distance of Jupiter's. His diameter is about 82,000 miles; his volume therefore is eleven hundred times greater than the Earth's. Moving in his orbit at the rate of 22,000 miles an hour, he requires 294 years to complete his circuit around the Sun: but his diurnal rotation on his axis is accomplished in 104 hours. His year, therefore, is nearly thirty times as long as ours, while his day is shorter 2. Where, in the solar system, is Saturn situated ? How may it be distinguished from the fixed stars 4 What star does it resemble? In what respects is it like it, and in what is it different from it? How may his place among the stars be readi- ly found 3 What is about the rate of his mean daily motion among the stars? When did Saturn enter the constellation Virgo, and how tong did he continue in it 3 What constellation did he enter next, and how long will he continue in it? How long time does he occupy in passing through each constellation, and what is the length of his year 3, What is his distance from the sun ? How much greater is this than Jupiter's distance 7 What is his diameter 3 How much greater is his volume than that of the Earth 3 What is the rate per hour of his motion in his orbit 3 in what time is his diurnal motion on his axis performed 3 SATURN, 81 by more than one half. His year contains about 25,150 of its own days, which are equal to 10,759 of our days. | 2. The surface of Saturn, like that of Jupiter, is diversified with belts and dark spots. Dr. Herschel sometimes per- ceived five belts on his surface; three of which were dark, and two bright. The dark belts have a yellowish tinge, and generally cover a broader zone of the planet than those of Jupiter. To the inhabitants of Saturn, the Sun appears 90 times less than he appears to the Earth; and they receive from him only one ninetieth part as much light and heat. But it is computed that even the ninetieth part of the Sun's light exceeds the illuminating power of 3,000 full moons, which would be abundantly sufficient for all the purposes of life. SATURN. f * 2. The telescopic appearance ||of Saturn is unparalleled. It is even more interesting than |Jupiter, with all his moons ||and belts. That which emi- |nently distinguished this plan- |et from every other in the system, is a magnificent zone or ring, like a rain-bow a thousand times expanded; en- . ~ - circling it with perpetual light. The light of the ring is more brilliant than the planet it- self. It turns around its centre of motion in the same time that Saturn turns on its axis. When viewed with a good telescope, it is found to consist of two concentric rings, di- vided by a dark band. By the laws of mechanics, it is impossible that the body of the rings should retain its position by the adhesion of the particles alone; it must ne- cessarily revolve with a velocity that will generate centrifugal force suffi- How many of his own days does his year contain, and how many of ours ? /What is the appearance of his surface to us ; How many belts did Dr. Herschel perceive on his surface 3 Describe them. How much less does the sun appear to the inhabitants of Saturn than to us? What degree of light and heat does he re- ceive [rom the sun, compared with that received by the Earth 4 To the light of how many full moons is this degree of light equal 3, Describe the telescopic ap- pearance of Saturn ? Why should we judge, previous to observation, that these rings must revolve around him 3 82 SATURN. cient to balance the attraction of Saturn. Observation confirms the truth of these principles, showing that the rings rotate about the planet in 10} hours, which is considerably less than the time a satellite would take to re- volve about it at the same distance. Their plane is inclined to the ecliptic in an angle of 319. In consequence of this obliquity of position, they al- ways appear elliptical to us, but with an eccentricity so variable as to ap- pear, occasionally, like a straight line drawn across the planet; in which case they are visible only by the aid of superior instruments. Such was their position in April, 1833; for the Sun was then passing from their south to their north side. The rings intersect the ecliptic in two opposite points, which may be called their nodes. These points are in longitude 170°, and 350 degrees. When, therefore, Saturn is in either of these points, his rings will be invisible to us. On the contrary, when his longitude is 80°, or 260°, the rings may be seen to the greatest advantage. As the edge of the rings SATURN’s RINGs. Fig. 19. arº goº, H. TT2 ºſ **** 3{} Does observation confirm this opinion 3 In what time do the rings revolve about the planet 3 Is this a greater or less time than a satellite at the same dis- tance would require to revolve about it 3 Why do the rings always appear ellip- tical to us 3 To what extent does the eccentricity of the rings vary & What is the position of the rings with regard to the ecliptic 3. What is the longitude of these nodes 3 In what position of Saturn, then, will the rings be invisible to tes, and in what position will they be seen to the best advantage 3 SATURN, 83 will present itself to the Sun twice in each revolution of the planet, it is ob- vious that the disappearance of them will occur once in about 15 years ; subject, however, to the variation dependent on the position of the Earth at that time. The preceding diagrams are a very good representation of the form and position of the rings as they appear to a spectator during one complete revolution of Saturn through the signs of the ecliptic. By reference to the figure, it will be seen, that when Saturn is in either of the first six signs, the Sun shines on the south side of the rings; and that while he is in either of the last six signs, upon their north side. The following are the dates during the ensuing revolutions of the planet, when its mean heliocentric longitude is such that the rings will (if the Earth be favourably situated,) either be invisible, or seen to the greatest advan- tage. 1833 April. | 200 of Virgo. Invisible. 1838 July. 200 of Scorpio. North side illuminated. 1847 Dec. 20° of Aquarius. Invisible. 1855 April. 200 of Gemini. South side illuminated. 1863 Nov. 200 of Virgo. Invisible. z: The distance between Saturn and his inner ring, is only 21,000 miles; being less than a tenth part of the distance of our Moon from the Earth. The breadth of the dark band, or the interval between the rings, is hardly 3,000 miles.— The breadth of the inner ring is 20,000 miles. Being only about the same distance from Saturn, it will present to his inhabitants a luminous zone, arching the whole concave vault from one hemisphere to the other with a broad girdle of light. The most obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect light upon the planet in the absence of the Sun; what other purposes it may be intended to subserve, is to us unknown. The sun, as has been shown, illuminates one side of it during 15 years, or one half of the period of the planet's revolution; and, during the next 15 years, the other side is enlightened in its turn, ( / Twice in the course of 30 years, there is a short interval of time when neither side is enlightened, and when, of course, it ceases to be visible;—namely, at the time when the sun How often will the disappearance of the rings occur & Explain this. In what signs, if the planet be, will the sun shine on the south side of the rings, and in what, on the north side 3 / What is the distance between Saturn and his inner ring? How great is this, compared with the distance of our Moon from the Earth 3 "What is the distance between the two rings 3 What is the breadth of the inner ring 4 What must be its appearance at Saturn ? What is the most obvious use of this double ring 3 How long a time does the sun enlighten each side of it alternately 3, How often, and in what circumstances, is neither side en- lightened, and the ring, of course, invisible? 84 SATURNs ceases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the other.” It revolves around its axis, and consequently, around Saturn, in 104 hours, which is at the rate of a thou- sand miles in a minute or 58 times swifter than the revolu- tion of the Earth's equator. When viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the absence of the Sun, the rings will appear like vast luminous arches, extending along the canopy of heaven, from the eastern to the western horizon, exceeding in breadth a hun- dred times the apparent diameter of our Moon. / / Besides the rings, Saturn is attended by seven satellites, which revolve about him at different periods and distances, and reciprocally reflect the Sun's rays on each other and on the planet. The rings and moons illuminate the nights of Saturn; the moons and Saturn enlighten the rings, and the planet and rings reflect the Sun's beams on the satel- lites. r The fourth of these satellites (in the order of their distance) was first discovered by Huygens, on the 25th of March, 1655, and, in honour of the discoverer, was called the Huygenian Satellite. This satellite, being the largest of all, is seen without much difficulty. Cassini discovered the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 5th satellites between October, 1671, and March, 1684. ... Dr. Herschel discovered the 6th and 7th in 1789. These are nearer to Saºurn than any of the rest, though, to avoid confusion, they are named in the order of their discovery. The sixth and seventh are the smallest of the whole; the first and second are the next smallest; the third is greater than the first and second; the fourth is the largest of them all; and the fifth surpasses the rest in brightness. Their respective distances from their primary, vary from half the distance of our Moon, to two millions of miles. * This happens, as we have already shown, when Saturn is either in the 20th degree of Pisces, or the 20th degree of Virgo. When he is between these points, or in the 20th degree either of Gemini or of Sagittarius, his ring appears most open to us, and more in the form of an oval whose long- est diameter is to the shortest, as 9 to 4. In what time does the ring complete its revolution on its axis, and of course, around the planet 3 What is the rate per minute, of its motion ? How rapid is this, compared with the motion of the Earth's equator 3 What would he the appear- ance of the rings, if viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the absence of the sun ?/ How many moºns has Saturn ? How are Saturn, his rings and satel- lites, severally, enlightened 3 What are the dates of their discovery, and the mames of their discoverers ? What are their comparative magnitudes, dis- tances, and times of revolution ? g SATURN, 85 Their periodic revolutions vary from 1 day to 79 days. The orbits of the six inner satellites, that is, the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 6th, and 7th, all lie in the plane of Saturn's rings, and revolve around their outer edge; while the 5th satellite de- viates so far from the plane of the rings, as sometimes to be seen through the opening between them and the planet., Laplace imagines that the accumulation of matter at Saturn's equator re- tains the orbits of the first six satellites in the plane of the equator, in the same manner as it retains the rings in that plane. It has been satisfactorily ascertained that Saturn has a greater accumulation of matter about his equator, and consequently that he is more flattened at the poles, than Jupi- ter, though the velocity of the equatorial parts of the former is much less than that of the latter. This is sufficiently accounted for by the fact, that the rings of Saturn lie in the plane of his equator, and act more powerfully upon those parts of his surface than upon any other ; and thus, while they aid in diminishing the gravity of these parts, also aid the centrifugal ſorce in flattening the poles of the planet. Indeed, had Saturn never revolved upon his axis, the action of the rings would, of itself, have been sufficient to give him the form of an oblate spheroid. The theory of the satellites of Saturn is less perfect than that of the satellites of Jupiter. The difficulty of observing their eclipses, and of measuring their elongations from their primary, have prevented astronomers from determining, with their usual precision, their mean distances and revo- lutions. * We may remark, with the Christian Philosopher, that there is no planet in the solar system, whose firmament presents such a variety of splendid and magnificent objects as that of Saturn. The various aspects of the seven moons, one rising above the horizon, while another is setting, and a third, approach- ing to the meridian ; one entering into an eclipse, and an- other emerging from one; one ºppearing as a crescent, and another with a gibbous phase ; and sometimes the whole of them shining in the same hemisphere, in one bright as- semblage 1 The majestic motion of the rings, at one time illuminating the sky with their splendour, and eclipsing the stars; at another, casting a deep shade over certain regions of the planet, and unveiling to view the wonders of the What is the position of their orbits with respect to the rings of Saturn ? What does Laplace imagine, retains the orbits of Saturn's first sia satellites in the plane of his equator 3 Why are astronomers less acquainted with the mean dis- tances and revolutions of Saturn's satellites, than with those of Jupiter 3 /De- scribe the firmament of Saturn, as illuminated by his rings and satellites. - H 86 HERSCHEL, starry firmament, are scenes worthy of the majesty of the Divine Being to unfold, and of rational creatures to con- template. Such displays of Wisdom and Omnipotence, lead us to conclude that the numerous splendid objects connected with this planet, were not created merely to shed their lustre on naked rocks and barren sands; but that an immense popu- lation of intelligent beings is placed in those regions, to enjoy the bounty, and adore the goodness, of their great Creator. I The ſollowing table exhibits the apparent and mean distances of the sa- tellites from their primary, and the times of their periodical revolution. Their distances in miles were computed from their observed micrometer distances; the diameter of Saturn's equator being considered equal to 80,000 miles. Satel- Periodic Distance in Distance in lites. revolution. diameters. miles. 1 0d. 22h, 38m. 1.540 123,200 2 1 8 53 1.976 158,080 3 H 21 18 2.447 195,720 4 2 17 45 3.134 250,720 5 4 12 25 4,377 350,160 6 15 22 41 10.143 811,400 7 79 7 55 29,577 2,366,160 H E R SC H E L . Herschel is the most distant planet from the Sun that has yet been discovered. To the naked eye, it appears like a star of only the 6th or 7th magnitude, and of a pale, bluish white; but it can seldom be seen, except in a very fine, clear night, and in the absence of the Moon. As it moves over but one degree of its orbit in 85 days, it will be seven years in passing over one sign or constella- tion. At present,” its mean right ascension is 3324°, and its declination 154° S. It is therefore in the tail of Capri- corn, making a small triangle with Deneb and Delta Alged. * Beginning of the year 1834, What is the relative distance of the planet Herschel from the sun ? What is its appearance to the naked eye? In what circumstances, can it be seen 3 What is the rate of its motion in its orbit 3 What is its present position 3 HERSCHEL. ge * 87 When first seen by Dr. Herschel, in 1781, it was in the foot of Gemini; so that it has not yet completed two thirds of a revolution since it was first discovered to be a planet. I It is remarkable that this body was observed as far back as 1690. It was seen three times by Flamstead, once by Bradley, once by Mayer, and eleven times by Lemonnier, who registered it among the stars; but not one of them suspected it to be a planet. g - The inequalities in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn, which could not be accounted for from the mutual attrac- tions of these planets, led astronomers to suppose that there existed another planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, by whose action these irregularities were produced. This conjecture was confirmed March 13th, 1781; when Dr. Herschel dis- covered the motions of this body, and thus proved it to be a planet. Herschel is attended by six moons or satellites, which revolve about him in different periods, and at various dis- tances. Four of them were discovered by Dr. Herschel, and two by his sisters, Miss Caroline Herschel. It is possi- ble that others remain yet to be discovered. I * His orbit is 1828 millions of miles from the Sun; being * more than twice the distance of Saturn's. His sidereal revolution is performed in 84 years and 1 month ; he mov- ing in his orbit at a rate of 15,600 miles an hour. He is supposed to have a rotation on his axis, in common with the other planets; but astronomers have not yet been able to obtain any occular proof of such a motion. His diameter is estimated at 34,000 miles; which would make his volume more than 80 times larger than the Earth's. To his inhabitants, the Sun appears only the ### part as large What was its position when first discovered to be a planet 3 How much, then, of its revolution, has been completed, since it was first discovered 3 At how ear- ly a date was this body observed in the heavens & Who observed it, before it was discovered to be a planet 3 How many times was it seen by them, respec- tively 2 What did they consider it to be 32 What led astronomers to suppose that there existed another planet beyond Saturn ? When and by whom was Herschel discovered to be a planet 3 How many moons has it 3 By whom were Herschel's satellites discovered 3 What is the distance of Herschel's orbit from the sun ? How much greater is this distance than that of Saturn's 4 in what time is his sidereal revolution performed 3 What is the rate per hour of his ino- tion in his orbit? Has he a rotation on his axis 3 What is his diameter esti- ma:ed to be 3 How much larger would this make his volume than the Earth’s is ? How much less does the Sun appear to be to the inhabitants of Herschel, than, he does to us? 88 COMETS. as he does to us; and of course they receive from him only that small proportion of light and heat. It may be shown, however, that the ## part of the Sun's light ex- ceeds the illuminating power of 800 full Moons. This add- ed to the light they must receive from their six satellites, will render their days and nights far from being cheerless. / Such was the celestial system with which our Earth was associated at its creation, distinct from the rest of the starry hosts. Whatever may be the comparative antiquity of our globe, and the myriads of radiant bodies which nightly gem the immense vault above us, it is most reasonable to conclude, that the Sun, Earth, and planets, differ little in the date of their origin. * This fact, at least, seems to be philosophically certain, that all the bodies which compose our solar system must have been placed at one and the same time in that arrange- ment, and in those positions in which we now behold them; because all maintain their present stations, and motions, and distances, by their mutual action on each other. Neither could be where they are, nor move as they do, nor subsist as we see them, unless they were all co-existing. The presence of each is essential to the system which they con- stitute—the Sun to them, they to the Sun, and all to each other. This fact is a strong indication that their formation was simultaneous. I C O M ET. S. / Comets, whether viewed as ephemeral meteors, or as substantial bodies, forming a part of the Solar system, are objects of no ordinary interest. When, with uninstructed gaze, we look upwards, to the clear sky of evening, and behold, among the multitudes of heavenly bodies, one, blazing with its long train of light, and rushing onward towards the centre of our system, We What degree of light and heat do they receive from him, compared with that received by the Earth 3 To the light of how many full moons is this degree of light equal 3, What reason have we to suppose, that the different bodies of the solar system were created at the same time ! / What feelings does the contemplar tion of comets naturally excite 3 - • comers, 89 insensibly shrink back as if in the presence of a supernatu. ral being. But when, with the eye of astronomy, we follow it through its perihelion, and trace it far off, beyond the utmost verge of the solar system, till it is lost in the infinity of space, not to return for centuries, we are deeply impressed with a sense of that power which could create and set in motion such bodies. 1 Comets are distinguished from the other heavenly bodies, by their appearance and motion. The appearance of the planets is globular, and their motion around the Sun is near- ly in the same plane, and from west by south, to east; but the comets have a variety of forms, and their orbits are not confined to any particular part of the heavens; nor do they observe any one general direction. * The orbits of the planets approach nearly to circles, while those of the comets are very elongated ellipses. A. wire hoop, for example, will represent the orbit of a planet. If two opposite sides of the same hoop, be extended, so that it shall be long and narrow, it will then represent the orbit of a comet. The Sun is always in one of the foci, or near to one end of the comet's orbit. -- There is, however, a practical difficulty of a peculiar natures which em- barrasses the solution of the question as to the form of the cometary orbits. It so happens that the only part of the course of a comet which can ever be visible, is a portion throughout which the ellipse, the parabola, and hy- perbola, so closely resemble each other, that no observations can be obtain- ed with sufficient accuracy to enable us to distinguish them. In fact, the observed path of any comet, while visible, may belong either to an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola. That part which is usually brighter, or more opaque, than the other portions of the comet, is called the nucleus. This is surrounded by an envelope, which has a cloudy, or hairy appearance. These two parts constitute the body, and, in many instances, the whole of the comet. Most of them, however, are attended by a long train, called the tail; though some are without this appendage, and as seen by the naked eye, are not easily distinguished at E t— How are comels distinguished from the other heavenly bodies? Describe their appearance and motion. Of what three parts may comets be considered to be composed? Describe these parts several; H * 90 COMETS, from the planets. Others, again, have no apparent nucleus and seem to be only globular masses of vapour. Nothing is known with certainty of the composition of these bodies. The envelope appears to be nothing more than vapour, becoming more luminous and transparent when approaching the Sun. As the comets pass between us and the fixed stars, their envelopes and tails are so thin, that stars of very small magnitudes may be seen through them. Some comets, having no nucleus, are transparent throughout their whole extent. * The nucleus of a comet sometimes appears opaque, and it then resembles a planet. Astronomers, however, are not agreed upon this point. Some affirm that the nucleus is always transparent, and that comets are in fact nothing but a mass of vapour, or less condensed at the centre. By others it is maintained that the nucleus is sometimes: solid and opaque. It seems probable, however, that there are three classes of comets; viz.: 1st. Those which have no nucleus, being transparent throughout their whole ex- tent; 2d. Those which have a transparent nucleus; and, 3d. Those having a nucleus which is solid and opaque. A comet, when at a distance from the Sun, viewed through a good telescope, has the appearance of a dense vapour surrounding the nucleus, and somtimes flowing far into the regions of space. As it approaches the Sun, its light becomes more brilliant, till it reaches its perihelion, when its light is more dazzling than that of any other celes- tial body, the Sun excepted. In this part of its orbit are seen to the best advantage the phenomena of this wonderful body, which has, from remote antiquity, been the spectre of alarm and terrour. - The luminous train of a comet usually follows it, as it approaches the Sun, and goes before it, when the comet recedes from the Sun; sometimes the tail is considerably curved towards the region to which the comet is tending, Have all comets these three parts : What apparent differences may be per- ceived in the composition of different comets? into what classes, with reference to their composijon, may comets be divided ? Describe the different appearances of comets at different distances from the sun. In what part of their orbit are their phenomena seen to the best advantage % What is usually the direction of the luminous train ſt conſets. 91 and in some instances, it has been observed to form a right angle with a line drawn from the Sun through the centre of the comet. The tail of the comet of 1744, formed near- ly a quarter of a circle; that of 1689 was curved like a Turkish sabre. Sometimes the same comet has severał tails. That of 1744 had, at one time, no less than sia, which appeared and, disappeared in a few days. The comet of 1823 had, for several days, two tails; one ex- tending towards the Sun, and the other in the opposite direction. . % Comets, in passing among and near the planets, are materially drawn aside from their courses, and in some cases have their orbits entirely changed. This is remarka- bly true in regard to Jupiter, which seems by some strange fatality to be constantly in their way, and to serve as a per- petual stumbling block to them. “The remarkable comet of 1770, which was found by Lexell to revolve in a moderate ellipse, in a period of about five years, actually got entangle among the satellites of Jupiter, and thrown out of its orbit by the attrac- tions of that planet,” and has not been heard of since.—Herschel, p. 310. By this extraordinary rencontre, the motions of Jupiter's satellites suffer- ed not the least perceptible derangement;--a sufficient proof of the aeriform nature of the compet’s mass. It is clear from observation that comets contain very little matter. For they produce little or no effect on the motion of the planets when passing near those bodies; it is said that a comet, in 1454, eclipsed the moon; so that it must have been very near the Earth; yet no sensible effect was observed to be produced by this cause, upon the mo, tion of the Earth or the Moon. The observations of philosophers upon comets, have as yet detected nothing of their nature, Tycho Brahe and Appian supposed their tails to be produced by the rays of the Sun, transmitted through the nucleus, which they sup- What was the direction of the tail of the comet of 1744? Of that of 1689? How many tails had the comet of 1744 at one time, and how long did they con- tinue to appear ! How many had that of 1823, and what was their direction 4 When comets pass near planets, how does the attraction of the planets affect them In regard to what planet is this remarkably true 7 JMention an example of comets being so affected. What fact connected with this case proves the aeri- form nature of the comet's mass 3 How is it clear from observaſion that comets contain very little matter & What were the opinions of ‘I’ycho Brahe, Appian, ºu", Sir Isaac Newton, and Dr. Hamilton, in regard to the tails of temketS - * 92 {{}METS, posed to be transparent, and to operate as a lens. Kepler thought they were occasioned by the atmosphere of the comet, driven off by the impulse of the Sun's rays. This opinion, with some modification, was also maintained by Euler. Sir Isaac Newton conjectured, that they were a thin vapour, rising from the heated nucleus, as smoke as- cends from the Earth; while Dr. Hamilton supposed them to be streams of electricity. “That the luminous part of a comet,” says Sir John Herschel, “is some- thing in the nature of a smoke, fog, or cloud, suspended in a transparent atmosphere, is evident from a fact which has been often noticed, viz. that the portion of the tail where it comes up to, and surrounds the head, is yet separated from it by an interval less luminous ; as we often see one layer of clouds laid over another with a considerable clear space between them.” And again—“It follows that these can only be regarded as great masses of thin vapour, susceptible of being penetrated through their whole substance ‘by the sunbeams.” Comets have always been considered by the ignorant and superstitious, as the harbingers of war, pestilence and fam- ine. Nor has this opinion been, even to this day, confined to the unlearned. It was once universal. And when we examine the dimensions and appearances of some of these bodies, we cease to wonder that they produced universal alarm. (According to the testimony of the early writers, a comet which could be seen in day light with the naked eye, made its appearance 43 years before the birth of our Saviour. This date was just after the death of Caesar, and by the Ro- mans, the comet was believed to be his metamorphosed soul, armed with fire and vengeance. This comet is again mentioned as appearing in 1106, and then resembling the Sun in brightness, being of a great size, and having an im- mense tail. In the year 1402, a comet was seen, so brilliant as to be discerned at noon-day. * 2& In 1456, a large comet made its appearance. It spread a wider terrotſr than was ever known before. The be- lief was very general, among all classes, that the comet What was the opinion of Sir John Herschel, and on what fewnded 32. How have coinets been regarded by the ignoritnt and superstitious 3 Mention some of the most remarkable comets which have appeared ſº, Describe thena severally, and relate in what manner they were severally regarded, conſers. 93 would destroy the Earth, and that the Day of Judgment was at hand 3. This comet appeared again in the years 1531, 1607, 1682, 1758, and is now approaching the Sun with accelerated velocity. It will pass its §. rihelion in November, 1835, and every 75+ years thereafter. We now [Oc- tober, 1835, see this self same comet, so often expelled the Church of Rome, returning to re-assert his claim to a fellowship with the solar family. At the time of the appearance of this comet, the Turks extended their victorious arms across the Hellespont, and seemed destined to overrun all Europe. This added not a little to the general gloom. Under all these impressions, the people seemed totally regardless of the present, and anxious only for the future. The Romish Church held at this time unbounded sway over the lives, and fortunes, and consciences of men. To prepare the world for its expected doom, Pope Calixtus III. ordered the Ave Maria to be re- peated three times a day, instead of two. He ordered the church bells to be rung at noon, which was the origin of that practice, so universal in Christian churches. To the Ave Maria, the prayer was added—“Lord, save us from the Devil, the Turk, and the Comet:” and once, each day, these three obnoxious personages suffered a regular excom- Iſlūn 108tlon. - The pope and clergy, exhibiting such fear, it is not a matter of wonder that it became the ruling passion of the multitude. The churches and convents were crowded for confession of sins; and treasures uncounted were poured into the Apostolic chamber. * The comet, after suffering some months of daily cursing and excommunication, began to show signs of retreat, and soon disappeared from those eyes in which it found no fa- vour. Joy and tranquillity soon returned to the faithful sub- jects of the pope, but not so their money and lands. The people, however, became satisfied that their lives, and the safety of the world, had been cheaply purchased. The pope, who had achieved so signal a victory over the mon- ster of the sky, had checked the progress of the Turk, and kept, for the present, his Satanic majesty at a safe distance; while the Church of Rome, retaining her unbounded wealth, What is the periodic time of this comet f 94 UOMETS. was enabled to continue that influence over her followers, which she retains, in part, to this day. The comet of 1680 would have been still more alarm- ing than that of 1456, had not science robbed it of its ter- rours, and history pointed to the signal failure of its prede- cessor. This comet was of the largest size, and had a tail whose enormous length was more than ninety six mil- Jions of miles. At its greatest distance, it is 13,000 millions of miles from the Sun; and at its nearest approach, only 574,000 miles from his centre;” or about 130,000 miles from his surface. In that part of its orbit which is nearest the Sun, it flies with the amazing swiftness of 1,000,000 miles in an hour, and the Sun, as seen from it, appears 27,000 times larger than it appears to us; consequently, it is then exposed to a heat 27,000 times greater than the solar heat at the Earth. This intensity of heat exceeds, several thousand times, that of red-hot iron, and indeed all the degrees of heat that we are able to produce. A simple mass of vapour, exposed to a * In Brewster's edition of Ferguson, this distance is stated as only 49,000 miles. This is evidently a misake; for if the comet approached the Sun's centre within 49,000 miles, it would penetrate 390,000 miles be- low the surface | Taking Ferguson's own elements for computing the perihelion distance, the result will be 494,460 miles. The mistake may be accºunted for by supposing that the cypher had been omitted in the co- py, and the period pointed off one figure farther 10 the left. Yet, with this alteration, it would still be incorrect; because the Earth's mean distance from the Sun, which is the integer of this calculation, is assumed at 32,000,000 of miles.—The ratio of the comet's perihelion distance from the Sun, to the Earth's mean distance, as given by M. Pingre', is as 0.00603 to 1. This multiplied into 95,273,869, gives 574,500 miles for the comet's pe- rihelion distance from the Sun's centre; from which, if we subtract his semi-diameter, 443,840, we shall have 130,660 miles, the distance of the comet from the surface of the Sun. - Again, if we divide the Earth's mean distance from the sun, by the comet's perihelion distance, we shall find that the latter is only the Fºrth part of the Earth's distance. Now the square of 166 is 27,556; and this expresses the number of times that the Sun appears larger to the comet, in the above situation, than it does to the Earth. SQUIRE makes it 34,596 times larger. Aécording tº Newton, the velocity is 880,000 miles per hour. More re- cent discoveries indicate a velocity of 1,240,108 miles per hour. - What is the degree of solar heat to which the comet of 1680 is exposed, when in its perihelion, coinpared to that experienced at the Earth What is the in- tensity of such a degree of heaf, compared with that of red hot iron, or with any degree of heat which we are able to produce 3 COMETS, 95. thousandth part of such a heat, would be at once dissipated in space—a pretty strong indication that, however volatile are the elements of which comets are composed, they are, nevertheless, capable of enduring an inconceivable intensity of both heat and eold. This is the comet which, according to the reveries of Dr. Whiston and others, deluged the work in the time of Noah. Whiston was the friend and successor of Newton: but, anxious to know more than is revealed, he passed the bounds of Sober philosophy, and presumed not only to fix the residence of the damned, but also the nature of their punishment. According to his theory, a comet was the awful prison-house in which, as it wheeled from the remotest regions of darkness and cold into the very vicinity of the Sun, hurrying its wretched tenants to the extremes of per , ishing cold and devouring fire, the Almighty was to dis- pense the severities of his justice. Such theories may be ingenious, but they have no basis of facts to rest upon. They more properly belong to the chimeras of Astrology than to the science of Astronomy. When we are told by philosophers of great caution and high reputation, that the fiery train of the comet, just allud- ed to, extended from the horizon' to the zenith; and that that of 1744 had, at one time, six tails, each 6,000,000 of miles long, and that another, which appeared soon after, had one 40,000,000 of miles long, and when we consider also the inconceivable velocity with which they speed their flight through the solar system, we may cease to wonder, if, in the darker ages, they have been regarded as evil “OII]6. IłS, . - f But these idle phantasies are not peculiar to any age or country. Even in our own times, the beautiful comet of 1811, the most splendid one of modern times, was generally considered among the superstitious, as the dread harbinger of the war which was declared in the following spring. It What inference may be derived from this fact in regard to the composition of comets 3 What were the reveries of Dr. Whiston and others in regard to this comet? What facts ought to make us cease to wonder that comets were in dark- er ages considered as harbingers ºf evil 3 Have these phantasies however, been confined to the darker ages 3 Of what event was the comet of 1811 considered, in “our country, to be the harbinger? - 96 . COMETS. is well known that an indefinite apprehension of a more dreadful catastrophe lately pervaded both continents, in an- ticipation of Biela’s comet of 1832. w The nucleus of the comet of 1811, according to observa- tions made near Boston, was 2,617 miles in diameter, cor- responding nearly to the size of the moon. The brilliancy with which it shone, was equal to one tenth of that of the Moon. The envelope, or aeriform covering, sur- rounding the nucleus, was 24,000 miles thick, about five hundred times as thick as the atmosphere which encircles the Earth; making the diameter of the comet, including its envelope, 50,617 miles. It had a very luminous tail, whose greatest length was one hundred millions of miles. This comet moved, in its perihelion, with an almost inconceivable ve- locity—fifteen hundred times greater than that of a ball bursting from the mouth of a cannon. According to Regiomontanus, the comet of 1472 . moved over an arc of 1200 in one day. Brydone observed a comet at Palermo in 1770, which passed through 50° of a great circle in the heavens in 24 hours; a motion 50 times swiſter than the motion of the Earth in its orhii, which is 68,000 miles an hour. Another comet, which appeared in 1759 passed over 41° in the same time. The conjecture of Dr. Halley therefore seems highly probable, that if a body of such a size, having any considerable density, and mºving with such a velocity, were to strike our Earth, it would instantly reduce it to chaos, mingling its ele- ments in ruin. - - The transient effect of a comet passing near the Earth, could scarcely amount to any great convulsion, says Dr. Brewster; but if the Earth were actually to receive a shock from one of these bodies, the consequences would be awful. A new direction would be given to its rotary motion, and it would revolve around a new axis. The seas, forsaking their beds, would be hurried, by their centrifugal force, to the new equatorial regions: islands and continents, the abodes of men and animals, would be covered by the universal rush of the waters to the new equator, and every vestige of human industry and genius would be at once destroyed. The chances against such an event, however, are so very numerous, that there is no reason to dread its occurrence. The French Government, not long since, called the atten- tion of some of her ablest mathematicians and astronomers to the solution of this problem; that is, to determine, upon mathematical principles, how many chances of collision the Earth was earposed to. After a mature examination they re- I}escribe this comet. Give some examples of the velocity of comets. What would probably be the effect upon the Earth, should a comet strike it 2 What does Dr. Brewster say would be the effect of a comet passing near the Earth 3 But if the Earth were actually to receive a shock from a comet, what does he say would be the results? How did the French mathematicians and astronomers find the chances of collision between the Earth and comets to standſ? COMETS, - 97 ported,—“We have found that, of 281,000,000 of chances, there is only one unfavourable-there exists but one which can produce a collison between the two bodies.” “Admitting, then,” say they, “for a moment, that the comets which may strike the Earth with their nucleuses, would annihilate the whole hu- man race; the danger of death to each individual, resulting from the ap- pearance of an unknown comet, would be exactly equal to the risk he would run, if in an urn there was only one single white ball among a total num- ber of 281,000,000 balls, and that his condemnation to death would be the inevitable consequence of the white ball being produced at the first draw- ing.” See a “TRACT on CoMETs,” by M. Arago, Astronomer of the Board of Longitude, and of the Royal Observatory of Paris, and his colleague, M. Damoiseau, a profound mathematician, who occupies the first rank among the Astronomers of the age. The translator of this interesting little work, (Colonel Charles Gold, of the Royal Artillery, G. B.,) has committed several inexcusable blunders in converting the French measures into English mea- sures. The unit measure of M. Arago and Damoiseau is the French post league, of 3898 metres,-equal to 2,422 English miles: whereas the trans; lator has uniformly considered the French league, like the English, equal to 3 miles; hence he is invariably wrong. Although the tails of comets may not have any uniiorm standard of length, so that an errour of twenty or thirty millions of miles, more or less, would not be likely to be noticed by common observers; yet, such a glaring mistatement as the following would appear quite too gross:—“The mean rate of the Earth's progress in its orbit is 674,000 leagues, or 2,022,000 miles daily.” We have before stated that comets, unlike the planets, observe no one direction in their orbits, but approach to, and recede from their great centre of attraction, in every possi- ble direction. Nothing can be more sublime, or better calculated to fill the mind with profound astonishment, than to contemplate the revolution of comets, while in that part of their orbits which comes within the sphere of the tele- scope. Some seem to come up from the immeasurable depths below the ecliptic, and, having doubled the heavens' mighty cape, again plunge downward with their fiery trains, “On the long travel of a thousand years.” . Others appear to come down from the zenith of the uni- verse to double their perihelion about the Sun, and then re- ascend far above all human vision. • Others are dashing through the solar system in all possi- What, then, on the supposition that a stroke of a comrt would annihilate the whole human race, is the dunger of death to each individual, resulting from the ğranº of an unknown comet 'Z What is the direction of coinets in their or- bits? - - I 98 comETs. ble directions, and apparently without any undisturbed or undisturbing path prescribed by Him who guides and sus- tains them all. 1 - Until within a few years, it was universally believed that the periods of their revolution must necessarily be of prodi- gious length; but within a few years, two comets have been discovered, whose revolutions are performed, compa- ratively, within our own neighbourhood. To distinguish them from the more remote, they are denominated the comets of a short period. The first was discovered in the constella- tion Aquarius, by two French Astronomers, in the year 1786. The same comet was again observed by Miss Caro- line Herschel, in the constellation Cygnus, in 1795, and again in 1805. In 1818, Professor Encke determined the dimensions of its orbit, and the period of its sidereal revolu- tion; for which reason it has been called “Encke's Comet.” This comet performs its revolution around the Sun in about 3 years and 4 months,” in an elliptical orbit which lies wholly within the orbit of Jupiter. Its mean distance from the Sun is 212 millions of miles; the eccentricity of its orbit is 179 millions of miles; consequently it is 358 millions of miles nearer the Sun in its perihelion, than it is in its aphelion. It was visible throughout the United States in 1825, when it presented a fine appearance. It was also observed at its next return in 1828; but its last return to its perihelion, on the 6th of May, 1832, was invisible in the United States, on account of its great southern declination. The second “Comet of a short period,” was observed in 1772; and was seen again in 1805. It was not until its re-appearance in 1826, that astronomers were able to * Owing to the disturbing influences of the surrounding planets, the pe- riodic return of this comet, like that of all others, is liable to be hastened or retarded several days. Its period varies from about 1203 to 1212 days. What has been until within a few years, the universal opinion in regard to the length of the times of their revolution ? Why does not the same opinion prevail now 3 What are these two comets denominated 3 Relate the history of the discovery of the first. Why is it called Encke's comet? What is the time of the revolution of Encke's comet? What is the form of its orbit, and what its posi- tion with regard to the orbit of Jupiter 3 What is this comet's mean distance from the sun ? What is the eccentricity of its orbit 3 How much nearer the sun, then, is the comet when in its perihelion than when in its aphelion ? In what years has this comet been seen in the United States? Why was it not visible in the United States at the time of its return in 1832 q Relate the history of the dis- cbvery of the second comet of a short period. COMETS. 99 determine the elements of its orbit, and the exact period of its revolution. This was successfully accomplished by M. Biela of Josephstadt; hence it is called, Biela’s Comet. According to observations made upon it in 1805, by the cele- brated Dr. Olbers, its diameter, including its envelope, is 42,280 miles. It is a curious fact, that the path of Bie- la’s comet passes very near to that of the Earth; so near, that at the moment the centre of the comet is at the point nearest to the Earth’s path, the matter of the comet extends beyond that path, and includes a portion within it. Thus, if the earth were at that point of its orbit which is nearest to the path of the comet at the same moment that the comet should be at that point of its orbit which is nearest to the path of the earth, the earth would be enveloped in the nebu- lous atmosphere of the comet. * With respect to the effect which might be produced upon our atmosphere by such a circumstance, it is impossible to offer any thing but the most vague conjecture. Sir John Herschel was able to distinguish stars as minute as the 16th or 17th magnitude through the body of the comet! Hence it seems reasonable to infer, that the nebulous matter of which it is composed, must be infinitely more attenuated than our atmosphere; so that for every particle of cometary matter which we should inhale, we should inspire millions of par- ticles of atmospheric air. This is the comet which was to come into collision with the earth and to blot it out from the Solar System. In re- turning to its perihelion, November 26th, 1832, it was com- puted that it would cross the Earth’s orbit at a distance of only 18,500 miles. It is evident that if the Earth had been in that part of her orbit at the same time with the comet, our atmosphere would have mingled with the atmosphere of the comet, and the two bodies, perhaps, have come in contact. But the comet passed the Earth’s orbit on the 29th of Oc. tober, in the 8th degree oſ Sagittarius, afid the Earth did Why is it called Biela’s Comet? What, according to the observations of Dr. Olbers in 1805, was the diameter of Biela's coinet, including the envelope 3 How near does the path of Biela's comet lie to that of the Eartli , What would be the effect upon our atmosphere should the nebulous atmosphere of the comet en- velope it? ... What reason have we to suppose that it is more attenuated than our atmosphere? It was predicted that this comet would come into collision with the Earth; what were the grounds of probability that such an event would take place, and why did it not 3 f 100 comets. not arrive at that point until the 30th of November, which was 32 days afterwards. If we multiply the number of hours in 32 days, by 68,000 (the velocity of the Earth per hour,) we shall find that the Earth was more than 52,000,000 miles behind the comet when it crossed her orbit. Its nearest approach to the Earth, at any time, was about 51 millions of miles; its near- est approach to the Sun, was about 83 millions of miles. Its mean distance from the Sun, or half the longest axis of its orbit, is 337 millions of miles. Its eccentricity is 253 mil- lions of miles; consequently, it is 507 millions of miles nearer the Sun in its perihelion than it is in its aphelion. The period of its sidereal revolution is 2,460 days, or about 63 years. - Although the comets of Encke and Biela are objects of very great inter- est, yet their short periods, the limited space within which their motion is circumscribed, and consequently the very slight disturbance which they sustain from the attraction of the planets, render them of less interest to physical astronomy than those of longer periods. They do not, like them, rush from the invisible and inaccessible depths of space, and, after sweeping our system, depart to distances with the con- ception of which the imagination itself is confounded. They possess none of that grandeur which is connected with whatever appears to break through the fixed order of the universe. It is reserved for the comet of Halley alone to afford the proudest triumph to those powers of calculation by which we are enabled to follow it in the depths of space, two thousand millions of miles beyond the extreme verge of the solar system; and, not- withstanding disturbances which render each succeeding period ofits return different from the last, to foretel that return with precision. The following representation of the entire orbit of Biela’s comet, was obtained from the Astronomer Royal of the Greenwich Observatory. It shows not only the space and position it occupies in the solar system, but the points where its orbit intersects all the planetary orbits through which it passes. By this, it is seen that its perihelion lies between the orbits of the Earth and Venus, while its aphelion extends a little beyond that of Jupiter. What was its nearest approach to the Earth at any time ! What its nearest approach to the Sun ? What its mean distance from the sun ? What its eccen" tricity ? What, then, is the difference between its perihelion and aphelion dis- tances 3 What is the period of its sidereal revolution ? Why are the comets of Encke and Biela objects of less interest to physical astronomy than those of longer periods 3 What is the situation of the orbit of Biela’s Comet in the solar system : - - COMETS, # 101 Fig. 20. º f :: º: sº § §§ º ...~~ - §§ ºft f * sº *. - orbit “ſº : $ % ** *:: & * & & *4 Jan.1 sewºº ºf $9.7 *> * 36% gº is * \. *...*. - , 3. Names of the Stars. $ Ascension. Declination. Merid. § H. MI. 8 O. * a / 81|x Draconis, 312 26 23 170 42 38 | May. [15 825 Centauri, 2.3] 12 32 23 [48 2 23S. 16 835, Virginis, 3|12 33 37 | 0 31 55S. 17 84|3 Crucis, 2I12 38 3 |58 46 27S 18 85], Ur. Májoris, Alioth, 2/12 46 27 157 52 5 20 86|J Virginis, 3] 12 47 12 ] 4 18 31 20 87|. Cor-Caroli, 3| 12 47 57 [39 13 21 20 88|s Vir., Vindemiatrix, 3, 12 56 36 [11 51 32 22 89|y Hydræ, 3, 13 9 42 122 17 9S 26 9Q- Céntauri, 3] 13 10 48 [35 49 49S 26 91]: Virginis, Spica, 1| 13 16 24 [10 17 10S 27 92]< Ursæ Maj., Mizar, | 2|13 17 11 [55 17 59 28 93|3 Virginfs, 3| 13 25 36 | 0 15 43 30 94[* Centauri, 2.3113 29 20 [52 32 20S 31 95|n U. M., Benetnasch, 213 40 57 [50 8 58 | June. | 2 96|< Centauri, 3|13 45 11 [46 27 37S 3 97{h Bootis, 3| 13 46 32 | 19 14 39 4 98| Centauri, ^ || 12] 13 52 8 159 33 36S 5 99]* Draconis, Thubam, | 3| 13 59 52 [65 10 31 7 100* Bootis, Arcturus, 1| 14 8 3 [20 3 21 8 101[m Centauri, 2.3] 14 24 54 |41 25 0S 13 1021} Bootis, Segimus, 3] 14 25 17 [39 2 32 13 1031* Centauri, 1.2 14 28 58 [60 9 28S 14 104[* Lupi, 3| 14 30 46 146 39 47S 14 105|*e Bootis, Mirac, 3, 14 37 41 [27 47 2 16 106]* Libræ, Zubenesch, | 2.314 41 27 | 15 20 29S 17 10713 U. Mino., Kochah, | 3| 14 51 16 [74 50 17 19 10814 Bootis, Nekkar, 3114 55 12 [41 3 18 90 109] Libræ, Zubenelg, || 2.315 8 2 || 8 45 41S 23 110J Serpentis, 3| 15 26 32 | 11 6 14 28 111[a. C. Bor., Alphacca, | 2|15 27 37 [27 16 55 28 112|i Serpentis, Unuk, 2| 15 36 3 | 6 57 24 30 113] Serpentis, 3|15 38 29 [16 57 7 | July. | 1 114]s Serpentis, 3|15 42 36 59 7 2 1151), Serpentis, 3115 48 26 (16 12 59 3 116jzr Scorpii, 3|15 48 4 125 37 11S 3 11713 Scorpii, ' 3115 50 28 [22 8 18S 4 1Í8| Scorpii, 2|15 55 44 | 19 20 28S 5 119'6 Draconis, '3115 58 37 159 0 32 6 TABLE II—Continued d #9 Right s ... wº ! -, ;: | Names of the Stars. = |Ascension. Declination. º º fi H. M. S. O J A / 1204 Ophiu, Yed, or Jed. 316 5 36 || 3 15 18S. July. 7 121|s Ophiuchi, 3|16 9 39 || 4 16 37S. 8 122|) Hercules, 3.16 14 23 |19 33 1 9 123;& Scorpii, Antares, 1|16 19 10 |26 3 7S. 11 124|h Draconis, 316 2.1 12 |61 53 38 11 1254 Hercules, Rutilicus, 316 23 22 21 57 36 12 126 & Ophiuchi, 316 27 45 ||10 13 15S. 13 1273. Triang. Australis, 2.316 31 3 |68 42 23S. 14 128 & Herculis, 3|I6 34 59 |31 54 39 15 129; Scorpii, 3|16 39 4 |33 58 40S. * | 16 1304 I. Scorpii, 3|16 40 8 ||37 45 14S. 16 ižić scorpii, 3|16 42 52 |41 3 33S. 17 132 : Herculis, 3|16 54 14 |31 10 40 19 133'n Ophiuchi, 2.3' 17 0 50 15 30 35S. 21 1342 er., Ras Algethi, 2.317 7 2 ||14 35 17 23 135'ſ Herculis, 3|17 8 20 25 2 43 23 136 & Draconis, 317 8 23 65 55 12 23 1373, Arae, 3|17 18 57 49 43 54S. 24 1385 Scorpii, Lesath, [2.317 22 58 $6 58 24S. 27 1396 Scorpii, 3.17 25 20 |42 62 55S. 27 1402, Ophiu, Ras Alhag. 2.17 28 11 12 41 20 28 141 g Ophiuchi, Cheleb, 3|17 35 36 || 4 38 40 30 142 y Ophiuchi, 3|17 39 56 2 46 42 31 1437, Draconis, Rastaben, 2.317 52 44 |51 30 42 Aug. 3 144), 2 Sagittarii, 3|17 55 5 30 24 40S. 4 1454 Sagittarii, 3|18 || 0 1 |29 53 28S. 8 146, Sagittarii, 2.318 12 48 |34 27 14S. 8 1472. Lyrae, Vega, 1|18 26 11 38 38 () 12 1484 Ursae Minoris, 318 28 6 86 35 47 12 1492 Lyrae, .. 2.3|18 43 55 33 10 33 17 150% Sagittarii, 2|18 44 58 (26 29 42S. 17 1519 Serpentis, Alga, 3|18 47 36 || 3 59 20 18 1524 Lyrae, 3|18 49 6 |36 41 28 18 1533 Sagittarii, 3|18 52 1 |30 6 40S. 19 1547. Lyrae, Jugum., 3|18 52 11 |32 27 47 19 155|s Aquilae, 3|18, 52 26 ||14 50 4 19 1568 A., Deneb el Okab, 318 57 44 13 37 20 20 1577 Sagittarii, 3|18 59 54 |21 16 56S. 21 1582 Sagittarii, 3.4|19 12 19 |40 55 9S. 24 1593 Draconis, 3|19 12 29 |67 21 59 | 24 TABLE II.-Continued. 2. sºme mºm- On the 161 170 1S0 * 89 | Right • tº >, d | Names of the Stars. ; Ascension. º Merid.]; * H. M, S O A A p # , ºilº, 3|19 17 5 || 2 46 57 Aug. 26 |b Vulpeculae, 3.419 21 20 24 20 5 27 162/3 Cygni, Albireo, 3|19 24 17 27 36 51 28 163 y Aquilae, Tarazed, 319 38 19 10 12 48 31 1644 Cygni, 3|19 40 0 |44 43 25 | Sept. 1 1652 Aquilae, Altair, 1.2|19 42 38 || 8 26 2 1 166% Aquilae, Alshain, 3|19 47 7 || 5 59 47 3 1676 Aquilae, 320 2 38 || 1 18 39S. 7 1682. 1 Capri., Dshabeh, 320 8 23 |13 1 59S. 9 łºż 2 Capricorni, 320 8 47 13 3 16S. 9 g Capricorni, Dabih, 320 11 48 |15 18 15S. 10 IIlja Pavonis, 1.220 12 23 |57 15 42S. 10 1721), Cygni, Sa'dr, 3|20 16 11 39 43 32 11 173's Delphini, 3|20 25 32 10 44 29 13 1743 Delphini, Rotanen, | 3:20 29 29 |13 59 53 15 1752. Delphini, Scalovin, 320 31 53 |15 59 32 15 176; Delphini, 3|20 35 29 |14 28 53 16 177|2 Cygni, Deneb, 1,220 35 45 |44. 41 15 16 1787 Delphini, 320 38 29 |15 31 47 17 lſº Cygni, Gienah, 320 39 16 |33 20 16 17 & Cygni, 3|21 5 22 |29 32 45 25 1812. Cephei, Alderamin, 321 14 35 (61 52 45 27 1824 Aquarii, 3|21 22 46 || 6 18 9S 29 183|g Cephei, Alphirk, 3|21 26 28 69 49 43 || Oct. 2 184|y Capricorni, 3.21 30 45 17 24 48S. 3 185, Pegasi, Emif, 2.3|21 35 32 || 9 6 47 4 1863 Capricorni, 3|21 37 49 |16 52 33S. 9 187|2 Aquarii, 3|21 57 12 || 1 7 33S. 9 1883. Gruis, 221 57 40 47 45 38S. 11 1893. Cephéi, 3|22 5 5 57 22 59 13 1902. Aquarii, 3|22 12 38 || 2 13 40S. 16 1913 Piscis Australis, 3|22 21 50 |33 11 44S. 18 1924, Piscis Australis, 3|22 31 49 27 54 48S. 19 1933 Pegasi, 3|22 33 36 || 9 57 49 22 1913 Aquarii, scheat, #33 45 43 26 12 3is. 23 1952 Pisc. Aust.,Fomalh. 122 48 24 30 30 18S. 24 1984 Pegasi, Scheat, 2122 55 32 127 10 27 25 197, Pegasi, Markab, T22 56 27 |14 1837 | Nov. 3 TABLE II.--Continued. c - bſ) Right g a - P- : | Names of the Stars. : Asjon. Declination. º:; Ä H. M. S. O ’’ 1987 Cephei, Er Rai, 323 32 16 76 41 52 || Nov. 10 1991. Andromedae, Alph., 223 59 46 28 IO 9 10 2008 Cassiopeiae, Châph 3.24 0 36 58 13 47 11 2013. Pegasi, Algenib, 3| 0 4 39 ||14 15 22 14 2028 Hydrus, 3| 0 15 56 |78 12 7S. 14 203.” Phoenicis, 2.3| 0 18 1 |43 12 12S. 17 204° Andromedae, 3| 0 30 36 |29 56 0 17 205 & Cassiop., Schedir, 3| 0 31 5 55 37 13 18 206 & Ceti, Deneb Kaitós, 2 0 35 12 18 54 17S. 21 207 y Cassiopeia, 3| 0 46 41 |59 48 41 24 208.2 U. M. Alruccabah, 2.3] 1 0 19 |88 25 7 24 209 & Andro., Miraeh, 2 1 0 45 |34 44 10 28 210'ſ Cassio, Ruchbah, 3 1 14 57 (59 21 54 || Dec. 2 211|a. Eradani, Achernar, 1] 1 31 21 |58 12 37S. 4 212° Cassiopeiae, 3| 1 42 11 |62 50 42 4 213& Ceti, Baton Kaitos, 3] 1 43 35 |11 9 36S. 5 2143 Arietis, 3| 1 45 45 (20 59 30 7 2152 Piscium, El Rischa, 3 I 53 38 || 1 57 19 7 216?' Andro, Almaach, 2 1 53 54 41 31 32 8 2172. Arietis, or El Nath, 2 1 57 47 |22 40 11 11 2180 Ceti, Mira, 2] 2 10 36 || 3 43 59S. 15 2193 Ceti, 3| 2 30 38 || 0 23 15S. 15 2204 Ceti, 3| 2 31 31 |I2 34 49S; 16 221), Ceti, 3| 2 34 38 || 2 31 57 20 222), Persei, 3| 2 52 13 |52 50 46 20 223. Ceti, Menkar, 2| 2 53 33 3 25 54 21 224|3 Persei, Algol, var. 2 56 52 |40 18 30 23 225. Fornax Chemica, 3| 3 5 20 |29 39 50S. 23 2263 Eridani, 3| 3 7 31 || 9 26 31S. 25 227& Persei, Algeneb, 2 3 12 26 |49 15 38 27 2281* Eridani, 3| 3 25 32 10 1 26S. 29 2294 Persei, 3| 3 31 4 |47 14 54 30 2304 Eridani, 8] 3 35 31 ||10 20 16S. 30 231|| Pleiades, Alcyone, 3| 3 37 34 (23 35 4 232|& Persei, 3| 3 44 0 |31 23 26 || Jan. | 1 TABLE III. Exhibiting the Sun's Right Ascension, in Time, for every day in the year. # January. [February. | March. April. May. June # h. m. s. h. m. s.ſh In. S. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. 1 | 18 46 21|20 58 43 22 47 51 0 41 25|| 2 32 36|| 4 35 14 || 1 2 | 18 50 46|21 2 47 22 51 35| 0 45 3| 2 36 25 4 39 19 || 2 3 18 55 1121 6 50 22 55 19| 0 48 42. 2 40 14|| 4 43 25 3 4 18 59 35:21 10 53 22 59 3| 0 52 20, 2, 44 4| 4 47 31 4 5 | 19 3 59|2]. 14 54 23 2 46|| 0 55 59] 2 47 55 4 51 38 5 6 19 8 2221 18 55 23 6 28 0 59 57; 2 51 46|| 4 55 45 || 6 7 | 19 12 45|21 22 55 23 10 10| 1 3 16] 2 55 37| 4 59 52 || 7 8 19 17 7|21 26 54 23 13 52| 1 6 56; 2 59 30|| 5 3 59 || 8 9 || 19 21 20:21 30 53 23 17 33| 1 10 35' 3 3 22 5 8 7 || 9 10 |19 25 50.21 34 50 23 21 14|| 14 15, 3 T 16|-5 12 15; 10 II | 19 30 1121 384723 24 34 1 17 55 3 11 10 5 1624 11 12 19 34 31.21 42 4323 28 35. 1 21 35. 3 15 4 5 20 32 12 13 | 19 38 50'21 46 38 23 32 14| 1 25 15| 3 19 0| 5 24 41 || 13 J4 || 19 43 921 50 33 23 35 54. 1 28 56| 3 22 55| 5 28 50 | 14 13 |1947 272, 54.2123 33 34|| 32 38 326 52 5 32 53| 13 }{3 19 51 4521 58 20 23 43 13; 1 36 19| 3 30 49| 5 37 9 || 16 if |16 fig ºilº 3 13.23 46 52 1 40 Ti 334 46 5 4i 18, 17 iš |36 o 1833 6 433 30 3i i 43 44; 3 33 4 5 45 28 iá 19 20 4 33:22 9 55 23 54 9| 1 47 26, 3 42 43| 5 49 37 19 20 8 48.22 13 45 23 57 48] 1 51 10| 3 46 42 5 53 47| 20 21 |20 13 222 17.35 0 1 26, 1 54 53| 3 50 42 5 57 57| 21 33 |30 in 1533 3: 34 0 5 A 1 5s 37 3 54 42 6 3 7| 22 23 20 21 27, 22 25 13 0 8 43| 2 2 22 3 58 44, 6 6 16 23 24 20 25 39'22 29 1 0 12 21| 2 6 7| 4 2 45| 6 10 26 24 25 |20 29 5022 3248 0 1559 2 9 53| 4 - 6 47| 6 14 35 | 25 26 |20 34 0.22 36 35 0 19 37 2 13 39| 4 10 49 6 1844, 26 27 |20 38 922 40 21, 0 23 15] 2 17 25 4 14 52. 6 22 54| 27 28 20 42 18:22 44 6 0 26 53] 2 21 12 4 18 56|| 6 27 3| 28 29 |20 46 25 0 30 31|| 2 24 59| 4 23 O 6 31 11 || 29 30 |20 50 32 0 34 9| 2 28 47| 4 27 4|| 6 35 20 || 30 31 20 54 38 0 37 47 4 31 8 31 { TABLE III.-Continued. # J ul y. Sept. Oct. ſ Nov. T}ec. h ; i | i i ; : } I :: h. m. s. 10 40 30 10 44 8 10 47 45 10 51 22 10 54 59 10 58 36 11 2 12 11 5 48 11 9 24 13 0 16 36 20 12 23 48 27 23 30 59 34 34 38 10 41 45 45 21 48 56 52 32 56 8 59 43 12 3 19 12 6 55 12 10 31 12 14 7 12 17 44 12 21 21 12 24 57 h. m. s. 12 28 35 12 32 12 12 35 50 12 39 28 12 43 6 12 46 45 12 50 24 12 54 4 12 57 44 13 I 24 13 5 5 13 847 13 12 29 13 16 12 13 19 55 13 23 38 13 27 23 13 31 8 13 34 53 13 38 39 13 42 26 13 46 13 13 50 1 13 53 50 13 57 39 14. 1 29 14 5 20 14 9 12 14 13 4 14 16 57 14 20 51 h. m. s. 14 24 45 14 28 41 14 32 37 14 36 34 14 40 32 14 44 30 14 48 30 14 52 30 14 56 31 15 0 34 15 4 37 15 8 41 15 12 45 15 16 51 15 20 57 15 25 5 15 29 13 15 33 22 15 37 32 15 41 42 15 45 54 15 15 15 16 16 54 19 58 33 2 47 7, 2 16 11 18 16 15 35 16 19 52 16 24 10 h. m. s. 16 28 29 16 32 48 16 37 8 16 41 29 16 45 50 16 50 12 16 54 34 16 58 57 17 3 20 17 7. 44 17 12 9 17 I6 33 17 20 58 17 25 24 17 29 49 17 34 15 17 38 41 17 43 8 17 47 34 17 52 1 17 56 27 50 6, 18 0 54 18 5 21 18 9 47 18 14 14 18 18 40 18 23 7 18 27 33 18 31 59 18 36 24 18 40 50 TABLE IV. snowing the Right Ascension of the Mid-Heaven at 9 o'clock in the evening, for every day in the year. # February. | March. May. June. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. in. s. h. In. s. 3 46 21| 5 58 4° 7' 47 51| 9 41 25||11 32 36||13 35 14 3 50 46 6. 2 47 7 51 35 9 45 3|11 36 25||13 39 19 3 55 11 || 6 6 50 7 55 19| 9 48 42|11 40 14|13 43 25 3 59 35| 6 10 53| 7 59 3| 9 52 2011 44 4|13 47 31 4 3 59| 6 14 54 8. 2 46, 9 55 59|11 47 55||13 51 38 4 8 221 6 18 55, 8 6 28| 9 59 57|11 51 46||13 55 45 4 12 45| 6 22 55| 8 10 1010 3 16||11 55 37|13 59 52 4 17 7| 6 26 54 8 13 52|10 G 56||11 59 30|14 3 59 4 21 29| 6 30 53| 8 17 3310 10 35||12 3 22|14 8 7 4 25 50| 6 34 50| 8 21 14|10 14 15||12 7 16|14 12 15 4 30 11 6 38 47| 8 24 54|10 17 55|12 II 10|14 16 24 4 34 31|| 6 42 43| 8 28 3510 21 35||12 15 4|14 20 32 4 38 50 646 38 8 32 1410 25 1512 19 014 24 41 4 43 9| 6 50 33 8 35 54|10 28 56|12 22 55|14 28 50 4 47 27 6 54 27, 8 39 3410 32 38||12 26 52|14 32 59 4 51 45| 6 58 20 8 43 13|10 36 19|12 30 49|14 37 9 4 56 1| 7 2 12| 8 46 52|10 40 1 12 34 46|14. 41 18 5 0 18 7 6 4| 8 50 3110 43 4412 38 44|14 45 28 5 4 33| 7 9 55 8 54 910 47 26|12 42 43|14 49 37 5 8 48 7 13 45| 8 57 48|10 51 10|12 46 42|14 53 47 5 13 2. 7 17 35 9. 1 26|10 54 53|12 50 42|14 57 57 5 17 15|| 7 21 24 9 5 4|10 58 37|12 54 42|15 2 7 5 21 27| 7 25 13. 9 8 4311 2 2212 58 44; 15 6 16 5 25 39| 7 29 Iſ 9 12 21|11 6 7|13 2 45||15 10 26 5 29 50], 7 32 48, 9 15 59|11 9 53||13 6 47|15 14 35 5 34 0|| 7 36 35 9 19 37|11 13 39||13 10 49|15, 18 44 5 38 9| 7 40 21| 9 23 15||11 17 25||13 1.4 52|15 22 54 5 42 18; 7 44 6 9 26 53||11 21 12||13 18 56|15 27 3 5 46 25 9 30 31||11 24 59||13 23 0|I5 31 11 5 50 32 9 34 911 28 47|13 27 415 35 20 5 54 38 9 37 47 13 31 3. àsee- ! TABLE IV.-Continued. July. August. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. 15 39 2817 44 22|19 40 30|21 28 3523 24 45] 1 28 29 15 43 36||17 48 15|19 44 8121 32 1223 28 41|| 1 32 48 15 47 44|17 52 7|19 47 4521 35 50.23 32 37] 1 37 8 15 51 52.17 55 59|19 51 22|21 39 28.23 36 34|| 1 41 29 15 55 59 17 59 50 19 54 59|21. 43 6:23 40 32| 1 45 50 16 0 618 3 40|19 58 36|21 46 45'23 44 30| 1 50 12 16 4 12|18 7 30|20 2 1221 50 24.23 48 30|| 1 54 34 ić 8 1818 li 1926 5 4521 54 423 52 30 1 5857 16. 12 24|18 15 820 9 24|21 57 44; 23 56 31 2 3 20 16 16 3018 18 56.20 13 0122 1 24 () 0 34] 2 7 44 16 20 35||18 22 44120 16 36|22 5 5| 0 4 37 2 12 9 16 24 39.18 26 31120 20 1222 8 47| 0 8 41| 2 16 33 16 28 43|18 30 18:20 23 4822 12 29| 0 12 45] 2 20 58 16 32 47|18 34 420 27 23.22 16 12| 0 16 51] 2 25 24 16 36 50|18 37 49|20 30 59|22 19 55| 0 20 57| 2 29 49 1640 #31: 4) #3, #4 #: ; ; ; ; ; ; ; }; 1644 53184; 1920 38 1932 : 23 9 : 13] 23: 41 1648 57.1849 320 41 45223.1 & 0 33 23, 243 8 1652 58.1852 4620 45 21:234 33 Q 37 33 24, 34 16 56 5919 56 2920 485622 3839| 0 41 42 252 1 17 O 59'19 0 12.20 52 3222 42 26; 045 54| 2 56 27 17 4.59.19 3 #420 56 822 46 13 Q 50 G| 3 0 64 17 85813 .7 3320 59 4322 50 1 0 34 13. 3 # 21 In 12 5619 II 1621 3 1922 53 50 0 58 33 3 947 17 16 5419 14 5721 6 5522 57 39| 1 2 47| 3 14 14 17 20 52.19 1837,21 10 3123 l 29, 1 7 2. 3 1840 17 24 4819 22 1721 14 723 5 20 1 11 18 323 7 17 28 44|19 25 56.21 17 4423 9 12 1 15 35 3 27 33 if 32 391929 3521 21 2123 13 4 i 1952 33i 59 17 36 34|19 33 1421 24 57|23 16 57| 1 24 10| 3 36 24 17 40 28|19 36 52 23 20 51 3 40 50 TABLE V. Exhibiting the Sun's Declination for every day in the year. 3 January. February. March. April. May. June. o 1 tº o 1 tº o it o 11 |o trio 1 tr 23 I 52 17 8 57| 7 39 11| 4 27 37|15 0 2222 1 44 22 56 45 16 51 46|| 7 16 22 4 50 4315 18 26|22 9 49 22 51 10 16 34 18, 6 53 27| 5 13 4415 36 1622 17 30 22 45 8 16 16 32 6 30 26|| 5 36 39|15 53 50|22 24 48 22 38 39 15 58 29| 6 7 20 5 59 28|16 11 8|22 31 43 22 31 43,1540 11| 5 44 9| 6 22 1116 28 102238 14 22 24 20, 15 21 36|| 5 20 53| 6 44 48|16 44 56|22 44 21 22 16 31||15 2 46|| 4 57 34|| 7 7 17|17 1 25|22 50 4 22 8 1614 43 (40|| 4 34 10| 7 29 40|17 17 37|22 55 23 21 59 34.14 24 20, 4 10 43| 7 51 54|17 33 32|23 0 19 21 50 27|14 4 45| 3 47 13| 8 || 4 || 17 49 10|23 4 50 21 40 55||13 44 56| 3 23 40|| 8 36 018 4 30|23 8 56 21 30 57|13 24 54|| 3 () 5, 8 57 50|18 19 31|23 12 39 21 20 34|13 439 2 36 28 9 19 3218 34 1423 15 56 21 9 47|12 44 11| 2 12 49 9 41 4|18 48 39|23 18 50 20 58 3512 23 30 1 49 9|10 2 27|19 2 4523 21 18 20 47 0|12 2 38|| 1 25 27|10 23 40|19 16 31|23 23 22 20 35 0|11 41 34|| 1 || 45|10 44 44|19 29 58|23 25 1 20 22 37|11 20 19| 0 38 311 5 36||19 43 623 26 15 20 9 51|10 58 53|S. 14 21|11 26 1819 55 5323 27 5 19 56 43|10 37 17||N. 9 2011 46 48|20 8 2023 27 30 19 43 1210 15 $1 0 33 112 7 820 20 26|23 27 29 19 29 19| 9 53 36|| 0 56 41|12 27 15|20 32 1223 27 4 19 15 4| 9 31 31|| 1 20 18|12 47 1020 43 36|23 26 15 19 O 28| 9 9 19| 1 43 54|13 6 5220 54 40.23 25 0 18 45 31|| 8 46 58] 2 7 28|13 26 21|21 5 21|23 23 21 18 30 14|| 8 24 59| 2 30 58|13 45 37|21 15 41|23 21 17 18 14 37 8 1 53| 2.54 2614 4 40|21 25 38|23 18 48 17 58 40 3 17 5014 23 2821 35 1423 15 55 17 42 24 3 41 10|14 42 221 44 27|23 12 38 in 35 50 | 4 4 26 21 53 17 *sº I9 88 L 8& ſº º, . f'I gº 8 |39. I& 8II Ig 08 gy II & 99 LG Iggi g; gig ºf 6 9ſ 9 6 9.98 81 03 63 06 gl §3 #9 L& 1686 86 gl;0ſ 81 & 0I 8& 6 & 09 8I 63 83 |66 8I £& L& LI I& 6I g £I'9I gº I (93 6ſ 6 (06 W 6L 83 Ló |0I I& £698 9 I& 3 g; 31.39 Ig I Ig 0I 0I69 LI 6I L& 93 g6 3 & 1399 0388 & &I Ló 8 I 96 Ig QISI Ig 6|| 93 g3 8 gº £3 6ſ 8V 06 39 I & I gº 0 |&I &g OIGI iſ 6|| 93 W3 f6 96 gº 0f 18 03 I IW II.98 16 'S Sæ &I II.69 99 61 ſº £3 |g| 13 $391 6I 0& 69 61 II Gº I_N |&I & IIQ3 6. Q3|83 & 38 L& 8& 83 9 0& Ly 89 0I £I 93 0 |Lö 89 II:03 I& 03 & Ić ſº 13 $3.6L 89 6Ifg L& 0198 87 0 |08 £I Žili g; 03 it, 06 |Lſ 96 86'L'ſ 68 6Izg g| 01.8g II I & 83 &I.06 W 03 06 6I &W 93 g6 tº gº 6III tº 6 81 g8 I I 89 &I.8L 99 03| 6I 8I |6 Wö £30ſ, II 6II& & 6 |98 89 I (83 &I £I.99 9 I& 8I A.I. L & 83 g L9 8I & OL 6 |I9 13 & 8; Ig £I, II 91. I& LI 9I 88 61 & 0I &W 8L91 SW 8 (8 gy & g; 0g £Ig 96 I& 91 9I |0ſ, 91 83 99 93 81,3 9& 8 £I 8 g 88 6 ſyl L& 98. I&| 9 | Fi ji gi ſã ia, ii Šilip # 8 |5i ig # 5 §g #iº ºf iz ří £1 ||6 || 3 ||39. I ſº I k ſº; º; $ 39W Ijº $9 Ig|8. §I 0.9 $3 #1 66 lºſ QV 81 L S. LI V ºg V. GIG9 I, §§ 31 II II () 83 gift & LI'0 99 9 |II 07 ſ. L3 & 9 II 0I & II QI |gg #9 33 gº 9 LI, GI g8 9 69 & 9 |f 0ſ, gL 07 LI & 01 6 |&I 67 & 87 Sf 9H '93 OH 9 Iſ 93 g 9& L9 GI 99 ſº &&| 6 8 |& gy & 96 Ig 9108 Li g 8I 87 g (36 pi 91.6% Ig & 8 L |9& 98 & 9ſ 8L 9L 08 ſº g 67 0I 9 |8& Ig 91.8L 88 & L 9 |I& 63 & 6p 99 g|I L3 I g jī £8, 9 |89 Lj, 91 jº, ſº 3& 9 9 |I9 I& & L8 L8 GI 0& 88 W 38 99 9 |9|I W LI 9 09 & 9 # |gg £I & 6 6I g| 6 g º ży LI L LI 0& LI gö 99 & W. 8 |f 8 9 && L& 0 91 99 IQ 8 87 68 L & 98 LI 6I 0 8& 8 3 |97 99 I& 08 If f [ Op. 83 g ſº I 8 (09. Ig LI 67 ? 83 & I liºg Lí Iaş 61 & #I & Q 8. §§ 8& 8 07 9 8L 99 8 8&| I 11 o 'u o 1, 1 o'u i olu , o lju i o t; t; & ‘990ſ ‘AON ‘10O ºdos "snæny ‘ĀInſ & s-ºr-g Tonuſuo'O—"A GT3 WJ, TABLE VI. Exhiº the Sun's mean place in the Ecliptic, or its Longitude, together with the Right Ascension, for every day in the year. January. February. March. April. tº, & | Long. R. A. | Long | R. A. | Long. | R. A. Long. R. A. O / o / o f : O / ſ o / o f | O / 1|280 39|281 35.312 13314 41 27,341 58;11 16 10 21 2281. 41|282 41313 14|315 42 28'342 54.12 15 11 16 3|282 42|283 48.314 14|316 42 28.343 50|13 14 12 10 4|283 43|284 54315 15317 43 28,344 46/14 13,13 5 5,284 44286 0316 16318 43.344 28.345 4115 12".4 0 6|285 45,287 5317 17|319 44 28,346 37.16 11 14 54 7|286 4.6288 11:318 17|320 46 28,347 32.17 1915 49 8287 48|289 17319 18321 44 28,348 28:18 916 44 9.288 49|290 22.320 19322 43 27|349 23.19 817 39 10|289 50291 28.321 19323 43 27,350 1820 6,18 34 11290 51292 33.322 20324 41 27351 1321 519 29 12291 52'293 38.323 21325 40 27|352 922 20 24 13292 53.294 43,324 21326 40 27|353 423 3;21 19 14|293 54|295 47;325 22|327 38 26,353 5924. 122 14 15|294 55|296 52.326 22,328 37 26,354 5325 00:23 9 16295 57|297 56;327 23,329 35 26,355 48:25 59|24 5 17|296 58|299 0328 23330 33 25.356 43:26 57.25 0 18297 59|300 4329 24331 31 25.357 3827 56|25 56 19299 0301 S1330 24332 29 24358 3228 5426 51 20|300 1302 12331 25.333 27 24|359 2729 53|27 47 21|301 2.303 15,332 25334 24 24 0 22.30 51|28 43 22|302 3|304. 19.333 26||335 21, 1 23i 1 1631 50|29 39 23|303 ||305 22:334 26||336 18, 2 22| 2 1032 48|30 35 24|304 5|306 25.335 26,337 15, 3 22| 3 533 47|31 32 25.305 6|307 27:336 27|338 12] 4 21 4 0.34 45|32 28 26|306 7|308 30,337 27|339 9 5 21| 4 54:35 43|33 25 27|307 8|309 32.338 27|340 5, 6 20 5 49.36 42|34 21 28|308 9|310 34,339 27.341 2 7 19| 6 42.37 40|35 18 29|309 10|311 36 8 18 7 3838 3836 15 30|310 11|312 38 9 18| 8 32.39 36||37 13 31|311 121313 39 10 17| 9 27 69'ſ 89 I A.9 I 99.I Q9I #9 I 89 I 39 I IGI 09 I 09 I 67I Sf I Ajº I 97III Gf I ##I. gif| &#I If I Of I 68T 88.I A8] 98.I Q9I G8I #8 I 88.I OT 3I GI AT 03 63 fº, M.3 63 38 98. 09: 86 Siſ. A6 97 96 Q6 #6 86 36 I6 06 6S 88 A.8 98 Q8 f'8 88 38 I8 08 6/, SA A4. 9/. f/ 8/. &A. I/ 0/. Aſ 19 97 99 Gjº 99 jº j9 £iº. 89 Číž 39 Číž I9 If 09 If 69 If 89 If A19 If 99 If gº If pg If 3G 37 39 Číž Ig j/i7 Og gî 67 97 87 /j/ 1j, 67 97 39 fºr fºg gif 99 &# 69. If I If 8. Of 38 I I8I / O A.8 63I 07 83I / O / O / O 09 69 Sj, 89 / O | O 9 69 6 88 / O /9I 99T GQI fºg I 89 I 39 I IGI 09 I 6i/I Síºſ Alf I 97.I G#I ##I ##I giff'ſ 37I If I 07I 68I 88.I /8. I 98.I G8I #8T 88.I £8T I8I 08T A 08T 6 6&I 0I 831 II A&I ČI 9&I 8I G3||99 33 I j/I jøI|89 I&T fºL 8&II I&I 3&I 8 0&I GI I&I 9 6 II 0&I6 SII 6IIII / II SI If I 9TI A.II/I GII 9II:03 PII QII;33 81 I #TI;92 3TT 8II;8& III 3III.8 OII III;88 60I 0II;98 80I 60I '68 A.0I SOI iój, 90T AOI jºſ, G0I 90I 'Aj, f() I g0I.0g 80I f0I '89 30 I 30I '99 IOI TOT 69 00I. Číž L&I Gf 93.T 87 G&I 09 ſºl 89 83 I A 86 0I L6 8T 96 GI G6 SI jºb I& 86 jø 36 96. I6 63 06 38 68 g8 88 J.8 18 Of 98 £f CS 97 WS Sf 88 IG 38 fºg IS 99 08 69 6/, & 6A, j, 8/. A. A.A. OI 9/. &I g/, GI jº/ 8T 8/. 03 &A. I8 88 68 Číž 83 69|| 8 08 89 88 /9 98 99 S8 99 Of #9 gi/ 89 gi/ 39 Alſº T08 09 09 39 69 j9 89 A.9 /9 69 99 I 99 8 99 9 fg 8 89 0I - 39 &T IQ j/I 09: 9I 6? 6I Sf I3 Aj, 8& 97 g3 Qī, A3, pp. 63 8.7 I8  00I 39 66 I 00I j, 66 83 IA. 93 0/, 33 If j9. Of l O W "H ‘fluor] ‘Y H ‘āuo I ‘W "H ‘fluori ‘V "I ‘fluorſ F +smány ‘ĀInſ ‘aunſ ‘Āb WI ‘ponuſuo O—'IA GT3 W.L September. TABLE VI.-Continued. October. November. —-º December. **, Ǻ Ø fong. R. A. | Long. R. A. Long. R. A. Long. R. A. 1 2 3 A. 5 6 } s 9. 10. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 O / 158 30 159 28 160 26 161 24 162 22 163 20 164. 19 165 17 166 15 167 14 168 12 169 11 170 171 172 173 174. 175 176 17659 177 5S 178 57 179 56 180 54 1S1 53 182 52 183 51 184 50 185 49 18648 i 31 Ú ſ 187 47 188 46 189 45 19044 191 43 192 43 193 42 194 41 195 40 168 15,196 40 169 9:197 39 170 3;19839 170 57;19938 171 51:200 3S 172 45.201 37 17339;202 37 174 32.203 36 175 26:204 36 176 20:205 36 177 14:206 35 178 spot 35 179 25208 35 179 ; 35 180 50 210 35 181 44:211 35 182 383212 34 183 32:213 34 18426.214 34 185 20215 34 186 14,216 34 217 34 O / 160 8 161 2 161 55 162 51 163 45 164 39 165 33 166 27 167 21 O 187 188 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 / 9 3 57 52 47 41 36 31 26 21 16 12 7 3 59 55 51 47 43 40 36 33 30 27 25 22 20 18 16 14 O 218 219 220 221 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 49 247 50 13 ſ 34 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 37 3S 3S 39 39 40 41 41 42 43 43 44 45 45 46 47 48 O f 248 50 249 51 250 52 251 53 252 54 253 55 254 56 255 57 256 5S 257 59 258 0 260 1. 261 2. 262 3 O f 216 11 217 10 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 10 22S 11 229 13 O / 247 7 248 12 249 17 250 22 251 2S 252 33 253 39 254 44 255 50 256 55 258 2 259 S 200 15 261 21 262 27 263 34 264 40 265 47 266 54 268 0 269 7 270 14 263 264 230 14 231 16 23: 18.2% 233 201266 234 23,267 235 26:268 10 236 285269 11 237 31270 12 *:::::::7, 14.74% 239 38:272 15272 27 240 42.273 16273 34 341 1637; 17374 10 242 50.275 1827547 243 54276 19,276 53 i 246 2:278 22279 6 244 # 21|278 0 279 23.280 13 TABLE VII. Exhibiting the Right Ascension and Declination of the Planets, and the time of their passing the Meridian, for 1833 ſae , •●© ®© § 5#№|№$ $2$3 | $? º ??? | ?!?;: $$3 | $3«> Qº , | ſ2_l Esſe:e:e:e | ±±± 823 || ???!== || 222ºcº | zooooo • • | • • • • • CO COE +---+ \ №© ® &{C} <ſ> (<© ©---- #ģg g | ° §§§§º | ° §§§§ | №º&&ę | ſº=ſºſº | §§§§ №Ē «;§ 53o CR (NR CNR CN CO | © cº cº cº co | © vº | \tº \^ \to \^ \, | uo uo uºs uºs uo ſſº••: № №. №\^ <++ (()t~© ģ #3§§§§$$$ $$$$§§§§§ | $2$$$$>';$$$$$$ || ???>$:$ § © 27;? !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! ;-+ +-+ +-+ | +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ | ~ ~ ~' +→ -+ | +→. +→. +→. +→. +→. --ºŌ-№ == --!= = = ====№ræ, æ, æ, , , ! !=+ *-+ +-+ +-+ +---+ •2 <ſ>© CO | \tº \, eſc» 4 # | ſię šį "$3 | $$$$$$$ | ĶEĢ85 || ~ $3 º 33 | ĢĒSĒĢĒTĒĢĒĘ «$+Çae)CNR CNR CN− +-+ +-+Q> <> „ ! &= |A(***ººCNĚTTºººº | ºſſ????? | ??? S:553 | $3$5, 2} •© È | & & & | • ºº???& | &£§! Gº | §§§§§ | ſs=s.s? | ???????? || E.EȘºſ ğ | 5 E2 | 0 <- cº co cº cº | ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ | ~ ~ ~ ~ ~cº ** ſº vº | sc to • • oo ! do cº º se *Tº j Ț1. TETITEī£5aŒSTRO-OESTIȚ5cr:• ģ Ķ Ķ | 333$$$ | 8$ºº= | sºº?? | ???-º |=25;&# | ſs=ſēſ të 9 ?483838383 §§$3|$3<> <> º© © © © © | <> Ç © +-+ +-+ | +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ | +--+ +-+ +-+ +---+ +-+ ș●\tº\====-º-~*=~~ % Ķ | ±± -'ęĘº | §§:Eºſºſ|$332}=7| ºſºșę?TĘĘcos șTĪĢęgºș § 2Eco do № № № | ºc so • • ► | vo vo vo vº vo | wo <*** <- [ <º<;: <º<;, co | co co co co º *tºCO C\} ~~ ©|- ģ Į į Ķ ķ ļ Ņ ºº!!°3) |^&$$$ | ° §§§º || 2:2=?$|$=&&= |28355 £; O+ +•- ± | R ä Ë I o 888535] | ???????? | & & & & & | §§§§§ | Ş ş;$????? || 532333$s; ș•----!}−=−== ģ Ķ ķ ļ šºſe 53 | №º;ºſ§";&& | & & = & \; | §§§§§3 | $233 ºſº $ <) ??;; ºº ^^ ^^ ^^ ºº | cſb ºp <* * <} } <+ <ſ> 233 | $5$$$$ | $$$$$$$ | :::::::::::: Œ œ •*&&>∞ ģ Ķ ķ ļ gā,8&G,ſae||ºs§3º | §§§3 - ſº | ºſ@№ ſº | sc * ~șeș • • • • • •(N)© să o 7 | -33333$3 | $3<><> <> — | — — ^ Gº cº | coco co <** | <ºco co co co | co co co co co saeci | − 323 | - -323 | -º-ºgrſº | ~~$33,3 || ~ ~$32,3 || ~ ~ ºg ºsqļuoJN|‘ÁJenuer| Árenaqeq |‘UI™OJEJN*[[Jdy|'KeyN|ºoump TABLE VII. for 1833–Continued. ģ ţ|×23:22|ק 2º 33 | $;$2:$3$ | ???????? żſì,A+++ ºsºCNR CNQ CNR ſ-º ;-+ | +---+ C o C> C >&&&&& ! 55588 || 822:23 ģ Į į Ķ Ķ Ļ ĻĒģ33|$5$Ēģ|$3$5$ |ºſſ||ºſſ|$£§§§ <%£ 5 &o no <ſ> <ſ> <+ <ſſ | cº co co co CN || CNN CN – — − | − o o o o į o o o -1 +-+ | +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ * [HĒTĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒTĘ TĘ № ºli LÊEEEEE_LEEEEE|_! E&&&&||&&&&&||&&&&&||&&&&& 43 | അ |$£§§§ 13°38$ |3=$$ |šſē3°3 ſººſ:53 &= | 422232s | №sſe:e:3 | 2,2±±2 | $2$32,2}=ſ_] :=:2229 | • • • ►► # | ſāEĢējāſ:55 #ff=53āŞİEēEŅĒfĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ ğ | 5,58|| o 22:3:::-: || H=289}& | &====| | == 222 || • • • • ºo | coºoºoºoºo ~ | ¡ ¿șTÈ-- № № №ſēſā ſēĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ �på º’ā4- oºoºoºoºCNQ CNR CNR CNQ CNR || CNR CNR CNR CNR CN || CNR CNQ CNR ;-+ +--+ | +→. +→. +→. +→. +→+ | +--+ +-+ +-+ +-+ +-1 —ț¢g-ſāgāz, EGZĘTÆÐIĘāāE=T=īgāTās: §§40, cº on on cº | — — — — — || ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ | ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ | ° §§§§ || ????????? # İğ , g |№|№= |5358)||ºſſ||ºſſ||º=$$$ |×(§ 58o ſext:Sººgs | cº º so sº co | ~ ~ ~ sº vº | so do cºr!!!!! ! !; ſese gºº | §§§§§ Ē ē Ī ī£32:3 |ę3=53 | 18°33$ | -3,5‰º |$=}|£=3 | Bºşșº —leiſ Lä!--№-1 ―-|#№|№ë-lëããà -:- ()=s(s+[!!!!!!!!!!!T!==T=====T===== . |\, | ..G58888 | 88885 | 553555 | 5.55;&& 1 &&&&& !?!?!?!?!?! Ä Ä Ë NËËĚĚĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ, § 1553 | 0 }}:}}>{{± | §§§§@ |#|#| ??? | Eºº (T | ȚŤ? |#ÈËEĘ& ſg | gºgºşº|????? |$5$3$ |±5°3° 13′38|× că čºň | Gºoºoººº | ſººººº | ►ºoºoºº_l ===::=? | 2,333); |x£2:2:2:$); skeq || ~ ~228 | ~~333 || ~ ~228 | -5-3=3 | ->$22,3 || ~ ~$2 *sųQuoJN|· KĻmpºqsmºnw|ºuragdºs‘Jºq040O‘ULIÐAON|Uū309(I TABLE VII. for 1836. *m-.:*=m.*s---i # — # sº- - # tº-º-º-º-º:i VENUs. MARs. | JUPITER. SATURN. & R.as- Dec. Pass R.as-1 Dec-Pass R.as.' Dec-Pass lit.as. Dec- Pass #| cen-|lina- Merl cen-|lina. | Merl cen-lina. | Mercen-lina. | Mer. ſº | Sion. tion. sion. |tion. sion.tion. sion, ſtion. | , h, m, 2 ... h. m.ſh. m. |8 ||h. m.ºh. m. 9 ºh m. h. m. | Q ' |h. m. | lº's 2, 17 1 37:18 31 24 5.23 49 6 48.23 4, 12 514 9|10 31, 19 25 5 '20 38|20 8 1 42H1S 44/23 55.23 47; 6 45 23 7:11 47|14 1010 35il.9 11 | 10,2i 4| 18 29 l 48:19 123 36.23 44, 6 42 23 11 | 11 24|14 ll 10 41 18 52 lä (21 29, 16 37 1 5319 17|23 11.23 41; 6 40 23 14|11 214 12|10 4518 34 20 21 53| 14 33 1 5819 34|22 39|23 38; 6 37 23 1710 4014 1310 48.18 15 25 22 17|12 20 2 2:19 50/22 123 35 6 3523 2010 17|14 14 10 5] 17 56 | 1 22 50 9 O 2 7120 1320 5723 30, 6 3223 23, 9 47:14 1510 53 17 29 5 '23 S. 7 1 2 9:20 26|:20 16:23 2ſ. 6 30 23 25; 9 30114 15|10 53.17 14 10 23 30 4 27 2 12:20 43|19 1923 23} 6 QS 23 27, 9 S14 15|10 53, 16 54 15 '23 54| 1 51 2 1420 58:18 1723 201 6 27 23 28, 8.48#14 1510 52 16 35 20 0 15 0 46 2 1721 14|17 1023 16. 6 26 23 29 S 27:14 15|10 50 16 15 25 0 37 3 23 2 19:21 30|15 5S23 11; 626 23 30 S 714 1510 47.15 55 | 1 , ; ; ; 33.3 gº ºff ########### | 5 || 1 16 8 1 2 23:21 57|1339|23 # , ; ; 31, 7 32;14 1410 41 15 18 iſ 1 38; 10 30 226,22 13||12 17|22 59; 6 26 23 31 7 12#14 13|10 36 14 58 15 2 1 12 52 2 28.22 2S10 5322 54 § 27 23 3! 6 54;14 1310 30 1438 30 323iš s 23:333ſ; 35.33 g; 5 33 333i: ; #4 iglió † 13 if 25 2 46; 17 14 2 34:22 57 7 5822 44 6 2923 30 6 17:14 1010 IS 13 56 1 #### 2 39:23, 1754s.237; 6:32.23 49 sºlº gro s 1327 # 3 372; i3 2 433 33 4 3:33 33; 6 #23 & 5 §ii Šid 3 iſ ſo | 10 4 1:23 44 2 46.23 43 3 |#####3; 5 20:14 6|| 9 54 12 49 15 4 25'24 0 2 50:23 57| 1 27|22 22: 6 3923 24, 5 3314 5: 9 46 12 28 30' 44; 25 0, 3 #| || 3 || |&#| || 423: 44; 3 35 tº 7 25 5 i; 25.45 2 59 0 26 1 3922 11; 6 4523 19 4 30:14 2 9 31 11 40 | I 5 41'26 19| 3 3| 0 43| 3 30|22 4; 6 49 23 15 4 10:14 0 9 22 11 20 5, 6 0 36 ºs, 3 6; 0 54|4 4321 59; 6 52 93 11: 3 58:13 50 '9 16 11 4 | 6 22 26 27, 3 9; 1 8| 6 |2|21 54 6 55 33 7 3 42:13 5s' 9 9 10 43 15 6 44, 26 10 3 11j 1 22 7 40|21 48; 6 50 2.3 × 325;13 53 9 2 10 22 20 7 6.25 40 3.13; 1 36|| 9 521 43, 7 3 22 57 3 ºi:; 55 & 56 10 | 25, 7252: 5S 3 13 1 5010 2821 37; 7 72? 51 2 5 #13 54' S 51 9 40 I 7 51.23 41 3 11; 2 1012 1021 29, 7 13:33 41, 2 33:13 53, S 45 Q 11 5 8 4.22 49) 3 8, 2 22|13 2021 25; 7 17:32 35 2 21:13 32' S 42 S 55 15 # 133 35' 333333i: 335i ºff gig & 3 #3 iſ $ 33 sº |; 8 31.20 25 2.56; 2 5015 4121 14 7 26'22 19, 1 50:13 51; S 37 S 14 20 8 4119 9 2 46; 3 5|16 46|21 9 7 30 22 9, 1 35.13 51} S 36 7 54 |25 | $45|17 54 2 34; 319||1747|21 4; 7 35.22 0 1 2013 50 S 36, 7 34 4t 08 Oz Sg g|6; Iſø g|ſiggſ'Og 6 [gſ glºſſ g|I Qūīg 13'8I 816, 91.93| p SP 0309 &I SW WI3 g|AI 91 & 6 iſ 91.88 g|0, Qij63 Iºlº 9||13 g|Q&| 3 § 3; gi'ſ fiſä gići již ö |&I jić Giſig 5"|#: izſä Filo gi đi 3 iz iz; †i iſ filă şiţă şi ſă ă ă ăiº gig 5 & igg gigg ji ji 5. IV 12 tº 81; IP VI & 91.9 91 & 6 [09 9169 Glſº 6 j91 (34. IIgſ ºl. 3 gg Iz|9í £I: 0p #II68 9||9 9||& 6 I, ZI |&I 9||9|P 6 (£I [38& 6|#9 &I|l 9I &|5 &I 18 #II& II (9 91 & 6 (SI ZI/8 9118 6 (OI I&AQ 9 |!& 81|9&| 2 38 &|99 &I|98 #III& ZI8 9||zz 6 Ig ZI/O LI Ig 6 ºz I&SP # 9 £I|03 || 3 15 & 8, 3||: Eſſº AIK. Qillº (; ; 4 || 4 ||...} : (; 13% º ż ż|#| 3 8 ga|38 &I}08 WISg ZIZI 91.6L 6 if g ZI 99 Al 9| 6 |& I&|88 0 |I& &I |0|I| E. 98 &|03 &I|8& PI(91 SI & 9IISI 6 ſq SI(93 819, 6 II I&||8 || |0 &I| 9 || 3 68 ga|II &Ij93 FIO3 SI/639||9|| 6 |#I SI Ig SI/69 8 70 I&A £ |&W II | I | 2. 0 |gg II]& #Igg SITE 91181 6 1838||98 6||37 8 Sº Q3.97 g (31 II Gº || – g3 0 |&# IIIQ3 plºt 61|Ig 9L|II 6 A8 SI (9 O&|98 8 [19 0308 A 39 0I 03|| 3: &P 0 |Ig IISE FIG& 6L6 LIS 6 (9p SL93 0&|#38 (99 0&|_96 ||38 0I|9|| 5 69 0 |6i II |9| #19F 61|fl LIG 6 33 819. Ig|&I 8 93 03|8& QI &I QI |QI | H. ZL I [A II |f| WI3 0& 93, ZIſø 6 8 6L|#8 I&|I 8 |gg 0&|6? II |&g 6 || 9 || H 18 I SG 0I |&I fig I Oz/3 AIO 6 iOI 6I|99 I' Z (99 03|If &f 98 6 I &g I ºf OI/6 flºg 0&|&g ZIgg 8 F8I 61|gg & 28 A 193 049; £I|g| 6 |9&| 4 0I & |38 0112 flig O&A SI &g 8 93 619; 3:33 l 149 0398 p1938 |03 || 3 ZZ & |I& OI(9 FIZ 12. I& SISF 8 |88 61|P &|&I / 10 I #1 |68 S GI 3 ºf 3 ji jilí iſ: izā; siń ś ºf ŠišI & 63 g iſ fºlii gić Š Qi 5. {: £ |0 Olſº, fi :63 12:03 SI |OW S '09 6 III.8 &|QP 9 [OI Iz|AI GI (OI 8 || 9 |, . . ZI g |Ig 6 |0 flig Izz 6i Zg S Ig 61|28 & 98 9 ||9|I jail g|I|0 8 I | * £f g (88 6 |SG £1.3T az 33 6T | Ig S &f £2 g|I 9 (09 Iz, SG FISP / | 93 I # 63 6 |Zg £IS3 &|Z8 6L I3 S 3|0} &|| 9 |## 3|8& #18; 4 |Q&| ? 6I # 0& 6 ſig &Iff ag|&g 6Iſø, S ££ 9&AW g (3 [ #I|If Z | g I GE S$ 5 |&I 6 |fſ, 8LI69 & S & &|& g (2 &pg £I|## 1 || 0I | ? 99 p. 9 6 |{{# 8If I gº, 8 #9 &|6I g {6} b g|I9 A. | 9 || ". II g 0 6 (39 £IQ3 £2. 8 09 33 / 9 @I 8&ſjö, 81 |69 / I 86 g |&g 8 Ig gilly & 8 £I & If f {0 #&|I& £I [ZI 8 || G3 Ag G |Af, 8 || Ig £Ig 0 4. If I&|&g # 93 0 |98 £I 63 8 || 03 || | 9I 9 |8; 8 |09 £IH03 0 A. P. Ig|SI 12, I | 3 ||Q| 8 |9|| 5. 98 9 |0; 8 |03 £Igg 0 A. & 038 £ ſº I ºf #I (8; 8 |OI | 3: gg 9 |88 8 |03 £IOg 0 A. G8 6L|Sp 8 (8g I (68 g| |&g 8 |g | - 0I / 1988 |09 EIK, I 1. fº SI /8 € $1 & 63 9L 83 S I ‘UI u. & O *UI ‘ū 'UI 'u 'u Z O ‘UI ‘ū *UI 'u z O *UI ‘U 'uog uois 'uouſ’uois 'uog uops tº : ‘IoIN | -euſſ-uao Tºroſ -euil-uao Haw -euil-uad | 3 || 3 Ssed I-990 1-Seºissed I- -oad J-seºſ ssed|-oaq |-se’ſ] * | B. tº ‘Nam LWS | '83.IIanſ | “savy'ſ | ‘SſlN3A ‘ponuſ]UOO–988I IOJ IIA GHTI3 WJL TABLE VIII. seconds of the equator, or of right ascension, into hours, mi: nutes, and seconds, of sidereal TABLE IX. ... To change degrees, minutes, and To change hours, minutes, and Seconds, of sidereal time, into degrees, minutes, and seconds, of the equator, or right ascen- time. - Sion. Degl H. M. |Deg. H. M.] § | 3 # 1 gl § |Min. D. M. Min. D. M. Mi. M.S. Ali. M.S. ºf 3 # 1 = | f | Sec.- M.S. Sec. M.S. Sec. S. Th. Sec. S. Th. § fr; 2. i. § Th. S. Th. | Th. S. Th. 1 || 0 4 || 31 2 4 70 4 4G 1' 15 || 1 || 0 15 31 || 7 45 2 || 0 8 |32 |2 8 80 5 20; 2. 30 || 2 || 0 30 |32 || 8 0 3 || 0 12 || 33 2 12; 90 (; ( ; 3i 45 || 3 || 0 45 || 33 || 8 15 4 || 0 16 || 34 |2 16 100 (; 4 4| 60 || 4 || 1 0 || 34 || 8 30 5 () 20 35 (2 20 i 10| 7 20; 5 75 || 5 || 1 15 35 | 8 45 6 || 0 24 || 36 |2 24 120 8 0 6 90 || 6 || 1 30 || 36 9 () 7 | () 28 37 2 28||130| 8 40 T 105 || 7 || 1 45 37 9 15 8 0 32 38 (2 32) 140|| 9 20 S. 120 | 8 || 2 0 || 38 || 9 30 9 || 0 36 || 39 2 36150/10 ( 9, 135 | 9 || 2 15 39 9 45 10 || 0 40 | 40 |2 40|160 10 4010 150 | 10 2 30 40 10 0 11 () 44 41 |2 44|170|11 2011| 165 || 1 || || 2 45 || 41 || 10 15 12 || 0 48 42 |2 48|180 12 0.12 180 | 12 || 3 () 42 || 10 30 13 () 52 43 2 52 190|12 4013, 195 13 3 15 43 10 45 14 || 0 56 44 (2 56|200||13 2014 210 || 14 || 3 30 44 || 1 || 0 15 || 1 0 || 45 3 021014 () 15, 225 | 15 || 3 45 || 45 || 11 15 16 || 1 4 46 3 422014 40.16| 240 | 16 || 4 0 || 46 | 11 30 J7 || 1 8 47 3 8:230; 15 2017, 255 17 | 4 15 47 11 45 18 || 1 12 || 48 3 1:2:24016 0:18, 270 IS 4 36 48 || 12 0 19 || 1 16 || 49 |3 16|250|16 40;19| 285 | 19 || 4 45 || 49 | 12 15 20 || 1 20 50 3 2026017 20:20 300 20 | 5 0 || 50 | 12 30 21 || 1 24 || 51 3 24|27018 0.21] 315 21 || 5 15 51 | 12 45 22 || 1 28 52 3 2S28018 4022. 330 22 || 5 30 52 13 0 23 || 1 32 53 3 32.290/19 20:23| 345 || 23 5 45 53 || 13 15 24 || 1 36 || 54 |3 36 300120 0.24, 360 24 || 6 () 54 || 13 30 25 || 1 40 55 3 40 31020 40,25 375 || 25 | 6 15 55 | 13 45 25 | 1.44 56 |3 44|32021 20.26; 390 26 || 6 30 56 14 0 27 | 1 48 57 3 48,330 22 027 405 27 | 6 45 57 || 14 15 28 || 1 52 58 3 52|340.22 40 28 420 28 || 7 0 || 58 || 14 30 29 | 1.56 59 |3 56.350.23 2029 435 | 29 || 7 15 59 1445 30 || 2 0 | 60 |4 0 360.24 030. 450 ! 30 | 730 l 60 15 0 TABLE X1. TABLE X. hº Showing how many miles make a degree of lon-É Of the Climates be- gitude, in every degree of latitude. tween the Equator - and the Polar Uir- Deg. Geo. Eng. Deg. Geo. Eng. Deg. Geo. I. Eng cles. - fºlmis, Māšîă Mities.|Mººsiº Miſés Miſés 1 |3%iºl 3, #43|#313||13%|##, E glasígs; 2 || 53.96 || 59.03 ||32 |50.8 |58.5l 63 ||38|17|32.40% #2 º'éâ53; 3 59.92 | 68.97 33 50.32 57.87 63 27.24 || 31.33 #F * ºn #: £5:8: 4 59.85 | 68.90 34 || 49.74 || 57.20. 64 26.30 30.24 : * E. "##### § ºf j || 3 || 4:1; 56.5i | 65||25.35|35.15% | T * 6 59.67 | 68.62 36 || 48.54 || 55.81 66 24.40 28.06 d. m.h. Im.ld. m. 7 || 59.55 | 68.48 . 37 47.92 || 55.10 - 67 || 23.45|26.96 1 || 834; 12 30 || 8 34 S 59.42 | 68.31 || 38 || 47.2S 54.37 || 68 22.48 25.85 2 1644 1300|| 8 10 9 59.26 | 68.15 39 46.63 |53.62 69 || 21.50 | 24.73 3 24 12. 1330) 728 10 59.09 || 67.95 || 40 || 45.96 52.85 70 20.52 23.60 4 3048. 1400; 636 11 || 58.89 67.73 41 || 45.28 52.07 || 71 || 19.53 22.47 5 3631, 1430) 543 12 58.69 | 67.48 || 42 44,59 || 51.27 || 72 | 18.54 21.32 6 4124 15 00 4 53 13 || 58.46 || 67.21 - 43 || 43.SS 50.46 - 73 || 17.54 20.17 7 |4532, 15 30 4 8 14 58.22 | 66.95 || 44 || 43.16 |49.63 || 74 | 16.54 | 19.02 8 |49 - 2 16 00|| 3:30 15 57.95 | 66.65 ° 45 || 42.43 || 48.78 || 75 15.53 17.86 9 |51 59 1630 || 257 16 || 57.67 | 66.31 : 46 || 41.6S |47.93 || 76 || 14.52 | 16.70 10 #5430 17 00 231 17 | 57.3S 65.98 - 47 | 40.92 || 47.06 || 77 13.50 15.52 11 #563S 17 30 2 8 1S 57.06 || 65.62 || 48 || 40.15 || 46.16 78 12.48 || 14.35 12 [5827, 1800 1 49 19 56.73 || 65.24 49 || 39.36 || 45.26 79 || 11.45| 13.17 13 5959. IS 30 1 32 20 56.3S 64.84 || 50 || 38.57 44.35 80 || 10.42 11.98 14 61.18 19 00 1 19 21 56.01 || 64.42 51 || 37.76 43.42 81 | 9.38|| 10.79 15 6226, 1930 1 8 22 55.63 63.97 || 52 || 36.94 42.48 || 82 | 8.35 | 9.59 16 |6322 2000 56 23 55.23 63.51 53° 36.11 |41.53 83 || 7.31 | 841 17 64.10 20 30 48 24 54.81 | 63.03 - 54 || 35.27 | 40.56 84 || 6.27 | 7.21 18 |6450 2100 40 25 54.38 || 62.53 55 34.41 |39.5 85 5.22 || 6.00 19 |6522 21 30 32 £6 53.93 62.02 || 56 || 33.53 ||3858 - 86 4, 18 || 4.81 20 6548 2200 26 27 | 53.46 || 61.48 || 57 || 32.68 |37.58 87 || 3.14 || 3.61 21 |66 5, 22 30 17 2S 52.97 || 60.93 58 31.79 |36.57 88 2.09| 2.41%. 22 |6621 23 00 16 29 52.48 || 60.35 || 59 || 30.90 || 35.54 ± 89 | 1.05 | 1.21 23 |6629| 23 30 3 30 || 51.96 59.75" 60 || 30.00 || 34.50 - 90 || 000 || 0.00 24 |6632 24 00 3 TABLE XII. Of the Climates between the Polar Circles and the Poles. |Where the] Breadths Where the Breadths Cliº. Ends in "º" “ºfº” ...G. Bºls in "lºnges: “ºf the mates.| Lat. jºi. climates. Imates. Lat: | day is |climates. d m. | d. m. d. m. . Iſl. d. d. m. 25 || 67 J8 30 or 1. 46 28 77 40 || 120 or 4 4 35 26 69 30 | 60 2. 2 15 29 || S2 50 | 150 5 || 5 19 27 | 73 5 || 90 3. 3 32 30 90 00 | 180 6 || 7 l TABLE XIII. Showing the Latitude and Longitude of some of the principal places in the United States, &c., with their Distance from the city of Wash- ington. The Longitudes are reckoned from Greenwich. The Capitals (seats of Government) of the States and Territories are designated by Italic letters. Albany (Capitol), . . Alexandria, . . . Annapolis, e Auburn, tº tº Augusta, . º º º Augusta (State House), Baltimore (Battle Monument), Bangor (Court House), Barnstable (Old Court House) N Batavia, º º Y. Beaufort, º º - S. C. Boston (State House), . Mass. Bristol (Hotel), . - - . I. * Brooklyn (Navy Yard), N. Y. Brunswick (College), Me. Buffalo, . . . . . . N. Y. Cambridge (Harvard Hall), . Mass. Camden, º ſº g g S. C Canandaigua, . e - . N Y Cape Cod (Light-House), Mass. Charleston (College), . S. C. Charlestown (Navy Yard), . Mass. Cincinnati, . . . Ohio. Columbia, . . S. C. Columbus, * * * Ohio. Concord (State House), N. H. Dedham (Court House), . Mass. Detroit, - - º Mich. Donaldsonville, - - . Ia. Dorchester (Ast. Observatory), Mass. Dover, e & g Del. Dover, * - - - . N. H. Easton (Court House) 3 McI. Eastport, º Me. Edenton, º º N. C. Exeter, . - º º N. H. Frankfort, . Ky. Fredericksburg, . Va. Frederickton, e e N. B {...” - - §4. orgetown, . . * * * * Gloucester, Mass Greenfield, Mass Magerstown, Md. *N*fax, & & tº tº N. S Latitude Longitude, West, Dist. from North, in degrees. in time. Wash'n. O / // O Y ºf h.m. S. miles, 42 39 3| 73 44 49 |4 54 59.3 *. 38 49 77 4 5 8 16 6 39 0 76 43 5 6 52 37 42 55 76 28 5 5 52 339 33 28 81 54 5 27 36 580 44 18 43| 69 50 4 39 20 595 39 17 13| 76 37 50 |5 6 31.3 : 38 44 47 50| 68 47 4 35 8 661 41 42 9| 70 16 4 41 4 466 42 59 7S 13 5 12 52 370 32 25 80 41 5 22 44 629 42 21 15| 71 4 9 |4 44 16.6 432 41 39 58| 71 19 4 45 36 409 40 41 50 73 59 30 |4 55 5S 227 43 53 0) 69 55 ° j 4 39 40.1 568 53 78 55 5 15 40 376 42 22 15| 71 7 25 |4 44 29.7 431 17 80 30 5 22 12 467 2, 54 77 17 5 9 S 336 42 2 16| 70 4 4 40 16 507 32 47 0 80 () 52 5 20 3.5 544 42 22 71 3 33 |4 44 14.2 433 39 6 84 22 5 37 28 497 33 57 81 7 5 24 2S 500 39 47 83 3 5 32 12 396 43 12 29| 71 29 4 45 56 474 42 L6 71 11 4 44 44 422 42 24 82 58 5 31 52 526 30 3 91 2 6 4 8 1278 42 19 15| 71 4 15 4 44 17 432 39 10 75 30 5 2 0 114 43 13 70 54 4 43 36 490 38 46 10| 76 8 5 4 32 80 44 54 66 56 4 27 44 778 36 0 77 7 5 28 28 284 42 58 70 55 4 43 40 474 38 14 84 40 5 38 40 551 38 34 77 38 5 10 32 56 46 3 66 45 4 27 0 39 24 77 18 5 9 12 43 33 21 79 17 5 17 8 482 , 42 36 70 40 4 42 40 462 42 37 72 36 4 50 24 396 39 37 77 35 5 10 20 68 44 39 201 63 36 40 |4 14 27 936 TABLE XIII.-Continued. -, * Latitude Longitude, West, Dist. from . North. in degrees. in time. Wash'n. o " " o ' ' ' |h.m. s. miles. Hallowell, . . . Me. 44 17 69 50 4 39 30 593 Harrisburgh, Pa. 40 16 76 50 5 7. 20 110 ; Hartford, . Conii. 41 46 72 50 4 51 20 335 Hudson, . Y. 42 14 73 46 4 55 4 345 Huntsville, Ala. |34 36 86 57 5 47 48 726 Indianapolis, Ind. 39 55 86 5 5 44 20 573 Jackson, M’pi. 32 23 90 8 6 0 32 1035 Jºfferson, M’ri. 38 36 92 8 6 8 32 980 Kennebunk, ſº Me. 43 25 70 32 4 42 8 518 Kingston, U. C. 44 8 76 40 5 6 40 456 Knoxville, Tenn. 35 59 83 54 5 35 36 516 Lancaster, Pa. 40 2 36|| 76 20 33 |5 5 22.2 109 Lexington, Ky. 38 6 84 18 5 37 12 534 Little Rock, Ark, 34 40 | 92 12 6 8 48 || 1068 Lockport, . - N. Y. 43 11 78 46 |5 15 4 403 Louisville, . . . . Ky. 38 85 30 5 42 0 590 Lowell (St. Ann's Church), . Mass. 42 38 45| 71 18 45 4 45 15 439 Lynchburgh, g • a. 37 36 79 22 5 17 28 198 Lynn, - Mass. 42 2S 70 57 4 43 48 441 Marblehead, Mass. 42 30 70 52 4 43 28 450 Middletown, o Conn. 41 34 72 39 450 36 325 Milledgeville, a. [33 7 83 20 5 33 20 642 Mobile, Ala. 30 40 88 11 5 52 44 1033 Montpelier, . . . . Vt. 44 17 72 36 4 50 24 524 Monomoy Point Light, . Mass. 41 32 58 70 1 31 4 40 6.1 500 Montreaſ, ..' . tº L. C. 45 31 73 35 4 54 20 601 Nantucket (Town Hall), . Mass. 41 16 32 70 7 42 |4 40 30.8 500 Nashville, . - s Tenn. 36 9 30 86 49 3 |5 47 16.2 714 Natchez (Castle), . M’pi. 31 34 91 24 42 |6 5 38.S. 1146 Newark, º º º . . N.J. 40 45 74 10 4 56 40 215 New Bedford (Mariners' Ch.), Mass. 41 38 7| 70 56 0 |4 43 44 429 Newbern, - . N. C. 35 77 5 5 8 20 337 Newburgh, - & . N. Y. 41 31 74 1 4 56 4 282 Newburyport (2d Pres. Ch.), Mass. 42 4S 20 70 52 0 |4 43 28 466 Newcastle, - . Del. 39 40 75 33 5 2 8 103 New Haven (Co Conn. 41 17 5S] 72 57 46 |4 51 51.1 301 New London, . Conn. 41 22 72 9 4 48 36 354 New Orleans (City), 3. 29 57 45 90 6 49' |6 0 27.3 1203 Newport, . º - - R. I.- 41 29 71 21 14 |4 45 24.9 403 New York (City Hall), . N. Y. 40 42 40 74 l 8 |4 56 4.5 226 Norfolk (Farine ‘’s Bank), . Va. 36 50 50 76 1S 47 |5 5 15.1 217 Northampton (Mansion House), Mass. 42 IS 55| 72 40 4 50 40 376 Norwich, . - - Conn. 41 33 2 7 4 48 28 362 Pensacola, - sº Fa. 30 28 | S7 12 5 48 48 1050 Petersburgh, . - - . Va. 37 13 54. 77' 20 5 9 20 144 Philadelphia (Independence H.), Pa. 39 56 59 75 10 59 is 0 43.9 136 Pittsburgh, . . . . Pa. 40 32 30 8 5 20 32 223 Pittsfield, (1st Cong. Church), Mass. 42 26 59| 73 17 30 |4 53 10 3S0 Plattsburgh, . º . . N. Y. 44 42 73 26 4 53 44 539 Plymouth (Court House), Mass. 41 57 12| 70 42 30 |4 42 50 439 Portland (Town House), * Me. 43 39 26|| 70 20 30 |4 41 22 542 Portsmouth (Court House), N. H.143 4 54|| 70 45 4 43 0 491 Poughkeepsie, . N. Y.41 41 73 55 4 55 40 301 Princeton, N. J. |40 22 74 35 4 58 20 177 TABLE XIII. —Continued. Providence (Old Col.), . Quebec (Castle), e Raleigh, . . . . . Fichmond (Capitol), . Rochester (R’r House), . Sable § º Sackett's Harbour, . . Saco, . . . . St. Augustine, . . . St. Louis, & º tº Salem (E. I. M. Hall), Savannah, . . . . . Schenectady Springfield Čourt House), e º allahassee, . º e Taunton (Court House), Toronto (York), . * Trenton, . . . . . Troy, tº º º º Tuscaloosa, . . . . University of Virginia, . Utica (Dutch Church Vandalia, e - tº Vevay, . o tº tº Vincennes, e º o WASHINGTON, (Capitol), Washington, . . . . . Wheeling, . . . Wilmington, . . º Wilmington, worcester Ant. Hall), . . York, , e tº tº York, & Latitudel, Longitude, west, Dist. from North. in degrees.| in time. Wash'n. 9 * * | O ' ' |h.m. s. miles. . |41 49 25 71 25 56 |4 45 43.7 394 . |46 47 17| 70 56 31 |4 43 46.1 781 35 47 78 48 5 15 12 286 37.32 17| 77 26 28 5 9 49.9 122 43 S 17 51 5 11 24 361 24 50 81 15 5 25 0 . 43 55 75 57 5 3 48 407 43 31 70 26 4 41 44 528 29 48 30| 81 35 5 26 20 841 8 36 89 36 5 58 24 856 42 31 19| 70 54 4 43 36 446 32 2 81 3 5 24 12 662 42 48 73 55 4 55 40 391 ..]42 5 58|| 72 36 4 50 24 357 30 28 84 36 5 38 24 896 41 54 9| 71 50 4 44 20 415 43 33 79 20 5 17 20 500 40 14 74 39 4 58 36 166 42 44 73 40 4 54 40 383 33 12 87 42 5 50 48 858 38 2 3| 78 31 29 |5 14 5.9 124 ..]43 6 49| 75 13 5 0 52 383 38 50 89 2 5 56 8 781 38 46 84 59 5 39 56 556 38 43 87 25 5 49 40 1693 ..]38 52 54|| 77 1 48 |5 8 7.2 31 36 91 20 6 5 20 146 40 7 80 42 5 22 48 264 39 41 75 28 5 1 52 108 . 34 11 78 10 5 12 40 416 . |42 16 9| 71 49 0 |4 47 16 394 43 10 70 40 4 42 40 500 39 58 76 40 5 6 40 87 UNy ERS * of Miº §§?!?;&? ¿ - GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY OF - THE WORLD. F. J. H U Nº I Nº TO N, H A R T FORD, Pºlishes tº keeps tºy fºr sale, the above popular little Manual of Geography, contaº º Maps and Seven ºve. Engravings, Also, PETER PARLEY'S Pºº Pº Riº C. To D OF TELLING ABOUT THE Tºº Tºº WORLD TO CHILDREN, tº sº dº gºings, and designed as a Companion to Par- º ºg he ºl exceedingly favorable notites which have been given it, ſº llº tºy, the pºlisher selects the follºwing. The no ice suº ºr by the author or himself. and came tº him wholly uncº. º - - - From the Missionary Herald. Pºlº's GEOGRAPHY IN MODERN GREEK: By the fºllºwing extract of a letter from a gentleman in Greece, the Rev. Mr. Tººle, the Missiºnary, it appears that the popular ºography ºf Mr. Parley it ºut ºduced intº that cºuntry - “We ºr Parley's Geography translatº, but lºve nº put it tº press ºf the cuts ſº it. Thereº scarvey tº a pººr boºk on the sººt ºf Greece, if we had all the cuts for the costumes of thºrent nations peºhºt this little bººk has passed tº sººn editiºns in ºne year in the tº states of America, and it well dºseves is good tenºtion. Will nºt ºlºrſ, or sºme friend, prºcure ſo us º' thºse ºuts ºf Mººr. º | ºlºs) would ºke a dºtiºn of them, I shºuld ſº tº ºvºº him to mºnths in the Cººk. wº at ºilºtºsh for him mºre than ºrdinary ºe and ºf inºcº - º, a . to learn tº at the ºr "as gºy ºffº tº mºle ºn aſ tº ºuts and plates, and that tº sºy be transmitted Malta. - - | - ººgº ºfas ºntº º º º THE MALTºº SCHOOL ºn rºyº is nº ºn 132 ºngºings tº ºrigiºlº tº fºllowing mºps and charts, and is the mºtº now published. - - - Coºtents of the Aºs I. New-England States; 2 Middle States, Mºlºd, ºrn States; 4, Yº estern States; 5. United States tº Nº. America; 8 Atlantic Ocean, its sºlsº sº. º - 11, Asia; 12, Pacific Ocean, its Islands and ºst | phere; 14 Eastern Hºsphºre; 15 Nºrthern . - Hemisphºtº; 17. Height of the principal Mºntains ºn 8, Lºh o, the principal Rivers ºn the Glºbe; 19 Chaº ºne Cºpº Extent of Oceans, Continents, Cºuntries, slands, sº sº; 30 ſº lar Views of Extent, Population, Cana's Indian ºs ºs, Mºssº y Stations, &c.; 21. Picture of the World. *